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Herschel", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00005", "bookId": 54897, "start": 657, "end": 756, "sha256": "d50aeaa58261de51ab9ba76940b31703e27a20ed9871c5fbf40175346d5a7d69", "text": "Release date: June 12, 2017 [eBook #54897] Most recently updated: October 23, 2024", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00006", "bookId": 54897, "start": 760, "end": 777, "sha256": "b57efaf39e21b67232bab14763e8c43f8421fb22c0332f8f40796466905aaf80", "text": "Language: English", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00007", "bookId": 54897, "start": 781, "end": 842, "sha256": "2d6253efaacd175c6978b0c2b6fc956866992c16cc7e1b13a25f97c12afd2245", "text": "Other information and formats: www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/54897", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00008", "bookId": 54897, "start": 846, "end": 1081, "sha256": "aadc32601240401a7ee5bc5de170e00748843ea9975064cbbd48f305430569d7", "text": "Credits: Produced by Sonya Schermann, Charlie Howard, and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images generously made available by The Internet Archive)", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00009", "bookId": 54897, "start": 1087, "end": 1188, "sha256": "26a5ca27a4492c850d39298fff029a3124dd599e34c24209975807ee4b1f638e", "text": "*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE ON THE STUDY OF NATURAL PHILOSOPHY ***", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00010", "bookId": 54897, "start": 1194, "end": 1258, "sha256": "103aa02e2dfe2696239590e2163933f37b37dee13d3e00c573e4cc8b1065dc7e", "text": "_PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE_ on the Study of NATURAL PHILOSOPHY", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00011", "bookId": 54897, "start": 1264, "end": 1387, "sha256": "148d018561944c1f8b1c13297eee5c4f3cd0d45ac03e934a05b238de698b3608", "text": "BY SIR JOHN F. W. HERSCHEL, BART. K.H. _M.A.--D.C.L.--F.R.S.L&E.--M.R.I.A.--F.R.A.S. F.G.S.--M.C.U.P.S.--&c. &c._", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00012", "bookId": 54897, "start": 1395, "end": 1416, "sha256": "ec2d72ba14ba69052681be547cab706c680e83f38d8829c13a33c622dc2c9cfe", "text": "NEW EDITION. 1851.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00013", "bookId": 54897, "start": 1420, "end": 1434, "sha256": "4ec5ef6972f6a2fecca3c67b6d7e11c1a4461326636a387c6722a3017a4fe772", "text": "[Illustration:", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00014", "bookId": 54897, "start": 1440, "end": 1483, "sha256": "67ff900ed1c9d3253ddd7a338d125489bba1fc92eb20aafdd83691e4c9e178c4", "text": "_H. Corbould del._ _E. Finden. sculp._", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00015", "bookId": 54897, "start": 1487, "end": 1518, "sha256": "dbaa8e9920477afac0cc7b5fc4a6b47e5158ee948e8f1ea2a056a884f0a3a1a9", "text": "NATURÆ MINISTER ET INTERPRES.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00016", "bookId": 54897, "start": 1526, "end": 1538, "sha256": "c09bdf9e2bf01ea71afc0a6bb6e8513ff03fb7e00120de7c4f8aa403a3c87884", "text": "NEW EDITION.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00017", "bookId": 54897, "start": 1544, "end": 1616, "sha256": "775b5d50cd9fa0147ce0650548394193a76d0436c963a715e7494c048639f0ee", "text": "London: PRINTED FOR LONGMAN, BROWN, GREEN & LONGMANS, PATERNOSTER ROW", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00018", "bookId": 54897, "start": 1626, "end": 1635, "sha256": "08e211c5879863b87ee66ee06cee95d514f6a092091c5934a745960d93baf2db", "text": "CONTENTS.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00019", "bookId": 54897, "start": 1709, "end": 1754, "sha256": "f9ee6464e0e3bdf0e22ebeb940a651dc77ca6258e47ffe8bc2b81af83597c701", "text": "Page PART I.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00020", "bookId": 54897, "start": 1766, "end": 1869, "sha256": "67d77169e532f48a20c3b5b3df2f8fafc62c87751ad5fc83754637c810039c90", "text": "OF THE GENERAL NATURE AND ADVANTAGES OF THE STUDY OF THE PHYSICAL SCIENCES.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00021", "bookId": 54897, "start": 1877, "end": 1885, "sha256": "630650ad955b359ecb16404fc46182f8545dfe8aa7c7cdda884dc3ec71f8b9c7", "text": "CHAP. I.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00022", "bookId": 54897, "start": 1891, "end": 2085, "sha256": "14a63ec7118fc9bec502bef57650fd0e2492263e0e3cd5dabedb826b259327dc", "text": "Of Man regarded as a Creature of Instinct, of Reason, and Speculation.--General Influence of Scientific Pursuits on the Mind. 1", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00023", "bookId": 54897, "start": 2093, "end": 2102, "sha256": "020a82a04daaea925a0d7566d6b21a4a97b8b79f92a54de9a486420c33118289", "text": "CHAP. II.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00024", "bookId": 54897, "start": 2108, "end": 2430, "sha256": "648ed6a9d0cb4cb9175718872c88bc6dac45bb43d1b149d51d64c45d19f8cffa", "text": "Of abstract Science as a Preparation for the Study of Physics.-- A profound Acquaintance with it not indispensable for a clear Understanding of Physical Laws.--How a Conviction of their Truth may be obtained without it.--Instances.-- Further Division of the Subject. 18", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00025", "bookId": 54897, "start": 2438, "end": 2448, "sha256": "6b1dee28e55db0a12facd7397796ecefb642f4c28ffbfcb8670ee788ba383b7b", "text": "CHAP. III.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00026", "bookId": 54897, "start": 2454, "end": 2700, "sha256": "7139a43a58dc533ef87684cea0f965ed1630cd4ecbc79a425dee914c59ff50a1", "text": "Of the Nature and Objects, immediate and collateral, of Physical Science, as regarded in itself, and in its Application to the practical Purposes of Life, and its Influence on the Well-being and Progress of Society. 35", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00027", "bookId": 54897, "start": 2738, "end": 2746, "sha256": "1f1fb02ae92f2396a1b6d1e85ed77e4081e1fc553c1d6fc9c1610a82f7a06209", "text": "PART II.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00028", "bookId": 54897, "start": 2752, "end": 3018, "sha256": "d6ba399a5104fa0dd26f9f2c7f42bc30e24dfa96ae483f194d3e6446bbd950b4", "text": "OF THE PRINCIPLES ON WHICH PHYSICAL SCIENCE RELIES FOR ITS SUCCESSFUL PROSECUTION, AND THE RULES BY WHICH A SYSTEMATIC EXAMINATION OF NATURE SHOULD BE CONDUCTED, WITH ILLUSTRATIONS OF THEIR INFLUENCE AS EXEMPLIFIED IN THE HISTORY OF ITS PROGRESS.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00029", "bookId": 54897, "start": 3026, "end": 3034, "sha256": "630650ad955b359ecb16404fc46182f8545dfe8aa7c7cdda884dc3ec71f8b9c7", "text": "CHAP. I.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00030", "bookId": 54897, "start": 3040, "end": 3167, "sha256": "35164b462591ed19e94cb2c9155b73167af10e624ad60c892dccd6365ec863e2", "text": "Of Experience as the Source of our Knowledge.--Of the Dismissal of Prejudices.--Of the Evidence of our Senses. 75", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00031", "bookId": 54897, "start": 3175, "end": 3184, "sha256": "020a82a04daaea925a0d7566d6b21a4a97b8b79f92a54de9a486420c33118289", "text": "CHAP. II.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00032", "bookId": 54897, "start": 3190, "end": 3260, "sha256": "faab01239f93ef35befe49f55b4e1e8170081013f3ae1f956416880fe7d9e437", "text": "Of the Analysis of Phenomena. 85", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00033", "bookId": 54897, "start": 3268, "end": 3278, "sha256": "6b1dee28e55db0a12facd7397796ecefb642f4c28ffbfcb8670ee788ba383b7b", "text": "CHAP. III.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00034", "bookId": 54897, "start": 3284, "end": 3418, "sha256": "ea8994820ee45c1dfcbec8bab1711f6417b551f200bf3cf4f755216a9adba4fb", "text": "Of the State of Physical Science in General, previous to the Age of Galileo and Bacon. 104", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00035", "bookId": 54897, "start": 3426, "end": 3435, "sha256": "3446d030a6b91dd1f12f37059c79cb212eda05326d17b35885eaef69b963f5b9", "text": "CHAP. IV.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00036", "bookId": 54897, "start": 3441, "end": 3511, "sha256": "2942d39cfc54eeb2f2c3d1c9c0a722a6821da724376e2371978352818a768035", "text": "Of the Observation of Facts and the Collection of Instances. 118", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00037", "bookId": 54897, "start": 3519, "end": 3527, "sha256": "44ae4da8b561d6af049a80675ce1cc6ec9f6a56262f691ff118931b5e325bf6e", "text": "CHAP. V.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00038", "bookId": 54897, "start": 3533, "end": 3669, "sha256": "f9255855787753674626c214422d0ff1ed298e3a972ca5bd767a11abf72da04b", "text": "Of the Classification of Natural Objects and Phenomena, and of Nomenclature. 135", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00039", "bookId": 54897, "start": 3677, "end": 3686, "sha256": "92cc5c51035a018ccb894aadbeb597325f9eb9f65ed36a8b6951aceb47febda2", "text": "CHAP. VI.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00040", "bookId": 54897, "start": 3692, "end": 3888, "sha256": "6a9646625f5bb6b97b6e87cfc0222235c751e549de29a46819877325ac445ea6", "text": "Of the First Stage of Induction.--The Discovery of Proximate Causes, and Laws of the lowest Degree of Generality, and their Verification. 144", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00041", "bookId": 54897, "start": 3896, "end": 3906, "sha256": "86ded674cd273467a79f0460329e0441f7ea962628f7b1590261def882a475f3", "text": "CHAP. VII.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00042", "bookId": 54897, "start": 3912, "end": 4047, "sha256": "e95cf032c71ee39451f8b11168f25f908a374a74050b97d3bc36bbdb8d130b25", "text": "Of the higher Degrees of Inductive Generalization, and of the Formation and Verification of Theories. 190", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00043", "bookId": 54897, "start": 4084, "end": 4093, "sha256": "6526012c7d7ce206384b143e5d28855b683a3ebed5dd0642cac40e11cb04b446", "text": "PART III.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00044", "bookId": 54897, "start": 4101, "end": 4210, "sha256": "4e638d8c5ddcb29b322c8790c327a2235689fa96b401416d68078521b7ee6b99", "text": "OF THE SUBDIVISION OF PHYSICS INTO DISTINCT BRANCHES, AND THEIR MUTUAL RELATIONS.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00045", "bookId": 54897, "start": 4218, "end": 4226, "sha256": "630650ad955b359ecb16404fc46182f8545dfe8aa7c7cdda884dc3ec71f8b9c7", "text": "CHAP. I.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00046", "bookId": 54897, "start": 4232, "end": 4367, "sha256": "483bd2159e991cf072f697801a8978a0812c84108dae702360a005c217c60a95", "text": "Of the Phenomena of Force, and of the Constitution of Natural Bodies. 221", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00047", "bookId": 54897, "start": 4375, "end": 4384, "sha256": "020a82a04daaea925a0d7566d6b21a4a97b8b79f92a54de9a486420c33118289", "text": "CHAP. II.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00048", "bookId": 54897, "start": 4390, "end": 4524, "sha256": "a5f650bbd3684bdad2841258a3f93eeffe8149e1b4f853eb061470b6fa5af235", "text": "Of the Communication of Motion through Bodies.--Of Sound and Light. 246", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00049", "bookId": 54897, "start": 4532, "end": 4542, "sha256": "6b1dee28e55db0a12facd7397796ecefb642f4c28ffbfcb8670ee788ba383b7b", "text": "CHAP. III.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00050", "bookId": 54897, "start": 4548, "end": 4618, "sha256": "73630ffb12243d980f3f0280449e3a9b195534207887cb54be779c22a4d58c0e", "text": "Of Cosmical Phenomena. 265", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00051", "bookId": 54897, "start": 4626, "end": 4635, "sha256": "3446d030a6b91dd1f12f37059c79cb212eda05326d17b35885eaef69b963f5b9", "text": "CHAP. IV.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00052", "bookId": 54897, "start": 4641, "end": 4776, "sha256": "ecac4e142bef9254d802fc3f4c3178ffa0f729894dbf62485068a65193a84512", "text": "Of the Examination of the material Constituents of the World. 290", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00053", "bookId": 54897, "start": 4784, "end": 4792, "sha256": "44ae4da8b561d6af049a80675ce1cc6ec9f6a56262f691ff118931b5e325bf6e", "text": "CHAP. V.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00054", "bookId": 54897, "start": 4798, "end": 4868, "sha256": "8533088d1eaa361d103c05823262383e35ef660171ca2a0b577e0b828ae32775", "text": "Of the Imponderable Forms of Matter. 310", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00055", "bookId": 54897, "start": 4876, "end": 4885, "sha256": "92cc5c51035a018ccb894aadbeb597325f9eb9f65ed36a8b6951aceb47febda2", "text": "CHAP. VI.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00056", "bookId": 54897, "start": 4891, "end": 5022, "sha256": "44df30361c81e70c94710cd1edbd5cd3fe762d504f0c165220dbeceafbdfb1b6", "text": "Of the Causes of the actual rapid Advance of the Physical Sciences compared with their Progress at an earlier Period. 347", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00057", "bookId": 54897, "start": 5036, "end": 5740, "sha256": "4d0f9bb82edaa054f5ee5441330e6b3d15cdf8050ed4fe757ec739065e73bb9a", "text": "“In primis, hominis est propria VERI inquisitio atque investigatio. Itaque cum sumus negotiis necessariis, curisque vacui, tum avemus aliquid videre, audire, ac dicere, cognitionemque rerum, aut occultarum aut admirabilium, ad benè beatéque vivendum necessariam ducimus;--ex quo intelligitur, quod VERUM, simplex, sincerumque sit, id esse naturæe hominis aptissimum. Huic veri videndi cupiditati adjuncta est appetitio quædam principatûs, ut nemini parere animus benè a naturâ informatus velit, nisi præcipienti, aut docenti, aut utilitatis causa justè et legitimè imperanti: ex quo animi magnitudo existit, et humanararum rerum contemtio.”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00058", "bookId": 54897, "start": 5778, "end": 5813, "sha256": "53502dd8e8f270bfabbec5020f443a1833f32741a653aea924fae9a9458f7a40", "text": "CICERO, DE OFFICIIS, Lib. 1. § 13.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00059", "bookId": 54897, "start": 5823, "end": 6754, "sha256": "fa6b056f67459464e370284974edf02ab32709a8cf3e0a70eb5df8ed01a9d7c7", "text": "Before all other things, man is distinguished by his pursuit and investigation of TRUTH. And hence, when free from needful business and cares, we delight to see, to hear, and to communicate, and consider a knowledge of many admirable and abstruse things necessary to the good conduct and happiness of our lives: whence it is clear that whatsoever is TRUE, simple, and direct, the same is most congenial to our nature as men. Closely allied with this earnest longing to see and know the truth, is a kind of dignified and princely sentiment which forbids a mind, naturally well constituted, to submit its faculties to any but those who announce it in precept or in doctrine, or to yield obedience to any orders but such as are at once just, lawful, and founded on utility. From this source spring greatness of mind and contempt of worldly advantages and troubles.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00060", "bookId": 54897, "start": 6789, "end": 6977, "sha256": "ab22a9322e90f8353c86487019b6e0e1a8ec23482bb89d682fb741b6b3d16201", "text": "PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE ON THE STUDY OF NATURAL PHILOSOPHY.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00061", "bookId": 54897, "start": 7019, "end": 7026, "sha256": "6448fe091ce6c03bede0d301366e158d471ee014b3243744f5d7eb4cea939c43", "text": "PART I.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00062", "bookId": 54897, "start": 7040, "end": 7140, "sha256": "41ace94221b240eb3e9998dd27e14b964487894a59b894b60e12d6729e47dbd3", "text": "OF THE GENERAL NATURE AND ADVANTAGES OF THE STUDY OF THE PHYSICAL SCIENCES", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00063", "bookId": 54897, "start": 7150, "end": 7160, "sha256": "d0ed1fd816333f29aabbca20f2a33087bb8f87c3785f4215402429274a4c314e", "text": "CHAPTER I.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00064", "bookId": 54897, "start": 7166, "end": 7301, "sha256": "d9293f2dc02675918a94a23cb810f2dd0f36efe238464ba97ba53067758fedb9", "text": "OF MAN REGARDED AS A CREATURE OF INSTINCT, OF REASON, AND SPECULATION.--GENERAL INFLUENCE OF SCIENTIFIC PURSUITS ON THE MIND.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00065", "bookId": 54897, "start": 7307, "end": 9617, "sha256": "1595bd7e8aede8648a8d80886c29ad57dbccf0e3a0459aa241ddc93d234dd6cc", "text": "(1.) The situation of man on the globe he inhabits, and over which he has obtained the control, is in many respects exceedingly remarkable. Compared with its other denizens, he seems, if we regard only his physical constitution, in almost every respect their inferior, and equally unprovided for the supply of his natural wants and his defence against the innumerable enemies which surround him. No other animal passes so large a portion of its existence in a state of absolute helplessness, or falls in old age into such protracted and lamentable imbecility. To no other warm-blooded animal has nature denied that indispensable covering without which the vicissitudes of a temperate and the rigours of a cold climate are equally insupportable; and to scarcely any has she been so sparing in external weapons, whether for attack or defence. Destitute alike of speed to avoid and of arms to repel the aggressions of his voracious foes; tenderly susceptible of atmospheric influences; and unfitted for the coarse aliments which the earth affords spontaneously during at least two thirds of the year, even in temperate climates,--man, if abandoned to mere instinct, would be of all creatures the most destitute and miserable. Distracted by terror and goaded by famine; driven to the most abject expedients for concealment from his enemies, and to the most cowardly devices for the seizure and destruction of his nobler prey, his existence would be one continued subterfuge or stratagem;--his dwelling would be in dens of the earth, in clefts of rocks, or in the hollows of trees; his food worms, and the lower reptiles, or such few and crude productions of the soil as his organs could be brought to assimilate, varied with occasional relics, mangled by more powerful beasts of prey, or contemned by their more pampered choice. Remarkable only for the absence of those powers and qualities which obtain for other animals a degree of security and respect, he would be disregarded by some, and hunted down by others, till after a few generations his species would become altogether extinct, or, at best, would be restricted to a few islands in tropical regions, where the warmth of the climate, the paucity of enemies, and the abundance of vegetable food, might permit it to linger.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00066", "bookId": 54897, "start": 9621, "end": 12958, "sha256": "d11d2a9cc87c1689dd3cacbc847efc152f29f5d267a8dded0075a58673b48503", "text": "(2.) Yet man is the undisputed lord of the creation. The strongest and fiercest of his fellow-creatures,--the whale, the elephant, the eagle, and the tiger,--are slaughtered by him to supply his most capricious wants, or tamed to do him service, or imprisoned to make him sport. The spoils of all nature are in daily requisition for his most common uses, yielded with more or less readiness, or wrested with reluctance, from the mine, the forest, the ocean, and the air. Such are the first fruits of reason. Were they the only or the principal ones, were the mere acquisition of power over the materials, and the less gifted animals which surround us, and the consequent increase of our external comforts, and our means of preservation and sensual enjoyment, the sum of the privileges which the possession of this faculty conferred, we should after all have little to plume ourselves upon. But this is so far from being the case, that every one who passes his life in tolerable ease and comfort, or rather whose whole time is not anxiously consumed in providing the absolute necessaries of existence, is conscious of wants and cravings in which the senses have no part, of a series of pains and pleasures totally distinct in kind from any which the infliction of bodily misery or the gratification of bodily appetites has ever afforded him; and if he has experienced these pleasures and these pains in any degree of intensity, he will readily admit them to hold a much higher rank, and to deserve much more attention, than the former class. Independent of the pleasures of fancy and imagination, and social converse, man is constituted a speculative being; he contemplates the world, and the objects around him, not with a passive, indifferent gaze, as a set of phenomena in which he has no further interest than as they affect his immediate situation, and can be rendered subservient to his comfort, but as a system disposed with order and design. He approves and feels the highest admiration for the harmony of its parts, the skill and efficiency of its contrivances. Some of these which he can best trace and understand he attempts to imitate, and finds that to a certain extent, though rudely and imperfectly, he can succeed,--in others, that although he can comprehend the nature of the contrivance, he is totally destitute of all means of imitation;--while in others, again, and those evidently the most important, though he sees the effect produced, yet the means by which it is done are alike beyond his knowledge and his control. Thus he is led to the conception of a Power and an Intelligence superior to his own, and adequate to the production and maintenance of all that he sees in nature,--a Power and Intelligence to which he may well apply the term infinite, since he not only sees no actual limit to the instances in which they are manifested, but finds, on the contrary, that the farther he enquires, and the wider his sphere of observation extends, they continually open upon him in increasing abundance; and that as the study of one prepares him to understand and appreciate another, refinement follows on refinement, wonder on wonder, till his faculties become bewildered in admiration, and his intellect falls back on itself in utter hopelessness of arriving at an end.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00067", "bookId": 54897, "start": 12962, "end": 14231, "sha256": "cbd9e74de77884a6c9fa5d762b7e8a38578efe8b8bf43ff6fdbc6ddcf397a183", "text": "(3.) When from external objects he turns his view upon himself, on his own vital and intellectual faculties, he finds that he possesses a power of examining and analysing his own nature to a certain extent, but no farther. In his corporeal frame he is sensible of a power to communicate a certain moderate amount of motion to himself and other objects; that this power depends on his will, and that its exertion can be suspended or increased at pleasure within certain limits; but _how_ his will acts on his limbs he has no consciousness: and whence he derives the power he thus exercises, there is nothing to assure him, however he may long to know. His senses, too, inform him of a multitude of particulars respecting the external world, and he perceives an apparatus by which impressions from without may be transmitted, as a sort of signals to the interior of his person, and ultimately to his brain, wherein he is obscurely sensible that the thinking, feeling, reasoning being he calls _himself_, more especially resides; but by what means he becomes conscious of these impressions, and what is the nature of the immediate communication between that inward sentient being, and that machinery, his outward man, he has not the slightest conception.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00068", "bookId": 54897, "start": 14235, "end": 17024, "sha256": "faf54605a7b3948c982c86a6d22d53906b81da263cbea850e5212fbfe232e544", "text": "(4.) Again, when he contemplates still more attentively the thoughts, acts, and passions of this his sentient intelligent self, he finds, indeed, that he can remember, and by the aid of memory can compare and discriminate, can judge and resolve, and, above all, that he is irresistibly impelled, from the perception of any phenomenon without or within him, to infer the existence of something prior which stands to it in the relation of a _cause_, without which it would not be, and that this knowledge of causes and their consequences is what, in almost every instance, determines his choice and will, in cases where he is nevertheless conscious of perfect freedom to act or not to act. He finds, too, that it is in his power to acquire more or less knowledge of causes and effects according to the degree of attention he bestows upon them, which attention is again in great measure a voluntary act; and often when his choice has been decided on imperfect knowledge or insufficient attention, he finds reason to correct his judgment, though perhaps too late to influence his decision by after consideration. A world within him is thus opened to his intellectual view, abounding with phenomena and relations, and of the highest immediate interest. But while he cannot help perceiving that the insight he is enabled to obtain into this internal sphere of thought and feeling is in reality the source of all his power, the very fountain of his predominance over external nature, he yet feels himself capable of entering only very imperfectly into these recesses of his own bosom, and analysing the operations of his mind,--in this as in all other things, in short, “_a being darkly wise_;” seeing that all the longest life and most vigorous intellect can give him power to discover by his own research, or time to know by availing himself of that of others, serves only to place him on the very frontier of knowledge, and afford a distant glimpse of boundless realms beyond, where no human thought has penetrated, but which yet he is sure must be no less familiarly known to that Intelligence which he traces throughout creation than the most obvious truths which he himself daily applies to his most trifling purposes. Is it wonderful that a being so constituted should first encourage a hope, and by degrees acknowledge an assurance, that his intellectual existence will not terminate with the dissolution of his corporeal frame, but rather that in a future state of being, disencumbered of a thousand obstructions which his present situation throws in his way, endowed with acuter senses, and higher faculties, he shall drink deep at that fountain of beneficent wisdom for which the slight taste obtained on earth has given him so keen a relish?", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00069", "bookId": 54897, "start": 17028, "end": 19599, "sha256": "7db81cd40fdfeaa1fd1fed97989cf7fc5423b464b7d46d6d0d57a3757f65926d", "text": "(5.) Nothing, then, can be more unfounded than the objection which has been taken, _in limine_, by persons, well meaning perhaps, certainly narrow-minded, against the study of natural philosophy, and indeed against all science,--that it fosters in its cultivators an undue and overweening self-conceit, leads them to doubt the immortality of the soul, and to scoff at revealed religion. Its natural effect, we may confidently assert, on every well constituted mind is and must be the direct contrary. No doubt, the testimony of natural reason, on whatever exercised, must of necessity stop short of those truths which it is the object of revelation to make known; but, while it places the existence and principal attributes of a Deity on such grounds as to render doubt impossible, it unquestionably opposes no natural or necessary obstacle to further progress: on the contrary, by cherishing as a vital principle an unbounded spirit of enquiry, and ardency of expectation, it unfetters the mind from prejudices of every kind, and leaves it open and free to every impression of a higher nature which it is susceptible of receiving, guarding only against enthusiasm and self-deception by a habit of strict investigation, but encouraging, rather than suppressing, every thing that can offer a prospect or a hope beyond the present obscure and unsatisfactory state. The character of the true philosopher is to hope all things not impossible, and to believe all things not unreasonable. He who has seen obscurities which appeared impenetrable in physical and mathematical science suddenly dispelled, and the most barren and unpromising fields of enquiry converted, as if by inspiration, into rich and inexhaustible springs of knowledge and power on a simple change of our point of view, or by merely bringing to bear on them some principle which it never occurred before to try, will surely be the very last to acquiesce in any dispiriting prospects of either the present or future destinies of mankind; while, on the other hand, the boundless views of intellectual and moral as well as material relations which open on him on all hands in the course of these pursuits, the knowledge of the trivial place he occupies in the scale of creation, and the sense continually pressed upon him of his own weakness and incapacity to suspend or modify the slightest movement of the machinery he sees in action around him, must effectually convince him that humility of pretension, no less than confidence of hope, is what best becomes his character.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00070", "bookId": 54897, "start": 19603, "end": 21775, "sha256": "b9c263c4f56af549dd17cb9a3f9f171da0e808097abbb6ef89000e9beca80496", "text": "(6.) But while we thus vindicate the study of natural philosophy from a charge at one time formidable, owing to the pertinacity and acrimony with which it was urged, and still occasionally brought forward to the distress and disgust of every well constituted mind, we must take care that the testimony afforded by science to religion, be its extent or value what it may, shall be at least independent, unbiassed, and spontaneous. We do not here allude to such reasoners as would make all nature bend to their narrow interpretations of obscure and difficult passages in the sacred writings: such a course might well become the persecutors of Galileo and the other bigots of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, but can only be adopted by dreamers in the present age. But, without going these lengths, it is no uncommon thing to find persons, earnestly attached to science and anxious for its promotion, who yet manifest a morbid sensibility on points of this kind,--who exult and applaud when any fact starts up explanatory (as they suppose) of some scriptural allusion and who feel pained and disappointed when the general course of discovery in any department of science runs wide of the notions with which particular passages in the Bible may have impressed themselves. To persons of such a frame of mind it ought to suffice to remark, on the one hand, that truth can never be opposed to truth, and, on the other, that error is only to be effectually confounded by searching deep and tracing it to its source. Nevertheless, it were much to be wished that such persons, estimable and excellent as many of them are, before they throw the weight of their applause or discredit into the scale of scientific opinion on such grounds, would reflect, first, that the credit and respectability of _any_ evidence may be destroyed by tampering with its _honesty_; and, secondly, that this very disposition of mind implies a lurking mistrust in its own principles, since the grand and indeed only character of truth is its capability of enduring the test of universal experience, and coming unchanged out of every possible form of _fair_ discussion.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00071", "bookId": 54897, "start": 21779, "end": 24904, "sha256": "aab59fcc51fab4ae9aa244fc19ec30cdf9c6d4b149be4b378d19817f419009bc", "text": "(7.) But if science may be vilified by representing it as opposed to religion, or trammelled by mistaken notions of the danger of free enquiry, there is yet another mode by which it may be degraded from its native dignity, and that is by placing it in the light of a mere appendage to and caterer for our pampered appetites. The question “_cui bono_” to what practical end and advantage do your researches tend? is one which the speculative philosopher who loves knowledge for its own sake, and enjoys, as a rational being should enjoy, the mere contemplation of harmonious and mutually dependent truths, can seldom hear without a sense of humiliation. He feels that there is a lofty and disinterested pleasure in his speculations which ought to exempt them from such questioning; communicating as they do to his own mind the purest happiness (after the exercise of the benevolent and moral feelings) of which human nature is susceptible, and tending to the injury of no one, he might surely allege _this_ as a sufficient and direct reply to those who, having themselves little capacity, and less relish for intellectual pursuits, are constantly repeating upon him this enquiry. But if he can bring himself to descend from this high but fair ground, and justify himself, his pursuits, and his pleasures in the eyes of those around him, he has only to point to the history of all science, where speculations, apparently unprofitable, have, in innumerable instances, been those from which great practical applications have emanated. What, for instance, could be more so than the dry speculations of the ancient geometers on the properties of the conic sections, or than the dreams of Kepler (as they would naturally appear to his contemporaries) about the numerical harmonies of the universe? Yet these are the steps by which we have risen to a knowledge of the elliptic motions of the planets and the law of gravitation, with all its splendid theoretical consequences, and its inestimable practical results. The ridicule attached to “_Swing-swangs_” in Hooke’s time[1] did not prevent him from reviving the proposal of the _pendulum_ as a standard of measure, since so effectually wrought into practice by the genius and perseverance of Captain Kater;--nor did that which Boyle encountered in his researches on the elasticity and pressure of the air act as any obstacle to the train of discovery which terminated in the steam-engine. The dreams of the alchemists led them on in the path of experiment, and drew attention to the wonders of chemistry, while they brought their advocates (it must be admitted) to merited contempt and ruin. But in this case it was moral dereliction which gave to ridicule a weight and power not necessarily or naturally belonging to it: but among the alchemists were men of superior minds, who reasoned while they worked, and who, not content to grope always in the dark, and blunder on their object, sought carefully in the observed nature of their agents for guides in their pursuit. To these we owe the creation of experimental philosophy.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00072", "bookId": 54897, "start": 24908, "end": 25851, "sha256": "f9ed787cfcfc77faf99c1d297c94e47c862b32f7ac7c8505187a4b1c3c08f7ae", "text": "(8.) Not that it is meant, by any thing above said, to assert that there is no such thing as a great or a little in speculative philosophy, or to place the solution of an enigma on a level with the developement of a law of nature, still less to adopt the homely definition of Smith[2], that a philosopher is a person whose trade it is to do nothing, and speculate on every thing. The speculations of the natural philosopher, however remote they may for a time lead him from beaten tracks and every-day uses, being grounded in the realities of nature, have all, of necessity, a practical application,--nay more, such applications form the very criterions of their truth, they afford the readiest and completest verifications of his theories;--verifications which he will no more neglect to test them by than an arithmetician would omit to _prove_ his sums, or a cautious geometer to try his general theorems by particular cases.[3]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00073", "bookId": 54897, "start": 25855, "end": 26967, "sha256": "4a394bdbe1f2453b7c5f7f57e2ab41d9f785e3ee5622df61a395db3451b59c6f", "text": "(9.) After all, however, it must be confessed, that to minds unacquainted with science, and unused to consider the mutual dependencies of its various branches, there is something neither unnatural nor altogether blamable in the ready occurrence of this question of direct advantage. It requires some habit of abstraction, some penetration of the mind with a tincture of scientific enquiry, some conviction of the value of those estimable and treasured principles which lie concealed in the most common and homely facts,--some experience, in fine, of success in developing and placing them in evidence, announcing them in precise terms, and applying them to the explanation of other facts of a less familiar character, or to the accomplishment of some obviously useful purpose:--to cure the mind of this tendency to rush at once upon its object, to undervalue the means in over-estimation of the end, and while gazing too intently at the goal which alone it has been accustomed to desire, to lose sight of the richness and variety of the prospects that offer themselves on either hand on the road.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00074", "bookId": 54897, "start": 26971, "end": 28493, "sha256": "2b0aa76340af9fab7d62937ddc66262571f0352994391010d993ccedb2059c4e", "text": "(10.) We must never forget that it is principles, not phenomena,--the interpretation, not the mere knowledge of facts,--which are the objects of enquiry to the natural philosopher. As truth is single, and consistent with itself, a principle may be as completely and as plainly elucidated by the most familiar and simple fact, as by the most imposing and uncommon phenomenon. The colours which glitter on a soap-bubble are the immediate consequence of a principle the most important from the variety of phenomena it explains, and the most beautiful, from its simplicity and compendious neatness, in the whole science of optics. If the nature of periodical colours can be made intelligible by the contemplation of such a trivial object, from that moment it becomes a noble instrument in the eye of correct judgment; and to blow a large, regular, and durable soap-bubble may become the serious and praiseworthy endeavour of a sage, while children stand round and scoff, or children of a larger growth hold up their hands in astonishment at such waste of time and trouble. To the natural philosopher there is no natural object unimportant or trifling. From the least of nature’s works he may learn the greatest lessons. The fall of an apple to the ground may raise his thoughts to the laws which govern the revolutions of the planets in their orbits; or the situation of a pebble may afford him evidence of the state of the globe he inhabits, myriads of ages ago, before his species became its denizens.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00075", "bookId": 54897, "start": 28497, "end": 29945, "sha256": "66bbc7518648195aee74c5794c84ddf8c6f4182ed2dcd25f3cf7bba4ee168928", "text": "(11.) And this is, in fact, one of the great sources of delight which the study of natural science imparts to its votaries. A mind which has once imbibed a taste for scientific enquiry, and has learnt the habit of applying its principles readily to the cases which occur, has within itself an inexhaustible source of pure and exciting contemplations:--one would think that Shakspeare had such a mind in view when he describes a contemplative man as finding all nature eloquent--the very trees, the brooks, and the stones reading to him lessons of deep and serious import. Accustomed to trace the operation of general causes, and the exemplification of general laws, in circumstances where the uninformed and unenquiring eye perceives neither novelty nor beauty, he walks in the midst of wonders: every object which falls in his way elucidates some principle, affords some instruction, and impresses him with a sense of harmony and order. Nor is it a mere passive pleasure which is thus communicated. A thousand questions are continually arising in his mind, a thousand subjects of enquiry presenting themselves, which keep his faculties in constant exercise, and his thoughts perpetually on the wing, so that lassitude is excluded from his life, and that craving after artificial excitement and dissipation of mind, which leads so many into frivolous, unworthy, and destructive pursuits, is altogether eradicated from his bosom.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00076", "bookId": 54897, "start": 29949, "end": 32205, "sha256": "5bcb4140e63d9c2b4aa86406d792fa5e2b84bfb17859c9ee4e20fc3307b3ef4c", "text": "(12.) It is not one of the least advantages of these pursuits, which, however, they possess in common with every class of intellectual pleasures, that they are altogether independent of external circumstances, and are to be enjoyed in every situation in which a man can be placed in life. The highest degrees of worldly prosperity are so far from being incompatible with them, that they supply inestimable advantages for their pursuit, and that sort of fresh and renewed relish which arises partly from the sense of contrast, partly from experience of the peculiar pre-eminence they possess over the pleasures of sense in their capability of unlimited increase and continual repetition without satiety or distaste. They may be enjoyed, too, in the intervals of the most active business; and the calm and dispassionate interest with which they fill the mind renders them a most delightful retreat from the agitations and dissensions of the world, and from the conflict of passions, prejudices, and interests in which the man of business finds himself involved. There is something in the contemplation of general laws which powerfully induces and persuades us to merge individual feeling, and to commit ourselves unreservedly to their disposal; while the observation of the calm, energetic regularity of nature, the immense scale of her operations, and the certainty with which her ends are attained, tends, irresistibly, to tranquillize and re-assure the mind, and render it less accessible to repining, selfish, and turbulent emotions. And this it does, not by debasing our nature into weak compliances and abject submission to circumstances, but by filling us, as from an inward spring, with a sense of nobleness and power which enables us to rise superior to them; by showing us our strength and innate dignity, and by calling upon us for the exercise of those powers and faculties by which we are susceptible of the comprehension of so much greatness, and which form, as it were, a link between ourselves and the best and noblest benefactors of our species, with whom we hold communion in thoughts and participate in discoveries which have raised them above their fellow-mortals, and brought them nearer to their Creator.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00077", "bookId": 54897, "start": 32215, "end": 32224, "sha256": "020a82a04daaea925a0d7566d6b21a4a97b8b79f92a54de9a486420c33118289", "text": "CHAP. II.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00078", "bookId": 54897, "start": 32230, "end": 32514, "sha256": "9d6712b4c66609e4baac2911590c8b3fef2ccebc1f48bdf9286205d6ae3fdc5c", "text": "OF ABSTRACT SCIENCE AS A PREPARATION FOR THE STUDY OF PHYSICS.--A PROFOUND ACQUAINTANCE WITH IT NOT INDISPENSABLE FOR A CLEAR UNDERSTANDING OF PHYSICAL LAWS.--HOW A CONVICTION OF THEIR TRUTH MAY BE OBTAINED WITHOUT IT.--INSTANCES.--FURTHER DIVISION OF THE SUBJECT.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00079", "bookId": 54897, "start": 32520, "end": 32796, "sha256": "d918722c528733fd02d6f036dc18857e0386c8b5e78b81466518a358efabb7c9", "text": "(13.) Science is the knowledge of many, orderly and methodically digested and arranged, so as to become attainable by one. The knowledge of reasons and their conclusions constitutes _abstract_, that of causes and their effects, and of the laws of nature, _natural science_.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00080", "bookId": 54897, "start": 32800, "end": 34388, "sha256": "14d4e4f599c99f48bac3ef6c890361fd9e76e457d270142465cb0ace6493a58b", "text": "(14.) Abstract science is independent of a system of nature,--of a creation,--of every thing, in short, except memory, thought, and reason. Its objects are, first, those primary existences and relations which we cannot even conceive not to _be_, such as space, time, number, order, &c.; and, secondly, those artificial forms, or symbols, which thought has the power of creating for itself at pleasure, and substituting as representatives, by the aid of memory, for combinations of those primary objects and of its own conceptions,--either to facilitate the act of reasoning respecting them, or as convenient deposits of its own conclusions, or for their communication to others. Such are, first, _language_, oral or written; its conventional forms, which constitute grammar, and the rules for its use in argument, in which consists the logic of the schools; secondly, _notation_, which, applied to _number_, is _arithmetic_,--and, to the more general relations of abstract quantity or order, is _algebra_; and, thirdly, that higher kind of logic, which teaches us to use our reason in the most advantageous manner for the discovery of truth; which points out the criterions by which we may be sure we have attained it; and which, by detecting the sources of error, and exposing the haunts where fallacies are apt to lurk, at once warns us of their danger, and shows us how to avoid them. This greater logic may be termed _rational_[4]; while, to that inferior department which is conversant with words alone, the epithet _verbal_[5] may, for distinction, be applied.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00081", "bookId": 54897, "start": 34392, "end": 37922, "sha256": "2293628fbed798e18b453111966693cb793f7f289fdfdb94e18d6c2cf6ce74a9", "text": "(15.) A certain moderate degree of acquaintance with abstract science is highly desirable to every one who would make any considerable progress in physics. As the universe exists in time and place; and as motion, velocity, quantity, number, and order, are main elements of our knowledge of external things and their changes, an acquaintance with these, abstractedly considered, (that is to say, independent of any consideration of the particular things moved, measured, counted, or arranged,) must evidently be a useful preparation for the more complex study of nature. But there is yet another recommendation of such sciences as a preparation for the study of natural philosophy. Their objects are so definite, and our notions of them so distinct, that we can reason about them with an assurance, that the words and signs used in our reasonings are full and true representatives of the things signified; and, consequently, that when we use language or signs in argument, we neither, by their use, introduce extraneous notions, nor exclude any part of the case before us from consideration. For example: the words space, square, circle, a hundred, &c., convey to the mind notions so complete in themselves, and so distinct from every thing else, that we are sure when we use them we know and have in view the whole of our own meaning. It is widely different with words expressing natural objects and mixed relations. Take, for instance, iron. Different persons attach very different ideas to this word. One who has never heard of magnetism has a widely different notion of _iron_ from one in the contrary predicament. The vulgar, who regard this metal as incombustible, and the chemist, who sees it burn with the utmost fury, and who has other reasons for regarding it as one of the most combustible bodies in nature;--the poet, who uses it as an emblem of rigidity; and the smith and engineer, in whose hands it is plastic, and moulded like wax into every form;--the jailer, who prizes it as an obstruction, and the electrician, who sees in it only a channel of open communication by which that most impassable of obstacles, the air, may be traversed by his imprisoned fluid, have all different, and all imperfect, notions of the same word. The meaning of such a term is like a rainbow--every body sees a different one, and all maintain it to be the same. So it is with nearly all our terms of sense. Some are indefinite, as hard or soft, light or heavy (terms which were at one time the sources of innumerable mistakes and controversies); some excessively complex, as man, life, instinct. But, what is worst of all, some, nay most, have two or three meanings; sufficiently distinct from each other to make a proposition true in one sense and false in another, or even false altogether; yet not distinct enough to keep us from confounding them in the process by which we arrived at it, or to enable us immediately to recognise the fallacy when led to it by a train of reasoning, each step of which we _think_ we have examined and approved. Surely those who thus attach two senses to one word, or superadd a new meaning to an old one, act as absurdly as colonists who distribute themselves over the world, naming every place they come to by the names of those they have left, till all distinctions of geographical nomenclature are confounded, and till we are unable to decide whether an occurrence stated to have happened at Windsor took place in Europe, America, or Australia.[6]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00082", "bookId": 54897, "start": 37926, "end": 38771, "sha256": "794373a696ae38e356a8ea3b645452d1e96a9b92bdafa3756a0f3f488d97b31f", "text": "(16.) It is, in fact, in this double or incomplete sense of words that we must look for the origin of a very large portion of the errors into which we fall. Now, the study of the abstract sciences, such as arithmetic, geometry, algebra, &c., while they afford scope for the exercise of reasoning about objects that are, or, at least, may be conceived to be, external to us; yet, being free from these sources of error and mistake, accustom us to the strict use of language as an instrument of reason, and by familiarizing us, in our progress towards truth, to walk uprightly and straight-forward on firm ground, give us that proper and dignified carriage of mind which could never be acquired by having always to pick our steps among obstructions and loose fragments, or to steady them in the reeling tempest of conflicting meanings.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00083", "bookId": 54897, "start": 38775, "end": 41873, "sha256": "a52a3265489cfead0ebcce9ceee17616208034373e46808b5ac8adb4121fcad1", "text": "(17.) But there is yet another point of view under which some acquaintance with abstract science may be regarded as highly desirable in general education, if not indispensably necessary, to impress on us the distinction between strict and vague reasoning, to show us what demonstration really _is_, and to give us thereby a full and intimate sense of the nature and strength of the evidence on which our knowledge of the actual system of nature, and the laws of natural phenomena, rests. For this purpose, however, a very moderate acquaintance with the more elementary branches of mathematics may suffice. The chain is laid before us, and every link is submitted to our unreserved examination, if we have patience and inclination to enter on such detail. Hundreds have gone through it, and will continue to do so; but, for the generality of mankind, it is enough to satisfy themselves of the solidity and adamantine texture of its materials, and the unreserved exposure of its weakest, as well as its strongest, parts. If, however, we content ourselves with this general view of the matter, we must be content also to take on trust, that is, on the authority of those who have examined deeper, every conclusion which cannot be made apparent to our senses. Now, among these there are many so very surprising, indeed apparently so extravagant, that it is quite impossible for any enquiring mind to rest contented with a mere hearsay statement of them,--we feel irresistibly impelled to enquire further into their truth. What mere assertion will make any man believe, that in one second of time, in one beat of the pendulum of a clock, a ray of light travels over 192,000 miles, and would therefore perform the tour of the world in about the same time that it requires to wink with our eyelids, and in much less than a swift runner occupies in taking a single stride? What mortal can be made to believe, without demonstration, that the sun is almost a million times larger than the earth? and that, although so remote from us, that a cannon ball shot directly towards it, and maintaining its full speed, would be twenty years in reaching it, it yet affects the earth by its attraction in an inappreciable instant of time?--a closeness of union of which we can form but a feeble, and totally inadequate, idea, by comparing it to any material connection; since the communication of an impulse to such a distance, by any solid intermedium we are acquainted with, would require, not moments, but whole years. And when, with pain and difficulty we have strained our imagination to conceive a distance so vast, a force so intense and penetrating, if we are told that the one dwindles to an insensible point, and the other is unfelt at the nearest of the fixed stars, from the mere effect of their remoteness, while among those very stars are some whose actual splendour exceeds by many hundred times that of the sun itself, although we may not deny the truth of the assertion, we cannot but feel the keenest curiosity to know _how_ such things were ever made out.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00084", "bookId": 54897, "start": 41877, "end": 43428, "sha256": "57de8cd7dd38ff6fcd11e4d5cb5915570202517560d53fdbdac24b36eb6d2819", "text": "(18.) The foregoing are among those results of scientific research which, by their magnitude, seem to transcend our powers of conception. There are others, again, which, from their minuteness, would appear to elude the grasp of thought, much more of distinct and accurate measurement. Who would not ask for demonstration, when told that a gnat’s wing, in its ordinary flight, beats many hundred times in a second? or that there exist animated and regularly organized beings, many thousands of whose bodies laid close together would not extend an inch? But what are these to the astonishing truths which modern optical enquiries have disclosed, which teach us that every point of a medium through which a ray of light passes is affected with a succession of periodical movements, regularly recurring at equal intervals, no less than five hundred millions of millions of times in a single second! that it is by such movements, communicated to the nerves of our eyes, that we see:--nay more, that it is the _difference_ in the frequency of their recurrence which affects us with the sense of the diversity of colour; that, for instance, in acquiring the sensation of redness our eyes are affected four hundred and eighty-two millions of millions of times; of yellowness, five hundred and forty-two millions of millions of times; and of violet, seven hundred and seven millions of millions of times per second.[7] Do not such things sound more like the ravings of madmen, than the sober conclusions of people in their waking senses?", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00085", "bookId": 54897, "start": 43432, "end": 44300, "sha256": "f1be07cd4d37ca48876dcaaa8bfed358050a53b968be01a9c987e3c4b34d7583", "text": "(19.) They are, nevertheless, conclusions to which any one may most certainly arrive, who will only be at the trouble of examining the chain of reasoning by which they have been deduced; but, in order to do this, something beyond the mere elements of abstract science is required. Waving, however, such instances as these, which, after all, are rather calculated to surprise and astound than for any other purpose, it must be observed that it is not possible to satisfy ourselves completely that we _have_ arrived at a true statement of any law of nature, until, setting out from such statement, and making it a foundation of reasoning, we can show, by strict argument, that the facts observed must follow from it as necessary logical consequences, and _this_, not vaguely and generally, but with all possible precision in time, place, weight, and measure.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00086", "bookId": 54897, "start": 44304, "end": 46467, "sha256": "611810dc82e33ee55c2b3552273a0fb0406f48bb10af72da06fe2a72dc9b907a", "text": "(20.) To do this, however, as we shall presently see, requires in many cases a degree of knowledge of mathematics and geometry altogether unattainable by the generality of mankind, who have not the leisure, even if they all had the capacity, to enter into such enquiries, some of which are indeed of that degree of difficulty that they can be only successfully prosecuted by persons who devote to them their whole attention, and make them the serious business of their lives. But there is scarcely any person of good ordinary understanding, however little exercised in abstract enquiries, who may not be readily made to comprehend at least the general train of reasoning by which any of the great truths of physics are deduced, and the essential bearings and connections of the several parts of natural philosophy. There are whole branches too and very extensive and important ones, to which mathematical reasoning has never been at all applied; such as chemistry, geology, and natural history in general, and many others, in which it plays a very subordinate part, and of which the essential principles, and the grounds of application to useful purposes, may be perfectly well understood by a student who possesses no more mathematical knowledge than the rules of arithmetic; so that no one need be deterred from the acquisition of knowledge, or even from active original research in such subjects, by a want of mathematical information. Even in those branches which, like astronomy, optics, and dynamics, are almost exclusively under the dominion of mathematics, and in which no effectual progress can be made without _some_ acquaintance with geometry, the principal _results_ may be perfectly understood without it. To one incapable of following out the intricacies of mathematical demonstration, the conviction afforded by verified predictions must stand in the place of that purer and more satisfactory reliance which a verification of every step in the process of reasoning can alone afford, since every one will acknowledge the validity of pretensions which he is in the daily habit of seeing brought to the test of practice.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00087", "bookId": 54897, "start": 46471, "end": 51173, "sha256": "7b399e159ce3d411a5ab426e78a7a590e6a7ea01b54c8c8d94da13408e1f0710", "text": "(21.) Among the verifications of this practical kind which abound in every department of physics, there are none more imposing than the precise prediction of the greater phenomena of astronomy; none, certainly, which carry a broader conviction home to every mind from their notoriety and unequivocal character. The prediction of eclipses has accordingly from the earliest ages excited the admiration of mankind, and been one grand instrument by which their allegiance (so to speak) to natural science, and their respect for its professors, has been maintained; and though strangely abused in unenlightened ages by the supernatural pretensions of astrologers, the credence given even to their absurdities shows the force of this kind of evidence on men’s minds. The predictions of astronomers are, however, now far too familiar to endanger the just equipoise of our judgment, since even the return of comets, true to their paths and exact to the hour of their appointment, has ceased to amaze, though it must ever delight all who have souls capable of being penetrated by such beautiful instances of accordance between theory and facts. But the age of mere wonder in such things is past, and men prefer being guided and enlightened, to being astonished and dazzled. Eclipses, comets, and the like, afford but rare and transient displays of the powers of calculation, and of the certainty of the principles on which it is grounded. A page of “lunar distances” from the Nautical Almanack is worth all the eclipses that have ever happened for inspiring this necessary confidence in the conclusions of science. That a man, by merely measuring the moon’s apparent distance from a star with a little portable instrument held in his hand, and applied to his eye, even with so unstable a footing as the deck of a ship, shall say positively, within five miles, where he is, on a boundless ocean, cannot but appear to persons ignorant of physical astronomy an approach to the miraculous. Yet, the alternatives of life and death, wealth and ruin, are daily and hourly staked with perfect confidence on these marvellous computations, which might almost seem to have been devised on purpose to show how closely the extremes of speculative refinement and practical utility can be brought to approximate. We have before us an anecdote communicated to us by a naval officer[8], distinguished for the extent and variety of his attainments, which shows how impressive such results may become in practice. He sailed from San Blas on the west coast of Mexico, and after a voyage of 8000 miles, occupying 89 days, arrived off Rio de Janeiro, having, in this interval, passed through the Pacific Ocean, rounded Cape Horn, and crossed the South Atlantic, without making any land, or even seeing a single sail, with the exception of an American whaler off Cape Horn. Arrived within a week’s sail of Rio, he set seriously about determining, by lunar observations, the precise line of the ship’s course and its situation in it at a determinate moment, and having ascertained this within from five to ten miles, ran the rest of the way by those more ready and compendious methods, known to navigators, which can be safely employed for short trips between one known point and another, but which cannot be trusted in long voyages, where the moon is the only sure guide. The rest of the tale we are enabled by his kindness to state in his own words:--“We steered towards Rio de Janeiro for some days after taking the lunars above described, and having arrived within fifteen or twenty miles of the coast, I hove to at four in the morning till the day should break, and then bore up; for although it was very hazy, we could see before us a couple of miles or so. About eight o’clock it became so foggy that I did not like to stand in farther, and was just bringing the ship to the wind again before sending the people to breakfast, when it suddenly cleared off, and I had the satisfaction of seeing the great Sugar Loaf Rock, which stands on one side of the harbour’s mouth, so nearly right ahead that we had not to alter our course above a point in order to hit the entrance of Rio. This was the first land we had seen for three months, after crossing so many seas and being set backwards and forwards by innumerable currents and foul winds.” The effect on all on board might well be conceived to have been electric; and it is needless to remark how essentially the authority of a commanding officer over his crew may be strengthened by the occurrence of such incidents, indicative of a degree of knowledge and consequent power beyond their reach.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00088", "bookId": 54897, "start": 51177, "end": 55530, "sha256": "6a797df21eafa98ec1afb3ac8cd60681e32f1fa9e652b3a71f9ca5c3bd040390", "text": "(22.) But even such results as these, striking as they are, yet fall short of the force with which conviction is urged upon us when, through the medium of reasoning too abstract for common apprehension, we arrive at conclusions which outrun experience, and describe beforehand what will happen under new combinations, or even correct imperfect experiments, and lead us to a knowledge of facts contrary to received analogies drawn from an experience wrongly interpreted or overhastily generalised. To give an example:--every body knows that objects viewed through a transparent medium, such as water or glass, appear distorted or displaced. Thus, a stick in water appears bent, and an object seen through a prism or wedge of glass seems to be thrown aside from its true place. This effect is owing to what is called the _refraction_ of light; and a simple rule discovered by Willebrod Snell enables any one to say exactly _how much_ the stick will be bent, and _how far_, and in what _direction_, the apparent situation of an object seen through the glass will deviate from the real one. If a shilling be laid at the bottom of a basin of water and viewed obliquely, it will appear to be raised by the water; if instead of water spirits of wine be used it will appear more raised; if oil, still more:--but in none of these cases will it appear to be thrown _aside_ to the _right_ or _left_ of its true place, however the eye be situated. The _plane_, in which are contained the eye, the object, and the point in the surface of the liquid at which the object is seen, is an upright or _vertical_ plane; and this is one of the principal characters in the _ordinary refraction_ of light, viz. that the ray by which we see an object through a refracting surface, although it undergoes a bending, and is, as it were, broken at the surface, yet, in pursuing its course to the eye, does not _quit a plane perpendicular to the refracting surface_. But there are again other substances, such as rock-crystal, and especially Iceland spar, which possess the singular property of _doubling_ the image or appearance of an object seen through them in certain directions; so that instead of seeing one object we see two, side by side, when such a crystal or spar is interposed between the object and the eye; and if a ray or small sunbeam be thrown upon a surface of either of these substances, it will be split into two, making an angle with each other, and each pursuing its own separate course,--this is called _double refraction_. Now, of these images or doubly refracted rays, one always follows the same rule as if the substance were glass or water: its deviation can be correctly calculated by Snell’s law above mentioned, and it does not quit the plane perpendicular to the refracting surface. The other ray, on the contrary, (which is therefore said to have undergone _extraordinary refraction_) _does_ quit that plane, and the amount of its deviation from its former course requires for its determination a much more complicated rule, which cannot be understood or even stated without a pretty intimate knowledge of geometry. Now, rock-crystal and Iceland spar differ from glass in a very remarkable circumstance. They affect naturally certain regular figures, not being found in shapeless lumps, but in determinate geometrical forms; and they are susceptible of being cleft or split much easier in certain directions than in others--they have a _grain_ which glass has not. When other substances having this peculiarity (and which are called _crystallized_ substances) were examined, they were all, or by far the greater part, found to possess this singular property of _double refraction_; and it was very natural to conclude, therefore, that the same thing took place in all of them, viz. that of the two rays, into which any beam of light falling on the surface of such a substance was split, or of the two images of an object seen through it, _one_ only was turned aside out of its _plane_ and _extraordinarily_ refracted, while the other followed the _ordinary_ rule. Accordingly this was supposed to be the case; and not only so, but from some trials and measurements purposely made by a philosopher of great eminence, it was considered to be a fact sufficiently established by experiment.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00089", "bookId": 54897, "start": 55534, "end": 58345, "sha256": "8f3c86b9ead998216f8c7b663fc9a78662d73377864718dc62e9a2b73f2b9c9b", "text": "(23.) Perhaps we might have remained long under this impression, for the measurements are delicate, and the subject very difficult. But it has lately been demonstrated by an eminent French philosopher and mathematician, M. Fresnel, that, granting certain _principles_ or postulates, all the phenomena of double refraction, including perhaps the greatest variety of facts that have ever yet been arranged under one general head, may be satisfactorily explained and deduced from them by strict mathematical calculation; and _that_, when applied to the cases first mentioned, these principles give a satisfactory account of the _want_ of the extraordinary image; _that_ when applied to such cases as those of rock-crystal or Iceland spar, they also give a correct account of both the images, and agree in their conclusions with the rules before ascertained for them: but so far from coinciding with that part of the previous statement, which would make these conclusions extend to all crystallised substances, M. Fresnel’s principles lead to a conclusion quite opposite, and point to a _fact_ which had never been observed, viz. that in by far the greater number of crystallized substances which possess the property of double refraction, _neither_ of the images follows the ordinary law, but both undergo a deviation from their original plane. Now this had never been observed to be the case in any previous trial, and all opinion was against it. But when put to the test of experiment in a great variety of new and ingenious methods, it was found to be fully verified; and to complete the evidence, the substances on whose imperfect examination the first erroneous conclusion was founded, having been lately subjected to a fresh and more scrupulous examination, the result has shown the insufficiency of the former measurements, and proved in perfect accordance with the newly discovered laws. Now it will be observed in this case, first, that, so far from the principles assumed by M. Fresnel being at all obvious, they are extremely remote from ordinary observation; and, secondly, that the chain of reasoning by which they are brought to the test is one of such length and complexity, and the purely mathematical difficulty of their application so great, that no _mere_ good common sense, no general tact or ordinary practical reasoning, would afford the slightest chance of threading their mazes. Cases like this are the triumph of theories. They show at once how large a part pure reason has to perform in our examination of nature, and how implicit our reliance ought to be on that powerful and methodical system of rules and processes which constitute the modern mathematical analysis, in all the more difficult applications of exact calculation to her phenomena.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00090", "bookId": 54897, "start": 58349, "end": 58957, "sha256": "ba17bc0c0a1c973566225cb9569e7ca5e7db8a3c15bfc58582070896b87c7484", "text": "(24.) To take an instance more within ordinary apprehension. An eminent living geometer had proved by calculations, founded on strict optical principles, that in the _centre of the shadow_ of a small circular plate of metal, exposed in a dark room to a beam of light emanating from a _very small brilliant point_, there ought to be no darkness,--in fact, _no shadow_ at that place; but, on the contrary, a degree of illumination precisely as bright as if the metal plate were away. Strange and even impossible as this conclusion may seem, it has been put to the trial, and found perfectly correct.[9]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00091", "bookId": 54897, "start": 58961, "end": 59036, "sha256": "0413fa789993dbc6e402c0db4d48965ae8735c5b5bd7ce96d86ef3d5edd8ed03", "text": "(25.) We shall now proceed to consider more particularly, and in detail,--", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00092", "bookId": 54897, "start": 59044, "end": 59287, "sha256": "4f17d608463d08e90cb3c98b3b4405d3522e4469457aec9a61fe929ad7ba5e66", "text": "I. The nature and objects immediate and collateral of physical science, as regarded in itself, and in its application to the practical purposes of life, and its influence on the well-being and progress of society.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00093", "bookId": 54897, "start": 59294, "end": 59519, "sha256": "f973955db4c25e851c6d25d12f1f586b0e20cacb48f110c001b80b85122620d5", "text": "II. The principles on which it relies for its successful prosecution, and the rules by which a systematic examination of nature should be conducted, with examples illustrative of their influence.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00094", "bookId": 54897, "start": 59525, "end": 59627, "sha256": "f8373359d2056907ab80f52b0713a6845e900fa4927b225d015edcc648332fbb", "text": "III. The subdivision of physical science into distinct branches, and their mutual relations.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00095", "bookId": 54897, "start": 59637, "end": 59647, "sha256": "6b1dee28e55db0a12facd7397796ecefb642f4c28ffbfcb8670ee788ba383b7b", "text": "CHAP. III.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00096", "bookId": 54897, "start": 59653, "end": 59883, "sha256": "31dba6a2c5d6302515350f654bfc20d6ad44b42a4767ec2597c393247eb4549f", "text": "OF THE NATURE AND OBJECTS, IMMEDIATE AND COLLATERAL, OF PHYSICAL SCIENCE, AS REGARDED IN ITSELF, AND IN ITS APPLICATION TO THE PRACTICAL PURPOSES OF LIFE, AND ITS INFLUENCE ON THE WELL-BEING AND PROGRESS OF SOCIETY.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00097", "bookId": 54897, "start": 59889, "end": 62783, "sha256": "9405648c094eab9b60707fe07f0f2afb120ec24cf74c9536b0c48fac36bacf78", "text": "(26.) The first thing impressed on us from our earliest infancy is, that events do not succeed one another at random, but with a certain degree of order, regularity, and connection;--some constantly, and, as we are apt to think, immutably,--as the alternation of day and night, summer and winter,--others contingently, as the motion of a body from its place, if pushed, or the burning of a stick if thrust into the fire. The knowledge that the former class of events _has_ gone on, uninterruptedly, for ages beyond all memory, impresses us with a strong expectation that it will continue to do so in the same manner; and thus our notion of an _order of nature_ is originated and confirmed. If every thing were equally regular and periodical, and the succession of events liable to no change depending on our own will, it may be doubted whether we should ever think of looking for causes. No one regards the night as the cause of the day, or the day of night. They are alternate effects of a common cause, which their regular succession alone gives us no sufficient clue for determining. It is chiefly, perhaps entirely, from the other or contingent class of events that we gain our notions of cause and effect. From them alone we gather that there are such things as laws of nature. The very idea of a law includes that of contingency. “_Si quis mala carmina condidisset, fuste ferito_;” if such a case arise, such a course shall be followed,--if the match be applied to the gunpowder, it will explode. Every law is a provision for cases which _may_ occur, and has relation to an infinite number of cases that never have occurred, and never will. Now, it is this provision, _à priori_, for contingencies, this contemplation of possible occurrences, and predisposal of what shall happen, that impresses us with the notion of a _law_ and a _cause_. Among all the possible combinations of the fifty or sixty elements which chemistry shows to exist on the earth, it is likely, nay almost certain, that _some_ have never been formed; that some elements, in some proportions, and under some circumstances, have never yet been placed in relation with one another. Yet no chemist can doubt that it is _already fixed_ what they will do when the case does occur. They will obey certain laws, of which we know nothing at present, but which must _be_ already fixed, or they could not be laws. It is not by habit, or by trial and failure, that they will learn what to do. When the contingency occurs, there will be no hesitation, no consultation;--their course will at once be decided, and will always be the same if it occur ever so often in succession, or in ever so many places at one and the same instant. This is the perfection of a law, that it includes all possible contingencies, and ensures implicit obedience,--and of this kind are the laws of nature.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00098", "bookId": 54897, "start": 62787, "end": 64007, "sha256": "5e3e2cd38b70631e06857fbc316edd4ae268f28d2f653ba9f5e94ca53bbb4038", "text": "(27.) This use of the word _law_, however, our readers will of course perceive has relation to us as understanding, rather than to the materials of which the universe consists as obeying, certain rules. To obey a law, to act in _compliance_ with a rule, supposes an understanding and a will, a power of complying or not, in the being who obeys and complies, which we do not admit as belonging to mere matter. The Divine Author of the universe cannot be supposed to have laid down particular laws, enumerating all individual contingencies, which his materials have understood and obey,--this would be to attribute to him the imperfections of human legislation;--but rather, by creating them, endued with certain fixed qualities and powers, he has impressed them in their origin with the _spirit_, not the _letter_, of his law, and made all their subsequent combinations and relations inevitable consequences of this first impression, by which, however, we would no way be understood to deny the constant exercise of his direct power in maintaining the system of nature, or the ultimate emanation of every energy which material agents exert from his immediate will, acting in conformity with his own laws.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00099", "bookId": 54897, "start": 64011, "end": 65829, "sha256": "8c4254d6274a87c9acd3d5e34ca62207ee0522dff1a707e51b882f645303db95", "text": "(28.) The discoveries of modern chemistry have gone far to establish the truth of an opinion entertained by some of the ancients, that the universe consists of distinct, separate, indivisible _atoms_, or individual beings so minute as to escape our senses, except when united by millions, and by this aggregation making up bodies of even the smallest visible bulk; and we have the strongest evidence that, although there exist great and essential differences in individuals among these atoms, they may yet all be arranged in a very limited number of groups or classes, all the individuals of each of which are, to all intents and purposes, _exactly alike_ in all their properties. Now, when we see a great number of things precisely alike, we do not believe this similarity to have originated except from a common principle independent of them; and that we recognise this likeness, chiefly by the identity of their deportment under similar circumstances, strengthens rather than weakens the conclusion. A line of spinning-jennies[10], or a regiment of soldiers dressed exactly alike, and going through precisely the same evolutions, gives us no idea of independent existence: we must see them act out of concert before we can believe them to have independent wills and properties, not impressed on them from without. And this conclusion, which would be strong even were there only two individuals precisely alike in _all_ respects and _for ever_, acquires irresistible force when their number is multiplied beyond the power of imagination to conceive. If we mistake not, then, the discoveries alluded to effectually destroy the idea of an _eternal self-existent matter_, by giving to each of its atoms the essential characters, at once, of a _manufactured article_, and a _subordinate agent_.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00100", "bookId": 54897, "start": 65833, "end": 66799, "sha256": "63bb12144fec8fac99edc453022cca1e11cf91e6a5134e0d628f4f89a65b30cb", "text": "(29.) But to ascend to the origin of things, and speculate on the creation, is not the business of the natural philosopher. An humbler field is sufficient for him in the endeavour to discover, as far as our faculties will permit, what _are_ these primary qualities originally and unalterably impressed on matter, and to discover the _spirit_ of the laws of nature, which includes groups and classes of relations and facts from the _letter_ which, as before observed, is presented to us by single phenomena: or if, after all, this should prove impossible; if such a step be beyond our faculties; and the essential qualities of material agents be really _occult_, or incapable of being expressed in any form intelligible to our understandings, at least to approach as near to their comprehension as the nature of the case will allow; and devise such forms of words as shall include and _represent_ the greatest possible multitude and variety of phenomena.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00101", "bookId": 54897, "start": 66803, "end": 68695, "sha256": "01aabb58b4e7b8e5302277f84b612fd27b498cf9c3b7a6aa1dfe5f2e5d02c875", "text": "(30.) Now, in this research there would seem one great question to be disposed of before our enquiries can even be commenced with any thing like a prospect of success, which is, whether the laws of nature themselves _have_ that degree of permanence and fixity which can render them subjects of systematic discussion; or whether, on the other hand, the qualities of natural agents are subject to mutation from the lapse of time. To the ancients, who lived in the infancy of the world, or rather, in the infancy of man’s experience, this was a very rational subject of question, and hence their distinctions between corruptible and incorruptible matter. Thus, according to some among them, the matter only of the celestial spaces is pure, immutable, and incorruptible, while all sublunary things are in a constant state of lapse and change; the world becoming paralysed and effete with age, and man himself deteriorating in character, and diminishing at once in intellectual and bodily stature. But to us, who have the experience of some additional thousands of years, the question of permanence is already, in a great measure, decided in the affirmative. The refined speculations of modern astronomy, grounding their conclusions on observations made at very remote periods, have proved to demonstration, that one at least of the great powers of nature, the force of gravitation, the main bond and support of the material universe, has undergone no change in intensity from a high antiquity. The stature of mankind is just what it was three thousand years ago, as the specimens of mummies which have been examined at various times sufficiently show. The intellect of Newton, Laplace, or Lagrange, may stand in fair competition with that of Archimedes, Aristotle, or Plato; and the virtues and patriotism of Washington with the brightest examples of ancient history.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00102", "bookId": 54897, "start": 68699, "end": 71043, "sha256": "0cf8f38d4342b7d03f938cb790394bd18b029af926ae6c18cd31cef5ba778a44", "text": "(31.) Again, the researches of chemists have shown that what the vulgar call corruption, destruction, &c., is nothing but a change of arrangement of the same ingredient elements, the disposition of the same materials into other forms, without the loss or actual destruction of a single atom; and thus any doubts of the permanence of natural laws are discountenanced, and the whole weight of _appearances_ thrown into the opposite scale. One of the most obvious cases of apparent destruction is, when any thing is ground to dust and scattered to the winds. But it is one thing to grind a fabric to powder, and another to annihilate its materials: scattered as they may be, they must fall somewhere, and continue, if only as ingredients of the soil, to perform their humble but useful part in the economy of nature. The destruction produced by fire is more striking: in many cases, as in the burning of a piece of charcoal or a taper, there is no smoke, nothing visibly dissipated and carried away; the burning body wastes and disappears, while nothing _seems_ to be produced but warmth and light, which we are not in the habit of considering as substances; and when all has disappeared, except perhaps some trifling ashes, we naturally enough suppose it is gone, lost, destroyed. But when the question is examined more exactly, we detect, in the invisible stream of heated air which ascends from the glowing coal or flaming wax, the _whole_ ponderable matter, only united in a new combination with the air, and dissolved in it. Yet, so far from being thereby destroyed, it is only become again what it was before it existed in the form of charcoal or wax, an active agent in the business of the world, and a main support of vegetable and animal life, and is still susceptible of running again and again the same round, as circumstances may determine; so that, for aught we can see to the contrary, the same identical atom may lie concealed for thousands of centuries in a limestone rock; may at length be quarried, set free in the limekiln, mix with the air, be absorbed from it by plants, and, in succession, become a part of the frames of myriads of living beings, till some concurrence of events consigns it once more to a long repose, which, however, no way unfits it from again resuming its former activity.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00103", "bookId": 54897, "start": 71047, "end": 72615, "sha256": "a6d215b3363d90779d1af91a5c3ae7b92617d38d0e00311ffb0d48592addf933", "text": "(32.) Now, this absolute indestructibility of the ultimate materials of the world, in periods commensurate to our experience, and their obstinate retention of the same properties, under whatever variety of circumstances we choose to place them, however violent and seemingly contradictory to their natures, is, of itself, enough to render it highly improbable that time alone should have any influence over them. All that age or decay can do seems to be included in a wasting of parts which are only dissipated, not destroyed, or in a change of sensible properties, which chemistry demonstrates to arise only from new combinations of the same ingredients. But, after all, the question is one entirely of experience: we cannot be sure, _à priori_, that the laws of nature are _immutable_; but we can ascertain, by enquiry, _whether they change or not_; and to this enquiry all experience answers in the negative. It is not, of course, intended here to deny that great operations, productive of extensive changes in the visible state of nature,--such as, for instance, those contemplated by the geologists, and embracing for their completion vast periods of time,--are constantly going on; but these are consequences and fulfilments of the laws of nature, not contradictions or exceptions to them. No theorist regards such changes as alterations in the fundamental principles of nature; he only endeavours to reconcile them, and show how they result from laws already known, and judges of the correctness of his theory by their ultimate agreement.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00104", "bookId": 54897, "start": 72619, "end": 74013, "sha256": "8cf8938de5c4c896c99a94fe4d00b1c6f566846ab923879149a8ece272097d02", "text": "(33.) But the laws of nature are not only permanent, but consistent, intelligible, and discoverable with such a moderate degree of research, as is calculated rather to stimulate than to weary curiosity. If we were set down, as creatures of another world, in any existing society of mankind, and began to speculate on their actions, we should find it difficult at first to ascertain whether they were subject to any laws at all: but when, by degrees, we had found out that they did consider themselves to be so; and would then proceed to ascertain, from their conduct and its consequences, what these laws were, and in what spirit conceived; though we might not perhaps have much difficulty in discovering single rules applicable to particular cases, yet, the moment we came to generalize, and endeavour from these to ascend, step by step, and discover any steady pervading principle, the mass of incongruities, absurdities, and contradictions, we should encounter, would either dishearten us from further enquiry or satisfy us that what we were in search of did not exist. It is quite the contrary in nature; there we find no contradictions, no incongruities, but all is harmony. What once is learnt we never have to unlearn. As rules advance in generality, apparent exceptions become regular; and equivoque, in her sublime legislation, is as unheard of as maladministration.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00105", "bookId": 54897, "start": 74017, "end": 75033, "sha256": "ecb120d601e1f1811b99a09614f1712299fb4732213910c407d079cc0e15177f", "text": "(34.) Living, then, in a world where such laws obtain, and under their immediate dominion, it is manifestly of the utmost importance to know them, were it for no other reason than to be sure, in all we undertake, to have, at least, the law on our side, so as not to struggle in vain against some insuperable difficulty opposed to us by natural causes. What pains and expense would not the alchemists, for instance, have been spared by a knowledge of those simple laws of composition and decomposition, which now preclude all idea of the attainment of their declared object! what an amount of ingenuity, thrown away on the pursuit of the perpetual motion, might have been turned to better use, if the simplest laws of mechanics had been known and attended to by the inventors of innumerable contrivances destined to that end! What tortures, inflicted on patients by imaginary cures of incurable diseases, might have been dispensed with, had a few simple principles of physiology been earlier recognised!", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00106", "bookId": 54897, "start": 75037, "end": 75307, "sha256": "24ad9732e0b022fb5908e4eb402b70d7c7e39e7c17747c663427ee723078fbaa", "text": "(35.) But if the laws of nature, on the one hand, are invincible opponents, on the other, they are irresistible auxiliaries; and it will not be amiss if we regard them in each of those characters, and consider the great importance of a knowledge of them to mankind,--", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00107", "bookId": 54897, "start": 75315, "end": 75374, "sha256": "5c949d33226675637e0d94556a7e09a139cda217103b29f774ab46cf924d93e6", "text": "I. _In showing us how to avoid attempting impossibilities._", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00108", "bookId": 54897, "start": 75381, "end": 75556, "sha256": "b38b5c3fbc1ffd9e1905ba00e42cabf8d24a921ae10781f6ce9a8c3836d53dc5", "text": "II. _In securing us from important mistakes in attempting what is, in itself, possible, by means either inadequate, or actually opposed, to the end in view._", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00109", "bookId": 54897, "start": 75562, "end": 75685, "sha256": "ea6165375d7293934cea7d881298de1ad9311e9284b1e7746dc9bf62d916b99f", "text": "III. _In enabling us to accomplish our ends in the easiest, shortest, most economical, and most effectual manner._", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00110", "bookId": 54897, "start": 75692, "end": 75857, "sha256": "4787addbc36a4143fab1ecaee3078ccc0465da06cffbde2f4311c9e020f601f6", "text": "IV. _In inducing us to attempt, and enabling us to accomplish, objects which, but for such knowledge, we should never have thought of undertaking._", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00111", "bookId": 54897, "start": 75861, "end": 75976, "sha256": "8035d47b563a8073873b2d08484da68aa695fbcc9c8c2e1ca3a2a491f70c7d49", "text": "We shall therefore proceed to illustrate by examples the effect of physical knowledge under each of these heads:--", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00112", "bookId": 54897, "start": 75980, "end": 77147, "sha256": "1ef7ffe22098b5d0a019a4d8791d88d5eeddb82dd8ae0f5d61fa2f6ffda2f9bd", "text": "(36.) Ex. 1. (35.) I. It is not many years since an attempt was made to establish a colliery at Bexhill, in Sussex. The appearance of thin seams and sheets of fossil-wood and wood-coal, with some other indications similar to what occur in the neighbourhood of the great coal-beds in the north of England, having led to the sinking of a shaft, and the erection of machinery on a scale of vast expense, not less than eighty thousand pounds are said to have been laid out on this project, which, it is almost needless to add, proved completely abortive, as every geologist would have at once declared it must, the whole assemblage of geological facts being adverse to the existence of a regular coal-bed _in_ the Hastings’ _sand_; while this, on which Bexhill is situated, is separated from the _coal-strata_ by a series of interposed beds of such enormous thickness as to render all idea of penetrating _through_ them absurd. The history of mining operations is full of similar cases, where a very moderate acquaintance with the _usual order of nature_, to say nothing of theoretical views, would have saved many a sanguine adventurer from utter ruin.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00113", "bookId": 54897, "start": 77151, "end": 78145, "sha256": "090487e08aaf18b1e12cd5b3713dc86f2bf1387111456153958350f4c4ae69b9", "text": "(37.) Ex. 2. (35.) II. The smelting of iron requires the application of the most violent heat that can be raised, and is commonly performed in tall furnaces, urged by great iron bellows driven by steam-engines. Instead of employing this power to force _air_ into the furnace through the intervention of bellows, it was, on one occasion, attempted to employ the steam itself in, apparently, a much less circuitous manner; viz. by directing the current of steam in a violent blast, from the boiler at once into the fire. From one of the known ingredients of steam being a highly inflammable body, and the other that essential part of the air which supports combustion, it was imagined that this would have the effect of increasing the fire to tenfold fury, whereas it simply _blew it out_; a result which a slight consideration of the laws of chemical combination, and the state in which the ingredient elements exist in steam, would have enabled any one to predict without a trial.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00114", "bookId": 54897, "start": 78149, "end": 79825, "sha256": "a2055e5e2687deb6251d814484a74c286ae6d5ef6da137cf172439d7a5fb49ed", "text": "(38.) Ex. 3. (35.) II. After the invention of the diving-bell, and its success in subaqueous processes, it was considered highly desirable to devise some means of remaining for any length of time under water, and rising at pleasure without assistance, so as either to examine, at leisure, the bottom, or perform, at ease, any work that might be required. Some years ago, an ingenious individual proposed a project by which this end was to be accomplished. It consisted in sinking the hull of a ship made quite water-tight, with the decks and sides strongly supported by shores, and the only entry secured by a stout trap-door, in such a manner, that by disengaging, from within, the weights employed to sink it, it might rise of itself to the surface. To render the trial more satisfactory, and the result more striking, the projector himself made the first essay. It was agreed that he should sink in twenty fathoms water, and rise again without assistance at the expiration of twenty-four hours. Accordingly, making all secure, fastening down his trap-door, and provided with all necessaries, as well as with the means of making signals to indicate his situation, this unhappy victim of his own ingenuity entered and was sunk. No signal was made, and the time appointed elapsed. An immense concourse of people had assembled to witness his rising, but in vain; for the vessel was never seen more. The pressure of the water at so great a depth had, no doubt, been completely under-estimated, and the sides of the vessel being at once crushed in, the unfortunate projector perished before he could even make the signal concerted to indicate his distress.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00115", "bookId": 54897, "start": 79829, "end": 80891, "sha256": "a23ba98123439c2634b5230a118b3b6817588f0987e26e92a2c1193fd44ce17c", "text": "(39.) Ex. 4. (35.) III. In the granite quarries near Seringapatam the most enormous blocks are separated from the solid rock by the following neat and simple process. The workman having found a portion of the rock sufficiently extensive, and situated near the edge of the part already quarried, lays bare the upper surface, and marks on it a line in the direction of the intended separation, along which a groove is cut with a chisel about a couple of inches in depth. Above this groove a narrow line of fire is then kindled, and maintained till the rock below is thoroughly heated, immediately on which a line of men and women, each provided with a pot full of cold water, suddenly sweep off the ashes, and pour the water into the heated groove, when the rock at once splits with a clean fracture. Square blocks of six feet in the side, and upwards of eighty feet in length, are sometimes detached by this method, or by another equally simple and efficacious, but not easily explained without entering into particulars of mineralogical detail.[11]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00116", "bookId": 54897, "start": 80895, "end": 81938, "sha256": "7054b32eb721c5026734ef6e2fe489b89790e2580da8d15c0f52a490c0f58944", "text": "(40.) Ex. 5. (35.) III. Hardly less simple and efficacious is the process used in some parts of France, where mill-stones are made. When a mass of stone sufficiently large is found, it is cut into a cylinder several feet high, and the question then arises how to subdivide this into horizontal pieces so as to make as many mill-stones. For this purpose horizontal indentations or grooves are chiselled out quite round the cylinder, at distances corresponding to the thickness intended to be given to the mill-stones, into which wedges of dried wood are driven. These are then wetted, or exposed to the night dew, and next morning the different pieces are found separated from each other by the expansion of the wood, consequent on its absorption of moisture; an irresistible natural power thus accomplishing, almost without any trouble, and at no expense, an operation which, from the peculiar hardness and texture of the stone, would otherwise be impracticable but by the most powerful machinery or the most persevering labour.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00117", "bookId": 54897, "start": 81942, "end": 82968, "sha256": "6c644965ffb3eb3c184dc070cdb08d76656a2cd0c212044d55bde168faae7b74", "text": "(41.) Ex. 6. (35.) III. To accomplish our ends quickly is often of, at least, as much importance as to accomplish them with little labour and expense. There are innumerable processes which, if left to themselves, _i. e._ to the ordinary operation of natural causes, are done, and well done, but with extreme slowness, and in such cases it is often of the highest practical importance to accelerate them. The bleaching of linen, for instance, performed in the natural way by exposure to sun, rain, and wind, requires many weeks or even months for its completion; whereas, by the simple immersion of the cloth in a liquid, chemically prepared, the same effect is produced in a few hours. The whole circle of the arts, indeed, is nothing but one continued comment upon this head of our subject. The instances above given are selected, not on account of their superior importance, but for the simplicity and _directness_ of application of the principles on which they depend, to the objects intended to be attained.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00118", "bookId": 54897, "start": 82972, "end": 84440, "sha256": "1d7d3efe37be9f3fababc504de5d3e46e5ccf7703ec088bfd0b7f9bf216790e4", "text": "(42.) But so constituted is the mind of man, that his views enlarge, and his desires and wants increase, in the full proportion of the facilities afforded to their gratification, and, indeed, with augmented rapidity, so that no sooner has the successful exercise of his powers accomplished any considerable simplification or improvement of processes subservient to his use or comfort, than his faculties are again on the stretch to extend the limits of his newly acquired power; and having once experienced the advantages which are to be gathered by availing himself of some of the powers of nature to accomplish his ends, he is led thenceforward to regard them all as a treasure placed at his disposal, if he have only the art, the industry, or the good fortune, to penetrate those recesses which conceal them from immediate view. Having once learned to look on knowledge as power, and to avail himself of it as such, he is no longer content to limit his enterprises to the beaten track of former usage, but is constantly led onwards to contemplate objects which, in a previous stage of his progress, he would have regarded as unattainable and visionary, had he even thought of them at all. It is here that the investigation of the hidden powers of nature becomes a mine, every vein of which is pregnant with inexhaustible wealth, and whose ramifications appear to extend in all directions wherever human wants or curiosity may lead us to explore.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00119", "bookId": 54897, "start": 84444, "end": 87389, "sha256": "aed8b447fac263983f84183882be1755004fa4d6ed2904e2bfb11cfed5694d0b", "text": "(43.) Between the physical sciences and the arts of life there subsists a constant mutual interchange of good offices, and no considerable progress can be made in the one without of necessity giving rise to corresponding steps in the other. On the one hand, every art is in some measure, and many entirely, dependent on those very powers and qualities of the material world which it is the object of physical enquiry to investigate and explain; and, accordingly, abundant examples might be cited of cases where the remarks of experienced artists, or even ordinary workmen, have led to the discovery of natural qualities, elements, or combinations which have proved of the highest importance in physics. Thus (to give an instance), a soap-manufacturer remarks that the residuum of his ley, when exhausted of the alkali for which he employs it, produces a corrosion of his copper boiler for which he cannot account. He puts it into the hands of a scientific chemist for analysis, and the result is the discovery of one of the most singular and important chemical elements, iodine. The properties of this, being studied, are found to occur most appositely in illustration and support of a variety of new, curious, and instructive views then gaining ground in chemistry, and thus exercise a marked influence over the whole body of that science. Curiosity is excited: the origin of the new substance is traced to the sea-plants from whose ashes the principal ingredient of soap is obtained, and ultimately to the sea-water itself. It is thence hunted through nature, discovered in salt mines and springs, and pursued into all bodies which have a marine origin; among the rest, into sponge. A medical practitioner[12] then calls to mind a reputed remedy for the cure of one of the most grievous and unsightly disorders to which the human species is subject--the _goître_--which infests the inhabitants of mountainous districts to an extent that in this favoured land we have happily no experience of, and which was said to have been originally cured by the ashes of burnt sponge. Led by this indication he tries the effect of iodine on that complaint, and the result establishes the extraordinary fact that this singular substance, taken as a medicine, acts with the utmost promptitude and energy on _goître_, dissipating the largest and most inveterate in a short time, and acting (of course, like all medicines, even the most approved, with occasional failures,) as a specific, or natural antagonist, against that odious deformity. It is thus that any accession to our knowledge of nature is sure, sooner or later, to make itself felt in some practical application, and that a benefit conferred on science by the casual observation or shrewd remark of even an unscientific or illiterate person infallibly repays itself with interest, though often in a way that could never have been at first contemplated.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00120", "bookId": 54897, "start": 87393, "end": 89550, "sha256": "2edb5aec72a4332cb3eb959ea1b86b80d74de4c543ed7248f68b8dba11957ab6", "text": "(44.) It is to such observation, reflected upon, however, and matured into a rational and scientific form by a mind deeply imbued with the best principles of sound philosophy, that we owe the practice of vaccination; a practice which has effectually subdued, in every country where it has been introduced, one of the most frightful scourges of the human race, and in some extirpated it altogether. Happily for us we know only by tradition the ravages of the small-pox, as it existed among us hardly more than a century ago, and as it would in a few years infallibly exist again, were the barriers which this practice, and that of inoculation, oppose to its progress abandoned. Hardly inferior to this terrible scourge on land was, within the last seventy or eighty years, the scurvy at sea. The sufferings and destruction produced by this horrid disorder on board our ships when, as a matter of course, it broke out after a few months’ voyage, seem now almost incredible. Deaths to the amount of eight or ten a day in a moderate ship’s company; bodies sewn up in hammocks and washing about the decks for want of strength and spirits on the part of the miserable survivors to cast them overboard; and every form of loathsome and excruciating misery of which the human frame is susceptible:--such are the pictures which the narratives of nautical adventure in those days continually offer.[13] At present the scurvy is almost completely eradicated in the navy, partly, no doubt, from increased and increasing attention to general cleanliness, comfort, and diet; but mainly from the constant use of a simple and palatable preventive, the acid of the lemon, served out in daily rations. If the gratitude of mankind be allowed on all hands to be the just meed of the philosophic physician, to whose discernment in seizing, and perseverance in forcing it on public notice we owe the great safeguard of infant life, it ought not to be denied to those[14] whose skill and discrimination have thus strengthened the sinews of our most powerful arm, and obliterated one of the darkest features in the most glorious of all professions.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00121", "bookId": 54897, "start": 89554, "end": 92426, "sha256": "0d9e0afddd32513a3682b00fe99cbd2f2ad77011546317c1f2a6235edec379ed", "text": "(45.) These last, however, are instances of simple observation, limited to the point immediately in view, and assuming only so far the character of science as a systematic adoption of good and rejection of evil, when grounded on experience carefully weighed, justly entitle it to do. They are not on that account less appositely cited as instances of the importance of a knowledge of nature and its laws to our well-being; though, like the great inventions of the mariner’s compass and of gunpowder, they may have stood, in their origin, unconnected with more general views. They are rather to be looked upon as the spontaneous produce of a territory essentially fertile, than as forming part of the succession of harvests which the same bountiful soil, diligently cultivated, is capable of yielding. The history of iodine above related affords, however, a perfect specimen of the manner in which a knowledge of natural properties and laws, collected from facts having no reference to the object to which they have been subsequently applied, enables us to set in array the resources of nature against herself; and deliberately, of afore-thought, to devise remedies against the dangers and inconveniences which beset us. In this view we might instance, too, the _conductor_, which, in countries where thunder-storms are more frequent and violent than in our own, and at sea (where they are attended with peculiar danger, both from the greater probability of accident, and its more terrible consequences when it does occur,) forms a most real and efficient preservative against the effects of lightning[15]:--the _safety-lamp_, which enables us to walk with light and security while surrounded with an atmosphere more explosive than gunpowder:--the _life-boat_, which cannot be sunk, and which offers relief in circumstances of all others the most distressing to humanity, and of which a recent invention promises to extend the principle to ships of the largest class:--the _lighthouse_, with the capital improvements which the lenses of Brewster and Fresnel, and the elegant lamp of lieutenant Drummond, have conferred, and promise yet to confer by their wonderful powers, the one of producing the most intense light yet known, the others of conveying it undispersed to great distances:--the discovery of the disinfectant powers of chlorine, and its application to the destruction of miasma and contagion:--that of _quinine_, the essential principle in which reside the febrifuge qualities of the Peruvian bark, a discovery by which posterity is yet to benefit in its full extent, but which has already begun to diffuse _comparative_ comfort and health through regions almost desolated by pestiferous exhalations[16];--and, if we desist, it is not because the list is exhausted, but because a sample, not a catalogue, is intended.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00122", "bookId": 54897, "start": 92430, "end": 94009, "sha256": "777bd34d18190fb9e8334c7b238b6992e03741ddfcf406340ef5942a5f371aa2", "text": "(46.) One instance more, however, we will add, to illustrate the manner in which a most familiar effect, which seemed destined only to amuse children, or, at best, to furnish a philosophic toy, may become a safeguard of human life, and a remedy for a most serious and distressing evil. In needle manufactories the workmen who point the needles are constantly exposed to excessively minute particles of steel which fly from the grindstones, and mix, though imperceptible to the eye, as the finest dust in the air, and are inhaled with their breath. The effect, though imperceptible on a short exposure, yet, being constantly repeated from day to day, produces a constitutional irritation dependent on the tonic properties of the steel, which is sure to terminate in pulmonary consumption; insomuch, that persons employed in this kind of work used scarcely ever to attain the age of forty years.[17] In vain was it attempted to purify the air before its entry into the lungs by gauzes or linen guards; the dust was too fine and penetrating to be obstructed by such coarse expedients, till some ingenious person bethought him of that wonderful power which every child who searches for its mother’s needle with a magnet, or admires the motions and arrangement of a few steel filings on a sheet of paper held above it, sees in exercise. Masks of magnetized steel wire are now constructed and adapted to the faces of the workmen. By these the air is not merely _strained_ but _searched_ in its passage through them, and each obnoxious atom arrested and removed.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00123", "bookId": 54897, "start": 94013, "end": 95969, "sha256": "c6bf259393437226671aab567dac258854f473a4fcd00d8ca4f9a7a2346e4ea9", "text": "(47.) Perhaps there is no result which places in a stronger light the advantages which are to be derived from a mere knowledge of the _usual order of nature_, without any attempt on our part to modify it, and apart from all consideration of its causes, than the institution of life-assurances. Nothing is more uncertain than the life of a single individual; and it is the sense of this insecurity which has given rise to such institutions. They are, in their nature and objects, the precise reverse of gambling speculations, their object being to equalize vicissitude, and to place the pecuniary relations of numerous masses of mankind, in so far as they extend, on a footing independent of individual casualty. To do this with the greatest possible advantage, or indeed with any advantage at all, it is necessary to know the _laws of mortality_, or the average numbers of individuals, out of a great multitude, who die at every period of life from infancy to extreme old age. At first sight this would seem a hopeless enquiry; to some, perhaps, a presumptuous one. But it has been made; and the result is, that, abating extraordinary causes, such as wars, pestilence, and the like, a remarkable regularity _does_ obtain, quite sufficient to afford grounds not only for general estimations, but for nice calculations of risk and adventure, such as infallibly to insure the success of any such institution founded on good computations; and thus to confer such stability on the fortunes of families dependent on the exertions of one individual as to constitute an important feature in modern civilization. The only thing to be feared in such institutions is their too great multiplication and consequent competition, by which a spirit of gambling and underbidding is liable to be generated among their conductors, and the very mischief may be produced, on a scale of frightful extent, which they are especially intended to prevent.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00124", "bookId": 54897, "start": 95973, "end": 96718, "sha256": "7e9fc7608c3c844611f647ddc13a18420c6c1aa6b857ce0c6c642991d313ebdb", "text": "(48.) We have hitherto considered only cases in which a knowledge of natural laws enables us to improve our condition, by counteracting evils of which, but for its possession, we must have remained forever the helpless victims. Let us now take a similar view of those in which we are enabled to call in nature as an auxiliary to augment our actual power, and capacitate us for undertakings, which without such aid might seem to be hopeless. Now, to this end, it is necessary that we should form a just conception of what those hidden powers of nature _are_, which we can at pleasure call into action;--how far they transcend the measure of human force, and set at naught the efforts not only of individuals but of whole nations of men.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00125", "bookId": 54897, "start": 96722, "end": 97066, "sha256": "92cc958d2d778c08633ad897f39bf83377a73f0054bd560cc4098f9eb61891ad", "text": "(49.) It is well known to modern engineers, that _there is virtue_ in a bushel of coals properly consumed, to raise seventy millions of pounds weight a foot high. This is actually the _average_ effect of an engine at this moment working in Cornwall.[18] Let us pause a moment, and consider what this is equivalent to in matters of practice.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00126", "bookId": 54897, "start": 97070, "end": 97305, "sha256": "3c16ef5e53f5f9f3d33b0c76bd47b22d7f4350f021f7f502809f08ee67b5ef48", "text": "(50.) The ascent of Mont Blanc from the valley of Chamouni is considered, and with justice, as the most toilsome feat that a strong man can execute in two days. The combustion of two pounds of coal would place him on the summit.[19]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00127", "bookId": 54897, "start": 97309, "end": 97655, "sha256": "65fcc55cdb2095a82ba043f9826d9b06da2c0c8aca5f21ece3aecfe4656cd24a", "text": "(51.) The Menai Bridge, one of the most stupendous works of art that has been raised by man in modern ages, consists of a mass of iron, not less than four millions of pounds in weight, suspended at a medium height of about 120 feet above the sea. The consumption of seven bushels of coal would suffice to raise it to the place where it hangs.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00128", "bookId": 54897, "start": 97659, "end": 98044, "sha256": "f6c02e1d1cdd591a8446d211562c4fc7aa8b3e671959a443e7bd1e3daef0c88c", "text": "(52.) The great pyramid of Egypt is composed of granite. It is 700 feet in the side of its base, and 500 in perpendicular height, and stands on eleven acres of ground. Its weight is, therefore, 12,760 millions of pounds, at a medium height of 125 feet; consequently it would be raised by the effort of about 630 chaldrons of coal, a quantity consumed in some founderies in a week.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00129", "bookId": 54897, "start": 98048, "end": 98503, "sha256": "cb2679fd4e1580d7850b18e0284460df087503fbf02eaaef3de3ff38ab8eac48", "text": "(53.) The annual consumption of coal in London is estimated at 1,500,000 chaldrons. The effort of this quantity would suffice to raise a cubical block of marble, 2200 feet in the side, through a space equal to its own height, or to pile one such mountain upon another. The Monte Nuovo, near Pozzuoli, (which was erupted in a single night by volcanic fire,) might have been raised by such an effort, from a depth of 40,000 feet, or about eight miles.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00130", "bookId": 54897, "start": 98507, "end": 98904, "sha256": "50a26847dd8ee0dc433decabc4d6954ed625fddbcd45d08a18abef8809c0dfb0", "text": "(54.) It will be observed, that, in the above statement, the inherent power of fuel is, of necessity, greatly under-rated. It is not pretended by engineers that the economy of fuel is yet pushed to its utmost limit, or that the whole effective power is obtained in any application of fire yet devised; so that were we to say 100 millions instead of 70, we should probably be nearer the truth.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00131", "bookId": 54897, "start": 98908, "end": 100684, "sha256": "c560aea700e7718c0dceec1582b5081c08e031122c74c59c082df446085c0a0f", "text": "(55.) The powers of wind and water, which we are constantly impressing into our service, can scarcely be called latent or hidden, yet it is not fully considered, in general, what they _do_ effect for us. Those who would judge of what advantage may be taken of the wind, for example, even on land (not to speak of navigation), may turn their eyes on Holland. A great portion of the most valuable and populous tract of this country lies much below the level of the sea, and is only preserved from inundation by the maintenance of embankments. Though these suffice to keep out the abrupt influx of the ocean, they cannot oppose that law of nature, by which fluids, in seeking their level, insinuate themselves through the pores and subterraneous channels of a loose sandy soil, and keep the country in a constant state of infiltration from below upwards. To counteract this tendency, as well as to get rid of the rain water, which has no natural outlet, pumps worked by windmills are established in great numbers, on the dams and embankments, which pour out the water, as from a leaky ship, and in effect preserve the country from submersion, by taking advantage of every wind that blows. To drain the Haarlem lake[20] would seem a hopeless project to any speculators but those who had the steam-engine at their command, or had learnt in Holland what might be accomplished by the constant agency of the desultory but unwearied powers of wind. But the Dutch engineer measures his surface, calculates the number of his pumps, and, trusting to time and his experience of the operation of the winds for the success of his undertaking, boldly forms his plans to lay dry the bed of an inland sea, of which those who stand on one shore cannot see the other.[21]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00132", "bookId": 54897, "start": 100688, "end": 101174, "sha256": "745ceb81b0017dcd8b55c395a385c2785abb1dc197b8f6839d8713abd0780054", "text": "(56.) To gunpowder, as a source of mechanical power, it seems hardly necessary to call attention; yet it is only when we endeavour to _confine_ it, that we get a full conception of the immense energy of that astonishing agent. In count Rumford’s experiments, twenty-eight grains of powder confined in a cylindrical space, _which it just filled_, tore asunder a piece of iron which would have resisted a strain of 400,000 lbs.[22], applied at no greater mechanical disadvantage.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00133", "bookId": 54897, "start": 101178, "end": 102102, "sha256": "99eed7b1e3b9eee71ffe7b1930ba8eb7e54b756590d8f089f246eb8cbdf2180d", "text": "(57.) But chemistry furnishes us with means of calling into sudden action forces of a character infinitely more tremendous than that of gunpowder. The terrific violence of the different fulminating compositions is such, that they can only be compared to those untameable animals, whose ferocious strength has hitherto defied all useful management, or rather to spirits evoked by the spells of a magician, manifesting a destructive and unapproachable power, which makes him but too happy to close his book, and break his wand, as the price of escaping: unhurt from the storm he has raised. Such powers are not yet subdued to our purposes, whatever they may hereafter be; but, in the expansive force of gases, liberated slowly and manageably from chemical mixtures, we have a host of inferior, yet still most powerful, energies, capable of being employed in a variety of useful ways, according to emergencies.[23]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00134", "bookId": 54897, "start": 102106, "end": 103502, "sha256": "2dff3875fdb6d52194a248fac2e70f1c5fba9d180a5e704ab3cb274dbf72de9f", "text": "(58.) Such are the forces which nature lends us for the accomplishment of our purposes, and which it is the province of practical Mechanics to teach us to combine and apply in the most advantageous manner; without which the mere command of power would amount to nothing. Practical Mechanics is, in the most pre-eminent sense, a _scientific art_; and it may be truly asserted, that almost all the great combinations of modern mechanism, and many of its refinements and nicer improvements, are creations of pure intellect, grounding its exertion upon a moderate number of very elementary propositions in theoretical mechanics and geometry. On this head we might dwell long, and find ample matter, both for reflection and wonder; but it would require not volumes merely, but libraries, to enumerate and describe the prodigies of ingenuity which have been lavished on every thing connected with machinery and engineering. By these it is that we are enabled to diffuse over the whole earth the productions of any part of it; to fill every corner of it with miracles of art and labour, in exchange for its peculiar commodities; and to concentrate around us, in our dwellings, apparel and utensils, the skill and workmanship not of a few expert individuals, but of all who, in the present and past generations, have contributed their improvements to the processes of our manufactures.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00135", "bookId": 54897, "start": 103506, "end": 105869, "sha256": "68a5548c26d2495111ac6aa9e76184fc8e1a6c70aec32cfc64eb5feeb0d0365a", "text": "(59.) The transformations of chemistry, by which we are enabled to convert the most apparently useless materials into important objects in the arts, are opening up to us every day sources of wealth and convenience of which former ages had no idea, and which have been pure gifts of science to man. Every department of art has felt their influence, and new instances are continually starting forth of the unlimited resources which this wonderful science developes in the most sterile parts of nature. Not to mention the impulse which its progress has given to a host of other sciences, which will come more particularly under consideration in another part of this discourse, what strange and unexpected results has it not brought to light in its application to some of the most common objects! Who, for instance, would have conceived that linen rags were capable of producing _more than their own weight_ of sugar, by the simple agency of one of the cheapest and most abundant acids?[24]--that dry bones could be a magazine of nutriment, capable of preservation for years, and ready to yield up their sustenance in the form best adapted to the support of life, on the application of that powerful agent, steam, which enters so largely into all our processes, or of an acid at once cheap and durable?[25]--that sawdust itself is susceptible of conversion into a substance bearing no remote analogy to bread; and though certainly less palatable than that of flour, yet no way disagreeable, and both wholesome and digestible as well as highly nutritive?[26] What economy, in all processes where chemical agents are employed, is introduced by the exact knowledge of the proportions in which natural elements unite, and their mutual powers of displacing each other! What perfection in all the arts where fire is employed, either in its more violent applications, (as, for instance, in the smelting of metals by the introduction of well adapted fluxes, whereby we obtain the whole produce of the ore in its purest state,) or in its milder forms, as in sugar-refining (the whole modern practice of which depends on a curious and delicate remark of a late eminent scientific chemist on the nice adjustment of temperature at which the crystallization of syrup takes place); and a thousand other arts which it would be tedious to enumerate!", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00136", "bookId": 54897, "start": 105873, "end": 108096, "sha256": "bb1ad3c905cbd982bb820d14f1ba93d0b9862242b25eb1485aa66a3e2943d166", "text": "(60.) Armed with such powers and resources, it is no wonder if the enterprise of man should lead him to form and execute projects which, to one uninformed of their grounds, would seem altogether disproportionate. Were they to have been proposed at once, we should, no doubt, have rejected them as such: but developed, as they have been, in the slow succession of ages, they have only taught us that things regarded impossible in one generation may become easy in the next; and that the power of man over nature is limited only by the one condition, that it must be exercised in conformity with the laws of nature. He must study those laws as he would the disposition of a horse he would ride, or the character of a nation he would govern; and the moment he presumes either to thwart her fundamental rules, or ventures to measure his strength with hers, he is at once rendered severely sensible of his imbecility, and meets the deserved punishment of his rashness and folly. But if, on the other hand, he will consent to use, without abusing, the resources thus abundantly placed at his disposal, and obey that he may command, there seems scarcely any conceivable limit to the degree in which the _average_ physical condition of great masses of mankind may be improved, their wants supplied, and their conveniences and comforts increased. Without adopting such an exaggerated view, as to assert that the meanest inhabitant of a civilized society is superior in physical condition to the lordly savage, whose energy and uncultivated ability gives him a natural predominance over his fellow denizens of the forest,--at least, if we compare like with like, and consider the multitude of human beings who are enabled, in an advanced state of society, to subsist in a degree of comfort and abundance, which at best only a few of the most fortunate in a less civilized state could command, we shall not be at a loss to perceive the principle on which we ought to rest our estimate of the advantages of civilization; and which applies with hardly less force to every degree of it, when contrasted with that next inferior, than to the broad distinction between civilized and barbarous life in general.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00137", "bookId": 54897, "start": 108100, "end": 110256, "sha256": "6bb80041caca54265984ffde06e5cffcbd86d03b14e6524907b0da647143afbe", "text": "(61.) The difference of the degrees in which the individuals of a great community enjoy the good things of life has been a theme of declamation and discontent in all ages; and it is doubtless our paramount duty, in every state of society, to alleviate the pressure of the purely evil part of this distribution as much as possible, and, by all the means we can devise, secure the lower links in the chain of society from dragging in dishonour and wretchedness: but there is a point of view in which the picture is at least materially altered in its expression. In comparing society on its present immense scale, with its infant or less developed state, we must at least take care to enlarge every feature in the same proportion. If, on comparing the _very_ lowest states in civilized and savage life, we admit a difficulty in deciding to which the preference is due, at least in every superior grade we cannot hesitate a moment; and if we institute a similar comparison in every different stage of its progress, we cannot fail to be struck with the rapid _rate of dilatation_ which every degree upward of the scale, so to speak, exhibits, and which, in an estimate of averages, gives an immense preponderance to the present over every former condition of mankind, and, for aught we can see to the contrary, will place succeeding generations in the same degree of superior relation to the present that this holds to those passed away. Or we may put the same proposition in other words, and, admitting the existence of every inferior grade of advantage in a higher state of civilization which subsisted in the preceding, we shall find, first, that, taking state for state, the proportional numbers of those who enjoy the higher degrees of advantage increases with a constantly accelerated rapidity as society advances; and, secondly, that the superior extremity of the scale is constantly enlarging by the addition of new degrees. The condition of a European prince is now as far superior, in the command of real comforts and conveniences, to that of one in the middle ages, as that to the condition of one of his own dependants.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00138", "bookId": 54897, "start": 110260, "end": 111637, "sha256": "5962b7d79970d540fa86e524277d465151be0f054fc447358dfe74ef6559ea32", "text": "(62.) The advantages conferred by the augmentation of our physical resources through the medium of increased knowledge and improved art have this peculiar and remarkable property,--that they are in their nature diffusive, and cannot be enjoyed in any exclusive manner by a few. An eastern despot may extort the riches and monopolize the art of his subjects for his own personal use; he may spread around him an unnatural splendour and luxury, and stand in strange and preposterous contrast with the general penury and discomfort of his people; he may glitter in jewels of gold and raiment of needlework; but the wonders of well contrived and executed manufacture which we use daily, and the comforts which have been invented, tried, and improved upon by thousands, in every form of domestic convenience, and for every ordinary purpose of life, can never be enjoyed by him. To produce a state of things in which the physical advantages of civilized life can exist in a high degree, the stimulus of increasing comforts and constantly elevated desires, must have been felt by millions; since it is not in the power of a few individuals to create that wide demand for useful and ingenious applications, which alone can lead to great and rapid improvements, unless backed by that arising from the speedy diffusion of the same advantages among the mass of mankind.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00139", "bookId": 54897, "start": 111641, "end": 113997, "sha256": "39ce26d7aa543524e917f21a0ac24cde4a7bd92f0aaf06774ff6276f2780e7cb", "text": "(63.) If this be true of physical advantages, it applies with still greater force to intellectual. Knowledge can neither be adequately cultivated nor adequately enjoyed by a few; and although the conditions of our existence on earth may be such as to preclude an abundant supply of the physical necessities of all who may be born, there is no such law of nature in force against that of our intellectual and moral wants. Knowledge is not, like food, destroyed by use, but rather augmented and perfected. It acquires not, perhaps, a greater certainty, but at least a confirmed authority and a probable duration, by universal assent; and there is no body of knowledge so complete, but that it may acquire accession, or so free from error but that it may receive correction in passing through the minds of millions. Those who admire and love knowledge for its own sake ought to wish to see its elements made accessible to all, were it only that they may be the more thoroughly examined into, and more effectually developed in their consequences, and receive that ductility and plastic quality which the pressure of minds of all descriptions, constantly moulding them to their purposes, can alone bestow. But to this end it is necessary that it should be divested, as far as possible, of artificial difficulties, and stripped of all such technicalities as tend to place it in the light of a craft and a mystery, inaccessible without a kind of apprenticeship. Science, of course, like every thing else, has its own peculiar terms, and, so to speak, its idioms of language; and these it would be unwise, were it even possible, to relinquish: but every thing that tends to clothe it in a strange and repulsive garb, and especially every thing that, to keep up an appearance of superiority in its professors over the rest of mankind, assumes an unnecessary guise of profundity and obscurity, should be sacrificed without mercy. Not to do this, is to deliberately reject the light which the natural unencumbered good sense of mankind is capable of throwing on every subject, even in the elucidation of principles: but where principles are to be applied to practical uses it becomes absolutely necessary; as all mankind have then an interest in their being so familiarly understood, that no mistakes shall arise in their application.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00140", "bookId": 54897, "start": 114001, "end": 117106, "sha256": "26ff4f49c997966a2945c0e6665a4e8dd4f9a95cad1abb596304675678c66d20", "text": "(64.) The same remark applies to arts. They cannot be perfected till their whole processes are laid open, and their language simplified and rendered universally intelligible. Art is the application of knowledge to a practical end. If the knowledge be merely accumulated experience, the art is _empirical_; but if it be experience reasoned upon and brought under general principles, it assumes a higher character, and becomes a _scientific art_. In the progress of mankind from barbarism to civilised life, the arts necessarily precede science. The wants and cravings of our animal constitution must be satisfied; the comforts, and some of the luxuries, of life must exist. Something must be given to the vanity of show, and more to the pride of power: the round of baser pleasures must have been tried and found insufficient, before intellectual ones can gain a footing; and when they have obtained it, the delights of poetry and its sister arts still take precedence of contemplative enjoyments, and the severer pursuits of thought; and when these in time begin to charm from their novelty, and sciences begin to arise, they will at first be those of pure speculation. The mind delights to escape from the trammels which had bound it to earth, and luxuriates in its newly found powers. Hence, the abstractions of geometry--the properties of numbers--the movements of the celestial spheres--whatever is abstruse, remote, and extramundane--become the first objects of infant science. Applications come late: the arts continue slowly progressive, but their realm remains separated from that of science by a wide gulf which can only be passed by a powerful spring. They form their own language and their own conventions, which none but artists can understand. The whole tendency of empirical art, is to bury itself in technicalities, and to place its pride in particular short cuts and mysteries known only to adepts; to surprise and astonish by results, but conceal processes. The character of science is the direct contrary. It delights to lay itself open to enquiry, and is not satisfied with its conclusions, till it can make the road to them broad and beaten: and in its applications it preserves the same character; its whole aim being to strip away all technical mystery, to illuminate every dark recess, and to gain free access to all processes, with a view to improve them on rational principles. It would seem that a union of two qualities almost opposite to each other--a going forth of the thoughts in two directions, and a sudden transfer of ideas from a remote station in one to an equally distant one in the other--is required to start the first idea of _applying science_. Among the Greeks, this point was attained by Archimedes, but attained too late, on the eve of that great eclipse of science which was destined to continue for nearly eighteen centuries, till Galileo in Italy, and Bacon in England, at once dispelled the darkness: the one, by his inventions and discoveries; the other, by the irresistible force of his arguments and eloquence.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00141", "bookId": 54897, "start": 117110, "end": 120193, "sha256": "54760fde2cdf9fee31682144907ee98f82c3e9287fc62a0e07a14d48839078f9", "text": "(65.) Finally, the improvement effected in the condition of mankind by advances in physical science as applied to the useful purposes of life, is very far from being limited to their direct consequences in the more abundant supply of our physical wants, and the increase of our comforts. Great as these benefits are, they are yet but steps to others of a still higher kind. The successful results of our experiments and reasonings in natural philosophy, and the incalculable advantages which experience, systematically consulted and dispassionately reasoned on, has conferred in matters purely physical, tend of necessity to impress something of the well weighed and progressive character of science on the more complicated conduct of our social and moral relations. It is thus that legislation and politics become gradually regarded as experimental sciences; and history, not, as formerly, the mere record of tyrannies and slaughters, which, by immortalizing the execrable actions of one age, perpetuates the ambition of committing them in every succeeding one, but as the archive of experiments, successful and unsuccessful, gradually accumulating towards the solution of the grand problem--how the advantages of government are to be secured with the least possible inconvenience to the governed. The celebrated apophthegm, that nations never profit by experience, becomes yearly more and more untrue. Political economy, at least, is found to have sound principles, founded in the moral and physical nature of man, which, however lost sight of in particular measures--however even temporarily controverted and borne down by clamour--have yet a stronger and stronger testimony borne to them in each succeeding generation, by which they must, sooner or later, prevail. The idea once conceived and verified, that great and noble ends are to be achieved, by which the condition of the whole human species shall be permanently bettered, by bringing into exercise a sufficient quantity of sober thought, and by a proper adaptation of means, is of itself sufficient to set us earnestly on reflecting what ends _are_ truly great and noble, either in themselves, or as conducive to others of a still loftier character; because we are not now, as heretofore, hopeless of attaining them. It is not now equally harmless and insignificant, whether we are right or wrong; since we are no longer supinely and helplessly carried down the stream of events, but feel ourselves capable of buffetting at least with its waves, and perhaps of riding triumphantly over them: for why should we despair that the reason which has enabled us to subdue all nature to our purposes, should (if permitted and assisted by the providence of God) achieve a far more difficult conquest; and ultimately find some means of enabling the collective wisdom of mankind to bear down those obstacles which individual short-sightedness, selfishness, and passion, oppose to all improvements, and by which the highest hopes are continually blighted, and the fairest prospects marred.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00142", "bookId": 54897, "start": 120235, "end": 120243, "sha256": "1f1fb02ae92f2396a1b6d1e85ed77e4081e1fc553c1d6fc9c1610a82f7a06209", "text": "PART II.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00143", "bookId": 54897, "start": 120249, "end": 120510, "sha256": "a451b1f293634916c8db673f7abd7e87348a404fcdbc90d375f5e1242dd26a36", "text": "OF THE PRINCIPLES ON WHICH PHYSICAL SCIENCE RELIES FOR ITS SUCCESSFUL PROSECUTION, AND THE RULES BY WHICH A SYSTEMATIC EXAMINATION OF NATURE SHOULD BE CONDUCTED, WITH ILLUSTRATIONS OF THEIR INFLUENCE AS EXEMPLIFIED IN THE HISTORY OF ITS PROGRESS.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00144", "bookId": 54897, "start": 120520, "end": 120530, "sha256": "d0ed1fd816333f29aabbca20f2a33087bb8f87c3785f4215402429274a4c314e", "text": "CHAPTER I.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00145", "bookId": 54897, "start": 120536, "end": 120651, "sha256": "ac43ad2b540a9e111607b1d8322d04548a7be1cf93946036d8d2a3d4c64f8056", "text": "OF EXPERIENCE AS THE SOURCE OF OUR KNOWLEDGE.--OF THE DISMISSAL OF PREJUDICES.--OF THE EVIDENCE OF OUR SENSES.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00146", "bookId": 54897, "start": 120657, "end": 122232, "sha256": "c7c8c0ff0603ee51bd75330278308fd3b8111028cc3c3267beb892793d410d82", "text": "(66.) Into abstract science, as we have before observed, the notion of cause does not enter. The truths it is conversant with are _necessary_ ones, and exist independent of cause. There may be no such real _thing_ as a right-lined triangle marked out in space; but the moment we conceive one in our minds, we cannot refuse to admit the sum of its three angles to be equal to two right angles; and if in addition we conceive one of its angles to be a right angle, we cannot thenceforth refuse to admit that the sum of the squares on the two sides, including the right angle, is equal to the square on the side subtending it. To maintain the contrary, would be, in effect, to deny its being right angled. No one _causes_ or _makes_ all the diameters of an ellipse to be bisected in its centre. To assert the contrary, would not be to rebel against a power, but to deny our own words. But in natural science _cause_ and _effect_ are the ultimate relations we contemplate; and _laws_, whether imposed or maintained, which, for aught we can perceive, might have been other than they are. This distinction is very important. A clever man, shut up alone and allowed unlimited time, might reason out for himself all the truths of mathematics, by proceeding from those simple notions of space and number of which he cannot divest himself without ceasing to think. But he could never tell, by any effort of reasoning, what would become of a lump of sugar if immersed in water, or what impression would be produced on his eye by mixing the colours yellow and blue.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00147", "bookId": 54897, "start": 122236, "end": 127683, "sha256": "d888b19f2074a6989cdc3e99d613811afb5bc8352b3b8d96f194d5207b182a51", "text": "(67.) We have thus pointed out to us, as the great, and indeed only ultimate source of our knowledge of nature and its laws, EXPERIENCE; by which we mean, not the experience of one man only, or of one generation, but the accumulated experience of all mankind in all ages, registered in books or recorded by tradition. But experience may be acquired in two ways: either, first, by noticing facts as they occur, without any attempt to influence the frequency of their occurrence, or to vary the circumstances under which they occur; this is OBSERVATION: or, secondly, by putting in action causes and agents over which we have control, and purposely varying their combinations, and noticing what effects take place; this is EXPERIMENT. To these two sources we must look as the fountains of all natural science. It is not intended, however, by thus distinguishing observation from experiment, to place them in any kind of contrast. Essentially they are much alike, and differ rather in degree than in kind; so that, perhaps, the terms _passive_ and _active observation_ might better express their distinction; but it is, nevertheless, highly important to mark the different states of mind in inquiries carried on by their respective aids, as well as their different effects in promoting the progress of science. In the former, we sit still and listen to a tale, told us, perhaps obscurely, piecemeal, and at long intervals of time, with our attention more or less awake. It is only by after-rumination that we gather its full import; and often, when the opportunity is gone by, we have to regret that our attention was not more particularly directed to some point which, at the time, appeared of little moment, but of which we at length appretiate the importance. In the latter, on the other hand, we cross-examine our witness, and by comparing one part of his evidence with the other, while he is yet before us, and reasoning upon it in his presence, are enabled to put pointed and searching questions, the answer to which may at once enable us to make up our minds. Accordingly it has been found invariably, that in those departments of physics where the phenomena are beyond our control, or into which experimental enquiry, from other causes, has not been carried, the progress of knowledge has been slow, uncertain, and irregular; while in such as admit of experiment, and in which mankind have agreed to its adoption, it has been rapid, sure, and steady. For example, in our knowledge of the nature and causes of volcanoes, earthquakes, the fall of stones from the sky, the appearance of new stars and disappearance of old ones, and other of those great phenomena of nature which are altogether beyond our command, and at the same time are of too rare occurrence to permit any one to repeat and rectify his impressions respecting them, we know little more now than in the earliest times. Here our tale is told us slowly, and in broken sentences. In astronomy, again, we have at least an uninterrupted narrative; the opportunity of observation is constantly present, and makes up in some measure for the impossibility of varying our point of view, and calling for information at the precise moment it is wanted. Accordingly, astronomy, regarded as a science of mere observation, arrived, though by very slow degrees, to a state of considerable maturity. But the moment that it became a branch of mechanics, a science essentially experimental, (that is to say, one in which any principle laid down can be subjected to immediate and decisive _trial_, and where experience does not require to be waited for,) its progress suddenly acquired a tenfold acceleration; nay, to such a degree, that it has been asserted, and we believe with truth, that were the records of all observations from the earliest ages annihilated, leaving only those made in a single observatory[27], during a single lifetime[28], the whole of this most perfect of sciences might, from those data, and as to the objects included in them, be at once reconstructed, and appear precisely as it stood at their conclusion. To take another instance: mineralogy, till modern times, could hardly be said to exist. The description of even the precious stones in Theophrastus and Pliny are, in most cases, hardly sufficient to identify them, and in many fall short even of that humble object; more recent observers, by attending more carefully to the obvious characters of minerals, had formed a pretty extensive catalogue of them, and made various attempts to arrange and methodize the knowledge thus acquired, and even to deduce some general conclusions respecting the forms they habitually assume: but from the moment that chemical analysis was applied to resolve them into their constituent elements, and that, led by a happy accident, the genius of Bergmann discovered the general fact, that they could be _cloven_ or split in such directions as to lay bare their peculiar primitive or fundamental forms, (which lay concealed within them, as the statue might be conceived encrusted in its marble envelope,)--from that moment, mineralogy ceased to be an unmeaning list of names, a mere laborious cataloguing of stones and rubbish, and became, what it now is, a regular, methodical, and most important science, in which every year is bringing to light new relations, new laws, and new practical applications.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00148", "bookId": 54897, "start": 127687, "end": 128835, "sha256": "858193bfcc87e43b96833750901fe45b3dbf75ffac5dc269ed50a1a246d71dd7", "text": "(68.) Experience once recognized as the fountain of all our knowledge of nature, it follows that, in the study of nature and its laws, we ought at once to make up our minds to dismiss as idle prejudices, or at least suspend as premature, any preconceived notion of what might or what ought to be the order of nature in any proposed case, and content ourselves with observing, as a plain matter of fact, what _is_. To experience we refer, as the only ground of all physical enquiry. But before experience itself can be used with advantage, there is one preliminary step to make, which depends wholly on ourselves: it is the absolute dismissal and clearing the mind of all prejudice, from whatever source arising, and the determination to stand and fall by the result of a direct appeal to facts in the first instance, and of strict logical deduction from them afterwards. Now, it is necessary to distinguish between two kinds of prejudices, which exercise very different dominion over the mind, and, moreover, differ extremely in the difficulty of dispossessing them, and the process to be gone through for that purpose. These are,--", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00149", "bookId": 54897, "start": 128841, "end": 128893, "sha256": "45131fd50d29d435a00ee81f4c8a446f708060d6297f7b9b4500fed89bd443f7", "text": "1. Prejudices of opinion. 2. Prejudices of sense.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00150", "bookId": 54897, "start": 128897, "end": 129485, "sha256": "416804207f5912a7f09515ee7eac5b878189045e7103e1486e0ea03db85d2c25", "text": "(69.) By prejudices of opinion, we mean opinions hastily taken up, either from the assertion of others, from our own superficial views, or from vulgar observation, and which, from being constantly admitted without dispute, have obtained the strong hold of habit on our minds. Such were the opinions once maintained that the earth is the greatest body in the universe, and placed immovable in its centre, and all the rest of the universe created for its sole use; that it is the nature of fire and of sounds to ascend; that the moonlight is cold; that dews _fall_ from the air, &c.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00151", "bookId": 54897, "start": 129489, "end": 130530, "sha256": "5e84fd1f7d53357012401ecd12dbd12b4d102e7b46646739234381b5b2230243", "text": "(70.) To combat and destroy such prejudices we may proceed in two ways, either by demonstrating the falsehood of the facts alleged in their support, or by showing how the appearances, which seem to countenance them, are more satisfactorily accounted for without their admission. But it is unfortunately the nature of prejudices of opinion to adhere, in a certain degree, to every mind, and to some with pertinacious obstinacy, _pigris radicibus_, after all ground for their reasonable entertainment is destroyed. Against such a disposition the student of natural science must contend with all his power. Not that we are so unreasonable as to demand of him an instant and peremptory dismission of all his former opinions and judgments; all we require is, that he will hold them without bigotry, retain till he shall see reason to question them, and be ready to resign them when fairly proved untenable, and to doubt them when the weight of probability is shown to lie against them. If he refuse this, he is incapable of science.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00152", "bookId": 54897, "start": 130534, "end": 132311, "sha256": "62906a1f746146a622f1aa1b634bcd546baf5c5d6ec602d5e53d5d2a8ae7638e", "text": "(71.) Our resistance against the destruction of the other class of prejudices, those of sense, is commonly more violent at first, but less persistent, than in the case of those of opinion. Not to trust the evidence of our senses, seems, indeed, a hard condition, and one which, if proposed, none would comply with. But it is not the direct evidence of our senses that we are in any case called upon to reject, but only the erroneous judgments we unconsciously form from them, and this only when they can be shown to be so _by counter evidence of the same sort_; when one sense is brought to testify against another, for instance; or the same sense against itself, and the obvious conclusions in the two cases disagree, so as to compel us to acknowledge that one or other must be wrong. For example, nothing at first can seem a more rational, obvious, and incontrovertible conclusion, than that the _colour_ of an object is an inherent quality, like its weight, hardness, &c. and that to _see_ the object, and see it _of its own colour_, when nothing intervenes between our eyes and it, are one and the same thing. Yet this is only a prejudice; and that it is so, is shown by bringing forward the same sense of vision which led to its adoption, as evidence on the other side; for, when the differently coloured prismatic rays are thrown, in a dark room, in succession upon any object, whatever be the colour we are in the habit of calling its own, it will appear of the particular hue of the light which falls upon it: a yellow paper, for instance, will appear scarlet when illuminated by red rays, yellow when by yellow, green by green, and blue by blue rays; its own (so called) proper colour _not in the least degree mixing with that it so exhibits_.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00153", "bookId": 54897, "start": 132315, "end": 133755, "sha256": "9739aca2c096f00e4b4505ca59796893f270b9cfa45dcba47874d1ebac86ec61", "text": "(72.) To give one or two more examples of the kind of illusion which the senses practise on us, or rather which we practise on ourselves, by a misinterpretation of their evidence: the moon at its rising and setting appears much larger than when high up in the sky. This is, however, a mere erroneous judgment; for when we come to measure its diameter, so far from finding our conclusion borne out by fact, we actually find it to measure materially less. Here is eyesight opposed to eyesight, with the advantage of deliberate measurement. In ventriloquism we have the hearing at variance with all the other senses, and especially with the sight, which is sometimes contradicted by it in a very extraordinary and surprising manner, as when the voice is made to seem to issue from an inanimate and motionless object. If we plunge our hands, one into ice-cold water, and the other into water as hot as can be borne, and, after letting them stay awhile, suddenly transfer them both to a vessel full of water at a blood heat, the one will feel a sensation of heat, the other of cold. And if we cross the two first fingers of one hand, and place a pea in the fork between them, moving and rolling it about on a table, we shall (especially if we close our eyes) be fully persuaded we have two peas. If the nose be held while we are eating cinnamon, we shall perceive no difference between its flavour and that of a deal shaving.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00154", "bookId": 54897, "start": 133759, "end": 134608, "sha256": "6fc18da1395228e32c255b8df3e511ae8abb402e55ab9f6659f36673f6904a88", "text": "(73.) These, and innumerable instances we might cite, will convince us, that though we are never deceived in the _sensible impression_ made by external objects on us, yet in forming our judgments of them we are greatly at the mercy of circumstances, which either modify the impressions actually received, or combine them with adjuncts which have become habitually associated with different judgments; and, therefore, that, in estimating the degree of confidence we are to place in our conclusions, we must, of necessity, take into account these modifying or accompanying circumstances, whatever they may be. We do not, of course, here speak of deranged organization; such as, for instance, a distortion of the eye, producing double vision, and still less of mental delusion, which absolutely perverts the meaning of sensible impressions.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00155", "bookId": 54897, "start": 134612, "end": 135524, "sha256": "7e93d9a2a544b8cc79a47912720958a91a282cea7bff8cc38f70b0388751a730", "text": "(74.) As the mind exists not in the place of sensible objects, and is not brought into immediate relation with them, we can only regard sensible impressions as signals conveyed from them by a wonderful, and, to us, inexplicable mechanism, to our minds, which receives and reviews them, and, by habit and association, connects them with corresponding qualities or affections in the objects; just as a person writing down and comparing the signals of a telegraph might interpret their meaning. As, for instance, if he had constantly observed that the exhibition of a certain signal was sure to be followed next day by the announcement of the arrival of a ship at Portsmouth, he would connect the two facts by a link of the very same nature with that which connects the notion of a large wooden building, filled with sailors, with the impression of her outline on the retina of a spectator on the beach.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00156", "bookId": 54897, "start": 135528, "end": 136331, "sha256": "a7e0da1db6f7b2ec33602bd78ca41827206ae5df2d570872f9b9cf94843c3bf4", "text": "(75.) In captain Head’s amusing and vivid description of his journey across the Pampas of South America occurs an anecdote quite in point. His guide one day suddenly stopped him, and, pointing high into the air, cried out, “A lion!” Surprised at such an exclamation, accompanied with such an act, he turned up his eyes, and with difficulty perceived, at an immeasurable height, a flight of condors soaring in circles in a particular spot. Beneath that spot, far out of sight of himself or guide, lay the carcass of a horse, and over that carcass stood (as the guide well knew) the lion, whom the condors were eyeing with envy from their airy height. The signal of the birds was to him what the sight of the lion alone could have been to the traveller, a full assurance of its existence.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00157", "bookId": 54897, "start": 136341, "end": 136350, "sha256": "020a82a04daaea925a0d7566d6b21a4a97b8b79f92a54de9a486420c33118289", "text": "CHAP. II.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00158", "bookId": 54897, "start": 136354, "end": 136382, "sha256": "5e7efecddabba36a625e06c133a6c8ab3c0c02a754e341b3174ff869a917f5b0", "text": "OF THE ANALYSIS OF PHENOMENA", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00159", "bookId": 54897, "start": 136388, "end": 138312, "sha256": "9942fc5d4328a7a88ea0b2468fa0d5b66d661f7a7fa57c10072da227e5550284", "text": "(76.) _Phenomena_, then, or appearances, as the word is literally rendered, are the sensible results of processes and operations carried on among external objects, or their constituent principles, of which they are only signals, conveyed to our minds as aforesaid. Now, these processes themselves may be in many instances rendered _sensible_; that is to say, analysed, and shown to consist in the motions or other affections of sensible objects themselves. For instance, the phenomenon of the sound produced by a musical string, or a bell, when struck, may be shown to be the result of a process consisting in the rapid vibratory motion of its parts communicated to the air, and thence to our ears; though the immediate effect on our organs of hearing does not excite the least idea of such a motion. On the other hand, there are innumerable instances of sensible impressions which (at least at present) we are incapable of tracing beyond the mere sensation; for example, in the sensations of bitterness, sweetness, &c. These, accordingly, if we were inclined to form hasty decisions, might be regarded as ultimate qualities; but the instance of sounds, just adduced, alone would teach us caution in such decisions, and incline us to believe them mere results of some secret process going on in our organs of taste, which is too subtle for us to trace. A simple experiment will serve to set this in a clearer light. A solution of the salt called by chemists _nitrate of silver_, and another of the _hyposulphite of soda_, have each of them separately, when taken into the mouth, a disgustingly bitter taste; but if they be mixed, or if one be tasted before the mouth is thoroughly cleared of the other, the sensible impression is that of intense sweetness. Again, the salt called _tungstate of soda_ when first tasted is sweet, but speedily changes to an intense and pure bitter, like quassia.[29]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00160", "bookId": 54897, "start": 138316, "end": 140758, "sha256": "385da2670a7041b877d242f72617fc792caa8a5039c1f847d40f5936ed8de21e", "text": "(77.) How far we may ever be enabled to attain a knowledge of the ultimate and inward processes of nature in the production of phenomena, we have no means of knowing; but, to judge from the degree of obscurity which hangs about the only case in which we feel within ourselves a _direct_ power to produce any one, there seems no great hope of penetrating so far. The case alluded to is the production of motion by the exertion of force. We are conscious of a power to move our limbs, and by their intervention other bodies; and that this effect is the result of a certain inexplicable process which we are aware of, but can no way describe in words, by which we exert _force_. And even when such exertion produces no visible effect, (as when we press our two hands violently together, so as just to oppose each other’s effort,) we still perceive, by the fatigue and exhaustion, and by the impossibility of maintaining the effort long, that something is going on within us, of which the mind is the agent, and the will the determining cause. This impression which we receive of the nature of force, from our own effort and our sense of fatigue, is quite different from that which we obtain of it from seeing the effect of force exerted by others in producing _motion_. Were there no such thing as motion, had we been from infancy shut up in a dark dungeon, and every limb encrusted with plaster, this internal consciousness would give us a complete idea of _force_; but when set at liberty, habit alone would enable us to recognize its exertion by its _signal_, motion, and _that_ only by finding that the same action of the mind which in our confined state enables us to fatigue and exhaust ourselves by the tension of our muscles, puts it in our power, when at liberty, to move ourselves and other bodies. But how obscure is our knowledge of the process going on within us in the exercise of this important privilege, in virtue of which alone we act as direct _causes_, we may judge from this, that when we put any limb in motion, the seat of the exertion seems to us to be _in_ the limb, whereas it is demonstrably no such thing, but either in the brain or in the spinal marrow; the proof of which is, that if a little fibre, called a nerve, which forms a communication between the limb and the brain, or spine, be divided in any part of its course, however we may make the effort, the limb will not move.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00161", "bookId": 54897, "start": 140762, "end": 141809, "sha256": "8624c01e8d7ba45ee703fabb3c1b4cd076178af2847a882c8126da77ad0b19f2", "text": "(78.) This one instance of the obscurity which hangs about the only act of direct _causation_ of which we have an immediate consciousness, will suffice to show how little prospect there is that, in our investigation of nature, we shall ever be able to arrive at a knowledge of ultimate causes, and will teach us to limit our views to that of _laws_, and to the analysis of complex phenomena by which they are resolved into simpler ones, which, appearing to us incapable of further analysis, we must consent to regard as causes. Nor let any one complain of this as a limitation of his faculties. We have here “ample room and verge enough” for the full exercise of all the powers we possess; and, besides, it does so happen, that we are actually able to trace up a very large portion of the phenomena of the universe to this one _cause_, viz. the exertion of mechanical _force_; indeed, so large a portion, that it has been made a matter of speculation whether this is not the only one that is capable of acting on material beings.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00162", "bookId": 54897, "start": 141813, "end": 143854, "sha256": "07008138273c49e168c06d8dcb395f4df874e8a77503cb8bf52e73ab878da2dd", "text": "(79.) What we mean by the analysis of complex phenomena into simpler ones, will best be understood by an instance. Let us, therefore, take the phenomenon of sound, and, by considering the various cases in which sounds of all kinds are produced, we shall find that they all agree in these points:--1st, The excitement of a motion in the sounding body. 2dly, The communication of this motion to the air or other intermedium which is interposed between the sounding body and our ears. 3dly, The propagation of such motion from particle to particle of such intermedium in due succession. 4thly, Its communication, from the particles of the intermedium adjacent to the ear, to the ear itself. 5thly, Its conveyance in the ear, by a certain mechanism, to the auditory nerves. 6thly, The excitement of sensation. Now, in this analysis, we perceive that two principal matters must be understood, before we can have a true and complete knowledge of sound:--1st, The excitement and propagation of motion. 2dly, The production of sensation. These, then, are two other phenomena, of a simpler, or, it would be more correct to say, of a more general or elementary order, into which the complex phenomenon of sound resolves itself. But again, if we consider the communication of motion from body to body, or from one part to another of the same, we shall perceive that it is again resolvable into several other phenomena. 1st, The original setting in motion of a material body, or any part of one. 2dly, The behaviour of a particle set in motion, when it meets another lying in its way, or is otherwise impeded or influenced by its connection with surrounding particles. 3dly, The behaviour of the particles so impeding or influencing it under such circumstances; besides which, the last two point out another phenomenon, which it is necessary also to consider, viz. the phenomenon of the connection of the parts of material bodies in masses, by which they form aggregates, and are enabled to influence each other’s motions.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00163", "bookId": 54897, "start": 143858, "end": 145331, "sha256": "9aa42ccf528492df366ea192329dfae15e0f7f3d629c3efdf24692b739b9ee10", "text": "(80.) Thus, then, we see that an analysis of the phenomenon of sound leads to the enquiry, 1st, of two _causes_, viz. the cause of motion, and the cause of sensation, these being phenomena which (at least as human knowledge stands at present) we are unable to analyse further; and, therefore, we set them down as simple, elementary, and referable, for any thing we can see to the contrary, to the immediate action of their causes. 2dly, Of several questions relating to the connection between the motion of material bodies and its cause, such as, _What will happen_ when a moving body is surrounded on all sides by others not in motion? _What will happen_ when a body not in motion is advanced upon by a moving one? It is evident that the answers to such questions as these can be no other than _laws of motion_, in the sense we have above attributed to laws of nature, viz. a statement in words of what will happen in such and such proposed general contingencies. Lastly, we are led, by pursuing the analysis, and considering the phenomenon of the aggregation of the parts of material bodies, and the way in which they influence each other, to two other general phenomena, viz., the cohesion and elasticity of matter; and these we have no means of analysing further, and must, therefore, regard them (till we see reasons to the contrary) as _ultimate phenomena_, and referable to the direct action of causes, viz. an attractive and a repulsive _force_.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00164", "bookId": 54897, "start": 145335, "end": 146286, "sha256": "748e2ee74c0b112f0a0b34d6ed433b165c17a73e404b8984ab12747d2602dcd8", "text": "(81.) Of force, as counterbalanced by opposing force, we have, as already said, an internal consciousness; and though it may seem strange to us that matter should be capable of exerting on matter the same kind of effort, which, judging alone from this consciousness, we might be led to regard as a mental one; yet we cannot refuse the direct evidence of our senses, which shows us that when we keep a spring stretched with one hand, we feel our effort opposed exactly in the same way as if we had ourselves opposed it with the other hand, or as it would be by that of another person. The enquiry, therefore, into the aggregation of matter resolves itself into the general question, What will be the behaviour of material particles under the mutual action of opposing forces capable of counterbalancing each other? and the answer to this question can be no other than the announcement of the _law_ of equilibrium, whatever law that may be.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00165", "bookId": 54897, "start": 146290, "end": 147237, "sha256": "ce577e94cc405371bec2ee9449df31c630887571820389db2212822759bb70ed", "text": "(82.) With regard to the cause of sensation, it must be regarded as much more obscure than that of motion, inasmuch as we have no conscious knowledge of it, _i. e._ we have no power, by any act of our minds and will, to call up a sensation. It is true, we are not destitute of an approach to it, since, by an effort of memory and imagination, we can produce in our minds an impression, or idea, of a sensation which, in peculiar cases, may even approach in vividness to actual reality. In dreams, too, and, in some cases of disordered nerves, we have sensations without objects. But if force, as a cause of motion, is obscure to us, even while we are in the act of exercising it, how much more so is this other cause, whose exercise we can only imitate imperfectly by any voluntary act, and of whose purely internal action we are only fully conscious when in a state that incapacitates us from reasoning, and almost from observation!", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00166", "bookId": 54897, "start": 147241, "end": 148994, "sha256": "1f3c27050b87fc7d5a84591fc57f49e2a052f83114c2bb59640257479694f4c4", "text": "(83.) Dismissing, then, as beyond our reach, the enquiry into causes, we must be content at present to concentrate our attention on the laws which prevail among phenomena, and which seem to be their immediate results. From the instance we have just given, we may perceive that every enquiry into the intimate nature of a complex phenomenon branches out into as many different and distinct enquiries as there are simple or elementary phenomena into which it may be analysed; and that, therefore, it would greatly assist us in our study of nature, if we could, by any means, ascertain what _are_ the ultimate phenomena into which all the composite ones presented by it may be resolved. There is, however, clearly no way by which this can be ascertained _à priori_. We must go to nature itself, and be guided by the same kind of rule as the chemist in his analysis, who accounts every ingredient an _element_ till it can be decompounded and resolved into others. So, in natural philosophy, we must account every phenomenon an elementary or simple one till we can analyse it, and show that it is the result of others, which in their turn become elementary. Thus, in a modified and relative sense, we may still continue to speak of causes, not intending thereby those ultimate principles of action on whose exertion the whole frame of nature depends, but of those proximate links which connect phenomena with others of a simpler, higher, and more general or elementary kind. For example: we may regard the vibration of a musical string as the proximate cause of the sound it yields, receiving it, so far, as an ultimate fact, and waving or deferring enquiry into the cause of vibrations, which is of a higher and more general nature.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00167", "bookId": 54897, "start": 148998, "end": 150210, "sha256": "560ef2abb67e3587e6b71876f8e6f318d9d28ee59a60487db35fdce11c1b8be1", "text": "(84.) Moreover, as in chemistry we are sometimes compelled to acknowledge the existence of elements different from those already identified and known, though we cannot insulate them, and to perceive that substances have the characters of compounds, and must therefore be susceptible of analysis, though we do not see how it is to be set about; so, in physics, we may perceive the complexity of a phenomenon, without being able to perform its analysis. For example: in magnetism, the agency of electricity is clearly made out, and they are shown to stand to one another in the relation of effect and cause. But the analysis of magnetism, in its relation to particular metals, is not yet quite satisfactorily performed; and we are compelled to admit the existence of some cause, whether proximate or ultimate, whose presence in different metals, or in different states of the same metal, determines that peculiar electric condition which constitutes permanent magnetism. Cases like these, of all which science presents, offer the highest interest. They excite enquiry, like the near approach to the solution of an enigma; they show us that there is light, could only a certain veil be drawn aside.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00168", "bookId": 54897, "start": 150214, "end": 152332, "sha256": "7793b8a5ffb2d26fe5795753803749531dc74593ec183e5338c002595bc37f4b", "text": "(85.) In pursuing the analysis of any phenomenon, the moment we find ourselves stopped by one of which we perceive no analysis, and which, therefore, we are forced to refer (at least provisionally) to the class of ultimate facts, and to regard as elementary, the study of that phenomenon and of its laws becomes a separate branch of science. If we encounter the same elementary phenomenon in the analysis of several composite ones, it becomes still more interesting, and assumes additional importance; while at the same time we acquire information respecting the phenomenon itself, by observing those with which it is habitually associated, that may help us at length to its analysis. It is thus that sciences increase, and acquire a mutual relation and dependency. It is thus, too, that we are at length enabled to trace parallels and analogies between great branches of science themselves, which at length terminate in a perception of their dependence on some common phenomenon of a more general and elementary nature than that which form the subject of either separately. It was thus, for example, that, previous to Oërsted’s great discovery of electro-magnetism, a general resemblance between the two sciences of electricity and magnetism was recognised, and many of the chief phenomena in each were ascertained to have their parallels, _mutatis mutandis_, in the other. It was thus, too, that an analogy subsisting between sound and light has been gradually traced into a closeness of agreement, which can hardly leave any reasonable doubt of their ultimate coincidence in one common phenomenon, the vibratory motion of an elastic medium. If it be allowed to pursue our illustration from chemistry, and to ground its application not on what has been, but on what may one day be, done, it is thus that the general family resemblance between certain groups of bodies, now regarded as elementary, (as nickel and cobalt, for instance, chlorine, iode, and brome,) will, perhaps, lead us hereafter to perceive relations between them of a more intimate kind than we can at present trace.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00169", "bookId": 54897, "start": 152336, "end": 154096, "sha256": "2ee0538a51047d258bf5ca3f6841b93c17d859ea457d3f3fc755bcc39884a4fe", "text": "(86.) On those phenomena which are most frequently encountered in an analysis of nature and which most decidedly resist further decomposition, it is evident that the greatest pains and attention ought to be bestowed, not only because they furnish a key to the greatest number of enquiries, and serve to group and classify together the greatest range of phenomena, but by reason of their higher nature, and because it is in these that we must look for the direct action of causes, and the most extensive and general enunciation of the laws of nature. These, once discovered, place in our power the explanation of all particular facts, and become grounds of reasoning, independent of particular trial: thus playing the same part in natural philosophy that axioms do in geometry; containing, in a refined and condensed state, and as it were in a quintessence, all that our reason has occasion to draw from experience to enable it to follow out the truths of physics by the mere application of logical argument. Indeed, the axioms of geometry themselves may be regarded as in some sort an appeal to experience, not corporeal, but mental. When we say, the whole is greater than its part, we announce a general fact, which rests, it is true, on our ideas of whole and part; but, in abstracting these notions, we begin by considering them as subsisting in space, and time, and body, and again, in linear, and superficial, and solid space. Again, when we say, the equals of equals are equal, we mentally make comparisons, in equal spaces, equal times, &c.; so that these axioms, however self-evident, are still general propositions so far of the inductive kind, that, independently of experience, they would not present themselves to the mind.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00170", "bookId": 54897, "start": 154100, "end": 154554, "sha256": "e2a54df256a9916d1ecbad7946853cbe7ca61763626be1f1c205c0678d731f0d", "text": "The only difference between these and axioms obtained from extensive induction is this, that, in raising the axioms of geometry, the instances offer themselves spontaneously, and without the trouble of search, and are few and simple; in raising those of nature, they are infinitely numerous, complicated, and remote; so that the most diligent research and the utmost acuteness are required to unravel their web, and place their meaning in evidence.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00171", "bookId": 54897, "start": 154558, "end": 155525, "sha256": "e0184b6e097f795bf73c69fe133e0a971c6504fdc6c3d832f21ccffc2247a37e", "text": "(87.) By far the most general phenomenon with which we are acquainted, and that which occurs most constantly, in every enquiry into which we enter, is motion, and its communication. Dynamics, then, or the science of force and motion, is thus placed at the head of all the sciences; and, happily for human knowledge, it is one in which the highest certainty is attainable, a certainty no way inferior to mathematical demonstration. As its axioms are few, simple, and in the highest degree distinct and definite, so they have at the same time an immediate relation to geometrical quantity, space, time, and direction, and thus accommodate themselves with remarkable facility to geometrical reasoning. Accordingly, their consequences may be pursued, by arguments purely mathematical, to any extent, insomuch that the limit of our knowledge of dynamics is determined only by that of pure mathematics, which is the case in no other branch of physical science.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00172", "bookId": 54897, "start": 155529, "end": 158293, "sha256": "0e7c021967801f38601131baf817e1c3b7f340b85f83236dc83110ca7b81951b", "text": "(88.) But, it will now be asked, how we are to proceed to analyse a composite phenomenon into simpler ones, and whether any general rules can be given for this important process? We answer, None; any more than (to pursue the illustration we have already had recourse to) general rules can be laid down by the chemist for the analysis of substances of which all the ingredients are unknown. Such rules, could they be discovered, would include the whole of natural science; but we are very far, indeed, from being able to propound them. However, we are to recollect that the analysis of phenomena, philosophically speaking, is principally useful, as it enables us to recognize, and mark for special investigation, those which appear to us simple; to set methodically about determining their laws, and thus to facilitate the work of raising up general axioms, or forms of words, which shall include the whole of them; which shall, as it were, transplant them out of the external into the intellectual world, render them creatures of pure thought, and enable us to reason them out _à priori_. And what renders the power of doing this so eminently desirable is, that, in thus reasoning back from generals to particulars, the propositions at which we arrive apply to an immense multitude of combinations and cases, which were never individually contemplated in the mental process by which our axioms were first discovered; and that, consequently, when our reasonings are pushed to the utmost limit of particularity, their results appear in the form of _individual facts_, of which we might have had no knowledge from immediate experience; and thus we are not only furnished with the explanation of all known facts, but with the actual discovery of such as were before unknown. A remarkable example of this has already been mentioned in Fresnel’s _à priori_ discovery of the extraordinary refraction of both rays in a doubly refracting medium. To give another example:--The law of gravitation is a physical axiom of a very high and universal kind, and has been raised by a succession of inductions and abstractions drawn from the observation of numerous facts and subordinate laws in the planetary system. When this law is taken for granted, and laid down as a basis of reasoning, and applied to the actual condition of our own planet, one of the consequences to which it leads is, that the earth, instead of being an exact sphere, must be compressed or flattened in the direction of its polar diameter, the one diameter being about thirty miles shorter than the other; and this conclusion, deduced at first by mere reasoning, has been since found to be true in fact. All astronomical predictions are examples of the same thing.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00173", "bookId": 54897, "start": 158297, "end": 159321, "sha256": "7477e7702052e7d3e0d396d4b5ad0c10d0cbe4175dd502c8417fded208947ab6", "text": "(89.) In the important business of raising these axioms of nature, we are not, as in the analysis of phenomena, left wholly without a guide. The nature of abstract or general reasoning points out in a great measure the course we must pursue. A law of nature, being the statement of what will happen in certain general contingencies, may be regarded as the announcement, in the same words, of a whole group or class of phenomena. Whenever, therefore, we perceive that two or more phenomena agree in so many or so remarkable points, as to lead us to regard them as forming a class or group, if we lay out of consideration, or _abstract_, all the circumstances in which they disagree, and retain in our minds those only in which they agree, and then, under this kind of mental convention, frame a definition or statement of one of them, in such words that it shall apply equally to them all, such statement will appear in the form of a general proposition, having so far at least the character of a law of nature.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00174", "bookId": 54897, "start": 159325, "end": 161703, "sha256": "01b047a6743601737d73ff43711827bf98618e2524c76c7f920106f3b7762d48", "text": "(90.) For example: a great number of transparent substances, when exposed, in a certain particular manner, to a beam of light which has been prepared by undergoing certain reflexions or refractions, (and has thereby acquired peculiar properties, and is said to be “_polarized_,”) exhibit very vivid and beautiful colours, disposed in streaks, bands, &c. of great regularity, which seem to arise within the substance, and which, from a certain regular succession observed in their appearance, are called “periodical colours.” Among the substances which exhibit these periodical colours occur a great variety of transparent solids, but no fluids and no opake solids. Here, then, there seems to be sufficient community of nature to enable us to use a general term, and to state the proposition as a law, viz. _transparent solids_ exhibit periodical colours by exposure to polarized light. However, this, though true of many, does not apply to _all_ transparent solids, and therefore we cannot state it as a general truth or law of nature in this form; although the reverse proposition, that all solids which exhibit such colours in such circumstances are _transparent_, would be correct and general. It becomes necessary, then, to make a list of those to which it does apply; and thus a great number of substances of all kinds become grouped together, in a class linked by this common property. If we examine the individuals of this group, we find among them the utmost variety of colour, texture, weight, hardness, form and composition; so that, in these respects, we seem to have fallen upon an assemblage of contraries. But when we come to examine them closely, in all their properties, we find they have all one point of agreement, in the property of double refraction, (see page 30.) and therefore we may describe them all truly as _doubly refracting substances_. We may, therefore, state the fact in the form, “Doubly refracting substances exhibit periodical colours by exposure to polarized light;” and in this form it is found, on further examination, to be true, not only for those particular instances which we had in view when we first propounded it, but in all cases which have since occurred on further enquiry, without a single exception; so that the proposition is general, and entitled to be regarded as a law of nature.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00175", "bookId": 54897, "start": 161707, "end": 162666, "sha256": "1a97dc736e6a74a3c2939aba754ba4531889b4ac4739df51e44eb73b8650dc7a", "text": "(91.) We may therefore regard a law of nature either, 1st, as a general proposition, announcing, in abstract terms, a whole group of particular facts relating to the behaviour of natural agents in proposed circumstances; or, 2dly, as a proposition announcing that a whole class of individuals agreeing in one character agree also in another. For example: in the case before us, the law arrived at includes, in its general announcement, among others, the particular facts, that rock crystal and saltpetre exhibit periodical colours; for these are both of them doubly refracting substances. Or, it may be regarded as announcing a relation between the two phenomena of double refraction, and the exhibition of periodical colours; which in the actual case is one of the most important, viz. the relation of _constant association_, inasmuch as it asserts that in whatever individual the one character is found, the other will invariably be found also.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00176", "bookId": 54897, "start": 162670, "end": 163282, "sha256": "1b84d75c2c62d54556c82d99551895ba664682be4e705306e2b3749d2fc3be88", "text": "(92.) These two lights, in which the announcement of a general law may be regarded, though at bottom they come to the same thing, yet differ widely in their influence on our minds. The former exhibits a law as little more than a kind of artificial memory; but in the latter it becomes a step in philosophical investigation, leading directly to the consideration of a proximate, if not an ultimate, cause; inasmuch as, whenever two phenomena are observed to be invariably connected together, we conclude them to be related to each other, either as cause and effect, or as common effects of a single cause.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00177", "bookId": 54897, "start": 163286, "end": 164257, "sha256": "6675d1e78535411982c7f080b6ab82b1ec2868af3024b10a546d292c4940adbe", "text": "(93.) There is still another light in which we may regard a law of the kind in question, viz. as a proposition asserting the mutual connection, or in some cases the entire identity, of two classes of individuals (whether individual objects or individual facts); and this is, perhaps, the simplest and most instructive way in which it can be conceived, and that which furnishes the readiest handle to further generalization in the raising of yet higher axioms. For example: in the case above mentioned, if observation had enabled us to establish the existence of a class of bodies possessing the property of double refraction, and observations of another kind had, independently of the former, led as to recognize a class possessing that of the exhibition of periodical colours in polarized light, a mere comparison of lists would at once demonstrate the identity of the two classes, or enable us to ascertain whether one was or was not included in the other.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00178", "bookId": 54897, "start": 164261, "end": 165124, "sha256": "635957c87648a00f342f428547b934e579ce9bfc1f4329e87c12332d43b4221b", "text": "(94.) It is thus we perceive the high importance in physical science of just and accurate classifications of particular facts, or individual objects, under general well considered heads or points of agreement (for which there are none better adapted than the simple phenomena themselves into which they can be analysed in the first instance); for by so doing each of such phenomena, or heads of classification, becomes not a particular but a general fact; and when we have amassed a great store of such _general facts_, they become the objects of another and higher species of classification, and are themselves included in laws which, as they dispose of groups, not individuals, have a far superior degree of generality, till at length, by continuing the process, we arrive at _axioms_ of the highest degree of generality of which science is capable.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00179", "bookId": 54897, "start": 165128, "end": 166114, "sha256": "e3fb506a45e2617bb9c06e4773fada3ee9d723b3240466e28142528164dcc656", "text": "(95.) This process is what we mean by induction; and, from what has been said, it appears that induction may be carried on in two different ways,--either by the simple juxta-position and comparison of ascertained classes, and marking their agreements and disagreements; or by considering the individuals of a class, and casting about, as it were to find in what particular they all agree, besides that which serves as their principle of classification. Either of these methods may be put in practice as one or the other may afford facilities in any case; but it will naturally happen that, where facts are numerous, well observed, and methodically arranged, the former will be more applicable than in the contrary case: the one is better adapted to the maturity, the other to the infancy, of science: the one employs, as an engine, the division of labour; the other mainly relies on individual penetration, and requires a union of many branches of knowledge in one person.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00180", "bookId": 54897, "start": 166124, "end": 166134, "sha256": "6b1dee28e55db0a12facd7397796ecefb642f4c28ffbfcb8670ee788ba383b7b", "text": "CHAP. III.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00181", "bookId": 54897, "start": 166138, "end": 166225, "sha256": "2e7112006cce0cf04440754a1dbe8830b794c333562c05a02644da37978774c8", "text": "OF THE STATE OF PHYSICAL SCIENCE IN GENERAL, PREVIOUS TO THE AGE OF GALILEO AND BACON.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00182", "bookId": 54897, "start": 166231, "end": 167723, "sha256": "3216b89b616ed888d069d232b8c45ed3cce392392fc9c0538a2287f291a631eb", "text": "(96.) It is to our immortal countryman Bacon that we owe the broad announcement of this grand and fertile principle; and the developement of the idea, that the whole of natural philosophy consists entirely of a series of inductive generalizations, commencing with the most circumstantially stated particulars, and carried up to universal laws, or axioms, which comprehend in their statements every subordinate degree of generality, and of a corresponding series of inverted reasoning from generals to particulars, by which these axioms are traced back into their remotest consequences, and all particular propositions deduced from them; as well those by whose immediate consideration we rose to their discovery, as those of which we had no previous knowledge. In the course of this descent to particulars, we must of necessity encounter all those facts on which the arts and works that tend to the accommodation of human life depend, and acquire thereby the command of an unlimited practice, and a disposal of the powers of nature co-extensive with those powers themselves. A noble promise, indeed, and one which ought, surely, to animate us to the highest exertion of our faculties; especially since we have already such convincing proof that it is neither vain nor rash, but, on the contrary, has been, and continues to be, fulfilled, with a promptness and liberality which even its illustrious author in his most sanguine mood would have hardly ventured to anticipate.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00183", "bookId": 54897, "start": 167727, "end": 169349, "sha256": "21a5b30294c515408b08ce67c8c96228b4f2d66344dee330b298b20dfa74e28c", "text": "(97.) Previous to the publication of the Novum Organum of Bacon, natural philosophy, in any legitimate and extensive sense of the word, could hardly be said to exist. Among the Greek philosophers, of whose attainments in science alone, in the earlier ages of the world, we have any positive knowledge, and that but a very limited one, we are struck with the remarkable contrast between their powers of acute and subtle disputation, their extraordinary success in abstract reasoning, and their intimate familiarity with subjects purely intellectual, on the one hand; and, on the other, with their loose and careless consideration of external nature, their grossly illogical deductions of principles of sweeping generality from few and ill-observed facts, in some cases; and their reckless assumption of abstract principles having no foundation but in their own imaginations, in others; mere forms of words, with nothing corresponding to them in nature, from which, as from mathematical definitions, postulates, and axioms, they imagined that all phenomena could be derived, all the laws of nature deduced. Thus, for instance, having settled it in their own minds, that a circle is the most perfect of figures, they concluded, of course, that the movements of the heavenly bodies must all be performed in exact circles, and with uniform motions; and when the plainest observation demonstrated the contrary, instead of doubting the principle, they saw no better way of getting out of the difficulty than by having recourse to endless combinations of circular motions to preserve their ideal perfection.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00184", "bookId": 54897, "start": 169353, "end": 172126, "sha256": "767e30ac56ee5a841bcb5f2c1616dd4362f79aad8ed5bd469d7de921f039b6f5", "text": "(98.) Undoubtedly among the Greek philosophers were many men of transcendent talents and virtues, the ornaments of their species, and justly entitled to the veneration of all posterity; but regarded as a body they can hardly be considered otherwise than as a knot of disputatious candidates for popular favour, too busy in maintaining their ascendency over their followers and admirers, by an ostentatious display of superior knowledge, to have the leisure (had they always the inclination) to base their pretensions on a deep and sure foundation, and yet too sensible of the disgrace and inconvenience of failure, not to defend their dogmas, however shallow, when once promulgated, against their keen and sagacious opponents, by every art of sophism or appeal to passion. Hence the crudities and chimerical views with which their systems of philosophy, both natural and moral, were overloaded; their endless disputes about verbal subtleties, and, last and worst, the proud assumption with which they sheltered ignorance and indolence under the screen of unintelligible jargon or dogmatical assertion. Perhaps, however, this character applies rather to the later than to the earlier of the Greek philosophers. The spirit of rational enquiry into nature seems, if we can judge from the uncertain and often contradictory notices handed down to us of their tenets, to have been far more alive, and less warped by this vain and arrogant turn, then than at a later period. We know not now what was the precise meaning attached by Thales to his opinion, that water was the origin of all things; but modern geologists will not be at a loss to conceive how an observant traveller might become impressed with this notion, without having recourse to the mystic records of Egypt or Chaldea. His ideas of eclipses and of the nature of the moon were sound; and his prediction of an eclipse of the sun, in particular, was attended with circumstances so remarkable as to have made it a matter of important investigation to modern astronomers. Anaxagoras, among a number of crude and imperfectly explained notions, speculated rationally enough on the cause of the winds and of the rainbow, and less absurdly on earthquakes than many modern geologists have done, and appears generally to have had his attention alive to nature, and his mind open to just reasoning on its phenomena; while Pythagoras, whether he reasoned it out for himself, or borrowed the notion from Egypt or India, had attained a just conception of the general disposition of the parts of the solar system, and the place held by the earth in it; nay, according to some accounts, had even raised his views so far as to speculate on the attraction of the sun as the bond of its union.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00185", "bookId": 54897, "start": 172130, "end": 173343, "sha256": "669f21fd1baa81e3c7434907c3e190f5527c4151860af9c13e20fef6f5b21eba", "text": "(99.) But the successors of these _bonâ fide_ enquirers into nature debased the standard of truth; and, taking advantage of the credit justly attached to their discoveries, renounced the modest character of learners, and erected themselves into teachers, and, to maintain their pretensions to this character, adopted the tone of men who had nothing further to learn. Unfortunately for true science, the national character gave every encouragement to pretensions of this kind. That restless craving after novelty, which distinguished the Greeks in their civil and political relations, pursued them into their philosophy. Whatever speculations were only ingenious and new had irresistible charms; and the teacher who could embody a clever thought in elegant language, or at once save his followers and himself the trouble of thinking or reasoning, by bold assertion, was too often induced to acquire cheaply the reputation of superior knowledge, snatch a few superficial notions from the most ordinary and obvious facts, envelope them in a parade of abstruse words, declare them the primary and ultimate principles of all things, and denounce as absurd and impious all opinions opposed to his own.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00186", "bookId": 54897, "start": 173347, "end": 174550, "sha256": "1714815fa6c78afb340fc83619d426a6be202d3a002f0ba852001490a9eeb074", "text": "(100.) In this war of words the study of nature was neglected, and an humble and patient enquiry after facts altogether despised, as unworthy of the high _priori_ ground a true philosopher ought to take. It was the radical error of the Greek philosophy to imagine that the same method which proved so eminently successful in mathematical, would be equally so in physical, enquiries, and that, by setting out from a few simple and almost self-evident notions, or _axioms_, every thing could be reasoned out. Accordingly, we find them constantly straining their invention to discover these principles, which were to prove so pregnant. One makes _fire_ the essential matter and origin of the universe; another, _air_; a third, discovers the key to every difficulty, and the explanation of all phenomena, in the “το απειρον” or infinitude of things; a fourth, in the το ὁν and the το μη ὁν, that is to say, in entity and nonentity;--till at length an authority, which was destined to command opinions for nearly two thousand years, settled this important point, by deciding, that _matter_, _form_, and _privation_, were to be considered the principles of all things.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00187", "bookId": 54897, "start": 174554, "end": 176759, "sha256": "cfb9b81b6ba7443a4c0054cfba2dc3884334cb314b5e3b93ffe54959964dd860", "text": "(101.) It were to do injustice to Aristotle, however, to judge of him by _such_ a sample of his philosophy. He, at least, saw the necessity of having recourse to nature for something like principles of physical science; and, as an observer, a collector and recorder of facts and phenomena, stood without an equal in his age. It was the fault of that age, and of the perverse and flimsy style of verbal disputation which had infected all learning, rather than his own, that he allowed himself to be contented with vague and loose notions drawn from general and vulgar observation, in place of seeking carefully, in well arranged and thoroughly considered instances, for the true laws of nature. His voluminous works, on every department of human knowledge existing in his time, have nearly all perished. From his work on animals, which has descended to us, we are, however, enabled to appreciate his powers of observation; and a parallel drawn by an eminent Oxford professor between his classifications and those of the most illustrious of living naturalists, shows him to have attained a view of animated nature in a remarkable degree comprehensive, and which contrasts strikingly with the confusion, vagueness, and assumption of his physical opinions and dogmas. In these it is easy to recognize a mind not at home, and an impression of the necessity of saying something learned and systematic, without knowing what to say. Thus he divides motions into natural and unnatural; the natural motion of fire and light bodies being upwards, those of heavy downwards, each seeking its kindred nature in the heavens and the earth. Thus, too, the immediate impressions made on us by external objects, such as hardness, colour, heat, &c. are referred at once, in the Aristotelian philosophy, to occult qualities, in virtue of which they are as they are, and beyond which it is useless to enquire.[30] Of course there will occur a limit beyond which it _is_ useless for merely human faculties to enquire; but where that limit is placed, experience alone can teach us; and at least to assert that we _have_ attained it, is now universally recognized as the sure criterion of dogmatism.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00188", "bookId": 54897, "start": 176763, "end": 177778, "sha256": "9b1467ad85e8bb38c6570fdb4739b9e5a0fff8ba517ba70937d046cbd6168640", "text": "(102.) In the early ages of the church the writings of Aristotle were condemned, as allowing too much to reason and sense; and even so late as the twelfth century they were sought out and burned, and their readers excommunicated. By degrees, however, the extreme injustice of this impeachment of their character was acknowledged: they became the favourite study of the schoolmen, and furnished the keenest weapons of their controversy, being appealed to in all disputes as of sovereign authority; so that the slightest dissent from any opinion of the “great master,” however absurd or unintelligible, was at once drowned by clamour, or silenced by the still more effectual argument of bitter persecution. If the logic of that gloomy period could be justly described as “the art of talking unintelligibly on matters of which we are ignorant,” its physics might, with equal truth, be summed up in a deliberate preference of ignorance to knowledge, in matters of every day’s experience and use.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00189", "bookId": 54897, "start": 177782, "end": 179391, "sha256": "23da8534f98ff319603e14919223885fbb521c01bb839ccbd8c7e91cbf68b8ee", "text": "(103.) In “this opake of nature and of soul,” the perverse activity of the alchemists from time to time struck out a doubtful spark[31]; and our illustrious countryman, Roger Bacon, shone out at the obscurest moment, like an early star predicting dawn. It was not, however, till the sixteenth century that the light of nature began to break forth with a regular and progressive increase. The vaunts of Paracelsus of the power of his chemical remedies and elixirs, and his open condemnation of the ancient pharmacy, backed as they were by many surprising cures, convinced all rational physicians that chemistry could furnish many excellent remedies, unknown till that time[32], and a number of valuable experiments began to be made by physicians and chemists, desirous of discovering and describing new chemical remedies. The chemical and metallurgic arts, exercised by persons empirically acquainted with their secrets, began to be seriously studied with a view to the acquisition of rational and useful knowledge, and regular treatises on branches of natural science at length to appear. George Agricola, in particular, devoted himself with ardour to the study of mineralogy and metallurgy in the mining districts of Bohemia and Schemnitz, and published copious and methodical accounts of all the facts within his knowledge: and our countryman, Dr. Gilbert of Colchester, in 1590, published a treatise on magnetism, full of valuable facts and experiments, ingeniously reasoned on; and he likewise extended his enquiries to a variety of other subjects, in particular to electricity.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00190", "bookId": 54897, "start": 179395, "end": 180233, "sha256": "9ed2a478b071fc9e4fca09f4ac10abec63e7a2f9ff28cc3c4967c1d4bce4e03d", "text": "(104.) But, as the decisive mark of a great commencing change in the direction of the human faculties, astronomy, the only science in which the ancients had made any real progress, and ascended to any thing like large and general conceptions, began once more to be studied in the best spirit of a candid philosophy; and the Copernican or Pythagorean system arose or revived, and rapidly gained advocates. Galileo at length appeared, and openly attacked and refuted the Aristotelian dogmas respecting motion, by direct appeal to the evidence of sense, and by experiments of the most convincing kind. The persecutions which such a step drew upon him, the record of his perseverance and sufferings, and the ultimate triumph of his opinions and reasonings, have been too lately and too well related[33] to require repetition here.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00191", "bookId": 54897, "start": 180237, "end": 182090, "sha256": "8176e36c9696676e73e12f15d28a78deb36790a068e38963145f85300b7e48fc", "text": "(105.) By the discoveries of Copernicus, Kepler, and Galileo, the errors of the Aristotelian philosophy were effectually overturned on a plain appeal to the facts of nature; but it remained to show on broad and general principles, how and why Aristotle was in the wrong; to set in evidence the peculiar weakness of his method of philosophizing, and to substitute in its place a stronger and better. This important task was executed by Francis Bacon, Lord Verulam, who will, therefore, justly be looked upon in all future ages as the great reformer of philosophy, though his own actual contributions to the stock of physical truths were small, and his ideas of particular points strongly tinctured with mistakes and errors, which were the fault rather of the general want of physical information of the age than of any narrowness of view on his own part; and of this he was fully aware. It has been attempted by some to lessen the merit of this great achievement, by showing that the inductive method had been practised in many instances, both ancient and modern, by the mere instinct of mankind; but it is not the introduction of inductive reasoning, as a new and hitherto untried process, which characterizes the Baconian philosophy, but his keen perception, and his broad and spirit-stirring, almost enthusiastic, announcement of its paramount importance, as the alpha and omega of science, as the grand and only chain for the linking together of physical truths, and the eventual key to every discovery and every application. Those who would deny him his just glory on such grounds would refuse to Jenner or to Howard their civic crowns, because a few farmers in a remote province had, time out of mind, been acquainted with vaccination, or philanthropists, in all ages, had occasionally visited the prisoner in his dungeon.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00192", "bookId": 54897, "start": 182094, "end": 183202, "sha256": "8fd2470c14256636daf62aa367ffe274ed8ef15f32e43cb8f0f3020820809b03", "text": "(106.) An immense impulse was now given to science, and it seemed as if the genius of mankind, long pent up, had at length rushed eagerly upon Nature, and commenced, with one accord, the great work of turning up her hitherto unbroken soil, and exposing the treasures so long concealed. A general sense now prevailed of the poverty and insufficiency of existing knowledge in _matters of fact_; and, as information flowed fast in, an era of excitement and wonder commenced, to which the annals of mankind had furnished nothing similar. It seemed, too, as if Nature herself seconded the impulse; and, while she supplied new and extraordinary aids to those senses which were henceforth to be exercised in her investigation,--while the telescope and the microscope laid open _the infinite_ in both directions,--as if to call attention to her wonders, and signalize the epoch, she displayed the rarest, the most splendid and mysterious, of all astronomical phenomena, the appearance and subsequent total extinction of a new and brilliant fixed star twice within the lifetime of Galileo himself.[34]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00193", "bookId": 54897, "start": 183206, "end": 184310, "sha256": "7a7cca8786f913e08ca79b60b82bd0f83309a1f942a9c0a98da982450bb713e3", "text": "(107.) The immediate followers of Bacon and Galileo ransacked all nature for new and surprising facts, with something of that craving for the marvellous, which might be regarded as a remnant of the age of alchemy and natural magic, but which, under proper regulation, is a most powerful and useful stimulus to experimental enquiry. Boyle, in particular, seemed animated by an enthusiasm of ardour, which hurried him from subject to subject, and from experiment to experiment, without a moment’s intermission, and with a sort of undistinguishing appetite; while Hooke (the great contemporary, and almost the worthy rival, of Newton) carried a keener eye of scrutinizing reason into a range of research even yet more extensive. As facts multiplied, leading phenomena became prominent, laws began to emerge, and generalizations to commence; and so rapid was the career of discovery, so signal the triumph of the inductive philosophy, that a single generation and the efforts of a single mind sufficed for the establishment of the system of the universe, on a basis never after to be shaken.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00194", "bookId": 54897, "start": 184314, "end": 185466, "sha256": "b7eca1871c211216121c06d14f6b7c581e1f1eb0ce68d0ab25d4be8282e3a012", "text": "(108.) We shall now endeavour to enumerate and explain in detail the principal steps by which legitimate and extensive inductions are arrived at, and the processes by which the mind, in the investigation of natural laws, purges itself by successive degrees of the superfluities and incumbrances which hang about particulars, and obscure the perception of their points of resemblance and connection. We shall state the helps which may be afforded us, in a work of so much thought and labour, by a methodical course of proceeding, and by a careful notice of those means which have at any time been found successful, with a view to their better understanding and adaptation to other cases: a species of mental induction of no mean utility and extent in itself; inasmuch as by pursuing it alone we can attain a more intimate knowledge than we actually possess of the laws which regulate our discovery of truth, and of the rules, so far as they extend, to which invention is reducible. In doing this, we shall commence at the beginning, with experience itself, considered as the accumulation of the knowledge of individual objects and facts.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00195", "bookId": 54897, "start": 185476, "end": 185485, "sha256": "3446d030a6b91dd1f12f37059c79cb212eda05326d17b35885eaef69b963f5b9", "text": "CHAP. IV.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00196", "bookId": 54897, "start": 185489, "end": 185549, "sha256": "6fa3609cef37c5922e66bf9bac3384b81462cdc5e4580b2ebeee32a015872cea", "text": "OF THE OBSERVATION OF FACTS AND THE COLLECTION OF INSTANCES.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00197", "bookId": 54897, "start": 185555, "end": 187338, "sha256": "dee829e9f286c89c081cff374dfcac0d565fe6a7c116248201e8ae61c02211ef", "text": "(109.) Nature offers us two sorts of subjects of contemplation in the external world,--objects, and their mutual actions. But, after what has been said on the subject of sensation, the reader will be at no loss to perceive that we know nothing of the objects themselves which compose the universe, except through the medium of the impressions they excite in us, which impressions are the results of certain actions and processes in which sensible objects and the material parts of ourselves are directly concerned. Thus, our observation of external nature is limited to the mutual action of material objects on one another; and to facts, that is, the associations of phenomena or appearances. We gain no information by perceiving merely that an object is black; but if we also perceive it to be fluid, we at least acquire the knowledge that blackness is not incompatible with fluidity, and have thus made a step, however trifling, to a knowledge of the more intimate nature of these two qualities. Whenever, therefore, we would either analyse a phenomenon into simpler ones, or ascertain what is the course or law of nature under any proposed general contingency, the first step is to accumulate a sufficient quantity of well ascertained facts or recorded instances, bearing on the point in question. Common sense dictates this, as affording us the means of examining the same subject in several points of view; and it would also dictate, that the more different these collected facts are in all other circumstances but that which forms the subject of enquiry, the better; because they are then in some sort brought into contrast with one another in their points of disagreement, and thus tend to render those in which they agree more prominent and striking.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00198", "bookId": 54897, "start": 187342, "end": 188546, "sha256": "6ef107dfee6241faac1b5c3c20b52fd55d45e1edd12dfe889db4d55f13c7132e", "text": "(110.) The only facts which can ever become useful as grounds of physical enquiry are those which happen uniformly and invariably under the same circumstances. This is evident: for if they have not this character they cannot be included in laws; they want that universality which fits them to enter as elementary particles into the constitution of those universal axioms which we aim at discovering. If one and the same result does not constantly happen under a given combination of circumstances, apparently the same, one of two things must be supposed,--caprice (_i. e._ the arbitrary intervention of mental agency), or differences in the circumstances themselves, really existing, but unobserved by us. In either case, though we may record such facts as curiosities, or as awaiting explanation when the difference of circumstances shall be understood, we can make no use of them in scientific enquiry. Hence, whenever we notice a remarkable effect of any kind, our first question ought to be, Can it be reproduced? What are the circumstances under which it has happened? And will it _always_ happen again if those circumstances, so far as we have been able to collect them, co-exist?", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00199", "bookId": 54897, "start": 188550, "end": 189815, "sha256": "f9cbbf149979cf4bfb10f47b5b27dd5d91dc48392a9ff405aed831bf92ede49e", "text": "(111.) The circumstances, then, which accompany any observed fact, are main features in its observation, at least until it is ascertained by sufficient experience what circumstances have nothing to do with it, and might therefore have been left unobserved without sacrificing _the fact_. In observing and recording a fact, therefore, altogether new, we ought not to omit any circumstance capable of being noted, lest some one of the omitted circumstances should be essentially connected with the fact, and its omission should, therefore, reduce the implied statement of a _law of nature_ to the mere record of an _historical event_. For instance, in the fall of meteoric stones, flashes of fire are seen proceeding from a cloud, and a loud rattling noise like thunder is heard. These circumstances, and the sudden stroke and destruction ensuing, long caused them to be confounded with an effect of lightning, and called thunderbolts. But one circumstance is enough to mark the difference: the flash and sound have been perceived occasionally to emanate from a _very small cloud_ insulated in _a clear sky_; a combination of circumstances which never happens in a thunder storm, but which is undoubtedly intimately connected with their real origin.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00200", "bookId": 54897, "start": 189819, "end": 191500, "sha256": "f84d336c4e5beba9a1bdb6ca9315404a009cfea1b8f43f8473001cd56a4a25e9", "text": "(112.) Recorded observation consists of two distinct parts: 1st, an exact notice of the thing observed, and of all the particulars which may be supposed to have any natural connection with it; and, 2dly, a true and faithful record of them. As our senses are the only inlets by which we receive impressions of facts, we must take care, in observing, to have them all in activity, and to let nothing escape notice which affects any one of them. Thus, if lightning were to strike the house we inhabit, we ought to notice what kind of light we saw--whether a sheet of flame, a darting spark, or a broken zig-zag; in what direction moving, to what objects adhering, its colour, its duration, &c.; what sounds were heard--explosive, crashing, rattling, momentary, or gradually increasing and fading, &c.; whether any smell of fire was perceptible, and if sulphureous, metallic, or such as would arise merely from substances scorched by the flash, &c.; whether we felt any shock, stroke, or peculiar sensation, or experienced any strange taste in our mouths. Then, besides detailing the effects of the stroke, all the circumstances which might in any degree seem likely to attract, produce, or modify it, such as the presence of conductors, neighbouring objects, the state of the atmosphere, the barometer, thermometer, &c., and the disposition of the clouds, should be noted; and after all this particularity, the question _how_ the house _came to be struck?_ might ultimately depend on the fact that a flash of lightning twenty miles off passed at that particular moment _from the ground to the clouds_, by an effect of what has been termed the returning stroke.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00201", "bookId": 54897, "start": 191504, "end": 191789, "sha256": "e7fa566e0cbbac527ed1d77b8e2c9a4b628a27024b340bec4c43eff1ca929aa9", "text": "(113.) A writer in the Edinburgh Philosophical Journal[35] states himself to have been led into a series of investigations on the chemical nature of a peculiar acid, by noticing, accidentally, a bitter taste in a liquid about to be thrown away. Chemistry is full of such incidents.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00202", "bookId": 54897, "start": 191793, "end": 192512, "sha256": "17b5c9ed395cc3cd90b938e1d9bde2030ada87fc5f151bedb6efdfad0d2e023b", "text": "(114.) In transient phenomena, if the number of particulars be great, and the time to observe them short, we must consult our memory before they have had time to fade, or refresh it by placing ourselves as nearly as possible in the same circumstances again; go back to the spot, for instance, and try the words of our statement by appeal to all remaining indications, &c. This is most especially necessary where we have not observed ourselves, but only collect and record the observations of others, particularly of illiterate or prejudiced persons, on any rare phenomenon, such as the passing of a great meteor,--the fall of a stone from the sky,--the shock of an earthquake,--an extraordinary hailstorm, &c.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00203", "bookId": 54897, "start": 192516, "end": 194038, "sha256": "7de701ab78fac787ab607b5a1425f7cdd2a1119fbe55578a4fec137c14d0c179", "text": "(115.) In all cases which admit of numeration or measurement, it is of the utmost consequence to obtain precise numerical statements, whether in the measure of time, space, or quantity of any kind. To omit this, is, in the first place, to expose ourselves to illusions of sense which may lead to the grossest errors. Thus, in alpine countries, we are constantly deceived in heights and distances; and when we have overcome the first impression which leads us to under-estimate them, we are then hardly less apt to run into the opposite extreme. But it is not merely in preserving us from exaggerated impressions that numerical precision is desirable. It is the very soul of science; and its attainment affords the only criterion, or at least the best, of the truth of theories, and the correctness of experiments. Thus, it was entirely to the omission of exact numerical determinations of quantity that the mistakes and confusion of the Stahlian chemistry were attributable,--a confusion which dissipated like a morning mist as soon as precision, in this respect, came to be regarded as essential. Chemistry is in the most pre-eminent degree a science of quantity; and to enumerate the discoveries which have arisen in it, from the mere determination of weights and measures, would be nearly to give a synopsis of this branch of knowledge. We need only mention the law of definite proportions, which fixes the composition of every body in nature in determinate proportional weights of its ingredients.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00204", "bookId": 54897, "start": 194042, "end": 194957, "sha256": "0a95f5f3d245515679e11ec8d5287410cd347f5c9655599ef68c4cba549e6628", "text": "(116.) Indeed, it is a character of all the higher laws of nature to assume the form of precise _quantitative_ statement. Thus, the law of gravitation, the most universal truth at which human reason has yet arrived, expresses not merely the general fact of the mutual attraction of all matter; not merely the vague statement that its influence decreases as the distance increases, but the exact numerical rate at which that decrease takes place; so that when its amount is known at any one distance it may be calculated exactly for any other. Thus, too, the laws of crystallography, which limit the forms assumed by natural substances, when left to their own inherent powers of aggregation, to precise geometrical figures, with fixed angles and proportions, have the same essential character of strict mathematical expression, without which no exact particular conclusions could ever be drawn from them.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00205", "bookId": 54897, "start": 194961, "end": 196841, "sha256": "57cc447d5bbad87a750269f99d04ceaa2ef4bb030215deba79837b8c5279949d", "text": "(117.) But, to arrive at laws of this description, it is evident that every step of our enquiry must be perfectly free from the slightest degree of looseness and indecision, and carry with it the full force of strict numerical announcement; and that, therefore, the observations themselves on which all laws ultimately rest ought to have the same property. None of our senses, however, gives us direct information for the exact comparison of quantity. Number, indeed, that is to say, integer number, is an object of sense, because we can count; but we can neither weigh, measure, nor form any precise estimate of fractional parts by the unassisted senses. Scarcely any man could tell the difference between twenty pounds and the same weight increased or diminished by a few ounces; still less could he judge of the proportion between an ounce of gold and a hundred grains of cotton by balancing them in his hands. To take another instance: the eye is no judge of the proportion of different degrees of illumination, even when seen side by side; and if an interval elapses, and circumstances change, nothing can be more vague than its judgments. When we gaze with admiration at the gorgeous spectacle of the golden clouds at sunset, which seem drenched in light and glowing like flames of real fire, it is hardly by any effort we can persuade ourselves to regard them as the very same objects which at noonday pass unnoticed as mere white clouds basking in the sun, only participating, from their great horizontal distance, in the ruddy tint which luminaries acquire by shining through a great extent of the vapours of the atmosphere, and thereby even losing something of their light. So it is with our estimates of time, velocity, and all other matters of quantity; they are absolutely vague, and inadequate to form a foundation for any exact conclusion.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00206", "bookId": 54897, "start": 196845, "end": 197526, "sha256": "feb95c3319466e3c52497c0a0be02b5157cb40142055fd93d72be691b4076193", "text": "(118.) In this emergency we are obliged to have recourse to instrumental aids, that is, to contrivances which shall substitute for the vague impressions of sense the precise one of number, and reduce all measurement to counting. As a first preliminary towards effecting this, we fix on convenient _standards_ of weight, dimension, time, &c., and invent contrivances for readily and correctly repeating them as often as we please, and counting how often such a standard unit is contained in the thing, be it weight, space, time, or angle, we wish to measure; and if there be a fractional part over, we measure this as a new quantity by aliquot parts of the former standard.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00207", "bookId": 54897, "start": 197530, "end": 198449, "sha256": "6b6aea26dd568641f064f6cb5bc35e3f3e3bc7eb1a0abf423b0806f1db1d00ee", "text": "(119.) If every scientific enquirer observed only for his own satisfaction, and reasoned only on his own observations, it would be of little importance what standards he used, or what contrivances (if only just ones) he employed for this purpose; but if it be intended (as it is most important they should) that observations once made should remain as records to all mankind, and to all posterity, it is evidently of the highest consequence that all enquirers should agree on the use of a common standard, and that this should be one not liable to change by lapse of time. The selection and verification of such standards, however, will easily be understood to be a matter of extreme difficulty, if only from the mere circumstance that, to verify the permanence of one standard, we must compare it with others, which it is possible may be themselves inaccurate, or, at least, stand in need of verification.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00208", "bookId": 54897, "start": 198453, "end": 200423, "sha256": "492ab3c7f43ce10f2a0ea264df8b8063204f3a941a7230df77dfb27f323ced7e", "text": "(120.) Here we can only call to our assistance the presumed permanence of the great laws of Nature, with all experience in its favour, and the strong impression we have of the general composure and steadiness of every thing relating to the gigantic mass we inhabit--“the great globe itself.” In its uniform rotation on its axis, accordingly, we find a standard of time, which nothing has ever given us reason to regard as subject to change, and which, compared with other periods which the revolutions of the planets about the sun afford, has demonstrably undergone none since the earliest history. In the dimensions of the earth we find a natural unit of the measure of space, which possesses in perfection every quality that can be desired; and in its attraction combined with its rotation the researches of dynamical science have enabled us, through the medium of the pendulum, to obtain another invariable standard, more refined and less obvious, it is true, in its origin, but possessing a great advantage in its capability of ready verification, and therefore easily made to serve as a check on the other. The former, viz. direct measurement of the dimensions of the earth, is the origin of the _mètre_, the French unit of linear measure; the latter, of the British yard. Theoretically speaking, they are equally eligible; but when we consider that the _quantity directly measured_, in the case of the mètre, is a length a great many thousand times the final unit, and in the pendulum or yard very nearly the unit itself, there can be no hesitation in giving the preference as an original measure to the former, because any error committed in the process by which that is determined becomes subdivided in the final result; while, on the other hand, any minute error committed in determining the length of the pendulum becomes multiplied by the repetition of the unit in all measurements of considerable lengths performed in yards.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00209", "bookId": 54897, "start": 200427, "end": 200934, "sha256": "0e45ab8872f2fcec993efbf4d3e782de6f771cfb8dc6eda573a809776b09d48e", "text": "(121.) The same admirable invention of the pendulum affords a means of subdividing time to an almost unlimited nicety. A clock is nothing more than a piece of mechanism for counting the oscillations of a pendulum; and by that peculiar property of the pendulum, that one vibration commences exactly where the last terminates, no part of time is lost or gained in the juxta-position of the units so counted, so that the precise fractional part of a day can be ascertained which each such unit measures.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00210", "bookId": 54897, "start": 200938, "end": 201945, "sha256": "6eb5c1ce8ede4aebfb6c5cb49bcd44abd0f67246d53779a1ecf61be93907c125", "text": "(122.) It is owing to this peculiar property by which the _juxta-position_ of units of time and weight can be performed _without error_, that the whole of the accuracy with which time and weight can be multiplied and subdivided is owing.[36] The same thing cannot be accomplished in _space_, by any method we are yet acquainted with, so that our means of subdividing space are much inferior in precision. The beautiful principle of repetition, invented by Borda, offers the nearest approach to it, but cannot be said to be absolutely free from the source of error in question. The method of “double weighing,” which we owe to the same distinguished observer, affords an instance of the direct comparison of two equal weights independent of almost every source of error which can affect the comparison of one object with another. It has been remarked by Biot, that previous to the invention of this elegant method, instruments afforded no perfect means of ascertaining the weight of a body.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00211", "bookId": 54897, "start": 201949, "end": 202510, "sha256": "9d753d2686d105765708dac66118cb487cb0b9f8b25c59ed6afa9441bae0c802", "text": "(123.) But it is not enough to possess a standard of this abstract kind: a real material measure must be constructed, and exact copies of it taken. This, however, is not very difficult; the great difficulty is to preserve it unaltered from age to age; for unless we transmit to posterity the units of our measurements, _such as we have ourselves used them_, we, in fact, only half bequeath to them our observations. This is a point too much lost sight of, and it were much to be wished that some direct provision for so important an object were made.[37]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00212", "bookId": 54897, "start": 202514, "end": 204546, "sha256": "7c83b91b4d1a3d2d536a04a60d81f2b305a1ff39847d34d682ef405dffd86bdb", "text": "(124.) But, it may be asked, if our measurement of quantity is thus unavoidably liable to error, how is it possible that our observations can possess that quality of numerical veracity which is requisite to render them the foundation of laws, whose distinguishing perfection consists in their strict mathematical expression? To this the reply is twofold. 1st, that though we admit the necessary existence of numerical error in every observation, we can always assign a limit which such error cannot possibly exceed; and the extent of this _latitude of error of observation_ is less in proportion to the perfection of the instrumental means we possess, and the care bestowed on their employment. In the greater part of modern measurements it is, in point of fact, extremely minute, and may be still further diminished, almost to any required extent, by repeating the measurements a great number of times, and under a great variety of circumstances, and taking a mean of the results, when errors of opposite kinds will, at length, compensate each other. But, 2dly, there exists a much more fundamental reply to this objection. In reasoning upon our observations, the existence and possible amount of quantitative error is always to be allowed for; and the extent to which theories may be affected by it is never to be lost sight of. In reasoning upwards, from observations confessedly imperfect to general laws, we must take care always to regard our conclusions as conditional, so far as they may be affected by such unavoidable imperfections; and when at length we shall have arrived at our highest point, and attained to axioms which admit of general and deductive reasoning, the question, whether they _are_ vitiated by the errors of observation or not, will still remain to be decided, and must become the object of subsequent verification. This point will be made the subject of more distinct consideration hereafter, when we come to speak of the verification of theories and the laws of probability.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00213", "bookId": 54897, "start": 204550, "end": 206174, "sha256": "08444232d26ec18b085379845a75502f264b4d924b85d84802eb4a19ee30a812", "text": "(125.) With respect to our record of observations, it should be not only circumstantial but _faithful_; by which we mean, that it should contain all we did _observe_, and nothing else. Without any intention of falsifying our record, we may do so unperceived by ourselves, owing to a mixture of the views and language of an erroneous theory with that of simple fact. Thus, for example, if, in describing the effect of lightning, we should say, “The thunderbolt struck with violence against the side of the house, and beat in the wall,” a fact would be stated which we did not see, and would lead our hearers to believe that a solid or ponderable projectile was concerned. The “strong smell of sulphur,” which is sometimes said to accompany lightning, is a remnant of the theory which made thunder and lightning the explosion of a kind of aërial gunpowder, composed of sulphureous and nitrous exhalations. There are some subjects particularly infested with this mixture of theory in the statement of observed fact. The older chemistry was so overborne by this mischief, as quite to confound and nullify the descriptions of innumerable curious and laborious experiments. And in geology, till a very recent period, it was often extremely difficult, from this circumstance, to know what _were_ the facts observed. Thus, Faujas de St. Fond, in his work on the volcanoes of central France, describes with every appearance of minute precision craters existing no where but in his own imagination. There is no greater fault (direct falsification of fact excepted) which can be committed by an observer.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00214", "bookId": 54897, "start": 206178, "end": 207203, "sha256": "08066555f41f0a5f7234f1b36874d0a1496860a98b0fe7d8f897882f3580a61b", "text": "(126.) When particular branches of science have acquired that degree of consistency and generality, which admits of an abstract statement of laws, and legitimate deductive reasoning, the principle of the division of labour tends to separate the province of the observer from that of the theorist. There is no accounting for the difference of minds or inclinations, which leads one man to observe with interest the developements of phenomena, another to speculate on their causes; but were it not for this happy disagreement, it may be doubted whether the higher sciences could ever have attained even their present degree of perfection. As laws acquire generality, the influence of individual observations becomes less, and a higher and higher degree of refinement in their performance, as well as a great multiplication in their number, becomes necessary to give them importance. In astronomy, for instance, the superior departments of theory are completely disjoined from the routine of practical observation.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00215", "bookId": 54897, "start": 207207, "end": 208679, "sha256": "60c514fef19106b2f08e1a71168c744718e1d496f2d35ba582effa1d042ef576", "text": "(127.) To make a perfect observer, however, either in astronomy or in any other department of science, an extensive acquaintance is requisite, not only with the particular science to which his observations relate, but with every branch of knowledge which may enable him to appretiate and neutralize the effect of extraneous disturbing causes. Thus furnished, he will be prepared to seize on any of those minute indications, which (such is the subtlety of nature) often connect phenomena which seem quite remote from each other. He will have his eyes as it were opened, that they may be struck at once with any occurrence which, according to received theories, ought not to happen; for these are the facts which serve as clews to new discoveries. The deviation of the magnetic needle, by the influence of an electrified wire, must have happened a thousand times to a perceptible amount, under the eyes of persons engaged in galvanic experiments, with philosophical apparatus of all kinds standing around them; but it required the eye of a philosopher such as Oërsted to seize the indication, refer it to its origin, and thereby connect two great branches of science. The grand discovery of Malus of the polarization of light by reflection originated in his casual remark of the disappearance of one of the images of a window in the Luxembourg palace, one evening, when strongly illuminated by the setting sun, viewed through a doubly refracting prism.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00216", "bookId": 54897, "start": 208683, "end": 210770, "sha256": "9dc5bf19e1c2091fb20bba566c25b611c64e65f132903142f7fa385b0940cf58", "text": "(128.) To avail ourselves as far as possible of the advantages which a division of labour may afford for the collection of facts, by the industry and activity which the general diffusion of information, in the present age, brings into exercise, is an object of great importance. There is scarcely any well-informed person, who, if he has but the will, has not also the power to add something essential to the general stock of knowledge, if he will only observe regularly and methodically some particular class of facts which may most excite his attention, or which his situation may best enable him to study with effect. To instance one or two subjects, which can only be effectually improved by the united observations of great numbers widely dispersed:--Meteorology, one of the most complicated but important branches of science, is at the same time one in which any person who will attend to plain rules, and bestow the necessary degree of attention, may do effectual service. What benefits has not Geology reaped from the activity of industrious individuals, who, setting aside all theoretical views, have been content to exercise the useful and highly entertaining occupation of collecting specimens from the countries which they visit? In short, there is no branch of science whatever in which, at least, if useful and sensible queries were distinctly proposed, an immense mass of valuable information might not be collected from those who, in their various lines of life, at home or abroad, stationary or in travel, would gladly avail themselves of opportunities of being useful. Nothing would tend better to attain this end than the circulation of printed skeleton forms, on various subjects, which should be so formed as, 1st, to ask distinct and pertinent questions, admitting of short and definite answers; 2dly, To call for exact numerical statement on all principal points; 3dly, To point out the attendant circumstances most likely to prove influential, and which ought to be observed; 4thly, To call for their transmission to a common centre.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00217", "bookId": 54897, "start": 210780, "end": 210788, "sha256": "44ae4da8b561d6af049a80675ce1cc6ec9f6a56262f691ff118931b5e325bf6e", "text": "CHAP. V.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00218", "bookId": 54897, "start": 210792, "end": 210869, "sha256": "e4c88bd302cb076db3aa243e95aef66d9ab144da74b539660a96cd12acf703ef", "text": "OF THE CLASSIFICATION OF NATURAL OBJECTS AND PHENOMENA, AND OF NOMENCLATURE.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00219", "bookId": 54897, "start": 210875, "end": 212545, "sha256": "5ea3a6a34e58da5a58bda3a0d048a738a6e00a708f081be4068052282b09c593", "text": "(129.) The number and variety of objects and relations which the observation of nature brings before us are so great as to distract the attention, unless assisted and methodized by such judicious distribution of them in classes as shall limit our view to a few at a time, or to groups so bound together by general resemblances that, for the immediate purpose for which we consider them, they may be regarded as individuals. Before we can enter into any thing which deserves to be called a general and systematic view of nature, it is necessary that we should possess an enumeration, if not complete, at least of considerable extent, of her materials and combinations; and that those which appear in any degree important should be distinguished by names which may not only tend to fix them in our recollection, but may constitute, as it were, nuclei or centres, about which information may collect into masses. The imposition of a name on any subject of contemplation, be it a material object, a phenomenon of nature, or a group of facts and relations, looked upon in a peculiar point of view, is an epoch in its history of great importance. It not only enables us readily to refer to it in conversation or writing, without circumlocution, but, what is of more consequence, it gives it a recognized existence in our own minds, as a matter for separate and peculiar consideration; places it on a list for examination; and renders it a head or title, under which information of various descriptions may be arranged; and, in consequence, fits it to perform the office of a connecting link between all the subjects to which such information may refer.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00220", "bookId": 54897, "start": 212549, "end": 214479, "sha256": "131c80360d1de1237f1caf521e8f867bd372044035d394b6960420aa41298f47", "text": "(130.) For these purposes, however, a temporary or provisional name, or one adapted for common parlance, may suffice. But when a very great multitude of objects come to be referred to one class, especially of such as do not offer very obvious and remarkable distinctions, a more systematic and regular nomenclature becomes necessary, in which the names shall recall the differences as well as the resemblances between the individuals of a class, and in which the direct relation between the name and the object shall materially assist the solution of the problem, “_given the one, to determine the other_.” How necessary this may become, will be at once seen, when we consider the immense number of individual objects, or rather species, presented by almost every branch of science of any extent; which absolutely require to be distinguished by names. Thus, the botanist is conversant with from 80,000 to 100,000 species of plants; the entomologist with, perhaps, as many, of insects: the chemist has to register the properties of combinations, by twos, threes, fours, and upwards, in various doses of upwards of fifty different elements, all distinguished from each other by essential differences; and of which though a great many thousands are known, by far the greater part have never yet been formed, although hundreds of new ones are coming to light, in perpetual succession, as the science advances; all of which are to be named as they arise. The objects of astronomy are, literally, as numerous as the stars of heaven; and although not more than one or two thousand require to be expressed by distinct names, yet the number, respecting which particular information is required, is not less than a hundred times that amount; and all these must be registered in lists, (so as to be at once referred to, and so that none shall escape,) if not by actual names, at least by some equivalent means.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00221", "bookId": 54897, "start": 214483, "end": 216099, "sha256": "c075fcaa74bb9e8e501c9f2bdaea7c6ec22f769e9707840a763e23d63ea53ce7", "text": "(131.) Nomenclature, then, is, in itself, undoubtedly an important part of science, as it prevents our being lost in a wilderness of particulars, and involved in inextricable confusion. Happily, in those great branches of science where the objects of classification are most numerous, and the necessity for a clear and convenient nomenclature most pressing, no very great difficulty in its establishment is felt. The very multitude of the objects themselves affords the power of grouping them in subordinate classes, sufficiently well defined to admit of names, and these again into others, whose names may become attached to, or compounded with, the former, till at length the particular species is identified. The facility with which the botanist, the entomologist, or the chemist, refers by name to any individual object in his science shows what may be accomplished in this way when characters are themselves distinct. In other branches, however, considerable difficulty is experienced. This arises mostly where the species to be distinguished are separated from each other chiefly by difference in degree, of certain qualities common to all, and where the degrees shade into each other insensibly. Perhaps such subjects can hardly be considered ripe for systematic nomenclature; and that the attempt to apply it ought only to be partial, embracing such groups and parcels of individuals as agree in characters evidently natural and generic, and leaving the remainder under trivial or provisional denominations, till they shall be better known, and capable of being scientifically grouped.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00222", "bookId": 54897, "start": 216103, "end": 218427, "sha256": "65ccaa9683a64c55d8e99da2a07fa33704c07d1f245c90fed3e433d060e9293a", "text": "(132.) Indeed, nomenclature, in a systematic point of view, is as much, perhaps more, a consequence than a cause of extended knowledge. Any one may give an arbitrary name to a thing, merely to be able to talk of it; but, to give a name which shall at once refer it to a place in a system, we must know its properties; and we must _have_ a system, large enough, and regular enough, to receive it in a place which belongs to it, and to no other. It appears, therefore, doubtful whether it is desirable, for the essential purposes of science, that extreme refinement in systematic nomenclature should be insisted on. Were science perfect, indeed, systems of classification might be agreed on, which should assign to every object in nature a place in some class, to which it more remarkably and pre-eminently belonged than to any other, and under which it might acquire a name, never afterwards subject to change. But, so long as this is not the case, and new relations are daily discovered, we must be very cautious how we insist strongly on the establishment and extension of classes which have in them any thing artificial, as a basis of a rigid nomenclature; and especially how we mistake the means for the end, and sacrifice convenience and distinctness to a rage for arrangement. Every nomenclature dependent on artificial classifications is necessarily subject to fluctuations; and hardly any thing can counterbalance the evil of disturbing well-established names, which have once acquired a general circulation. In nature, one and the same object makes a part of an infinite number of different systems,--an individual in an infinite number of groups, some of greater, some of less importance, according to the different points of view in which they may be considered. Hence, as many different systems of nomenclature may be imagined as there can be discovered different heads of classification, while yet it is highly desirable that each object should be universally spoken of under one name, _if possible_. Consequently, in all subjects where comprehensive heads of classification do not prominently offer themselves, all nomenclature must be a balance of difficulties, and a good, short, _unmeaning_ name, which has once obtained a footing in usage, is preferable to almost any other.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00223", "bookId": 54897, "start": 218431, "end": 219725, "sha256": "408f6f05dd14be0b3df3b414130468106a74d7d31c8e3411f3cab3ff5167ecbb", "text": "(133.) There is no science in which the evils resulting from a rage for nomenclature have been felt to such an extent as in mineralogy. The number of simple minerals actually recognised by mineralogists does not exceed a few hundreds, yet there is scarcely one which has not four or five names in different books. The consequence is most unhappy. No name is suffered to endure long enough to take root; and every new writer on this interesting science begins, as a matter of course, by making a _tabula rasa_ of all former nomenclature, and proposing a new one in its place. The climax has at length been put to this most inconvenient and bewildering state of things by the appearance of a system supported by extraordinary merit in other respects, and therefore carrying the highest authority, in which names which had acquired universal circulation, and had hitherto maintained their ground in the midst of the general confusion, and even worked their way into common language, as denotive of _species_ too definite to admit of mistake, are actually rendered _generic_, and extended to whole groups, comprising objects agreeing in nothing but the arbitrary heads of a classification from which the most important natural relations are professedly and purposely rejected.[38]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00224", "bookId": 54897, "start": 219729, "end": 221108, "sha256": "6200d67109d2a293b144c23e140a2f9074182e89b0071876b274ab218dc9d69e", "text": "(134.) The classifications by which science is advanced, however, are widely different from those which serve as bases for artificial systems of nomenclature. They cross and intersect one another, as it were, in every possible way, and have for their very aim to interweave all the objects of nature in a close and compact web of mutual relations and dependence. As soon, then, as any resemblance or analogy, any point of agreement whatever, is perceived between any two or more things,--be they what they will, whether objects, or phenomena, or laws,--they immediately and _ipso facto_ constitute themselves into a group or class, which may become enlarged to any extent by the accession of such new objects, phenomena, or laws, agreeing in the same point, as may come to be subsequently ascertained. It is thus that the materials of the world become grouped in natural families, such as chemistry furnishes examples of, in its various groups of acids, alkalies, sulphurets, &c.; or botany, in its euphorbiaceæ, umbelliferæ, &c. It is thus, too, that phenomena assume their places under general points of resemblance; as, in optics, those which refer themselves to the class of periodic colours, double refraction, &c.; and that resemblances themselves become traced, which it is the business of induction to generalize and include in abstract propositions.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00225", "bookId": 54897, "start": 221112, "end": 222976, "sha256": "9d6d3137ea71b7517b5945d3c208447a82e3eff193273eac7e7ff274a06effb2", "text": "(135.) But every class formed on a positive resemblance of characters, or on a distinct analogy, draws with it the consideration of a negative class, in which that resemblance either does not subsist at all, or the contrary takes place; and again, there are classes in which a given quality is possessed by the different individuals in a descending scale of intensity. Now, it is of consequence to distinguish between cases in which there is a real opposition of quality, or a mere diminution of intensity, in some quality susceptible of degrees, till it becomes imperceptible. For example, between transparency and opacity there would at first sight appear a direct opposition; but, on nearer consideration, when we consider the gradations by which transparency diminishes in natural substances, we shall see reason to admit that the latter quality, instead of being the _opposite_ of the former, is only its _extreme lowest degree_. Again, in the arrangement of natural objects under the head of weight or specific gravity, the scale extends through all nature, and we know of no natural body in which the opposite of gravity, or positive _levity_, subsists. On the other hand, the opposite electricities; the north and south magnetic polarities; the alkaline and acid qualities of chemical agents; the positive and negative rotations impressed by plates of rock crystal on the planes of polarization of the rays of light, and many other cases, exemplify not merely a negation, but an active opposition of quality. Both these modes of classification have their peculiar importance in the inductive process: the one, as affording an opportunity of tracing a relation between phenomena by the observation of a correspondence in their scales of intensity; the other, by that of contrast, as we shall show more at large in the next section.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00226", "bookId": 54897, "start": 222980, "end": 224356, "sha256": "a21b840847f54af4a42c17a9685dc5db854577170fefcbfd1f842319544bd358", "text": "(136.) There is a very wide distinction, too, to be taken between such classes as turn upon a single head of resemblance among individuals otherwise very different, and such as bind together in natural groups, by a great variety of analogies, objects which yet differ in many remarkable particulars. For example: if we make colourless transparency a head of classification, the list of the class will comprise objects differing most widely in their nature, such as water, air, diamond, spirit of wine, glass, &c. On the other hand, the chemical families of alkalies, metals, &c. are instances of groups of the other kind; which, with properties in many respects different, still agree in a general resemblance of several others, which at once decides us in considering them as having a natural relation. In the former cases, our ingenuity is exercised to determine what can be the cause of their resemblance, in the latter, of their difference; the former belong to the province of inductive generalization, and afford the most instructive cases for the investigation of causes; the latter appertain to the more secret recesses of nature; the very existence of such families being in itself one of the great and complicated phenomena of the universe, which we cannot hope to unriddle without an intimate and extensive acquaintance with the highest laws.[39]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00227", "bookId": 54897, "start": 224366, "end": 224375, "sha256": "92cc5c51035a018ccb894aadbeb597325f9eb9f65ed36a8b6951aceb47febda2", "text": "CHAP. VI.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00228", "bookId": 54897, "start": 224381, "end": 224528, "sha256": "f29083aef3b2209ae55684e8583acbb5020b103d8c22764d2f290954d39ea926", "text": "OF THE FIRST STAGE OF INDUCTION.--THE DISCOVERY OF PROXIMATE CAUSES, AND LAWS OF THE LOWEST DEGREE OF GENERALITY, AND THEIR VERIFICATION.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00229", "bookId": 54897, "start": 224534, "end": 224990, "sha256": "75a20e9d50ac302319d4642a103e569a001bb2b92655ddc3e683806edd982f6b", "text": "(137.) The first thing that a philosophic mind considers, when any new phenomenon presents itself, is its _explanation_, or reference to an immediate producing cause. If that cannot be ascertained, the next is to _generalize_ the phenomenon, and include it, with others analogous to it, in the expression of some law, in the hope that its consideration, in a more advanced state of knowledge, may lead to the discovery of an adequate proximate cause.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00230", "bookId": 54897, "start": 224994, "end": 227083, "sha256": "864bc9ce0621b3e3cd24d1c620d540a67f0e6af4f931d12645720243aca1ea84", "text": "(138.) Experience having shown us the manner in which one phenomenon depends on another in a great variety of cases, we find ourselves provided, as science extends, with a continually increasing stock of such antecedent phenomena, or causes (meaning at present merely proximate causes), competent, under different modifications, to the production of a great multitude of effects, besides those which originally led to a knowledge of them. To such causes Newton has applied the term _veræ causæ_; that is, causes recognized as having a real existence in nature, and not being mere hypotheses or figments of the mind. To exemplify the distinction:--The phenomenon of shells found in rocks, at a great height above the sea, has been attributed to several causes. By some it has been ascribed to a plastic virtue in the soil; by some, to fermentation; by some, to the influence of the celestial bodies; by some, to the casual passage of pilgrims with their scallops; by some, to birds feeding on shell-fish; and by all modern geologists, with one consent, to the life and death of real mollusca at the bottom of the sea, and a subsequent alteration of the relative level of the land and sea. Of these, the plastic virtue and celestial influence belong to the class of figments of fancy. Casual transport by pilgrims is a real cause, and might account for a few shells here and there dropped on frequented passes, but is not extensive enough for the purpose of explanation. Fermentation, generally, is a real cause, so far as that there _is such a thing_; but it is not a real cause of the production of a shell in a rock, since no such thing was ever witnessed as one of its effects, and rocks and stones do not ferment. On the other hand, for a shell-fish dying at the bottom of the sea to leave his shell in the mud, where it becomes silted over and imbedded, happens daily; and the elevation of the bottom of the sea to become dry land has really been witnessed so often, and on such a scale, as to qualify it for a _vera causa_ available in sound philosophy.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00231", "bookId": 54897, "start": 227087, "end": 228946, "sha256": "c33bf74a6aac3d9f631005423f9476bac51c80e6e9bb18300fead988746bf210", "text": "(139.) To take another instance, likewise drawn from the same deservedly popular science:--The fact of a great change in the general climate of large tracts of the globe, if not of the whole earth, and of a diminution of general temperature, having been recognised by geologists, from their examination of the remains of animals and vegetables of former ages enclosed in the strata, various causes for such diminution of temperature have been assigned. Some consider the whole globe as having gradually cooled from absolute fusion; some regard the immensely superior activity of former volcanoes, and consequent more copious communication of internal heat to the surface, in former ages, as the cause. Neither of these can be regarded as real causes in the sense here intended; for we do not _know_ that the globe has so cooled from fusion, nor are we sure that such supposed greater activity of former than of present volcanoes really did exist. A cause, possessing the essential requisites of a _vera causa_, has, however, been brought forward[40] in the varying influence of the distribution of land and sea over the surface of the globe: a change of such distribution, in the lapse of ages, by the degradation of the old continents, and the elevation of new, being a demonstrated fact; and the influence of such a change on the climates of particular regions, if not of the whole globe, being a perfectly fair conclusion, from what we know of continental, insular, and oceanic climates by actual observation. Here, then, we have, at least, a cause on which a philosopher may consent to reason; though, whether the changes actually going on are such as to warrant the whole extent of the conclusion, or are even taking place in the right direction, may be considered as undecided till the matter has been more thoroughly examined.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00232", "bookId": 54897, "start": 228950, "end": 230665, "sha256": "76d3dc1320ebad37693b09b7d3323cd2c23eabe34de039a5e2ab23550eab7400", "text": "(140.) To this we may add another, which has likewise the essential characters of a _vera causa_, in the astronomical _fact_ of the actual slow diminution of the eccentricity of the earth’s orbit round the sun; and which, as a general one, affecting the _mean temperature of the whole globe_, and as one of which the effect is both inevitable, and susceptible, to a certain degree, of exact estimation, deserves consideration. It is evident that the _mean_ temperature of the whole surface of the globe, in so far as it is maintained by the action of the sun at a higher degree than it would have were the sun extinguished, must depend on the mean quantity of the sun’s rays which it receives, or, which comes to the same thing, on the _total_ quantity received in a given invariable time: and the length of the year being unchangeable in all the fluctuations of the planetary system, it follows, that the total _annual_ amount of solar radiation will determine, _cæteris paribus_, the general climate of the earth. Now, it is not difficult to show that this amount is inversely proportional to the minor axis of the ellipse described by the earth about the sun, regarded as slowly variable; and that, therefore, the major axis remaining, as we know it to be, constant, and the orbit being actually in a state of approach to a circle, and, consequently, the minor axis being on the _increase_, the mean annual amount of solar radiation received by the whole earth must be actually on the _decrease_. We have here, therefore, an evident real cause, of sufficient universality, and acting _in the right direction_, to account for the phenomenon. Its adequacy is another consideration.[41]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00233", "bookId": 54897, "start": 230669, "end": 231397, "sha256": "fef5fd08a086a9bc0693d7580d810c93c4a5bf14565f5fbcdca5e0947f0e7c9b", "text": "(141.) Whenever, therefore, any phenomenon presents itself for explanation, we naturally seek, in the first instance, to refer it to some one or other of those real causes which experience has shown to exist, and to be efficacious in producing similar phenomena. In this attempt our probability of success will, of course, mainly depend, 1st, On the number and variety of causes experience has placed at our disposal; 2dly, On our habit of applying them to the explanation of natural phenomena; and, 3dly, On the number of analogous phenomena we can collect, which have either been explained, or which admit of explanation by some one or other of those causes, and the closeness of their analogy with that in question.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00234", "bookId": 54897, "start": 231401, "end": 232824, "sha256": "e1b4d0217676a66ded45e0acc9c78a3c660c9a67a82021fad36c8dbc5307980b", "text": "(142.) Here, then, we see the great importance of possessing a stock of analogous instances or phenomena which class themselves with that under consideration, the explanation of one among which may naturally be expected to lead to that of all the rest. If the analogy of two phenomena be very close and striking, while, at the same time, the cause of one is very obvious, it becomes scarcely possible to refuse to admit the action of an analogous cause in the other, though not so obvious in itself. For instance, when we see a stone whirled round in a sling, describing a circular orbit round the hand, keeping the string stretched, and flying away the moment it breaks, we never hesitate to regard it as retained in its orbit by the tension of the string, that is, by _a force_ directed to the centre; for we feel that we do really exert such a force. We have here _the direct perception_ of the cause. When, therefore, we see a great body like the moon circulating round the earth and not flying off, we cannot help believing it to be prevented from so doing, not indeed by a material tie, but by that which operates in the other case through the intermedium of the string,--a _force_ directed constantly to the centre. It is thus that we are continually acquiring a knowledge of the existence of causes acting under circumstances of such concealment as effectually to prevent their direct discovery.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00235", "bookId": 54897, "start": 232828, "end": 233621, "sha256": "b31b38f881f9a7ba0001e7fb2bce41442967d7eee3d50b771794d2bb5126c81d", "text": "(143.) In general we must observe that motion, wherever produced or changed, invariably points out the existence of _force_ as its cause; and thus the forces of nature become known and measured by the motions they produce. Thus, the _force_ of magnetism becomes known by the deviation produced by iron in a compass needle, or by a needle leaping up to a magnet held over it, as certainly as by that adhesion to it, when in contact and at rest, which requires force to break the connection; and thus the currents produced in the surface of a quantity of quicksilver, electrified under a conducting fluid, have pointed out the existence and direction of forces of enormous intensity developed by the electric circuit, of which we should not otherwise have had the least suspicion.[42]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00236", "bookId": 54897, "start": 233625, "end": 235058, "sha256": "30aa98a640db6766eeaee52d02bf3959a97a8d897ef9c04993209f7b2b933c23", "text": "(144.) But when the cause of a phenomenon neither presents itself obviously on the consideration of the phenomenon itself, nor is as it were forced on our attention by a case of strong analogy, such as above described, we have then no resource but in a deliberate assemblage of all the parallel instances we can muster; that is, to the formation of a class of facts, having the phenomenon in question for a head of classification; and to a search among the individuals of this class for some other common points of agreement, among which the cause will of necessity be found. But if more than one cause should appear, we must then endeavour to find, or, if we cannot find, to _produce, new facts_, in which each of these in succession shall be wanting, while yet they agree in the general point in question. Here we find the use of what Bacon terms “_crucial instances_,” which are phenomena brought forward to decide between two causes, each having the same analogies in its favour. And here, too, we perceive the utility of _experiment_ as distinguished from mere passive observation. We make an experiment of the crucial kind when we form combinations, and put in action causes from which some particular one shall be deliberately excluded, and some other purposely admitted; and by the agreement or disagreement of the resulting phenomena with those of the class under examination, we decide our judgment.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00237", "bookId": 54897, "start": 235062, "end": 235322, "sha256": "a145b202ebecb87172ce4896163ab2ae88b0389bbdff6427965627f4c4d44434", "text": "(145.) When we would lay down general rules for guiding and facilitating our search, among a great mass of assembled facts, for their common cause, we must have regard to the characters of that relation which we intend by cause and effect. Now, these are,--", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00238", "bookId": 54897, "start": 235328, "end": 236080, "sha256": "45e8d0fa7eab3047df33da509319e022f21e02d803bb51e6e2e77356bb5d40e9", "text": "1st, Invariable connection, and, in particular, invariable antecedence of the cause and consequence of the effect, unless prevented by some counteracting cause. But it must be observed, that, in a great number of natural phenomena, the effect is produced gradually, while the cause often goes on increasing in intensity; so that the antecedence of the one and consequence of the other becomes difficult to trace, though it really exists. On the other hand, the effect often follows the cause so instantaneously, that the interval cannot be perceived. In consequence of this, it is sometimes difficult to decide, of two phenomena constantly accompanying one another, which is cause or which effect.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00239", "bookId": 54897, "start": 236086, "end": 236220, "sha256": "9242eb9c9d001230fcc7e4a830a82ea765c736ef72d66f3ec85dd066160d4694", "text": "2d, Invariable negation of the effect with absence of the cause, unless some other cause be capable of producing the same effect.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00240", "bookId": 54897, "start": 236226, "end": 236383, "sha256": "bf068a5906c7f6694ebc121980a750091932585bd0996904013bcc8c3678e475", "text": "3d, Increase or diminution of the effect, with the increased or diminished intensity of the cause, in cases which admit of increase and diminution.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00241", "bookId": 54897, "start": 236389, "end": 236484, "sha256": "a98fbd47c3581ddb3c4097dfa57dec97cec647115b61fc5659c082115a3161fd", "text": "4th, Proportionality of the effect to its cause in all cases of _direct unimpeded_ action.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00242", "bookId": 54897, "start": 236490, "end": 236541, "sha256": "94e4cd880f10bd4440c00149f4675134f8fdda6c1c68edca9aade087cfc72b7c", "text": "5th, Reversal of the effect with that of the cause.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00243", "bookId": 54897, "start": 236545, "end": 236929, "sha256": "1f7ade9dd6240805b17b0a0aa37355126f1fb9445a428b70d80eeccc4e90f126", "text": "(146.) From these characters we are led to the following observations, which may be considered as so many propositions readily applicable to particular cases, or rules of philosophizing: we conclude, 1st, That if in our group of facts there be one in which any assigned peculiarity, or attendant circumstance, is wanting or opposite, such peculiarity cannot be the cause we seek.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00244", "bookId": 54897, "start": 236933, "end": 237274, "sha256": "a4b5a92c34c4aee391977e779ddc3253df7e8aaf0a9f392699a6087cae8f847d", "text": "(147.) 2d, That any circumstance in which all the facts without exception agree, _may_ be the cause in question, or, if not, at least a collateral effect of the same cause: if there be but one such point of agreement, this possibility becomes a certainty; and, on the other hand, if there be more than one, they may be concurrent causes.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00245", "bookId": 54897, "start": 237278, "end": 237736, "sha256": "6bfaaece2e263dcedbe984f1de0909a6c5744729ca7602efe3c5c48101331efc", "text": "(148.) 3d, That we are not to deny the existence of a cause in favour of which we have a unanimous agreement of strong analogies, though it may not be apparent how such a cause can produce the effect, or even though it may be difficult to conceive its existence under the circumstances of the case; in such cases we should rather appeal to experience when possible, than decide _à priori_ against the cause, and try whether it cannot be made apparent.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00246", "bookId": 54897, "start": 237740, "end": 238015, "sha256": "874f3ab415fe08651da0eca1fb055a4ee7ae479c29864d38f5a428967e440eda", "text": "(149.) For instance: seeing the sun vividly luminous, every analogy leads us to conclude it intensely hot. How heat can produce light, we know not; and how such a heat can be maintained, we can form no conception. Yet we are not, therefore, entitled to deny the inference.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00247", "bookId": 54897, "start": 238019, "end": 238137, "sha256": "e401d73f4c2f03b1b314e09a11d4f9ce67a532175caef838d4a7eb0ea86553ac", "text": "(150.) 4th, That contrary or opposing facts are equally instructive for the discovery of causes with favourable ones.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00248", "bookId": 54897, "start": 238141, "end": 238627, "sha256": "454be975d2647513d03fb562c8fddd985a06bb3542333d08dd4525d7f1f27bd6", "text": "(151.) For instance: when air is confined with moistened iron filings in a close vessel over water, its bulk is diminished, by a certain portion of it being abstracted and combining with the iron, producing _rust_. And, if the remainder be examined, it is found that it will _not_ support flame or animal life. This contrary fact shows that the cause of the support of flame and animal life is to be looked for in that part of the air which the iron abstracts, and which rusts it.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00249", "bookId": 54897, "start": 238631, "end": 238898, "sha256": "9f4b7820ab2a9baf2e6531c8ecd335a92ee9779dbce9ffbacf85ec379d9f4d97", "text": "(152.) 5th, That causes will very frequently become obvious, by a mere arrangement of our facts in the order of intensity in which some peculiar quality subsists; though not of necessity, because counteracting or modifying causes may be at the same time in action.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00250", "bookId": 54897, "start": 238902, "end": 239648, "sha256": "b45c06dfb5e910572d9c89482a873462d50361c83079a057a940f8d8681f6582", "text": "(153.) For example: sound consists in impulses communicated to our ears by the air. If a series of impulses of equal force be communicated to it at equal intervals of time, at first in slow succession, and by degrees more and more rapidly, we hear at first a rattling noise, then a low murmur, and then a hum, which by degrees acquires the character of a musical note, rising higher and higher in acuteness, till its pitch becomes too high for the ear to follow. And from this correspondence between the pitch of the note and the rapidity of succession of the impulse, we conclude that our sensation of the different pitches of musical notes originates in the different rapidities with which their impulses are communicated to our ears.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00251", "bookId": 54897, "start": 239652, "end": 240199, "sha256": "c359b497a467cf70f829726dc2ad65822bd6df76a2d9724292f83804ad7cf0a8", "text": "(154.) 6th, That such counteracting or modifying causes may subsist unperceived, and annul the effects of the cause we seek, in instances which, but for their action, would have come into our class of favourable facts; and that, therefore, exceptions may often be made to disappear by removing or allowing for such counteracting causes. This remark becomes of the greatest importance, when (as is often the case) a single striking exception stands out, as it were, against an otherwise unanimous array of facts in favour of a certain cause.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00252", "bookId": 54897, "start": 240203, "end": 240674, "sha256": "0d8ef5c908175a4247c75417cd3a10aaf84d0f74475832bb767bc0adb2077b18", "text": "(155.) Thus, in chemistry, the _alkaline_ quality of the alkaline and earthy bases is found to be due to the presence of oxygen combined with one or other of a peculiar set of metals. Ammonia is, however, a violent outstanding exception, such as here alluded to, being a compound of azote and hydrogen: but there are almost certain indications that this exception is not a real one, but assumes that appearance in consequence of some modifying cause not understood.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00253", "bookId": 54897, "start": 240678, "end": 242021, "sha256": "0838f6729694564f7aec6216f8c4bd3919c25978a0c6b8bf301b1d838236b2a4", "text": "(156.) 7th, If we can either find produced by nature, or produce designedly for ourselves, two instances which agree _exactly_ in all but one particular, and differ in that one, its influence in producing the phenomenon, if it have any, _must_ thereby be rendered sensible. If that particular be present in one instance and wanting altogether in the other, the production or non-production of the phenomenon will decide whether it be or be not the only cause: still more evidently, if it be present _contrariwise_ in the two cases, and the effect be thereby reversed. But if its total presence or absence only produces a change in the _degree_ or intensity of the phenomenon, we can then only conclude that it acts as a concurrent cause or condition with some other to be sought elsewhere. In nature, it is comparatively rare to find instances pointedly differing in one circumstance and agreeing in every other; but when we call experiment to our aid, it is easy to produce them; and this is, in fact, the grand application of _experiments of enquiry_ in physical researches. They become more valuable, and their results clearer, in proportion as they possess this quality (of agreeing exactly in all their circumstances but one), since the question put to nature becomes thereby more pointed, and its answer more decisive.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00254", "bookId": 54897, "start": 242025, "end": 242706, "sha256": "e7a680ec836452e8eca0ae406f29d4fdd466ad3a56b582e4cb60adc97cf5b819", "text": "(157.) 8th, If we cannot obtain a complete negative or opposition of the circumstance whose influence we would ascertain, we must endeavour to find cases where it varies considerably in degree. If _this_ cannot be done, we may perhaps be able to weaken or exalt its influence by the introduction of some fresh circumstance, which, abstractedly considered, seems _likely_ to produce this effect, and thus obtain indirect evidence of its influence. But then we are always to remember, that the evidence so obtained _is_ indirect, and that the new circumstance introduced _may_ have a direct influence of its own, or may exercise a modifying one on some _other_ circumstance.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00255", "bookId": 54897, "start": 242710, "end": 243512, "sha256": "fa3e19d4a92811f61299deefa1c5e9e0d98123cca2688472d3eff10afe0b3d82", "text": "(158.) 9th, Complicated phenomena, in which several causes concurring, opposing, or quite independent of each other, operate at once, so as to produce a compound effect, may be simplified by subducting the effect of all the known causes, as well as the nature of the case permits, either by deductive reasoning or by appeal to experience, and thus leaving, as it were, a _residual phenomenon_ to be explained. It is by this process, in fact, that science, in its present advanced state, is chiefly promoted. Most of the phenomena which nature presents are very complicated; and when the effects of all known causes are estimated with exactness, and subducted, the residual facts are constantly appearing in the form of phenomena altogether new, and leading to the most important conclusions.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00256", "bookId": 54897, "start": 243516, "end": 244551, "sha256": "f97e1a9cb94f61ebde412cfee390003fdd07ea17986c93267c26a56abc9cbaa9", "text": "(159.) For example: the return of the comet predicted by professor Encke, a great many times in succession, and the general good agreement of its calculated with its observed place during any one of its periods of visibility, would lead us to say that its gravitation towards the sun and planets is the sole and sufficient cause of all the phenomena of its orbitual motion; but when the effect of this cause is strictly calculated and subducted from the observed motion, there is found to remain behind a _residual phenomenon_, which would never have been otherwise ascertained to exist, which is a small anticipation of the time of its reappearances or a diminution of its periodic time, which cannot be accounted for by gravity, and whose cause is therefore to be enquired into. Such an anticipation would be caused by the resistance of a medium disseminated through the celestial regions; and as there are other good reasons for believing this to be a _vera causa_, it has therefore been ascribed to such a resistance.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00257", "bookId": 54897, "start": 244555, "end": 246889, "sha256": "cbed8b0e83958d8ce61104ee38bec3cc5356f67d16671204f4ec77f1812d7d7c", "text": "(160.) This 9th observation is of such importance in science, that we shall exemplify it by another instance or two. M. Arago, having suspended a magnetic needle by a silk thread, and set it in vibration, observed, that it came much sooner to a state of rest when suspended over a plate of copper, than when no such plate was beneath it. Now, in both cases there were two _veræ causæ_ why it _should_ come at length to rest, viz. the resistance of the air, which opposes, and at length destroys, all motions performed in it; and the want of perfect mobility in the silk thread. But the effect of these causes being exactly known by the observation made in the absence of the copper, and being thus allowed for and subducted, a _residual_ phenomenon appeared, in the fact that a retarding influence was exerted by the copper itself; and this fact, once ascertained, speedily led to the knowledge of an entirely new and unexpected class of relations. To add one more instance. If it be true (as M. Fourrier considers it demonstrated to be) that the celestial regions have a temperature independent of the sun, not greatly inferior to that at which quicksilver congeals, and much superior to some degrees of cold which have been artificially produced, two causes suggest themselves: one is that assigned by the author above mentioned; the radiation of the stars; another may be proposed in the ether or elastic medium mentioned in the last section, which the phenomena of light and the resistance of comets give us reason to believe fills all space, and which, in analogy to all the elastic media known, may be supposed to possess a temperature and a specific heat of its own, which it is capable of communicating to bodies surrounded by it. Now, if we consider that the heat radiated by the sun follows the same proportion as its light, and regard it as reasonable to admit with respect to stellar heat what holds good of solar; the effect of stellar radiation in maintaining a temperature in space should be as much inferior to that of the radiation of the sun as the light of a moonless midnight is to that of an equatorial noon; that is to say, almost inconceivably smaller. Allowing, then, the full effect for this cause, there would still remain a great residuum due to the presence of the ether.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00258", "bookId": 54897, "start": 246893, "end": 247566, "sha256": "000f57a5533a0fdb5c3896d0638e3f5cb59d1f9bf2375dffd667018b6da07733", "text": "(161.) Many of the new elements of chemistry have been detected in the investigation of _residual phenomena_. Thus, Arfwedson discovered lithia by perceiving an _excess of weight_ in the sulphate produced from a small portion of what he considered as magnesia present in a mineral he had analysed. It is on this principle, too, that the _small concentrated residues of great operations_ in the arts are almost sure to be the lurking places of new chemical ingredients: witness iodine, brome, selenium, and the new metals accompanying platina in the experiments of Wollaston and Tennant. It was a happy thought of Glauber to examine what every body else threw away.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00259", "bookId": 54897, "start": 247570, "end": 248363, "sha256": "996d124dd985c6bce7a277b2ae2de06a21f20ce4a3b94da5c987e5792a4a38a5", "text": "(162.) Finally, we have to observe, that the detection of a _possible_ cause, by the comparison of assembled cases, _must_ lead to one of two things: either, 1st, The detection of a real cause, and of its manner of acting, so as to furnish a complete explanation of the facts; or, 2dly, The establishment of an abstract law of nature, pointing out two phenomena of a general kind as invariably connected; and asserting, that where one is, there the other will always be found. Such invariable connection is itself a phenomenon of a higher order than any particular fact; and when many such are discovered, we may again proceed to classify, combine, and examine them, with a view to the detection of _their_ causes, or the discovery of still more general laws, and so on without end.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00260", "bookId": 54897, "start": 248367, "end": 249314, "sha256": "07c36fc48dfe33784a70072e7a82d3fabc106681fd34c91544bd0a84ed981072", "text": "(163.) Let us now exemplify this inductive search for a cause by one general example: suppose _dew_ were the phenomenon proposed, whose cause we would know. In the first place, we must separate dew from rain and the moisture of fogs, and limit the application of the term to what is really meant, which is, the spontaneous appearance of moisture on substances exposed in the open air when no rain or _visible_ wet is falling. Now, here we have analogous phenomena in the moisture which bedews a cold metal or stone when we breathe upon it; that which appears on a glass of water fresh from the well in hot weather; that which appears on the _inside_ of windows when sudden rain or hail chills the external air; that which runs down our walls when, after a long frost, a warm moist thaw comes on: all these instances agree in one point (Rule 2. § 147.), the coldness of the object dewed, in comparison with the air in contact with it.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00261", "bookId": 54897, "start": 249318, "end": 250581, "sha256": "21ef1579c4413327eca2dd1cd96be671351103ffbdfdc0427e24ba80c203c8b8", "text": "(164.) But, in the case of the night dew, is this a _real cause_--is it a fact that the object dewed _is_ colder than the air? Certainly not, one would at first be inclined to say; for what is to _make_ it so? But the analogies are cogent and unanimous; and, therefore, (pursuant to Rule 3. § 148.) we are not to discard their indications; and, besides, the experiment is easy: we have only to lay a thermometer in contact with the dewed substance, and hang one at a little distance above it out of reach of its influence. The experiment has been therefore made; the question has been asked, and the answer has been invariably in the _affirmative_. Whenever an object contracts dew, _it is_ colder than the air. Here, then, we have _an invariable concomitant_ circumstance: but is this chill an effect of dew, or its cause? That dews are accompanied with a chill is a common remark; but vulgar prejudice would make the cold the _effect_ rather than the cause. We must, therefore, collect more facts, or, which comes to the same thing, vary the circumstances; since every instance in which the circumstances differ is a fresh fact; and, especially, we must note the contrary or negative cases (Rule 4. § 150.), _i. e._ where no dew is produced.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00262", "bookId": 54897, "start": 250585, "end": 252933, "sha256": "200b59bcbff81bc9032c31556ce0db4731282bcaf5b2b035df9accfaccce1438", "text": "(165.) Now, 1st, no dew is produced on the surface of _polished metals_, but it is very copiously on glass, both exposed with their faces upwards, and in some cases the under side of a horizontal plate of glass is also dewed; which last circumstance (by Rule 1. § 146.) excludes the _fall_ of moisture from the sky in an invisible form, which would naturally suggest itself as a cause. In the cases of polished metal and polished glass, the contrast shows evidently that the _substance_ has much to do with the phenomenon; therefore, let the substance _alone_ be diversified as much as possible, by exposing polished surfaces of various kinds. This done, _a scale of intensity_ becomes obvious (Rule 5. § 152.). Those polished substances are found to be most strongly dewed which conduct heat worst; while those which conduct well resist dew most effectually. Here we encounter a _law_ of the first degree of generality. But, if we expose rough surfaces, instead of polished, we sometimes find this law interfered with (Rule 5. § 152.). Thus, roughened iron, especially if painted over or blackened, becomes dewed sooner than varnished paper: the kind of _surface_ therefore has a great influence. Expose, then, the _same_ material in very diversified states as to surface (Rule 7. § 156.), and another scale of intensity becomes at once apparent; those _surfaces_ which _part with their heat_ most readily by radiation are found to contract dew most copiously: and thus we have detected another law of the same generality with the former, by a comparison of two classes of facts, one relating to dew, the other to the radiation of heat from surfaces. Again, the influence ascertained to exist of _substance_ and _surface_ leads us to consider that of _texture_: and here, again, we are presented on trial with remarkable differences, and with a third _scale of intensity_, pointing out substances of a close firm texture, such as stones, metals, &c. as unfavourable, but those of a loose one, as cloth, wool, velvet, eiderdown, cotton, &c. as eminently favourable, to the contraction of dew: and these are precisely those which are best adapted for clothing, or for impeding the free passage of heat from the skin into the air, so as to allow their outer surfaces to be very cold while they remain warm within.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00263", "bookId": 54897, "start": 252937, "end": 253690, "sha256": "3e8d945f033c472909eed89461be5aa2cc8d9c8a4280ac09ff641391cf86d4d2", "text": "(166.) Lastly, among the negative instances, (§ 150.) it is observed, that dew is never copiously deposited in situations much screened from the open sky, and not at all in _a cloudy night_; but if the clouds withdraw, even for a few minutes, and leave a clear opening, a deposition of dew presently begins, and goes on increasing. Here, then, a cause is distinctly pointed out by its antecedence to the effect in question (§ 145.). A clear view of the cloudless sky, then, is an essential condition, or, which comes to the same thing, clouds or surrounding objects act as _opposing causes_. This is so much the case, that dew formed in clear intervals will often even evaporate again when the sky becomes thickly overcast (Rule 4. § 150.).", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00264", "bookId": 54897, "start": 253694, "end": 255080, "sha256": "0b5e6c85e219533cbe990f541a9b7423ea1e497fbff27b2cb171e40e3811655e", "text": "(167.) When we now come to assemble these partial inductions so as to raise from them a general conclusion, we consider, 1st, That all the conclusions we have come to have a reference to that first general fact--the cooling of the exposed surface of the body dewed below the temperature of the air. Those surfaces which part with their heat outwards most readily, and have it supplied from within most slowly, will, of course, become coldest if there be an opportunity for their heat to escape, and not be restored to them from without. Now, a clear sky affords such an opportunity. It is a law well known to those who are conversant with the nature of heat, that heat is constantly escaping from _all bodies_ in rays, or by _radiation_, but is as constantly restored to them by the similar radiation of others surrounding them. Clouds and surrounding objects therefore act as opposing causes by replacing the whole or a great part of the heat so radiated away, which can escape effectually, without being replaced, only through openings into infinite space. Thus, at length, we arrive at the general proximate cause of dew, in the cooling of the dewed surface by radiation faster than its heat can be restored to it, by communication with the ground, or by counter-radiation; so as to become colder than the air, and thereby to cause a condensation of its moisture.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00265", "bookId": 54897, "start": 255084, "end": 255549, "sha256": "90ed8389a07c49e44b616e27ff640aa8d38e19399519f787c643b88a55f1ae61", "text": "(168.) We have purposely selected this theory of dew, first developed by the late Dr. Wells, as one of the most beautiful specimens we can call to mind of inductive experimental enquiry lying within a moderate compass. It is not possible in so brief a space to do it justice; but we earnestly recommend his work[43] (a short and very entertaining one) for perusal to the student of natural philosophy, as a model with which he will do well to become familiar.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00266", "bookId": 54897, "start": 255553, "end": 256876, "sha256": "fbf807f6b0ae68346f5db19e7085d5de4f9d02e347945f43edcc9eda7e509fa9", "text": "(169.) In the analysis above given, the formation of dew is referred to two more general phenomena; the radiation of heat, and the condensation of invisible vapour by cold. The cause of the former is a much higher enquiry, and may be said, indeed, to be totally unknown; that of the latter actually forms a most important branch of physical enquiry. In such a case, when we reason upwards till we reach an ultimate fact, we regard a phenomenon as fully explained; as we consider the branch of a tree to terminate when traced to its insertion in the trunk, or a twig to its junction with the branch; or rather, as a rivulet retains its importance and its name till lost in some larger tributary, or in the main river which delivers it into the ocean. This, however, always supposes that, on a reconsideration of the case, we see clearly how the admission of such a fact, with all its attendant laws, will perfectly account for _every particular_--as well those which, in the different stages of the induction, have led us to a knowledge of it, as those which we had neglected, or considered less minutely than the rest. But, had we no previous knowledge of the radiation of heat, this same induction would have made it known to us, and, duly considered, might have led to the knowledge of many of its laws.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00267", "bookId": 54897, "start": 256880, "end": 257199, "sha256": "a04aa344cbb16ec57785f996e04141a89170683d862f1a6f6054c39b2f0606ec", "text": "(170.) In the study of nature, we must not, therefore, be scrupulous as to _how_ we reach to a knowledge of such general facts: provided only we verify them carefully when once detected, we must be content to seize them wherever they are to be found. And this brings us to consider the _verification_ of inductions.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00268", "bookId": 54897, "start": 257203, "end": 257886, "sha256": "298bb5d097192824ffd14e35d8b540c5ad14f09118ea9a8df063bc58b58979dc", "text": "(171.) If, in our induction, every individual case has actually been present to our minds, we are sure that it will find itself duly _represented_ in our final conclusion: but this is impossible for such cases as were _unknown_ to us, and hardly ever happens even with all the known cases; for such is the tendency of the human mind to speculation, that on the least idea of an analogy between a few phenomena, it leaps forward, as it were, to a cause or law, to the temporary neglect of all the rest; so that, in fact, almost all our principal inductions must be regarded as a series of ascents and descents, and of conclusions from a few cases, verified by trial on many.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00269", "bookId": 54897, "start": 257890, "end": 258771, "sha256": "99c6ba9a0758de7814aeb5e68d2c63b161bd8214bf27044d20cdc6d00f4ab127", "text": "(172.) Whenever, therefore, we think we have been led by induction to the knowledge of the proximate cause of a phenomenon or of a law of nature, our next business is to examine deliberately and _seriatim_ all the cases we have collected of its occurrence, in order to satisfy ourselves that they are explicable by our cause, or fairly included in the expression of our law: and in case any exception occurs, it must be carefully noted and set aside for re-examination at a more advanced period, when, possibly, the cause of exception may appear, and the exception itself, by allowing for the effect of that cause, be brought over to the side of our induction; but should exceptions prove numerous and various in their features, our faith in the conclusion will be proportionally shaken, and at all events its importance lessened by the destruction of its universality.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00270", "bookId": 54897, "start": 258775, "end": 259658, "sha256": "586d2785fa9ed90b1a2de6004804bcf0ae48c9210d4d12cc72240698bdb3f5f0", "text": "(173.) In the conduct of this verification, we are to consider whether the cause or law to which we are conducted be one already known and recognised as a more general one, whose nature is well understood, and of which the phenomenon in question is but one more case in addition to those already known, or whether it be one less general, less known, or altogether new. In the latter case, our verification will suffice, if it merely shows that all the cases considered are plainly cases in point. But in the former, the process of verification is of a much more severe and definite kind. We must trace the action of our cause with distinctness and precision, as modified by all the circumstances of each case; we must estimate its effects, and show that nothing unexplained remains behind; at least, in so far as the presence of unknown modifying causes is not concerned.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00271", "bookId": 54897, "start": 259662, "end": 260417, "sha256": "ab4753d4c908d4a3c69224fc8e0499bd981cfc4dc673229dfe95bdd7a9baecc0", "text": "(174.) Now, this is precisely the sort of process in which _residual phenomena_ (such as spoken of in art. 158.) may be expected to occur. If our induction be really a valid and a comprehensive one, _whatever_ remains unexplained in the comparison of its conclusion with particular cases, under all their circumstances, _is_ such a phenomenon, and comes in its turn to be a subject of inductive reasoning to discover its cause or laws. It is thus that we may be said to witness facts with the eyes of reason; and it is thus that we are continually attaining a knowledge of new phenomena and new laws which lie beneath the surface of things, and give rise to the creation of fresh branches of science more and more remote from common observation.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00272", "bookId": 54897, "start": 260421, "end": 261512, "sha256": "2c5ad07341b252255a8f8c1bce2a043f2603c45f3bfde9bb24c5f021d604951a", "text": "(175.) Physical astronomy affords numerous and splendid instances of this. The law, for example, which asserts that the planets are retained in their orbits about the sun, and satellites about their primaries, by an attractive force, decreasing as the square of the distances increases, comes to be verified in each particular case by deducing from it the exact motions which, under the circumstances, ought to take place, and comparing them with fact. This comparison, while it verifies in general the existence of the law of gravitation as supposed, and its adequacy to explain all the principal motions of every body in the system, yet leaves some small deviations in those of the planets, and some very considerable ones in that of the moon and other satellites, still unaccounted for; residual phenomena, which still remain to be traced up to causes. By further examining these, their causes have at length been ascertained, and found to consist in the mutual actions of the planets on each other, and the disturbing influence of the sun on the motions of the satellites.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00273", "bookId": 54897, "start": 261516, "end": 262645, "sha256": "b95980d7f7ba5b10189945b5a5e590c7e6d76484768bbe0d6b8771b3cacc9647", "text": "(176.) But a law of nature has not that degree of generality which fits it for a stepping-stone to greater inductions, unless it be _universal_ in its application. We cannot rely on its enabling us to extend our views beyond the circle of instances from which it was obtained, unless we have already had experience of its power to do so; unless it actually _has_ enabled us before trial to say what will take place in cases analogous to those originally contemplated; unless, in short, we have studiously placed ourselves in the situation of its antagonists, and even perversely endeavoured to find exceptions to it without success. It is in the precise proportion that a law once obtained endures this extreme severity of trial, that its value and importance are to be estimated; and our next step in the verification of an induction must therefore consist in _extending_ its application to cases not originally contemplated; in studiously varying the circumstances under which our causes act, with a view to ascertain whether their effect is general; and in pushing the application of our laws to extreme cases.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00274", "bookId": 54897, "start": 262649, "end": 263846, "sha256": "2da3940cbd4aaf95aa4deccf4e0a0e9fc712afd56f67b38e2471bf5eae2c7445", "text": "(177.) For example, a fair induction from a great number of facts led Galileo to conclude that the accelerating power of gravity is the same on all sorts of bodies, and on great and small masses indifferently; and this he exemplified by letting bodies of very different natures and weights fall at the same instant from a high tower, when it was observed that they struck the ground at the same moment, abating a certain trifling difference, due, as he justly believed it to be, to the greater proportional resistance of the air to light than to heavy bodies. The experiment could not, at that time, be fairly tried with extremely light substances, such as cork, feathers, cotton, &c. because of the great resistance experienced by these in their fall; no means being then known of removing this cause of disturbance. It was not, therefore, till after the invention of the air-pump that this law could be put to the severe test of an extreme case. A guinea and a downy feather were let drop at once from the upper part of a tall exhausted glass, and struck the bottom at the same moment. Let any one make the trial _in the air_, and he will perceive the force of an _extreme case_.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00275", "bookId": 54897, "start": 263850, "end": 264320, "sha256": "26bb82d812b0901fb18b28ea29c51b3a5850465bda92191ce35d69ceddd235e4", "text": "(178.) In the verification of a law whose expression is _quantitative_, not only must its generality be established by the trial of it in as various circumstances as possible, but every such trial must be one of precise measurement. And in such cases the means taken for subjecting it to trial ought to be so devised as to repeat and multiply a great number of times any deviation (if any exist); so that, let it be ever so small, it shall at last become sensible.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00276", "bookId": 54897, "start": 264324, "end": 266061, "sha256": "b4cbda15777fecca19e96b7fb7d66de0ddcb19619ee5f080491cf85f15a77811", "text": "(179.) For instance, let the law to be verified be, that _the gravity of every material body is in the direct proportion of its mass_, which is only another mode of expressing Galileo’s law above mentioned. The time of falling from any moderate height cannot be measured with precision enough for our purpose: but if it can be repeated a very great multitude of times _without any loss or gain_ in the intervals, and the whole amount of the times of fall so repeated measured by a clock; and if at the same time the resistance of the air can be rendered _exactly alike_ for all the bodies tried, we have here Galileo’s trial in a much more refined state; and it is evident that almost unlimited exactness may be obtained. Now, all this Newton accomplished by the simple and elegant contrivance of enclosing in a hollow pendulum the same weights of a great number of substances the most different that could be found in all respects, as gold, glass, wood, water, wheat, &c.[44], and ascertaining the time required for the pendulum so charged to make a great number of oscillations; in each of which it is clear the weights had to fall, and be raised again successively, without loss of time, through the same _identical_ spaces. Thus any difference, however inconsiderable, that might exist in the time of one such fall and rise would be multiplied and accumulated till they became sensible. And none having been discovered by so delicate a process in any case, the law was considered verified both in respect of generality and exactness. This, however, is nothing to the verifications afforded by astronomical phenomena, where the deviations, if any, accumulate for thousands of years instead of a few hours.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00277", "bookId": 54897, "start": 266065, "end": 268211, "sha256": "94363e14789b60e4b48440d0011369129d95259e8eaa947e63f3f4481fda440a", "text": "(180.) The surest and best characteristic of a well-founded and extensive induction, however, is when verifications of it spring up, as it were, spontaneously, into notice, from quarters where they might be least expected, or even among instances of that very kind which were at first considered hostile to them. Evidence of this kind is irresistible, and compels assent with a weight which scarcely any other possesses. To give an example: M. Mitscherlich had announced a law to this effect--_that_ the chemical elements of which all bodies consist are susceptible of being classified in distinct groups, which he termed _isomorphous_ groups; and _that_ these groups are so related, that when similar combinations are formed of individuals belonging to two, three, or more of them, such combinations will crystallize in the same geometrical forms. To this curious and important law there appeared a remarkable exception. According to professor Mitscherlich, the arsenic and phosphoric acids _are_ similar combinations coming under the meaning of his law, and their combinations with soda and water, forming the salts known to chemists under the names of arseniate and phosphate of soda, ought, if the law were general, to crystallize in identical shapes. The fact, however, was understood to be otherwise. But lately, Mr. Clarke, a British chemist, having examined the two salts attentively, ascertained the fact that their compositions deviate essentially from that similarity which M. Mitscherlich’s law requires; and that, therefore, the exception in question disappears. This was something: but, pursuing the subject further, the same ingenious enquirer happily succeeded in producing a _new_ phosphate of soda, differing from that generally known in containing a different proportion of water, and agreeing in composition exactly with the arseniate. The crystals of this new salt, when examined, were found by him to be precisely identical in form with those of the arseniate: thus verifying, in a most striking and totally unexpected manner, the law in question, or, as it is called, the law of isomorphism.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00278", "bookId": 54897, "start": 268215, "end": 269680, "sha256": "d770b795ada608efec46f8144382e25e0883f07070aca0f7b6956f711362f247", "text": "(181.) Unexpected and peculiarly striking confirmations of inductive laws frequently occur in the form of residual phenomena, in the course of investigations of a widely different nature from those which gave rise to the inductions themselves. A very elegant example may be cited in the unexpected confirmation of the law of the developement of heat in elastic fluids by compression, which is afforded by the phenomena of sound. The enquiry into the cause of sound had led to conclusions respecting its mode of propagation, from which its velocity in the air could be precisely calculated. The calculations were performed; but, when compared with fact, though the agreement was quite sufficient to show the general correctness of the cause and mode of propagation assigned, _yet_ the _whole_ velocity could not be shown to arise from this theory. There was still a _residual_ velocity to be accounted for, which placed dynamical philosophers for a long time in a great dilemma. At length Laplace struck on the happy idea, that this might arise from the _heat_ developed in the act of that condensation which necessarily takes place at every vibration by which sound is conveyed. The matter was subjected to exact calculation, and the result was at once the complete explanation of the residual phenomenon, and a striking confirmation of the general law of the developement of heat by compression, under circumstances beyond artificial imitation.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00279", "bookId": 54897, "start": 269684, "end": 272273, "sha256": "884553de278f23768c286c106d2608d11efe41f049ce3cd838be4691f359d047", "text": "(182.) In extending our inductions to cases not originally contemplated, there is one step which always strikes the mind with peculiar force, and with such a sensation of novelty and surprise, as often gives it a weight beyond its due philosophic value. It is the transition from the little to the great, and _vice versâ_, but especially the former. It is so beautiful to see, for instance, an experiment performed in a watch-glass, or before a blowpipe, succeed, in a great manufactory, on many tons of matter, or, in the bosom of a volcano, upon millions of cubic fathoms of lava, that we almost forget that these great masses are made up of watch-glassfuls, and blowpipe-beads. We see the enormous intervals between the stars and planets of the heavens, which afford room for innumerable processes to be carried on, for light and heat to circulate, and for curious and complicated motions to go forward among them: we look more attentively, and we see sidereal systems, probably not less vast and complicated than our own, crowded apparently into a small space (from the effect of their distance from us), and forming groups resembling bodies of a substantial appearance, having form and outline: yet we recoil with incredulous surprise when we are asked _why_ we cannot conceive the atoms of a grain of sand to be as remote from each other (proportionally to their sizes) as the stars of the firmament; and why there may not be going on, in that little microcosm, processes as complicated and wonderful as those of the great world around us. Yet the student who makes any progress in natural philosophy will encounter numberless cases in which this transfer of ideas from the one extreme of magnitude to the other will be called for: he will find, for instance, the phenomena of the propagation of winds referred to the same laws which regulate the propagation of motions through the smallest masses of air; those of lightning assimilated to the mere communication of an electric spark, and those of earthquakes to the tremors of a stretched wire: in short, he must lay his account to finding the distinction of great and little altogether annihilated in nature: and it is well for man that such is the case, and that the same laws, which he can discover and verify in his own circumscribed sphere of power, should prove available to him when he comes to apply them on the greatest scale; since it is thus only that he is enabled to become an exciting cause in operations of any considerable magnitude, and to vindicate his importance in creation.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00280", "bookId": 54897, "start": 272277, "end": 274071, "sha256": "8a2f03322224e19eaf95ad336f05629fd9bf7b29532618a1f152adbf668dfff2", "text": "(183.) But the business of induction does not end here: its final result must be followed out into all its consequences, and applied to all those cases which seem even remotely to bear upon the subject of enquiry. Every new addition to our stock of causes becomes a means of fresh attack with new vantage ground upon all those unexplained parts of former phenomena which have resisted previous efforts. It can hardly be pressed forcibly enough on the attention of the student of nature, that there is scarcely any natural phenomenon which can be fully and completely explained in all its circumstances, without a union of several, perhaps of all, the sciences. The great phenomena of astronomy, indeed, may be considered exceptions; but this is merely because their scale is so vast that one only of the most widely extending forces of nature takes the lead, and all those agents whose sphere of action is limited to narrower bounds, and which determine the production of phenomena nearer at hand, are thrown into the back ground, and become merged and lost in comparative insignificance. But in the more intimate phenomena which surround us it is far otherwise. Into what a complication of different branches of science are we not led by the consideration of such a phenomenon as rain, for instance, or flame, or a thousand others, which are constantly going on before our eyes? Hence, it is hardly possible to arrive at the knowledge of a law of any degree of generality in any branch of science, but it immediately furnishes us with a means of extending our knowledge of innumerable others, the most remote from the point we set out from; so that, when once embarked in any physical research, it is impossible for any one to predict where it may ultimately lead him.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00281", "bookId": 54897, "start": 274075, "end": 275681, "sha256": "3f8a8e5e2fdcf77845bfef8e5d7add2c21d0b5a42b9f864c5f450e35bdeeb664", "text": "(184.) This remark rather belongs to the inverse or _deductive_ process, by which we pursue laws into their remote consequences. But it is very important to observe, that the successful process of scientific enquiry demands continually the alternate use of both the _inductive_ and _deductive_ method. The path by which we rise to knowledge must be made smooth and beaten in its lower steps, and often ascended and descended, before we can scale our way to any eminence, much less climb to the summit. The achievement is too great for a single effort; stations must be established, and communications kept open with all below. To quit metaphor; there is nothing so instructive, or so likely to lead to the acquisition of general views, as this pursuit of the consequences of a law once arrived at into every subject where it may seem likely to have an influence. The discovery of a new law of nature, a new ultimate fact, or one that even temporarily puts on that appearance, is like the discovery of a new element in chemistry. Thus, selenium was hardly discovered by Berzelius in the vitriol works of Fahlun, when it presently made its appearance in the sublimates of Stromboli, and the rare and curious products of the Hungarian mines. And thus it is with every new law, or general fact. It is hardly announced before its traces are found every where, and every one is astonished at its having so long remained concealed. And hence it happens that unexpected lights are shed at length over parts of science that had been abandoned in despair, and given over to hopeless obscurity.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00282", "bookId": 54897, "start": 275685, "end": 278024, "sha256": "923d0b135ed25231332e9dac2afdc11b4a2fafb4b124aee11c757b8c798a1067", "text": "(185.) The verification of _quantitative_ laws has been already spoken of (178.); but their importance in physical science is so very great, inasmuch as they alone afford a handle to strict mathematical deductive application, that something ought to be said of the nature of the inductions by which they are to be arrived at. In their simplest or least general stages (of which alone we speak at present) they usually express some numerical relation between two quantities dependent on each other, either as collateral effects of a common cause, or as the amount of its effect under given numerical circumstances or _data_. For example, the law of refraction before noticed (§ 22.) expresses, by a very simple relation, the amount of angular deviation of a ray of light from its course, when the _angle_ at which it is inclined to the refracting surface is known, viz. that the _sine_ of the angle which the incident ray makes with a perpendicular to the surface is always to that of the angle made by the refracted ray with the same perpendicular, in a constant proportion, so long as the refracting substance is the same. To arrive inductively at laws of this kind, where one quantity _depends_ on or _varies with_ another, all that is required is a series of careful and exact measures in every different state of the _datum_ and _quæsitum_. Here, however, the mathematical form of the law being of the highest importance, the greatest attention must be given to the _extreme cases_ as well as to all those points where the one quantity changes rapidly with a small change of the other.[45] The results must be set down in a table in which the _datum_ gradually increases in magnitude from the lowest to the highest limit of which it is susceptible. It will depend then entirely on our habit of treating mathematical subjects, how far we may be able to include such a table in the distinct statement of a mathematical law. The discovery of such laws is often remarkably facilitated by the contemplation of a class of phenomena to be noticed further on, under the head of Collective Instances, (see § 194.) in which the nature of the mathematical expression in which the law sought is comprehended, is pointed out by the figure of some curve brought under inspection by a proper mode of experimenting.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00283", "bookId": 54897, "start": 278028, "end": 279372, "sha256": "a2010e8f30d5802aa559be5a342f472332fb86140ff6a0d21f8ff91d8841793f", "text": "(186.) After all, unless our induction embraces a series of cases which absolutely include the whole scale of variation of which the quantities in question admit, the mathematical expression so obtained cannot be depended upon as the true one, and if the scale actually embraced be small, the extension of laws so derived to extreme cases will in all probability be exceedingly fallacious. For example, air is an elastic fluid, and as such, if enclosed in a confined space and squeezed, its bulk diminishes: now, from a great number of trials made in cases where the air has been compressed into a half, a third, &c. even as far as a fiftieth of its bulk, or less, it has been concluded that “the density of air is proportional to the compressing force,” or the bulk it occupies _inversely_ as that force; and when the air is rarefied by taking off part of its natural pressure, the same is found to be the case, within very extensive limits. Yet it is impossible that this should be, strictly or mathematically speaking, the true law; for, if it were so, there could be no limit to the condensation of air, while yet we have the strongest analogies to show that long before it had reached any very enormous pitch the air would be reduced into a liquid, and even, perhaps, if pressed yet more violently, into a solid form.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00284", "bookId": 54897, "start": 279376, "end": 281691, "sha256": "756a9f1ff10f428654aab2c3bcb9e4eeea354c3f52141a16767d880d88926595", "text": "(187.) Laws thus derived, by the direct process of including in mathematical formulæ the results of a greater or less number of measurements, are called “empirical laws.” A good example of such a law is that given by Dr. Young (Phil. Trans. 1826,) for the decrement of life, or the law of mortality. Empirical laws in this state are evidently _unverified inductions_, and are to be received and reasoned on with the utmost reserve. No confidence can ever be placed in them beyond the limits of the data from which they are derived; and even within those limits they require a special and severe scrutiny to examine _how nearly_ they do represent the observed facts; that is to say, whether, in the comparison of their results with the observed quantities, the differences are such as may fairly be attributed to error of observation. When so carefully examined, they become, however, most valuable; and frequently, when afterwards verified theoretically by a deductive process (as will be explained in our next chapter), turn out to be rigorous laws of nature, and afford the noblest and most convincing supports of which theories themselves are susceptible. The finest instances of this kind are the great laws of the planetary motions deduced by Kepler, entirely from a comparison of observations with each other, with no assistance from theory. These laws, viz. that the planets move in ellipses round the sun; that each describes about the sun’s centre equal areas in equal times; and that in the orbits of different planets the squares of the periodical times are proportional to the cubes of the distances; were the results of inconceivable labour of calculation and comparison: but they amply repaid the labour bestowed on them, by affording afterwards the most conclusive and unanswerable proofs of the Newtonian system. On the other hand, when empirical laws are unduly relied on beyond the limits of the observations from which they were deduced, there is no more fertile source of fatal mistakes. The formulæ which have been empirically deduced for the elasticity of steam (till very recently), and those for the resistance of fluids, and other similar subjects, have almost invariably failed to support the theoretical structures which have been erected on them.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00285", "bookId": 54897, "start": 281695, "end": 284175, "sha256": "fd3803534cc98362c44d5d909412364ce24325a0cb68140e91f049021df1e0b8", "text": "(188.) It is a remarkable and happy fact, that the shortest and most direct of all inductions should be that which has led at once, or by very few steps, to the highest of all natural laws,--we mean those of motion and force. Nothing can be more simple, precise, and general, than the enunciation of these laws; and, as we have once before observed, their application to particular facts in the descending or deductive method is limited by nothing but the limited extent of our mathematics. It would seem, then, that dynamical science were taken thenceforward out of the pale of induction, and transformed into a matter of absolute _à priori_ reasoning, as much as geometry; and so it would be, were our mathematics perfect, and all the _data_ known. Unhappily, the first is so far from being the case, that in many of the most interesting branches of dynamical enquiry they leave us completely at a loss. In what relates to the motions of fluids, for instance, this is severely felt. We can include our problems, it is true, in algebraical equations, and we can demonstrate that they _contain_ the solutions; but the equations themselves are so intractable, and present such insuperable difficulties, that they often leave us quite as much in the dark as before. But even were these difficulties overcome, recourse to experience must still be had, to establish the _data_ on which particular applications are to depend; and although mathematical analysis affords very powerful means of _representing_ in general terms the data of any proposed case, and _afterwards_, by comparison of its results with fact, determining _what_ those data must be to explain the observed phenomena, still, in any mode of considering the matter, an appeal to experience in every particular instance of application is unavoidable, even when the general principles are regarded as sufficiently established without it. Now, in all such cases of difficulty we must recur to our inductive processes, and regard the branches of dynamical science where this takes place as purely experimental. By this we gain an immense advantage, viz. that in all those points of them where the abstract dynamical principles _do_ afford distinct conclusions, we obtain verifications for our inductions of the highest and finest possible kind. When we work our way up inductively to one of these results, we cannot help feeling the strongest assurance of the validity of the induction.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00286", "bookId": 54897, "start": 284179, "end": 285701, "sha256": "7f1282c73053af0ab04b20a918c79e96302cfc20c68e3653c5a15103433e20af", "text": "(189.) The necessity of this appeal to experiment in every thing relating to the motions of fluids on the large scale has long been felt. Newton himself, who laid the first foundations of hydrodynamical science (so this branch of dynamics is called), distinctly perceived it, and set the example of laborious and exact experiments on their resistance to motion, and other particulars. Venturi, Bernoulli, and many others, have applied the method of experiment to the motions of fluids in pipes and canals; and recently the brothers Weber have published an elaborate and excellent experimental enquiry into the phenomena of waves. One of the greatest and most successful attempts, however, to bring an important, and till then very obscure, branch of dynamical enquiry back to the dominion of experiment, has been made by Chladni and Savart in the case of sound and vibratory motion in general; and it is greatly to be wished that the example may be followed in many others hardly less abstruse and impracticable when theoretically treated. In such cases the inductive and deductive methods of enquiry may be said to go hand in hand, the one verifying the conclusions deduced by the other; and the combination of experiment and theory, which may thus be brought to bear in such cases, forms an engine of discovery infinitely more powerful than either taken separately. This state of any department of science is perhaps of all others the most interesting, and that which promises the most to research.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00287", "bookId": 54897, "start": 285705, "end": 286493, "sha256": "4ccadc7a3a0f01b54a45358d4bc6f7d7006542dd3ae28e01c2db2aae894fad08", "text": "(190.) It can hardly be expected that we should terminate this division of our subject without some mention of the “prerogatives of instances” of Bacon, by which he understands characteristic phenomena, selected from the great miscellaneous mass of facts which occur in nature, and which, by their number, indistinctness, and complication, tend rather to confuse than to direct the mind in its search for causes and general heads of induction. Phenomena so selected on account of some peculiarly forcible way in which they strike the reason, and impress us with a kind of sense of causation, or a particular aptitude for generalization, he considers, and justly, as holding a kind of prerogative dignity, and claiming our first and especial attention in physical enquiries.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00288", "bookId": 54897, "start": 286497, "end": 288441, "sha256": "52df906f205ed0fe81118bd97ad7f6d78e3180280d17749de49eeaf4af5f5818", "text": "(191.) We have already observed that, in forming inductions, it will most commonly happen that we are led to our conclusions by the especial force of some two or three strongly impressive facts, rather than by affording the whole mass of cases a regular consideration; and hence the need of cautious verification. Indeed, so strong is this propensity of the human mind, that there is hardly a more common thing than to find persons ready to assign a cause for every thing they see, and, in so doing, to join things the most incongruous, by analogies the most fanciful. This being the case, it is evidently of great importance that these first ready impulses of the mind should be made on the contemplation of the cases most likely to lead to good inductions. The misfortune, however, is, in natural philosophy, that the choice does not rest with us. We must take the instances as nature presents them. Even if we are furnished with a list of them in tabular order, we must understand and compare them with each other, before we can tell which _are_ the instances thus deservedly entitled to the highest consideration. And, after all, after much labour in vain, and groping in the dark, accident or casual observation will present a case which strikes us at once with a full insight into a subject, before we can even have time to determine to what class its _prerogative_ belongs. For example, the laws of crystallography were obscure, and its causes still more so, till Haüy fortunately dropped a beautiful crystal of calcareous spar on a stone pavement, and broke it. In piecing together the fragments, he observed their facets not to correspond with those of the crystal in its entire state, but to belong to another form; and, following out the hint offered by a “_glaring instance_” thus casually obtruded on his notice, he discovered the beautiful laws of the cleavage, and the primitive forms of minerals.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00289", "bookId": 54897, "start": 288445, "end": 289775, "sha256": "e8ec3661d4f676e2c3d302643ebfe87bd7e610a4dff75b69201220ef7433b4c5", "text": "(192.) It has always appeared to us, we must confess, that the help which the classification of instances, under their different titles of prerogative, affords to inductions, however just such classification may be in itself, is yet more apparent than real. The force of the instance must be felt in the mind, before it can be referred to its place in the system; and, before it can be either referred or appretiated, it must be known; and when it _is_ appretiated, we are ready enough to interweave it in our web of induction, without greatly troubling ourselves with enquiring whence it derives the weight we acknowledge it to have in our decisions. However, since much importance is usually attached to this part of Bacon’s work, we shall here give a few examples to illustrate the nature of some of his principal cases. One, of what he calls “glaring instances,” has just been mentioned. In these, the _nature_ or cause enquired into, (which in this case is the cause of the assumption of a peculiar external form, or the internal _structure_ of a crystal,) “stands naked and alone, and this in an eminent manner, or in the highest degree of its power.” No doubt, such instances as these are highly instructive; but the difficulty in physics is to find such, not to perceive their force when found.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00290", "bookId": 54897, "start": 289779, "end": 290960, "sha256": "93dfaeb16cd4105549b59fb7672731fc5eec83010201008864e85756c0e7a58c", "text": "(193.) The contrary of glaring are “clandestine instances,” where “the nature sought is exhibited in its weakest and most imperfect state.” Of this, Bacon himself has given an admirable example in the cohesion of fluids, as a _clandestine instance_ of the “_nature_ or quality of consistence, or solidity.” Yet here, again, the same acute discrimination which enabled Bacon to perceive the analogy which connects fluids with solids, through the common property of cohesive attraction, would, at the same time, have enabled him to draw from it, if properly supported, every consequence necessary to forming just notions of the cohesive force; nor does its reference to the class of clandestine instances at all assist in bringing forward and maturing the final results. When, however, the final result is obtained,--when our induction is complete, and we would verify it,--this class of instances is of great use, being, in fact, frequently no other than that of _extreme cases_, such as we have already spoken of (in § 177.); which, by placing our conclusions, as it were, in violent circumstances, try their temper, and bring their vigour to the test.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00291", "bookId": 54897, "start": 290964, "end": 292684, "sha256": "0920573fdb143119c2e821d216adc35f26c9962219caeed4ab2caef1ec722302", "text": "(194.) Bacon’s “collective instances” (_instantiæ unionis_), are no other than general facts, or laws of some degree of generality, and are themselves the results of induction. But there is a species of collective instance which Bacon does not seem to have contemplated, of a peculiarly instructive character; and that is, where particular cases are offered to our observation in such numbers at once as to make the induction of their law a matter of ocular inspection. For example, the parabolic form assumed by a jet of water spouted from a round hole, is a _collective instance_ of the velocities and directions of the motions of all the particles which compose it _seen at once_, and which thus leads us, without trouble, to recognize the law of the motion of a projectile. Again, the beautiful figures exhibited by sand strewed on regular plates of glass or metal set in vibration, are _collective instances_ of an infinite number of points which remain at rest while the remainder of the plate vibrates; and in consequence afford us, as it were, a sight of the law which regulates their arrangement and sequence throughout the whole surface. The beautifully coloured lemniscates seen around the optic axes of crystals exposed to polarized light afford a superb example of the same kind, pointing at once to the general mathematical expression of the law which regulates their production.[46] Of such collective instances as these, it is easy to see the importance, and its reason. They lead us to a general law by an induction which offers itself spontaneously, and thus furnish advanced points in our enquiries; and when we start from these, already “a thousand steps are lost.”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00292", "bookId": 54897, "start": 292688, "end": 293290, "sha256": "f2254ba62758553735e610bfd88d2696023ad11826295440eafc360a41238748", "text": "(195.) A fine example of a collective instance is that of the system of Jupiter or Saturn with its satellites. We have here, in miniature, and seen at one view, a system similar to that of the planets about the sun; of which, from the circumstance of our being involved in it, and unfavourably situated for seeing it otherwise than in detail, we are incapacitated from forming a general idea but by slow progressive efforts of reason. Accordingly, the contemplation of the _circumjovial planets_ (as they were called) most materially assisted in securing the admission of the Copernican system.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00293", "bookId": 54897, "start": 293294, "end": 295699, "sha256": "e045e68f404f797557b55a36dc87fe2e2e9b4f59bcf97a8cbabecf881cae2172", "text": "(196.) Of “Crucial instances” we have also already spoken, as affording the readiest and securest means of eliminating extraneous causes, and deciding between rival hypotheses. Owing to the disposition of the mind to form hypotheses, and to prejudge cases, it constantly happens that, among all the possible suppositions which may occur, two or three principal ones occupy us, to the exclusion of the rest; or it may be that, if we have been less precipitate, out of a great multitude rejected for obvious inapplicability to some one or other case, two or three of better claims remain for decision; and this such instances enable us to do. One of the instances cited by Bacon in illustration of his crucial class is very remarkable, being neither more nor less than the proposal of a direct experiment to determine whether the tendency of heavy bodies downwards is a result of some peculiar mechanism in themselves, or of the attraction of the earth “by the corporeal mass thereof, as by a collection of bodies of the same nature.” If it be so, he says, “it will follow that the nearer all bodies approach to the earth, the stronger and with the greater force and velocity they will tend to it; but the farther they are, the weaker and slower:” and his experiment consists in comparing the effect of a spring and a weight in keeping up the motions of two “clocks,” regulated together, and removed alternately to the tops of high buildings and into the deepest mines. By _clocks_ he could not have meant pendulum clocks, which were not then known, (the first made in England was in 1662,) _fly_-clocks, so that the comparison, though too coarse, was not contrary to sound mechanical principles. In short, its principle was the comparison of the effect of a spring with that of a weight, in producing certain motions in certain times, on heights and in mines. Now, this is the very same thing that has really been done in the recent experiments of professors Airy and Whewell in Dolcoath mine: a pendulum (a weight moved by gravity) has been compared with a chronometer balance, moved and regulated by a spring. In his 37th aphorism, Bacon also speaks of gravity as an incorporeal power, acting at a distance, and _requiring time for its transmission_; a consideration which occurred at a later period to Laplace, in one of his most delicate investigations.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00294", "bookId": 54897, "start": 295703, "end": 296212, "sha256": "75f510eb6516c2fc8f44a03deb3bd242cfdefaeb5109cb10d11e65abe722752c", "text": "(197.) A well chosen and strongly marked crucial instance is, sometimes, of the highest importance; when two theories, which run parallel to each other (as is sometimes the case) in their explanation of great classes of phenomena, at length come to be placed at issue upon a single fact. A beautiful instance of this will be cited in the next section. We may add to the examples above given of such instances, that of the application of chemical tests, which are almost universally crucial experiments.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00295", "bookId": 54897, "start": 296216, "end": 296857, "sha256": "56b32ed33aa2e30143649a0e9e4e30e3520fea71774ecc19529209169754e9c5", "text": "(198.) Bacon’s “travelling instances” are those in which the _nature_ or quality under investigation “travels,” or varies in degree; and thus (according to § 152.) afford an indication of a cause by a gradation of intensity in the effect. One of his instances is very happy, being that of “paper, which is white when dry, but proves less so when wet, and comes nearer to the state of transparency upon the exclusion of the air, and admission of water.” In reading this, and many other instances in the Novum Organum, one would almost suppose (had it been written) that its author had taken them from Newton’s Optics.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00296", "bookId": 54897, "start": 296861, "end": 297460, "sha256": "0e91f7a84ee7dff89f4804dcece73ed8789b5b4f6351d18a0a11ae6f087c56d1", "text": "(199.) The travelling instances, as well as what Bacon terms “frontier instances,” are cases in which we are enabled to trace that general law which seems to pervade all nature--the law, as it is termed, of continuity, and which is expressed in the well known sentence, “Natura non agit per saltum.” The pursuit of this law into cases where its application is not at first sight obvious, has proved a fertile source of physical discovery, and led us to the knowledge of an analogy and intimate connection of phenomena between which at first we should never have expected to find any.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00297", "bookId": 54897, "start": 297464, "end": 298044, "sha256": "8609fa8d468328fc0531c68586f76839d68ea7267908415af0556d0d897cbc82", "text": "(200.) For example, the transparency of gold leaf, which permits a bluish-green light to pass through it, is a frontier instance between the transparency of pellucid bodies and the opacity of metals, and it prevents a breach of the law of continuity between transparent and opake bodies, by exhibiting a body of the class generally regarded the most opake in nature, as still possessed of some slight degree of transparency. It thus proves that the quality of opacity is not a _contrary_ or _antagonist_ quality to that of transparency, but only its extreme lowest degree.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00298", "bookId": 54897, "start": 298054, "end": 298064, "sha256": "86ded674cd273467a79f0460329e0441f7ea962628f7b1590261def882a475f3", "text": "CHAP. VII.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00299", "bookId": 54897, "start": 298070, "end": 298176, "sha256": "bd712afd6e573f4e8f1d15d036e39d4bf18ff4a221dbac67727c36cacf01f937", "text": "OF THE HIGHER DEGREES OF INDUCTIVE GENERALIZATION, AND OF THE FORMATION AND VERIFICATION OF THEORIES.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00300", "bookId": 54897, "start": 298182, "end": 299795, "sha256": "ea8f7e22385763e1152586730a6aee4d1a7b816a13a813d172ec7deae0079031", "text": "(201.) As particular inductions and laws of the first degree of generality are obtained from the consideration of individual facts, so Theories result from a consideration of these laws, and of the proximate causes brought into view in the previous process, regarded all together as constituting a new set of phenomena, the creatures of reason rather than of sense, and each representing under general language innumerable particular facts. In raising these higher inductions, therefore, more scope is given to the exercise of pure reason than in slowly groping out our first results. The mind is more disencumbered of matter, and moves as it were in its own element. What is now before it, it perceives more intimately, and less through the medium of sense, or at least not in the same manner as when actually at work on the immediate objects of sense. But it must not be therefore supposed that, in the formation of theories, we are abandoned to the unrestrained exercise of imagination, or at liberty to lay down arbitrary principles, or assume the existence of mere fanciful causes. The liberty of speculation which we possess in the domains of theory is not like the wild licence of the slave broke loose from his fetters, but rather like that of the freeman who has learned the lessons of self-restraint in the school of just subordination. The ultimate objects we pursue in the highest theories are the same as those of the lowest inductions; and the means by which we can most securely attain them bear a close analogy to those which we have found successful in such inferior cases.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00301", "bookId": 54897, "start": 299799, "end": 301273, "sha256": "b68679a8dbe737f8b5a1f5ba4885c2190cc83f06c4b8a82059ee40ae80ff3d71", "text": "(202.) The immediate object we propose to ourselves in physical theories is the analysis of phenomena, and the knowledge of the hidden processes of nature in their production, so far as they can be traced by us. An important part of this knowledge consists in a discovery of the actual structure or mechanism of the universe and its parts, through which, and by which, those processes are executed; and of the agents which are concerned in their performance. Now, the mechanism of nature is for the most part either on too large or too small a scale to be immediately cognizable by our senses; and her agents in like manner elude direct observation, and become known to us only by their effects. It is in vain therefore that we desire to become witnesses to the processes carried on with such means, and to be admitted into the secret recesses and laboratories where they are effected. Microscopes have been constructed which magnify more than a thousand times in _linear_ dimension, so that the smallest visible grain of sand may be enlarged to the appearance of one a thousand million times more bulky; yet the only impression we receive by viewing it through such a magnifier is, that it reminds us of some vast fragment of a rock, while the intimate structure on which depend its colour, its hardness, and its chemical properties, remains still concealed: we do not seem to have made even an approach to a closer analysis of it by any such scrutiny.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00302", "bookId": 54897, "start": 301277, "end": 302432, "sha256": "d51b5f1c6ff52109a4cd4e5206cbdad07a2287a5e0511e5a594e5f67315712db", "text": "(203.) On the other hand, the mechanism of the great system of which our planet forms a part escapes immediate observation by the immensity of its scale, nay, even by the slowness of its evolutions. The motion of the minute hand of a watch can hardly be perceived without the closest attention, and that of the hour hand not at all. But what are these, in respect of the impression of slowness they produce in our minds, compared with a revolving movement which takes a whole year, or twelve, thirty, or eighty years to complete, as is the case with the planets in their revolutions round the sun. Yet no sooner do we come to reflect on the linear dimensions of these orbs, (which however we do not _see_, nor can we measure them but by a long, circuitous, and difficult process,) than we are lost in astonishment at the swiftness of the very motions which before seemed so slow.[47] The motion of the sails of a windmill offers (on a small scale) an illustrative case. At a distance the rotation seems slow and steady--but when we stand close to one of the sails in its sweep, we are surprised at the swiftness with which it rushes by us.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00303", "bookId": 54897, "start": 302436, "end": 303633, "sha256": "9344f27e2000d0e1f81460283c38dd1e1063bd6073a4216905732db9aedf853b", "text": "(204.) Again, the agents employed by nature to act on material structures are invisible, and only to be traced by the effects they produce. Heat dilates matter with an irresistible force; but what heat is, remains yet a problem. A current of electricity passing along a wire moves a magnetized needle at a distance; but except from this effect we perceive no difference between the condition of the wire when it conveys and when it does not convey the stream: and we apply the terms current, or stream, to the electricity only because in some of its relations it reminds us of something we have observed in a stream of air or water. In like manner we see that the moon circulates about the earth; and because we believe it to be a solid mass, and have never seen one solid substance revolve round another within our reach to handle and examine unless retained by a force or united by a tie, we conclude that there _is_ a force, and a mode of connection, between the moon and the earth; though, what that mode can be, we have no conception, nor can imagine _how_ such a force can be exerted at a distance, and with empty space, or at most an invisible fluid, between. (See § 148.)", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00304", "bookId": 54897, "start": 303637, "end": 304398, "sha256": "3cde0231643d89453e26151007ca0cf8ddc121ec6a040340ae81454952365a58", "text": "(205.) Yet are we not to despair, since we see regular and beautiful results brought about in human works by means which nobody would, at first sight, think could have any thing to do with them. A sheet of blank paper is placed upon a frame, and shoved forwards, and after winding its way successively over and under half a dozen rollers, and performing many other strange evolutions, comes out printed on both sides. And, after all, the acting cause in this process is nothing more than a few gallons of water boiled in an iron vessel, at a distance from the scene of operations. But _why_ the water so boiled should be capable of producing the active energy which sets the whole apparatus in motion is, and will probably long remain, a secret to us.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00305", "bookId": 54897, "start": 304402, "end": 306586, "sha256": "6c9a7dd0a5888dae50ab2d2a6e4044f83e6c5f94c0aa0d52da4a40a64440ce46", "text": "(206.) This, however, does not at all prevent our having a very perfect comprehension of the whole subsequent process. We might frequent printing-houses, and form a theory of printing, and having worked our way up to the point where the mechanical action commenced (the boiler of the steam-engine), and verified it by taking to pieces, and putting together again, the train of wheels and the presses, and by sound theoretical examination of all the transfers of motion from one part to another; we should, at length, pronounce our theory good, and declare that we understood printing thoroughly. Nay, we might even go away and apply the principles of mechanism we had learned in this enquiry to other widely different purposes; construct other machines, and put them in motion by the same moving power, and all without arriving at any correct idea as to the ultimate source of the force employed. But, if we were inclined to theorize farther, we might do so; and it is easy to imagine how two theorists might form very different _hypotheses_ as to the origin of the power which alternately raised and depressed the piston-rod of the engine. One, for example, might maintain that the boiler (whose contents we will suppose that neither theorist has been permitted to examine) was the den of some powerful unknown animal, and he would not be without plausible analogies in the warmth, the supply of fuel and water, the breathing noises, the smoke, and above all, the mechanical power exerted. He would say (not without a show of reason), that where there is a positive and wonderful effect, and many strong analogies, such as materials consumed, and all the usual signs of life maintained, we are not to deny the existence of animal life because we know no animal that consumes such food. Nay, he might observe with truth, that the fuel actually consists of the chemical ingredients which constitute the chief food of all animals, &c.; while, on the other hand, his brother theorist, who caught a glimpse of the fire, and detected the peculiar sounds of ebullition, might acquire a better notion of the case, and form a theory more in consonance with fact.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00306", "bookId": 54897, "start": 306590, "end": 307722, "sha256": "18e2d34bed863e8cc87274220498697bd1c32df8e97d2471ab77f310c438a72f", "text": "(207.) Now, nothing is more common in physics than to find two, or even many, _theories_ maintained as to the origin of a natural phenomenon. For instance, in the case of heat itself, one considers it as a really existing material fluid, of such exceeding subtlety as to penetrate all bodies, and even to be capable of combining with them chemically; while another regards it as nothing but a rapid vibratory or rotatory motion in the ultimate particles of the bodies heated; and produces a singularly ingenious train of mechanical reasoning to show, that there is nothing contradictory to sound dynamical principles in such a doctrine. Thus, again, with light: one considers it as consisting in actual particles darted forth from luminous bodies, and acted upon in their progress by forces of extreme intensity residing in the substances on which they strike; another, in the vibratory motion of the particles of luminous bodies, communicated to a peculiar subtle and highly elastic ethereal medium, filling all space, and conveyed through it into our eyes, as sounds are to our ears, by the undulations of the air.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00307", "bookId": 54897, "start": 307726, "end": 309655, "sha256": "d3c53c837227c25e0af106d82f97995adff9cc0c372250101f0f0885f64998a1", "text": "(208.) Now, are we to be deterred from framing hypotheses and constructing theories, because we meet with such dilemmas, and find ourselves frequently beyond our depth? Undoubtedly not. _Est quodam prodire tenus si non datur ultra._ Hypotheses, with respect to theories, are what presumed proximate causes are with respect to particular inductions: they afford us motives for searching into analogies; grounds of citation to bring before us all the cases which seem to bear upon them, for examination. A well imagined hypothesis, if it have been suggested by a fair inductive consideration of general laws, can hardly fail at least of enabling us to generalize a step farther, and group together several such laws under a more universal expression. But this is taking a very limited view of the value and importance of hypotheses: it may happen (and it has happened in the case of the undulatory doctrine of light) that such a weight of analogy and probability may become accumulated on the side of an hypothesis, that we are compelled to admit one of two things; either that it is an actual statement of what really passes in nature, or that the reality, whatever it be, must run so close a parallel with it, as to admit of some mode of expression common to both, at least in so far as the phenomena actually known are concerned. Now, this is a very great step, not only for its own sake, as leading us to a high point in philosophical speculation, but for its applications; because whatever conclusions we deduce from an hypothesis so supported must have at least a strong presumption in their favour: and we may be thus led to the trial of many curious experiments, and to the imagining of many useful and important contrivances, which we should never otherwise have thought of, and which, at all events, if verified in practice, are real additions to our stock of knowledge and to the arts of life.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00308", "bookId": 54897, "start": 309659, "end": 311783, "sha256": "7d54761e1ff8f59cecce5a3e63cc0137ee1a6579c47e7678cad8049f4905c8c8", "text": "(209.) In framing a theory which shall render a rational account of any natural phenomenon, we have _first_ to consider the agents on which it depends, or the causes to which we regard it as ultimately referable. These agents are not to be arbitrarily assumed; they must be such as we have good inductive grounds to believe do exist in nature, and do perform a part in phenomena analogous to those we would render an account of; or such, whose presence in the actual case can be demonstrated by unequivocal signs. They must be _veræ causæ_, in short, which we can not only show to exist and to act, but the laws of whose action we can derive independently, by direct induction, from experiments purposely instituted; or at least make such suppositions respecting them as shall not be contrary to our experience, and which will remain to be verified by the coincidence of the conclusions we shall deduce from them, with facts. For example, in the theory of gravitation we suppose an agent,--_viz._ force, or mechanical power,--to act on _any_ material body which is placed in the presence of _any_ other, and to urge the two mutually towards each other. This is a _vera causa_; for heavy bodies (that is, all bodies, but some more, some less,) tend to, or endeavour to reach, the earth, and require the exertion of force to counteract this endeavour, or to keep them up. Now, that which opposes and neutralizes force _is_ force. And again, a plumb-line, which, when allowed to hang freely, always hangs perpendicularly; is found to hang observably aside from the perpendicular when in the neighbourhood of a considerable mountain; thereby proving that a force is exerted upon it, which draws it towards the mountain. Moreover, since it is a fact that the moon does circulate about the earth, it must be drawn towards the earth by a force; for if there were no force acting upon it, it would go on in a straight line without turning aside to circulate in an orbit, and would, therefore, soon go away and be lost in space. This force, then, which we call the _force_ of gravity, is a real cause.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00309", "bookId": 54897, "start": 311787, "end": 313019, "sha256": "4e8225186827c5b1b3a1ea28e737434da963280e9a3790561e2a33b61d72fadc", "text": "(210.) We have next to consider the laws which regulate the action of these our primary agents; and these we can only arrive at in three ways: 1st, By inductive reasoning; that is, by examining all the cases in which we know them to be exercised, inferring, as well as circumstances will permit, its amount or intensity in each particular case, and then piecing together, as it were, these _disjecta membra_, generalizing from them, and so arriving at the laws desired; 2dly, By forming at once a bold hypothesis, particularizing the law, and trying the truth of it by following out its consequences and comparing them with facts; or, 3dly, By a process partaking of both these, and combining the advantages of both without their defects, viz. by assuming indeed the laws we would discover, but so generally expressed, that they shall include an unlimited variety of particular laws;--following out the consequences of this assumption, by the application of such general principles as the case admits;--comparing them in succession with all the particular cases within our knowledge; and, lastly, _on this comparison_, so modifying and restricting the general enunciation of our laws as to _make the results agree_.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00310", "bookId": 54897, "start": 313023, "end": 314326, "sha256": "022c466b51f4a14de1102eb89b58bd2d8a0e651eb2bc7506b9a96cbedfc603da", "text": "(211.) All these three processes for the discovery of those general elementary laws on which the higher theories are grounded are applicable with different advantage in different circumstances. We might exemplify their successive application to the case of gravitation: but as this would rather lead into a disquisition too particular for the objects of this discourse, and carry us too much into the domain of technical mathematics, we shall content ourselves with remarking, that the method last mentioned is that which mathematicians (especially such as have a considerable command of those general modes of representing and reasoning on quantity, which constitute the higher analysis,) find the most universally applicable, and the most efficacious; and that it is applicable with especial advantage in cases where subordinate inductions of the kind described in the last section have already led to laws of a certain generality admitting of mathematical expression. Such a case, for instance, is the elliptic motion of a planet, which is a general proposition including the statement of an infinite number of particular _places_, in which the laws of its motion allow it to be some time or other found, and for which, of course, the law of force must be so assumed as to account.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00311", "bookId": 54897, "start": 314330, "end": 315411, "sha256": "56759323db5db5377bc61a878c3286ae299cfb2b92816a4d5e39f28fef2c2c14", "text": "(212.) With regard to the first process of the three above enumerated, it is in fact an induction of the kind described in § 185.; and all the remarks we there made on that kind of induction apply to it in this stage. The direct assumption of a particular hypothesis has been occasionally practised very successfully. As examples, we may mention Coulomb’s and Poisson’s theories of electricity and magnetism, in both which, phenomena of a very complicated and interesting nature are referred to the actions of attractive and repulsive forces, following a law similar in its expression to the law of gravitation. But the difficulty and labour, which, in the greater theories, always attends the pursuit of a fundamental law into its remote consequences, effectually precludes this method from being commonly resorted to as a means of discovery, unless we have some good reason, from analogy or otherwise, for believing that the attempt will prove successful, or have been first led by partial inductions to particular laws which naturally point it out for trial.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00312", "bookId": 54897, "start": 315415, "end": 317981, "sha256": "762e2250b5f2cdb6e4f4496c9eb2d8065f31ae24e7196fe93d68ce66e902f2fb", "text": "(213.) In this case the law assumes all the characters of a general phenomenon resulting from an induction of particulars, but not yet verified by comparison with _all_ the particulars, nor extended to all that it is capable of including. (See § 171.) It is the verification of such inductions which constitutes theory in its largest sense, and which embraces an estimation of the influence of all such circumstances as may modify the effect of the cause whose laws of action we have arrived at and would verify. To return to our example: particular inductions drawn from the motions of the several planets about the sun, and of the satellites round their primaries, &c. having led us to the general conception of an attractive force exerted by every particle of matter in the universe on every other according to the law to which we attach the name of gravitation; when we would verify this induction, we must set out with assuming this law, considering the whole system as subjected to its influence and implicitly obeying it, and nothing interfering with its action; we then, for the first time, perceive a train of modifying circumstances which had not occurred to us when reasoning upwards from particulars to obtain the fundamental law; we perceive that _all the planets_ must attract _each other_, must therefore draw each other out of the orbits which they would have if acted on only by the sun; and as this was never contemplated in the inductive process, its validity becomes a question, which can only be determined by ascertaining precisely how great a deviation this new class of mutual actions will produce. To do this is no easy task, or rather, it is the most difficult task which the genius of man has ever yet accomplished: still, it _has_ been accomplished by the mere application of the general laws of dynamics; and the result (undoubtedly a most beautiful and satisfactory one) is, that all those observed deviations in the motions of our system which stood out as exceptions (§ 154.), or were noticed as residual phenomena and reserved for further enquiry (§ 158.), in that imperfect view of the subject which we got in the subordinate process by which we rose to our general conclusion, prove to be the immediate consequences of the above-mentioned mutual actions. As such, they are neither exceptions nor residual facts, but fulfilments of general rules, and essential features in the statement of the case, _without_ which our induction would be invalid, and the law of gravitation positively untrue.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00313", "bookId": 54897, "start": 317985, "end": 318945, "sha256": "bd5481882df9ba550528ad4e9c13366988999b480be04e051dff133a5899fd12", "text": "(214.) In the theory of gravitation, the law is all in all, applying itself at once to the materials, and directly producing the result. But in many other cases we have to consider not merely the laws which regulate the actions of our ultimate causes, but a system of mechanism, or a structure of parts, through the intervention of which their effects become sensible to us. Thus, in the delicate and curious electro-dynamic theory of Ampere, the mutual attraction or repulsion of two magnets is referred to a more universal phenomenon, the mutual action of electric currents, according to a certain fundamental law. But, in order to bring the case of a magnet within the range of this law, he is obliged to make a supposition of a peculiar structure or mechanism, which constitutes a body a magnet, viz. that around each particle of the body there shall be constantly circulating, in a certain stated direction, a small current of electric fluid.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00314", "bookId": 54897, "start": 318949, "end": 320601, "sha256": "f7d4b34bfc57c5bf54f04bdc84a95b8f397b23994e47265625ac292c978b08c9", "text": "(215.) This, we may say, is too complex; it is artificial, and cannot be granted: yet, if the admission of this or any other structure tenfold more artificial and complicated will enable any one to present in a general point of view a great number of particular facts,--to make them a part of one system, and enable us to reason from the known to the unknown, and actually to _predict facts before trial_,--we would ask, why should it _not_ be granted? When we examine those instances of nature’s workmanship which we can take to pieces and understand, we find them in the highest degree artificial in our own sense of the word. Take, for example, the structure of an eye, or of the skeleton of an animal,--what complexity and what artifice! In the one, a _pellucid muscle_; a lens formed with elliptical surfaces; a circular aperture capable of enlargement or contraction without loss of form. In the other, a framework of the most curious carpentry; in which occurs not a single straight line, nor any known geometrical curve, yet all evidently systematic, and constructed by rules which defy our research. Or examine a crystallized mineral, which we can in some measure dissect, and thus obtain direct evidence of an internal structure. Neither artifice nor complication are here wanting; and though it is easy to assert that these appearances are, after all, produced by something which would be very simple, if we did but know it, it is plain that the same might be _said_ of a steam-engine executing the most complicated movements, previous to any investigation of its nature, or any knowledge of the source of its power.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00315", "bookId": 54897, "start": 320605, "end": 322010, "sha256": "0b15ea1cac5a3a3e8d081d717c8b2d0c7889bfd4b5386fea00a500f350e2c9eb", "text": "(216.) In estimating, however, the value of a theory, we are not to look, _in the first instance_, to the question, whether it establishes satisfactorily, or not, a particular process or mechanism; for of this, after all, we can never obtain more than that indirect evidence which consists in its leading to the same results. What, in the actual state of science, is far more important for us to know, is whether our theory truly represent _all_ the facts, and include _all_ the laws, to which observation and induction lead. A theory which did this would, no doubt, go a great way to establish any hypothesis of mechanism or structure, which might form an essential part of it: but this is very far from being the case, except in a few limited instances; and, till it is so, to lay any great stress on hypotheses of the kind, except in as much as they serve as a scaffold for the erection of general laws, is to “quite mistake the scaffold for the pile.” Regarded in this light, hypotheses have often an eminent use: and a facility in framing them, if attended with an equal facility in laying them aside when they have served their turn, is one of the most valuable qualities a philosopher can possess; while, on the other hand, a bigoted adherence to them, or indeed to peculiar views of any kind, in opposition to the tenor of facts as they arise, is the bane of all philosophy.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00316", "bookId": 54897, "start": 322014, "end": 324875, "sha256": "786ab1cfb932602d67e4b65acba567d843e454d30f646a03a887a6f90d155400", "text": "(217.) There is no doubt, however, that the safest course, when it can be followed, is to rise by inductions carried on among laws, as among facts, from law to law, perceiving, as we go on, how laws which we have looked upon as unconnected become particular cases, either one of the other, or all of one still more general, and, at length, blend altogether in the point of view from which we learn to regard them. An example will illustrate what we mean. It is a general law, that all hot bodies throw out or _radiate_ heat in all directions, (by which we mean, not that heat is an actual substance darted out from hot bodies, but only that the laws of the transmission of heat to distant objects are similar to those which would regulate the distribution of particles thrown forth in all directions,) and that other colder bodies placed in their neighbourhood become hot, _as if_ they received the heat so radiated. Again, all solid bodies which become heated in one part _conduct_, or diffuse, the heat from that part through their whole substance. Here we have two modes of communicating heat,--by radiation, and by conduction; and both these have their peculiar, and, to all appearance, very different laws. Now, let us bring a hot and a cold body (of the same substance) gradually nearer and nearer together,--as they approach, the heat will be communicated from the hot to the cold one by the _laws of radiation_; and from the nearer to the farther part of the colder one, as it gradually grows warm, by _those of conduction_. Let their distance be diminished till they just lightly touch. How does the heat _now_ pass from one to the other? Doubtless, by radiation; for it may be proved, that in such a contact there is yet an interval. Let them then be _forced_ together, and it will seem clear that it must now be by _conduction_. Yet their _interval_ must diminish gradually, as the force by which they are pressed together increases, till they actually cohere, and form one. The law of continuity, then, of which we have before spoken (§ 199.), forbids us to suppose that the intimate nature of the process of communication is changed in this transition from light to violent contact, and from that to actual union. If so, we might ask, at what point does the change happen? Especially since it is also demonstrable, that the particles of the most solid body are not, really, in contact. _Therefore_, the laws of conduction and radiation have a mutual dependence, and the former are only extreme cases of the latter. If, then, we would rightly understand what passes, or what is the process of nature in the slow communication of heat through the substance of a solid, we must ground our enquiries upon what takes place at a distance, and then urge the laws to which we have arrived, up to their extreme case.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00317", "bookId": 54897, "start": 324879, "end": 327213, "sha256": "fa97b7046d3611845f853c7560d63e1f23458ccbb77a8efb78ee1f8ead1519bb", "text": "(218.) When two theories run parallel to each other, and each explains a great many facts in common with the other, any experiment which affords a crucial instance to decide between them, or by which one or other must fall, is of great importance. In thus verifying theories, since they are grounded on general laws, we may appeal, not merely to particular cases, but to whole classes of facts; and we therefore have a great range among the individuals of these for the selection of some particular effect which ought to take place oppositely in the event of one of the two suppositions at issue being right and the other wrong. A curious example is given by M. Fresnel, as decisive, in his mind, of the question between the two great opinions on the nature of light, which, since the time of Newton and Huyghens, have divided philosophers. (See § 207.) When two very clean glasses are laid one on the other, if they be not perfectly flat, but one or both in an almost imperceptible degree convex or prominent, beautiful and vivid colours will be seen between them; and if these be viewed through a red glass, their appearance will be that of alternate dark and bright stripes. These stripes are formed _between_ the two surfaces in apparent contact, as any one may satisfy himself by using, instead of a flat _plate_ of glass for the upper one, a triangular-shaped piece, called a prism, like a three-cornered stick, and looking through the inclined side of it next the eye, by which arrangement the reflection of light from the upper surface is prevented from intermixing with that from the surfaces in contact. Now, the coloured stripes thus produced are explicable on both theories, and are appealed to by both as strong confirmatory facts; but there is a difference in one circumstance according as one or the other theory is employed to explain them. In the case of the Huyghenian doctrine, the intervals between the bright stripes ought to appear _absolutely black_; in the other, _half bright_, when so viewed through a prism. This curious case of difference was tried as soon as the opposing consequences of the two theories were noted by M. Fresnel, and the result is stated by him to be decisive in favour of that theory which makes light to consist in the vibrations of an elastic medium.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00318", "bookId": 54897, "start": 327217, "end": 328500, "sha256": "5f07a9ab43930cc3c3346f8652792fc69e5c41d069a7952b016c96d8c81ddfdf", "text": "(219.) Theories are best arrived at by the consideration of general laws; but most securely verified by comparing them with particular facts, because this serves as a verification of the whole train of induction, from the lowest term to the highest. But then, the comparison must be made with facts purposely selected so as to include every variety of case, not omitting extreme ones, and in sufficient number to afford every reasonable probability of detecting error. A single numerical coincidence in a final conclusion, however striking the coincidence or important the subject, is not sufficient. Newton’s theory of sound, for example, leads to a numerical expression for the actual velocity of sound, differing but little from that afforded by the correct theory afterwards explained by Lagrange, and (when certain considerations not contemplated by him are allowed for) agreeing with fact; yet this coincidence is no verification of Newton’s view of the general subject of sound, which is defective in an essential point, as the great geometer last named has very satisfactorily shown. This example is sufficient to inspire caution in resting the verification of theories upon any thing but a very extensive comparison with a great mass of observed facts.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00319", "bookId": 54897, "start": 328504, "end": 329646, "sha256": "d882e1ad1b37d2a5da59565877910fb5dec9157bc3f75d12866442e4d727b057", "text": "(220.) But, on the other hand, when a theory will bear the test of such extensive comparison, it matters little how it has been originally framed. However strange and, at first sight, inadmissible its postulates may appear, or however singular it may seem that such postulates should have been fixed upon,--if they only lead us, by legitimate reasonings, to conclusions in exact accordance with numerous observations purposely made under such a variety of circumstances as fairly to embrace the whole range of the phenomena which the theory is intended to account for, we cannot refuse to admit them; or if we still hesitate to regard them as demonstrated truths, we cannot, at least, object to receive them as temporary substitutes for such truths, until the latter shall become known. If they suffice to explain all the phenomena known, it becomes highly improbable that they will not explain more; and if all their conclusions we have tried have proved correct, it is probable that others yet untried will be found so too; so that _in rejecting them altogether, we should reject all the discoveries to which they may lead_.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00320", "bookId": 54897, "start": 329650, "end": 333290, "sha256": "b4ac51616ef39040a65c9ad6089c60d0b7327598401a227f664dbdc673c7de73", "text": "(221.) In all theories which profess to give a true account of the process of nature in the production of any class of phenomena, by referring them to general laws, or to the action of general causes, through a train of modifying circumstances; before we can apply those laws, or trace the action of those causes in any assigned case, we require to know the circumstances: we must have data whereon to ground their application. Now, these can be learned only from observation; and it may seem to be arguing in a vicious circle to have recourse to observation for any part of those theoretical conclusions, by whose comparison with fact the theory itself is to be tried. The consideration of an example will enable us to remove this difficulty. The most general law which has yet been discovered in chemistry is this, that all the elementary substances in nature are susceptible of entering into combination with each other only in fixed or _definite proportions_ by weight, and not arbitrarily; so that when any two substances are put together with a view to unite them, if their weights are not in some certain determinate proportion, a complete combination will not take place, but some part of one or the other ingredient will remain over and above, and uncombined. Suppose, now, we have found a substance having all the outward characters of a homogeneous or unmixed body, but which, on analysis, we discover to consist of sulphur, and lead in the proportion of 20 parts of the former to 130 of the latter ingredient; and we would know whether this is to be regarded as a verification of the law of definite proportions or an exception to it. The question is reduced to this, whether the proportion 20 to 130 be or be not _that_ fixed and definite proportion, (or one of them, if there be more than one proportion possible,) in which, according to the law in question, sulphur and lead can combine; now, this can never be decided by merely looking at the law in all its generality. It is clear, that when particularized by restricting its expression to sulphur and lead, the law should state _what are_ those particular fixed proportions in which these bodies can combine. That is to say, there must be certain data or numbers, by which these are distinguished from all other bodies in nature, and which require to be known before we can apply the general law to the particular case. To determine such data, observation must be consulted; and if we were to have recourse to that of the combination of the two substances in question with each other, no doubt there would be ground for the logical objection of a vicious circle: but this is not done; the determination of these numerical data is derived from experiments purposely made on a great variety of different combinations, among which that under consideration does not of necessity occur, and all these being found, independently of each other, to agree in giving the same results, they are therefore safely assumed as part of the system. Thus, the law of definite proportions, when applied to the actual state of nature, requires two separate statements, the one announcing the general law of combination, the other particularizing the numbers appropriate to the several elements of which natural bodies consist, or the data of nature. Among these data, if arranged in a list, there will be found opposite to the element sulphur the number 16, and opposite to lead, 104[48]; and since 20 is to 130 in the exact proportion of 16 to 104, it appears that the combination in question affords a satisfactory verification of the law.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00321", "bookId": 54897, "start": 333294, "end": 334302, "sha256": "4c607056db106021d7ca7f26767b1606e8b288efd9ba1a13f49a4b1057789c81", "text": "(222.) The great importance of physical data of this description, and the advantage of having them well determined, will be obvious, if we consider, that a list of them, when taken in combination with the general law, affords the means of determining at once the exact proportion of the ingredients of all natural compounds, if we only know the place they hold in the system. In chemistry, the number of admitted elements is between fifty and sixty, and new ones are added continually as the science advances. Now, the moment the number corresponding to any new substance added to the list is determined, we have, in fact, ascertained all the proportions in which it can enter into combination with all the others, so that a careful experiment made with the object of determining this number is, in fact, equivalent to as many different experiments as there are binary, ternary, or yet more complicated combinations capable of existing, into which the new substance may enter, as an ingredient.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00322", "bookId": 54897, "start": 334306, "end": 335383, "sha256": "aade3dbc827bff4834a7c5e940f537f3b71d5605679ffc451ea9655a6ca9819c", "text": "(223.) The importance of obtaining exact physical data can scarcely be too much insisted on, for without them the most elaborate theories are little better than mere inapplicable forms of words. It would be of little consequence to be informed, abstractedly, that the sun and planets attract each other, with forces proportional to their masses, and inversely as the squares of their distances: but, as soon as we know the data of our system, as soon as we have an accurate statement (no matter how obtained) of the distances, masses, and actual motions of the several bodies which compose it, we need no more to enable us to predict all the movements of its several parts, and the changes that will happen in it for thousands of years to come; and even to extend our views backwards into time, and recover from the past, phenomena, which no observation has noted, and no history recorded, and which yet (it is possible) may have left indelible traces of their existence in their influence on the state of nature in our own globe, and those of the other planets.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00323", "bookId": 54897, "start": 335387, "end": 336590, "sha256": "0f63fd0c828fb492f8a73fecb65eb20cb9a538cb3ed201efc3fb280665b0c7de", "text": "(224.) The proof, too, that our data _are_ correctly assumed, is involved in the general verification of the whole theory, of which, when once assumed, they form a part; and the same comparison with observation which enables us to decide on the truth of the abstract principle, enables us, at the same time, to ascertain whether we have fixed the values of our data in accordance with the actual state of nature. If not, it becomes an important question, whether the assumed values can be corrected, so as to bring the results of theory to agree with facts? Thus it happens, that as theories approach to their perfection, a more and more exact determination of data becomes requisite. Deviations from observed fact, which, in a first or approximative verification, may be disregarded as trifling, become important when a high degree of precision is attained. A difference between the calculated and observed places of a planet, which would have been disregarded by Kepler in his verification of the law of elliptic motion, would now be considered fatal to the theory of gravity, unless it could be shown to arise from an erroneous assumption of some of the numerical data of our system.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00324", "bookId": 54897, "start": 336594, "end": 337326, "sha256": "86ab9b6713cc53f9c40602dba1f2383b7f8cf9820acc8aa6378adc1223e77a7f", "text": "(225.) The observations most appropriate for the ready and exact determination of physical data are, therefore, those which it is most necessary to have performed with exactness and perseverance. Hence it is, that their performance, in many cases, becomes a national concern, and observatories are erected and maintained, and expeditions despatched to distant regions, at an expense which, to a superficial view, would appear most disproportioned to their objects. But it may very reasonably be asked why the direct assistance afforded by governments to the execution of continued series of observations adapted to this especial end should continue to be, as it has hitherto almost exclusively been, confined to astronomy.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00325", "bookId": 54897, "start": 337330, "end": 338883, "sha256": "fb280bb4a76d022f3952764f38c664f1af4b958369f75f64f6bbb361c0a5e3c2", "text": "(226.) Physical data intended to be employed as elements of calculation in extensive theories, require to be known with a much greater degree of exactness than any single observation possesses, not only on account of their dignity and importance, as affording the means of representing an indefinite multitude of facts; but because, in the variety of combinations that may arise, or in the changes that circumstances may undergo, cases will occur when any trifling error in one of the data may become enormously magnified in the final result to be compared with observation. Thus, in the case of an eclipse of the sun, when the moon enters very obliquely upon the sun’s disc, a trifling error in the diameter of either the sun or moon may make a great one in the time when the eclipse shall be announced to commence. It ought to be remarked, that these are, of all others, the conjunctures where observations are most available for the determination of data; for, by the same rule that a small change in the data will, in such cases, produce a great one in the thing to be observed; so, _vice versâ_, any moderate amount of error, committed in an observation undertaken for ascertaining its value, can produce but a very trifling one in the _reverse_ calculation from which the data come to be determined by observation. This remark extends to every description of physical data in every department of science, and is never to be overlooked when the object in view is the determination of data with the last degree of precision.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00326", "bookId": 54897, "start": 338887, "end": 339781, "sha256": "bd19ddec25d8f76d2dc963d79132a508d9d47d9f51674fe5c629b08a924a2a6f", "text": "(227.) But how, it may be asked, are we to ascertain _by_ observation, data more precise than observation itself? How are we to conclude the value of that which we do not see, with greater certainty than that of quantities which we actually see and measure? It is the number of observations which may be brought to bear on the determination of data that enables us to do this. Whatever error we may commit in a single determination, it is highly improbable that we should always err the same way, so that, when we come to take an average of a great number of determinations, (unless there be some constant cause which gives a bias one way or the other,) we cannot fail, at length, to obtain a very near approximation to the truth, and, even allowing a bias, to come much nearer to it than can fairly be expected from any single observation, liable to be influenced by the same bias.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00327", "bookId": 54897, "start": 339785, "end": 341948, "sha256": "3f62e849b458ebf27d3fd50d6b1575f2633514cfcf562eee798103187f8b6a02", "text": "(228.) This useful and valuable property of the average of a great many observations, that it brings us nearer to the truth than any single observation can be relied on as doing, renders it the most constant resource in all physical enquiries where accuracy is desired. And it is surprising what a rapid effect, in equalizing fluctuations and destroying deviations, a moderate multiplication of individual observations has. A better example can hardly be taken than the average height of the quicksilver in the common barometer, which measures the pressure of the air, and whose fluctuations are proverbial. Nevertheless, if we only observe it regularly every day, and, at the end of each month, take an average of the observed heights, we shall find the fluctuations surprisingly diminished in amount; and if we go on for a whole year, or for many years in succession, the annual averages will be found to agree with still greater exactness. This equalizing power of averages, by destroying all such fluctuations as are irregular or accidental, frequently enables us to obtain evidence of fluctuations really regular, periodic in their recurrence, and so much smaller in their amount than the accidental ones, that, but for this mode of proceeding, they never would have become apparent. Thus, if the height of the barometer be observed four times a day, constantly, for a few months, and the averages taken, it will be seen that a regular _daily_ fluctuation, of very small amount, takes place, the quicksilver rising and falling twice in the four-and-twenty hours. It is by such observations that we are enabled to ascertain--what no single measure (unless by a fortunate coincidence), could give us any idea, and never any certain knowledge of--the true _sea level_ at any part of the coast, or the height at which the water of the ocean would stand, if perfectly undisturbed by winds, waves, or tides: a subject of very great importance, and upon which it would be highly desirable to possess an extensive series of observations, at a great many points on the coasts of the principal continents and islands over the whole globe.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00328", "bookId": 54897, "start": 341952, "end": 343253, "sha256": "ede8972bb45083ea29b3ab1e309add530ff6dc6cb14bd677929bad21749ce982", "text": "(229.) In all cases where there is a direct and simple relation between the phenomenon observed and a single _datum_ on which it depends, every single observation will give a value of this quantity, and the average of all (under certain restrictions) will be its exact value. We say, under certain restrictions; for, if the circumstances under which the observations are made be not alike, they may not all be equally favourable to exactness, and it would be doing injustice to those most advantageous, to class them with the rest. In such cases as these, as well as in cases where the _data_ are numerous and complicated together, so as not to admit of single, separate determination (a thing of continual occurrence), we have to enter into very nice, and often not a little intricate, considerations respecting the _probable_ accuracy of our results, or the limits of error within which it is _probable_ they lie. In so doing we are obliged to have recourse to a refined and curious branch of mathematical enquiry, called the doctrine of probabilities, the object of which (as its name imports) is to reduce our estimation of the probability of any conclusion to calculation, so as to be able to give more than a mere guess at the degree of reliance which ought to be placed in it.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00329", "bookId": 54897, "start": 343257, "end": 345859, "sha256": "26a842f780f369695349f68c75286bef1e3f12b756ee9b324f424395d60cd098", "text": "(230.) To give some general idea of the considerations which such computations involve, let us imagine a person firing with a pistol at a wafer on a wall ten yards distant: we might, in a general way, take it for granted, that he would hit the wall, but not the wafer, at the first shot; but if we would form any thing like a probable conjecture of _how near_ he would come to it, we must first have an idea of his skill. No better way of judging could be devised than by letting him fire a hundred shots at it, and marking where they all struck. Suppose this done,--suppose the wafer has been hit once or twice, that a certain number of balls have hit the wall within an inch of it, a certain number between one and two inches, and so on, and that one or two have been some feet wide of the mark. Still the question arises, what estimate are we thence to form of his skill? how _near_ (or nearer) may we, after this experience, safely, or at least not unfairly, bet that he will come to the mark the next subsequent shot? This the laws of probability enable us on such data to say. Again, suppose, _before_ we were allowed to measure the distances, the wafer were to have been taken away, and we were called upon, on the mere evidence of the marks on the wall, to say where it had been placed; it is clear that no reasoning would enable any one to say with certainty; yet there is assuredly one place which we may fix on with greater probability of being right than any other. Now, this is a very similar case to that of an observer--an astronomer for example--who would determine the exact place of a heavenly body. He points to it his telescope, and obtains a series of results disagreeing among themselves, but yet all agreeing within certain limits, and only a comparatively small number of them deviating considerably from the mean of all; and from these he is called upon to say, definitively, what he shall consider to have been the most probable place of his star at the moment. Just so in the calculation of physical _data_; where no two results agree exactly, and where all come within limits, some wide, some close, what have we to guide us when we would make up our minds what to conclude respecting them? It is evident that any system of calculation that can be shown to lead of necessity to the most probable conclusion where certainty is not to be had must be valuable. However, as this doctrine is one of the most difficult and delicate among the applications of mathematics to natural philosophy, this slight mention of it must suffice at present.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00330", "bookId": 54897, "start": 345863, "end": 347260, "sha256": "c77c3871aaee553a53711c79f7ded6023625be9fdf25bd9d7ead04b986a33706", "text": "(231.) In the foregoing pages we have endeavoured to explain the spirit of the methods to which, since the revival of philosophy, natural science has been indebted for the great and splendid advances it has made. What we have all along most earnestly desired to impress on the student is, that natural philosophy is essentially united in all its departments, through all which one spirit reigns and one method of enquiry applies. It cannot, however, be studied as a whole, without subdivision into parts; and, in the remainder of this discourse, we shall therefore take a summary view of the progress which has been made in the different branches into which it may be most advantageously so subdivided, and endeavour to give a general idea of the nature of each, and of its relations to the rest. In the course of this, we shall have frequent opportunity to point out the influence of those general principles we have above endeavoured to explain, on the progress of discovery. But this we shall only do as cases arise, without entering into any regular analysis of the history of each department with that view. Such an analysis would, indeed, be a most useful and valuable work, but would far exceed our present limits. We are not, however, without a hope that this great desideratum in science will, ere long, be supplied from a quarter every way calculated to do it justice.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00331", "bookId": 54897, "start": 347301, "end": 347310, "sha256": "6526012c7d7ce206384b143e5d28855b683a3ebed5dd0642cac40e11cb04b446", "text": "PART III.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00332", "bookId": 54897, "start": 347323, "end": 347427, "sha256": "829639972e83ab2f59a975a306629d3353b0f37b6a52aa5793129d602e4564d3", "text": "OF THE SUBDIVISION OF PHYSICS INTO DISTINCT BRANCHES, AND THEIR MUTUAL RELATIONS.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00333", "bookId": 54897, "start": 347437, "end": 347447, "sha256": "d0ed1fd816333f29aabbca20f2a33087bb8f87c3785f4215402429274a4c314e", "text": "CHAPTER I.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00334", "bookId": 54897, "start": 347451, "end": 347520, "sha256": "3ab93735765472618dc152442a190e77a2e27b4c55c561b20ae3d030f3859775", "text": "OF THE PHENOMENA OF FORCE, AND OF THE CONSTITUTION OF NATURAL BODIES.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00335", "bookId": 54897, "start": 347526, "end": 349203, "sha256": "a0ca84ceba2de5d84eb55ee13fc0b145bde3eeddfb00874f8feebd1fa7c6d1e4", "text": "(232.) Natural History may be considered in two very different lights: either, 1st, as a collection of facts and objects presented by nature, from the examination, analysis, and combination of which we acquire whatever knowledge we are capable of attaining both of the order of nature, and of the agents she employs for producing her ends, and from which, therefore, all sciences arise; or, 2dly, as an assemblage of phenomena to be explained; of effects to be deduced from causes; and of materials prepared to our hands, for the application of our principles to useful purposes. Natural history, therefore, considered in the one or the other of these points of view, is either the beginning or the end of physical science. As it offers to us, in a confused and interwoven mass, the elements of all our knowledge, our business is to disentangle, to arrange, and to present them in a separate and distinct state: and to this end we are called upon to resolve the important but complicated problem,--Given the effect, or assemblage of effects, to find the causes. The principles on which this enquiry relies are those which constitute the relation of cause and effect, as it exists with reference to our minds; and their rules and mode of application have been attempted to be sketched out, (though in far less detail than the intrinsic interest of the subject, both in a logical and practical point of view, would demand,) in the foregoing pages. It remains now to bring together, in a summary statement, the results of the general examination of nature, so far as it has been prosecuted to the discovery of natural agents, and the mode in which they act.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00336", "bookId": 54897, "start": 349207, "end": 349521, "sha256": "afc33661c5c43c777532af463a1043fa308226bb6f2e7c8cfc80baee9a60056d", "text": "(233.) The first great agent which the analysis of natural phenomena offers to our consideration, more frequently and prominently than any other, is force. Its effects are either, 1st, to counteract the exertion of opposing force, and thereby to maintain _equilibrium_; or, 2dly, to produce _motion_ in matter.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00337", "bookId": 54897, "start": 349525, "end": 350735, "sha256": "3a9ad549e65225418c28f1cb785fbf7e5f656cd3f73d6ead09f7f0115032555f", "text": "(234.) Matter, or that, whatever it be, of which all the objects in nature which manifest themselves directly to our senses consist, presents us with two general qualities, which at first sight appear to stand in contradiction to each other--activity and inertness. Its activity is proved by its power of spontaneously setting other matter in motion, and of itself obeying their mutual impulse, and moving under the influence of its own and other force; inertness, in refusing to move unless obliged to do so by a force impressed externally, or mutually exerted between itself and other matter, and by persisting in its state of motion or rest unless disturbed by some external cause. Yet in reality this contradiction is only apparent. Force being the cause, and motion the effect produced by it on matter, to say that matter is inert, or has _inertia_, as it is termed, is only to say that the cause is expended in producing its effect, and that the same cause cannot (without renewal) produce double or triple its own proper effect. In this point of view, equilibrium may be conceived as a continual production of two opposite effects, each undoing at every instant what the other has done.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00338", "bookId": 54897, "start": 350739, "end": 351628, "sha256": "3d4930f8daeb14205dd400bc6a331de524f05cb4e31e02d06c32a3066978b367", "text": "(235.) However, if this should appear too metaphysical, at all events this difference of effects gives rise to two great divisions of the science of force, which are commonly known by the names of STATICS and DYNAMICS; the latter term, which is general, and has been used by us before in its general sense, being usually confined to the doctrine of motion, as produced and modified by force. Each of these great divisions again branches out into distinct subdivisions, according as we consider the equilibrium or motion of matter in the three distinct states in which it is presented to us in nature, the solid, liquid, and aëriform state, to which, perhaps, ought to be added the _viscous_, as a state intermediate between that of solidity and fluidity, the consideration of which, though very obscure and difficult, offers a high degree of interest on a variety of accounts.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00339", "bookId": 54897, "start": 351634, "end": 351657, "sha256": "b3241bd4d69493bbff9a3e4c2a2667112f6c32b5204d580ea03ad492f0c6f571", "text": "_Statics and Dynamics._", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00340", "bookId": 54897, "start": 351661, "end": 352706, "sha256": "6d9cb5991e032c8b83da8195df6bfba58a1a22d93e004ad2a7bd43c98372abfb", "text": "(236.) The principles have been definitively fixed by Galileo and his successors, down to Newton, on a basis of sound induction; and as they are perfectly general, and apply to every case, they are competent, as we have already before observed, to the solution of every problem that can occur in the deductive processes, by which phenomena are to be explained, or effects calculated. Hence, they include every question that can arise respecting the motions and rest of the smallest particles of matter, as well as of the largest masses. But the mode of reasoning from these general principles differs materially, whether we consider them as applied to masses of matter of a sensible size, or to those excessively minute, and perhaps indivisible, molecules of which such masses are composed. The investigations which relate to the latter subject are extremely intricate, as they necessarily involve the consideration of the hypotheses we may form respecting the intimate constitution of the several sorts of bodies above enumerated.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00341", "bookId": 54897, "start": 352710, "end": 354342, "sha256": "a95bd279dfddd1f1035d86f01d885737caabf4583938a175c65804594d5ef104", "text": "(237.) On the other hand, those which respect the equilibrium and motions of sensible masses of matter are happily capable of being so managed as to render unnecessary the adoption of any particular hypothesis of structure. Thus, in reasoning respecting the application of forces to a solid mass, we suppose its parts indissolubly and unalterably connected; it matters not by what tie, provided this condition be satisfied, that one point of it cannot be moved without setting all the rest in motion, so that the relative situation of the parts one among another be not changed. This is the abstract notion of a solid which the mechanician employs in his reasonings. And their conclusions will apply to natural bodies, of course, only so far as they conform to such a definition. In strictness of speaking, however, there are no bodies which absolutely conform to it. No substance is known whose parts are absolutely incapable of yielding one among another; but the amount by which they do yield is so excessively small as to be demonstrably incapable, in most cases, of having any influence on the results: and in those where it has such influence, an especial investigation of its amount can always be made. This gives rise to two subdivisions of the application of mechanical reasonings to solid masses. Those which refer to the action of forces on flexible or elastic, and on inflexible or rigid, bodies, comprehending under the latter all such whose resistance to flexure or fracture is so very great as to permit our adoption of the language and ideas of the extreme case without fear of material error.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00342", "bookId": 54897, "start": 354346, "end": 355225, "sha256": "c06b05ce85ba1aac2c9bf50f7929b79b9b8bd1b84742ea01ca9517ba676470a6", "text": "(238.) In like manner, when we reason respecting the action of forces on a fluid mass, all we have occasion to assume is, that its parts are freely moveable one among the other. If, besides this, we choose to regard a fluid as incompressible, and deduce conclusions on this supposition, they will hold good only so far as there may be found such fluids in nature. Now, in strictness, there are none such; but, practically speaking, in the greater number of cases their resistance to compression is so very great that the result of the reasoning so carried on is not sensibly vitiated; and, in the remaining cases, the same general principles enable us to enter on a special enquiry directed to this point: and hence the division of fluids, in mechanical language, into compressible and incompressible, the latter being only the extreme or limiting case of the former.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00343", "bookId": 54897, "start": 355229, "end": 356973, "sha256": "dc8437ad8c47c3e0004324bc3b22e4fe31ad5188147f4180cf885fa219db64e8", "text": "(239.) As we propose here, however, only to consider what is the actual constitution of nature, we shall regard all bodies, as they really are, more or less flexible and yielding. We know for certain, that the space which any material body appears to occupy is not entirely filled by it; because there is none which by the application of a sufficient force may not be _compressed_ or forced into a smaller space, and which, either wholly, as in air or liquids, or in part, as in the greater number of solids, will not recover its former dimensions when the force is taken off. In the case of air, this condensation may be urged to almost any extent; and not only does a mass of air so condensed completely recover its original bulk, when the applied pressure is removed, but if that ordinary pressure under which it exists at the earth’s surface (and which arises from the weight of the atmosphere) be also removed by an air-pump, it will still further dilate itself without limit so far as we have yet been able to try it. Hence we are led to the conclusion that the particles of air are mutually elastic, and have a _tendency to recede from one another_, which can only be counteracted by _force_, and therefore is itself a force of the repulsive kind. Nevertheless, as air is heavy, and as gravitation is a universal property of matter, there is no doubt that this repulsive tendency must have a limit, and that there is a distance to which, if the particles of the air could be removed from each other, their mutual repulsion would cease, and an attraction take its place. This limit is probably attained at some very great height above the earth’s surface, beyond which, of course, its atmosphere cannot extend.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00344", "bookId": 54897, "start": 356977, "end": 357586, "sha256": "ec92c397e6f491fcbd79917b8f4a7652d85d648fbdc464cf0a97b37dbc5e0e3e", "text": "(240.) What, however, we can only conclude by this or similar reasoning respecting air, we see distinctly in liquids. They are all, though in a small degree, compressible, and recover their former dimensions completely when the pressure is removed; but they cannot be dilated (by mechanical means), and have no tendency, while they remain liquids, to enlarge themselves beyond a certain limit, and therefore they assume a determinate _surface_ while at rest, and their parts actually resist further separation with a considerable force, thus giving rise to the phenomenon of the _cohesion of liquids_.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00345", "bookId": 54897, "start": 357590, "end": 358256, "sha256": "06f565ece5c4cdf0f5a9e813f3c0e6da0c0bb179274a9981c23f5701ed4416f7", "text": "(241.) Both in air and in liquids, however, the most perfect freedom of motion of the parts among each other subsists, which could hardly be the case if they were not separate and independent of each other. And from this, combined with the foregoing considerations, it has been concluded that they do not actually touch, but are kept asunder at determinate distances from each other, by the constant action of the two forces of attraction and repulsion, which are supposed to balance and counteract each other at the ordinary distances of the particles, but to prevail, the one, or the other, according as they are forcibly urged together or pulled asunder.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00346", "bookId": 54897, "start": 358260, "end": 359236, "sha256": "a4cef589028a961289772694a327eedc70ec1a4580bd74c5ae837af7c2a5f2d5", "text": "(242.) In solids, however, the case is very different. The mutual free motion of their parts _inter se_ is powerfully impeded, and in some almost destroyed. In some, a slow and gradual change of figure may be produced to a great extent, by pressure or blows, as for instance in the metals, clay, butter, &c.; in others, fracture is the consequence of any attempt to change the figure by violence beyond a certain very small limit. In solids, then, it is evident, that the consideration of their intimate structure has a very great influence in modifying the general results of the action of such attractive and repulsive forces as may be assumed to account for the phenomena they present; yet the general facts that their parts _cohere_ with a certain energy, and that they resist displacement or intrusion on the part of other bodies, are sufficient to demonstrate at least the existence of such forces, whatever obscurity may subsist as to their mode of action.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00347", "bookId": 54897, "start": 359240, "end": 359574, "sha256": "e0330fb34b05c7e665df188f549b604384b46037178d70152aa93e4dcec1683e", "text": "(243.) This division of bodies into airs, liquids, and solids, gives rise, then, to three distinct branches of mechanical science, in each of which the general principles of equilibrium and motion have their peculiar mode of application; viz. pneumatics, hydrostatics, and what might, without impropriety, be termed stereostatics.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00348", "bookId": 54897, "start": 359580, "end": 359593, "sha256": "204774448da8eecdfdff09ad44bbaecbcd6bc6815c2ce38560207b34ccb529c7", "text": "_Pneumatics._", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00349", "bookId": 54897, "start": 359597, "end": 360636, "sha256": "b60f3ccde27a219dde560e13eb70e5c625b536dbc203ff22cf472129b034ef03", "text": "(244.) Pneumatics relates to the equilibrium or movements of aërial fluids under all circumstances of pressure, density, and elasticity. The weight of the air, and its pressure on all the bodies on the earth’s surface, were quite unknown to the ancients, and only first perceived by Galileo, on the occasion of a sucking-pump refusing to draw water above a certain height. Before his time it had always been supposed that water rose by suction in a pipe, in consequence of a certain natural _abhorrence of a vacuum_ or empty space, which obliged the water to enter by way of supplying the place of the air sucked out. But if any such abhorrence existed, and had the force of an _acting cause_, which could urge water a single foot into a pipe, there is no reason why the same principle should not carry it up two, three, or any number of feet; none why it should suddenly stop short at a certain height, and refuse to rise higher, however violent the suction might be, nay, even fall back, if purposely forced up too high.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00350", "bookId": 54897, "start": 360640, "end": 361792, "sha256": "6ebde93db2faa328823f2b6c6eb659af37a595fd0004453b04e7c44bbcf78ef7", "text": "(245.) Galileo, however, at first contented himself with the conclusion, that the natural abhorrence of a vacuum was not strong enough to sustain the water more than about thirty-two feet above its level; and, although the true cause of the phenomenon at length occurred to him, in the pressure of the air on the general surface, it was not satisfactorily demonstrated till his pupil, Torricelli, conceived the happy idea of instituting an experiment on a small scale by the use of a much heavier liquid, mercury, instead of water, and, in place of sucking out the air from above, employing the much more effectual method of filling a long glass tube with mercury, and inverting it into a basin of the same metal. It was then at once seen, as by a _glaring instance_, that the maintenance of the mercury in the tube (which is nothing else than the common barometer) was the effect of a perfectly definite external cause, while its fluctuations from day to day, with the varying state of the atmosphere, strongly corroborated the notion of its being due to the pressure of the external air on the surface of the mercury in the reservoir.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00351", "bookId": 54897, "start": 361796, "end": 363127, "sha256": "5736306f5cbef4bd4f74a6b59211ccb2af347bbbb9d61210e2a56f579e25a485", "text": "(246.) The discovery of Torricelli was, however, at first much misconceived, and even disputed, till the question was finally decided by appeal to a _crucial instance_, one of the first, if not the very first on record in physics, and for which we are indebted to the celebrated Pascal. His acuteness perceived that if the weight of the incumbent air be the direct cause of the elevation of the mercury, it must be measured by the amount of that elevation, and therefore that, by carrying a barometer up a high mountain, and so ascending into the atmosphere _above_ a large portion of the incumbent air, the pressure, as well as the length of the column sustained by it, must be diminished; while, on the other hand, if the phenomenon were due to the cause originally assigned, no difference could be expected to take place, whether the observation were made on a mountain or on the plain. Perhaps the decisive effect of the experiment which he caused to be instituted for the purpose, on the Puy de Dôme, a high mountain in Auvergne, while it convinced every one of the truth of Torricelli’s views, tended more powerfully than any thing which had previously been done in science to confirm, in the minds of men, that disposition to experimental verification which had scarcely yet taken full and secure root.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00352", "bookId": 54897, "start": 363131, "end": 364228, "sha256": "4fcf0b061d92eff1fd48ce202f9fdde904dfb4c15381a391272a2e8348703530", "text": "(247.) Immediately on this discovery followed that of the air-pump, by Otto von Guericke of Magdeburgh, whose aim seems to have been to decide the question, whether a vacuum could or could not exist, by endeavouring to make one. The imperfection of his mechanism enabled him only to diminish the aërial contents of his receivers, not entirely to empty them; but the curious effects produced by even a partial exhaustion of air speedily excited attention, and induced our illustrious countryman, Robert Boyle, to the prosecution of those experiments which terminated in his hands, and in those of Hauksbee, Hooke, Mariotte, and others, in a satisfactory knowledge of the general law of the equilibrium of the air under the influence of greater or less pressures. These discoveries have since been extended to all the various descriptions of aërial fluids which chemistry has shown to exist, and to maintain their aëriform state under artificial pressure, and even to those which may be produced from liquids reduced to a state of vapour by heat, so long as they retain that state.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00353", "bookId": 54897, "start": 364232, "end": 365011, "sha256": "42cc01c30f98ce21fc309516fd354a1785d803f89e96d8b84084f0637f4df150", "text": "(248.) The manner in which the observed law of equilibrium of an elastic fluid, like air, may be considered to originate in the mutual repulsion of its particles, has been investigated by Newton, and the actual statement of the law itself, as announced by Mariotte, “that the density of the air, or the quantity of it contained in the same space, is, _cæteris paribus_, proportional to the pressure it supports,” has recently been verified within very extensive limits by direct experiment, by a committee of the Royal Academy of Paris. This law contains the principle of solution of every dynamical question that can occur relative to the equilibrium of elastic fluids, and is therefore to be regarded as one of the highest _axioms_ in the science of pneumatics.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00354", "bookId": 54897, "start": 365017, "end": 365032, "sha256": "3972721431faa61ce64ab3acd2756e65797fac91ac4d6ee4aa1582d32149629c", "text": "_Hydrostatics._", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00355", "bookId": 54897, "start": 365036, "end": 366046, "sha256": "a82973b31c64e0bd2bb71d87960074dfddd707f59f986e89899e0b98f3e1691e", "text": "(249.) The principles of the equilibrium of liquids, understanding by this word such fluids as do not, though quite at liberty, attempt to dilate themselves beyond a certain point, are at once few and simple. The first steps towards a knowledge of them were made by Archimedes, who established the general fact, that a solid immersed in a liquid loses a portion of its weight equal to that of the liquid it displaces. It seems very astonishing, after this, that it should not have been at once concluded that the weight thus said to be _lost_ is only _counteracted_ by the upward pressure of the liquid, and that, therefore, a portion of any liquid, surrounded on all sides by a liquid of the same kind, does really exert its weight in keeping its place. Yet the prejudice that “liquids do not gravitate in their natural place” kept its ground, and was only dispelled with the mass of error and absurdity which the introduction of a rational and experimental philosophy by Galileo swept away.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00356", "bookId": 54897, "start": 366050, "end": 367013, "sha256": "c6835f5867ff59e0a8dd31c513cba1cfcdcbc26d6bbf64ac6913262530b9c207", "text": "(250.) The hydrostatical law of _the equal pressure of liquids in all directions_, with its train of curious and important consequences, is an immediate conclusion from the perfect mobility of their parts among one another, in consequence of which each of them tends to recede from an excess of pressure on one side, and thus bears upon the rest, and distributes the pressure among its neighbours. In this form it was laid down by Newton, and has proved one of the most useful and fertile principles of physico-mathematical reasoning on the equilibrium of fluid masses, as affording a means of tracing the action of a force applied at any point of a liquid through its whole extent. It applies, too, without any modification, to expansible fluids as well as to liquids; and, in the applications of geometry to this subject, enables us to dispense with any minute and intricate enquiries as to the mode in which individual particles act on each other.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00357", "bookId": 54897, "start": 367017, "end": 368454, "sha256": "33b9d1dce96a4a95417484fa4d38accb57a6c6b34ce200367958935c2315c3a5", "text": "(251.) In a practical point of view, this law is remarkable for the directness of its application to useful purposes. The immediate and perfect distribution of a pressure applied on any one part, however small, of a fluid surface through the whole mass, enables us to communicate _at one instant_ the same pressure to any number of such parts by merely increasing the surface of the fluid, which may be done by enlarging the containing vessel; and if the vessel be so constructed that a large portion of its surface shall be moveable together, the pressures on all the similar parts of this portion will be united into one consentient force, which may thus be increased to any extent we please. The hydraulic press, invented by Bramah, (or rather applied by him after a much more ancient inventor, Stevin,) is constructed on this principle. A small quantity of water is driven by sufficient pressure into a vessel _already full_, and provided with a moveable surface or piston of great size. Under such circumstances something must give way; the great surface of the piston accumulates the pressure on it to such an extent that nothing can resist its violence. Thus, trees are torn up by the roots; piles extracted from the earth; woollen and cotton goods compressed into the most portable dimensions; and even hay, for military service, reduced to such a state of coercion as to be easily packed on board transports.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00358", "bookId": 54897, "start": 368458, "end": 369533, "sha256": "75859901372c1aabdef1f2422d7d2418d01f219af39f704470bb0ab7c9376938", "text": "(252.) Liquids differ from aëriform fluids by their _cohesion_, which may be regarded as a kind of approach to a solid state, and was so regarded by Bacon (193.). Indeed, there can be little doubt that the solid, liquid, and aëriform states of bodies are merely stages in a progress of gradual transition from one extreme to the other; and that, however strongly marked the distinctions between them may appear, they will ultimately turn out to be separated by no sudden or violent line of demarcation, but shade into each other by insensible gradations. The late experiments of Baron Cagnard de la Tour may be regarded as a first step towards the full demonstration of this (199.). But the cohesion of liquids is not, like that of solids, so modified by their structure in other respects as to destroy the mobility of their parts one among another (unless in those cases of nearer approach to the solid state which obtain in viscid or gummy liquids). On the contrary, the two qualities co-exist, and give rise to a number of curious and intricate phenomena.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00359", "bookId": 54897, "start": 369537, "end": 370491, "sha256": "7ce905c06c145b902dc07eff05428efab368708425c466a986560b41fdf3ec6f", "text": "(253.) One of the most remarkable of these is capillary attraction, or capillarity as it is sometimes called. Every body has remarked the adhesion of water to glass. The elevation of the general surface of the liquid where it is in contact with the containing vessel; the form of a drop suspended at the under side of a solid: these are instances of capillary attraction. If a small glass tube with a bore as fine as a hair be immersed in water, the water will be observed to rise in it to a certain height, and to assume a concave surface at its upper extremity. The attraction of the glass on the water, and the cohesion of the parts of the water to each other, are no doubt the joint causes of this curious effect; but the mode of action is at once obscure and complex; and although the researches of Laplace and Young have thrown great light on it, further investigation seems necessary before we can be said distinctly to understand it.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00360", "bookId": 54897, "start": 370495, "end": 371480, "sha256": "c239f573ec8aa0c5979301fd10160141ac2205195a42fdf9f5c68f5ca4f136f2", "text": "(254.) As the capillarity and cohesion of the parts of liquids shows them to possess the power of mutual attraction, so their elasticity demonstrates that they also possess that of repulsion when forcibly brought nearer than their natural state. From the extremely small extent to which the compression of liquids can be carried by any force we can employ, compared with that of air, we must conclude that this repulsion is much more violent in the former than in the latter, but counteracted also by a more powerful force of attraction. So much more powerful, indeed, is the resistance of liquids to compression, that they were usually regarded as incompressible; an opinion corroborated by a celebrated experiment made at Florence, in which water was forced through the pores (as it was said) of a golden ball. More recent experiments by Canton, and since by Perkins, Oërsted, and others, have demonstrated however the contrary, and assigned the amount of compression.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00361", "bookId": 54897, "start": 371484, "end": 371967, "sha256": "d6df314c47ebf1e3033679557f50e66ecab2852c16ecaed52ca79df5aa2b89ca", "text": "(255.) The consideration of the motions of fluids, whether liquid or expansible, is infinitely more complicated than that of their equilibrium. When their motions are slow, it is reasonable to suppose that the law of the equable distribution of pressure obtains; but in very rapid displacements of their parts one among the other, it is not easy to see how such an equable distribution can be accomplished, and some phenomena exist which seem to indicate a contrary conclusion.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00362", "bookId": 54897, "start": 371971, "end": 373433, "sha256": "a33f3fa77d33fafaf31f22a9296fcccd5523a866fa4c6e90af8291329e0f4880", "text": "(256.) Independent of this, there are difficulties of an almost insuperable nature to the regular deductive application of the general principles of mechanics to this subject, which arise from the excessive intricacy of the pure mathematical enquiries to which its investigation leads. It was Newton who set the example of a first attempt to draw any conclusions respecting the motion of fluid masses by direct reasoning from dynamical principles, and thus laid the foundation of HYDRODYNAMICS; but it was not till the time of D’Alembert that the method of reducing any question respecting the motions of fluids under the action of forces to strict mathematical investigation could be said to be completely understood. But the cases even now in which this mode of treating such questions can be applied with full satisfaction are few in comparison of those in which the experimental method of enquiry as already observed (189.) is preferable. Such, for example, is that of the resistance of fluids to bodies moving through them; a knowledge of which is of great importance in naval architecture and in gunnery, where the resistance of the air acts to an enormous extent. Such, too, among the practical subjects which depend mainly on this branch of science, are the use of sails in navigation; the construction of windmills, and water-wheels; the transmission of water through pipes and channels; the construction of docks and harbours, &c.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00363", "bookId": 54897, "start": 373439, "end": 373469, "sha256": "14244bc993c72636932df353706aa2ac8a01cac92f56ffcd399e4ed0662fa1b9", "text": "_Nature of Solids in general._", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00364", "bookId": 54897, "start": 373473, "end": 374743, "sha256": "59f6948ab618e592190a9a2c07f5cc0a48b1cfe0fc4fa4f9c836d57e4c5ae417", "text": "(257.) The intimate constitution of solids is, in all probability, very complicated, and we cannot be said to know much of it. By some recent delicate experiments on the dimensions of wires violently strained, it has been shown that they are to a certain small extent capable of being dilated by tension, as they are also of being compressed by pressure, but within limits even narrower than those of liquids. Usually, when strained too far, they break, and refuse to re-unite; or, if compressed too forcibly, take a permanent contraction of dimension. Thus, wood may be indented by a blow, and metals rendered denser and heavier by hammering or rolling. There is a certain degree of confusion prevalent in ordinary language about the hardness, elasticity, and other similar qualities, of solids, which it may be well to remove. Hardness is that disposition of a solid which renders it difficult to displace its parts among themselves. Thus, steel is harder than iron; and diamond almost infinitely harder than any other substance in nature: but the compressibility of steel, or the extent to which it will yield to a given pressure and recover itself, is not much less than that of soft iron, and that of ice is very nearly the same with that of water.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00365", "bookId": 54897, "start": 374747, "end": 375738, "sha256": "05fe697379dec694f1accd6ebb351ff12644f555ccc1e3cd9cc010e1c83ea68f", "text": "(258.) Again, we call Indian rubber a very elastic body, and so it is; but in a different sense from steel. Its parts admit of great mutual displacement without permanent dislocation; however distorted, it recovers its figure readily, but with a small force. Yet, if Indian rubber were to be enclosed in a space that it just filled, so as not to permit its parts to yield laterally, doubtless it would resist actual compression with great violence. Here, then, we have an instance of two kinds of elasticity in one substance; a feebler effort of recovery from distorted figure, and a more violent one from a state of altered dimension. Both, however, originate in the same causes, and are referable to the same principles; the former being in fact only a modified case of the latter, as the effort of a steel spring, when bent, to recover its former shape, is referable to the same forces which give to steel its hardness and strength to resist actual compression and fracture.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00366", "bookId": 54897, "start": 375742, "end": 376266, "sha256": "2236533aa26e08ccc61d3842fbd796e371c7cff51d2846737ef68e04c67284f1", "text": "(259.) The toughness of a solid, or that quality by which it will endure heavy blows without breaking, is again distinct from hardness though often confounded with it. It consists in a certain yielding of parts with a powerful general cohesion, and is compatible with various degrees of elasticity. Malleability is again another quality of solids, especially metals, quite distinct from toughness, and depends on their capability of being deprived of their figure without an effort to recover it and without fracture.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00367", "bookId": 54897, "start": 376270, "end": 376776, "sha256": "895bb3cd88d920eca9d1f1fbd9ea2754aeffab141417e4c6ffc88a725a9abc92", "text": "(260.) Tenacity, again, is a property of solids more directly depending on the cohesion of their parts than toughness. It consists in their power of resisting separation by a strain steadily applied, while the quality of toughness is materially influenced by their disposition to communicate through their substance the jarring effect of a blow. Accordingly, the tenacity of a solid is a direct measure of the cohesive attraction of its parts, and is the best proof of the existence of such a power.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00368", "bookId": 54897, "start": 376782, "end": 376800, "sha256": "dfc6d641c93f65ee4235235b869c1624f8018043a1c5d1fdf31cd16b16073ea9", "text": "_Crystallography._", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00369", "bookId": 54897, "start": 376804, "end": 379360, "sha256": "19bcfdf94a2017a42936157c86a2dd94b1013f2326184c32170ae03780a48d79", "text": "(261.) It cannot be supposed that these and many other tangible qualities, as they may be called, should subsist in solids without a corresponding mechanism in their internal structure. That they have such a mechanism, and that a very curious and intricate one, the phenomena of crystallography sufficiently show. This interesting and beautiful department of natural science is of comparatively very modern date. That many natural substances affected certain forms must have been known from the earliest times. Pliny appears to have been acquainted with this fact, at least in some instances, as he describes the forms of quartz and diamond. But till the time of Linnæus no material attention seems to have been bestowed on the subject. He, however, observed, and described with care, the crystalline forms of a variety of substances, and even regarded them as so definite a character of the solids which assumed them, that he supposed every particular form to be generated by a particular salt. Romé de l’Isle pursued the study of the crystalline forms of bodies yet farther. He first ascertained the important fact of the constancy of the angles at which their faces meet; and observing further that many of them appear in several different shapes, first conceived the idea that these shapes might be reducible to one, appropriated in a peculiar manner to each _substance_, and modified by strict geometrical laws. Bergmann, reasoning on a fact imparted to him by his pupil Gahn, made a yet greater step, and showed how at least one species of crystal might be built up of thin laminæ ranged in a certain order, and following certain rules of superposition. He failed, however, in deducing just and general conclusions from this remark, which, correctly viewed, is the foundation of the most important law of crystallography, that which connects the primitive form with other forms capable of being exhibited by the same substance, by a certain fixed relation. An idea may be formed of what is meant by this sort of connection of one form with another, by considering a pointed pyramid built up of cubic stones, disposed in layers, each of which separately is a square plate of the thickness of a single stone. These layers, laid horizontally one on the other, and decreasing regularly in size from the bottom to the top, produce a pyramidal form with a rough or channeled surface; and if the layers are so extremely thin that the channels cease to be visible to the eye, the pyramid will seem smooth and perfect.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00370", "bookId": 54897, "start": 379364, "end": 380435, "sha256": "991b5c793c32443115ca304d787c344ea2c2cf770ccee6aab631ac0b068bc4c2", "text": "(262.) Very shortly after this, and without knowledge of what had been done by Gahn and Bergmann, the Abbé Haüy, instructed by the accidental fracture of a fine group of crystals, made the remark noticed already (in 67.), and reasoning on it with more caution and success, and pursuing it into all its detail, developed the general laws which regulate the superposition of the layers of particles of which he supposes all crystals to be built up, and which enable us, from knowing their primitive forms, to discover, previous to trial, what other forms they are capable of assuming; and which, according to this idea, are called derivative or secondary forms. Mohs and others have since imagined processes and systems by which the derivation of forms from each other is facilitated, and have corrected some errors of over-hasty generalization into which their predecessors had fallen, as well as advanced, by an extraordinary diligence of research, our knowledge of the forms which the various substances which occur in nature and art actually do assume.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00371", "bookId": 54897, "start": 380439, "end": 381838, "sha256": "a028ea4809b9f69c0d30dfc634551c76d8a807692da03249ba525b1d072fb0e0", "text": "(263.) In what manner a variety in point of external form may originate in a variety of figures in the ultimate particles of which a solid is composed, may very readily be imagined by considering what would happen if the bricks of which an edifice is constructed had all a certain _leaning_ or bias in one direction out of the perpendicular. Suppose every brick, for instance, when laid flat on its face, with its longer edges north and south, had its eastern and western faces upright, but its northern and southern ones leaning southwards at a certain inclination the same for each brick; a house built of such bricks would lean the same way, if the bricks fitted well together. If, _besides this_, the eastern and western faces of the bricks, instead of being truly upright, had an inclination eastward, the house would have a similar one, and all its four corners, instead of being upright, would lean to the south-east. Suppose, instead of a house, a pyramid were built of such oblique bricks, with the sides of its base directed to the four points of the compass; then its point, instead of being situated vertically over the centre of its base, would stand perpendicularly over some point to the south-east of that centre, and the pyramid itself would have its sides facing the south and the east, more highly inclined to the horizon than those towards the north and west.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00372", "bookId": 54897, "start": 381842, "end": 382569, "sha256": "0c52ec515bdde2151ad856686b967659940f40269592aaa32a4e1e8381b42fff", "text": "(264.) Whatever conception we may form of the manner in which the particles of a crystal cohere and form masses, it is next to impossible to divest ourselves of the idea of a determinate figure common to them all. Any other supposition, indeed, would be incompatible with that exact similarity in all other respects which the phenomena of chemistry may be considered as having demonstrated. However, it must be borne in mind that this idea, plausible as it may appear, is yet in some degree hypothetical, and that the laws of crystallography, as determined from inductive observation, are quite independent of any supposition of the kind, or even of the existence of such things as ultimate particles or atoms at all.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00373", "bookId": 54897, "start": 382573, "end": 384153, "sha256": "d71ccf8da194505d2e651ebbb5be47d9538156023236563089180331d2d262cd", "text": "(265.) Still, that peculiar internal constitution of solid bodies, whatever it be, which is indicated by the assumption of determinate figures, by their splitting easier in some directions than in others, and by their presenting glittering plane surfaces when broken into fragments, cannot but have an important influence on all their relations to external agents, as well as to their internal movements and the mutual actions of their parts on one another. Accordingly, the division of bodies into crystallized and uncrystallized, or imperfectly crystallized, is one of the most universal importance; and almost all the phenomena produced by those more intimate natural causes which act within small limits, and as it were on the immediate mechanism of solid substances, are remarkably modified by their crystalline structure. Thus, in transparent solids, the course taken by the rays of light, in traversing them, as well as the properties impressed upon them in so doing, are intimately connected with this structure. The recent experiments of M. Savart, too, have proved that this is also the case with their power of resistance to external force, on which depends their elasticity. Crystallized substances, according to the results of these experiments, resist compression with different degrees of elastic force, according to the direction in which it is attempted to compress them; and all the phenomena dependent on their elasticity are affected by this cause, especially those which relate to their vibratory movements and their conveyance of sound.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00374", "bookId": 54897, "start": 384157, "end": 386088, "sha256": "0a4225a4c069c5573cb756db810eb68fe969c543ef8f57f79240dd8ea7d78b66", "text": "(266.) There can be little doubt that modifications, similarly depending on the internal structure of crystals, will be traced through every department of physics. In that interesting one which relates to the action of heat in expanding the dimensions of substances, a beginning has already been made by Professor Mitscherlich. It had long been known that all substances are dilated by heat, and no exception to this law has been found, so long as we regard the _bulk_ of the heated body. Thus, an iron rod when hot is both longer and thicker than when cold; and the difference of dimension, though but trifling in itself, is yet capable of being made sensible, and is of considerable consequence in engineering. Thus, too, the quicksilver in a common thermometer occupies a larger space when hot than when cold; and being confined by the glass ball, (which also expands, but _not so much in proportion_,) it is forced to rise in the tube. These and similar facts had long been known; and accurate measures of the total amount of dilatation of a variety of different bodies, under similar accessions of heat, had been obtained and registered in tables. But no one had suspected the important fact, that this expansion in crystallized bodies takes place under totally different circumstances from what obtains in uncrystallized ones. M. Mitscherlich has lately shown that such substances expand differently in different directions, and has even produced a case in which expansion in one direction is actually accompanied with contraction in another. This step, the most important beyond a doubt which has yet been made in pyrometry, can however only be regarded as the first in a series of researches which will occupy the next generation, and which promises to afford an abundant harvest of new facts, as well as the elucidation of some of the most obscure and interesting points in the doctrine of heat.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00375", "bookId": 54897, "start": 386092, "end": 387549, "sha256": "565714ba14530c992086abf0493eacde164b61e178a71325e209038611361398", "text": "(267.) From what has been said, it is clear that if we look upon solid bodies as collections of particles or atoms, held together and kept in their places by the perpetual action of attractive and repulsive forces, we cannot suppose these forces, at least in crystallized substances, to act alike in all directions. Hence arises the conception of _polarity_, of which we see an instance, on a great scale, in the magnetic needle, but which, under modified forms, there is nothing to prevent us from conceiving to act among the ultimate atoms of solid or even fluid bodies, and to produce all the phenomena which they exhibit in their crystallized state, either when acting on each other, or on light, heat, &c. It is not difficult, if we give the reins to imagination, to conceive how attractive and repulsive atoms, bound together by some unknown tie, may form little machines or compound particles, which shall have many of the properties which we refer to polarity; and accordingly many ingenious suppositions have been made to that effect: but in the actual state of science it is certainly safest to wave these hypotheses, without however absolutely rejecting them, and regard the _polarity of matter_ as one of the ultimate phenomena to which the analysis of nature leads us, and of which it is our business fully to investigate the laws, before we endeavour to ascertain its causes, or trace the mechanism by which it is produced.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00376", "bookId": 54897, "start": 387553, "end": 388194, "sha256": "807f981d2c87e4577c7e0808a38a7e976f4ea8da86021943dd30335b96e237f0", "text": "(268.) The mutual attractions and repulsions of the particles of matter, then, and their polarity, whether regarded as an original or a derivative property, are the forces which, acting with great energy, and within very confined limits, we must look to as the principles on which the intimate constitution of all bodies and many of their mutual actions depend. These are what are understood by the general term of _molecular forces_. Molecular attraction has been attempted to be confounded by some with the general attraction of gravity, which all matter exerts on all other matter; but this idea is refuted by the plainest facts.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00377", "bookId": 54897, "start": 388204, "end": 388213, "sha256": "020a82a04daaea925a0d7566d6b21a4a97b8b79f92a54de9a486420c33118289", "text": "CHAP. II.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00378", "bookId": 54897, "start": 388217, "end": 388284, "sha256": "001c9ee396973cc4c3e44c697c1fdfd17f83647e2d7b55786f1898724d5a4a86", "text": "OF THE COMMUNICATION OF MOTION THROUGH BODIES.--OF SOUND AND LIGHT.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00379", "bookId": 54897, "start": 388290, "end": 389756, "sha256": "a43ccf96e35b1ee31537954aa52593a3509b1763c95687ad2c99829f939ad645", "text": "(269.) The propagation of motion through all substances, whether of a single impulse, as a blow or thrust, or of one frequently and regularly repeated, such as a jarring or vibratory movement, depends wholly on these molecular forces; and it is on such propagation that sound and very probably light depend. To conceive the manner in which a motion may be conveyed from one part of a substance to another, whether solid or fluid, we may attend to what takes place when a wave is made to run along a stretched string, or the surface of still water. Every part of the string, or water, is in succession moved from its place, and agitated with a motion similar to that of the original impulse, leaving its place and returning to it, and when one part ceases to move the next receives as it were the impression, and forwards it onward. This may seem a slow and circuitous process in description; but when sound, for example, is conveyed through the air, we are to consider, 1st, that the air, the substance actually in motion, is extremely light and acted upon by a very powerful elasticity, so that the force which propagates the motion, or by which the particles adjacent act on, and urge forward, each other, is very great, compared with the quantity of materials set in motion by it: and the same is true, even in a greater degree, in liquids and solids; for in these the elastic forces are even greater, in proportion to the weight, than in air.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00380", "bookId": 54897, "start": 389760, "end": 391332, "sha256": "857b336ffc26973b36a31c9699d2f0486fbce4c5ceea7fa9472e7a32efc84ce3", "text": "(270.) A general notion of the mode in which sounds are conveyed through the air was not altogether deficient among the ancients; but it is to Newton that we owe the first attempt to analyze the process, and show correctly what takes place in the communication of motion from particle to particle. Reasoning on the properties of the air as an elastic body, he showed the effect of an impulse on any portion of it to consist in a condensation of the air immediately adjacent in the direction of the impulse, which then, re-acting by its spring, drives back the portion which had advanced to its original place, and at the same time urges forward the portion before it, in the direction of the impulse, so that every particle alternately advances and retreats. But, in pursuing this idea into its details, Newton fell into some errors which were pointed out by Cramer, though their origin was not traced, nor the reasoning corrected, till the subject was resumed by Lagrange and Euler; nor is this any impeachment of the penetration of our immortal countryman. The mathematical theory of the propagation of sound, and of vibratory and undulatory motions in general, is one of the utmost intricacy; and, in spite of every exertion on the part of the most expert geometers, continues to this day to give continual occasion for fresh researches; while phenomena are constantly presenting themselves, which show how far we are from being able to deduce all the particulars, even of cases comparatively simple, by any direct reasoning from first principles.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00381", "bookId": 54897, "start": 391336, "end": 391902, "sha256": "f7bee8e24e8cdcfc38a1bc50b35e46094fd11d89b238e54608c6aaad0483dca1", "text": "(271.) Whenever an impulse of any kind is conveyed by the air, to our ears, it produces the impression of sound; but when such an impulse is regularly and uniformly repeated in extremely rapid succession, it gives us that of a musical note, the pitch of the note depending on the rapidity of the succession (see art. 153.). The sense of harmony, too, depends on the periodical recurrence of coincident impulses on the ear, and affords, perhaps, the only instance of a sensation for whose pleasing impression a distinct and intelligible reason can be assigned.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00382", "bookId": 54897, "start": 391906, "end": 393484, "sha256": "d2c2eb32fe876e6b34d84ca34256592b4aadf88d8be5603af5f6273af1b8b9e0", "text": "(272.) Acoustics, then, or the science of sound, is a very considerable branch of physics, and one which has been cultivated from the earliest ages. Even Pythagoras and Aristotle were not ignorant of the general mode of its transmission through the air, and of the nature of harmony; but as a branch of science, independent of its delightful application in the art of music, it could be hardly said to exist, till its nature and laws became a matter of experimental enquiry to Bacon and Galileo, Mersenne and Wallis; and of mathematical investigation to Newton, and his illustrious successors, Lagrange and Euler. From that time its progress, as a branch both of mathematical and experimental science, has been constant and accelerated. A curious and beautiful method of observation, due to Chladni, consists in the happy device of strewing sand over the surfaces of bodies in a state of sonorous vibration, and marking the figures it assumes. This has made their motions susceptible of ocular examination, and has been lately much improved on, and varied in its application, by M. Savart, to whom we also owe a succession of instructive researches on every point connected with the subject of sound, which may rank among the finest specimens of modern experimental enquiry. But the subject is far from being exhausted; and, indeed, there are few branches of physics which promise at once so much amusing interest, and such important consequences, in its bearings on other subjects, and especially, through the medium of strong analogies, on that of light.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00383", "bookId": 54897, "start": 393490, "end": 393509, "sha256": "36048ba613682109e3e1dcc6e5b1403208a6f5f0db29217f3a482e6f4ee6e16f", "text": "_Light and Vision._", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00384", "bookId": 54897, "start": 393513, "end": 394807, "sha256": "fc84e26a293cac045e73a51fba0d52c6e1dc4ff8a6190e336b4f15879d867fa7", "text": "(273.) The nature of light has always been involved in considerable doubt and mystery. The ancients could scarcely be said to have any opinion on the subject, unless, indeed, it could be considered such to affirm that distant bodies could not be put into communication without an intermedium; and that, therefore, there must be _something_ between the eye and the thing seen. What that something is, however, they could only form crude and vague conjectures. One supposed that the eyes themselves emit rays or emanations of some unknown kind, by which distant objects are as it were felt; a singularly unfortunate idea, since it gives no reason why objects should not be equally well seen in the dark--no account, in short, of the part performed by _light_ in vision. Others imagined that all visible objects are constantly throwing out from them, in all directions, some sort of resemblances or spectral forms of themselves, which, when received by the eyes, produce an impression of the objects. Vague and clumsy as this hypothesis obviously is, it assigns to the object a power, and to light a diffusive propagation in all directions, which are, the one and the other, independent of our eyes, and therefore goes to separate the phenomena of _light_ from those of _vision_.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00385", "bookId": 54897, "start": 394811, "end": 395935, "sha256": "2ef64b42fd69de4595c8c9d1459cc024c4e00c15764ab0b0d7dda0dccafe016d", "text": "(274.) The hypothesis of Newton is a refinement and improvement on this idea. Instead of spectra or resemblances, he supposes luminous objects actually to dart out from them in all directions, particles, of inconceivable minuteness (as indeed they must be, having such an enormous velocity (see 17.), not to dash in pieces every thing they strike upon). These particles he supposes to be acted upon by attractive and repulsive forces, residing in all material bodies, the latter extending to some very small distance beyond their surfaces; and by the action of these forces to be turned aside from their natural straight-lined course, without ever coming in actual contact with the particles themselves of the bodies on which they fall, but either being turned back and _reflected_ by the repulsive forces before they reach them, or penetrating between their intervals, as a bird may be supposed to fly through the branches of a forest, and undergoing all their actions, to take at quitting them a direction finally determined by the position of the surface at which they emerge with respect to their course.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00386", "bookId": 54897, "start": 395939, "end": 396747, "sha256": "75ac2f34dbe385f298d4f4051a3b047cda5d15e22438f56eebc1cbeba21fd80d", "text": "(275.) This hypothesis, which was discussed and reasoned upon by Newton in a manner worthy of himself, affords, by the application of the same dynamical laws which he had applied with so much success to the explanation of the planetary motions, not merely a plausible, but a perfectly reasonable and fair explanation of all the _usual_ phenomena of light known in his time. His own beautiful discoveries, too, of the different refrangibilities of the differently coloured rays, were perfectly well represented in this theory, by simply admitting a difference of velocity in the particles, which produce in the eye the sensations of different colours. And had the properties of light remained confined to these, there would have been no occasion to have resorted to any other mode of conceiving it.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00387", "bookId": 54897, "start": 396751, "end": 398180, "sha256": "acc188bf5cf4a708571f7f889312c0ba698f4ddfb809ce43ab7b2b71d355ed1c", "text": "(276.) A very different hypothesis had, however, been suggested about the same period by Huyghens, who supposed light to be produced in the same manner with sound, by the communication of a vibratory motion from the luminous body to a highly elastic fluid, which he imagined as filling all space, and as being less condensed within the limits of space occupied by matter, and that to a greater or less extent, according to the nature of the occupying substance. Thus, in place of any thing actually thrown off, he substituted waves, or vibrations, propagated in all directions from luminous bodies, through this medium, or ether, as he called it. Huyghens, being himself a consummate mathematician, was enabled to trace many of the consequences of this hypothesis, and to show that the ordinary laws of reflection and refraction were represented or accounted for by it, as well as by Newton’s. But the hypothesis of Huyghens has not been fully successful in accounting for what may be considered the chief of all optical facts, the production of colours in the ordinary refraction of light by a prism, of which the theory of Newton gives a complete and elegant explanation; and the discovery of which by him marks one of the greatest epochs in the annals of experimental science. This, which has been often urged in objection to it, remains still, if not quite unanswered, at least only imperfectly removed.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00388", "bookId": 54897, "start": 398184, "end": 399066, "sha256": "342a611c86c2efbed5c8f34c08e86a108148157ced109043c851b8cffd599dc1", "text": "(277.) Other phenomena, however, were not wanting to afford a further trial of the _explanatory powers_ of either hypothesis. The diffraction or inflection of light, discovered by Grimaldi, a Jesuit of Bologna, seemed to indicate that the rays of light were turned aside from their straight course by merely passing near bodies of every description. These phenomena, which are very curious and beautiful, were minutely examined by Newton, and referred by him to the action of repulsive forces extending to a sensible distance from the surfaces of bodies; and his explanation, so far as the facts known to him are concerned, appears as satisfactory as could reasonably be then expected; and much more so than any thing which could at that time be produced on the side of the hypothesis of Huyghens, which, in fact, seemed incapable of giving any account whatever of them.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00389", "bookId": 54897, "start": 399070, "end": 401363, "sha256": "34fd8200f64007a72767e71bb7af34201ad1e05ed0da92e2c4139989979fd1b5", "text": "(278.) Another class of delicate and splendid optical phenomena, which had begun to attract attention somewhat previous to Newton’s time, seemed to leave both hypotheses equally at a loss. These were the colours exhibited by very thin films, either of a liquid (such as a soap-bubble), or of air, as when two glasses are laid together with only air between them. These colours were examined by Newton with a minuteness and care altogether unexampled in experimental philosophy at that time, and with which few researches undertaken since will bear to stand in competition. Their result was a theory of a very singular nature, which he grounded on an hypothesis of what he termed _fits of easy transmission and reflection_; and which supposed each ray of light to pass in its progress periodically through a succession of states such as would alternately dispose it to penetrate or be reflected back from the surface of a body on which it might fall. The simplest way in which the reader may conceive this hypothesis, is to regard every particle of light as a sort of little magnet revolving rapidly about its own centre while it advances in its course, and thus alternately presenting its attractive and repulsive pole, so that when it arrives at the surface of a body with its repulsive pole foremost, it is repelled and reflected; and when the contrary, attracted, so as to enter the surface. Newton, however, very cautiously avoided announcing his theory in this or any similar form, confining himself entirely to general language. In consequence, it has been confidently asserted by all his followers, that the doctrine of fits of easy reflection and transmission, as laid down by him, is substantially nothing more than a statement of facts. Were it so, it is clear that any other theory which should offer a just account of the same phenomena must ultimately involve and coincide with that of Newton. But this, as we shall presently see, is not the case; and this instance ought to serve to make us extremely cautious how we employ, in stating physical laws derived from experiment, language which involves any thing in the slightest degree theoretical, if we would present the laws themselves in a form which no future research shall modify or subvert.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00390", "bookId": 54897, "start": 401367, "end": 402219, "sha256": "47f59823951b68a1a347893ccc9e53ac40d41dbffe72c1513dec8e4920891c02", "text": "(279.) A third class of optical phenomena, which were likewise discovered while Newton was yet engaged in his optical researches, was that exhibited by doubly refracting crystals. In what the phenomenon of double refraction consists, we have already had occasion to explain. The fact itself was first noticed by Erasmus Bartolin in the crystal called Iceland spar; and was studied with attention by Huyghens, who ascertained its laws, and referred it with remarkable ingenuity and success to his theory of light, by the additional hypothesis of such a constitution of his ethereal medium within the crystal as should enable it to convey an impulse faster in one direction than another: as if, for example’s sake, we should suppose a sound conveyed through the air with different degrees of rapidity in a vertical and horizontal direction.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00391", "bookId": 54897, "start": 402223, "end": 403100, "sha256": "c11faa6ee61d9fca09101c3f3cd3df82a0ca5e988740c48d5faad35870e97d01", "text": "(280.) Some remarkable facts accompanying the double refraction produced by Iceland spar, which Bartolin, Huyghens, and Newton, had observed, led the latter to conceive the singular idea that a ray of light after its emergence from such a crystal acquires _sides_, that is to say, distinct relations to surrounding space, which it carries with it through its whole subsequent course, and which give rise to all those curious and complicated phenomena which are now known under the name of the _polarization of light_. These results, however, appeared so extraordinary, and offered so little handle for further enquiry, that their examination dropped, as if by common consent; Newton himself resting content with urging strongly the apparent incompatibility of these properties with the Huyghenian doctrine, but without making any attempt to explain them by his own.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00392", "bookId": 54897, "start": 403104, "end": 404105, "sha256": "c431e79bd6c72ed5b314269e35e4d6b071026e6830691c8e6b315a41b9ecf4a2", "text": "(281.) From the period of Newton’s optical discoveries to the commencement of the present century, no great accession to our knowledge of the nature of light was made, if we except one, which, from its invaluable practical application, must ever hold a prominent place in the annals both of art and science: we mean, the discovery of the principle of the achromatic telescope, which originated in a discussion between the celebrated geometer Euler, Klingenstierna, an eminent Swedish philosopher, and our own countryman, the admirable optician Dollond, on the occasion of certain abstract theoretical investigations of the former, which led him to speculate on its _possibility_, and which ultimately terminated in its complete and happy _execution_ by the latter; a memorable case in science, though not a singular one, where the speculative geometer in his chamber, apart from the world, and existing among abstractions, has originated views of the noblest practical application.[49]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00393", "bookId": 54897, "start": 404109, "end": 405300, "sha256": "b11dd21d4598f8e53a6cc63c16999f205e2be4f153c436634c8fb1cd404af976", "text": "(282.) The explanation which our knowledge of optical laws affords of the mechanism of the eye, and the process by which vision is performed, is as complete and satisfactory as that of hearing by the propagation of motion through the air. The camera obscura, invented by Baptista Porta in 1560, gave the first idea how the actual images of external objects might be conveyed into the eye, but it was not till after a considerable interval that Kepler, the immortal discoverer of those great laws which regulate the periods and motions of the planets, pointed out distinctly the offices performed by the several parts of the eye in the act of vision. From this to the invention of the telescope and microscope there would seem but a small step, but it is to accident rather than design that it is due; and its re-invention by Galileo, on a mere description of its effects, may serve, among a thousand similar instances, to show that inestimable practical applications lie open to us, if we can only once bring ourselves to conceive their possibility, a lesson which the invention of the achromatic telescope itself, as we have above related it, not less strongly exemplifies.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00394", "bookId": 54897, "start": 405304, "end": 405866, "sha256": "0a346a4646ec4432b5988a11baa3b5c1a37b9b6d28176e8b40e1bd09a4e06550", "text": "(283.) The little instrument with which Galileo’s splendid discoveries were made was hardly superior in power to an ordinary finder of the present day; but it was rapidly improved on, and in the hands of Huyghens attained to gigantic dimensions and very great power. It was to obviate the necessity of the enormous length required for these telescopes, and yet secure the same power, that Gregory and Newton devised the reflecting telescope, which has since become a much more powerful instrument than its original inventors probably ever contemplated.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00395", "bookId": 54897, "start": 405870, "end": 406821, "sha256": "4e41e0672b923993af0bf39dc2c6ecc9abdb83283d608336e9bb6b8be6e7a3c3", "text": "(284.) The telescope, as it exists at present, with the improvements in its structure and execution which modern artists have effected, must assuredly be ranked among the highest and most refined productions of human art; that in which man has been able to approximate most closely to the workmanship of nature, and which has conferred upon him, if not another sense, at least an exaltation of one already possessed by him that merits almost to be regarded as a new one. Nor does it appear yet to have reached its ultimate perfection, to which indeed it is difficult to assign any bounds, when we take into consideration the wonderful progress which workmanship of every kind is making, and the delicacy, far superior to that of former times, with which materials may now be wrought, as well as the ingenious inventions and combinations which every year is bringing forth for accomplishing the same ends by means hitherto unattempted.[50]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00396", "bookId": 54897, "start": 406825, "end": 408061, "sha256": "b146294d1640a541140d61c8eeece973b6f439a1bb2191cc0b08ffc05ec2a7dc", "text": "(285.) After a long torpor, the knowledge of the properties of light began to make fresh progress about the end of the last century, advancing with an accelerated rapidity, which has continued unabated to the present time. The example was set by our late admirable and lamented countryman, Dr. Wollaston, who re-examined and verified the laws of double refraction in Iceland spar announced by Huyghens. Attention being thus drawn to the subject, the geometry of Laplace soon found a means of explaining at least one portion of the mystery of this singular phenomenon, by the Newtonian theory of light, applied under certain supposed conditions; and the reasoning which led him to the result (at that time quite unexpected), may justly be regarded as one of his happiest efforts. The prosecution of the subject, which had now acquired a high degree of interest, was encouraged by the offer of a prize on the part of the French Academy of Sciences; and it was in a memoir which received this honourable reward on that occasion, in 1810, that Malus, a retired officer of engineers in the French army, announced the great discovery of the _polarization of light_ by ordinary reflection at the surface of a transparent body.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00397", "bookId": 54897, "start": 408065, "end": 408894, "sha256": "5a5ebaa68386f7725eafa36401883a7f13c8fde3c38974a0f480f1c33261bda6", "text": "(286.) Malus found that when a beam of light is reflected from the surface of such a body at a certain angle, it acquires precisely the same singular property which is impressed upon it in the act of double refraction, and which Newton had before expressed by saying that it possessed _sides_. This was the first circumstance which pointed out a connection between that hitherto mysterious phenomenon and any of the ordinary modifications of light; and it proved ultimately the means of bringing the whole within the limits, if not of a complete explanation, at least of a highly plausible theoretical representation. So true is, in science, the remark of Bacon, that no natural phenomenon can be adequately studied _in itself alone_, but, to be understood, must be considered _as it stands connected with all nature_.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00398", "bookId": 54897, "start": 408898, "end": 410207, "sha256": "92860c767b69e224fbe5ae60cf03fa4fdb2de79988f74b0aed32a9682b0f7be5", "text": "(287.) The new class of phenomena thus disclosed were immediately studied with diligence and success, both abroad by Malus and Arago, and at home by our countryman Dr. Brewster, and their laws investigated with a care proportioned to their importance; when another and apparently still more extraordinary class of phenomena presented itself in the production of the most vivid and beautiful colours (every way resembling those observed by Newton in thin films of air or liquids, only infinitely more developed and striking,) in certain transparent crystallized substances, when divided into flat plates in particular directions, and exposed in a beam of polarized light. The attentive examination of these colours by Wollaston, Biot, and Arago, but more especially by Brewster, speedily led to the disclosure of a series of optical phenomena so various, so brilliant, and evidently so closely connected with the most important points relating to the intimate structure of crystallized bodies, as to excite the highest interest,--that sort of interest which is raised when we feel we are on the eve of some extraordinary discovery, and expect every moment that some leading fact will turn up, which will throw light on all that appears obscure, and reduce into order all that seems anomalous.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00399", "bookId": 54897, "start": 410211, "end": 412341, "sha256": "9bde9ae6695c75b68f8df3cfae4815434ea7e70303a2c69db21f0632dee2a8c3", "text": "(288.) This expectation was not disappointed. So long before the time we are speaking of as the first year of the present century, our illustrious countryman, the late Dr. Thomas Young, had established a principle in optics, which, regarded as a physical law, has hardly its equal for beauty, simplicity, and extent of application, in the whole circle of science. Considering the manner in which the vibrations of two musical sounds arriving at once at the ear affect the sense with an impression of sound or silence according as they conspire or oppose each other’s effects, he was led to the idea that the same ought to hold good with light as with sound, if the theory which makes light analogous to sound be the true one; and that, therefore, two rays of light, setting off from the same origin, at the same instant, and arriving at the same place by different routes, ought to strengthen or wholly or partially destroy each other’s effects according to the difference in length of the routes described by them. That two lights should in any circumstances combine to produce darkness may be considered strange, but is _literally true_; and it had even been noticed long ago as a singular and unaccountable fact by Grimaldi, in his experiments on the inflection of light. The experimental means by which Dr. Young confirmed this principle, which is known in optics by the name of the _interference_ of the rays of light, were as simple and satisfactory as the principle itself is beautiful; but the verifications of it, drawn from the explanation it affords of phenomena apparently the most remote, are still more so. Newton’s colours of thin films were the first phenomena to which its author applied it with full success. Its next remarkable application was to those of diffraction, of which, in the hands of M. Fresnel, a late eminent French geometer, it also furnished a complete explanation, and that, too, in cases to which Newton’s hypothesis could not apparently be made to apply, and through a complication of circumstances which might afford a very severe test of any hypothesis.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00400", "bookId": 54897, "start": 412345, "end": 413573, "sha256": "71521b2df81fe3f95cd5522e31505dcc7a87a32fa8f3d21a9a43e9614d4157c0", "text": "(289.) A simple and beautiful experiment on the interferences of polarized light due to Fresnel and Arago enabled them to bring Dr. Young’s law to bear on the colours produced by crystallized plates in a polarized beam, and by so doing afforded a key to all the intricacies of these magnificent but complex phenomena. Nothing now was wanting to a rational theory of double refraction but to frame an hypothesis of some mode in which light might be conceived to be propagated through the elastic medium supposed to convey it in such a way as not to be contradictory to any of the facts, nor to the general laws of dynamics. This essential idea, without which every thing that had been before done would have been incomplete, was also furnished by Dr. Young, who, with a sagacity which would have done honour to Newton himself, had declared, that to accommodate the doctrine of Huyghens to the phenomena of polarized light it is necessary to conceive the mode of propagation of a luminous impulse through the ether, differently from that of a sonorous one through the air. In the latter, the particles of the air _advance_ and _recede_; in the former, those of the ether must be supposed to _tremble laterally_.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00401", "bookId": 54897, "start": 413577, "end": 414475, "sha256": "fbac16f5fb24c1267256d1edc400f014f9dab171fc5beb74dddac5a4ee2df638", "text": "(290.) Taking this as the groundwork of his reasoning, Fresnel succeeded in erecting on it a theory of polarization and double refraction, so happy in its adaptation to facts, and in the coincidence with experience of results deduced from it by the most intricate analysis, that it is difficult to conceive it unfounded. If it be so, it is at least the most curiously artificial system that science has yet witnessed; and whether it be so or not, so long as it serves to group together in one comprehensive point of view a mass of facts almost infinite in number and variety, to reason from one to another, and to establish analogies and relations between them; on whatever hypothesis it may be founded, or whatever arbitrary assumptions it may make respecting structures and modes of action, it can never be regarded as other than a most real and important accession to our knowledge.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00402", "bookId": 54897, "start": 414479, "end": 415260, "sha256": "bed03f0b0e2f4ff5e2d66ed6379bcd88e70d46d2c99550499f82f8e4b57088a0", "text": "(291.) Still, it is by no means impossible that the Newtonian theory of light, if cultivated with equal diligence with the Huyghenian, might lead to an equally plausible explanation of phenomena now regarded as beyond its reach. M. Biot is the author of the hypothesis we have already mentioned of a rotatory motion of the particles of light about their axes. He has employed it only for a very limited purpose; but it might doubtless be carried much farther; and by admitting only the regular emission of the luminous particles at equal intervals of time, and in similar states of motion from the shining body, which does not seem a very forced supposition, all the phenomena of interference at least would be readily enough explained without the admission of an ether.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00403", "bookId": 54897, "start": 415264, "end": 417136, "sha256": "90382bd7f9fc611922e7a48ebc75dd06234d803c04f840a4a902461b08891979", "text": "(292.) The optical examination of crystallized substances affords one among many fine examples of the elucidation which every branch of science is capable of affording to every other. The indefatigable researches of Dr. Brewster and others have shown that the phenomena exhibited by polarized light in its transmission through crystals afford a certain indication of the most important points relating to the structure of the crystals themselves, and thus become most valuable characters by which to recognise their internal constitution. It was Newton who first showed of what importance as a physical character,--as the indication of other properties,--the action of a body on light might become; but the characters afforded by the use of polarized light as an instrument of experimental enquiry are so marked and intimate, that they may almost be said to have furnished us with a kind of intellectual sense, by which we are enabled to scrutinize the internal arrangement of those wonderful structures which Nature builds up by her refined and invisible architecture, with a delicacy eluding our conception, yet with a symmetry and beauty which we are never weary of admiring. In this point of view the science of optics has rendered to mineralogy and crystallography services not less important than to astronomy by the invention of the telescope, or to natural history by that of the microscope; while the relations which have been discovered to exist between the optical properties of bodies and their crystalline forms, and even their chemical habitudes, have afforded numerous and beautiful instances of general laws concluded from laborious and painful induction, and curiously exemplifying the simplicity of nature as it emerges slowly from an entangled mass of particulars in which, at first, neither order nor connection can be traced.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00404", "bookId": 54897, "start": 417146, "end": 417156, "sha256": "6b1dee28e55db0a12facd7397796ecefb642f4c28ffbfcb8670ee788ba383b7b", "text": "CHAP. III.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00405", "bookId": 54897, "start": 417160, "end": 417182, "sha256": "98c4a49bb7fb2c55160148aeeaf5f03bf4cd2f0ba19729fe72f84127bbaf1267", "text": "OF COSMICAL PHENOMENA.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00406", "bookId": 54897, "start": 417188, "end": 417224, "sha256": "e40dd0c0cb3706d96b74b56c6649f167ef3e53e1c7e8d1d52fd41278319f5e38", "text": "_Astronomy and Celestial Mechanics._", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00407", "bookId": 54897, "start": 417228, "end": 418213, "sha256": "e84d166b6cbc17f575f892aca9366b1e2ef509f1c1e5bff1f939abe71ea8277a", "text": "(293.) Astronomy, as has been observed in the former part of this discourse, as a science of observation, had made considerable progress among the ancients: indeed, it was the only branch of physical science which could be regarded as having been cultivated by them with any degree of assiduity or real success. The Chaldean and Egyptian records had furnished materials from which the motions of the sun and moon could be calculated with sufficient exactness for the prediction of eclipses; and some remarkable cycles, or periods of years in which the lunar eclipses return in very nearly the same order, had been ascertained by observation. Considering the extreme imperfection of their means of measuring time and space, this was, perhaps, as much as could have been expected at that early period, and it was followed up for a while in a philosophical spirit of just speculation, which, if continued, could hardly have failed to lead to sound and important conclusions.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00408", "bookId": 54897, "start": 418217, "end": 420039, "sha256": "d34bde0ae15749e40cec724c3578d388c9d69fbb952f61523218df8af7914807", "text": "(294.) Unfortunately, however, the philosophy of Aristotle laid it down as a principle, that the celestial motions were regulated by laws proper to themselves, and bearing no affinity to those which prevail on earth. By thus drawing a broad and impassable line of separation between celestial and terrestrial mechanics, it placed the former altogether out of the pale of experimental research, while it at the same time impeded the progress of the latter by the assumption of principles respecting natural and unnatural motions, hastily adopted from the most superficial and cursory remark, undeserving even the name of observation. Astronomy, therefore, continued for ages a science of mere record, in which theory had no part, except in so far as it attempted to conciliate the inequalities of the celestial motions with that assumed law of uniform circular revolution which was alone considered consistent with the perfection of the heavenly mechanism. Hence arose an unwieldy, if not self-contradictory, mass of hypothetical motions of sun, moon, and planets, in circles, whose centres were carried round in other circles, and these again in others without end,--“cycle on epicycle, orb on orb,”--till at length, as observation grew more exact, and fresh epicycles were continually added, the absurdity of so cumbrous a mechanism became too palpable to be borne. Doubts were expressed, to which the sarcasm of a monarch[51] gave a currency they might not have obtained in a period when men scarcely dared trust themselves to think; and at length Copernicus, promulgating his own, or reviving the Pythagorean doctrine, which places the sun in the centre of our system, gave to astronomy a simplicity which, contrasted with the complication of the preceding views, at once commanded assent.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00409", "bookId": 54897, "start": 420043, "end": 421231, "sha256": "4858cb28809763b5390255b81a770d7fb447b909992906e77101b302f322c10a", "text": "(295.) An elegant writer[52], whom we have before had occasion to quote, has briefly and neatly accounted for the confused notions which so long prevailed respecting the constitution of our system, and the difficulty experienced in acquiring a true notion of the disposition of its parts. “We see it,” he observes, “not in _plan_, but in _section_.” The reason of this is, that our point of observation lies in its general plane, but the notion we aim at forming of it is not that of its section, but of its plan. This is as if we should attempt to read a book, or make out the countries on a map, with the eye on a level with the paper. We can only judge directly of the distances of objects by their sizes, or rather of their change of distance by their change of size; neither have we any means of ascertaining, otherwise than indirectly, even their positions, one among the other, from their apparent places as seen by us. Now, the variations in apparent size of the sun and moon are too small to admit of exact measure without the use of the telescope, and the bodies of the planets cannot even be distinguished as having any distinct size with the naked eye.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00410", "bookId": 54897, "start": 421235, "end": 422395, "sha256": "4543783ca788de0f0c9146fe51430be4cdd45d162e15cbb17fc4655ecb54537b", "text": "(296.) The Copernican system once admitted, however, this difficulty of conception, at least, is effectually got over, and it becomes a mere problem of geometry and calculation to determine, from the observed places of a planet, its real orbit about the sun, and the other circumstances of its motion. This Kepler accomplished for the orbit of Mars, which he ascertained to be an ellipse having the sun in one of its foci; and the same law, being extended by inductive analogy to all the planets, was found to be verified in the case of each. This with the other remarkable laws which are usually cited in physical astronomy by the name of Kepler’s laws, constitute undoubtedly the most important and beautiful system of geometrical relations which have ever been discovered by a mere inductive process, independent of any consideration of a theoretical kind. They comprise within them a compendium of the motions of all the planets, and enable us to assign their places in their orbits at any instant of time past or to come (disregarding their mutual perturbations), provided certain purely geometrical problems can be numerically resolved.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00411", "bookId": 54897, "start": 422399, "end": 423120, "sha256": "841150658a2dabfe4e80b184069b946c59c1f6325ca91303da7e28221303138a", "text": "(297.) It was not, however, till long after Kepler’s time that the real importance of these laws could be felt. Regarded in themselves, they offered, it is true, a fine example of regular and harmonious disposition in the greatest of all the works of creation, and a striking contrast to the cumbersome mechanism of the cycles and epicycles which preceded them; but there their utility seemed to terminate, and, indeed, Kepler was reproached, and not without a semblance of reason, with having rendered the actual calculation of the places of the planets more difficult than before, the resources of geometry being then inadequate to resolve the problems to which the strict application of his laws gave rise.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00412", "bookId": 54897, "start": 423124, "end": 424019, "sha256": "cdece6face61a150b63719cd4646462a1615c77a9c52273a51f5b54b9fede298", "text": "(298.) The first result of the invention of the telescope and its application to astronomical purposes, by Galileo, was the discovery of Jupiter’s disc and satellites,--of a system offering a beautiful miniature of that greater one of which it forms a portion, and presenting to the eye of sense, at a single glance, that disposition of parts which in the planetary system itself is discerned only by the eye of reason and imagination (see 195.). Kepler had the satisfaction of seeing it ascertained, that the law which he had discovered to connect the times of revolution of the planets with their distances from the sun, holds good also when applied to the periods of circulation of these little attendants round the centre of their principal; thus demonstrating it to be something more than a mere empirical rule, and to depend on the intimate nature of planetary motion itself.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00413", "bookId": 54897, "start": 424023, "end": 425630, "sha256": "ce6d40c7f7706d918caffc17ffac46c4250999ea06eda2ae8d85f4d7cb55913d", "text": "(299.) It had been objected to the doctrine of Copernicus, that, were it true, Venus should appear sometimes horned like the moon. To this he answered by admitting the conclusion, and averring that, should we ever be able to see its actual shape, it _would_ appear so. It is easy to imagine with what force the application would strike every mind when the telescope confirmed this prediction, and showed the planet just as both the philosopher and his objectors had agreed it ought to appear. The history of science affords perhaps only one instance analogous to this. When Dr. Hutton expounded his theory of the consolidation of rocks by the application of heat, at a great depth below the bed of the ocean, and especially of that of marble by actual fusion; it was objected that, whatever might be the case with others, with calcareous or marble rocks, at least, it was impossible to grant such a cause of consolidation, since heat decomposes their substance and converts it into quicklime, by driving off the carbonic acid, and leaving a substance perfectly infusible, and incapable even of agglutination by heat. To this he replied, that the pressure under which the heat was applied would prevent the escape of the carbonic acid; and that being retained, it might be expected to give that fusibility to the compound which the simple quicklime wanted. The next generation saw this anticipation converted into an observed fact, and verified by the direct experiments of Sir James Hall, who actually succeeded in melting marble, by retaining its carbonic acid under violent pressure.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00414", "bookId": 54897, "start": 425634, "end": 426876, "sha256": "e4a707452dd6ae3fc97013dae45b99742c7aad606d9cf06a155e2b05cbcf5a9f", "text": "(300.) Kepler, among a number of vague and even wild speculations on the causes of the motions whose laws he had developed so beautifully and with so much patient labour, had obtained a glimpse of the general law of the inertia of matter, as applicable to the great masses of the heavenly bodies as well as to those with which we are conversant on the earth. After Kepler, Galileo, while he gave the finishing blow to the Aristotelian dogmas which erected a barrier between the laws of celestial and terrestrial motion, by his powerful argument and caustic ridicule, contributed, by his investigations of the laws of falling bodies and the motions of projectiles, to lay the foundation of a true system of dynamics, by which motions could be determined from a knowledge of the forces producing them, and forces from the motions they produce. Hooke went yet farther, and obtained a view so distinct of the mode in which the planets might be retained in their orbits by the sun’s attraction, that, had his mathematical attainments been equal to his philosophical acumen, and his scientific pursuits been less various and desultory, it can hardly be doubted that he would have arrived at a knowledge of the law of gravitation.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00415", "bookId": 54897, "start": 426880, "end": 429329, "sha256": "f29ae622333b402a05a61864059b062bb0dcca77fe6b9a347978585177d8fc63", "text": "(301.) But every thing which had been done towards this great end, before Newton, could only be regarded as smoothing some first obstacles, and preparing a state of knowledge, in which powers like his could be effectually exerted. His wonderful combination of mathematical skill with physical research enabled him to invent, at pleasure, new and unheard-of methods of investigating the effects of those causes which his clear and penetrating mind detected in operation. Whatever department of science he touched, he may be said to have formed afresh. Ascending by a series of close-compacted inductive arguments to the highest axioms of dynamical science, he succeeded in applying them to the complete explanation of all the great astronomical phenomena, and many of the minuter and more enigmatical ones. In doing this, he had every thing to create: the mathematics of his age proved totally inadequate to grapple with the numerous difficulties which were to be overcome; but this, so far from discouraging him, served only to afford new opportunities for the exertion of his genius, which, in the invention of the method of fluxions, or, as it is now more generally called, the differential calculus, has supplied a means of discovery, bearing the same proportion to the methods previously in use, that the steam-engine does to the mechanical powers employed before its invention. Of the optical discoveries of Newton we have already spoken; and if the magnitude of the objects of his astronomical discoveries excite our admiration of the mental powers which could so familiarly grasp them, the minuteness of the researches into which he there set the first example of entering, is no less calculated to produce a corresponding impression. Whichever way we turn our view, we find ourselves compelled to bow before his genius, and to assign to the name of NEWTON a place in our veneration which belongs to no other in the annals of science. His era marks the accomplished maturity of the human reason as applied to such objects. Every thing which went before might be more properly compared to the first imperfect attempts of childhood, or the essays of inexpert, though promising, adolescence. Whatever has been since performed, however great in itself, and worthy of so splendid and auspicious a beginning, has never, in point of intellectual effort, surpassed that astonishing one which produced the Principia.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00416", "bookId": 54897, "start": 429333, "end": 430597, "sha256": "5a93c3d6761f26f25870807cf07f75e94d942577a09b4a441f52cda954d04cf6", "text": "(302.) In this great work, Newton shows all the celestial motions known in his time to be consequences of the simple law, that every particle of matter attracts every other particle in the universe with a force proportional to the product of their masses directly, and the square of their mutual distance inversely, and is itself attracted with an equal force. Setting out from this, he explains how an attraction arises between the great spherical masses of which our system consists, regulated by a law precisely similar in its expression; how the elliptic motions of planets about the sun, and of satellites about their primaries, according to the exact rules inductively arrived at by Kepler, result as necessary consequences from the same general law of force; and how the orbits of comets themselves are only particular cases of planetary movements. Thence proceeding to applications of greater difficulty, he explains how the perplexing inequalities of the moon’s motion result from the sun’s disturbing action; how tides arise from the unequal attraction of the sun as well as of the moon on the earth, and the ocean which surrounds it; and, lastly, how the precession of the equinoxes is a necessary consequence of the very same law.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00417", "bookId": 54897, "start": 430601, "end": 432144, "sha256": "c9f7758548c58db1a124ddfe6620772c2fee615479dfcac993e2a6bb3ddcb693", "text": "(303.) The immediate successors of Newton found full occupation in verifying his discoveries, and in extending and improving the mathematical methods which it had now become manifest were to prove the keys to an inexhaustible treasure of knowledge. The simultaneous but independent discovery of a method of mathematical investigation in every respect similar to that of Newton, by Leibnitz, while it created a degree of national jealousy which can now only be regretted, had the effect of stimulating the continental geometers to its cultivation, and impressing on it a character more entirely independent of the ancient geometry, to which Newton was peculiarly attached. It was fortunate for science that it did so; for it was speedily found that (with one fine exception on the part of our countryman Maclaurin, followed up, after a long interval, by the late Professor Robison of Edinburgh, with equal elegance,) the geometry of Newton was like the bow of Ulysses, which none but its master could bend; and that, to render his methods available beyond the points to which he himself carried them, it was necessary to strip them of every vestige of that antique dress in which he had delighted to clothe them. This, however, the countrymen of Newton were very unwilling to do; and they paid the penalty in finding themselves condemned to the situation of lookers on, while their continental neighbours both in Germany and France were pushing forward in the career of mathematico-physical discovery with emulous rapidity.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00418", "bookId": 54897, "start": 432148, "end": 434178, "sha256": "86dcc67885a0660dbc12258ce007f1a3380d1ccb9fb247912c44631a6bdc0c01", "text": "(304.) The legacy of research which Newton may be said to have left to his successors was truly immense. To pursue, through all its intricacies, the consequences of the law of gravitation; to account for all the inequalities of the planetary movements, and the infinitely more complicated, and to us more important ones, of the moon; and to give, what Newton himself certainly never entertained a conception of, a demonstration of the stability and permanence of the system, under all the accumulating influence of its internal perturbations; this labour, and this triumph, were reserved for the succeeding age, and have been shared in succession by Clairaut, D’Alembert, Euler, Lagrange and Laplace. Yet so extensive is the subject, and so difficult and intricate the purely mathematical enquiries to which it leads, that another century may yet be required to go through with the task. The recent discoveries of astronomers have supplied matter for investigation, to the geometers of this and the next generation, of a difficulty far surpassing any thing that had before occurred. Five primary planets have been added to our system; four of them since the commencement of the present century, and these, singularly deviating from the general analogy of the others, and offering _cases of difficulty_ in theory, which no one had before contemplated. Yet even the intricate questions to which these bodies have given rise seem likely to be surpassed by those which have come into view, with the discovery of several comets revolving in elliptic orbits, like the planets, round the sun, in very moderate periods. But the resources of modern geometry seem, so far from being exhausted, to increase with the difficulties they have to encounter, and already, among the successors of Lagrange and Laplace, the present generation has to enumerate a powerful array of names, which promise to render it not less celebrated in the annals of physico-mathematical research than that which has just passed away.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00419", "bookId": 54897, "start": 434182, "end": 435444, "sha256": "72aee8ee2418730c11c3f89b50c5dd8ee81bb6b0903fa05b80d73a30ac5c53f6", "text": "(305.) Meanwhile the positions, figures, and dimensions of all the planetary orbits, are now well known, and their variations from century to century in great measure determined; and it has been generally demonstrated, that all the changes which the mutual actions of the planets on each other can produce in the course of indefinite ages, are _periodical_, that is to say, increasing to a certain extent (and that never a very great one), and then again decreasing; so that the system can never be destroyed or subverted by the mutual action of its parts, but keeps constantly oscillating, as it were, round a certain mean state, from which it can never deviate to any ruinous extent. In particular the researches of Laplace, Lagrange, and Poisson, have shown the ultimate invariability of the mean distance of each planet from the sun, and consequently of its periodic time. Relying on these grand discoveries, we are enabled to look forward, from the point of time which we now occupy, many thousands of years into futurity, and predict the state of our system without fear of material error, but such as may arise from causes whose existence at present we have no reason to suppose, or from interference which we have no right to anticipate.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00420", "bookId": 54897, "start": 435448, "end": 436979, "sha256": "9eb7d788835d48303c45c2907059b23becda51d79e3360a71a31baa912a805c6", "text": "(306.) A correct enumeration and description of the fixed stars in catalogues, and an exact knowledge of their position, supply the only effectual means we can have of ascertaining what changes they are liable to, and what motions, too slow to deprive them of their usual epithet, _fixed_, yet sufficient to produce a sensible change in the lapse of ages, may exist among them. Previous to the invention of the compass, they served as guides to the navigator by night; but for this purpose, a very moderate knowledge of a few of the principal ones sufficed. Hipparchus was the first astronomer, who, excited by the appearance of a new star, conceived the idea of forming a catalogue of the stars, with a view to its use as an astronomical record, “by which,” says Pliny, “posterity will be able to discover, not only whether they are born and die, but also whether they change their places, and whether they increase or decrease.” His catalogue, containing more than 1000 stars, was constructed about 128 years before Christ. It was in the course of the laborious discussion of his own and former observations of them, undertaken with a view to the formation of this catalogue, that he first recognised the fact of that slow, general advance of all the stars eastward, when compared with the place of the equinox, which is known under the name of the precession of the equinoxes, and which Newton succeeded in referring to a motion in the earth’s axis, produced by the attraction of the sun and moon.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00421", "bookId": 54897, "start": 436983, "end": 438143, "sha256": "3d9a9e77cff638b0c9a01991dc4595cdd6c1bd906d8026e1829a745b4d1f8cd8", "text": "(307.) Since Hipparchus, at various periods in the history of astronomy, catalogues of stars have been formed, among which that of Ulugh Begh, comprising about 1000 stars, constructed in 1437, is remarkable as the production of a sovereign prince, working personally in conjunction with his astronomers; and that of Tycho Brahe, containing 777 stars, constructed in 1600, as having originated in a phenomenon similar to that which drew the attention of Hipparchus. In more recent times, astronomers provided with the finest instruments their respective eras could supply, and established in observatories, munificently endowed by the sovereigns and governments of different European nations, have vied and are still vying with each other, in extending the number of registered stars, and giving the utmost possible degree of accuracy to the determination of their places. Among these, it would be ungrateful not to claim especial notice for the superb series of observations which, under a succession of indefatigable and meritorious astronomers, has, for a very long period, continued to emanate from our own national observatory of Greenwich.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00422", "bookId": 54897, "start": 438147, "end": 439000, "sha256": "e61cfc225d7f61d853a7bd27a211008fc432ccc00e47e7aa9adf32ec0a48efdb", "text": "(308.) The distance of the fixed stars is so immense, that every attempt to assign a limit, _within which_ it _must_ fall, has hitherto failed. The enquiries of astronomers of all ages have been directed to ascertain this distance, by taking the dimensions of our own particular system of sun and planets, or of the earth itself, as the unit of a scale on which it might be measured. But although many have imagined that their observations afforded grounds for the decision of this interesting point, it has uniformly happened either that the phenomena on which they relied have proved to be referable to other causes not previously known, and which the superior accuracy of their researches has for the first time brought to light; or to errors arising from instrumental imperfections and unavoidable defects of the observations themselves.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00423", "bookId": 54897, "start": 439004, "end": 440508, "sha256": "8db4cdca14e2960ba9a18696b2408bca4b77e2e2f6b781e540c1f27a76b5df4a", "text": "(309.) The only indication we can expect to obtain of the actual distance of a star, would consist in an annual change in its apparent place corresponding to the motion of the earth round the sun, called its _annual parallax_, and which is nothing more than the measure of the apparent size of the earth’s orbit as seen from the star. Many observers have thought they have detected a measurable amount of this parallax; but as astronomical instruments have advanced in perfection, the quantity which they have successively assigned to it has been continually reduced within narrower and narrower limits, and has invariably been commensurate with the errors to which the instruments used might fairly be considered liable. The conclusion this strongly presses on us is, that it is really a quantity too small to admit of distinct measurement in the present state of our means for that purpose; and that, therefore, the distance of the stars must be a magnitude of such an order as the imagination almost shrinks from contemplating. But this increase in our scale of dimension calls for a corresponding enlargement of conception in all other respects. The same reasoning which places the stars at such immeasurable remoteness, exalts them at the same time into glorious bodies, similar to, and even far surpassing, our own sun, the centres perhaps of other planetary systems, or fulfilling purposes of which we can have no idea, from any analogy in what passes immediately around us.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00424", "bookId": 54897, "start": 440512, "end": 441520, "sha256": "34cd6273a659d77497827b5b120e14b117c94e00d14f52f3713475bbab8c8adf", "text": "(310.) The comparison of catalogues, published at different periods, has given occasion to many curious remarks, respecting changes both of place and brightness among the stars, to the discovery of variable ones which lose and recover their lustre periodically, and to that of the disappearance of several from the heavens so completely as to have left no vestige discernible even by powerful telescopes. In proportion as the construction of astronomical and optical instruments has gone on improving, our knowledge of the contents of the heavens has undergone a corresponding extension, and, at the same time, attained a degree of precision which could not have been anticipated in former ages. The places of all the principal stars in the northern hemisphere, and of a great many in the southern, are now known to a degree of nicety which must infallibly detect any real motions that may exist among them, and has in fact done so, in a great many instances, some of them very remarkable ones.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00425", "bookId": 54897, "start": 441524, "end": 442314, "sha256": "fc5991c30f2a41ca18e29f19e9c7402161a488b41af0ecc471b6e7c41175aa10", "text": "(311.) It is only since a comparatively recent date, however, that any great attention has been bestowed on the smaller stars, among which there can be no doubt of the most interesting and instructive phenomena being sooner or later brought to light. The minute examination of them with powerful telescopes, and with delicate instruments for the determination of their places, has, indeed, already produced immense catalogues and masses of observations, in which thousands of stars invisible to the naked eye are registered; and has led to the discovery of innumerable important and curious facts, and disclosed the existence of whole classes of celestial objects, of a nature so wonderful as to give room for unbounded speculation on the extent and construction of the universe.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00426", "bookId": 54897, "start": 442318, "end": 443563, "sha256": "2575f0da102adbed2f604ec0f7abc2087dda0141b0fc8f1f19e2a59215530ffe", "text": "(312.) Among these, perhaps the most remarkable are the revolving double stars, or stars which, to the naked eye or to inferior telescopes, appear single; but, if examined with high magnifying powers, are found to consist of two individuals placed almost close together, and which, when carefully watched, are (many of them) found to revolve in regular elliptic orbits about each other; and so far as we have yet been able to ascertain, to obey the same laws which regulate the planetary movements. There is nothing calculated to give a grander idea of the scale on which the sidereal heavens are constructed than these beautiful systems. When we see such magnificent bodies united in pairs, undoubtedly by the same bond of mutual gravitation which holds together our own system, and sweeping over their enormous orbits, in periods comprehending many centuries, we admit at once that they must be accomplishing ends in creation which will remain for ever unknown to man; and that we have here attained a point in science where the human intellect is compelled to acknowledge its weakness, and to feel that no conception the wildest imagination can form will bear the least comparison with the intrinsic greatness of the subject.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00427", "bookId": 54897, "start": 443569, "end": 443579, "sha256": "ca38f315b83d507a752b50d66fb101f2d3611fd010307491160e6e1e7fbc36c6", "text": "_Geology._", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00428", "bookId": 54897, "start": 443583, "end": 445387, "sha256": "06eb29e93e4e7c6079dc4091ace575503a36e7c1ee074f6d9727bc1ca398c362", "text": "(313.) The researches of physical astronomy are confessedly incompetent to carry us back to the origin of our system, or to a period when its state was, in any great essential, different from what it is at present. So far as the causes now in action go, and so far as our calculations will enable us to estimate their effects, we are equally unable to perceive in the general phenomena of the planetary system either the evidence of a beginning, or the prospect of an end. Geometers, as already stated, have demonstrated that, in the midst of all the fluctuations which can possibly take place in the elements of the orbits of the planets, by reason of their mutual attraction, the general balance of the parts of the system will always be preserved, and every departure from a mean state periodically compensated. But neither the researches of the physical astronomer, nor those of the geologist, give us any ground for regarding our system, or the globe we inhabit, as of eternal duration. On the contrary, there are circumstances in the physical constitution of our own planet which at least obscurely point to an origin and a formation, however remote, since it has been found that the figure of the earth is not globular but elliptical, and that its attraction is such as requires us to admit the interior to be more dense than the exterior, and the density to increase with some degree of regularity from the surface towards the centre, and _that_, in layers arranged elliptically round the centre, circumstances which could scarcely happen without some such successive deposition of materials as would enable pressure to be propagated with a certain degree of freedom from one part of the mass to another, even if we should hesitate to admit a state of primitive fluidity.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00429", "bookId": 54897, "start": 445391, "end": 446606, "sha256": "0b16436f6aa1cb0055c068fa850f3fd38981ca448f88f8f05fa795cd2ab70449", "text": "(314.) But from such indications nothing distinct can be concluded; and if we would speculate to any purpose on a former state of our globe and on the succession of events which from time to time may have changed the condition and form of its surface, we must confine our views within limits far more restricted, and to subjects much more within the reach of our capacity, than either the creation of the world or its assumption of its present figure. These, indeed, were favourite speculations with a race of geologists now extinct; but the science itself has undergone a total change of character, even within the last half century, and is brought, at length, effectually within the list of the inductive sciences. Geologists now no longer bewilder their imaginations with wild theories of the formation of the globe from chaos, or its passage through a series of hypothetical transformations, but rather aim at a careful and accurate examination of the records of its former state, which they find indelibly impressed on the great features of its actual surface, and to the evidences of former life and habitation which organised remains imbedded and preserved in its strata indisputably afford.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00430", "bookId": 54897, "start": 446610, "end": 447353, "sha256": "c61e99566a30649428c8c26a3fc24fc53afee49f5f739447b4b3b9b5e3fdfcce", "text": "(315.) Records of this kind are neither few nor vague; and though the obsoleteness of their language when we endeavour to interpret it too minutely, may, and no doubt often does, lead to misapprehension, still its general meaning is, on the whole, unequivocal and satisfactory. Such records teach us, in terms too plain to be misunderstood, that the whole or nearly the whole of our present lands and continents were formerly at the bottom of the sea, where they received deposits of materials from the wearing and degradation of other lands not now existing, and furnished receptacles for the remains of marine animals and plants inhabiting the ocean above them, as well as for similar spoils of the land washed down into its bosom.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00431", "bookId": 54897, "start": 447357, "end": 448046, "sha256": "517f9095a0a246bec2a83f2fd15b3737b5ac222190ea6816db6a2a54b608bb99", "text": "(316.) These remains are occasionally brought to light; and their examination has afforded indubitable evidence of the former existence of a state of animated nature widely different from what now obtains on the globe, and of a period anterior to that in which it has been the habitation of man, or rather, indeed, of a series of periods, of unknown duration, in which both land and sea teemed with forms of animal and vegetable life, which have successively disappeared and given place to others, and these again to new races approximating gradually more and more nearly to those which now inhabit them, and at length comprehending species which have their counterparts existing.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00432", "bookId": 54897, "start": 448050, "end": 448698, "sha256": "9407380980311c2f94df98cb8a4ec150a4aed8e64aa66d027cf850a622a92395", "text": "(317.) These wrecks of a former state of nature, thus wonderfully preserved (like ancient medals and inscriptions in the ruins of an empire), afford a sort of rude chronology, by whose aid the successive depositions of the strata in which they are found may be marked out in epochs more or less definitely terminated, and each characterized by some peculiarity which enables us to recognise the deposits of any period, in whatever part of the world they may be found. And, so far as has been hitherto investigated, the _order_ of succession in which these deposits have been formed appears to have been the same in every part of the globe.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00433", "bookId": 54897, "start": 448702, "end": 449272, "sha256": "dd573e6e9fdd13c6f3e48b93924877f0c1fbfc268b56b835530a5d6374e258d8", "text": "(318.) Many of the strata which thus bear evident marks of having been deposited at the bottom of the sea, and of course in a horizontal state, are now found in a position highly inclined to the horizon, and even occasionally vertical. And they often bear no less evident marks of violence, in their bending and fracture, the dislocation of parts which were once contiguous, and the existence of vast collections of broken fragments which afford every proof of great violence having been used in accomplishing some at least of the changes which have taken place.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00434", "bookId": 54897, "start": 449276, "end": 449867, "sha256": "53dbe0a8d44199a38b8fd9a5e853035f6b5993ee6bcd2e0f6f3b8aac90b7bbf9", "text": "(319.) Besides the rocks which carry this internal evidence of submarine deposition, are many which exhibit no such proofs, but on the contrary hold out every appearance of owing their origin to volcanoes or to some other mode of igneous action; and in every part of the world, and among strata of all ages, there occur evidences of such action so abundant, and on such a scale, as to point out the volcano and the earthquake as agents which may have been instrumental in the production of those changes of level, and those violent dislocations which we perceive to have taken place.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00435", "bookId": 54897, "start": 449871, "end": 451620, "sha256": "38cd5b63d9ece2dd8f62ef59c15b590c21e33027cce2353f1db8969781cdfc05", "text": "(320.) At all events, in accounting for those changes, geologists have no longer recourse, as formerly, to causes purely hypothetical, such as a shifting of the earth’s axis of rotation, bringing the sea to overflow the land, by a change in the place of the longer and shorter diameters of the spheroidal figure, nor to tides produced by the attraction of comets suddenly approaching very near the earth, nor to any other fanciful and arbitrarily assumed hypotheses; but rather endeavour to confine themselves to a careful consideration of causes evidently in action at present, with a view to ascertain how far they, in the first instance, are capable of accounting for the facts observed, and thus legitimately bringing into view, as residual phenomena, those effects which cannot be so accounted for. When this shall have been in some measure accomplished, we shall be able to pronounce with greater security than at present respecting the necessity of admitting a long succession of tremendous and ravaging catastrophes and cataclysms,--epochs of terrific confusion and violence which many geologists (perhaps with justice) regard as indispensable to the explanation of the existing features of the world. We shall learn to distinguish between the effects which require for their production the sudden application of convulsive and fracturing efforts, and those, probably not less extensive, changes which may have been produced by forces equally or more powerful, but acting with less irregularity, and so distributed over time as to produce none of those _interregnums_ of chaotic anarchy which we are apt to think (perhaps erroneously) great disfigurements of an order so beautiful and harmonious as that of nature.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00436", "bookId": 54897, "start": 451624, "end": 452737, "sha256": "b1347116e3be758b5643b4a915ef604a197253eeabd06a8956ddd0a04a20aed4", "text": "(321.) But to estimate justly the effects of causes now in action in geology is no easy task. There is no _à priori_ or deductive process by which we can estimate the amount of the annual erosion, for instance, of a continent by the action of meteoric agents, rain, wind, frost, &c., nor the quantity of destruction produced on its coasts by the direct violence of the sea, nor the quantity of lava thrown up _per annum_ by volcanoes over the whole surface of the earth, nor any similar effect. And to consult experience on all such points is a slow and painful process if rightly gone into, and a very fallible one if only partially executed. Much, then, at present must be left to opinion, and to that sort of clear-judging tact which sometimes anticipates experience; but this ought not to stand in the way of our making every possible effort to obtain accurate information on such points, by which alone geology can be rendered, if not an experimental science, at least a science of that kind of active observation which forms the nearest approach to it, where actual experiment is impossible.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00437", "bookId": 54897, "start": 452741, "end": 454379, "sha256": "d84b19503815d3ebb23bc9ea2e5e5af348dab68d6808c3852d02061245369734", "text": "(322.) Let us take, for example, the question, “What is the actual direction in which changes of relative level are taking place between the existing continents and seas?” If we consult partial experience, that is, _all_ the information that we possess respecting ancient sea-marks, soundings, &c., we shall only find ourselves bewildered in a mass of conflicting, because imperfect, evidence. It is obvious that the only way to decide the point is to ascertain, by very precise and careful observations at proper stations on coasts, selected at points where there exist natural marks not liable to change in the course of at least a century, the true elevation of such marks above the _mean_ level of the sea, and to multiply these stations sufficiently over the whole globe to be capable of affording real available knowledge. Now, this is not a very easy operation (considering the accuracy required); for the _mean_ level of the sea can be determined by no single observation, any more than the mean height of the barometer at a given station, being affected both by periodical and accidental fluctuations due to tides, winds, waves, and currents. Yet if an instrument adapted for the purpose were constructed, and rendered easily attainable, and rules for its use carefully drawn up, there is little doubt we should soon (by the industry of observers scattered over the world) be in possession of a most valuable mass of information, which could not fail to afford a point of departure for the next generation, and furnish ground for the only kind of argument which ever can be conclusive on such subjects.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00438", "bookId": 54897, "start": 454383, "end": 456664, "sha256": "c847f34371516ec93d55a6f8bada968321f1496071b02c7ced8e49e26182ed59", "text": "(323.) Geology, in the magnitude and sublimity of the objects of which it treats, undoubtedly ranks, in the scale of the sciences, next to astronomy; like astronomy, too, its progress depends on the continual accumulation of observations carried on for ages. But, unlike astronomy, the observations on which it depends, when the whole extent of the subject to be explored is taken into consideration, can hardly yet be said to be more than commenced. Yet, to make up for this, there is another important difference, that while in the latter science it is impossible to recall the past or anticipate the future, and observation is in consequence limited to a single fact in a single moment; in the former, the records of the past are always present;--they may be examined and re-examined as often as we please, and require nothing but diligence and judgment to put us in possession of their whole contents. Only a very small part of the surface of our globe has, however, been accurately examined in detail, and of that small portion we are only able to scratch the mere exterior, for so we must consider those excavations which we are apt to regard as searching the bowels of the earth; since the deepest mines which have been sunk penetrate to a depth hardly surpassing the ten thousandth part of the distance between its surface and its centre. Of course inductions founded on such limited examination can only be regarded as provisional, except in those remarkable cases where the same great formations in the same order have been recognised in very distant quarters, and without exception. This, however, cannot long be the case. The spirit with which the subject has been prosecuted for many years in our own country has been rewarded with so rich a harvest of surprising and unexpected discoveries, and has carried the investigation of our island into such detail, as to have excited a corresponding spirit among our continental neighbours; while the same zeal which animates our countrymen on their native shore accompanies them in their sojourns abroad, and has already begun to supply a fund of information respecting the geology of our Indian possessions, as well as of every other point where English intellect and research can penetrate.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00439", "bookId": 54897, "start": 456668, "end": 457453, "sha256": "d02b8d2b7a84ba0373f22f7fdf459c149017184e2c85656a50fcf356cdb003e6", "text": "(324.) Nothing can be more desirable than that every possible facility and encouragement should be afforded for such researches, and indeed to the pursuits of the enlightened resident or traveller in every department of science, by the representatives of our national authority wherever our power extends. By these only can our knowledge of the actual state of the surface of the globe, and that of the animals and vegetables of the ancient continents and seas, be extended and perfected, while more complete information than we at present possess of the habits of those actually existing, and the influence of changes of climate, food, and circumstances, on them, may be expected to render material assistance to our speculations respecting those which have become extinct.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00440", "bookId": 54897, "start": 457463, "end": 457472, "sha256": "3446d030a6b91dd1f12f37059c79cb212eda05326d17b35885eaef69b963f5b9", "text": "CHAP. IV.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00441", "bookId": 54897, "start": 457476, "end": 457537, "sha256": "0825021781c71f1551ccaece326b9203c5d808cbdc032a92fa3f192471019a2a", "text": "OF THE EXAMINATION OF THE MATERIAL CONSTITUENTS OF THE WORLD.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00442", "bookId": 54897, "start": 457543, "end": 457556, "sha256": "b59e3e008b373f68efff739a9bf09e5df7e2af3be9b92f6faa0b3f2c69c38536", "text": "_Mineralogy._", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00443", "bookId": 54897, "start": 457560, "end": 458065, "sha256": "8c1f3d9b8157547c91873ed2248654f2ac8614121293706a610247c9440481e9", "text": "(325.) The consideration of the history and structure of our globe, and the examination of the fossil contents of its strata, lead us naturally to consider the materials of which it consists. The history of these materials, their properties as objects of philosophical enquiry, and their application to the useful arts and the embellishments of life, with the characters by which they can be certainly distinguished one from another, form the object of mineralogy, taken in its most extended sense.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00444", "bookId": 54897, "start": 458069, "end": 459390, "sha256": "e2ca2e3f810fa8b7ee1033d2f6bea85d64881cdbfa37b3ce5fc28fcf8b79fd64", "text": "(326.) There is no branch of science which presents so many points of contact with other departments of physical research, and serves as a connecting link between so many distant points of philosophical speculation, as this. To the geologist, the chemist, the optician, the crystallographer, the physician, it offers especially the very elements of their knowledge, and a field for many of their most curious and important enquiries. Nor, with the exception of chemistry, is there any which has undergone more revolutions, or been exhibited in a greater variety of forms. To the ancients it could scarcely be said to be at all known, and up to a comparatively recent period, nothing could be more imperfect than its descriptions, or more inartificial and unnatural than its classification. The more important minerals in the arts, indeed, those used for economical purposes and those from which metals were extracted, had a certain degree of attention paid to them, for the sake of their utility and commercial value, and the precious stones for that of ornament. But until their crystalline forms were attentively observed and shown to be determinate characters on which dependence could be placed, no mineralogist could give any correct account of the real distinction between one mineral and another.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00445", "bookId": 54897, "start": 459394, "end": 461456, "sha256": "ecf6aa9b5ebd6a3caf2b32fe1d50b541951d11a6be0dd6b063309b9ddc52a656", "text": "(327.) It was only, however, when chemical analysis had acquired a certain degree of precision and universal applicability that the importance of mineralogy as a science began to be recognized, and the connection between the external characters of a stone and its ingredient constituents brought into distinct notice. Among these characters, however, none were found to possess that eminent distinctness which the crystalline form offers; a character, in the highest degree geometrical, and affording, as might be naturally supposed, the strongest evidence of its necessary connection with the intimate constitution of the substance. The full importance of this character was, however, not felt until its connection with the texture or cleavage of a mineral was pointed out, and even then it required numerous and striking instances of the critical discernment of Haüy and other eminent mineralogists in predicting from the measurements of the angles of crystals which had been confounded together that differences would be found to exist in their chemical composition, all which proved fully justified in their result before the essential value of this character was acknowledged. This was no doubt in great measure owing to the high importance set by the German mineralogists on those external characters of touch, sight, weight, colour, and other sensible qualities, which are little susceptible, with the exception of weight, of exact determination, and which are subject to material variations in different specimens of the same mineral. By degrees, however, the necessity of ascribing great weight to a character so definite was admitted, especially when it was considered that the same step which pointed out the intimate connection of external form with internal structure furnished the mineralogist with the means of reducing all the forms of which a mineral is susceptible under one general type, or primitive form, and afforded grounds for an elegant theoretical account of the assumption of definite figures _ab initio_.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00446", "bookId": 54897, "start": 461460, "end": 462229, "sha256": "0991aec0ff3e2a163200cb5194fc6e2ef64e6d344cdb5bb99e2349c836153bb7", "text": "(328.) A simple and elegant invention of Dr. Wollaston, the reflecting goniometer, gave a fresh impulse to that view of mineralogy which makes the crystalline form the essential or leading character, by putting it in the power of every one, by the examination of even the smallest portion of a broken crystal, to ascertain and verify that essential character on which the identity of a mineral in the system of Haüy was made to depend. The application of so ready and exact a method speedily led to important results, and to a still nicer discrimination of mineral species than could before be attained; and the confirmation given to these results by chemical analysis stamped them with a scientific and decided character which they have retained ever since.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00447", "bookId": 54897, "start": 462233, "end": 464837, "sha256": "33899ee5a68825ec56db409ad1908f9b6d2da44e3a2212f2044f76b997ef3847", "text": "(329.) Meanwhile the progress made in chemical analysis had led to the important conclusion that every chemical compound susceptible of assuming the solid state assumed with it a determinate crystalline form; and the progress of optical science had shown that the fundamental crystalline form, in the case at least of transparent bodies, drew with it a series of optical properties no less curious than important in relation to the affections of light in its passage through such substances. Thus, in every point of view, additional importance became added to this character; and the study of the crystalline forms of bodies in general assumed the form of a separate and independent branch of science, of which the geometrical forms of the mineral world constituted only a particular case. Mineralogy, however, as a branch of natural history, remains still distinct either from optics or crystallography. The mineralogist is content, and thinks he has performed his task, if not as a natural historian at least as a classifier and arranger, if he only gives such a characteristic description of a mineral as shall effectually distinguish it from every other, and shall enable any one who may encounter such a body in any part of the world to impose on it its name, assign it a place in his system, and turn to his books for a further description of all that the chemist, the optician, the lapidary, or the artist, may require to know. Still this is no easy matter: the laborious researches of the most eminent mineralogists can hardly yet be said to have effectually accomplished it; and its difficulty may be appreciated by the small number of simple minerals, or minerals of perfectly definite and well-marked characters, which have been hitherto made out. Nor can this indeed be wondered at, when we consider that by far the greater portion of the rocks and stones which compose the external crust of the globe consists of nothing more than the accumulated _detritus_ of older rocks, in which the fragments and powder of an infinite variety of substances are mingled together, in all sorts of varying proportions, and in such a way as to defy separation. Many of these rocks, however, so compounded, occur with sufficient frequency and uniformity of character to have acquired names and to have been usefully applied; indeed, in the latter respect, minerals of this description far surpass all the others. As objects of natural history, therefore, they are well worthy of attention, however difficult it may be to assign them a place in any artificial arrangement.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00448", "bookId": 54897, "start": 464841, "end": 465679, "sha256": "360c79254b20a66b86b622aadf11377a295dc263d4d576ee4ff5a89c30faa632", "text": "(330.) This paucity of simple minerals, however, is probably rather apparent than real, and in proportion as the researches of the chemist and crystallographer shall be extended throughout nature, they will no doubt become much more numerous. Indeed, in the great laboratories of nature it can hardly be doubted that almost every kind of chemical process is going forwards, by which compounds of every description are continually forming. Accordingly, it is remarked, that the lavas and ejected scoriæ of volcanoes are receptacles in which mineral products previously unknown are constantly discovered, and that the primitive formations, as they are called in geology, which bear no marks of having been produced by the destruction of others, are also remarkable for the beauty and distinctness of character of their minerals.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00449", "bookId": 54897, "start": 465683, "end": 467851, "sha256": "250325a137001a136ffd081da1778471cb4e9804c735ec4da3bf1f84214f759d", "text": "(331.) The great difficulty which has been experienced in attempts to classify mineral substances by their chemical constituents has arisen from the observed presence, in some specimens of minerals bearing that general resemblance in other respects as well as agreement in form which would seem to entitle them to be considered as alike, of ingredients foreign to the usual composition of the species, and that occasionally in so large a proportion as to render it unjustifiable to refer their occurrence to accidental impurities. These cases, as well as some anomalies observed in the classification of minerals by their crystalline forms, which seemed to show that the same substance might occasionally appear under two distinct forms, as well as some remarkable coincidences between the forms of substances quite distinct from each other in a chemical point of view, have within a recent period given rise to a branch of the science of crystallography of a very curious and important nature. The _isomorphism_ of certain groups of chemical elements has already afforded us an example illustrative of the manner in which inductions sometimes receive unexpected verifications (see 180.). The laws and relations thus brought to light are among the most curious and interesting parts of modern science, and seem likely in their further developement to afford ample scope for the exercise of chemical and mineralogical research. They have already afforded innumerable fine examples of that important step in science by which anomalies disappear, and occasional incongruities become reconciled under more general expressions of physical laws, and thus unite in affording support to those very views which they promised, when first observed, to overset. Nothing, indeed, can be more striking than to see the very ingredient which every previous chemist and mineralogist would agree to disregard and reject as a mere casual impurity brought forward and appealed to in support of a theory expressly directed to the object of rescuing science from the imputation of disregarding, under any circumstances, the plain results of direct experiment.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00450", "bookId": 54897, "start": 467857, "end": 467869, "sha256": "e63421b2efd38543c222ca9623ae5f305a6a8f9dc110c1724e8d2bef001ebbc4", "text": "_Chemistry._", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00451", "bookId": 54897, "start": 467873, "end": 468756, "sha256": "d3e278d2079542e98c18b8a9c2cce4a18367f127a4e9e6ddf1e7aa3a4d4d4b57", "text": "(332.) The laws which concern the intimate constitution of bodies, not as respects their _structure_ or the manner in which their parts are put together, but as regards their _materials_ or the ingredients of which those parts are composed, form the objects of chemistry. A solid body may be regarded as a fabric, more or less regularly and artificially constructed, in which the materials and the workmanship may be separately considered, and in which, though the latter be ruined and confounded by violence, the former remain unchanged in their nature, though differently arranged. In liquid or aërial bodies, too, though there prevails a less degree of difference in point of structure, and a greater facility of dispersion and dissipation, than in solids, yet an equal diversity of _materials_ subsists, giving to them properties differing extremely from each other.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00452", "bookId": 54897, "start": 468760, "end": 472059, "sha256": "124777d73b0d1476bc3b65afd2fe2804175049f2d177d4d30039eaeb1e7d5a11", "text": "(333.) The inherent activity of matter is proved not only by the production of motion by the mutual attractions and repulsions of distant or contiguous masses, but by the changes and apparent transformations which different substances undergo in their sensible qualities by mere mixture. If water be added to water, or salt to salt, the effect is an increase of quantity, but no change of quality. In this case, the mutual action of the particles is entirely mechanical. Again, if a blue powder and a yellow one, each perfectly dry, be mixed and well shaken together, a green powder will be produced; but this is a mere effect arising in the eye from the intimate mixture of the yellow and blue light separately and independently reflected from the minute particles of each; and the proof is had by examining the mixture with a microscope, when the yellow and blue grains will be seen separate and each quite unaltered. If the same experiment be tried with coloured liquids, which are susceptible of mixing without chemical action, a compound colour is likewise produced, but no examination with magnifiers is in that case sufficient to detect the ingredients; the reason obviously being, the excessive minuteness of the parts, and their perfect intermixture, produced by agitating two liquids together. From the mixture of two powders, extreme patience would enable any one, by picking out with a magnifier grain after grain, to separate the ingredients. But when liquids are mixed, no mechanical separation is any longer practicable; the particles are so minute as to elude all search. Yet this does not hinder us from regarding such a compound as still a mere mixture, and its properties are accordingly intermediate between those of the liquids mixed. But this is far from being the case with all liquids. When a solution of potash, for example, and another of tartaric acid, each perfectly liquid, are mixed together in proper proportions, a great quantity of a solid saline substance falls to the bottom of the containing vessel, which is quite different from either potash or tartaric acid, and the liquid from which it subsided offers no indications by its taste or other sensible qualities of the ingredients mixed, but of something totally different from either. It is evident that this is a phenomenon widely different from that of mere mixture; there has taken place a great and radical change in the intimate nature of the ingredients, by which a new substance is produced which had no existence before. And it has been produced by the _union_ of the ingredients presented to each other; for when examined it is found that nothing has been _lost_, the weight of the whole mixture being the sum of the weights mixed. Yet the potash and tartaric acid have disappeared entirely, and the weight of the new product is found to be exactly equal to that of the tartaric acid and potash employed, taken together, abating a small portion held in solution in the liquid, which may be obtained however by evaporation. They have therefore combined, and adhere to one another with a cohesive force sufficient to form a solid out of a liquid; a force which has thus been called into action by merely presenting them to each other in a state of solution.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00453", "bookId": 54897, "start": 472063, "end": 472642, "sha256": "9f7b02f05ab6f2de1e7db27da1094448917b87810d2e029bc05a4986b414f850", "text": "(334.) It is the business of chemistry to investigate these and similar changes, or the reverse of such changes, where a single substance is resolved into two or more others, having different properties from it, and from each other, and to enquire into all the circumstances which can influence them; and either determine, modify, or suspend their accomplishment, whether such influence be exercised by heat or cold, by time and rest, or by agitation or pressure, or by any of those agents of which we have acquired a knowledge, such as electricity, light, magnetism, &c.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00454", "bookId": 54897, "start": 472646, "end": 474650, "sha256": "2cc26c94775ba89bd5725b2bf1712e35f69541b9609102d1d9fcfd1fddd4b86b", "text": "(335.) The wonderful and sudden transformations with which chemistry is conversant, the violent activity often assumed by substances usually considered the most inert and sluggish, and, above all, the insight it gives into the nature of innumerable operations which we see daily carried on around us, have contributed to render it the most popular, as it is one of the most extensively useful, of the sciences; and we shall, accordingly, find none which have sprung forward, during the last century, with such extraordinary vigour, and have had such extensive influence in promoting corresponding progress in others. One of the chief causes of its popularity is, perhaps, to be sought for in this, that it is, of all the sciences, perhaps, the most completely an experimental one; and even its theories are, for the most part, of that generally intelligible and readily applicable kind, which demand no intense concentration of thought, and lead to no profound mathematical researches. The simple process of inductive generalization, grounded on the examination of numerous facts, all of them presenting considerable intrinsic interest, has sufficed, in most instances, to lead, by a clear and direct road, to its highest laws yet known. But, on the other hand, these laws, when stated, are not yet fully sufficient to lead us, except in very limited cases, to a deductive knowledge of particulars never before examined, at least, not without great caution, and constant appeal to experiment as a check on our reasoning; so that we are justified in regarding the _axioms_ of chemistry, the true handles of deductive reasoning, as still unknown, and, perhaps, likely long to remain so. This is no fault of its cultivators, who have comprised in their list the highest and most varied talents and industry, but of the inherent complexity of the subject, and the infinite multitude of causes which are concerned in the production of every, even the simplest, chemical phenomenon.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00455", "bookId": 54897, "start": 474654, "end": 477008, "sha256": "e4c26c59aca1682bcccf884d39be1f99cabe9e01bd70465afd603c94159adf9a", "text": "(336.) The history of chemistry (on which, however, we are not about to enlarge,) is one of great interest to those who delight to trace the steps by which mankind advance to the discovery of truth through a series of mistakes and failures. It may be divided, 1st, into the period of the alchemists, a lamentable epoch in the annals of intellectual wandering; 2dly, that of the phlogistic doctrines of Beccher and Stahl, in which, as if to prove the perversity of the human mind, of two possible roads the wrong was chosen; and a theory obtained universal credence on the strength of an induction, valid as such, but wrongly interpreted, which is negatived, _in every instance_, by an appeal to the balance. This, too, happened, not by reason of unlucky coincidences, or individual oversights, but of necessity, and from an inherent defect of the theory itself, which thus impeded the progress of the science, as far as a science of experiment can be impeded by a false theory, by perplexing its cultivators with the appearance of contradictions in their experiments where none really subsisted, by destroying all their confidence in the numerical exactness of their own results, and by involving the subject in a mist of visionary and hypothetical causes in place of the true acting principles. Thus, in the combustion of any substance which is incapable of flying away in fumes, an increase of weight takes place,--the ashes are heavier than the fuel. Whenever this was observed, however, it was passed carelessly over as arising from the escape of phlogiston, or the principle of inflammability, which was considered as being either the element of fire itself, or in some way combined with it, and thus essentially _light_. It is now known that the increase of weight is owing to the absorption of, and combination with, a quantity of a peculiar ingredient called _oxygen_, from the air, a principle essentially _heavy_. So far as weight is concerned, it makes no difference whether a body having weight enters, or one having levity escapes; but there is this plain difference in a philosophical point of view, that oxygen is a real producible substance, and phlogiston is no such thing: the former is a _vera causa_, the latter an hypothetical being, introduced to account for what the other accounts for much better.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00456", "bookId": 54897, "start": 477012, "end": 477576, "sha256": "f4a5a865dca319fe5a0d4cb3acd104d2abca2c119d2cbce9549166f341c78a31", "text": "(337.) The third age of chemistry--that which may be called emphatically modern chemistry--commenced (in 1786) when Lavoisier, by a series of memorable experiments, extinguished for ever this error, and placed chemistry in the rank of one of the exact sciences,--a science of number, weight, and measure. From that epoch to the present day it has constantly advanced with an accelerated progress, and at this moment may be regarded as more progressive than ever. The principal features in this progress may be comprised under the following general heads:--", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00457", "bookId": 54897, "start": 477583, "end": 477800, "sha256": "319f957d36c7471549ff6f556fc4aa30f62800725b14e5b8afab7f2e4557a6f6", "text": "1. The discovery of the proximate, if not the ultimate, elements of all bodies, and the enlargement of the list of known elements to its present extent of between fifty and sixty substances.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00458", "bookId": 54897, "start": 477807, "end": 477980, "sha256": "7be08a022c3bda30b609d30bdac7a826673966938dbb1299bda1f1b90e9d8b5f", "text": "2. The developement of the doctrine of latent heat by Black, with its train of important consequences, including the scientific theory of the steam-engine.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00459", "bookId": 54897, "start": 477987, "end": 478234, "sha256": "514ff08683b1d59b50f6a801ad0784979add13ff077f4b5239cfed5eef1c46d7", "text": "3. The establishment of Wenzel’s law of definite proportions on his own experiments, and those of Richter, a discovery subsequently merged in the more general wording and better development of Dalton’s atomic theory.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00460", "bookId": 54897, "start": 478241, "end": 478551, "sha256": "38ccfbab3bd75345dbc76416ee37b34ab21b496ff81bc9d7fc3758d8fb2522ed", "text": "4. The precise determination of the atomic weights of the different chemical elements, mainly due to the astonishing industry of Berzelius, and his unrivalled command of chemical resources, as well as to the researches of the other chemists of the Swedish and German school.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00461", "bookId": 54897, "start": 478558, "end": 478941, "sha256": "bd0635ebf5e9440278957875d8c54464c94d6e63fdd0fd89e236053ab4b18592", "text": "5. The assimilation of gases and vapours, by which we are led to regard the former, universally, as particular cases of the latter, a generalization resulting chiefly from the experiments of Faraday on the condensation of the gases, and those of Gay-Lussac and Dalton, on the laws of their expansion by heat compared with that of vapours.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00462", "bookId": 54897, "start": 478948, "end": 479065, "sha256": "6f8cad00fb27e61fccc858ad37dddeb76f253d68493c20b4a20e988c24d945d9", "text": "6. The establishment of the laws of the combination of gases and vapours by definite volumes, by Gay-Lussac.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00463", "bookId": 54897, "start": 479072, "end": 479471, "sha256": "55b6a4fac5ad5cfa871d1e1b6b1671192b5f9210d515b2c72b2d9a4ddfde5c4c", "text": "7. The discovery of the chemical effects of electricity, and the decomposing agency of the Voltaic pile, by Nicholson and Carlisle; the investigation of the laws of such decompositions, by Berzelius and Hisinger: the decomposition of the alkalies by Davy, and the consequent introduction into chemistry of new and powerful agents in their metallic bases.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00464", "bookId": 54897, "start": 479478, "end": 479836, "sha256": "789450a7767ec0d3b921e21a1c86c8f220435541f14c6183f8597b7105ca6854", "text": "8. The application of chemical analysis to all the objects of organized and unorganized nature, and the discovery of the ultimate constituents of all, and the proximate ones of organic matter, and the recognisance of the important distinctions which appear to divide these great classes of bodies from each other.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00465", "bookId": 54897, "start": 479843, "end": 480093, "sha256": "1cae625a402e87ec258fbfdeef5ff15cbfcaa2dec9e07dac0c7540743bfcf0ca", "text": "9. The applications of chemistry to innumerable processes in the arts, and among other useful purposes to the discovery of the essential medical principles in vegetables, and to important medicaments in the mineral kingdom.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00466", "bookId": 54897, "start": 480099, "end": 480461, "sha256": "55177d08bf56309577e4b76989689242393e2a68d45d0e83f326f60841db1e28", "text": "10. The establishment of the intimate connection between chemical composition and crystalline form, by Haüy and Vauquelin, with the successive rectifications the statement of that connection has undergone in the hands of Mitscherlich, Rose, and others, with the progress of chemical and crystallographical knowledge.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00467", "bookId": 54897, "start": 480465, "end": 482694, "sha256": "afe2e6e42cc79667ea99a69350e31d100036f159209d36df5fbf53af6924ff12", "text": "(338.) To pursue these several heads into detail would lead us into a treatise on chemistry; but a few remarks on one or two of them, as they bear upon the general principles of all scientific enquiry, will not be irrelevant. And first, then, with reference to the discovery of new elements, it will be observed, that philosophical chemistry no more aims at determining the one essential element out of which all matter is framed--the one ultimate principle of the universe--than astronomy at discovering the origin of the planetary movements in the application of a determinate projectile force in a determinate direction, or geology at ascending to the creation of the earth. There may be such an element. Some singular relations which have been pointed out in the atomic weights of bodies seem to suggest to minds fond of speculation that there is; but philosophical chemistry is content to wait for some striking fact, which may either occur unexpectedly or be led to by the slow progress of enlarged views, to disclose to us its existence. Still, the multiplication of so-considered elementary bodies has been considered by some as an inconvenience. We confess we do not coincide with this view. Whatever they be, the obstinacy with which they resist decomposition shows that they are ingredients of a very high and primary importance in the economy of nature; and such as, in any state of science, it would be indispensably necessary to be perfectly familiar with. Like particular theorems in geometry, which, though not rising to the highest point of generality, have yet their several scopes and ranges of extensive application, they must be well and perfectly understood in all their bearings. Should we ever arrive at an analysis of these bodies, the chemical properties of the new elements which will then come into view will be known only by our knowledge of these, or of other compounds of the same class, which they may be capable of forming. Not but that such an analysis would be a most important and indeed triumphant achievement, and change the face of chemistry; but it would undo nothing that has been done, and render useless no point of knowledge which we have yet arrived at.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00468", "bookId": 54897, "start": 482698, "end": 484425, "sha256": "8c100e7891fd77d0b2b6bf6be61faeec2d8eaf28dbedef0a081a290f1a563762", "text": "(339.) The atomic theory, or the law of definite proportions, which is the same thing presented in a form divested of all hypothesis, after the laws of mechanics, is, perhaps, the most important which the study of nature has yet disclosed. The extreme simplicity which characterizes it, and which is itself an indication, not unequivocal, of its elevated rank in the scale of physical truths, had the effect of causing it to be announced at once by Mr. Dalton, in its most general terms, on the contemplation of a few instances[53], without passing through subordinate stages of painful inductive ascent by the intermedium of subordinate laws, such as, had the contrary course been pursued by him, would have been naturally preparatory to it, and such as would have led others to it by the prosecution of Wenzel’s and Richter’s researches, had they been duly attended to. This is, in fact, an example, and a most remarkable one, of the effect of that natural propensity to generalize and simplify (noticed in 171.), which, if it occasionally leads to over-hasty conclusions, limited or disproved by further experience, is yet the legitimate parent of many of our most valuable and soundest results. Instances like this, where great and, indeed, immeasurable steps in our knowledge of nature are made at once, and almost without intellectual effort, are well calculated to raise our hopes of the future progress of science, and, by pointing out the simplest and most obvious combinations as those which are actually found to be agreeable to the harmony of creation, to hold out the cheering prospect of difficulties diminishing as we advance, instead of thickening around us in increasing complexity.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00469", "bookId": 54897, "start": 484429, "end": 484975, "sha256": "2ace9f57ee41acdba74b256b2c2d7040d1d44b964f8c42198f81dfe44a1d911f", "text": "(340.) A consequence of this immediate presentation of the law of definite proportions in its most general form is, that its subordinate laws--those which limit its generality in particular cases, which diminish the number of combinations abstractly possible, and restrain the indiscriminate mixture of elements,--remain to be discovered. Some such limitations have, in fact, been traced to a certain extent, but by no means so far as the importance of the subject requires; and we have here abundant occupation for chemists for some time.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00470", "bookId": 54897, "start": 484979, "end": 486438, "sha256": "c63bc6237b098a063b8e3ee5b2c9de313b19019e420ea1a2e2fed2527f9499ee", "text": "(341.) The determination of the atomic weights of the chemical elements, like that of other standard physical data, with the utmost exactness, is in itself a branch of enquiry not only of the greatest importance, but of extreme difficulty. Independent of the general reasons for desiring accuracy in this respect, there is one peculiar to the subject. It has been suggested (by Dr. Prout), and strongly insisted on (by Dr. Thomson), that all the numbers representing these weights, constituting a scale of great extent, in which the extremes already known are in proportion to each other, as 1 to upwards of 200, are simple even multiples of the least of them. If this be really the case, it opens views of such importance as to justify any degree of labour and pains in the verification of the law as a purely inductive one. But in the actual state of chemical analysis, with all deference to such high authority, we confess it appears to us to stand in great need of further confirmation, since it seems doubtful whether such accuracy has yet been attained as to enable us to answer positively for a fraction not exceeding the three or four hundredth part of the whole quantity to be determined: at least the results of the first experimenters, obtained with the greatest care, differ often by a greater amount; and this degree of exactness, at least, would be required to verify the law satisfactorily in the higher parts of the scale.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00471", "bookId": 54897, "start": 486442, "end": 487545, "sha256": "4febb433b33af98eb7222a0a6fc4b156671fced7113a772eb3d4de085341225a", "text": "(342.) The mere agitation of such a question, however, points out a class of phenomena in physical science of a remote and singular kind, and of a very high and refined order, which could never become known but in an advanced state of science, not only practical, but theoretical,--we mean, such as consist in observed relations among the _data_ of physics, which show them to be quantities not _arbitrarily_ assumed, but depending on laws and causes which they may be the means of at length disclosing. A remarkable instance of such a relation is the curious law which Bode observed to obtain in the progression of the magnitudes of the several planetary orbits. This law was interrupted between Mars and Jupiter, so as to induce him to consider a planet as wanting in that interval;--a deficiency long afterwards strangely supplied by the discovery of _four_ new planets in that very interval, all of whose orbits conform in dimension to the law in question, within such moderate limits of error as may be due to causes independent of those on which the law itself ultimately rests.[54]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00472", "bookId": 54897, "start": 487549, "end": 489038, "sha256": "c1052d82c8777d96ac312886004a04d74265c1f798d57a854cc6ac8be9013821", "text": "(343.) Neither is it irrelevant to our subject to remark, that the progress which has been made in this department of chemistry, and the considerable exactness actually attainable in chemical analysis, have been owing, in great measure, to a circumstance which might at first have been hardly considered likely to exercise much influence on the progress of a science,--the discovery of platina. Without the resources placed at the ready disposal of chemists by this invaluable metal, it is difficult to conceive that the multitude of delicate analytical experiments which have been required to construct the fabric of existing knowledge could have ever been performed. This, among many such lessons, will teach us that the most important uses of natural objects are not those which offer themselves to us most obviously. The chief use of the moon for man’s immediate purposes remained unknown to him for five thousand years from his creation. And, since it cannot but be that innumerable and most important uses remain to be discovered among the materials and objects already known to us, as well as among those which the progress of science must hereafter disclose, we may hence conceive a well-grounded expectation, not only of constant increase in the physical resources of mankind, and the consequent improvement of their condition, but of continual accessions to our power of penetrating into the arcana of nature, and becoming acquainted with her highest laws.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00473", "bookId": 54897, "start": 489048, "end": 489056, "sha256": "44ae4da8b561d6af049a80675ce1cc6ec9f6a56262f691ff118931b5e325bf6e", "text": "CHAP. V.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00474", "bookId": 54897, "start": 489060, "end": 489096, "sha256": "9f92cdbf766f85b9a149adbd21bdb9df77349a83d4b174a23620d5e2ca3e0491", "text": "OF THE IMPONDERABLE FORMS OF MATTER.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00475", "bookId": 54897, "start": 489102, "end": 489109, "sha256": "5728252cf77437e5c511e094edf941ad7e01c2726b3b957035c994993d4eb989", "text": "_Heat._", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00476", "bookId": 54897, "start": 489113, "end": 489966, "sha256": "00198ad4d859e82241662b7d0ac12bea1821c93b15a583a53f1d8b79c3f697f5", "text": "(344.) One of the chief agents in chemistry, on whose proper application and management the success of a great number of its enquiries depends, and many of whose most important laws are disclosed to us by phenomena of a chemical nature, is HEAT. Although some of its effects are continually before our eyes as matters of the most common occurrence, insomuch that there is scarcely any process in the useful arts and manufactures which does not call for its intervention, and although, independent of this high utility, and the proportionate importance of a knowledge of its nature and laws, it presents in itself a subject of the most curious speculation; yet there is scarcely any physical agent of which we have so imperfect a knowledge, whose intimate nature is more hidden, or whose laws are of such delicate and difficult investigation.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00477", "bookId": 54897, "start": 489970, "end": 491746, "sha256": "aa661464915d1fbba3d5fbe92f8d82b2975e861b6aabbd0242d5043d24fa54d1", "text": "(345.) The word heat generally implies the sensation which we experience on approaching a fire; but, in the sense it carries in physics, it denotes the cause, whatever it be, of that sensation, and of all the other phenomena which arise on the application of fire, or of any other heating cause. We should be greatly deceived if we referred only to sensation as an indication of the presence of this cause. Many of those things which excite in our organs, and especially of those of taste, a sensation of heat, owe this property to chemical stimulants, and not at all to their being actually _hot_. This error of judgment has produced a corresponding confusion of language, and hence had actually at one period[55] crept into physical philosophy a great many illogical and absurd conclusions. Again, there are a number of chemical agents, which, from their corroding, blackening, and dissolving, or drying up the parts of some descriptions of bodies, and producing on them effects not generally unlike (though intrinsically very different from) those produced by heat, are said, in loose and vulgar language, to burn them; and this error has even become rooted into a prejudice, by the fact that some of these agents are capable of becoming actually and truly _hot_ during their action on moist substances, by reason of their combination with the water the latter contain. Thus, quicklime and oil of vitriol both exercise a powerful corrosive action on animal and vegetable substances, and both become violently hot by their combination with water. They are, therefore, set down in vulgar parlance as substances of a hot nature; whereas, in their relations to the physical cause of heat, they agree with the generality of bodies similarly constituted.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00478", "bookId": 54897, "start": 491750, "end": 491839, "sha256": "6fe41448e32e21af8592f22bae3c3975c0322c220acf10267579fbd957aa5368", "text": "(346.) The nature of heat has hitherto been chiefly studied under the general heads of--", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00479", "bookId": 54897, "start": 491845, "end": 491909, "sha256": "38a21194830b6aa6bdf9341786819a0bbdbafbb1833ef0d714519573a6b1b81f", "text": "1st, Its sources, or the phenomena which it usually accompanies.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00480", "bookId": 54897, "start": 491915, "end": 492163, "sha256": "d068b4bf4722cc532beb825c2c57d8252b01b077ebe6bcf8e3642cc871aba17f", "text": "2d, Its communication from its sources to substances capable of receiving it, and from these to others, with a view to discover the laws which regulate its distribution through space or through the bodies which occupy it.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00481", "bookId": 54897, "start": 492169, "end": 492361, "sha256": "6bff232be055d31c800822166d4ca1f01353b1ee53e49b3240d1ff5f19d22de8", "text": "3d, Its effects, on our senses, and on the bodies to which it is communicated in its various degrees of intensity, by which, means are afforded us of measuring these degrees.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00482", "bookId": 54897, "start": 492367, "end": 492592, "sha256": "fcf3c5cfca333bf1eb8ed7d9904e45a540f9474ad31be638230ad8a93eeeea42", "text": "4th, Its intimate relations to the atoms of matter, as exhibited in its capability of acquiring a latent state under certain circumstances, and of entering into something like chemical combinations.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00483", "bookId": 54897, "start": 492596, "end": 494968, "sha256": "ff83f21e34a4a1bd9aca045b5778db03115bb99175eba9aeb83b2e88feb06289", "text": "(347.) The most obvious sources of heat are, the sun, fire, animal life, fermentations, violent chemical actions of all kinds, friction, percussion, lightning, or the electric discharge, in whatever manner produced, the sudden condensation of air, and others, so numerous, and so varied, as to show the extensive and important part it has to perform in the economy of nature. The discoveries of chemists, however, have referred most of these to the general head of chemical combination. Thus, fire, or the combustion of inflammable bodies, is nothing more than a violent chemical action attending the combination of their ingredients with the oxygen of the air. Animal heat is, in like manner, referable to a process bearing no remote analogy to a slow combustion, by which a portion of carbon, an inflammable principle existing in the blood, is united with the oxygen of the air in respiration; and thus carried off from the system: fermentation is nothing more than a decomposition of chemical elements loosely united, and their re-union in a more permanent state of combination. The analogy between the sun and terrestrial fire is so natural as to have been chosen by Newton to exemplify the irresistible force of an inference derived from that principle. But the nature of the sun and the mode in which its wonderful supply of light and heat is maintained are involved in a mystery which every discovery that has been made either in chemistry or optics, so far from elucidating, seems only to render more profound. Friction as a source of heat is well known: we rub our hands to warm them, and we grease the axles of carriage-wheels to prevent their setting fire to the wood; an accident which, in spite of this precaution, does sometimes happen. But the effect of friction, as a means of producing heat with little or no consumption of materials, was not fully understood till made the subject of direct experiment by count Rumford, whose results appear to have established the extraordinary fact, that an unlimited supply of heat may be derived by friction from the same materials. Condensation, whether of air by pressure, or of metals by percussion, is another powerful source of heat. Thus, iron may be so dexterously hammered as to become red-hot, and the rapid condensation of a confined portion of air will set tinder on fire.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00484", "bookId": 54897, "start": 494972, "end": 495626, "sha256": "9c7c1294742f84bc3faae0ea9bd4e9ed92bef43aa117f3df113b719d16a41f45", "text": "(348.) The most violent heats known are produced by the concentration of the solar rays by burning glasses,--by the combustion of oxygen and hydrogen gases mixed in the exact proportion in which they combine to produce water,--and by the discharge of a continued and copious current of electricity through a small conductor. As these three sources of heat are independent of each other, and each capable of being brought into action in a very confined space, there seems no reason why they might not all three be applied at once at the same point, by which means, probably, effects would be produced infinitely surpassing any hitherto witnessed.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00485", "bookId": 54897, "start": 495630, "end": 496492, "sha256": "d258d94837025cd55775f2c3800f280363a8311d1f377382b9e6a875413d9d18", "text": "(349.) Heat is communicated either by _radiation_ between bodies at a distance, or by _conduction_ between bodies in contact, or between the contiguous parts of one and the same body. The laws of the radiation of heat have been studied with great attention, and have been found to present strong analogies with that of light in some points, and singular differences in others. Thus, the heat which accompanies the sun’s rays comports itself, in all respects, like light; being subject to similar laws of reflection, refraction, and even of polarization, as has been shown by Berard. Yet they are not identical with each other; Sir William Herschel having shown, by decisive experiments, verified by those of Sir H. Englefield, that there exist in a solar beam both rays of heat which are not luminous, and rays of light which have no heating power.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00486", "bookId": 54897, "start": 496496, "end": 497863, "sha256": "a20a505e2762d23d3305540d5fe2da5494e5e675d824e19294563272c83e8c8d", "text": "(350.) The heat, radiated by terrestrial fires, and by bodies _obscurely_ hot, by whatever means they have acquired their heat (even by exposure to the sun’s rays), differs very materially from solar heat in their power of penetrating transparent substances. This singular and important difference was first noticed by Mariotte, and afterwards made the subject of many curious and interesting experiments by Scheele, who found that terrestrial heat, or that radiated from fires or heated bodies, is intercepted and detained by glass or other transparent bodies, while solar heat is not; and that, being so detained, it heats them: which the latter, as it passes freely through them, is incapable of doing. The more recent researches of Delaroche, however, have shown that this detention is complete only when the temperature of the source of heat is low; but that, as that temperature is higher, a portion of the heat radiated acquires a power of penetrating glass; and that the quantity which does so bears continually a larger and larger proportion to the whole, as the heat of the radiant body is more intense. This discovery is very important, as it establishes a community of nature between solar and terrestrial heat; while at the same time it leads us to regard the actual temperature of the sun as far exceeding that of any earthly flame.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00487", "bookId": 54897, "start": 497867, "end": 499014, "sha256": "2e476bfe1d22ec2b3c34958426881136d012816349fa8a47eeb6db7421dbaed2", "text": "(351.) A variety of theories have been framed to account for these curious phenomena; but the subject stands rather in need of further elucidation from experiment, and is one which merits, and will probably amply repay, the labours of those who may hereafter devote their attention to it. The theory of the radiation of heat, in general, which seems to agree best with the known phenomena, is that of M. Prevost, who considers all bodies as constantly radiating out heat in all directions, and receiving it by a similar means of communication from others, and thus tending, in any space filled, wholly or in part, with bodies at various temperatures, to establish an equilibrium or equality of heat in all parts. The application of this idea to the explanation of the phenomenon of dew we have already seen (see 167.). The laws of such radiation, under various circumstances, have been lately investigated in a beautiful series of experiments on the cooling of bodies by their own radiation in vacuo, by Messrs. Dulong and Petit, which offer some of the best examples in science of the inductive investigation of quantitative laws.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00488", "bookId": 54897, "start": 499018, "end": 500708, "sha256": "eaa046677889a0d0c04556c38e051cf1f0816514b037e82eca1e6b37f0a5533d", "text": "(352.) The communication of heat between bodies in contact, or between the different parts of the same body, is performed by a process called conduction. It is, in fact, only a particular case of radiation, as has been explained above (217.); but a case _so_ particular as to require a separate and independent investigation of its laws. The most important consideration introduced into the enquiry by this peculiarity is that of time. The communication of heat by conduction is performed, for the most part, with extreme slowness, while that performed by direct radiation is probably not less rapid than the propagation of light itself. The analysis of the delicate and difficult points which arise in the investigation of this subject in its reduction to direct geometrical treatment has been executed with admirable success by the late Baron Fourrier, whose recent lamented death has deprived science of an ornament it could ill spare, thinned as its ranks have been within the last few years. This acute philosopher and profound mathematician has developed, in a series of elaborate memoirs presented to the French Institute, the laws of the communication of heat through the interior of solid masses, placed under the influence of any external heating and cooling causes, and has in particular applied his results to the conditions on which the maintenance of the actual observed temperature on the earth’s surface depends; to the possible influence of a supposed central heat on our climates; and to the determination of the actual amount of the heat, derived to us from the sun, or at least that portion of it on which the difference of the seasons depends.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00489", "bookId": 54897, "start": 500712, "end": 501424, "sha256": "534a5503624d19ae765a50d6582b555bc75d7c412eb854dd3e7d49746771d8ee", "text": "(353.) The principal effects of heat are the sensations of warmth or cold consequent on its entry or egress into or out of our bodies; the dilatation it causes in the dimensions of all substances in which it is accumulated; the changes of state it produces in the melting of solids, and the conversion of them and of liquids into vapour; and the chemical changes it performs by actual decompositions effected in the intimate molecules of various substances, especially those of which vegetables and animals are composed; to which we may add, the production of electric phenomena under certain circumstances in the contact of metals, and the developement of electric polarity in crystallised substances.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00490", "bookId": 54897, "start": 501428, "end": 503343, "sha256": "a2a95191dc4bd793f28078906ba68589b0b871cb3e8e5c4048045365af999f0d", "text": "(354.) Cold has been considered by some as a positive quality, the effect of a cause antagonist to that of heat; but this idea seems now (with perhaps a single exception) to be universally abandoned. The sensation of cold is as easily explicable by the passage of heat outwards through the surface of the body as that of heat by its ingress from without; and the experiments cited in proof of a radiation of cold are all perfectly explained by Prevost’s theory of reciprocal interchange. It is remarkable, however, how very limited our means of producing intense cold are, compared with those we possess of effecting the accumulation of heat in bodies. This is one of the strongest arguments adducible in favour of the doctrines of those who maintain the possibility of exhausting the heat of a body altogether, and leaving it in a state absolutely devoid of it. But we ought to consider, that the known methods of generating heat chiefly turn on the production of chemical combinations: we may easily conceive, therefore, that, to obtain equally powerful corresponding frigorific effects, we ought to possess the means of effecting a disunion equally extensive and rapid between such elements, actually combined, as have already produced heat by their union. This, however, we can only accomplish by engaging them in combinations still more energetic, that is to say, in which we may reasonably expect more heat to be produced by the new combination than would be destroyed or abstracted by the proposed decomposition. Chemistry, however, (unaided by electric agency,) affords no means of suddenly breaking the union of two elements, and presenting _both_ in an uncombined state. A certain analogy to such disunion, however, and its consequences, may be traced in the sudden expansion of condensed gases from a liquid state into vapour, which is the most powerful source of cold known.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00491", "bookId": 54897, "start": 503347, "end": 504503, "sha256": "0b39cca3d6fbb8c9617ede97d9c62f7a8792deeb6d993114620ace1e1cf1971d", "text": "(355.) The dilatation of bodies by heat forms the subject of that branch of science called pyrometry. There is no body but is capable of being penetrated by heat, though some with greater, others with less rapidity; and being so penetrated, all bodies (with a very few exceptions, and those depending on very peculiar circumstances,) are dilated by it in bulk, though with a great diversity in the amount of dilatation produced by the same degree of heat. Of the several forms of natural bodies, gases and vapours are observed to be most dilatable; liquids next, and solids least of all. The dilatation of solids has been made a subject of repeated and careful measurement by several experimenters; among whom, Smeaton, Lavoisier, and Laplace, are the principal. The remarkable discovery of the unequal dilatation of crystallised bodies by Mitscherlich has already been spoken of. (266.) That of gases and vapours was examined about the same time by Dalton and Gay-Lussac, who both arrived independently at the conclusion of an equal dilatability subsisting in them all, which constitutes one of the most remarkable points in their history.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00492", "bookId": 54897, "start": 504507, "end": 506152, "sha256": "d8b005f4b113021b8307e86c5711dafe924f3b2fed8a6572e942cb0e3d13ef23", "text": "(356.) The dilatation of air by heat affords, perhaps, the most unexceptionable means known of measuring degrees of heat. The thermometer, as originally constructed by Cornelius Drebell, was an air thermometer. Those now in common use measure accessions of heat not by the degree of dilatation of air but of mercury. It has been shown, by the researches of Dulong and Petit, that its indications coincide exactly with that of the air-thermometer in moderate temperatures; though at very elevated ones they exhibit a sensible, and even considerable, deviation. By this instrument, which owes its present convenience and utility to the happy idea of Newton, who first thought of fixing determinate points on its scale, we are enabled to estimate, or at least identify, the degrees of heat; and thereby to investigate with accuracy the laws of its communication and its other properties. Were we sure that equal additions of heat produced equal increments of dimension in any substance, the indications of a thermometer would afford a true and secure _measure_ of the quantity present; but this is so far from being the case, that we are nearly in total ignorance on this important point; a circumstance which throws the greatest difficulty in the way of all theoretical reasoning, and even of experimental enquiry. The laws of the dilatation of liquids, in consequence of this deficiency of necessary preliminary knowledge, are still involved in great obscurity, notwithstanding the pains which have been bestowed on them by the elaborate experiments and calculations of Gilpin, Blagden, Deluc, Dalton, Gay-Lussac, and Biot.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00493", "bookId": 54897, "start": 506156, "end": 507058, "sha256": "df398f2bf7a7e26f04e63c136a284a830d98db12f048b21f1fabbe7c62ee11aa", "text": "(357.) The most striking and important of the effects of heat consist, however, in the liquefaction of solid substances, and the conversion of the liquids so produced into vapour. There is no solid substance known which, by a sufficiently intense heat, may not be melted, and finally dissipated in vapour; and this analogy is so extensive and cogent, that we cannot but suppose that all those bodies which are liquid under ordinary circumstances, owe their liquidity to heat, and would freeze or become solid if their heat could be sufficiently reduced. In many we see this to be the case in ordinary winters; for some, severe frosts are requisite; others freeze only with the most intense artificial colds; and some have hitherto resisted all our endeavours; yet the number of these last is few, and they will probably cease to be exceptions as our means of producing cold become enlarged.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00494", "bookId": 54897, "start": 507062, "end": 507955, "sha256": "96df791f66c7222d3d65cdb202d1d5037e6e03e0e65d86548fd5f7a5f23562f5", "text": "(358.) A similar analogy leads us to conclude that all aëriform fluids are merely liquids kept in the state of vapour by heat. Many of them have been actually condensed into the liquid state by cold accompanied with violent pressure; and as our means of applying these causes of condensation have improved, more and more refractory ones have successively yielded. Hence we are fairly entitled to extend our conclusion to those which we have not yet been able to succeed with; and thus we are led to regard it as a general fact, that the liquid and aëriform or vaporous states are entirely dependent on _heat_; that were it not for this cause, there would be nothing but solids in nature; and that, on the other hand, nothing but a sufficient intensity of heat is requisite to destroy the cohesion of every substance, and reduce all bodies, first to liquids, and then into vapour.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00495", "bookId": 54897, "start": 507959, "end": 508913, "sha256": "e0f738a0bae89f70e6dbfa2cf9130d9121bfd361ea626c89a977483f55723df0", "text": "(359.) But solids, themselves, by the abstraction of heat shrink in dimension, and at the same time become harder, and more brittle; yielding less to pressure, and permitting less separation between their parts by tension. These facts, coupled with the greater compressibility of liquids, and the still greater of gases, strongly induce us to believe that it is heat, and heat alone, which holds the particles of all bodies at that distance from each other which is necessary to allow of compression; which in fact gives them their elasticity, and acts as the antagonist force to their mutual attraction, which would otherwise draw them into actual contact, and retain them in a state of absolute immobility and impenetrability. Thus we learn to regard heat as one of the great maintaining powers of the universe, and to attach to all its laws and relations a degree of importance which may justly entitle them to the most assiduous enquiry.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00496", "bookId": 54897, "start": 508917, "end": 509282, "sha256": "a75d062a672ace0464fc8f4549def45983e3f6625c815278c539056ee32c3653", "text": "(360.) It was first ascertained by Dr. Black that when heat produces the liquefaction of a solid, or the conversion of a liquid into vapour, the liquid or the vapour resulting is no _hotter_ than the solid or liquid from which it was produced, though a great deal of heat has been expended in producing this effect, and has actually entered into the substance.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00497", "bookId": 54897, "start": 509286, "end": 509975, "sha256": "adccf936623448dbcf8a7978d26f93cdd2c63079d085c299f82fdb05096ca6f9", "text": "(361.) Hence he drew the conclusion that it has become _latent_, and continues to exist in the product, maintaining it in its new state, without increasing its temperature. He further proved, that when the vapour condenses, or the liquid freezes, this latent heat is again given out from it. This great discovery, with its natural and hardly less important concomitant, that of the difference of specific heats in different bodies, or the different quantities of heat they require to raise their temperature equally, are the chief reasons for regarding heat as a material substance in a more decided manner than light, with which in its radiant state it holds so close an analogy.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00498", "bookId": 54897, "start": 509979, "end": 511567, "sha256": "fd885b474ee4d64bc68bec5bc097d9d75cf4292c6f14f836703bdc1a0c9cf817", "text": "(362.) The subject of latent heat has been far less attentively studied than its great practical importance would appear to demand, when we consider that it is to this part of physical science that the theory of the steam-engine is mainly referable, and that material improvements may not unreasonably be expected in that wonderful instrument, from a more extended knowledge than we possess of the latent heats of different vapours. This is not the case, however, with the subject of specific heat, which was followed up immediately after its first promulgation with diligence by Irvine; and, after a brief interval, by Lavoisier and Laplace, as well as by our countryman Crawfurd, who determined the specific heats of many substances, both solid and liquid. After a considerable period of inactivity, the subject was again resumed by Delaroche and Berard, and subsequently by Dulong and Petit: the result of whose investigations has been the inductive establishment of one of those simple and elegant physical laws which carry with them, if not their own evidence, at least their own recommendation to our belief, as being in unison with every thing we know of the harmony of nature. The law to which we allude is this:--that the atoms of all the simple chemical elements have exactly the same capacity for heat, or are all equally heated or cooled by equal accessions or abstractions of heat. It is only among laws like this that we can expect to find a clew capable of guiding us to a knowledge of the true nature of heat, and its relations to ponderable matter.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00499", "bookId": 54897, "start": 511573, "end": 511601, "sha256": "c42998d42b55d14bb77d19395c392cf524998fa726d19b4cad27572822975e41", "text": "_Magnetism and Electricity._", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00500", "bookId": 54897, "start": 511605, "end": 513183, "sha256": "0d097cc2b2c14b07c5d74d9076477397e0378ffb9172338a61f1bbf13df6705e", "text": "(363.) These two subjects, which had long maintained a distinct existence, and been studied as separate branches of science, are at length effectually blended. This is, perhaps, the most satisfactory result which the experimental sciences have ever yet attained. All the phenomena of magnetic polarity, attraction, and repulsion, have at length been resolved into one general fact, that two currents of electricity, moving in the same direction repel, and in contrary directions attract, each other. The phenomena of the communication of magnetism and what is called its induced state, alone remain unaccounted for; but the interesting theory which has been developed by M. Ampere, under the name of Electro-dynamics, holds out a hope that this difficulty will also in its turn give way, and the whole subject be at length completely merged, as far as the consideration of the acting causes goes, in the more general one of electricity. This, however, does not prevent magnetism from maintaining its separate importance as a department of physical enquiry, having its own peculiar laws and relations of the highest practical interest, which are capable of being studied quite apart from all consideration of its electrical origin. And not only so, but to study them with advantage, we must proceed as if that origin were totally unknown, and, at least up to a certain point, and that a considerably advanced one, conduct our enquiries into the subject on the same inductive principles as if this branch of physics were absolutely independent of all others.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00501", "bookId": 54897, "start": 513187, "end": 515733, "sha256": "726e5cf07ff9ae53fe254dcd47a6c8776d7e4db2a66d4b6a9d50185569e416bc", "text": "(364.) Iron, and its oxides and alloys, were for a long time the only substances considered susceptible of magnetism. The loadstone was even one of the examples produced by Bacon of that class of physical instances to which he applies the term “Instantiæ monodicæ”--_singular instances_. And the history of magnetism affords a beautiful comment on his remark on instances of this sort. “Nor should our enquiries,” he observes, “into their nature be broken off, till the properties and qualities found in such things as may be esteemed wonders in nature are reduced and comprehended under some certain law; so that all irregularity or singularity may be found to depend upon some common form, and the wonder only rest in the exact differences, degrees, or extraordinary concurrence, and not in the species itself.” The discovery of the magnetism of nickel, which though inferior to that of iron, is still considerable; that of cobalt, yet feebler, and that of titanium, which is only barely perceptible, have effectually broken down the imaginary limit between iron and the other materials of the world, and established the existence of that general law of continuity which it is one chief business of philosophy to trace throughout nature. The more recent discoveries of M. Arago (mentioned in 160.) have completed this generalization, by showing that there is no substance but which, under proper circumstances, is capable of exhibiting unequivocal signs of the magnetic virtue. And to obliterate all traces of that line of separation which was once so broad, we are now enabled, by the great discovery of Oërsted, to communicate at and during pleasure to a coiled wire of any metal indifferently all the properties of a magnet;--its attraction, repulsion, and polarity; and _that_ even in a more intense degree than was previously thought to be possible in the best natural magnets. In short, in this case, and in this case only, perhaps, in science, have we arrived at that point which Bacon seems to have understood by the discovery of “forms.” “The _form_ of any nature,” says he, “is such, that where it is, the given nature must infallibly be. The form, therefore, is perpetually present when that nature is present; ascertains it universally, and accompanies it every where. Again, this form is such, that when removed, the given nature infallibly vanishes. Lastly, a true form is such as can deduce a given nature from some essential property, which resides in many things.”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00502", "bookId": 54897, "start": 515737, "end": 517602, "sha256": "ee16fdad26618851d945391115ec60c64a3cc93a86fc32c161621e80ba5a8fea", "text": "(365.) Magnetism is remarkable in another important point of view. It offers a prominent, or “_glaring instance_” of that quality in nature which is termed _polarity_ (267.), and that under circumstances which peculiarly adapt it for the study of this quality. It does not appear that the ancients had any knowledge of this property of the magnet, though its attraction of iron was well known to them. The first mention of it in modern times cannot be traced earlier than 1180, though it was probably known to the Chinese before that time. The polarity of the magnet consists in this, that if suspended freely, one part of it will invariably direct itself towards a certain point in the horizon, the other towards the opposite point; and that, if two magnets, so suspended, be brought near each other, there will take place a mutual action, in consequence of which, the positions of both will be disturbed, in the same manner as would happen if the corresponding parts of each repelled, and those oppositely directed attracted, each other; and by properly varying the experiment, it is found that they really do so. If a small magnet, freely suspended, be brought into the neighbourhood of a larger one, it will take a position depending on the position of the _poles_ of the larger one, with respect to its point of suspension. And it has been ascertained that these and all other phenomena exhibited by magnets in their mutual attractions and repulsions are explicable on the supposition of two forces or virtues lodged in the particles of the magnets, the one predominating at one end, the other at the other; and such that each particle shall attract those in which the _opposite_ virtue to its own prevails, and repel those in which a _similar_ one resides with a force proportional to the inverse square of their mutual distance.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00503", "bookId": 54897, "start": 517606, "end": 520224, "sha256": "0a2149f260b75d6c37384dfc6ee73ae539244c86e16ef5e57a2f92b0149e3b99", "text": "(366.) The direction in which a magnetic bar, or needle of steel, freely suspended, places itself, has been ascertained to be different at different points of the earth’s surface. In some places it points exactly north and south, in others it deviates from this direction more or less, and at some actually stands at right angles to it. This remarkable phenomenon, which is called the variation of the needle, and which was discovered by Sebastian Cabot in the year 1500, is accompanied with another called the dip, noticed by Robert Norman in 1576. It consists in a tendency of a needle, nicely balanced on its centre, when unmagnetized, to _dip_ or point downwards when rendered magnetic, towards a point below the horizon, and situated within the earth. By tracing the variation and dip over the whole surface of the globe, it has been found that these phenomena take place as they would do if the earth itself were a great magnet, having its poles deeply situated below the surface,--and, what is very remarkable, possessing a slow motion within it, in consequence of which neither the variation nor dip remain constantly the same at the same place. The laws of this motion are at present unknown; but the discovery of electro-magnetism, by rendering it almost certain that the earth’s magnetism is merely an effect of the continual circulation of great quantities of electricity round it, in a direction generally corresponding with that of its rotation, have dissipated the greater part of the mystery which hung over these phenomena; since a variety of causes, both geological and others, may be imagined which may produce considerable deviations in the intensity, and partial ones in the direction, of such electric currents. The unequal distribution of land and sea in the two hemispheres, by affecting the operation of the sun’s heat in producing evaporation from the latter, which is probably one of the great sources of terrestrial electricity, may easily be conceived to modify the general tendency of such currents, and to produce irregularities in them, which may render a satisfactory account of whatever still appears anomalous in the phenomena of terrestrial magnetism. This branch of science thus becomes connected, on a great scale, with that of meteorology, one of the most complicated and difficult, but at the same time interesting, subjects of physical research; one, however, which has of late begun to be studied with a diligence which promises the speedy disclosure of relations and laws of which at present we can form but a very imperfect notion.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00504", "bookId": 54897, "start": 520228, "end": 521189, "sha256": "07ff745512da64a336417134fcaa5163dfaba82dbf97bc87568a2a7364a42510", "text": "(367.) The communication of magnetism from the earth to a magnetic body, or from one magnetic body to another, is performed by a process to which the name of induction has been given, and the laws and properties of such induced magnetism have been studied with much perseverance and success,--practically, by Gilbert, Boyle, Knight, Whiston, Cavallo, Canton, Duhamel, Rittenhouse, Scoresby, and others; and theoretically, by Æpinus, Coulomb, and Poisson, and in our own country by Messrs. Barlow and Christie, who have investigated with great care the curious phenomena which take place when masses of iron are presented successively, in different positions, by rotation on an axis, to the influence of the earth’s magnetism. The magnetism of crystallized bodies (partly from the extreme rarity of such as are susceptible of any considerable magnetic virtue) has not hitherto been at all examined, but would probably afford very curious results.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00505", "bookId": 54897, "start": 521193, "end": 522859, "sha256": "84bdf83d9dce7f38b2acfc923fa06cac06ecdaaa25c501cd0e2238abcc928dbf", "text": "(368.) To electricity the views of the physical enquirer now turn from almost every quarter, as to one of those universal powers which Nature seems to employ in her most important and secret operations. This wonderful agent, which we see in intense activity in lightning, and in a feebler and more diffused form traversing the upper regions of the atmosphere in the northern lights, is present, probably in immense abundance, in every form of matter which surrounds us, but becomes sensible only when disturbed by excitements of peculiar kinds. The most effectual of these is friction, which we have already observed to be a powerful source of heat. Everybody is familiar with the crackling sparks which fly from a cat’s back when stroked. These, by proper management, may be accumulated in bodies suitably disposed to receive them, and, although then no longer visible, give evidence of their existence by the exhibition of a vast variety of extraordinary phenomena,--producing attractions and repulsions in bodies at a distance,--admitting of being transferred by contact, or by sudden and violent transilience of the interval of separation, from one body to another, under the form of sparks and flashes;--traversing with perfect facility the substance of the densest metals, and a variety of other bodies called conductors, but being detained by others, such as glass, and especially _air_, which are thence called non-conductors,--producing painful shocks and convulsive motions, and even death itself if in sufficient quantity, in animals through which they pass, and finally imitating, on a small scale, all the effects of lightning.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00506", "bookId": 54897, "start": 522863, "end": 525321, "sha256": "9dc8b513698cef36e718ab9b422b2de76d1276e0c4ca99399dae557f0e3d30e5", "text": "(369.) The study of these phenomena and their laws until a comparatively recent period occupied the entire attention of electricians, and constituted the whole of the science of electricity. It appears, as the result of their enquiries, that all the phenomena in question are explicable on the supposition that electricity consists in a rare, subtle, and highly elastic fluid, which in its tendency to expand and diffuse itself pervades with more or less facility the substance of conductors, but is obstructed and detained from expansion more or less completely by non-conductors. It is supposed, moreover, that this electric fluid possesses a power of attraction for the particles of all ponderable matter, together with that of a repulsion for particles of its own kind. Whether it has weight, or is rather to be regarded as a species of matter distinct from that of which ponderable bodies consist, is a question of such delicacy, that no direct experiments have yet enabled us to decide it; but at all events its _inertia_ compared with its elastic force must be conceived excessively small, so that it is to be regarded as a fluid in the highest degree _active_, obeying every impulse, internal or external, with the greatest promptitude; in short, a fluid whose energies can only be compared with those of the ethereal medium by which, in the undulatory doctrine, light is supposed to be conveyed. The properties of hydrogen gas compared with those of the denser aëriform fluids will, in some slight degree, aid our conception of the excessive mobility and penetrating activity of a fluid so constituted. Electricity, however, must be regarded as differing in some remarkable points from all those fluids to which we have hitherto been accustomed to apply the epithet elastic, such as air, gases, and vapours. In these, the repulsive force of the particles on which their elasticity depends is considered as extending only to very small distances, so as to affect only those in the immediate vicinity of each other, while their attractive power, by which they obey the general gravitation of all matter, extends to any distance. In electricity, on the other hand, the very reverse must be admitted. The force by which its particles repel each other extends to great distances, while its force of adhesion to ponderable matter must be regarded as limited in its extent to such minute intervals as escape observation.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00507", "bookId": 54897, "start": 525325, "end": 528315, "sha256": "afc7ff9ee227caad865cbcbecb70d92292df373c590a0e6a375f0e9fa6d8ae2e", "text": "(370.) The conception of a single fluid of this kind, which when accumulated in excess in bodies tends constantly to escape, and seek a restoration of equilibrium by communicating itself to any others where there may be a deficiency, is that which occurs most naturally to the mind, and was accordingly maintained by Franklin, to whom the science of electricity is under great obligations for those decisive experiments which informed us respecting the true nature of lightning. The same theory was afterwards advocated by Æpinus, who first showed how the laws of equilibrium of such a fluid might be reduced to strict mathematical investigation. But there are phenomena accompanying its transfer from body to body and the state of equilibrium it affects under various circumstances, which appear to require the admission of _two distinct fluids_ antagonist to each other, each attracting the other, and repelling itself; but each, alike, susceptible of adhesion to material substances, and of transfer more or less rapid from particle to particle of them. These fluids in the natural undisturbed state are conceived to exist in a state of combination and mutual saturation; but this combination may be broken, and either of them separately accumulated in a body to any amount without the other, provided its escape be properly obstructed by surrounding it with non-conductors. When so accumulated, its repulsion for its own kind and attraction of the opposite species in neighbouring bodies tends to disturb the natural equilibrium of the two fluids present in them, and to produce phenomena of a peculiar description, which are termed _induced_ electricity. Curious and artificial as this theory may appear, there has hitherto been produced no phenomenon of which it will not afford at least a plausible, and in by far the majority of cases a very satisfactory, explanation. It has one character which is extremely valuable in any theory, that of admitting the application of strict mathematical reasoning to the conclusions we would draw from it. Without this, indeed, it is scarcely possible that any theory should ever be fairly brought to the test by a comparison with facts. Accordingly, the mathematical theory of electrical equilibrium, and the laws of the distribution of the electric fluids over the surfaces of bodies in which they are accumulated, have been made the subject of elaborate geometrical investigation by the most expert mathematicians, and have attained a degree of extent and elegance which places this branch of science in a very high rank in the scale of mathematico-physical enquiry. These researches are grounded on the assumption of a law of attraction and repulsion similar to those of gravity and magnetism, and which by the general accordance of the results with facts, as well as by experiments instituted for the express purpose of ascertaining the laws in question, are regarded as sufficiently demonstrated.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00508", "bookId": 54897, "start": 528319, "end": 528889, "sha256": "f311393fbd3a430cec06fb7e5fc42b11bafd7008de1e96957ec2180cf2ffc75b", "text": "(371.) The most obscure part of the subject is no doubt the original mode of disturbance of electrical equilibrium, by which electricity is excited in the first instance, either by friction or by any other of those causes which have been ascertained to produce such an effect: analogies, it is true, are not wanting[56]; but it must be allowed that hitherto nothing decisive has been offered on the subject; and that conjectural modes of action have in this instance too often usurped the place of those to which a careful examination of facts alone can lead us.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00509", "bookId": 54897, "start": 528893, "end": 530887, "sha256": "692cd0c14d1fd35f6b4fc4c0bae5efbf7b62a8566b512824904456423397acb0", "text": "(372.) Philosophers had long been familiar with the effects of electricity above referred to, and with those which it produces in its sudden and violent transfer from one body to another, in rending and shattering the parts of the substances through which it passes, and where in great quantity, producing all the effect of intense heat, igniting, fusing, and volatilizing metals, and setting fire to inflammable bodies; even its occasional influence in destroying or altering the polarity of the magnetic needle had been noticed: but as heat was known to be produced by mechanical violence, and as magnetism was also known to be greatly affected by the same cause, these effects were referred rather to that cause than to any thing in the peculiar nature of the electric matter, and regarded rather as an indirect consequence of its mode of action than as connected with its intimate nature. In short, electricity seemed destined to furnish another in addition to many instances of subjects insulated from the rest of philosophy, and capable of being studied only in its own internal relations, when the great discoveries of Galvani and Volta placed a new power at the command of the experimenter, by whose means those effects which had before been crowded within an inappreciable instant could be developed in detail and studied at leisure; and those forces which had previously exhibited themselves only in a state of uncontrollable intensity were tamed down, as it were, and made to distribute their efficacy over an indefinite time, and to regulate their action at the will of the operator. It was then soon ascertained that electricity in the act of its passage along conductors, produces a variety of wonderful effects, which had never been previously suspected; and these of such a nature, as to afford points of contact with several other branches of physical enquiry, and to throw new and unexpected lights on some of the most obscure operations of nature.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00510", "bookId": 54897, "start": 530891, "end": 533557, "sha256": "89f04885c85ba44ec6df16b4db9ad913dfcb691e425c630d75efb5003634160d", "text": "(373.) The history of this grand discovery affords a fine illustration of the advantage to be derived in physical enquiry from a close and careful attention to any phenomenon, however apparently trifling, which may at the moment of observation appear inexplicable on received principles. The convulsive motions of a dead frog in the neighbourhood of an electric discharge, which originally drew Galvani’s attention to the subject, had been noticed by others nearly a century before his time, but attracted no further remark than as indicating a peculiar sensibility to electrical excitement depending on that remnant of vitality which is not extinguished in the organic frame of an animal by the deprivation of actual life. Galvani was not so satisfied. He analysed the phenomenon; and in investigating all the circumstances connected with it was led to the observation of a peculiar electrical excitement which took place when a circuit was formed of three distinct parts, a muscle, a nerve, and a metallic conductor, each placed in contact with the other two, and which was manifested by a convulsive motion produced in the muscle. To this phenomenon he gave the name of animal electricity, an unfortunate epithet, since it tended to restrict enquiry into its nature to the class of phenomena in which it first became apparent. But this circumstance, which in a less enquiring age of science might have exercised a fatal influence on the progress of knowledge, proved happily no obstacle to the further developement of its principles, the subject being immediately taken up with a kind of prophetic ardour by Volta, who at once generalized the phenomena, rejecting the physiological considerations introduced by Galvani, as foreign to the enquiry, and regarding the contraction of the muscles as merely a delicate means of detecting the production of electrical excitements too feeble to be rendered sensible by any other means. It was thus that he arrived at the knowledge of a general fact, that of the disturbance of electrical equilibrium by the mere contact of different bodies, and the circulation of a current of electricity in one constant direction, through a circuit composed of three different conductors. To increase the intensity of the very minute and delicate effect thus observed became his next aim, nor did his enquiry terminate till it had placed him in possession of that most wonderful of all human inventions, the pile which bears his name, through the medium of a series of well conducted and logically combined experiments, which has rarely, if ever, been surpassed in the annals of physical research.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00511", "bookId": 54897, "start": 533561, "end": 535105, "sha256": "158d8eebb9d0be6d28d848c6c83de9529bda000a4ccd2f6301a193232563d150", "text": "(374.) Though the original pile of Volta was feeble compared to those gigantic combinations which were afterwards produced, it sufficed, however, to exhibit electricity under a very different aspect from any thing which had gone before, and to bring into view those peculiar modifications in its action which Dr. Wollaston was the first to render a satisfactory account of, by referring them to an increase of _quantity_, accompanied with a diminution of _intensity_ in the supply afforded. The discovery had not long been made public, and the instrument in the hands of chemists and electricians, before it was ascertained that the electric current, transmitted by it through conducting liquids, produces in them chemical decompositions. This capital discovery appears to have been made, in the first instance, by Messrs. Nicholson and Carlisle, who observed the decomposition of water so produced. It was speedily followed up by the still more important one of Berzelius and Hisinger, who ascertained it as a general law, that, in all the decompositions so effected, the acids and oxygen become transferred to, and accumulated around, the positive,--and hydrogen, metals, and alkalies round the negative, pole of a Voltaic circuit; being transferred in an invisible, and, as it were, a latent or torpid state, by the action of the electric current, through considerable spaces, and even through large quantities of water or other liquids, again to re-appear with all their properties at their appropriate resting-places.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00512", "bookId": 54897, "start": 535109, "end": 536263, "sha256": "7da82ce2e4e1f1970bb5f9816ebf3929a5c44f8c47af908f9f646e0b235a2271", "text": "(375.) It was in this state of things that the subject was taken up by Davy, who, seeing that the strongest chemical affinities were thus readily subverted by the decomposing action of the pile, conceived the happy idea of bringing to bear the intense power of the enormous batteries of the Royal Institution on those substances which, though strongly suspected to be compounds, had resisted all attempts to decompose them--the alkalies and earths. They yielded to the force applied, and a total revolution was thus effected in chemistry; not so much by the introduction of the new elements thus brought to light, as by the mode of conceiving the nature of chemical affinity, which from that time has been regarded (as Davy broadly laid it down, in a theory which was readily adopted by the most eminent chemists, and by none more readily than by Berzelius himself,) as entirely due to electric attractions and repulsions, those bodies combining most intimately whose particles are habitually in a state of the most powerful electrical antagonism, and dispossessing each other, according to the amount of their difference in this respect.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00513", "bookId": 54897, "start": 536267, "end": 538004, "sha256": "883c2a3aa67cea9d60aa4d9f2d2871ca1c7f2bfb2b8864d06440388d0d6314c2", "text": "(376.) The connection of magnetism and electricity had long been suspected, and innumerable fruitless trials had been made to determine, in the affirmative or negative, the question of such connection. The phenomena of many crystallized minerals which become electric by heat, and develope opposite electric poles at their two extremities, offered an analogy so striking to the polarity of the magnet, that it seemed hardly possible to doubt a closer connection of the two powers. The developement of a similar polarity in the Voltaic pile pointed strongly to the same conclusion; and experiments had even been made with a view to ascertain whether a pile in a state of excitement might not manifest a disposition to place itself in the magnetic meridian; but the essential condition had been omitted, that of allowing the pile to discharge itself freely, a condition which assuredly never would have occurred of itself to any experimenter. Of all the philosophers who had speculated on this subject, none had so pertinaciously adhered to the idea of a necessary connection between the phenomena as Oërsted. Baffled often, he returned to the attack; and his perseverance was at length rewarded by the complete disclosure of the wonderful phenomena of electro-magnetism. There is something in this which reminds us of the obstinate adherence of Columbus to his notion of the necessary existence of the New World; and the whole history of this beautiful discovery may serve to teach us reliance on those general analogies and parallels between great branches of science by which one strongly reminds us of another, though no direct connection appears; as an indication not to be neglected of a community of origin.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00514", "bookId": 54897, "start": 538008, "end": 538785, "sha256": "c256d1c10d6733abd0a2b18aa8642e625fe12de1b71a2c56c2f2597d50dd46de", "text": "(377.) It is highly probable that we are still ignorant of many interesting features in electrical science, which the study of the Voltaic circuit will one day disclose. The violent mechanical effects produced by it on mercury, placed under conducting liquids which have been referred by Professor Erman to a modified form of capillary attraction, but which a careful and extended view of the phenomena have led others[57] to regard in a very different light, as pointing out a primary action of a dynamical rather than a statical character, deserve, in this point of view, a further investigation; and the curious relations of electricity to heat, as exhibited in the phenomena of what has been called thermo-electricity, promise an ample supply of new information.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00515", "bookId": 54897, "start": 538789, "end": 540495, "sha256": "333883303e28e5f06facd480c35c6084686d83781107a1fd1f53dd4ad477e857", "text": "(378.) Among the remarkable effects of electricity disclosed by the researches of Galvani and Volta, perhaps the most so consisted in its influence on the nervous system of animals. The origin of muscular motion is one of those profound mysteries of nature which we can scarcely venture to hope will ever be fully explained. Physiologists, however, had long entertained a general conception of the conveyance of some subtle fluid or spirit from the brain to the muscles of animals along the nerves; and the discovery of the rapid transmission of electricity along conductors, with the violent effects produced by shocks, transmitted through the body, on the nervous system, would very naturally lead to the idea that this nervous fluid, if it had any real existence, might be no other than the electrical. But until the discoveries of Galvani and Volta, this could only be looked upon as a vague conjecture. The character of a _vera causa_ was wanting to give it any degree of rational plausibility, since no reason could be imagined for the disturbance of the electrical equilibrium in the animal frame, composed as it is entirely of conductors, or rather, it seemed contrary to the then known laws of electrical communication to suppose any such. Yet one strange and surprising phenomenon might be adduced indicative of the possibility of such disturbance, viz. the powerful shock given by the torpedo and other fishes of the same kind, which presented so many analogies with those arising from electricity, that they could hardly be referred to a different source, though _besides_ the shock neither spark nor any other indication of electrical tension could be detected in them.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00516", "bookId": 54897, "start": 540499, "end": 542059, "sha256": "7f31545bbbdb9c777324367dbfd0c87363f22c64665b1e8f3f60345276b249cb", "text": "(379.) The benumbing effect of the torpedo had been ascertained to depend on certain singularly constructed organs composed of membranous columns, filled from end to end with laminæ, separated from each other by a fluid: but of its mode of action no satisfactory account could be given; nor was there any thing in its construction, and still less in the nature of its materials, to give the least ground for supposing it an electrical apparatus. But the pile of Volta supplied at once the analogies both of structure and of effect, so as to leave little doubt of the electrical nature of the apparatus, or of the power, a most wonderful one certainly, of the animal, to determine, by an effort of its will, that concurrence of conditions on which its activity depends. This remained, as it probably ever will remain, mysterious and inexplicable; but the principle once established, that there exists in the animal economy a power of determining the developement of electric excitement, capable of being transmitted along the nerves, and it being ascertained, by numerous and decisive experiments, that the transmission of Voltaic electricity along the nerves of even a dead animal is sufficient to produce the most violent muscular action, it became an easy step to refer the origin of muscular motion in the living frame to a similar cause; and to look to the brain, a wonderfully constituted organ, for which no mode of action possessing the least plausibility had ever been devised, as the source of the required electrical power.[58]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00517", "bookId": 54897, "start": 542063, "end": 543001, "sha256": "94cdbffb9fa12b9395159627db85ed378ac3387fbe2214ab5f9d634f441c5986", "text": "(380.) It is not our intention, however, to enter into any further consideration of physiological subjects. They form, it is true, a most important and deeply interesting province of philosophical enquiry; but the view that we have taken of physical science has rather been directed to the study of inanimate nature, than to that of the mysterious phenomena of organization and life, which constitute the object of physiology. The history of the animal and vegetable productions of the globe, as affording objects and materials for the convenience and use of man, and as dependent on and indicative of the general laws which determine the distribution of heat, moisture, and other natural agents, over its surface, and the revolutions it has undergone, are of course intimately connected with our subject, and will, therefore, naturally afford room for some remarks, but not such as will long detain the reader’s attention.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00518", "bookId": 54897, "start": 543005, "end": 544560, "sha256": "885afa60c9bf3380751e4027f80a1c2ed0bc417d8e7b30697fe17cd151b8ad2f", "text": "(381.) In _zoology_, the connection of peculiar modes of life and food, with peculiarities of structure, has given rise to systems of classification at once obvious and natural; and the great progress which has been made in comparative anatomy has enabled us to trace a graduated scale of organization almost through the whole chain of animal being; a scale not without its intervals, but which every successive discovery of animals heretofore unknown has tended to fill up. The wonders disclosed by microscopic observation have opened to us a new world, in which we discover, with astonishment, the extremes of minuteness and complexity of structure united; while, on the other hand, the examination of the fossil remains of a former state of creation has demonstrated the existence of animals far surpassing in magnitude those now living, and brought to light many forms of being which have nothing analogous to them at present, and many others which afford important connecting links between existing genera. And, on the other hand, the researches of the comparative anatomist and conchologist have thrown the greatest light on the studies of the geologist, and enabled him to discern, through the obscure medium of a few relics, scattered here and there through a stratum, circumstances connected with the formation of the stratum itself which he could have recognised by no other indication. This is one among many striking instances of the unexpected lights which sciences, however apparently remote, may throw upon each other.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00519", "bookId": 54897, "start": 544564, "end": 546492, "sha256": "9b131d26dcb19ef608ba422416b9a6f148d045d95c0d1b6d03f362e79fe35454", "text": "(382.) To _botany_ many of the same remarks apply. Its artificial systems of classification, however convenient, have not prevented botanists from endeavouring to group together the objects of their science in natural classes having a community of character more intimate than those which determine their place in the Linnean or any similar system; a community of character extending over the whole habit and properties of the individuals compared. The important chemical discoveries which have been lately made of peculiar proximate principles which, in an especial manner, characterize certain families of plants, hold out the prospect of a greatly increased field of interesting knowledge in this direction, and not only interesting, but in a high degree important, when it is considered that the principles thus brought into view are, for the most part, very powerful medicines, and are, in fact, the essential ingredients on which the medical virtues of the plants depend. The law of the distribution of the generic forms of plants over the globe, too, has, within a comparatively recent period, become an object of study to the naturalist; and its connection with the laws of climate constitutes one of the most interesting and important branches of natural-historical enquiry, and one on which great light remains to be thrown by future researches. It is this which constitutes the chief connecting link between botany and geology, and renders a knowledge of the vegetable fossils, of any portion of the earth’s surface, indispensable to the formation of a correct judgment of the circumstances under which it existed in its ancient state. Fossil botany is accordingly cultivated with great and increasing ardour; and the subterraneous “Flora” of a geological formation is, in many instances, studied with a degree of care and precision little inferior to that which its surface exhibits.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00520", "bookId": 54897, "start": 546502, "end": 546511, "sha256": "92cc5c51035a018ccb894aadbeb597325f9eb9f65ed36a8b6951aceb47febda2", "text": "CHAP. VI.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00521", "bookId": 54897, "start": 546517, "end": 546639, "sha256": "f85075cf3f5e9914f24cc390d7135ba255bb78ebfc42b4a258f85cb076b5e855", "text": "OF THE CAUSES OF THE ACTUAL RAPID ADVANCE OF THE PHYSICAL SCIENCES COMPARED WITH THEIR PROGRESS AT AN EARLIER PERIOD.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00522", "bookId": 54897, "start": 546645, "end": 549851, "sha256": "99c5b3ef1cd619f014eaa905db3462281a1082770edd5a192259666d378655b1", "text": "(383.) There is no more extraordinary contrast than that presented by the slow progress of the physical sciences, from the earliest ages of the world to the close of the sixteenth century, and the rapid developement they have since experienced. In the former period of their history, we find only small additions to the stock of knowledge, made at long intervals of time; during which a total indifference on the part of the mass of mankind to the study of nature operated to effect an almost complete oblivion of former discoveries, or, at best, permitted them to linger on record, rather as literary curiosities, than as possessing, in themselves, any intrinsic interest and importance. A few enquiring individuals, from age to age, might perceive their value, and might feel that irrepressible thirst after knowledge which, in minds of the highest order, supplies the absence both of external stimulus and opportunity. But the total want of a right direction given to enquiry, and of a clear perception of the objects to be aimed at, and the advantages to be gained by systematic and connected research, together with the general apathy of society to speculations remote from the ordinary affairs of life, and studiously kept involved in learned mystery, effectually prevented these occasional impulses from overcoming the inertia of ignorance, and impressing any regular and steady progress on science. Its objects, indeed, were confined in a region too sublime for vulgar comprehension. An earthquake, a comet, or a fiery meteor, would now and then call the attention of the whole world, and produce from all quarters a plentiful supply of crude and fanciful conjectures on their causes; but it was never supposed that sciences could exist among common objects, have a place among mechanical arts, or find worthy matter of speculation in the mine or the laboratory. Yet it cannot be supposed, that all the indications of nature continually passed unremarked, or that much good observation and shrewd reasoning on it failed to perish unrecorded, before the invention of printing enabled every one to make his ideas known to all the world. The moment this took place, however, the sparks of information from time to time struck out, instead of glimmering for a moment, and dying away in oblivion, began to accumulate into a genial glow, and the flame was at length kindled which was speedily to acquire the strength and rapid spread of a conflagration. The universal excitement in the minds of men throughout Europe, which the first out-break of modern science produced, has been already spoken of. But even the most sanguine anticipators could scarcely have looked forward to that steady, unintermitted progress which it has since maintained, nor to that rapid succession of great discoveries which has kept up the interest of the first impulse still vigorous and undiminished. It may truly, indeed, be said, that there is scarcely a single branch of physical enquiry which is either stationary, or which has not been, for many years past, in a constant state of advance, and in which the progress is not, at this moment, going on with accelerated rapidity.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00523", "bookId": 54897, "start": 549855, "end": 554095, "sha256": "1996fb911c9820cb5d6558fae9f1018b6f42b10cb421f5bc2c7bd7e5f0760bbb", "text": "(384.) Among the causes of this happy and desirable state of things, no doubt we are to look, in the first instance, to that great increase in wealth and civilization which has at once afforded the necessary leisure and diffused the taste for intellectual pursuits among numbers of mankind, which have long been and still continue steadily progressive in every principal European state, and which the increase and fresh establishment of civilized communities in every distant region are rapidly spreading over the whole globe. It is not, however, merely the increased number of cultivators of science, but their enlarged opportunities, that we have here to consider, which, in all those numerous departments of natural research that require local information, is in fact the most important consideration of all. To this cause we must trace the great extension which has of late years been conferred on every branch of natural history, and the immense contributions which have been made, and are daily making, to the departments of zoology and botany, in all their ramifications. It is obvious, too, that all the information that can possibly be procured, and reported, by the most enlightened and active travellers, must fall infinitely short of what is to be obtained by individuals actually resident upon the spot. Travellers, indeed, may make collections, may snatch a few hasty observations, may note, for instance, the distribution of geological formations in a few detached points, and now and then witness remarkable local phenomena; but the resident alone can make continued series of regular observations, such as the scientific determination of climates, tides, magnetic variations, and innumerable other objects of that kind, requires; can alone mark all the details of geological structure, and refer each stratum, by a careful and long continued observation of its fossil contents, to its true epoch; can alone note the habits of the animals of his country, and the limits of its vegetation, or obtain a satisfactory knowledge of its mineral contents, with a thousand other particulars essential to that complete acquaintance with our globe as a whole, which is beginning to be understood by the extensive designation of physical geography. Besides which, ought not to be omitted multiplied opportunities of observing and recording those extraordinary phenomena of nature which offer an intense interest, from the rarity of their occurrence as well as the instruction they are calculated to afford. To what, then, may we not look forward, when a spirit of scientific enquiry shall have spread through those vast regions in which the process of civilization, its sure precursor, is actually commenced and in active progress? And what may we not expect from the exertions of powerful minds called into action under circumstances totally different from any which have yet existed in the world, and over an extent of territory far surpassing that which has hitherto produced the whole harvest of human intellect? In proportion as the number of those who are engaged on each department of physical enquiry increases, and the geographical extent over which they are spread is enlarged, a proportionately increased facility of communication and interchange of knowledge becomes essential to the prosecution of their researches with full advantage. Not only is this desirable, to prevent a number of individuals from making the same discoveries at the same moment, which (besides the waste of valuable time) has always been a fertile source of jealousies and misunderstandings, by which great evils have been entailed on science; but because methods of observation are continually undergoing new improvements, or acquiring new facilities, a knowledge of which, it is for the general interest of science, should be diffused as widely and as rapidly as possible. By this means, too, a sense of common interest, of mutual assistance, and a feeling of sympathy in a common pursuit, are generated, which proves a powerful stimulus to exertion; and, on the other hand, means are thereby afforded of detecting and pointing out mistakes before it is too late for their rectification.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00524", "bookId": 54897, "start": 554099, "end": 556581, "sha256": "74be40a8fc50cc74e195eed3b2d7bff5c4352e43c521b50259b562676b5a4a3f", "text": "(385.) Perhaps it may be truly remarked, that, next to the establishment of institutions having either the promotion of science in general, or, what is still more practically efficacious in its present advanced state, that of particular departments of physical enquiry, for their express objects, nothing has exercised so powerful an influence on the progress of modern science as the publication of monthly and quarterly scientific journals, of which there is now scarcely a nation in Europe which does not produce several. The quick and universal circulation of these, places observers of all countries on the same level of perfect intimacy with each other’s objects and methods, while the abstracts they from time to time (if well conducted) contain of the most important researches of the day consigned to the more ponderous tomes of academical collections, serve to direct the course of general observation, as well as to hold out, in the most conspicuous manner, models for emulative imitation. In looking forward to what may hereafter be expected from this cause of improvement, we are not to forget the powerful effect which must in future be produced by the spread of elementary works and digests of what is actually known in each particular branch of science. Nothing can be more discouraging to one engaged in active research, than the impression that all he is doing may, very likely, be labour taken in vain; that it may, perhaps, have been already done, and much better done, than, with his opportunities, or his resources, he can hope to perform it; and, on the other hand, nothing can be more exciting than the contrary impression. Thus, by giving a connected view of what has been done, and what remains to be accomplished in every branch, those digests and bodies of science, which from time to time appear, have, in fact, a very important weight in determining its future progress, quite independent of the quantity of information they communicate. With respect to elementary treatises, it is needless to point out their utility, or to dwell on the influence which their actual abundance, contrasted with their past remarkable deficiency, is likely to exercise over the future. It is only by condensing, simplifying, and arranging, in the most lucid possible manner, the acquired knowledge of past generations, that those to come can be enabled to avail themselves to the full of the advanced point from which they will start.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00525", "bookId": 54897, "start": 556585, "end": 558006, "sha256": "b1d3a63449cafbbd81a45088041ccd51bc1efb2c5467c368e2c3f514340dc625", "text": "(386.) One of the means by which an advanced state of physical science contributes greatly to accelerate and secure its further progress, is the exact knowledge acquired of physical data, or those normal quantities which we have more than once spoken of in the preceding pages (222.); a knowledge which enables us not only to appretiate the accuracy of experiments, but even to correct their results. As there is no surer criterion of the state of science in any age than the degree of care bestowed, and discernment exhibited, in the choice of such data, so as to afford the simplest possible grounds for the application of theories, and the degree of accuracy attained in their determination, so there is scarcely any thing by which science can be more truly benefited than by researches directed expressly to this object, and to the construction of tables exhibiting the true numerical relations of the elements of theories, and the actual state of nature, in all its different branches. It is only by such determinations that we can ascertain what changes are slowly and imperceptibly taking place in the existing order of things; and the more accurate they are, the _sooner_ will this knowledge be acquired. What might we not now have known of the motions of the (so-called) fixed stars, had the ancients possessed the means of observation we now possess, and employed them as we employ them now?", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00526", "bookId": 54897, "start": 558010, "end": 559509, "sha256": "e8073898fc3037397198370b7d8505f607ac8df7a4af65fc7fc60e3a83e3a6f3", "text": "(387.) In any enumeration of causes which have contributed to the recent rapid advancement of science, we must not forget the very important one of improved and constantly improving means of observation, both in instruments adapted for the exact measurement of quantity, and in the general convenience and well-judged adaptation to its purposes, of every description of scientific apparatus. In the actual state of science there are few observations which can be productive of any great advantage but such as afford accurate measurement; and an increased refinement in this respect is constantly called for. The degree of delicacy actually attained, we will not say in the most elaborate works of the highest art, but in such ordinary apparatus as every observer may now command, is such as could not have been arrived at unless in a state of the mechanical arts, which in its turn (such is the mutual re-action of cause and effect) requires for its existence a very advanced state of science. What an important influence may be exercised over the progress of a single branch of science by the invention of a ready and convenient mode of executing a definite measurement, and the construction and common introduction of an instrument adapted for it cannot be better exemplified than by the instance of the reflecting goniometer. This simple, cheap, and portable little instrument, has changed the face of mineralogy, and given it all the characters of one of the exact sciences.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00527", "bookId": 54897, "start": 559513, "end": 561780, "sha256": "39ad16a7add7a64192667caf3e42bb1ce4a7385c6e22c61fcccc4f9eb65ac5e7", "text": "(388.) Our means of perceiving and measuring minute quantities, in the important relations of weight, space, and time, seem already to have been carried to a point which it is hardly conceivable they should surpass. Balances have been constructed which have rendered sensible the millionth part of the whole quantity weighed; and to turn with the thousandth part of a grain is the performance of balances pretending to no very extraordinary degree of merit. The elegant invention of the sphærometer, by substituting the sense of touch for that of sight in the measurement of minute objects, permits the determination of their dimensions with a degree of precision which is fully adequate to the nicest purposes of scientific enquiry. By its aid an inch may be readily subdivided into ten or even twenty thousand parts; and the lever of contact, an instrument in use among the German opticians, enables us to appretiate quantities of space even yet smaller. For the subdivision of time, too, the perfection of modern mechanism has furnished resources which leave very little to be desired. By the aid of clocks and chronometers, as they are now constructed, a few tenths of a second is all the error that need be apprehended in the subdivision of a day; and for the further subdivision of smaller portions of time, instruments have been imagined which admit of almost unlimited precision, and permit us to appreciate intervals to the nicety of the hundredth, or even the thousandth part of a single second.[59] When the precision attainable by such means is contrasted with what could be procured a few generations ago, by the rude and clumsy workmanship of even the early part of the last century, it will be no matter of astonishment that the sciences which depend on exact measurements should have made a proportional progress. Nor will any degree of nicety in physical determinations appear beyond our reach, if we consider the inexhaustible resources which science itself furnishes, in rendering the quantities actually to be determined by measure great multiples of the elements required for the purposes of theory, so as to diminish in the same proportion the influence of any errors which may be committed on the final results.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00528", "bookId": 54897, "start": 561784, "end": 563425, "sha256": "38823f5a60498dd906d1e65729af6a61ca576edad3d54b160048b88ec1c07075", "text": "(389.) Great, indeed, as have been of late the improvements in the construction of instruments, both as to what regards convenience and accuracy, it is to the discovery of improved _methods_ of observation that the chief progress of those parts of science which depend on exact determinations is owing. The balance of torsion, the ingenious invention of Cavendish and Coulomb, may be cited as an example of what we mean. By its aid we are enabled not merely to render sensible, but to subject to precise measurement and subdivision, degrees of force infinitely too feeble to affect the nicest balance of the usual construction, even were it possible to bring them to act on it. The galvanometer, too, affords another example of the same kind, in an instrument whose range of utility lies among electric forces which we have no other means of rendering sensible, much less of estimating with exactness. In determinations of quantities less minute in themselves, the methods devised by Messrs. Arago and Fresnel, for the measurement of the refractive powers of transparent media by means of the phenomenon of diffraction, may be cited as affording a degree of precision limited only by the wishes of the observer, and the time and patience he is willing to devote to his observation. And in respect of the direction of observations to points from which real information is to be obtained, and positive conclusions drawn, the hygrometer of Daniell may be cited as an elegant example of the introduction into general use of an instrument substituting an indication founded on strict principles for one perfectly arbitrary.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00529", "bookId": 54897, "start": 563429, "end": 566556, "sha256": "f10868195c70a3d0464a41d18b873c152a455f5e9b5c19c20ac5df59d02a772d", "text": "(390.) In speculating on the future prospects of physical science, we should not be justified in leaving out of consideration the probability, or rather certainty, of the occasional occurrence of those happy accidents which have had so powerful an influence on the past; occasions, where a fortunate combination opportunely noticed may admit us in an instant to the knowledge of principles of which no suspicion might occur but for some such casual notice. Boyle has entitled one of his essays thus remarkably,--“_Of Man’s great Ignorance of the Uses of natural Things; or that there is no one Thing in Nature whereof the Uses to human Life are yet thoroughly understood_.”[60] The whole history of the arts since Boyle’s time has been one continued comment on this text; and if we regard among the uses of the works of nature, _that_, assuredly the noblest of all, which leads us to a knowledge of the Author of nature through the contemplation of the wonderful means by which he has wrought out his purposes in his works, the sciences have not been behind hand in affording their testimony to its truth. Nor are we to suppose that the field is in the slightest degree narrowed, or the chances in favour of such fortunate discoveries at all decreased, by those which have already taken place: on the contrary, they have been incalculably extended. It is true that the ordinary phenomena which pass before our eyes have been minutely examined, and those more striking and obvious principles which occur to superficial observation have been noticed and embodied in our systems of science; but, not to mention that by far the greater part of natural phenomena remain yet unexplained, every new discovery in science brings into view whole classes of facts which would never otherwise have fallen under our notice at all, and establishes relations which afford to the philosophic mind a constantly extending field of speculation, in ranging over which it is next to impossible that he should not encounter new and unexpected principles. How infinitely greater, for instance, are the mere chances of discovery in chemistry among the innumerable combinations with which the modern chemist is familiar, than at a period when two or three imaginary elements, and some ten or twenty substances, whose properties were known with an approach to distinctness, formed the narrow circle within which his ideas had to revolve? How many are the instances where a new substance, or a new property, introduced into familiar use, by being thus brought into relation with all our actual elements of knowledge, has become the means of developing properties and principles among the most common objects, which could never have otherwise been discovered? Had not platina (to take an instance) been an object of the most ordinary occurrence in a laboratory, would a suspicion have ever occurred that a lamp could be constructed to burn without flame; and should we have ever arrived at a knowledge of those curious phenomena and products of semi-combustion which this beautiful experiment discloses?", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00530", "bookId": 54897, "start": 566560, "end": 567948, "sha256": "77826170930f828a816e6636db0139e1a8cf9353891eb13427e448b0ed170689", "text": "(391.) Finally, when we look back on what has been accomplished in science, and compare it with what remains to be done, it is hardly possible to avoid being strongly impressed with the idea that we have been and are still executing the labour by which succeeding generations are to profit.[61] In a few instances only have we arrived at those general axiomatic laws which admit of direct deductive inference, and place the solutions of physical phenomena before us as so many problems, whose principles of solution we fully possess, and which require nothing but acuteness of reasoning to pursue even into their farthest recesses. In fewer still have we reached that command of abstract reasoning itself which is necessary for the accomplishment of so arduous a task. Science, therefore, in relation to our faculties, still remains boundless and unexplored, and, after the lapse of a century and a half from the æra of Newton’s discoveries, during which every department of it has been cultivated with a zeal and energy which have assuredly met their full return, we remain in the situation in which he figured himself,--standing on the shore of a wide ocean, from whose beach we may have culled some of those innumerable beautiful productions it casts up with lavish prodigality, but whose acquisition can be regarded as no diminution of the treasures that remain.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00531", "bookId": 54897, "start": 567952, "end": 568582, "sha256": "e2ef61790da347bfe1d0fc21c63f3f119b120615d60d26e4153ed9aee334dd16", "text": "(392.) But this consideration, so far from repressing our efforts, or rendering us hopeless of attaining any thing intrinsically great, ought rather to excite us to fresh enterprise, by the prospect of assured and ample recompense from that inexhaustible store which only awaits our continued endeavours. “It is no detraction from human capacity to suppose it incapable of infinite exertion, or of exhausting an infinite subject.”[62] In whatever state of knowledge we may conceive man to be placed, his progress towards a yet higher state need never fear a check, but must continue till the last existence of society.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00532", "bookId": 54897, "start": 568586, "end": 569670, "sha256": "6123705da5ba8fa7f5c3c0d3449f3ecdf04244dc12794a165e17ec915048b8f3", "text": "(393.) It is in this respect an advantageous view of science, which refers all its advances to the discovery of general laws, and to the inclusion of what is already known in generalizations of still higher orders; inasmuch as this view of the subject represents it, as it really is, essentially incomplete, and incapable of being fully embodied in any system, or embraced by any single mind. Yet it must be recollected that, so far as our experience has hitherto gone, every advance towards generality has at the same time been a step towards simplification. It is only when we are wandering and lost in the mazes of particulars, or entangled in fruitless attempts to work our way downwards in the thorny paths of applications, to which our reasoning powers are incompetent, that nature appears complicated:--the moment we contemplate it as it is, and attain a position from which we can take a commanding view, though but of a small part of its plan, we never fail to recognise that sublime simplicity on which the mind rests satisfied that it has attained the truth.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00533", "bookId": 54897, "start": 569680, "end": 569686, "sha256": "8bfc1652fcd409a9a5c4a5b59cf1faea4fdeaf41a9258bd2174546e3d187d012", "text": "INDEX.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00534", "bookId": 54897, "start": 569694, "end": 569753, "sha256": "b63b4eca7dd6f2f3dd39c9e21fb08a2cc5cbf8fc2a6f6423e98aa521ebab3aa1", "text": "Acoustics cultivated by Pythagoras and Aristotle, page 248.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00535", "bookId": 54897, "start": 569759, "end": 569812, "sha256": "9adbedc4b72935e1912044338a0dd964b9e0edcb50ea8892800bf6b47499122e", "text": "Æpinus, his laws of equilibrium of electricity, 332.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00536", "bookId": 54897, "start": 569818, "end": 569875, "sha256": "066343407be3044eba02290a5301aed0ee991a81f5ad13b8eb2ed25850a3ef25", "text": "Aëriform fluids, liquids kept in a state of vapour, 321.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00537", "bookId": 54897, "start": 569881, "end": 569947, "sha256": "488052bbda5f9859140380210251758612e8c617111925766346807e265a77b3", "text": "Agricola, George, his knowledge of mineralogy and metallurgy, 112.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00538", "bookId": 54897, "start": 569953, "end": 570244, "sha256": "f8c224edeefac98b694c2912fa47b16c87e7355998c37fc3cf90cb98b5cf8980", "text": "Air, compressibility and elasticity of; limitation to the repulsive tendency of, 226. Weight of, unknown to the ancients, 228. First perceived by Galileo, 228. Proved by a crucial instance, 229. Equilibrium of, established, 231. Dilatation of, by heat, 319.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00539", "bookId": 54897, "start": 570250, "end": 570278, "sha256": "fd5f9c8a3d9ffd4084cf8327e9b31405fba0a551643606ec4ddd0d91b41addac", "text": "Air-pump, discovery of, 230.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00540", "bookId": 54897, "start": 570284, "end": 570328, "sha256": "a72b0df1d54fa2fca181c28484419cff577f57d041e16f54f74027d0ee0d9e3c", "text": "Airy, his experiments in Dolcoath mine, 187.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00541", "bookId": 54897, "start": 570334, "end": 570374, "sha256": "6b5a0a68ecd256e486edb6d87f2546bcef3d550c7c08b29f93cfd928d6fa1d6e", "text": "Alchemists, advantages derived from, 11.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00542", "bookId": 54897, "start": 570380, "end": 570392, "sha256": "f7258eb9496db5f332d305d7f14269ed6576c12abd91eed6f49d5569e05db11b", "text": "Algebra, 19.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00543", "bookId": 54897, "start": 570398, "end": 570465, "sha256": "f1a15b031116ea99dff6ed13d3688d6c4867a3b16c013c12618d35fd863c0b4b", "text": "Ampere, his electro-dynamic theory, 202. Utility of, 203, 324.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00544", "bookId": 54897, "start": 570471, "end": 570544, "sha256": "77e3c93595f233bfe2b0f46fcd9744db39ea4d648554b805893147254b3c8481", "text": "Analysis of force, 86. Of motion, 87. Of complex phenomena, 88.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00545", "bookId": 54897, "start": 570550, "end": 570581, "sha256": "95d2127e7ce2feee67904170a3475cd980ba45f80f0e30e9d855ceb377b3cd1f", "text": "Anaxagoras, philosophy of, 107.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00546", "bookId": 54897, "start": 570587, "end": 570611, "sha256": "2f528bc1c7669908b6208a7f8863ea124375dae47384c31782b933a739b0a8ff", "text": "Animal electricity, 337.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00547", "bookId": 54897, "start": 570617, "end": 570702, "sha256": "4e5a678efa7c15c3054c695ca7416ca7384ebb614b4140b81f735dc8bf653dec", "text": "Arago, M., his experiment with a magnetic needle and a plate of copper, 157.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00548", "bookId": 54897, "start": 570708, "end": 570802, "sha256": "89dc373fa8e09fd7af15ff96648819493dfa78023b87bac34bcecbf3881f5a6d", "text": "Archimedes, his practical application of science, 72. His knowledge of hydrostatics, 231.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00549", "bookId": 54897, "start": 570808, "end": 570848, "sha256": "02c725c841165df93cf9a48e27b52c3237450508c8d64aaf9dede25bd765fdc7", "text": "Arfwedson, his discovery of lithia, 158.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00550", "bookId": 54897, "start": 570854, "end": 571073, "sha256": "82a625821a8e0ea536005b6da121c7cc21e415dad8dffbaaaa57eeb3d8f241b6", "text": "Aristotle, his knowledge of natural history, 109. His works condemned, and subsequently studied with avidity, 111. His philosophy overturned by the discoveries of Copernicus, Kepler, and Galileo, 113.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00551", "bookId": 54897, "start": 571079, "end": 571094, "sha256": "9454e12d15e3158733195fb25e34e1b08cbf973484655be66533559abe26ddbe", "text": "Arithmetic, 19.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00552", "bookId": 54897, "start": 571100, "end": 571239, "sha256": "67d8568ca8893df95cf99c8457cf37cc67d2c21a609ce1e5d63a4e5aa42e6b38", "text": "Art, empirical and scientific, differences between, 71. Remarks on the language, terms, or signs, used in treating of it, 70.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00553", "bookId": 54897, "start": 571245, "end": 571289, "sha256": "579d2732f5269b965202229a2f3266c63ed92d3ff82df30e8268b451f854b0d9", "text": "Assurances, life, utility and abuses of, 58.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00554", "bookId": 54897, "start": 571295, "end": 571693, "sha256": "4faa7c4fb36d1c277cd9341683a2de8f8444dd38e42e2b45035eae6f73100649", "text": "Astronomy, cause of the slow progress of our knowledge of, 78. Theory and practical observations distinct in, 132. An extensive acquaintance with science and every branch of knowledge necessary to make a perfect observer in, 132. Five primary planets added to our system, 274. Positions, figures, and dimensions of all the planetary orbits now well known, 275.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00555", "bookId": 54897, "start": 571699, "end": 571742, "sha256": "7df4626cb94051a86d56abab2ceff0f529581b9c8985b3ffd0589e91d7c4ae7f", "text": "Atomic theory, 305. Advantage of, 306.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00556", "bookId": 54897, "start": 571748, "end": 571789, "sha256": "00267752408794f1ccbc34856edf6e76fbc902855ff669dc096b61560c8a448d", "text": "Atomic weights of chemical elements, 306.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00557", "bookId": 54897, "start": 571795, "end": 571882, "sha256": "d0354522a542a757dbb6aee7e563424290ddb74f9cbda190dd372c83e08513cd", "text": "Attraction, capillary, or capillarity, investigated by Laplace and Young, 234.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00558", "bookId": 54897, "start": 571890, "end": 572465, "sha256": "bed03ea7fee23f0bf634d1e320f3045f406fa94628524b3135d336c21b28d1de", "text": "Bacon, celebrated in England for his knowledge of science, 72. Benefits conferred on Natural Philosophy by him, 104. His Novum Organum, 105. His reform in philosophy proves the paramount importance of induction, 114. His prerogative of facts, 181. Illustrated by the fracture of a crystallized substance, 183. His collective instances, 184. Importance of, 185. His experiment on the weight of bodies, 186. Travelling instances of, frontier instances of, 188. His difference between liquids and aëriform fluids, 233.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00559", "bookId": 54897, "start": 572471, "end": 572574, "sha256": "8e4d5a23e4373b09108bca1bd7e7aaf352b163ebf1429245fabe17c9596993ce", "text": "Bartolin, Erasmus, first discovers the phenomena exhibited by doubly refracting crystals, 254.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00560", "bookId": 54897, "start": 572580, "end": 572618, "sha256": "0e8fc0126f2f99556e40ef27477e3c8629ae5dd8733206fda53fbe17f749dc0e", "text": "Beccher, phlogistic doctrines of, 300.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00561", "bookId": 54897, "start": 572624, "end": 572674, "sha256": "7d465b51655e4ff4b358c3a4bdab39eca911a3030444908cf30379f0a7467747", "text": "Bergmann, his advancement in crystallography, 239.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00562", "bookId": 54897, "start": 572680, "end": 572738, "sha256": "ef662d50513cc626c26fc20332d24a70272169a2366fc58c85da0b4011dbb336", "text": "Bernoulli, experiments of, in hydrodynamical science, 181.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00563", "bookId": 54897, "start": 572744, "end": 572843, "sha256": "9c9ca6c40dc07eb632fad7f1bc7355086b94f5ea8762daf30a8282d248bfcbfe", "text": "Biot, his hypothesis of a rotatory motion of the particles of light about their axes, 262.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00564", "bookId": 54897, "start": 572849, "end": 572895, "sha256": "041d50da6f39c45078068384a27ed9bb922cf2726d86629cff36c76cb0354ff9", "text": "Black, Dr., his discovery of latent heat, 322.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00565", "bookId": 54897, "start": 572901, "end": 573015, "sha256": "0f508174fcc45c755ce0f23b41c605feb8f4ac8eaea3286019311820a4882647", "text": "Bode, his curious law observed in the progression of the magnitudes of the several planetary orbits, 308.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00566", "bookId": 54897, "start": 573021, "end": 573119, "sha256": "2f1fc87a0edfc416c83146a4ef77ce7526815248c6203dc7a62093a602bf6d94", "text": "Bodies, natural constitution of, 221. Division of, into crystallized and uncrystallized, 242.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00567", "bookId": 54897, "start": 573125, "end": 573165, "sha256": "7cc3f7e3bf94b8f8575af6145339c5fe74154c3b8a46edb623d8f7b1e761e4fa", "text": "Bones, dry, a magazine of nutriment, 65.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00568", "bookId": 54897, "start": 573171, "end": 573213, "sha256": "ee68600c849df905bb9c473f87459859ba74b557384f9137d1a443c69fdb1ba9", "text": "Borda, his invention for subdivision, 128.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00569", "bookId": 54897, "start": 573219, "end": 573251, "sha256": "fca74d637e15592b1438939b046a228264186eb22a8694992c49655f9edb2cdf", "text": "Botany, general utility of, 345.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00570", "bookId": 54897, "start": 573257, "end": 573361, "sha256": "1411bf51fe4a7423e61f8dbf64cb88df48af0c86523499fd430fc62dba29d54c", "text": "Boyle, Robert, his enthusiasm in the pursuit of science, 115. His improvement on the air-pump, 230.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00571", "bookId": 54897, "start": 573367, "end": 573420, "sha256": "2484e6ce4a11985dfa0044905d86cbea7eb637c17154b03fd4a510dc1692c7a1", "text": "Brain, hypothesis of its being an electric pile, 343.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00572", "bookId": 54897, "start": 573426, "end": 573474, "sha256": "1c412d49e6d5ed5c5c7ebc451b26495391557a741f5b56b6e6692dd2ee49a00d", "text": "Bramah’s press, principle and utility of, 233.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00573", "bookId": 54897, "start": 573480, "end": 573793, "sha256": "69f26cc42177737a5df79fea6f5ba45922251bb81f0a4dbce730b8b5a3ba7250", "text": "Brewster, Dr., his improvement on lenses for lighthouses, 56. His researches prove that the phenomena exhibited by polarized light, in its transmission through crystals, afford a certain indication of the most important points relating to the structure of crystals themselves, 263.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00574", "bookId": 54897, "start": 573801, "end": 573869, "sha256": "5a186e92c9c748d980e528520b722c00dad1fedab961f5121aa117edb316f9ae", "text": "Cabot, Sebastian, his discovery of the variation of the needle, 327.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00575", "bookId": 54897, "start": 573875, "end": 573934, "sha256": "a0c69125b357a36b06de8f9274bbc7afdba804cc298d678daa2cf3800e0ebd97", "text": "Cagnard, Baron de la Tour, utility of his experiments, 234.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00576", "bookId": 54897, "start": 573940, "end": 573996, "sha256": "b3e823bc8671e079501753366f23a6053832856b009d9df5c2550e1d1a3e4310", "text": "Causes and consequences directors of the will of man, 6.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00577", "bookId": 54897, "start": 574002, "end": 574072, "sha256": "e7af4df17381678f8fccee88c23415db2cdf56194d08df9fd8da759bfd989978", "text": "Causes, proximate, discovery of, called by Newton _veræ causæ_, 144.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00578", "bookId": 54897, "start": 574078, "end": 574103, "sha256": "6e0c91cce58cf9e08337976cfa3c4c896f8f7a48a5048e8b01efc7ff54661190", "text": "Celestial mechanics, 265.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00579", "bookId": 54897, "start": 574109, "end": 574131, "sha256": "80ea536ec94bf4aa026a5685c141c8f0ff74042d546cc9f68257ca5a08fc2859", "text": "Chaldean records, 265.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00580", "bookId": 54897, "start": 574137, "end": 574726, "sha256": "f883a77b21208ec530442c5994b82bbbb2774cb12d5b0fdd07c06d3b837a4fd0", "text": "Chemistry furnishes causes of sudden action, also fulminating compositions, 62. Analogy of the complex phenomena of, with those of physics, 92. Benefits arising from the analysis of, 94. Axioms of, analogous to those of geometry, 95. Many of the new elements of, detected in the investigation of residual phenomena, 158. The most general law of, 209. Illustration of, 210. Between fifty and sixty elements in, 211. Objects of, 296. General heads of the principal improvements in, 302. Remarks on those general heads, 304.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00581", "bookId": 54897, "start": 574732, "end": 574798, "sha256": "a003b3e35cfebe1b5a218f06687dd7294603fbc63ae0dbe438cf06eeb30077b8", "text": "Chemistry, Stahlian, cause of the mistakes and confusions of, 123.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00582", "bookId": 54897, "start": 574804, "end": 574855, "sha256": "16afdf20eec3f8f082ede7bfbf5627614e4dc809ff78a53d2133578d15f6edf8", "text": "Chladni, experiments of, in dynamical science, 181.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00583", "bookId": 54897, "start": 574861, "end": 574898, "sha256": "4f06ee28fe576ed29a9a97e6acaafd066fc588f2f0b835406d3e237fe1a1ba48", "text": "Chlorine, disinfectant powers of, 56.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00584", "bookId": 54897, "start": 574904, "end": 575046, "sha256": "45fd05fad6667d2ed498a246b5a0b26c50b1d491318f33c36031d697d4aa7733", "text": "Clarke, Dr., his experiments on the arseniate and phosphate of soda, 170. His success in producing a new phosphate of soda, 171.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00585", "bookId": 54897, "start": 575052, "end": 575133, "sha256": "734b494c6c0cc94488c017b7af3e615a4f3bc3f85a123e68255d13ba9a799c8f", "text": "Climate, change of, in large tracts of the globe, alleged cause of, 145.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00586", "bookId": 54897, "start": 575139, "end": 575228, "sha256": "289f7a7fb300cac483ef4ea478a362ded48ec1ee15ee2772c37c4040b546a1b4", "text": "Coals, power of a bushel of, properly consumed, 59. Quantity consumed in London, 60.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00587", "bookId": 54897, "start": 575234, "end": 575271, "sha256": "377314257208e73ffb02ddb7377ca55b819fa3434c542be06c2e7faa9d512974", "text": "Cohesion, an ultimate phenomenon, 90.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00588", "bookId": 54897, "start": 575277, "end": 575301, "sha256": "e86f93292b6ad71a720f0e2fd427d037f772c137fc9027a22cf2b66d0e5df57e", "text": "Cold, qualities of, 318.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00589", "bookId": 54897, "start": 575307, "end": 575332, "sha256": "da5b3eb739f993d3fcefa932fe1dc1b7ea2553a0be50d3bcdfa9a3da3e62174d", "text": "Compass, mariner’s, 55.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00590", "bookId": 54897, "start": 575338, "end": 575374, "sha256": "dce50d0c47af08b015c0019633fc366b7dce5de7bf1d5cd3bc723e962ba097f6", "text": "Condensation, a source of heat, 313.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00591", "bookId": 54897, "start": 575380, "end": 575413, "sha256": "170af3046787669000d5c47fec3f21e23568bea43359810e01222345bdc682f5", "text": "Conduction of heat, laws of, 205.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00592", "bookId": 54897, "start": 575419, "end": 575554, "sha256": "3ccfeca7c2fa716c36ff209d20f488b2ce19f0b6dc944e757b7c79e4b4144ab6", "text": "Copernicus, effect of his discoveries on the Aristotelian philosophy, 113. Objections to his astronomical doctrines, 269.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00593", "bookId": 54897, "start": 575560, "end": 575692, "sha256": "25cb518eeb182cafc7df29b1b520ba46e1747198eb994b89d2b3f07a86566402", "text": "Crystallography, laws of, 123, 239. A determinate figure supposed to be common to all the particles of a crystal, 242.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00594", "bookId": 54897, "start": 575700, "end": 575753, "sha256": "72facbe94d0c69fba6ead87530dfade31c99df8ba971b107e3e217acf0e6b4e6", "text": "D’Alembert, his improvements in hydrodynamics, 236.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00595", "bookId": 54897, "start": 575759, "end": 575858, "sha256": "4fbbfbfad96d129902fb1d58d2edadef5a5b0f3e4bf274d4931eadf87759a2da", "text": "Dalton, his announcement of the atomic theory, 305. His examination of gases and vapours, 319.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00596", "bookId": 54897, "start": 575864, "end": 575953, "sha256": "e26b255c879ab305cb5cb173d364f330705ed5d8314b94fe06b41e742cf17d7a", "text": "Davy, Sir H., brings the voltaic pile to bear upon the earths and alkalies, 339.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00597", "bookId": 54897, "start": 575959, "end": 575986, "sha256": "daf8a33726fb85756768b3e7731bb640a69029561a46d96f7e0ee56e0362396d", "text": "Deduction, utility of, 174.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00598", "bookId": 54897, "start": 575992, "end": 576049, "sha256": "8b7cce70b5181c926cb4c8c768580bd642098e738003f9820b5ef0886282d69d", "text": "De l’Isle, Romé, his study of crystalline bodies, 239.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00599", "bookId": 54897, "start": 576055, "end": 576275, "sha256": "7010601ebc7070080b43174fd023052d9a9209c3464509a5887ebdfbc3dd62f9", "text": "Dew, causes of, investigated, 159. Effects of, on different substances, 160. Objects capable of contracting it, 161. A cloudless sky favourable to its production, 162. General proximate cause of, 163.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00600", "bookId": 54897, "start": 576281, "end": 576367, "sha256": "bb4975ddf29919870ad440f062b8d83eaf5a063fb452f13a53cfec81273fd479", "text": "Drummond, lieutenant, his improvement on lenses for lamps of lighthouses, 56.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00601", "bookId": 54897, "start": 576373, "end": 576406, "sha256": "666e10bc888d8aa6195faadb183f73b65583c6be4bbadafd24e5d46841df9de4", "text": "Dynamics, importance of, 96, 223.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00602", "bookId": 54897, "start": 576414, "end": 576495, "sha256": "13d4906aaa60cd26c859847ce33886eed3d556aec87b716d9d2b9eeac7cd3f91", "text": "Earth, the orbit of,--diminution of its eccentricity round the sun, 147.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00603", "bookId": 54897, "start": 576501, "end": 576524, "sha256": "e58b9a1893cfe66cdcca60b8af9cbcb024acd46461e658e524433c7351c6ea89", "text": "Economy, political, 73.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00604", "bookId": 54897, "start": 576530, "end": 576661, "sha256": "d3aed740ae485402cef770d75ce221bbde08ed702c622814050a69f8bb9e0820", "text": "Egypt, great pyramid of, height, weight, and ground occupied by it, 60. Accuracy of the astronomical records of, 265.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00605", "bookId": 54897, "start": 576667, "end": 576706, "sha256": "601b2d3137f79ebb67ff473c49061a0156fbc62d18cea54451714ef70bfce6cd", "text": "Elasticity, an ultimate phenomenon, 90.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00606", "bookId": 54897, "start": 576712, "end": 576904, "sha256": "5602c5c81c4bc2c365df9436966be0857fe3d5a2a4c0a052bad5a4cda10d2bb1", "text": "Electricity may be the cause of magnetism, 93. Universality of, 329. Effects of, 330. Activity of, 331. Equilibrium of, 332. Productive of chemical decomposition, 338.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00607", "bookId": 54897, "start": 576910, "end": 576962, "sha256": "a6abf590d695a17ca4923cd546f077c0bb29f17229249ef5621f8a626f3631dd", "text": "Empirical laws, 178. Evils resulting from, 179.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00608", "bookId": 54897, "start": 576968, "end": 577070, "sha256": "af3cd9f6342a851496feaa2c8b82f566a17a885cb737ff8a08ed1640f7668b67", "text": "Encke, professor, his prediction of the return of the comet so many times in succession, 156.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00609", "bookId": 54897, "start": 577076, "end": 577130, "sha256": "1d74a46245de1561fb248dde6a8b249869b321d85351dc88df76d3340619a8d4", "text": "Englefield, sir H., his analysis of a solar beam, 314.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00610", "bookId": 54897, "start": 577136, "end": 577173, "sha256": "5af03b08a8ed1fe15ab0a50ed077f3a32b799237fc2709ea7a06e6376c1f82c1", "text": "Equilibrium maintained by force, 222.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00611", "bookId": 54897, "start": 577179, "end": 577261, "sha256": "d54a7b438e3bb3667e398157a8f44ee54de6411e2e275aacb2f3198d24cce1e4", "text": "Erman, professor, his opinion of the effects of the voltaic circuit, 340.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00612", "bookId": 54897, "start": 577267, "end": 577325, "sha256": "93e0bf86e7dd7f3408ae0b4f021edd3427b95e69d650e35ea1048d080dfa3dfa", "text": "Euler, his improvement on Newton’s theory of sound, 247.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00613", "bookId": 54897, "start": 577331, "end": 577390, "sha256": "4fde5357402e1332abc9daef5ef03fbf83aca57f28e31a8e61d5dcb2e1085b50", "text": "Experience, source of our knowledge of nature’s laws, 76.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00614", "bookId": 54897, "start": 577396, "end": 577466, "sha256": "4938c587deb0b88033fd88900f81410ac6bb24da941807e505d784c374dbaf54", "text": "Experiment, a means of acquiring experience, 76. Utility of, 151.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00615", "bookId": 54897, "start": 577474, "end": 577505, "sha256": "17aeda2d93f8c15c95734674727c88032e475f6b6b205e7cffccad7e9a5ec0da", "text": "Facts, the observation of, 118.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00616", "bookId": 54897, "start": 577511, "end": 577557, "sha256": "42e646b44573f5f9e33a2129380219d194ee629937e21e80653065f6386bc5e1", "text": "Faujas de St. Fond, imaginary craters of, 131.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00617", "bookId": 54897, "start": 577563, "end": 577723, "sha256": "f235219f0996286d739fbb541d1257dc9b3b2f6f0a962ba9289f95220c652a4d", "text": "Fluids, laws of the motion of, 181. Compressibility of, 225. Consideration of the motions of, more complicated than that of equilibrium, 235.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00618", "bookId": 54897, "start": 577729, "end": 577835, "sha256": "462f9ff010594460978c9fe2817b9fa7dd7a5ef95f8b5ac84ae7033fce079cc2", "text": "Force, analysis of, 86. The cause of motion, 149. Phenomena of, 221. Molecular forces, 245.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00619", "bookId": 54897, "start": 577841, "end": 578094, "sha256": "2eb692786331fb43d91c41b76092107b497dfde828e13e8ab54e2998f8d46093", "text": "Fourier, baron, his opinion that the celestial regions have a temperature, independent of the sun, not greatly inferior to that at which quicksilver congeals, 157. His analysis of the laws of conduction and radiation of heat, 317.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00620", "bookId": 54897, "start": 578100, "end": 578151, "sha256": "195bd78f0fe024a5b6849b8174c12753315bdf8403c498c3237750e3d52e0274", "text": "Franklin, Dr., his experiments on electricity, 332.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00621", "bookId": 54897, "start": 578157, "end": 578462, "sha256": "b556997835597bcd36681faaea259f196720612b404adfcb9122f3000820f25e", "text": "Fresnel, M., his mathematical explanation of the phenomena of double refraction, 32. His improvement on lenses for lamps of lighthouses, 56. His opinions on the nature of light, 207. His experiments on the interference of polarized light, 261. His theory of polarization, 262.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00622", "bookId": 54897, "start": 578468, "end": 578500, "sha256": "7a394755c3b253ebcf5cd4a20964048110dfe4f6ca81c53fb3211279901fedf9", "text": "Friction, a source of heat, 313.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00623", "bookId": 54897, "start": 578508, "end": 578855, "sha256": "8d13adc5ff5d6242e7c4fff252ebe89160117696de0d718efa7f10a5d861bcbf", "text": "Galileo, celebrity of, for his knowledge of science, 72. His exposition of the Aristotelian philosophy, 110. His refutation of Aristotle’s dogmas respecting motion, his persecution in consequence of it, 113. His knowledge of the accelerating power of gravity, 168. His knowledge of the weight of the atmosphere, 228.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00624", "bookId": 54897, "start": 578861, "end": 578961, "sha256": "4499c624003735e26df1b9574ee215136015e5ad4197790fd9c34cef22f4b6a2", "text": "Galvani, utility of his discoveries in electricity, 335. His application of it to animals, 336.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00625", "bookId": 54897, "start": 578967, "end": 579021, "sha256": "aba3b2c3cff641541c37848cfd17358457362a3774aaf6d933b3acc54fffabaa", "text": "Gay-Lussac, his examination of gases and vapours, 319.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00626", "bookId": 54897, "start": 579027, "end": 579060, "sha256": "9ad94570313bf68888b5223f82090d6fb012d919af94bc4b1cb4f30a3110cf59", "text": "Generalization, inductive, 1, 90.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00627", "bookId": 54897, "start": 579066, "end": 579112, "sha256": "d71b8ed6d7a38e887dff6071db375f54a5893f12edcdb708045b2a93cec21a53", "text": "Geology, 281. Its rank as a science, 287.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00628", "bookId": 54897, "start": 579118, "end": 579203, "sha256": "dcc9e1d6e2fb6034a7ae9de4ace04a8a3f84cddeae89fb61476626a6e021a9b1", "text": "Geometry, axioms of, an appeal to experience, not corporeal, but mental, 95.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00629", "bookId": 54897, "start": 579209, "end": 579295, "sha256": "770365b56d61376e53a3edb95de7d77352a0a9ce3b0632f4da818fc7b14f07b6", "text": "Gilbert, Dr., of Colchester, his knowledge of magnetism and electricity, 112.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00630", "bookId": 54897, "start": 579301, "end": 579481, "sha256": "50fadc386ac5ad6e5852006afa95077a91d513d5ae052311539d86faed008abd", "text": "Gravitation, law of, a physical axiom of a very high and universal kind, 98. Influence of, decreases in the inverse ratio of the square of the distance, 123.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00631", "bookId": 54897, "start": 579487, "end": 579698, "sha256": "bb1c8315ffef55822e7f788f5672bb9134c83a0323afba0671695ccffd77d94c", "text": "Greece, philosophers of, their extraordinary success in abstract reasoning, and their careless consideration of external nature, 105. Their general character, 106. Philosophy of, 108.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00632", "bookId": 54897, "start": 579704, "end": 579802, "sha256": "866884454519ae36e7344428b5e389ee9b2b7c5c730baa85cf832123ef0c5e6b", "text": "Grimaldi, a jesuit of Bologna, his discovery of diffraction, or inflection of light, 252.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00633", "bookId": 54897, "start": 579808, "end": 579843, "sha256": "008bc64b992d0f08c502c3969237091c504f2a9b419e8e168d615e99b4cb0fe8", "text": "Guinea and feather experiment, 168.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00634", "bookId": 54897, "start": 579849, "end": 579906, "sha256": "42dc4f7e848b07ba4524d3e64aab639daf3c64ca2ae3be2a32465a5ae20e1f6a", "text": "Gunpowder, invention of, 55. A mechanical agent, 62.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00635", "bookId": 54897, "start": 579914, "end": 579944, "sha256": "49ec0004cfecc4a03fb78abadde35111f3f365509d55156aba901cc5904c762a", "text": "Haarlem lake, draining of, 61.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00636", "bookId": 54897, "start": 579950, "end": 579973, "sha256": "4150e7e61fc2fbac656e235efe14b267cf62415c233ec23b4bde1969d7e39d2a", "text": "Harmony, sense of, 248.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00637", "bookId": 54897, "start": 579979, "end": 580010, "sha256": "b092d533c91bfb75b042ef43674da1887e3660c7341a1948675d0a7af9b8f210", "text": "Head, captain, anecdote of, 84.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00638", "bookId": 54897, "start": 580016, "end": 580572, "sha256": "8deb9b7f12ee5cbc327d4114ff350c11ec8ab69c60d7a689e21b3f19694e3877", "text": "Heat, 193. Radiation and conduction of, 205. One of the chief agents in chemistry, 310. Our ignorance of the nature of, 310. Abuse of the sense of the term, 311. The general heads under which it is studied, 312. Its most obvious sources, 312. Animal heat, to what process referable, 313. Radiation and conduction of, 314. Solar heat differs from terrestrial fires, or hot bodies, 315. Principal effects of, 317. The antagonist to mutual attraction, 322. Latent heat, 322. Specific heat, 323.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00639", "bookId": 54897, "start": 580578, "end": 580635, "sha256": "e0d9fd1eb5f1b3e2a37a6fb133d770708f4234e2a44d4534a3dafa37ff28f2df", "text": "Herschel, sir William, his analysis of a solar beam, 314.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00640", "bookId": 54897, "start": 580641, "end": 580681, "sha256": "77954268b923a5d9e4aa7281ac670a097ffc2a0fbc4e351720b2bee013810b03", "text": "Hipparchus, his catalogue of stars, 276.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00641", "bookId": 54897, "start": 580687, "end": 580729, "sha256": "2de1906b8f7ba9cbe8fe6caad66cd5cbf9be12d55972c8c35c19bc0c0580689b", "text": "Holland drained of water by windmills, 61.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00642", "bookId": 54897, "start": 580735, "end": 580773, "sha256": "e60d1e4de579c92fb83ef2ace1184f27f92b410bf367872df52a16ce5d0a7bb6", "text": "Hooke almost the rival of Newton, 116.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00643", "bookId": 54897, "start": 580779, "end": 580811, "sha256": "8ee9320a2def63346f75d387965a8b80cb299657c55ba7989c9df1d9766adff3", "text": "Huel Towan, steam-engine at, 59.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00644", "bookId": 54897, "start": 580817, "end": 580906, "sha256": "be61ac6786de4b54a6d2f2b01166f34fc3461516e994f485136671ecd3fcdcdc", "text": "Huyghens, his doctrine of light, 207. Ascertains the laws of double refraction, 254.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00645", "bookId": 54897, "start": 580912, "end": 581078, "sha256": "0d9ccdeaf2026584f11f39869190724ad253398125211d944e24643b9f6cf774", "text": "Hydrostatics, first step towards a knowledge of, made by Archimedes, 231. Law of the equal pressure of liquids, 232. General applicability of, 232.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00646", "bookId": 54897, "start": 581084, "end": 581269, "sha256": "7c3e4c0407a8656c00f1243f9936916b60479946f5fc6b5daa7a230768109d15", "text": "Hypothesis, not to be deterred from framing them, 196. Conditions on which they should be framed, 197. Illustrated by the laws of gravitation, 198. Use and abuse of, 204.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00647", "bookId": 54897, "start": 581277, "end": 581929, "sha256": "4a57e6a12e8ef757f3b34aec09500ac3ad40a12358904f679efe9765f98f379b", "text": "Induction, different ways of carrying it on, 102. Steps by which it is arrived at on a legitimate and extensive scale, 118. First stage of, 144. Verification of, 164. Instanced in astronomy, 166. Must be followed into all its consequences, and applied to all those cases which seem even remotely to bear upon the subject of enquiry, 173. Nature of the inductions by which quantitative laws are arrived at, 176. Necessity of induction embracing a series of cases which absolutely include the whole scale of variation of which the quantities in question admit, 177.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00648", "bookId": 54897, "start": 581935, "end": 581960, "sha256": "98b5c987e12a52bed19430794719b233ebe57ebc06329d29cfe206b023f8bf77", "text": "Induced electricity, 333.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00649", "bookId": 54897, "start": 581966, "end": 581979, "sha256": "0dc8423a36da231a1348cd55a834b83bc6969c1d43938a1a037abb62079ec505", "text": "Inertia, 223.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00650", "bookId": 54897, "start": 581985, "end": 582051, "sha256": "fb7f225144c34ea8c412f9b24a80fa0ecb17fcdb24a1382ee23589363f8c0dcb", "text": "Iodine, discovery of, 50. Efficacy of, in curing goître, 51.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00651", "bookId": 54897, "start": 582057, "end": 582082, "sha256": "698df282f0b6698841ae7d7e1de461e3de46e995e762d26e4f2c4637e3018c61", "text": "Isomorphism, law of, 170.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00652", "bookId": 54897, "start": 582090, "end": 582256, "sha256": "77e21f42235e48329953ae6f31ee5ee247bb877d9d5b96594834636f594d0872", "text": "Kepler, effect of his discoveries on the Aristotelian philosophy, 113. Nature of his laws of the planetary system, 178. Proofs of the Newtonian system, 179.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00653", "bookId": 54897, "start": 582262, "end": 582413, "sha256": "2a0a90900c2f453b42e47c670666fe610da3c9505be959d1dd5f0b0f9c47ac05", "text": "Knowledge, physical facts illustrative of the utility of, 45. Diffusion of, how to take advantage of in the investigation of nature, 138.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00654", "bookId": 54897, "start": 582421, "end": 582522, "sha256": "9ee6fd43e7e09f3c83f312c2d7064a496b2f0c6b0483b0d30ef472fe7bd7cce0", "text": "Lagrange, his improvements on Newton’s theory of sound, 247. His astronomical researches, 275.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00655", "bookId": 54897, "start": 582528, "end": 582545, "sha256": "abb12fc152fdcb623317f3aa76e715688389b163bcb781b70b338375dfb63040", "text": "Lamp, safety, 55.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00656", "bookId": 54897, "start": 582551, "end": 582873, "sha256": "ef5d2d126e124e05e833fb530006dc9b430a65775cc377cf9788d2ade7785ab8", "text": "Laplace, his explanation of the residual velocity of sound and confirmation of the general law of the developement of heat by compression, 172. His astronomical research, 275. His experiments on the dilatation of bodies by heat, 319. His study of specific heat, 323. Latent heat, 323.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00657", "bookId": 54897, "start": 582879, "end": 583018, "sha256": "aebc4f290a141e88dccf19214e0d08e9d4134c7654fffc096083e9d911218363", "text": "Laws, inductive, 171. General, 198. How applicable, 199. Illustrated by the planetary system, 201. Empirical laws, 178.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00658", "bookId": 54897, "start": 583024, "end": 583178, "sha256": "5ad8158bb823119cdd6326b288e47ce3185482bcaf8458cfd31404a068d219f7", "text": "Lavoisier, his improvements in chemical science, 302. Experiments on dilatation of bodies by heat, 319. His investigation on specific heat, 323.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00659", "bookId": 54897, "start": 583184, "end": 583267, "sha256": "66cdadc8667d22804064d86955c9cdd55bb9fad45b0fdf6e21c64a23f3751753", "text": "Light, refraction of, 30. Double refraction of, 31. Polarization of, 254.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00660", "bookId": 54897, "start": 583273, "end": 583333, "sha256": "51585ade41cdd467794531a4f7977af0379441dc68c421becff5c3bd847e7130", "text": "Light and vision, ignorance of the ancients respecting, 249.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00661", "bookId": 54897, "start": 583339, "end": 583354, "sha256": "d49779404ebac32c4c543c485519da2ae0bc62fba38c6259f52d4f9eb2e7a803", "text": "Lighthouse, 56.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00662", "bookId": 54897, "start": 583360, "end": 583442, "sha256": "3f67bcf8d2f2309b83e610deff0b317518ee025ce98efe150e4eeab3c65960c1", "text": "Lightning, how to judge philosophically of it, 120. Returning stroke of, 121.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00663", "bookId": 54897, "start": 583448, "end": 583731, "sha256": "ba762051713e14b0be099de266482f7fa5d13648f7ba8236e42934efe0ac1f97", "text": "Liquids, cohesion, attraction and repulsion of the particles of, 227. Differ from aëriform fluids by their cohesion, 233. The Florentine experiment on; experiments by Canton, Perkins, Oërsted, and others on, 235. Obscurity of the laws of dilatation of, 320.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00664", "bookId": 54897, "start": 583737, "end": 583792, "sha256": "53a3b54ba0195724963d06213e8014483879d34a4303660bcca1c8248ad1b04b", "text": "Linnæus, his knowledge of crystalline substances, 239.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00665", "bookId": 54897, "start": 583798, "end": 583808, "sha256": "7394a90e8319f5405fb028437c9cfd648ca1336c6b337d84fb1124e4bac56e58", "text": "Logic, 19.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00666", "bookId": 54897, "start": 583814, "end": 583865, "sha256": "42b03d796bd7046664ae8f16f556be4d0203c8ea9b54becbb5713b7b001188ed", "text": "Lyell’s Principles of Geology, extract from, 146.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00667", "bookId": 54897, "start": 583873, "end": 584010, "sha256": "429f746c0cfd7478e66a43f240b40311c901b72958cfe195d5a68cf460ee3685", "text": "Magnetism may be caused by electricity, 93. Offers a “glaring instance” of polarity, 326. Experiments illustrative of, 327.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00668", "bookId": 54897, "start": 584016, "end": 584109, "sha256": "9a38b978854c4be8406b8ea3f3f7ed24eedf9458da12acd52b2dc18dcfddbae8", "text": "Malus, a French officer of engineers, discovers the polarization of light, 132, 258.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00669", "bookId": 54897, "start": 584115, "end": 584565, "sha256": "fbb0ea2faae748e0555863d6433d9be46b46ade27a680510a2c24d79754734fe", "text": "Man, regarded as a creature of instinct, 1. Of reason and speculation, 3. His will determined by causes and consequences, 6. Advantages to, from the study of science, 7. His necessity to study the laws of nature illustrated, 66. Happiness and the opposite state of man in the aggregate, 67. Advantages conferred on, by the augmentation of physical resources, 68. Advantages from intellectual resources, 69.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00670", "bookId": 54897, "start": 584571, "end": 584741, "sha256": "0036f5ea88aed00c5e6c0e7b62501d0901f1528c9ed7d25c93f35b9a78a70f65", "text": "Mariotte, his law of equilibrium of an elastic fluid recently verified by the Royal Academy of Paris, 231. His difference between solar and other heat, 315.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00671", "bookId": 54897, "start": 584747, "end": 585074, "sha256": "03640723319029970ebf1bb0aa2f0dbcb3381df6d23b92afa873f88370908781", "text": "Matter, indestructibility of; Divided by grinding, 40. By fire, 41. Dilated by heat, 193. Inertia of, 202. Polarity of, one of the ultimate phenomena to which the analysis of nature leads us, 245. Inherent activity of, 297. Causes of the polarity of, 299. Imponderable forms of, 310.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00672", "bookId": 54897, "start": 585080, "end": 585246, "sha256": "73632d0df0c8ffc8f5e23bc67d50dc08e2bc50871e616a9f7b5c3139244d9ac2", "text": "Measure, the standard, difficulty of preserving it unaltered, 128. How to be assisted in measurement, 129. Our conclusions from, should be conditional, 130.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00673", "bookId": 54897, "start": 585252, "end": 585291, "sha256": "b37a91e08170431bab15916843d10b6b2c21ebe5a349d6ff357228879da5093d", "text": "Menai Bridge, weight and height of, 60.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00674", "bookId": 54897, "start": 585297, "end": 585322, "sha256": "0789531f203f4d0627740f136f805b815c95c42b35168df6435c7391807fed77", "text": "Mechanics, practical, 63.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00675", "bookId": 54897, "start": 585328, "end": 585352, "sha256": "7a468482b2ede47aec1b4480d48b480e07b3d3b65127340c20436f9ea029fb03", "text": "Mètre, the French, 126.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00676", "bookId": 54897, "start": 585358, "end": 585385, "sha256": "c2ada42391e6ed44d3d99067a821e26626489ec3746a7cccbcbc958f2b1a52ca", "text": "Microscopes, power of, 191.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00677", "bookId": 54897, "start": 585391, "end": 585434, "sha256": "bca24577f67b846525c8455e70e62befcc394e228b725b26b10414bea20d7ffd", "text": "Millstones, method of making in France, 48.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00678", "bookId": 54897, "start": 585440, "end": 585536, "sha256": "c47168eb0d6c9d8fe9a8c6c194a737a1d92cc2f43a82d4133ec28657df784b50", "text": "Mind, its transition from the little to the great, and _vice versâ_, illustrated, 172.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00679", "bookId": 54897, "start": 585542, "end": 585690, "sha256": "d241d160c224c0780b45c7fc87b6488ba97280938ca1b73cf1a3ca479d22232b", "text": "Mineralogy unknown to the ancients, 79. Prejudiced by the rage for nomenclature, 139. Benefited by the progress of chemical analysis, 293.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00680", "bookId": 54897, "start": 585696, "end": 585778, "sha256": "ecc1e2b34d26b83738e32e71fcedc4820744677a298be54afdc5659e5ae6baaf", "text": "Minerals, simple, apparent paucity of, 294. Difficulty in classing them, 295.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00681", "bookId": 54897, "start": 585784, "end": 585892, "sha256": "bc567f8181e7099728eeca38d77ed3b66ea7a397b8f0681eaaeb0e16a005e25c", "text": "Mitscherlich, his law of isomorphism, 170. His experiments on the expansion of substances by heat, 243.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00682", "bookId": 54897, "start": 585898, "end": 585960, "sha256": "a458849b4ec9a3b17caca15d2901bc3dedbd55147e42c167ba8202a6875b32d6", "text": "Motion, 87. Simplicity and precision of the laws of, 179.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00683", "bookId": 54897, "start": 585968, "end": 586307, "sha256": "69215d4b067a49b8b965f1dfa3ea932ae3cf02d86cc3556a89f70ff228514b9c", "text": "Nature, laws of, 37. Immutability of, 42. Harmony of, and advantage of studying them, 43. Prove the impossibility of attaining the declared object of the alchemist. How they serve mankind generally, 44. Illustrated by mining, 45. Economy derived from a knowledge of, 65. How to be regarded, 100, 101.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00684", "bookId": 54897, "start": 586313, "end": 586517, "sha256": "5890b12b8ae028b9731b5d0b286e95c26363676b5396ed6b6b48f36e1ecc4780", "text": "Nature, objects of, an enumeration and nomenclature of, useful in the study of, 135. Mechanism of, on too large or too small a scale to be immediately cognisable by our senses, 191.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00685", "bookId": 54897, "start": 586523, "end": 587208, "sha256": "94798f9d5158e4214fbdb1a937997de087699f8b2aff7ecb19e2866ba4004a1b", "text": "Newton, his proof of Galileo’s laws of gravitation by an experiment with a hollow glass pendulum, 160. His foundation to hydrodynamical science, 181. Fixes the division between statics and dynamics, 223. His investigation of the law of equilibrium of elastic fluids, 231. His law of hydrostatics, 232. His foundation of hydrodynamics 236. His analysis of sound, 247. Hypothesis of light, 250. Examination of a soap-bubble, 252. His hypothesis of fits of easy transmission and reflection, 253. His combination of mathematical skill with physical research, 271. His Principia, 272. His successors; his geometry, 273.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00686", "bookId": 54897, "start": 587214, "end": 587361, "sha256": "55eb2242a2c0a93562f6b6266da56587eb4112e0402189fc3a965165b7d121f5", "text": "Nomenclature, importance of, to science, 136. More a consequence than a cause of extended knowledge, 138. Prejudicial to mineralogy, 139.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00687", "bookId": 54897, "start": 587367, "end": 587427, "sha256": "aec2fee3e4854e009c7a695c4edbf0c5db8c40051f437a8834c5495eb0be9ab7", "text": "Norman, Robert, his discovery of the dip of the needle, 327.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00688", "bookId": 54897, "start": 587433, "end": 587484, "sha256": "bb89e985bf34050e7278f94e49f8144adfe5d4be0e332699d0bcfaddfed838ce", "text": "Numerical precision, necessity of, in science, 122.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00689", "bookId": 54897, "start": 587492, "end": 587558, "sha256": "c9d325b7d616223525a608ca9bdb9a97ec38f017d6ac6fa9df8ec2b97aeca5c5", "text": "Objects, and their mutual actions, subjects of contemplation, 118.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00690", "bookId": 54897, "start": 587564, "end": 587772, "sha256": "1ddf31160181ae1e56051015b7b6ba134a73a03f518c3870789d4d143bb24bc8", "text": "Observation, a means of acquiring experience, 76. Passive and active, 77. Recorded observation, 120. Necessity of, to acquire precise physical data, 215. Illustrated by the barometer, 216.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00691", "bookId": 54897, "start": 587778, "end": 587870, "sha256": "f1ba0cd183ad6c3e488254341045b123918d36077c9a71c4843cb2db02ef707e", "text": "Oërsted, his discoveries in electricity and magnetism, 132. Of electro-magnetism, 340.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00692", "bookId": 54897, "start": 587876, "end": 587889, "sha256": "34fdd6f0b55b3d197ff6d24371bb0bdcd08d0dfd3ea91931eaeb7f4f8ae36f69", "text": "Opacity, 189.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00693", "bookId": 54897, "start": 587895, "end": 587963, "sha256": "334bd23f77b37c886a6b074a19c73d819d951f48eb9959258ea824e9b1f082c2", "text": "Otto von Guericke of Magdeburgh, his invention of the air-pump, 230.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00694", "bookId": 54897, "start": 587971, "end": 588067, "sha256": "ddf38fec8a19a8cfd4ac2a74d858aef8c91a45b269358fccaeb08299a587bf3c", "text": "Paracelsus, power of his chemical remedies; his use of mercury, opium, and tartar, 112.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00695", "bookId": 54897, "start": 588073, "end": 588134, "sha256": "9d630fc04d383b73248dbbcc212f46d2bb4537b22676e83ba0121f4722fc1a25", "text": "Pascal, his crucial instances proving the weight of air, 229.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00696", "bookId": 54897, "start": 588140, "end": 588154, "sha256": "783f64424e479f950b9c77edff67a6b86fedbe0b9de01d159091d432c8bbd792", "text": "Pendulum, 126.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00697", "bookId": 54897, "start": 588160, "end": 588703, "sha256": "eb8d6d224e4cc7505e3e9eb9d6f2aa4fc576721f1e8ec90c8cb4b91478454f9a", "text": "Phenomena, analysis of, illustrated by musical sounds, the sensation of taste, 85. The ultimate and inward process of nature in the production of, 86. Analysis of complex phenomena, 88. Ultimate phenomena, 90. How the analysis of, is useful, 97. A transient phenomenon, how to judge of, 122. Method of explaining one when it presents itself, 148. How to discover the cause of one, 150. Two, or many, theories, maintained as the origin of, in physics, 195. Cosmical phenomena, 265.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00698", "bookId": 54897, "start": 588709, "end": 588886, "sha256": "af09cab41c2d6961b57d6df7e3df45b5b98ba4d3a003acda54bb621d999dbea3", "text": "Philosophy, natural, unfounded objections to the study of, 7. Advantages derivable from the study of, 10. Pleasure and happiness, the consequences of the study of, 15.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00699", "bookId": 54897, "start": 588892, "end": 588939, "sha256": "2c593f7805297f3e288cd5a3b99ed2fdf5e4de94ab50c61a127b61a72fa948aa", "text": "Phlogistic doctrines of Beccher and Stahl, 300.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00700", "bookId": 54897, "start": 588945, "end": 589182, "sha256": "6bf9b950b39c055d7e780dfcf467b1c12fc00acab0b18d482ca6174944bfabef", "text": "Physical data, necessity of, 209. Great importance of, 211. Illustrated by the erection of observatories, 213. Necessity of an exact knowledge of, 214. More precise than the observations by which we acquire them, 215.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00701", "bookId": 54897, "start": 589188, "end": 589225, "sha256": "eea45189495991cd05c1a9e3dfa6363dd1b44cc84b058ff9a4a99b072595b88e", "text": "Physics, axioms of; analysis of, 102.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00702", "bookId": 54897, "start": 589231, "end": 589258, "sha256": "b59cdad03d667226e46f7e74c3a90f4e8305df2fe66de7c0e9b827b1218e32e0", "text": "Planets, circumjovial, 186.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00703", "bookId": 54897, "start": 589264, "end": 589291, "sha256": "673f6ff2f965ffa282c9c56caef8001d0f84c3a7f1117cc65c49dade70fafcb8", "text": "Platina, discovery of, 308.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00704", "bookId": 54897, "start": 589297, "end": 589345, "sha256": "0de9cddf043dd7387fa8d0cddc7063445b672ce669db62e05847f59a8afe4aae", "text": "Pliny, his knowledge of quartz and diamond, 239.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00705", "bookId": 54897, "start": 589351, "end": 589367, "sha256": "f878fbc7373516b2bb5afd7a61c7bff19111973d9930d15c34b0f63fdf39a3b2", "text": "Pneumatics, 228.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00706", "bookId": 54897, "start": 589373, "end": 589395, "sha256": "fc3008232321fc4d6b3a9fc36f1c5709d0b82fcad8fc50d47ff4a83fb0cb3a83", "text": "Political economy, 73.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00707", "bookId": 54897, "start": 589401, "end": 589662, "sha256": "f631a78e1ebcf1c987664d3bd7f5ad1b419c73acf74be5bbec58d9ae9e09cc5f", "text": "Prejudices of opinion and sense, 80. Conditions on which such are injurious, 81. Illustrated by the division of the rays of light, by the moon at the horizon, and by ventriloquism, 82. By the transition of the hand from heat to cold, 83.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00708", "bookId": 54897, "start": 589668, "end": 589797, "sha256": "876a3566e09664a97e380519ab9a1b0613b601f93831118bcd86e922b7e006e0", "text": "Prevost, M., his theory of heat, 316. His theory of reciprocal interchanges, a proof of the radiation of cold, 318.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00709", "bookId": 54897, "start": 589803, "end": 589859, "sha256": "0ef1c7113f0ddfdd4461d9d446d8ac7d82957d2ee134d60e7adbf602f785aeff", "text": "Printing, the art of, 193. Performed by steam, 194.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00710", "bookId": 54897, "start": 589865, "end": 589943, "sha256": "c04d6ecab3c34b727f44edaa20cf42ca3d08fa9e387c19b0f625c374d1d8b466", "text": "Probabilities, doctrine of, 217. Illustrated by shooting at a wafer, 218.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00711", "bookId": 54897, "start": 589949, "end": 590000, "sha256": "4f44d8c3c9909e4cb6b8431ecfad25a5f424cf55810e8d27d4eac4f6db583ddc", "text": "Prout, Dr., his opinion of the atomic weights, 307.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00712", "bookId": 54897, "start": 590006, "end": 590021, "sha256": "7d9f0e03abde525dbc896950271698e5e78b1152eb2c9d05bda21f74ba61eccb", "text": "Pyrometry, 319.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00713", "bookId": 54897, "start": 590027, "end": 590058, "sha256": "e2e8c761b50d54aa4cdad0413f64ab2e12d7a77336eb1eb3d24f4d0686f95000", "text": "Pythagoras, philosophy of, 107.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00714", "bookId": 54897, "start": 590066, "end": 590158, "sha256": "11db4b4740a250747b42bcda9374d505293d63cbb49caee07b4e2874a03299a6", "text": "Quinine, sulphate of, comparative comfort and health resulting from the use of, 56.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00715", "bookId": 54897, "start": 590166, "end": 590198, "sha256": "d7dc7216867c722ca8e992b1fb881bec092305404751162f7e4e6ec5cef8a269", "text": "Radiation of heat, laws of, 205.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00716", "bookId": 54897, "start": 590204, "end": 590240, "sha256": "309c3b7e98cccb518bd114949f5bbd3d0142306c08669984d533f1eedee48fee", "text": "Repulsion in fluids and solids, 227.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00717", "bookId": 54897, "start": 590246, "end": 590354, "sha256": "050b2d536e34f58258591c94af7f32e5b36d097ccb1add293d48c899a43c724a", "text": "Rules, general, for guiding and facilitating our search among a great mass of assembled facts, 151.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00718", "bookId": 54897, "start": 590360, "end": 590409, "sha256": "e907cf94f024d710ea41eefd0787fc821fd0209260e5613167b8066d5e09dec6", "text": "Rumford, count, experiments of, on gunpowder, 62.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00719", "bookId": 54897, "start": 590417, "end": 590495, "sha256": "f19ecac46d96186e2d4f12c475af6af6257ce41ce0d3c1d7074da9ef728b2abd", "text": "Savart, M., his experiments on solids, 243. His researches on sound, 249.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00720", "bookId": 54897, "start": 590501, "end": 590657, "sha256": "01bb23ba2a20e31cb7b3d68a245da28949cfa80a85c6d2216f4742a5c6ebdc19", "text": "Science, abstract, a preparation for the study of physics, 19. Not indispensable to the study of physical laws, 25. Instances illustrative of, 27.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00721", "bookId": 54897, "start": 590663, "end": 591021, "sha256": "1ab1944e918f8d7665f88745c3bef1c77e065300dc5a786481148a30720d724d", "text": "Science, physical, nature and objects, immediate and collateral, as regarded in itself and in its application to the practical purposes of life, and its influence on society, 35. State of, previous to the age of Galileo and Bacon, 104. Causes of the rapid advance of, compared with the progress at an earlier period, 347.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00722", "bookId": 54897, "start": 591027, "end": 591093, "sha256": "e30faa5c2c229efa867ff0c97b4d396589c2cc4677188a20763d378b72975727", "text": "Science, natural, cause and effect, the ultimate relations of, 76.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00723", "bookId": 54897, "start": 591099, "end": 591254, "sha256": "c8578684d9343ba43ca1f1b27838a386f7b078080463f7dc7cd11135b7cdb5e8", "text": "Sciences and Arts, remarks on the language, terms, or signs used in treating of them, 70. Receive an impulse by the Baconian philosophy, 114.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00724", "bookId": 54897, "start": 591260, "end": 591284, "sha256": "7a75ba36910164102c4baa2a62bf52a408cce9ca47d50ff307ae180e09bc847c", "text": "Sensation, cause of, 91.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00725", "bookId": 54897, "start": 591290, "end": 591437, "sha256": "be8e9639c0eaaa05bb452b0aa2d36932dcffaa8c9e514c989a096868c327daac", "text": "Senses, inadequate to give us direct information for the exact comparison of quantity, 124. Substitutes for the inefficiency of, 125.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00726", "bookId": 54897, "start": 591443, "end": 591508, "sha256": "ac3932762bc9634f17266fb343104d4ba3be17cc7b62db9e1af5f679a3c2cc5f", "text": "Seringapatam, method of breaking blocks from the quarries of, 47.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00727", "bookId": 54897, "start": 591514, "end": 591601, "sha256": "b1088ed6da1c7aec2ff905e67b648403c8f626774ded29b5010d363b217bf2cb", "text": "Shells found in rocks at a great height above the sea, supposed cause of, 145.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00728", "bookId": 54897, "start": 591607, "end": 591663, "sha256": "85e95b0254605919adf291d14bcf26bd8c922afa8585bf8e06a47b1505bb6c93", "text": "Smeaton, his experiments on bodies dilated by heat, 319.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00729", "bookId": 54897, "start": 591669, "end": 591799, "sha256": "5e7a76c4b7f68af68c9c4e55279b3d3d820c52af4a79e60e74d36de62381dbf5", "text": "Solids, transparent, exhibit periodical colours when exposed to polarized light, 99. Influence of, on the Mind, 101.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00730", "bookId": 54897, "start": 591805, "end": 591992, "sha256": "7126676ca5fbaad54c5a294b5ba61d5ba106dde39601b3234de67ae6ab88192c", "text": "Solids in general, nature of, 236. Constitution of, complicated, 237. Toughness of, distinct from hardness; tenacity of, 238. Become liquefied by the addition of heat, 321.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00731", "bookId": 54897, "start": 591998, "end": 592179, "sha256": "52729a25dbd1a46e530433cbe3e84af435012ba98fbfc9686efdb0f406435cc8", "text": "Sounds, musical, illustrative of the analysis of phenomena, 85. Means of having a knowledge of, 89. Propagation of, through the air, 246. Newton’s analysis of, 247.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00732", "bookId": 54897, "start": 592185, "end": 592315, "sha256": "76cf9a00c8e8ad68718a487cfd5e7edd874d4b2429a335cfd0e5a7e93b588fed", "text": "Standard measurement, necessity of, 125. Laws of nature used as such, illustrated by the rotation of the earth, 126.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00733", "bookId": 54897, "start": 592321, "end": 592387, "sha256": "14eb991f524b7fb95adc066b49fc4ea068c83cd346391a7dc9bef7ffb13369a4", "text": "Substances all subject to dilatation by the addition of heat, 243.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00734", "bookId": 54897, "start": 592393, "end": 592432, "sha256": "c61eaaf4bb9a8d9538d56d537e91f7e5b5a71255b58df7a808ddd211480cd087", "text": "Sun, the character of the heat of, 315.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00735", "bookId": 54897, "start": 592440, "end": 592467, "sha256": "d47c8161076184b63af84374800a1e24c09851c0824a4f77181ac5f52f15e0ab", "text": "Thales, philosophy of, 107.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00736", "bookId": 54897, "start": 592473, "end": 592688, "sha256": "b2e3e0042321a8eab14295edb82b4416671312811adbc8dd45de7a0db6af728b", "text": "Theories, how to estimate the value of, 204. Best arrived at by the consideration of general laws, 208. Explanatory of the phenomena of nature; on what their application ought to be grounded, 209.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00737", "bookId": 54897, "start": 592694, "end": 592747, "sha256": "5c2dbf1a1dbee79dbb63d03cd3c21737b8024dda431b16c8b274b7e2bb3ef80e", "text": "Thomson, Dr., his opinion of the atomic weights, 307.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00738", "bookId": 54897, "start": 592753, "end": 592775, "sha256": "79521ddc4959c2b7736c4b4c4513b948655a631042d43e59f63d31839c9234e0", "text": "Thermometer, air, 319.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00739", "bookId": 54897, "start": 592781, "end": 592805, "sha256": "980de65c1afb6e9c20608d773ce728919fc03cf6172e000aee50ab331dec1bda", "text": "Thermo-electricity, 341.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00740", "bookId": 54897, "start": 592811, "end": 592839, "sha256": "d87eb49aea1588c4f97b1cf598ac351b99e4ffbba9ae39caff438dfad623f832", "text": "Time, division of, 126, 127.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00741", "bookId": 54897, "start": 592845, "end": 592938, "sha256": "dd72d4ebc71c40ebbb6fc104aee4e0adf585a697c0902b07e466aa37c6f5d67d", "text": "Torricelli, pupil of Galileo, his experiments proving the weight of atmosphere, 229.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00742", "bookId": 54897, "start": 592944, "end": 592972, "sha256": "8e425d45da22cf23fe3e19ae982ea3f684f3b0c5d503b16bd42e8847b4f96bdd", "text": "Torpedo, shock of, 341, 342.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00743", "bookId": 54897, "start": 592980, "end": 593020, "sha256": "6bb3606084fd1697ff04032b5ad582d3e444876a70ec13350b5563d6620e8293", "text": "Ulugh Begh, his catalogue of stars, 277.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00744", "bookId": 54897, "start": 593028, "end": 593086, "sha256": "88af38c053b347daa7a082b4ff4d894c061c5e1b11664ffed433a82cec580d33", "text": "Vaccination, success of, as a preventive to small-pox, 52.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00745", "bookId": 54897, "start": 593092, "end": 593152, "sha256": "51b8862cb0e650b200d552ddc3aebdf1625ecabf037c27eac7ca969ef38119b4", "text": "Vision and light, ignorance of the ancients respecting, 249.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00746", "bookId": 54897, "start": 593158, "end": 593229, "sha256": "09dd0ce7bcc182d504b75ae16216ec61667ac7ad331c502b719db9ed374f8c88", "text": "Volta, his discoveries in electricity, 335. Electric pile of, 337.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00747", "bookId": 54897, "start": 593235, "end": 593256, "sha256": "809d2b3f3aac4454389fba62212b0cf0050301e641517282b011e57b2aa4a123", "text": "Voltaic circuit, 338.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00748", "bookId": 54897, "start": 593264, "end": 593299, "sha256": "6739f021d4c049f0a0f5362e25da044a66398acd8c2e8341d1abbcc06d946708", "text": "Water, effects of the power of, 61.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00749", "bookId": 54897, "start": 593305, "end": 593335, "sha256": "aab42231c5aa1c2ad5172c8aaee5ff6f13f632184c2f730856ae3348f953d2e5", "text": "Whewell, his experiments, 187.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00750", "bookId": 54897, "start": 593341, "end": 593376, "sha256": "8804c1027528695d4228cb2c38245259e17821e6e661281df5904e3a7a000203", "text": "Wells, Dr., his theory of dew, 163.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00751", "bookId": 54897, "start": 593382, "end": 593416, "sha256": "abc19bee7f88188a7d8f89d24709355ea350be5f956dda094f4095c0664be52f", "text": "Wind, effects of the power of, 61.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00752", "bookId": 54897, "start": 593422, "end": 593481, "sha256": "b5a383d2f02fcd69b565a153e1c3ec63c1d5a1a935a8d4a2a579adb7301168eb", "text": "Wire steel, magnetized masks of, used by needle-makers, 57.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00753", "bookId": 54897, "start": 593487, "end": 593626, "sha256": "f434eaa6326b2f075f962da7f344541bd2dbab58d1e967f4a0956dd38f90c9a7", "text": "Wollaston, Dr., his verification of the laws of double refraction in Iceland spar, 258. His invention of the goniometer, 292.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00754", "bookId": 54897, "start": 593632, "end": 593665, "sha256": "77f9786f291416264dab33333fd34fe83cce3e4325e93d64e2ee227bbe5a0b52", "text": "World, the materials of the, 290.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00755", "bookId": 54897, "start": 593673, "end": 593756, "sha256": "5920a263355402225e5eef0e97e1feda2897cb66a87b9b8459d83ded8a683be8", "text": "Young, Dr., his experiments on the interference of the rays of light, 260.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00756", "bookId": 54897, "start": 593764, "end": 593785, "sha256": "81892fc02cb8d8b03863be1860e3a2e6cfd61d5682d1660f85f67a615c8a4f6f", "text": "Zoology, fossil, 344.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00757", "bookId": 54897, "start": 593791, "end": 593799, "sha256": "f953533f03ed670716edd55fe0468e2a66c6a9f5e781b53bbf568b58fe2de7ee", "text": "THE END.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00758", "bookId": 54897, "start": 593807, "end": 593870, "sha256": "fd885c6837bb519c3baeb4df6553b970a672157005888aae8fceedabff79e57a", "text": "LONDON PRINTED BY SPOTTISWOODE AND CO. NEW-STREET SQUARE.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00759", "bookId": 54897, "start": 593880, "end": 593889, "sha256": "2eb458c6a9fc9ab1cf43724ad34da9ab29757c0632ff85275bb0b21394937bbd", "text": "FOOTNOTES", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00760", "bookId": 54897, "start": 593895, "end": 593958, "sha256": "9e011fdd7d44aa00e99dc006066099a722536fb18ec215e708402a7dd2f6b089", "text": "[1] Hooke’s Posthumous Works. Lond. 1705.--p. 472 and p. 458.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00761", "bookId": 54897, "start": 593962, "end": 594008, "sha256": "2849774c04ad00998e7f85d5c3df6c81707454deb6828e78f2f45fbec4e1a9df", "text": "[2] Wealth of Nations, book i. chap. i. p. 15.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00762", "bookId": 54897, "start": 594012, "end": 595010, "sha256": "b8c4255bc9e9ef6df04b56d911d9c8326ad1f2a40b27221e4c7234eeddcff01a", "text": "[3] On this subject, we cannot forbear citing a passage from one of the most profound but at the same time popular writers of our time, on a subject unconnected it is true with our own, but bearing strongly on the point before us. “But, if science be manifestly incomplete, and yet of the highest importance, it would surely be most unwise to restrain enquiry, conducted on just principles, even where the immediate practical utility of it was not visible. In mathematics, chemistry, and every branch of natural philosophy, how many are the enquiries necessary for their improvement and completion, which, taken separately, do not appear to lead to any specifically advantageous purpose! how many useful inventions, and how much valuable and improving knowledge, would have been lost, if a rational curiosity, and a mere love of information, had not generally been allowed to be a sufficient motive for the search after truth!”--Malthus’s Principles of Political Economy, p. 16.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00763", "bookId": 54897, "start": 595014, "end": 595046, "sha256": "a766481ea867f5ae35b542dda02a1c11f1837150d322f689a2922891136a05f4", "text": "[4] Λογος, _ratio_, reason.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00764", "bookId": 54897, "start": 595050, "end": 595083, "sha256": "bc5d91c8def39936b9f23224435327d0820ec00d65d2f7a4598d131399354eb4", "text": "[5] Λογος, _verbum_, a word.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00765", "bookId": 54897, "start": 595087, "end": 595338, "sha256": "b44bf32b6554db7685596fb2e181aeb821c1a89032ef3a3703145dbd7e7988f8", "text": "[6] It were much to be wished that navigators would be more cautious in laying themselves open to a similar censure. On looking hastily over a map of the world we see three Melville Islands, two King George’s Sounds, and Cape Blancos innumerable.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00766", "bookId": 54897, "start": 595342, "end": 595414, "sha256": "07580aba924af0e96d65ff5b26ed990eec3379512526670bcd1ab4bb72458908", "text": "[7] Young. Lectures on Nat. Phil. ii. 627. See also Phil. Trans. 1801-2.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00767", "bookId": 54897, "start": 595418, "end": 595448, "sha256": "d3ad64353e8746509a58dd9928b9b03cbf646f5010cea9005d3b988f25fb6a64", "text": "[8] Captain Basil Hall, R. N.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00768", "bookId": 54897, "start": 595452, "end": 595906, "sha256": "a1a09586275cadbe3fa7272667c8d25e302beee45a9e9925faa9cfc1f874977b", "text": "[9] We must caution our readers who would assure themselves of it by trial, that it is an experiment of some delicacy, and not to be made without several precautions to ensure success. For these we must refer to our original authority (Fresnel. Mémoire sur la Diffraction de la Lumiere, p. 124.); and the principles on which they depend will of course be detailed in that volume of the Cabinet Cyclopædia which is devoted to the subject of LIGHT.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00769", "bookId": 54897, "start": 595910, "end": 595969, "sha256": "e7f5597801a9c4b71cd057984d3e8dfa204659ec8d1779c451ac8da8c3e3d9fb", "text": "[10] Little reels used in cotton mills to twist the thread.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00770", "bookId": 54897, "start": 595973, "end": 596220, "sha256": "b69a9647258ec902a9c1858ac516f2b4e0c452955fa16b2e0885c660dc3d77e1", "text": "[11] Such a block would weigh between four and five hundred thousand pounds. See Dr. Kennedy’s “Account of the Erection of a Granite Obelisk of a Single Stone about Seventy Feet high, at Seringapatam.”--_Ed. Phil. Trans._ vol. ix, p. 312.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00771", "bookId": 54897, "start": 596224, "end": 596251, "sha256": "679edf2317278d0b41f51c579e83f84071df7b95b8eb5d55f2a57497cad54eb8", "text": "[12] Dr. Coindet of Geneva.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00772", "bookId": 54897, "start": 596255, "end": 597178, "sha256": "f883249893802e4d0724e62e60d8b3b44a442ed2d6157dfa8b989f73c027735b", "text": "[13] Journal of a Voyage to the South Seas, &c. &c. under the Command of Commodore George Anson, in 1740-1744, by Pascoe Thomas, Lond. 1745, So tremendous were the ravages of scurvy, that, in the year 1726, admiral Hosier sailed with seven ships of the line to the West Indies, and buried his ships’ companies twice, and died himself in consequence of a broken heart. Dr. Johnson, in the year 1778, could describe a sea-life in such terms as these:--“As to the sailor, when you look down from the quarter deck to the space below, you see the utmost extremity of human misery, such crowding, such filth, such stench!”--“A ship is a prison with the chance of being drowned--it is worse--worse in every respect--worse room, worse air, worse food--worse company!” Smollet, who had personal experience of the horrors of a seafaring life in those days, gives a lively picture of them in his Roderick Random.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00773", "bookId": 54897, "start": 597182, "end": 598771, "sha256": "b3fe3ce8be81f0ffd2b823b979c6996b7658ad2403827a19ce0819aa5e13f1f1", "text": "[14] Lemon juice was known to be a remedy for scurvy far superior to all others 200 years ago, as appears by the writings of Woodall. His work is entitled “The Surgeon’s Mate, or Military and Domestic Medicine. By John Woodall, Master in Surgery London, 1636,” p. 165. In 1600, Commodore Lancaster sailed from England with three other ships for the Cape of Good Hope, on the 2d of April, and arrived in Saldanha Bay on the 1st of August, the commodore’s own ship being in perfect health, from the administration of three table-spoonsfull of lemon juice every morning to each of his men, whereas the other ships were so sickly as to be unmanageable for want of hands, and the commander was obliged to send men on board to take in their sails and hoist out their boats. (Purchas’s Pilgrim, vol. i. p. 149.) A Fellow of the college, and an eminent practitioner, in 1753 published a tract on sea scurvy, in which he adverts to the superior virtue of this medicine; and Mr. A. Baird, surgeon of the Hector sloop of war, states, that from what he had seen of its effects on board of that ship, he “thinks he shall not be accused of presumption in pronouncing it, if properly administered, a _most infallible remedy_, both in the cure and prevention of scurvy.” (Vide Trotter’s Medicina Nautica.) The precautions adopted by captain Cook in his celebrated voyages, had fully demonstrated by their complete success the practicability of keeping scurvy under in the longest voyages, but a uniform system of prevention throughout the service was still deficient.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00774", "bookId": 54897, "start": 598775, "end": 599393, "sha256": "35b38f15caf79c7cb723ac37e2d34b3de68efb5453915ff73d975932fa0949c6", "text": "It is to the representations of Dr. Blair and sir Gilbert Blane, in their capacity of commissioners of the board for sick and wounded seamen, in 1795, we believe, that its _systematic introduction into nautical diet_, by a general order of the admiralty, is owing. The effect of this wise measure (taken, of course, in conjunction with the general causes of improved health,) may be estimated from the following facts:--In 1780, the number of cases of scurvy received into Haslar hospital was 1457; in 1806 _one_ only, and in 1807 _one_. There are now many surgeons in the navy who have never seen the disease.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00775", "bookId": 54897, "start": 599397, "end": 599766, "sha256": "5d118d51bf6beefe48ed4882b761ea9f6f5c17e58f65fef7df5196fdbf339697", "text": "[15] Throughout France the conductor is recognised as a most valuable and useful instrument; and in those parts of Germany where thunder-storms are still more common and tremendous they are become nearly universal. In Munich there is hardly a modern house unprovided with them, and of a much better construction than ours--several copper wires twisted into a rope.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00776", "bookId": 54897, "start": 599770, "end": 600057, "sha256": "5c54fb2cb0a2f86964f165a5c1a0fb81f79a06eb60fc20d742dede476adba866", "text": "[16] We have been informed by an eminent physician in Rome, (Dr. Morichini) that a vast quantity of the sulphate of quinine is manufactured there and consumed in the Campagna, with an evident effect in mitigating the severity of the malarious complaints which affect its inhabitants.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00777", "bookId": 54897, "start": 600061, "end": 600118, "sha256": "f3e79a6bf39b72564376529a366e21a948bb3f8de85fcbb55ab7cb499621f151", "text": "[17] Dr. Johnson, Memoirs of the Medical Society, vol. v.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00778", "bookId": 54897, "start": 600122, "end": 600384, "sha256": "93de4b6b0814769b5c6418f362c42b6bb2b84915feaa5b0b619874941cc5e66e", "text": "[18] The engine at Huel Towan. See Mr. Henwood’s Statement “of the performance of steam-engines in Cornwall for April, May, and June, 1829.” Brewster’s Journal, Oct. 1829.--The _highest_ monthly average of this engine extends to 79 millions of pounds.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00779", "bookId": 54897, "start": 600388, "end": 600575, "sha256": "c82077f6f658b30d653245480b0fe5c246f2073673e9250e4b1654316a79d738", "text": "[19] However, this is not quite a fair statement; a man’s daily labour is about 4 lbs. of coals. The extreme toil of this ascent arises from other obvious causes than the mere height.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00780", "bookId": 54897, "start": 600579, "end": 600795, "sha256": "81c4ff1a78da4a1380cce3a881fa870cd00936660ad72e44ca222fb546eb11f8", "text": "[20] Its surface is about 40,000 acres, and medium depth about 20 feet. It was proposed to drain it by running embankments across it, and thus cutting it up into more manageable portions to be drained by windmills.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00781", "bookId": 54897, "start": 600799, "end": 601150, "sha256": "59615c39be079703b955162c3d946291628c92cd0bace70b876d0fbdfef8614b", "text": "[21] No one doubts the _practicability_ of the undertaking. Eight or nine thousand chaldrons of coals duly burnt would evacuate the whole contents. But many doubt whether it would be profitable, and some, considering that a few hundreds of fishermen who gain their livelihood on its waters would be dispossessed, deny that it would be _desirable_.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00782", "bookId": 54897, "start": 601154, "end": 601263, "sha256": "fc2a17dedebe658509f6d3f5c471d6ea0b26042ffcd28da11bfe1ffdab7ff2ba", "text": "[22] “Experiments to determine the Force of fired Gunpowder.” Phil. Trans. vol. lxxxvii. p. 254. et seq.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00783", "bookId": 54897, "start": 601267, "end": 601604, "sha256": "e3fa4ba9360f955af25b5db3042ce33c9c090f36087f6f02a886fb883c582a86", "text": "[23] See a very ingenious application of this kind in Mr. Babbage’s article on Diving in the Encyc. Metrop.--Others will readily suggest themselves. For instance, the ballast in reserve of a balloon might consist of materials capable of evolving great quantities of hydrogen gas in proportion to their weight, should such be found.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00784", "bookId": 54897, "start": 601608, "end": 601675, "sha256": "02bab85342814b4d55937cc09479040e6adb1b2987e9b9d4e9820f906b092902", "text": "[24] The sulphuric. Bracconot, Annales de Chimie, vol. xii. p. 184.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00785", "bookId": 54897, "start": 601679, "end": 601735, "sha256": "2ae08bc0e21c887e725b8ba95de3d5e4662755c2636ef93aa2d0d3873c3dfeeb", "text": "[25] D’Arcet, Annales de l’Industrie, Fevrier, 1829.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00786", "bookId": 54897, "start": 601739, "end": 601974, "sha256": "c2262cd0473698204ccd533a6d07094d9ec6a62b48618df210e428fb87c0c13d", "text": "[26] See Dr. Prout’s account of the experiments of professor Autenrieth of Tubingen. Phil. Trans. 1827, p. 381. This discovery, which renders famine next to _impossible_, deserves a higher degree of celebrity than it has obtained.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00787", "bookId": 54897, "start": 601978, "end": 601993, "sha256": "ea9adeb7554469f5c09fa0d0fa19ab47fbe96577ea177ad7bae9e694a6fa64e1", "text": "[27] Greenwich.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00788", "bookId": 54897, "start": 601997, "end": 602016, "sha256": "69fe6b83ab39454a19b154f470ee671c8538ff28306715959ae81ffc80778fbf", "text": "[28] Maskelyne’s.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00789", "bookId": 54897, "start": 602020, "end": 602083, "sha256": "b7ec9379edf3332592976410dc76c22ebd0ad75e6c78d4af950f9a35599ed737", "text": "[29] Thomson’s First Principles of Chemistry, vol. ii. p. 68.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00790", "bookId": 54897, "start": 602087, "end": 602332, "sha256": "b7da36bda31d6b001e627c84d1bd8a72e3812e7412f31a3830b5b5ae1f46e9e4", "text": "[30] Galileo exposes unsparingly the Aristotelian style of reasoning. The reader may take the following from him as a specimen of its quality. The object is to prove the immutability and incorruptibility of the heavens; and thus it is done:--", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00791", "bookId": 54897, "start": 602340, "end": 602387, "sha256": "15ef1bd10eaba5d156d7ca2281af18f7b3da1438d9798eaded92cc8691bf0340", "text": "I. Mutation is either generation or corruption.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00792", "bookId": 54897, "start": 602394, "end": 602455, "sha256": "15e651928d05bb3c91e6ee2efde1350119bb2c92a7f838967581976db883c88c", "text": "II. Generation and corruption only happen between contraries.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00793", "bookId": 54897, "start": 602461, "end": 602505, "sha256": "4d4b4248b94780d69f429dcf4607e97b584ec2d01eb89628a12199f94ff8df86", "text": "III. The motions of contraries are contrary.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00794", "bookId": 54897, "start": 602512, "end": 602551, "sha256": "10cccc48b17ac50e246cea95818b5453e7f457ea6bbeb61d0a73cb71f5508794", "text": "IV. The celestial motions are circular.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00795", "bookId": 54897, "start": 602559, "end": 602598, "sha256": "e7ec52b307081c2a7c8251e36960f73e9a5e17bdbac01214543ac075dbe062d9", "text": "V. Circular motions have no contraries.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00796", "bookId": 54897, "start": 602608, "end": 602753, "sha256": "77a07323da7558f667b2267b7410a468c3579f4086080f4ae7fa1bfa1b2d041d", "text": "α. Because there can be but three simple motions. 1. To a centre. 2. Round a centre. 3. From a centre.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00797", "bookId": 54897, "start": 602763, "end": 602816, "sha256": "6e4479a7daf75ac0600617f94642e67dca92c963b85d7df9f2aeaebaeb901b44", "text": "β. Of three things, one only can be contrary to one.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00798", "bookId": 54897, "start": 602826, "end": 602919, "sha256": "1438e77c6c0c822518295d61ed20636cf6744a76a58ca8f52c6ec33df3908187", "text": "γ. But a motion to a centre is manifestly the contrary to a motion from a centre.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00799", "bookId": 54897, "start": 602929, "end": 603036, "sha256": "f4343492d59851819fd03c0b04cd4048062e7c23422769e172d26ec4d610166c", "text": "δ. Therefore a motion _round_ a centre (_i. e._ a circular motion) remains without a contrary.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00800", "bookId": 54897, "start": 603043, "end": 603255, "sha256": "200b62cb2baedfe8b9c59937d77c08926b7e8334e4044d312abf7a604b7cc534", "text": "VI. _Therefore_ celestial motions have no contraries--_therefore_ among celestial _things_ there are no contraries--_therefore_ the heavens are eternal, immutable, incorruptible, and so forth.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00801", "bookId": 54897, "start": 603259, "end": 603485, "sha256": "823d379028dea3558521c3e2a37b5525e8c8110f429d9af0807415938d1d07aa", "text": "It is evident that all this string of nonsense depends on the excessive vagueness of the notions of generation, corruption, contrariety, &c. on which the changes are rung.--_See_ GALILEO, _Systema Cosmicum_, Dial. i. p. 30.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00802", "bookId": 54897, "start": 603489, "end": 603784, "sha256": "3f7d8428f7f8d61e4bc3e1fbfd7c08cdcbad09d1f24d50d0905eb6c4151dcd25", "text": "[31] Macquer justly observes, that the alchemists would have rendered essential service to chemistry had they only related their unsuccessful experiments as clearly as they have obscurely related those which they pretend to have been successful.--_Macquer’s Dictionary of Chemistry_, i. x.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00803", "bookId": 54897, "start": 603788, "end": 604296, "sha256": "3deccde90b7fdeba41a9d5e32f1237929d877e735a91f9b4a39c83e32436173b", "text": "[32] Paracelsus performed most of these cures by mercury and opium, the use of which latter drug he had learned in Turkey. Of mercurial preparations the physicians of his time were ignorant, and of opium they were afraid, as being “cold in the fourth degree.” Tartar was likewise a great favourite of Paracelsus, who imposed on it that name, “because it contains the water, the salt, the oil, and the acid, which burn the patient as hell does:” in short, a kind of counterbalance to his opium.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00804", "bookId": 54897, "start": 604300, "end": 604423, "sha256": "4239563d80ab609e261c7b42bfd890f42b83639eb2b8be09da70818a24f6ec34", "text": "[33] See the Life of Galileo Galilei, by Mr. Drinkwater, with Illustrations of the Advancement of Experimental Philosophy.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00805", "bookId": 54897, "start": 604427, "end": 604654, "sha256": "46fe0a1e85700520eea79258398493777af55c9d46e12de7ace5c7dca5a9d0f3", "text": "[34] The temporary star in Cassiopeia observed by Cornelius Gemma, in 1572, was so bright as to be seen at noon-day. That in Serpentarius, first seen by Kepler in 1604, exceeded in brilliancy all the other stars and planets.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00806", "bookId": 54897, "start": 604658, "end": 604705, "sha256": "c4b33331f43073f23aaac12bce1ae53b43b1658dc9e306e60a7fdfca3a4f15dc", "text": "[35] Edinburgh Phil. Journ. 1819, vol. i. p. 8.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00807", "bookId": 54897, "start": 604709, "end": 605238, "sha256": "fd2b4f121513673186a47fb439becaebf78a53a13c4981c0cc380b20fc7e4d6b", "text": "[36] The abstract principle of repetition in matters of measurement (viz. juxta-position of units without error) is applicable to a great variety of cases in which quantities are required to be determined to minute nicety. In chemistry, in determining the standard atomic weights of bodies, it seems easily and completely applicable, by a process which will suggest itself at once to every chemist, and seems the only thing wanting to place the exactness of chemical determinations on a par with astronomical measurements.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00808", "bookId": 54897, "start": 605242, "end": 606498, "sha256": "9ea619bc1fa0a6697c74d9928d80925d6546bcb93033941443df0aa771aa6845", "text": "[37] Accurate and _perfectly_ authentic copies of the yard and pound, executed in platina, and hermetically sealed in glass, should be deposited deep in the interior of the massive stone-work of some great public building, whence they could only be rescued with a degree of difficulty sufficient to preclude their being disturbed unless on some very high and urgent occasion. The fact should be publicly recorded, and its memory preserved by an inscription. Indeed, how much valuable and useful information of the actual existing state of arts and knowledge at any period might be transmitted to posterity in a distinct, tangible, and imperishable form, if, instead of the absurd and useless deposition of a few coins and medals under the foundations of buildings, specimens of ingenious implements or condensed statements of scientific truths, or processes in arts and manufactures, were substituted. Will books infallibly preserve to a remote posterity all that we may desire should be hereafter known of ourselves and our discoveries, or all that posterity would wish to know? and may not a useless ceremony be thus transformed into an act of enrolment in a perpetual archive of what we most prize, and acknowledge to be most valuable?", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00809", "bookId": 54897, "start": 606502, "end": 606737, "sha256": "7e57b5e04f9b4422b4b701a89628bf8e097644fc0cc30ff442f84910688f76e9", "text": "[38] In the system alluded to, the name of quartz is assigned to iolite and obsidian; that of mica to plumbago, chlorite, and uranite; sulphur, to orpiment and realgar, &c. See Mohs’s System of Mineralogy, translated by Haidinger.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00810", "bookId": 54897, "start": 606741, "end": 607991, "sha256": "19192845eb7533fca94bd620e0a0b589a2e0386d5b9a19ecf08906645cbdc684", "text": "[39] The following passage, from Lindley’s Synopsis of the British Flora, characterises justly the respective merits, in a philosophical point of view, of natural and artificial systems of classification in general, though limited in its expression to his own immediate science:--“After all that has been effected, or is likely to be accomplished hereafter, there will always be more difficulty in acquiring a knowledge of the natural system of botany than of the Linnæan. The latter skims only the surface of things, and leaves the student in the fancied possession of a sort of information which it is easy enough to obtain, but which is of little value when acquired: the former requires a minute investigation of every part and every property known to exist in plants; but when understood has conveyed to the mind a store of real information, of the utmost use to man in every station of life. Whatever the difficulties may be of becoming acquainted with plants according to this method, they are inseparable from botany, which cannot be usefully studied without encountering them.” Schiller has some beautiful lines on this, entitled “Menschliches Wissen” (or Human Knowledge); Gedichte, vol. i. p. 72. Leipzig, 1800.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00811", "bookId": 54897, "start": 607995, "end": 609241, "sha256": "6826decf5e44c4f64ab17058f6f24d8ed9e883ef01f47a3a76f580746678ba35", "text": "[40] Lyell’s Principles of Geology, vol. i. Fourrier, Mém. de l’Acad. des Sciences, tom. vii. p. 592. “L’établissement et le progrès des sociétés humaines, l’action des forces naturelles, peuvent changer notablement, et dans de vastes contrées, l’état de la surface du sol, la distribution des eaux, et les grands mouvemens de l’air. De tels effets sont propres à faire varier, dans le cours de plusieurs siècles, le dégré de la chaleur moyenne; car les expressions analytiques comprennent des coefficiens qui se rapportent à l’état superficiel, et qui influent beaucoup sur la valeur de la température.” In this enumeration, by M. Fourrier, of causes which may vary the general relation of the surface of extensive continents to heat, it is but justice to Mr. Lyell to observe, that the gradual shifting of the _places_ of the continents themselves on the surface of the globe, by the abrading action of the sea on the one hand, and the elevating agency of subterranean forces on the other, does not expressly occur and cannot be fairly included in the general sense of the passage, which confines itself to the consideration of such changes as may take place on the existing surface of the land.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00812", "bookId": 54897, "start": 609245, "end": 609360, "sha256": "be9e16d9ed1454d4162e442495be7f4d08e9a079a724a199fc425199a5679699", "text": "[41] The reader will find this subject further developed in a paper lately communicated to the Geological Society.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00813", "bookId": 54897, "start": 609364, "end": 609387, "sha256": "7f707a6868f791abef370482cd6e6e582bc2fc50f0a40ad564f09b0672def5e9", "text": "[42] Phil. Trans. 1824.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00814", "bookId": 54897, "start": 609391, "end": 609409, "sha256": "35c975d56bbc2782dd61a0e28ac61250d4c44dc21fc4a6f19badc3ced5f97216", "text": "[43] Wells on Dew.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00815", "bookId": 54897, "start": 609413, "end": 609447, "sha256": "f61cecbef0a13fb2aa5269c3e887b1228841160f7dbb538beb9686a81b5e57fe", "text": "[44] Principia, book iii. prop. 6.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00816", "bookId": 54897, "start": 609451, "end": 609699, "sha256": "a0f75d2cd7bdb38a88e35f72672f5928cae50d445d274cddc669396fd9c24e8f", "text": "[45] A very curious instance of the pursuit of a law completely empirical into an extreme case is to be found in Newton’s rule for the dilatation of his coloured rings seen between glasses at great obliquities. Optics, book ii. part i. obs. 7.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00817", "bookId": 54897, "start": 609703, "end": 609730, "sha256": "5c15362a5ebcbc2c1d862b5df03f2b6f2921b24e3d07bc85333a78c5f9eb2ecc", "text": "[46] See Phil. Trans. 1819.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00818", "bookId": 54897, "start": 609734, "end": 610044, "sha256": "eb1ff323f5f6cce0221213ef47f1f5f52583534079f3db578bb72ce34d7e5365", "text": "[47] “When we are told that Saturn moves in his orbit more than 22,000 miles an hour, we fancy the motion to be swift; but when we find that he is more than three hours moving his own diameter, we must then think it, as it really is, slow.” Thirty Letters on various Subjects, by William Jackson, 1795.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00819", "bookId": 54897, "start": 610048, "end": 610095, "sha256": "2e31a42eab10053eaf0144d818e496233f65162341bae71c8be8a4ea19b36681", "text": "[48] Thomson’s First Principles of Chemistry.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00820", "bookId": 54897, "start": 610099, "end": 610281, "sha256": "43439abcfd36ce01e26a435c7e449c4ac004f311fd5b0733c46aa0a985fc790d", "text": "[49] There seems no doubt, however, that an achromatic telescope had been constructed by a private amateur, a Mr. Hall, some time before either Euler or Dollond ever thought of it.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00821", "bookId": 54897, "start": 610285, "end": 610702, "sha256": "1c682bbcf75c2af8c2b5ec6212c23ab4faf4f9640ca33afafdb6a9e5b4257867", "text": "[50] We allude to the recently invented achromatic combinations of Messrs. Barlow and Rogers, and the dense glasses of which Mr. Faraday has recently explained the manufacture in a memoir full of the most beautiful examples of delicate and successful chemical manipulation, and which promise to give rise to a new era in optical practice, by which the next generation at least may benefit. See Phil. Trans. 1830.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00822", "bookId": 54897, "start": 610706, "end": 610737, "sha256": "c4cf9636150d5a7212f6fb31dd3dfdd202462b5476c7205e06b7b98c8ca237ce", "text": "[51] Alphonso of Castile, 1252.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00823", "bookId": 54897, "start": 610741, "end": 610787, "sha256": "9eac43ae8b901bcff1786c9a45a1bc99d8b711c4d0f7d24959382bc163347b11", "text": "[52] Jackson, Letters on Various Subjects, &c.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00824", "bookId": 54897, "start": 610791, "end": 610852, "sha256": "629f6986baa03adbeca91760ec5ec7bc9f669f73fe248612e264a27cae93f64c", "text": "[53] Thomson’s First Principles of Chemistry, Introduction.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00825", "bookId": 54897, "start": 610856, "end": 610958, "sha256": "d2acaa1828f5b33c39158ef998303fab5b239fb79fa5862104f4d5658e427381", "text": "[54] The progress of astronomical discovery has since shown that this law cannot be relied on (1851).", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00826", "bookId": 54897, "start": 610962, "end": 611047, "sha256": "beca5d95fe2cf7aa13823d0c98a03cd416ff82f598cde8b075ca0c86bcfcc28b", "text": "[55] Novum Organum, part ii. table 2. (24), (30), &c. on the form or nature of heat.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00827", "bookId": 54897, "start": 611051, "end": 612481, "sha256": "f304551da75693d68d4a99e02b8288a5f525ec259e7b5f0abacae202f9e0821c", "text": "[56] We will mention one which we do not remember to have seen noticed elsewhere in the case of a disturbance of the equilibrium of heat produced by means purely mechanical, and by a process depending entirely on a certain order and sequence of events, and the operation of known causes. Suppose a quantity of air enclosed in a metallic reservoir, of some good conductor of heat, and suddenly compressed by a piston. After giving time for the heat developed by the condensation to be communicated from the air to the metal which will be thereby more or less raised in temperature _above_ the surrounding atmosphere, let the piston be suddenly retracted and the air restored to its original volume in an instant. The whole apparatus is now precisely in its initial situation, as to the disposition of its material parts, and the whole quantity of heat it contains remains unchanged. But it is evident that the distribution of this heat within it is now very different from what it was before; for the air in its sudden expansion cannot re-absorb in an instant of time all the heat it had parted with to the metal: it will, therefore, have a temperature _below_ that of the general atmosphere, while the metal yet retains one above it. Thus, a subversion of the equilibrium of temperature has been _bonâ fide_ effected. Heat has been driven from the air into the metal, while every thing else remains unchanged.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00828", "bookId": 54897, "start": 612485, "end": 612888, "sha256": "7dc1f66f65d8bb263fccf58620dbe3d72ce5e1adf1822970fb06cb5e03f756e5", "text": "We have here a means by which, it is evident, heat may be obtained, to any extent, from the air, without fuel. For if, in place of withdrawing the piston and letting the _same_ air expand, within the reservoir, it be allowed to escape so suddenly as not to re-absorb the heat given off, and fresh air be then admitted and the process repeated, any quantity of air may thus be _drained_ of its heat.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00829", "bookId": 54897, "start": 612892, "end": 612919, "sha256": "583776950ad6ff6cdddd0f760170fe9387c49b62744f9e58a846c2a2e0b10a4c", "text": "[57] See Phil. Trans. 1824.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00830", "bookId": 54897, "start": 612923, "end": 613907, "sha256": "9cb3ce3a0a1b1c1e19ad63ca0fa74930d8885385ef328af9e70105e1f45a8b96", "text": "[58] If the brain be an electric pile, constantly in action, it may be conceived to discharge itself at regular intervals, when the tension of the electricity developed reaches a certain point, along the nerves which communicate with the heart, and thus to excite the pulsations of that organ. This idea is forcibly suggested by a view of that elegant apparatus, the dry pile of Deluc; in which the successive accumulations of electricity are carried off by a suspended ball, which is kept by the discharges in a state of regular pulsation for any length of time. We have witnessed the action of such a pile maintained in this way for whole years in the study of the above-named eminent philosopher. The same idea of the cause of the pulsation of the heart appears to have occurred to Dr. Arnott; and is mentioned in his useful and excellent work on physics, to which however, we are not indebted for the suggestion, it having occurred to us independently many years ago.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00831", "bookId": 54897, "start": 613911, "end": 614004, "sha256": "91b3d20bbd59bb44abfb0b140fd0f59af006fc35e4d6a5ecf67f9c9915ff3429", "text": "[59] See a description of a contrivance of this kind by Dr. Young, Lectures, vol. i. p. 191.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00832", "bookId": 54897, "start": 614008, "end": 614063, "sha256": "152931f7f3aba0291dedb362477ddeedc947c817cc2b576ecc51bef8ed7bae4c", "text": "[60] Boyle’s Works, folio, vol. iii. Essay x. p. 185.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00833", "bookId": 54897, "start": 614067, "end": 614141, "sha256": "8d36a0d800f5cdc92e2b46286004e883e6df35bded37ad4105a46893e574abbc", "text": "[61] Jackson, The Four Ages, p. 52. London: Cadell and Davies, 1798. 8vo.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00834", "bookId": 54897, "start": 614145, "end": 614180, "sha256": "79c0b109938e0e48fee2a7c8055d35de0ea389b38c342e365e5e74b047c5cad6", "text": "[62] Jackson, The Four Ages, p. 90.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00835", "bookId": 54897, "start": 614190, "end": 614211, "sha256": "2d04faa0e8d10e03c57393540197759ef70f2e83a2edf5b5c025020efce5c4c8", "text": "Transcriber’s Notes", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG54897.B00836", "bookId": 54897, "start": 614217, "end": 614278, "sha256": "810a4659629c8a57330185a4dfb846fd578d0375e7f108ee048f4b51ed359fe0", "text": "Cover created by Transcriber and placed in the Public Domain.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; 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You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org. 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no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00014", "bookId": 10376, "start": 1039, "end": 1233, "sha256": "95f091f2683c8819de4e81ee1fef7051fa20f0bc4f267b9360d70f35945e3299", "text": "Lecturer; Author of \"Old Indian Legends,\" \"Americanize The First American,\" and other stories; Member of the Woman's National Foundation, League of American Pen-Women, and the Washington Salon", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00015", "bookId": 10376, "start": 1239, "end": 1309, "sha256": "25b14ce04787c1151f7613a6c612b756f1632e4513e584bfcdf69b016df09e57", "text": "\"_There is no great; there is no small; in the mind that causeth all_\"", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00016", "bookId": 10376, "start": 1313, "end": 1317, "sha256": "d982309a461bcc3abc15489201522c8df291aa650eabafda45f1583b03992cc9", "text": "1921", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; 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no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00020", "bookId": 10376, "start": 1414, "end": 1445, "sha256": "6ecb96adc12f9953cf4b6fd163fb7490d35fa6e6759c425b989c629ea70ccf4f", "text": "An Indian Teacher Among Indians", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00021", "bookId": 10376, "start": 1449, "end": 1465, "sha256": "0311c54d8a45d9d2feac5c74edb93a316990c41e04571605de6b2aa1bcdf9623", "text": "The Great Spirit", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00022", "bookId": 10376, "start": 1469, "end": 1491, "sha256": "9ad9273c3f0bf45f9ffd25fe6bc21ebdd700d98a7969a5b1bddb38cfcfaffc1d", "text": "The Soft-Hearted Sioux", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00023", "bookId": 10376, "start": 1495, "end": 1509, "sha256": "f6082de92137b768ce5c884fff1d3915c2bd2377698511fc51c072cf3f6a7d98", "text": "The Trial Path", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00024", "bookId": 10376, "start": 1513, "end": 1533, "sha256": "7ea00256a03b9a2f9b6c8a3ef21355b120060e5bb0b910d005a655ae48f51b53", "text": "A Warrior's Daughter", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00025", "bookId": 10376, "start": 1537, "end": 1563, "sha256": "a25ed2e39abc16026d75947988d1b5f8f1ae934d0e47d488db6b6dda0ff2d598", "text": "A Dream of Her Grandfather", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00026", "bookId": 10376, "start": 1567, "end": 1607, "sha256": "62c8d4bc9be7fa68850d037f5cddb4f98178a4393b5ae775630eec76659ae16d", "text": "The Widespread Enigma of Blue-Star Woman", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00027", "bookId": 10376, "start": 1611, "end": 1635, "sha256": "7c0cfbae7399f278c4ac2a8c38332ff109d48548634d53006e1dfc9b6fe937d6", "text": "America's Indian Problem", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00028", "bookId": 10376, "start": 1645, "end": 1679, "sha256": "95118c844d12f62052119aaf25fca50be9ea143ef6693453df280b95d50a0529", "text": "IMPRESSIONS OF AN INDIAN CHILDHOOD", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00029", "bookId": 10376, "start": 1683, "end": 1685, "sha256": "6177fd2664d785bf3c9f9b89a952d6510465c507c1b37b3b4d93295eb409896b", "text": "I.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00030", "bookId": 10376, "start": 1689, "end": 1699, "sha256": "722eb36120b9d1a74c58a2b129dbb25df9522fb536ed8377d364ad405e22ee65", "text": "MY MOTHER.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00031", "bookId": 10376, "start": 1705, "end": 2007, "sha256": "2aedc9427620a278e44d44cca3ccca8333f7d96f031b3e6766e6946c6e122c7d", "text": "A wigwam of weather-stained canvas stood at the base of some irregularly ascending hills. A footpath wound its way gently down the sloping land till it reached the broad river bottom; creeping through the long swamp grasses that bent over it on either side, it came out on the edge of the Missouri.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00032", "bookId": 10376, "start": 2011, "end": 2461, "sha256": "80eba04d564a5a25ca089a85fbae3c2a7e6f43a392b968db48b747b25aeeb404", "text": "Here, morning, noon, and evening, my mother came to draw water from the muddy stream for our household use. Always, when my mother started for the river, I stopped my play to run along with her. She was only of medium height. Often she was sad and silent, at which times her full arched lips were compressed into hard and bitter lines, and shadows fell under her black eyes. Then I clung to her hand and begged to know what made the tears fall.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00033", "bookId": 10376, "start": 2465, "end": 2725, "sha256": "16f8d5652f24632f6fe350cda1a72c2073a860ffb539fe6cc602d6f41ecd558b", "text": "\"Hush; my little daughter must never talk about my tears\"; and smiling through them, she patted my head and said, \"Now let me see how fast you can run today.\" Whereupon I tore away at my highest possible speed, with my long black hair blowing in the breeze.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00034", "bookId": 10376, "start": 2729, "end": 3094, "sha256": "41212b2233b3f37be3b0758931d21d619d4ae0e7277973ebdd22b1da5ed1b557", "text": "I was a wild little girl of seven. Loosely clad in a slip of brown buckskin, and light-footed with a pair of soft moccasins on my feet, I was as free as the wind that blew my hair, and no less spirited than a bounding deer. These were my mother's pride,--my wild freedom and overflowing spirits. She taught me no fear save that of intruding myself upon others.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00035", "bookId": 10376, "start": 3098, "end": 3414, "sha256": "5d05d7dbe9fd805baf2375ce12b0187f11c0ac726f55a4fb98eed100c6ad1a3a", "text": "Having gone many paces ahead I stopped, panting for breath, and laughing with glee as my mother watched my every movement. I was not wholly conscious of myself, but was more keenly alive to the fire within. It was as if I were the activity, and my hands and feet were only experiments for my spirit to work upon.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00036", "bookId": 10376, "start": 3418, "end": 3964, "sha256": "f9df314f7bd975b9d7fc52d0d8ad2ae468cbf41cf7dcf1d01fe0ee30e687e012", "text": "Returning from the river, I tugged beside my mother, with my hand upon the bucket I believed I was carrying. One time, on such a return, I remember a bit of conversation we had. My grown-up cousin, Warca-Ziwin (Sunflower), who was then seventeen, always went to the river alone for water for her mother. Their wigwam was not far from ours; and I saw her daily going to and from the river. I admired my cousin greatly. So I said: \"Mother, when I am tall as my cousin Warca-Ziwin, you shall not have to come for water. I will do it for you.\"", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00037", "bookId": 10376, "start": 3968, "end": 4113, "sha256": "50d97400f178bf0c3b41effb2b364a42678f429d6b12275f0f8d121f69ca7448", "text": "With a strange tremor in her voice which I could not understand, she answered, \"If the paleface does not take away from us the river we drink.\"", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00038", "bookId": 10376, "start": 4117, "end": 4161, "sha256": "c820e698caf8f22ae8814678cc3b1c747c94e7bd85c79396ce565991da6b2c7c", "text": "\"Mother, who is this bad paleface?\" I asked.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00039", "bookId": 10376, "start": 4165, "end": 4258, "sha256": "1acfe362dab4f4cce511fbe512f6408ea3849740da961ac21aa84a204abefdf9", "text": "\"My little daughter, he is a sham,--a sickly sham! The bronzed Dakota is the only real man.\"", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00040", "bookId": 10376, "start": 4262, "end": 4502, "sha256": "b972ed97da5f1708bb6b5058828e2d8a9d80d10940812db791fdfa10378e1d53", "text": "I looked up into my mother's face while she spoke; and seeing her bite her lips, I knew she was unhappy. This aroused revenge in my small soul. Stamping my foot on the earth, I cried aloud, \"I hate the paleface that makes my mother cry!\"", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00041", "bookId": 10376, "start": 4506, "end": 4733, "sha256": "f12eca2189c21614e61233602afe02617ca497d89d327e0202325574900c52ff", "text": "Setting the pail of water on the ground, my mother stooped, and stretching her left hand out on the level with my eyes, she placed her other arm about me; she pointed to the hill where my uncle and my only sister lay buried.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00042", "bookId": 10376, "start": 4737, "end": 5000, "sha256": "60022dee02346c27dd39708c0297ef12c20f4b8e16bd2ac98b3ad49ba5983594", "text": "\"There is what the paleface has done! Since then your father too has been buried in a hill nearer the rising sun. We were once very happy. But the paleface has stolen our lands and driven us hither. Having defrauded us of our land, the paleface forced us away.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00043", "bookId": 10376, "start": 5004, "end": 5758, "sha256": "d76704862706651854a1ea06e787fae92a8b4e80741763ecb620a66b5b8ec761", "text": "\"Well, it happened on the day we moved camp that your sister and uncle were both very sick. Many others were ailing, but there seemed to be no help. We traveled many days and nights; not in the grand, happy way that we moved camp when I was a little girl, but we were driven, my child, driven like a herd of buffalo. With every step, your sister, who was not as large as you are now, shrieked with the painful jar until she was hoarse with crying. She grew more and more feverish. Her little hands and cheeks were burning hot. Her little lips were parched and dry, but she would not drink the water I gave her. Then I discovered that her throat was swollen and red. My poor child, how I cried with her because the Great Spirit had forgotten us!", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00044", "bookId": 10376, "start": 5762, "end": 6061, "sha256": "5a53d6c66e802e9e5d9b868e49a94201a7af721ffc0717b86d8769ea67a8edea", "text": "\"At last, when we reached this western country, on the first weary night your sister died. And soon your uncle died also, leaving a widow and an orphan daughter, your cousin Warca-Ziwin. Both your sister and uncle might have been happy with us today, had it not been for the heartless paleface.\"", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00045", "bookId": 10376, "start": 6065, "end": 6224, "sha256": "78fa13c417eb727bc3458591a4fc835f6d1231a570afcc3c01e36876bb428ab1", "text": "My mother was silent the rest of the way to our wigwam. Though I saw no tears in her eyes, I knew that was because I was with her. She seldom wept before me.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00046", "bookId": 10376, "start": 6234, "end": 6237, "sha256": "c7e15ed5d6855b3d9c4d1d9c8df86084dd7b9012db5a79f92d626c17e0c445fc", "text": "II.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00047", "bookId": 10376, "start": 6241, "end": 6253, "sha256": "38239ab75931f3206fde1aaff8484f539712120d22357c5a6f9352137dad7e14", "text": "THE LEGENDS.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00048", "bookId": 10376, "start": 6259, "end": 6336, "sha256": "7da3cd2bff3038622ac34c0ace6619fe8be0269ff6c1a5e1f3cff2712ecc7ac1", "text": "During the summer days my mother built her fire in the shadow of our wigwam.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00049", "bookId": 10376, "start": 6340, "end": 6643, "sha256": "6a81f474a93f51c0eaf4847c95bb69fab9758e86b906fe79cc42cd85ed535f4f", "text": "In the early morning our simple breakfast was spread upon the grass west of our tepee. At the farthest point of the shade my mother sat beside her fire, toasting a savory piece of dried meat. Near her, I sat upon my feet, eating my dried meat with unleavened bread, and drinking strong black coffee.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00050", "bookId": 10376, "start": 6647, "end": 6855, "sha256": "d513e40d720a9fae884b40d773ec94e947f69ecc9b0ddf6957bebf9b78063989", "text": "The morning meal was our quiet hour, when we two were entirely alone. At noon, several who chanced to be passing by stopped to rest, and to share our luncheon with us, for they were sure of our hospitality.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00051", "bookId": 10376, "start": 6859, "end": 7398, "sha256": "a3164b501430fef2823ac3b8a3394baeb9791b4927339d3ba89611f927800b3a", "text": "My uncle, whose death my mother ever lamented, was one of our nation's bravest warriors. His name was on the lips of old men when talking of the proud feats of valor; and it was mentioned by younger men, too, in connection with deeds of gallantry. Old women praised him for his kindness toward them; young women held him up as an ideal to their sweethearts. Every one loved him, and my mother worshiped his memory. Thus it happened that even strangers were sure of welcome in our lodge, if they but asked a favor in my uncle's name.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00052", "bookId": 10376, "start": 7402, "end": 8308, "sha256": "343cd6b6e02d0f27fcba88725ff9feb17b7056881d124e0210b5645fc006c632", "text": "Though I heard many strange experiences related by these wayfarers, I loved best the evening meal, for that was the time old legends were told. I was always glad when the sun hung low in the west, for then my mother sent me to invite the neighboring old men and women to eat supper with us. Running all the way to the wigwams, I halted shyly at the entrances. Sometimes I stood long moments without saying a word. It was not any fear that made me so dumb when out upon such a happy errand; nor was it that I wished to withhold the invitation, for it was all I could do to observe this very proper silence. But it was a sensing of the atmosphere, to assure myself that I should not hinder other plans. My mother used to say to me, as I was almost bounding away for the old people: \"Wait a moment before you invite any one. If other plans are being discussed, do not interfere, but go elsewhere.\"", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00053", "bookId": 10376, "start": 8312, "end": 8446, "sha256": "85ead3a06d0578a8b34fb85feb2b34eace1aec8e3c2120726ceed3a3181b83f9", "text": "The old folks knew the meaning of my pauses; and often they coaxed my confidence by asking, \"What do you seek, little granddaughter?\"", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00054", "bookId": 10376, "start": 8450, "end": 8567, "sha256": "075940b492781400fa936d72480826dca93a20209e709286ef7085dfcbf22609", "text": "\"My mother says you are to come to our tepee this evening,\" I instantly exploded, and breathed the freer afterwards.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00055", "bookId": 10376, "start": 8571, "end": 8762, "sha256": "534153e17e6b93d1d202573fa3bb92d0e5d19b84f1faa0cd1a17612a8eec153e", "text": "\"Yes, yes, gladly, gladly I shall come!\" each replied. Rising at once and carrying their blankets across one shoulder, they flocked leisurely from their various wigwams toward our dwelling.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00056", "bookId": 10376, "start": 8766, "end": 9121, "sha256": "681e18f89bb8ec1cb852f5b6abf6c66aed01a761987c65cfd84cef59d6bb92e5", "text": "My mission done, I ran back, skipping and jumping with delight. All out of breath, I told my mother almost the exact words of the answers to my invitation. Frequently she asked, \"What were they doing when you entered their tepee?\" This taught me to remember all I saw at a single glance. Often I told my mother my impressions without being questioned.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00057", "bookId": 10376, "start": 9125, "end": 9327, "sha256": "098b9c84b1b4fa9aa792e3e5a840e4efa68fa0709f44881f0fe96897e23541a6", "text": "While in the neighboring wigwams sometimes an old Indian woman asked me, \"What is your mother doing?\" Unless my mother had cautioned me not to tell, I generally answered her questions without reserve.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00058", "bookId": 10376, "start": 9331, "end": 9716, "sha256": "20baa8b80c147930fd3fcf62724057329d4f54cdc0e4548a7ac9da21fadc73fe", "text": "At the arrival of our guests I sat close to my mother, and did not leave her side without first asking her consent. I ate my supper in quiet, listening patiently to the talk of the old people, wishing all the time that they would begin the stories I loved best. At last, when I could not wait any longer, I whispered in my mother's ear, \"Ask them to tell an Iktomi story, mother.\"", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00059", "bookId": 10376, "start": 9720, "end": 9909, "sha256": "88e1bf210eebef8da43c897b73fb938af9c97da187fc96608183ef5234361305", "text": "Soothing my impatience, my mother said aloud, \"My little daughter is anxious to hear your legends.\" By this time all were through eating, and the evening was fast deepening into twilight.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00060", "bookId": 10376, "start": 9913, "end": 10274, "sha256": "c8968aa3bc22e7029205878fc8e91e454c505132af0823ed5ed8a66b394989e8", "text": "As each in turn began to tell a legend, I pillowed my head in my mother's lap; and lying flat upon my back, I watched the stars as they peeped down upon me, one by one. The increasing interest of the tale aroused me, and I sat up eagerly listening to every word. The old women made funny remarks, and laughed so heartily that I could not help joining them.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00061", "bookId": 10376, "start": 10278, "end": 10562, "sha256": "544ea1a2ac9f7bc2ccf888cfce28452f4e476187257b2992b803a4010ce6fcdf", "text": "The distant howling of a pack of wolves or the hooting of an owl in the river bottom frightened me, and I nestled into my mother's lap. She added some dry sticks to the open fire, and the bright flames leaped up into the faces of the old folks as they sat around in a great circle.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00062", "bookId": 10376, "start": 10566, "end": 10977, "sha256": "e706111eb72965aedad36f924c276a73b50988505e71a6566bcf22c4c80ebd24", "text": "On such an evening, I remember the glare of the fire shone on a tattooed star upon the brow of the old warrior who was telling a story. I watched him curiously as he made his unconscious gestures. The blue star upon his bronzed forehead was a puzzle to me. Looking about, I saw two parallel lines on the chin of one of the old women. The rest had none. I examined my mother's face, but found no sign there.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00063", "bookId": 10376, "start": 10981, "end": 11249, "sha256": "716f5a8b8735e56a52897d45c9fcbb26016615f03b3c74631a331d76556f43be", "text": "After the warrior's story was finished, I asked the old woman the meaning of the blue lines on her chin, looking all the while out of the corners of my eyes at the warrior with the star on his forehead. I was a little afraid that he would rebuke me for my boldness.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00064", "bookId": 10376, "start": 11253, "end": 11462, "sha256": "054b13b52864138faf967c7d18f1af15b70b64bf44aa1446a14a77f18bb47b1e", "text": "Here the old woman began: \"Why, my grandchild, they are signs,--secret signs I dare not tell you. I shall, however, tell you a wonderful story about a woman who had a cross tattooed upon each of her cheeks.\"", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00065", "bookId": 10376, "start": 11466, "end": 11604, "sha256": "88c6b39d54bf88dfc0eac45238f4ba504085c15a1e555abd9d88122f4904d369", "text": "It was a long story of a woman whose magic power lay hidden behind the marks upon her face. I fell asleep before the story was completed.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00066", "bookId": 10376, "start": 11608, "end": 11795, "sha256": "e77f9a809fcd3593c172aa415d935cbb78a67cf52b665fd61595ee52ac97d849", "text": "Ever after that night I felt suspicious of tattooed people. Wherever I saw one I glanced furtively at the mark and round about it, wondering what terrible magic power was covered there.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00067", "bookId": 10376, "start": 11799, "end": 11968, "sha256": "d110d115c8e5023deddeb1d048a4198aae52754c4600841a8fe416fad70aeea0", "text": "It was rarely that such a fearful story as this one was told by the camp fire. Its impression was so acute that the picture still remains vividly clear and pronounced.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00068", "bookId": 10376, "start": 11978, "end": 11982, "sha256": "f8c27f79b3c0d27534bf7d7fb53370d9cb62a85bdf46de1012aebc74804c0124", "text": "III.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00069", "bookId": 10376, "start": 11986, "end": 11999, "sha256": "a0536afe5044c9727e57f50fe5dd1b8f43aae7db1799e52ca1b940fc7c4b82ed", "text": "THE BEADWORK.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00070", "bookId": 10376, "start": 12005, "end": 12379, "sha256": "ce9d042265c9379d8adc127ff1f6db1dd70a5709f9a13ab86dbb6014bb052df1", "text": "Soon after breakfast mother sometimes began her beadwork. On a bright, clear day, she pulled out the wooden pegs that pinned the skirt of our wigwam to the ground, and rolled the canvas part way up on its frame of slender poles. Then the cool morning breezes swept freely through our dwelling, now and then wafting the perfume of sweet grasses from newly burnt prairie.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00071", "bookId": 10376, "start": 12383, "end": 13114, "sha256": "14c6aa5965e4f9ce4f0b503258cc66c201e7716932e2f37f9664181ebdddb1e3", "text": "Untying the long tasseled strings that bound a small brown buckskin bag, my mother spread upon a mat beside her bunches of colored beads, just as an artist arranges the paints upon his palette. On a lapboard she smoothed out a double sheet of soft white buckskin; and drawing from a beaded case that hung on the left of her wide belt a long, narrow blade, she trimmed the buckskin into shape. Often she worked upon small moccasins for her small daughter. Then I became intensely interested in her designing. With a proud, beaming face, I watched her work. In imagination, I saw myself walking in a new pair of snugly fitting moccasins. I felt the envious eyes of my playmates upon the pretty red beads decorating my feet.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00072", "bookId": 10376, "start": 13118, "end": 13620, "sha256": "1f7e1f0fad175028b3110b6d864cc6f5e5031e9fbc5325820bed196c918915a1", "text": "Close beside my mother I sat on a rug, with a scrap of buckskin in one hand and an awl in the other. This was the beginning of my practical observation lessons in the art of beadwork. From a skein of finely twisted threads of silvery sinews my mother pulled out a single one. With an awl she pierced the buckskin, and skillfully threaded it with the white sinew. Picking up the tiny beads one by one, she strung them with the point of her thread, always twisting it carefully after every stitch.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00073", "bookId": 10376, "start": 13624, "end": 14126, "sha256": "67f6a75e4e299adb161777703286d44c06453ac4e6b0a6eaf4c45ca21843cf37", "text": "It took many trials before I learned how to knot my sinew thread on the point of my finger, as I saw her do. Then the next difficulty was in keeping my thread stiffly twisted, so that I could easily string my beads upon it. My mother required of me original designs for my lessons in beading. At first I frequently ensnared many a sunny hour into working a long design. Soon I learned from self-inflicted punishment to refrain from drawing complex patterns, for I had to finish whatever I began.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00074", "bookId": 10376, "start": 14130, "end": 14647, "sha256": "a94576b55ce2eebbc4bebc0a7017641c168f7bfc5c765fef0ba0039a417ea39d", "text": "After some experience I usually drew easy and simple crosses and squares. These were some of the set forms. My original designs were not always symmetrical nor sufficiently characteristic, two faults with which my mother had little patience. The quietness of her oversight made me feel strongly responsible and dependent upon my own judgment. She treated me as a dignified little individual as long as I was on my good behavior; and how humiliated I was when some boldness of mine drew forth a rebuke from her!", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00075", "bookId": 10376, "start": 14651, "end": 15451, "sha256": "73698b49821d83ba4949c594f141303db799b111878d6511f43e4b1e644ec38c", "text": "In the choice of colors she left me to my own taste. I was pleased with an outline of yellow upon a background of dark blue, or a combination of red and myrtle-green. There was another of red with a bluish-gray that was more conventionally used. When I became a little familiar with designing and the various pleasing combinations of color, a harder lesson was given me. It was the sewing on, instead of beads, some tinted porcupine quills, moistened and flattened between the nails of the thumb and forefinger. My mother cut off the prickly ends and burned them at once in the centre fire. These sharp points were poisonous, and worked into the flesh wherever they lodged. For this reason, my mother said, I should not do much alone in quills until I was as tall as my cousin Warca-Ziwin.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00076", "bookId": 10376, "start": 15455, "end": 16204, "sha256": "71d048dca65ed614890ce81f672e4e336c6689cca6f0a29ba637c6a43145de9a", "text": "Always after these confining lessons I was wild with surplus spirits, and found joyous relief in running loose in the open again. Many a summer afternoon a party of four or five of my playmates roamed over the hills with me. We each carried a light sharpened rod about four feet long, with which we pried up certain sweet roots. When we had eaten all the choice roots we chanced upon, we shouldered our rods and strayed off into patches of a stalky plant under whose yellow blossoms we found little crystal drops of gum. Drop by drop we gathered this nature's rock-candy, until each of us could boast of a lump the size of a small bird's egg. Soon satiated with its woody flavor, we tossed away our gum, to return again to the sweet roots.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00077", "bookId": 10376, "start": 16208, "end": 16769, "sha256": "6e0999d4be22df9978dfdae181c08602ea6d11a78888d407fb0d0cbf44d85b58", "text": "I remember well how we used to exchange our necklaces, beaded belts, and sometimes even our moccasins. We pretended to offer them as gifts to one another. We delighted in impersonating our own mothers. We talked of things we had heard them say in their conversations. We imitated their various manners, even to the inflection of their voices. In the lap of the prairie we seated ourselves upon our feet, and leaning our painted cheeks in the palms of our hands, we rested our elbows on our knees, and bent forward as old women were most accustomed to do.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00078", "bookId": 10376, "start": 16773, "end": 17221, "sha256": "dbfad13623c170e4e3e3f5d61b0f7f8c60905c71529f5d3e0505aa3fee8314e9", "text": "While one was telling of some heroic deed recently done by a near relative, the rest of us listened attentively, and exclaimed in undertones, \"Han! han!\" (yes! yes!) whenever the speaker paused for breath, or sometimes for our sympathy. As the discourse became more thrilling, according to our ideas, we raised our voices in these interjections. In these impersonations our parents were led to say only those things that were in common favor.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00079", "bookId": 10376, "start": 17225, "end": 17606, "sha256": "1c09be1833447b4052bbaf04d1bdb8938e5df340c7323aa3cee64fc6b689795a", "text": "No matter how exciting a tale we might be rehearsing, the mere shifting of a cloud shadow in the landscape near by was sufficient to change our impulses; and soon we were all chasing the great shadows that played among the hills. We shouted and whooped in the chase; laughing and calling to one another, we were like little sportive nymphs on that Dakota sea of rolling green.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00080", "bookId": 10376, "start": 17610, "end": 18416, "sha256": "9c9b1e86afae58f424ffec3702868666bd90361ba95c5b695e30cecf8a74c8dd", "text": "On one occasion I forgot the cloud shadow in a strange notion to catch up with my own shadow. Standing straight and still, I began to glide after it, putting out one foot cautiously. When, with the greatest care, I set my foot in advance of myself, my shadow crept onward too. Then again I tried it; this time with the other foot. Still again my shadow escaped me. I began to run; and away flew my shadow, always just a step beyond me. Faster and faster I ran, setting my teeth and clenching my fists, determined to overtake my own fleet shadow. But ever swifter it glided before me, while I was growing breathless and hot. Slackening my speed, I was greatly vexed that my shadow should check its pace also. Daring it to the utmost, as I thought, I sat down upon a rock imbedded in the hillside.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00081", "bookId": 10376, "start": 18420, "end": 18474, "sha256": "fda616c2cb3b6b87a4c57cbd2981ec5fc9e361da93411fd45be4e03bbee6996e", "text": "So! my shadow had the impudence to sit down beside me!", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00082", "bookId": 10376, "start": 18478, "end": 18562, "sha256": "3d038d29dd335766bb732a54327030a79ec66e4fa265dc07c5b6278f53e1dcec", "text": "Now my comrades caught up with me, and began to ask why I was running away so fast.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00083", "bookId": 10376, "start": 18566, "end": 18677, "sha256": "b6d9195a2680adb5e78652cb53f4d39446bb231b31b8bfd29458f1372bca1663", "text": "\"Oh, I was chasing my shadow! Didn't you ever do that?\" I inquired, surprised that they should not understand.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00084", "bookId": 10376, "start": 18681, "end": 18866, "sha256": "7fa16acd8a711534eea84b6d232c19474f0bf99f002fd75f39af118d438df8ba", "text": "They planted their moccasined feet firmly upon my shadow to stay it, and I arose. Again my shadow slipped away, and moved as often as I did. Then we gave up trying to catch my shadow.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00085", "bookId": 10376, "start": 18870, "end": 19032, "sha256": "7d662449e44fc642ee5f190bcf7d00978ac63f2494b97a39f286e27c69d23ca0", "text": "Before this peculiar experience I have no distinct memory of having recognized any vital bond between myself and my own shadow. I never gave it an afterthought.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00086", "bookId": 10376, "start": 19036, "end": 19169, "sha256": "df24eee5889d82961c30a160df88c2269ad2503e4b18aa73734642f9e35a353c", "text": "Returning our borrowed belts and trinkets, we rambled homeward. That evening, as on other evenings, I went to sleep over my legends.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00087", "bookId": 10376, "start": 19179, "end": 19182, "sha256": "042bf14ef0ebc2b8f29436c42ed32592d55e6c559e473dad955da5ef0c302db3", "text": "IV.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00088", "bookId": 10376, "start": 19186, "end": 19204, "sha256": "1034f3453552208caff70f28e44a772a5102e64262b5ca5b0eb0d646f3456d36", "text": "THE COFFEE-MAKING.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00089", "bookId": 10376, "start": 19210, "end": 19322, "sha256": "56f358e1e2b5d776fd7653f40b0c9a068911a9058261f88f7d10c9c49de846e8", "text": "One summer afternoon my mother left me alone in our wigwam while she went across the way to my aunt's dwelling.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00090", "bookId": 10376, "start": 19326, "end": 20031, "sha256": "c6f09619b5fee71073ca5fe517bee04c8c8c1c2e628f233408b159bee1f567e4", "text": "I did not much like to stay alone in our tepee for I feared a tall, broad-shouldered crazy man, some forty years old, who walked loose among the hills. Wiyaka-Napbina (Wearer of a Feather Necklace) was harmless, and whenever he came into a wigwam he was driven there by extreme hunger. He went nude except for the half of a red blanket he girdled around his waist. In one tawny arm he used to carry a heavy bunch of wild sunflowers that he gathered in his aimless ramblings. His black hair was matted by the winds, and scorched into a dry red by the constant summer sun. As he took great strides, placing one brown bare foot directly in front of the other, he swung his long lean arm to and fro.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00091", "bookId": 10376, "start": 20035, "end": 20366, "sha256": "76b50f2e4503522e313736345b6dccb67e47a2d15cdaac7e12ec333e41d3eb66", "text": "Frequently he paused in his walk and gazed far backward, shading his eyes with his hand. He was under the belief that an evil spirit was haunting his steps. This was what my mother told me once, when I sneered at such a silly big man. I was brave when my mother was near by, and Wiyaka-Napbina walking farther and farther away.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00092", "bookId": 10376, "start": 20370, "end": 20622, "sha256": "7138aed8d1169e14e1654c3513be1ee25864ff308650cad34ea978b630f869e4", "text": "\"Pity the man, my child. I knew him when he was a brave and handsome youth. He was overtaken by a malicious spirit among the hills, one day, when he went hither and thither after his ponies. Since then he can not stay away from the hills,\" she said.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00093", "bookId": 10376, "start": 20626, "end": 20822, "sha256": "2a3f4a1d8daf5e95bed102a2f0aa0460f00b09e025ccbfb389f8da4e2e10885d", "text": "I felt so sorry for the man in his misfortune that I prayed to the Great Spirit to restore him. But though I pitied him at a distance, I was still afraid of him when he appeared near our wigwam.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00094", "bookId": 10376, "start": 20826, "end": 21128, "sha256": "fbe44e3207621b4330f67cdb53f458ead626ef78a5a694411c4444ddcf4d42f5", "text": "Thus, when my mother left me by myself that afternoon I sat in a fearful mood within our tepee. I recalled all I had ever heard about Wiyaka-Napbina; and I tried to assure myself that though he might pass near by, he would not come to our wigwam because there was no little girl around our grounds.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00095", "bookId": 10376, "start": 21132, "end": 21308, "sha256": "2bb166d9259857954dedf42480c9c57f7443b50812d8aa51cc7474ea64fcb34d", "text": "Just then, from without a hand lifted the canvas covering of the entrance; the shadow of a man fell within the wigwam, and a large roughly moccasined foot was planted inside.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00096", "bookId": 10376, "start": 21312, "end": 21526, "sha256": "37148a4c69906f5acdb2b4b2233c2f0c332a4327e253b05a6062da8522ff7e01", "text": "For a moment I did not dare to breathe or stir, for I thought that could be no other than Wiyaka-Napbina. The next instant I sighed aloud in relief. It was an old grandfather who had often told me Iktomi legends.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00097", "bookId": 10376, "start": 21530, "end": 21597, "sha256": "debe4207739c498dbee5c6ed6e817297464d90eda70841b50653ab10003798db", "text": "\"Where is your mother, my little grandchild?\" were his first words.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00098", "bookId": 10376, "start": 21601, "end": 21665, "sha256": "a9033c7bb7677a7c49d72837342ba9573d0ef3adf52991b2a7f57b51b13cb62b", "text": "\"My mother is soon coming back from my aunt's tepee,\" I replied.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00099", "bookId": 10376, "start": 21669, "end": 21771, "sha256": "5695e27cc84a8a994807d59286238d5561a8d3b8d5dd108dc1e2e16cbcce231c", "text": "\"Then I shall wait awhile for her return,\" he said, crossing his feet and seating himself upon a mat.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00100", "bookId": 10376, "start": 21775, "end": 21866, "sha256": "adc4c52139269a919bf8b90f9c97a843fab908293aea8864421d6a5a93025412", "text": "At once I began to play the part of a generous hostess. I turned to my mother's coffeepot.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00101", "bookId": 10376, "start": 21870, "end": 22509, "sha256": "807cd25b669f58088d399ba5aee55da0e92ab54377d0283a58e7dc14c3e7e008", "text": "Lifting the lid, I found nothing but coffee grounds in the bottom. I set the pot on a heap of cold ashes in the centre, and filled it half full of warm Missouri River water. During this performance I felt conscious of being watched. Then breaking off a small piece of our unleavened bread, I placed it in a bowl. Turning soon to the coffeepot, which would never have boiled on a dead fire had I waited forever, I poured out a cup of worse than muddy warm water. Carrying the bowl in one hand and cup in the other, I handed the light luncheon to the old warrior. I offered them to him with the air of bestowing generous hospitality.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00102", "bookId": 10376, "start": 22513, "end": 23131, "sha256": "538cb4943fac200ac60e9612c6a8eb7c41f398f7b7001a64e43663ea7ba49aa6", "text": "\"How! how!\" he said, and placed the dishes on the ground in front of his crossed feet. He nibbled at the bread and sipped from the cup. I sat back against a pole watching him. I was proud to have succeeded so well in serving refreshments to a guest all by myself. Before the old warrior had finished eating, my mother entered. Immediately she wondered where I had found coffee, for she knew I had never made any, and that she had left the coffeepot empty. Answering the question in my mother's eyes, the warrior remarked, \"My granddaughter made coffee on a heap of dead ashes, and served me the moment I came.\"", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00103", "bookId": 10376, "start": 23135, "end": 23563, "sha256": "dcd0b6864adf0e1490248483a9ffee1080633a285e43a659aae95d047e1cbcfd", "text": "They both laughed, and mother said, \"Wait a little longer, and I shall build a fire.\" She meant to make some real coffee. But neither she nor the warrior, whom the law of our custom had compelled to partake of my insipid hospitality, said anything to embarrass me. They treated my best judgment, poor as it was, with the utmost respect. It was not till long years afterward that I learned how ridiculous a thing I had done.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00104", "bookId": 10376, "start": 23573, "end": 23575, "sha256": "d816c31e610c123f63c806863c99c199a73e629443d055e25e8272dc367e5f53", "text": "V.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00105", "bookId": 10376, "start": 23579, "end": 23604, "sha256": "8711c70326670bc67ec0392b408f823660cb05e8b1251b5c500020cdc38d48a5", "text": "THE DEAD MAN'S PLUM BUSH.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00106", "bookId": 10376, "start": 23610, "end": 24329, "sha256": "ffeba76114005e6ccf370334cc5df46073df795f25c78d26c4b54d9a30b26b15", "text": "One autumn afternoon many people came streaming toward the dwelling of our near neighbor. With painted faces, and wearing broad white bosoms of elk's teeth, they hurried down the narrow footpath to Haraka Wambdi's wigwam. Young mothers held their children by the hand, and half pulled them along in their haste. They overtook and passed by the bent old grandmothers who were trudging along with crooked canes toward the centre of excitement. Most of the young braves galloped hither on their ponies. Toothless warriors, like the old women, came more slowly, though mounted on lively ponies. They sat proudly erect on their horses. They wore their eagle plumes, and waved their various trophies of former wars.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00107", "bookId": 10376, "start": 24333, "end": 24673, "sha256": "d3d9146cd8fbebb09c5408b5b7fd755156a61ac8897428c54b2d5d735a71c12f", "text": "In front of the wigwam a great fire was built, and several large black kettles of venison were suspended over it. The crowd were seated about it on the grass in a great circle. Behind them some of the braves stood leaning against the necks of their ponies, their tall figures draped in loose robes which were well drawn over their eyes.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00108", "bookId": 10376, "start": 24677, "end": 24997, "sha256": "459002a00c7888ef4b882a02d4c68c2c8edf8bb688a14b638c95c8ffe556c792", "text": "Young girls, with their faces glowing like bright red autumn leaves, their glossy braids falling over each ear, sat coquettishly beside their chaperons. It was a custom for young Indian women to invite some older relative to escort them to the public feasts. Though it was not an iron law, it was generally observed.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00109", "bookId": 10376, "start": 25001, "end": 25223, "sha256": "00c3bbde00b9c92857cd649ce49c33e94e5a23a66e47e1542bdf7ff1bb74b608", "text": "Haraka Wambdi was a strong young brave, who had just returned from his first battle, a warrior. His near relatives, to celebrate his new rank, were spreading a feast to which the whole of the Indian village was invited.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00110", "bookId": 10376, "start": 25227, "end": 25460, "sha256": "5d025fbc1441702e0ed32b03c7200eb02c87c8105a1beab75eafd7d64af2d7e6", "text": "Holding my pretty striped blanket in readiness to throw over my shoulders, I grew more and more restless as I watched the gay throng assembling. My mother was busily broiling a wild duck that my aunt had that morning brought over.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00111", "bookId": 10376, "start": 25464, "end": 25586, "sha256": "4afa66a0c7aad19ccff30d3734f9ca8e8621eaf2c75a7f82db8a1d765661f859", "text": "\"Mother, mother, why do you stop to cook a small meal when we are invited to a feast?\" I asked, with a snarl in my voice.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00112", "bookId": 10376, "start": 25590, "end": 25786, "sha256": "20f333e39b27c15a58f351c0c618add8917e39c0e5182ac982b9a85d051002ad", "text": "\"My child, learn to wait. On our way to the celebration we are going to stop at Chanyu's wigwam. His aged mother-in-law is lying very ill, and I think she would like a taste of this small game.\"", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00113", "bookId": 10376, "start": 25790, "end": 25936, "sha256": "7012f19c5659a3a233f8b753040d14aef8efe36efab2191e60ef6cfc7efefdcf", "text": "Having once seen the suffering on the thin, pinched features of this dying woman, I felt a momentary shame that I had not remembered her before.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00114", "bookId": 10376, "start": 25940, "end": 26109, "sha256": "b4a7d0ec1f08ac2d0002af1d7d83cef25e230304cdbc869f2b62c5d30454f71c", "text": "On our way I ran ahead of my mother and was reaching out my hand to pick some purple plums that grew on a small bush, when I was checked by a low \"Sh!\" from my mother.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00115", "bookId": 10376, "start": 26113, "end": 26219, "sha256": "4805e42c060800d908ff0ded3eaa0f088294db81e8b3478021694e439cd90c3e", "text": "\"Why, mother, I want to taste the plums!\" I exclaimed, as I dropped my hand to my side in disappointment.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00116", "bookId": 10376, "start": 26223, "end": 26538, "sha256": "da3b6755636b80e443e8fe814ce2dbe3890f8eaa312b41462693817a18e3ca93", "text": "\"Never pluck a single plum from this brush, my child, for its roots are wrapped around an Indian's skeleton. A brave is buried here. While he lived he was so fond of playing the game of striped plum seeds that, at his death, his set of plum seeds were buried in his hands. From them sprang up this little bush.\"", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00117", "bookId": 10376, "start": 26542, "end": 27062, "sha256": "bf79938106e4e4798fce0ef0af3ede81dc7bb680fa5aa3fc8d397647d2609720", "text": "Eyeing the forbidden fruit, I trod lightly on the sacred ground, and dared to speak only in whispers until we had gone many paces from it. After that time I halted in my ramblings whenever I came in sight of the plum bush. I grew sober with awe, and was alert to hear a long-drawn-out whistle rise from the roots of it. Though I had never heard with my own ears this strange whistle of departed spirits, yet I had listened so frequently to hear the old folks describe it that I knew I should recognize it at once.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00118", "bookId": 10376, "start": 27066, "end": 27180, "sha256": "811bdb09dbc47e675fd0f3c89583ff488a6d12935cc1f902e8b46625647ee000", "text": "The lasting impression of that day, as I recall it now, is what my mother told me about the dead man's plum bush.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00119", "bookId": 10376, "start": 27190, "end": 27193, "sha256": "36dcfd7ef46ff35907e3858c9d25342fa480f250291306cd053e626745258f1a", "text": "VI.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00120", "bookId": 10376, "start": 27197, "end": 27217, "sha256": "661e2f79cc479c20a4ae15b117f9e6c38ddde6b81ba92e52e2fc7c93c6bdaa46", "text": "THE GROUND SQUIRREL.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00121", "bookId": 10376, "start": 27223, "end": 27602, "sha256": "17715caf48b717e5d8995e40051e39edd70d5ba9096fd58cb2b3f0380a4a5859", "text": "In the busy autumn days my cousin Warca-Ziwin's mother came to our wigwam to help my mother preserve foods for our winter use. I was very fond of my aunt, because she was not so quiet as my mother. Though she was older, she was more jovial and less reserved. She was slender and remarkably erect. While my mother's hair was heavy and black, my aunt had unusually thin locks.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00122", "bookId": 10376, "start": 27606, "end": 28028, "sha256": "c8cf91fa70c5888602ffe19a15d3a738a5d2776e84aa1fadd29e410d93185888", "text": "Ever since I knew her she wore a string of large blue beads around her neck,--beads that were precious because my uncle had given them to her when she was a younger woman. She had a peculiar swing in her gait, caused by a long stride rarely natural to so slight a figure. It was during my aunt's visit with us that my mother forgot her accustomed quietness, often laughing heartily at some of my aunt's witty remarks.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00123", "bookId": 10376, "start": 28032, "end": 28233, "sha256": "28edb647a503c8125db41989a5f9825f0e41ab6b1aa7233caa6449ff58632967", "text": "I loved my aunt threefold: for her hearty laughter, for the cheerfulness she caused my mother, and most of all for the times she dried my tears and held me in her lap, when my mother had reproved me.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00124", "bookId": 10376, "start": 28237, "end": 28864, "sha256": "959d6b10f9bc915bbe0f6e2d29c9f8fcc6ee478916b745910d3aeabe227010be", "text": "Early in the cool mornings, just as the yellow rim of the sun rose above the hills, we were up and eating our breakfast. We awoke so early that we saw the sacred hour when a misty smoke hung over a pit surrounded by an impassable sinking mire. This strange smoke appeared every morning, both winter and summer; but most visibly in midwinter it rose immediately above the marshy spot. By the time the full face of the sun appeared above the eastern horizon, the smoke vanished. Even very old men, who had known this country the longest, said that the smoke from this pit had never failed a single day to rise heavenward.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00125", "bookId": 10376, "start": 28868, "end": 29094, "sha256": "e1ae1afec009f4470f35b7d68fe9d26b17aea9f902b7146a15cbb3f8670a28e1", "text": "As I frolicked about our dwelling I used to stop suddenly, and with a fearful awe watch the smoking of the unknown fires. While the vapor was visible I was afraid to go very far from our wigwam unless I went with my mother.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00126", "bookId": 10376, "start": 29098, "end": 29526, "sha256": "6b9c7ccd5eaa1d1108a8d85357a5d084fab8b8557feeb9c581cdca1ee9ef4708", "text": "From a field in the fertile river bottom my mother and aunt gathered an abundant supply of corn. Near our tepee they spread a large canvas upon the grass, and dried their sweet corn in it. I was left to watch the corn, that nothing should disturb it. I played around it with dolls made of ears of corn. I braided their soft fine silk for hair, and gave them blankets as various as the scraps I found in my mother's workbag.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00127", "bookId": 10376, "start": 29530, "end": 30180, "sha256": "f8d006e5f3b6a8757cd3de8581d288d1de62404fc11894126fd4d49785e80aca", "text": "There was a little stranger with a black-and-yellow-striped coat that used to come to the drying corn. It was a little ground squirrel, who was so fearless of me that he came to one corner of the canvas and carried away as much of the sweet corn as he could hold. I wanted very much to catch him and rub his pretty fur back, but my mother said he would be so frightened if I caught him that he would bite my fingers. So I was as content as he to keep the corn between us. Every morning he came for more corn. Some evenings I have seen him creeping about our grounds; and when I gave a sudden whoop of recognition he ran quickly out of sight.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00128", "bookId": 10376, "start": 30184, "end": 30535, "sha256": "d9fc5f2a804ccc5ca1ca47bad922e9bf2f06cafdeaab9d69e339cb83ab47bd8c", "text": "When mother had dried all the corn she wished, then she sliced great pumpkins into thin rings; and these she doubled and linked together into long chains. She hung them on a pole that stretched between two forked posts. The wind and sun soon thoroughly dried the chains of pumpkin. Then she packed them away in a case of thick and stiff buckskin.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00129", "bookId": 10376, "start": 30539, "end": 30732, "sha256": "22336f92937c0bc162965f1603d8a724f40113b2a16b32ff59e7a8f87725ad7e", "text": "In the sun and wind she also dried many wild fruits,--cherries, berries, and plums. But chiefest among my early recollections of autumn is that one of the corn drying and the ground squirrel.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00130", "bookId": 10376, "start": 30736, "end": 30863, "sha256": "b320f89fc289e0e938a2e4447c509eb5106b3a68bdf0abd2eca82055093227f3", "text": "I have few memories of winter days at this period of my life, though many of the summer. There is one only which I can recall.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00131", "bookId": 10376, "start": 30867, "end": 31522, "sha256": "d2d57e8d9d7d907edb254e9893a0a58de7f1ed7b53b446f7ad4e3405b5d2845c", "text": "Some missionaries gave me a little bag of marbles. They were all sizes and colors. Among them were some of colored glass. Walking with my mother to the river, on a late winter day, we found great chunks of ice piled all along the bank. The ice on the river was floating in huge pieces. As I stood beside one large block, I noticed for the first time the colors of the rainbow in the crystal ice. Immediately I thought of my glass marbles at home. With my bare fingers I tried to pick out some of the colors, for they seemed so near the surface. But my fingers began to sting with the intense cold, and I had to bite them hard to keep from crying.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00132", "bookId": 10376, "start": 31526, "end": 31621, "sha256": "009d3bacbaf471b196f404876a0062cf168feb91b9ccf72fb30519ca856d5490", "text": "From that day on, for many a moon, I believed that glass marbles had river ice inside of them.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00133", "bookId": 10376, "start": 31631, "end": 31635, "sha256": "88748f6113547074307afd17e2fbd898887ca599eb1854556241c1a417ea59d1", "text": "VII.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00134", "bookId": 10376, "start": 31639, "end": 31658, "sha256": "ae86de24a72c8ec69bc20e8662edf9e3bcbd2265e4e7c7bcf5411f00f6bd550f", "text": "THE BIG RED APPLES.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00135", "bookId": 10376, "start": 31664, "end": 31904, "sha256": "af2a17906c89db05b94880159c8dbe379bfab4bbe8a0fc3d55a4e5bbff95aa94", "text": "The first turning away from the easy, natural flow of my life occurred in an early spring. It was in my eighth year; in the month of March, I afterward learned. At this age I knew but one language, and that was my mother's native tongue.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00136", "bookId": 10376, "start": 31908, "end": 32445, "sha256": "ab2151f37101c4e42337844a70d352ac69658a49726835885c9b4dfad817b6ca", "text": "From some of my playmates I heard that two paleface missionaries were in our village. They were from that class of white men who wore big hats and carried large hearts, they said. Running direct to my mother, I began to question her why these two strangers were among us. She told me, after I had teased much, that they had come to take away Indian boys and girls to the East. My mother did not seem to want me to talk about them. But in a day or two, I gleaned many wonderful stories from my playfellows concerning the strangers.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00137", "bookId": 10376, "start": 32449, "end": 32654, "sha256": "e92b4016a7c934aa823a9e4f929ebb7843d3ceb25c4f326290d927ca5a840783", "text": "\"Mother, my friend Judéwin is going home with the missionaries. She is going to a more beautiful country than ours; the palefaces told her so!\" I said wistfully, wishing in my heart that I too might go.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00138", "bookId": 10376, "start": 32658, "end": 33111, "sha256": "4f3e8d87a24e816e2c44faf87d0d95e1d2299600c9b36f2a03ae1d821e54df7c", "text": "Mother sat in a chair, and I was hanging on her knee. Within the last two seasons my big brother Dawée had returned from a three years' education in the East, and his coming back influenced my mother to take a farther step from her native way of living. First it was a change from the buffalo skin to the white man's canvas that covered our wigwam. Now she had given up her wigwam of slender poles, to live, a foreigner, in a home of clumsy logs.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00139", "bookId": 10376, "start": 33115, "end": 33314, "sha256": "b4f1a5654cc9c9c5c19624adf96755f30146dc0c7e10f2dde2a82256f596f569", "text": "\"Yes, my child, several others besides Judéwin are going away with the palefaces. Your brother said the missionaries had inquired about his little sister,\" she said, watching my face very closely.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00140", "bookId": 10376, "start": 33318, "end": 33395, "sha256": "5db3a053ffcad72af24ad085b30bf58e0f686b32046b30d3c77a325989a79068", "text": "My heart thumped so hard against my breast, I wondered if she could hear it.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00141", "bookId": 10376, "start": 33399, "end": 33579, "sha256": "74fc75f2f023f5e5396f827f215efce22c2852d37b9da9d45577f8d3c832f4d2", "text": "\"Did he tell them to take me, mother?\" I asked, fearing lest Dawée had forbidden the palefaces to see me, and that my hope of going to the Wonderland would be entirely blighted.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00142", "bookId": 10376, "start": 33583, "end": 34021, "sha256": "49d31ec30b162725a2f1c58b3490128ab3602f337d71953de1f25bff4e750c90", "text": "With a sad, slow smile, she answered: \"There! I knew you were wishing to go, because Judéwin has filled your ears with the white man's lies. Don't believe a word they say! Their words are sweet, but, my child, their deeds are bitter. You will cry for me, but they will not even soothe you. Stay with me, my little one! Your brother Dawée says that going East, away from your mother, is too hard an experience for his baby sister.\"", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00143", "bookId": 10376, "start": 34025, "end": 34728, "sha256": "ded446c2562d8aa8dc09444d9e617692f8f1b21146987d5948cc8a6b0adf7142", "text": "Thus my mother discouraged my curiosity about the lands beyond our eastern horizon; for it was not yet an ambition for Letters that was stirring me. But on the following day the missionaries did come to our very house. I spied them coming up the footpath leading to our cottage. A third man was with them, but he was not my brother Dawée. It was another, a young interpreter, a paleface who had a smattering of the Indian language. I was ready to run out to meet them, but I did not dare to displease my mother. With great glee, I jumped up and down on our ground floor. I begged my mother to open the door, that they would be sure to come to us. Alas! They came, they saw, and they conquered!", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00144", "bookId": 10376, "start": 34732, "end": 35169, "sha256": "eea91421799f0e91ce24021d9cf05a4547b805d9c497787c3cbbf674a11da07b", "text": "Judéwin had told me of the great tree where grew red, red apples; and how we could reach out our hands and pick all the red apples we could eat. I had never seen apple trees. I had never tasted more than a dozen red apples in my life; and when I heard of the orchards of the East, I was eager to roam among them. The missionaries smiled into my eyes and patted my head. I wondered how mother could say such hard words against him.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00145", "bookId": 10376, "start": 35173, "end": 35303, "sha256": "faf906188aed7258b942c991426c5e09145ca9b77681f3344393511da0930f92", "text": "\"Mother, ask them if little girls may have all the red apples they want, when they go East,\" I whispered aloud, in my excitement.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00146", "bookId": 10376, "start": 35307, "end": 35494, "sha256": "9106147aa3cfd2c36442829f163bd65da48e75ea54e20d534d97629ba0729601", "text": "The interpreter heard me, and answered: \"Yes, little girl, the nice red apples are for those who pick them; and you will have a ride on the iron horse if you go with these good people.\"", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00147", "bookId": 10376, "start": 35498, "end": 35539, "sha256": "b165c7ea1a32e7996bfc230af391be28e7161cbc945058ad3fe54ffdead7c801", "text": "I had never seen a train, and he knew it.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00148", "bookId": 10376, "start": 35543, "end": 35659, "sha256": "34d96f5399cfa982daa2749dee1d47b75ab84321a9c04eb8ba1a08c0d0d13293", "text": "\"Mother, I am going East! I like big red apples, and I want to ride on the iron horse! Mother, say yes!\" I pleaded.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00149", "bookId": 10376, "start": 35663, "end": 35857, "sha256": "ddd2fe1df7b6e132676109fc13ae68e0decdccfd54fecf9206357915c34e175d", "text": "My mother said nothing. The missionaries waited in silence; and my eyes began to blur with tears, though I struggled to choke them back. The corners of my mouth twitched, and my mother saw me.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00150", "bookId": 10376, "start": 35861, "end": 35967, "sha256": "c18c7bdb75ad8b43c90b6f952a92baa8d689786af0927f80884b93084f9c0c80", "text": "\"I am not ready to give you any word,\" she said to them. \"Tomorrow I shall send you my answer by my son.\"", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00151", "bookId": 10376, "start": 35971, "end": 36246, "sha256": "044d5adbb5174dad8febd298dec21b140cc6dc8d1cac32d6bb19c4cbbd220671", "text": "With this they left us. Alone with my mother, I yielded to my tears, and cried aloud, shaking my head so as not to hear what she was saying to me. This was the first time I had ever been so unwilling to give up my own desire that I refused to hearken to my mother's voice.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00152", "bookId": 10376, "start": 36250, "end": 36410, "sha256": "945347b849d0cb0aad612d17ddec95d7a2be368a3740475ddff4f8cc0de20af8", "text": "There was a solemn silence in our home that night. Before I went to bed I begged the Great Spirit to make my mother willing I should go with the missionaries.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00153", "bookId": 10376, "start": 36414, "end": 36555, "sha256": "7e49bfcd6068950239392a3d50bd3a751403fd2617baf1cf6b005df073f82cde", "text": "The next morning came, and my mother called me to her side. \"My daughter, do you still persist in wishing to leave your mother?\" she asked.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00154", "bookId": 10376, "start": 36559, "end": 36667, "sha256": "6408508f44980072c2ca1702f149f2fe1db56caa5a83d882b325dee9332647cb", "text": "\"Oh, mother, it is not that I wish to leave you, but I want to see the wonderful Eastern land,\" I answered.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00155", "bookId": 10376, "start": 36671, "end": 36759, "sha256": "5061971c80f12819a164dbec288b5a8f1226b61c6f901b8c2fc028b78f201238", "text": "My dear old aunt came to our house that morning, and I heard her say, \"Let her try it.\"", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00156", "bookId": 10376, "start": 36763, "end": 36914, "sha256": "9b71248bc0b0d72afb5af9a2b26e4aec15e83b43745ea1ad67e898cda234e988", "text": "I hoped that, as usual, my aunt was pleading on my side. My brother Dawée came for mother's decision. I dropped my play, and crept close to my aunt.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00157", "bookId": 10376, "start": 36918, "end": 37636, "sha256": "ed6ee5c4f6c9bd2f2b967bc3e8245616463fb60dbcc4a7d8e63afd5ef2878f4e", "text": "\"Yes, Dawée, my daughter, though she does not understand what it all means, is anxious to go. She will need an education when she is grown, for then there will be fewer real Dakotas, and many more palefaces. This tearing her away, so young, from her mother is necessary, if I would have her an educated woman. The palefaces, who owe us a large debt for stolen lands, have begun to pay a tardy justice in offering some education to our children. But I know my daughter must suffer keenly in this experiment. For her sake, I dread to tell you my reply to the missionaries. Go, tell them that they may take my little daughter, and that the Great Spirit shall not fail to reward them according to their hearts.\"", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00158", "bookId": 10376, "start": 37640, "end": 38503, "sha256": "d835ff76ac76e7601ebe674505aae3be2966682a05253955f8cc097572ba29f3", "text": "Wrapped in my heavy blanket, I walked with my mother to the carriage that was soon to take us to the iron horse. I was happy. I met my playmates, who were also wearing their best thick blankets. We showed one another our new beaded moccasins, and the width of the belts that girdled our new dresses. Soon we were being drawn rapidly away by the white man's horses. When I saw the lonely figure of my mother vanish in the distance, a sense of regret settled heavily upon me. I felt suddenly weak, as if I might fall limp to the ground. I was in the hands of strangers whom my mother did not fully trust. I no longer felt free to be myself, or to voice my own feelings. The tears trickled down my cheeks, and I buried my face in the folds of my blanket. Now the first step, parting me from my mother, was taken, and all my belated tears availed nothing.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00159", "bookId": 10376, "start": 38507, "end": 39064, "sha256": "33baae574433073e2f3db4065373d8d6469bd0052e1583caae0f1c29104c1966", "text": "Having driven thirty miles to the ferryboat, we crossed the Missouri in the evening. Then riding again a few miles eastward, we stopped before a massive brick building. I looked at it in amazement, and with a vague misgiving, for in our village I had never seen so large a house. Trembling with fear and distrust of the palefaces, my teeth chattering from the chilly ride, I crept noiselessly in my soft moccasins along the narrow hall, keeping very close to the bare wall. I was as frightened and bewildered as the captured young of a wild creature.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00160", "bookId": 10376, "start": 39074, "end": 39107, "sha256": "c9c4e9cbd63488c5753e435c3553876c3e3875a9ae19c6dd8ba80c7b8e7dc04c", "text": "THE SCHOOL DAYS OF AN INDIAN GIRL", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00161", "bookId": 10376, "start": 39111, "end": 39113, "sha256": "6177fd2664d785bf3c9f9b89a952d6510465c507c1b37b3b4d93295eb409896b", "text": "I.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00162", "bookId": 10376, "start": 39117, "end": 39140, "sha256": "cfaa26fb01e8ffc4a4f5fa3e3588dbac79cb6e7313b606f2cae9c90bfe99d251", "text": "THE LAND OF RED APPLES.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00163", "bookId": 10376, "start": 39146, "end": 39341, "sha256": "32781205d038d1cd151c9a6ad91d5542cf1f25582377f3920b33508245f3f8dd", "text": "There were eight in our party of bronzed children who were going East with the missionaries. Among us were three young braves, two tall girls, and we three little ones, Judéwin, Thowin, and I.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00164", "bookId": 10376, "start": 39345, "end": 39773, "sha256": "2a26388d3a45ebccf017ae214014fe982eacf17720f9c791c61e50d50bc77516", "text": "We had been very impatient to start on our journey to the Red Apple Country, which, we were told, lay a little beyond the great circular horizon of the Western prairie. Under a sky of rosy apples we dreamt of roaming as freely and happily as we had chased the cloud shadows on the Dakota plains. We had anticipated much pleasure from a ride on the iron horse, but the throngs of staring palefaces disturbed and troubled us.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00165", "bookId": 10376, "start": 39777, "end": 40014, "sha256": "c2d96dc41b7c2af2182e49cfbe69335588fce58198741a1b33e4ef7b3d8f4f24", "text": "On the train, fair women, with tottering babies on each arm, stopped their haste and scrutinized the children of absent mothers. Large men, with heavy bundles in their hands, halted near by, and riveted their glassy blue eyes upon us.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00166", "bookId": 10376, "start": 40018, "end": 40540, "sha256": "885d2d536b7ca6775bbc81f742b7f7b6afec1e5ce683da453b1e32d856778614", "text": "I sank deep into the corner of my seat, for I resented being watched. Directly in front of me, children who were no larger than I hung themselves upon the backs of their seats, with their bold white faces toward me. Sometimes they took their forefingers out of their mouths and pointed at my moccasined feet. Their mothers, instead of reproving such rude curiosity, looked closely at me, and attracted their children's further notice to my blanket. This embarrassed me, and kept me constantly on the verge of tears.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00167", "bookId": 10376, "start": 40544, "end": 41195, "sha256": "e609cf262c49502306c20ff01fb60d32336716f82ef39eb47286cbec7ceb655f", "text": "I sat perfectly still, with my eyes downcast, daring only now and then to shoot long glances around me. Chancing to turn to the window at my side, I was quite breathless upon seeing one familiar object. It was the telegraph pole which strode by at short paces. Very near my mother's dwelling, along the edge of a road thickly bordered with wild sunflowers, some poles like these had been planted by white men. Often I had stopped, on my way down the road, to hold my ear against the pole, and, hearing its low moaning, I used to wonder what the paleface had done to hurt it. Now I sat watching for each pole that glided by to be the last one.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00168", "bookId": 10376, "start": 41199, "end": 41476, "sha256": "a7dc6ea2623615e5c88cb10bf3c750616ff82021f12781c34b3c5e04f53f6b5c", "text": "In this way I had forgotten my uncomfortable surroundings, when I heard one of my comrades call out my name. I saw the missionary standing very near, tossing candies and gums into our midst. This amused us all, and we tried to see who could catch the most of the sweetmeats.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00169", "bookId": 10376, "start": 41480, "end": 41586, "sha256": "1a7a117cfb4f8bc128130af1453d58b044ecb5673965b76d23af95b15148f6dd", "text": "Though we rode several days inside of the iron horse, I do not recall a single thing about our luncheons.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00170", "bookId": 10376, "start": 41590, "end": 41967, "sha256": "a91b77120f2b819188f30432ee9d9a7f1746ba5cf696eb591af377605f43eada", "text": "It was night when we reached the school grounds. The lights from the windows of the large buildings fell upon some of the icicled trees that stood beneath them. We were led toward an open door, where the brightness of the lights within flooded out over the heads of the excited palefaces who blocked our way. My body trembled more from fear than from the snow I trod upon.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00171", "bookId": 10376, "start": 41971, "end": 42742, "sha256": "da91053e2d4a6e015c48eb9469a8564d621400d0ae2196220f3d9fb6dc0796ae", "text": "Entering the house, I stood close against the wall. The strong glaring light in the large whitewashed room dazzled my eyes. The noisy hurrying of hard shoes upon a bare wooden floor increased the whirring in my ears. My only safety seemed to be in keeping next to the wall. As I was wondering in which direction to escape from all this confusion, two warm hands grasped me firmly, and in the same moment I was tossed high in midair. A rosy-cheeked paleface woman caught me in her arms. I was both frightened and insulted by such trifling. I stared into her eyes, wishing her to let me stand on my own feet, but she jumped me up and down with increasing enthusiasm. My mother had never made a plaything of her wee daughter. Remembering this I began to cry aloud.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00172", "bookId": 10376, "start": 42746, "end": 42983, "sha256": "a1769edf4ed304c6c72b7741afb617d7b15e686aff73cdfd38053836410770d2", "text": "They misunderstood the cause of my tears, and placed me at a white table loaded with food. There our party were united again. As I did not hush my crying, one of the older ones whispered to me, \"Wait until you are alone in the night.\"", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00173", "bookId": 10376, "start": 42987, "end": 43052, "sha256": "3cc3dd1797dfeb9fa024f93fde83ea0dab766288bcb4dd9b1a12dd16a7ca5b63", "text": "It was very little I could swallow besides my sobs, that evening.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00174", "bookId": 10376, "start": 43056, "end": 43187, "sha256": "0d6a1eecb9502f4c93102e7d21b2a501ce7f486af3f3790725d0f7c294fcca37", "text": "\"Oh, I want my mother and my brother Dawée! I want to go to my aunt!\" I pleaded; but the ears of the palefaces could not hear me.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00175", "bookId": 10376, "start": 43191, "end": 43629, "sha256": "188089f197c32d4f60a3832f9fc5a3593a1a61e1fc39580aa08098b9c6159dc8", "text": "From the table we were taken along an upward incline of wooden boxes, which I learned afterward to call a stairway. At the top was a quiet hall, dimly lighted. Many narrow beds were in one straight line down the entire length of the wall. In them lay sleeping brown faces, which peeped just out of the coverings. I was tucked into bed with one of the tall girls, because she talked to me in my mother tongue and seemed to soothe me.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00176", "bookId": 10376, "start": 43633, "end": 43954, "sha256": "8d7e99e55426b17ca490acbbed62e035db110cd7769a4f7fdeb1fe3d085a47a5", "text": "I had arrived in the wonderful land of rosy skies, but I was not happy, as I had thought I should be. My long travel and the bewildering sights had exhausted me. I fell asleep, heaving deep, tired sobs. My tears were left to dry themselves in streaks, because neither my aunt nor my mother was near to wipe them away.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00177", "bookId": 10376, "start": 43964, "end": 43967, "sha256": "c7e15ed5d6855b3d9c4d1d9c8df86084dd7b9012db5a79f92d626c17e0c445fc", "text": "II.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00178", "bookId": 10376, "start": 43971, "end": 43999, "sha256": "3673374445812f47f28b371ce7593eb92a22adba12ea47644e0866f85cc447b1", "text": "THE CUTTING OF MY LONG HAIR.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00179", "bookId": 10376, "start": 44005, "end": 44555, "sha256": "692ef3703560cb6994c977be6938887245465cbb68ebd47abbb2383bad87768d", "text": "The first day in the land of apples was a bitter-cold one; for the snow still covered the ground, and the trees were bare. A large bell rang for breakfast, its loud metallic voice crashing through the belfry overhead and into our sensitive ears. The annoying clatter of shoes on bare floors gave us no peace. The constant clash of harsh noises, with an undercurrent of many voices murmuring an unknown tongue, made a bedlam within which I was securely tied. And though my spirit tore itself in struggling for its lost freedom, all was useless.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00180", "bookId": 10376, "start": 44559, "end": 46297, "sha256": "be5854a9479f429fb2029ec4cdd96be0259799397c9d7993411ce7e8f3bc0dde", "text": "A paleface woman, with white hair, came up after us. We were placed in a line of girls who were marching into the dining room. These were Indian girls, in stiff shoes and closely clinging dresses. The small girls wore sleeved aprons and shingled hair. As I walked noiselessly in my soft moccasins, I felt like sinking to the floor, for my blanket had been stripped from my shoulders. I looked hard at the Indian girls, who seemed not to care that they were even more immodestly dressed than I, in their tightly fitting clothes. While we marched in, the boys entered at an opposite door. I watched for the three young braves who came in our party. I spied them in the rear ranks, looking as uncomfortable as I felt. A small bell was tapped, and each of the pupils drew a chair from under the table. Supposing this act meant they were to be seated, I pulled out mine and at once slipped into it from one side. But when I turned my head, I saw that I was the only one seated, and all the rest at our table remained standing. Just as I began to rise, looking shyly around to see how chairs were to be used, a second bell was sounded. All were seated at last, and I had to crawl back into my chair again. I heard a man's voice at one end of the hall, and I looked around to see him. But all the others hung their heads over their plates. As I glanced at the long chain of tables, I caught the eyes of a paleface woman upon me. Immediately I dropped my eyes, wondering why I was so keenly watched by the strange woman. The man ceased his mutterings, and then a third bell was tapped. Every one picked up his knife and fork and began eating. I began crying instead, for by this time I was afraid to venture anything more.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00181", "bookId": 10376, "start": 46301, "end": 46758, "sha256": "2d9d22a7f3015d7b260fce20fd892901c6f474bb76097aee0c21cb8599019dd1", "text": "But this eating by formula was not the hardest trial in that first day. Late in the morning, my friend Judéwin gave me a terrible warning. Judéwin knew a few words of English; and she had overheard the paleface woman talk about cutting our long, heavy hair. Our mothers had taught us that only unskilled warriors who were captured had their hair shingled by the enemy. Among our people, short hair was worn by mourners, and shingled hair by cowards!", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00182", "bookId": 10376, "start": 46762, "end": 46880, "sha256": "d381d7029f1068516ef30add9238110ff02d85b46e57f019f440a91e8fa65921", "text": "We discussed our fate some moments, and when Judéwin said, \"We have to submit, because they are strong,\" I rebelled.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00183", "bookId": 10376, "start": 46884, "end": 46943, "sha256": "fdbf966e7d5df5e1f775b81ae6e42cd0e92fe33b2184e078770a57707b0bddea", "text": "\"No, I will not submit! I will struggle first!\" I answered.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00184", "bookId": 10376, "start": 46947, "end": 47530, "sha256": "0c26f07fb82a1e86a7338511cb2de6f5a86070f44f7e7afeb3790045d7f03cbb", "text": "I watched my chance, and when no one noticed, I disappeared. I crept up the stairs as quietly as I could in my squeaking shoes,--my moccasins had been exchanged for shoes. Along the hall I passed, without knowing whither I was going. Turning aside to an open door, I found a large room with three white beds in it. The windows were covered with dark green curtains, which made the room very dim. Thankful that no one was there, I directed my steps toward the corner farthest from the door. On my hands and knees I crawled under the bed, and cuddled myself in the dark corner.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00185", "bookId": 10376, "start": 47534, "end": 48279, "sha256": "b2516ea0da3445f39a556b7fbc2aea265b51400ec3debbf024d74a856d42da9f", "text": "From my hiding place I peered out, shuddering with fear whenever I heard footsteps near by. Though in the hall loud voices were calling my name, and I knew that even Judéwin was searching for me, I did not open my mouth to answer. Then the steps were quickened and the voices became excited. The sounds came nearer and nearer. Women and girls entered the room. I held my breath and watched them open closet doors and peep behind large trunks. Some one threw up the curtains, and the room was filled with sudden light. What caused them to stoop and look under the bed I do not know. I remember being dragged out, though I resisted by kicking and scratching wildly. In spite of myself, I was carried downstairs and tied fast in a chair.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00186", "bookId": 10376, "start": 48283, "end": 48879, "sha256": "da93d9088e3055a2ed550a9b83856dfcd64ac9797f52b2255ccb26f4c08ae5d9", "text": "I cried aloud, shaking my head all the while until I felt the cold blades of the scissors against my neck, and heard them gnaw off one of my thick braids. Then I lost my spirit. Since the day I was taken from my mother I had suffered extreme indignities. People had stared at me. I had been tossed about in the air like a wooden puppet. And now my long hair was shingled like a coward's! In my anguish I moaned for my mother, but no one came to comfort me. Not a soul reasoned quietly with me, as my own mother used to do; for now I was only one of many little animals driven by a herder.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00187", "bookId": 10376, "start": 48889, "end": 48893, "sha256": "f8c27f79b3c0d27534bf7d7fb53370d9cb62a85bdf46de1012aebc74804c0124", "text": "III.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00188", "bookId": 10376, "start": 48897, "end": 48914, "sha256": "959b4d9bbb30d1d1fd1fa5135de6ccf44863c3929284c73a2b9074a81685412f", "text": "THE SNOW EPISODE.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00189", "bookId": 10376, "start": 48920, "end": 49537, "sha256": "234e6fc875bd11227633ba2097032a9b1ec4b928fd6bf072275f53e4500b839e", "text": "A short time after our arrival we three Dakotas were playing in the snowdrift. We were all still deaf to the English language, excepting Judéwin, who always heard such puzzling things. One morning we learned through her ears that we were forbidden to fall lengthwise in the snow, as we had been doing, to see our own impressions. However, before many hours we had forgotten the order, and were having great sport in the snow, when a shrill voice called us. Looking up, we saw an imperative hand beckoning us into the house. We shook the snow off ourselves, and started toward the woman as slowly as we dared.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00190", "bookId": 10376, "start": 49541, "end": 49831, "sha256": "dc4c8cc3b7c8431bfe558017b853cf3a7f5013bd0c71db36258a95f096150e9e", "text": "Judéwin said: \"Now the paleface is angry with us. She is going to punish us for falling into the snow. If she looks straight into your eyes and talks loudly, you must wait until she stops. Then, after a tiny pause, say, 'No.'\" The rest of the way we practiced upon the little word \"no.\"", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00191", "bookId": 10376, "start": 49835, "end": 49929, "sha256": "ce5110e1853df17903febe19289dabbdad6d104ebe0f26fc3f4f142da9c0c69d", "text": "As it happened, Thowin was summoned to judgment first. The door shut behind her with a click.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00192", "bookId": 10376, "start": 49933, "end": 50367, "sha256": "50d745a567d5013abf2e945924b59995b0fd5cafad11808ac2566fb74c2617e1", "text": "Judéwin and I stood silently listening at the keyhole. The paleface woman talked in very severe tones. Her words fell from her lips like crackling embers, and her inflection ran up like the small end of a switch. I understood her voice better than the things she was saying. I was certain we had made her very impatient with us. Judéwin heard enough of the words to realize all too late that she had taught us the wrong reply.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00193", "bookId": 10376, "start": 50371, "end": 50438, "sha256": "78c5690f68cec80c8027fed35ad99396f3b173ce7c4bceb6269aa3797759e065", "text": "\"Oh, poor Thowin!\" she gasped, as she put both hands over her ears.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00194", "bookId": 10376, "start": 50442, "end": 50492, "sha256": "40d717db249d6b59642adf6be4c2175378e1bce6c4c9c7479e3bdf557dcf95d1", "text": "Just then I heard Thowin's tremulous answer, \"No.\"", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00195", "bookId": 10376, "start": 50496, "end": 50669, "sha256": "56ac55d091cec566b32d2fe5c057a9398c9c8a0799b2fb82c3f4486200ef1043", "text": "With an angry exclamation, the woman gave her a hard spanking. Then she stopped to say something. Judéwin said it was this: \"Are you going to obey my word the next time?\"", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00196", "bookId": 10376, "start": 50673, "end": 50735, "sha256": "1555a6b651581069595054b75f6726ac169ea3ac60ca348779b9bb47e2461d30", "text": "Thowin answered again with the only word at her command, \"No.\"", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00197", "bookId": 10376, "start": 50739, "end": 50987, "sha256": "c1abdb5db9ffd9964cecf4293285cb82a1150527e51a9c5ef6105a05815670c9", "text": "This time the woman meant her blows to smart, for the poor frightened girl shrieked at the top of her voice. In the midst of the whipping the blows ceased abruptly, and the woman asked another question: \"Are you going to fall in the snow again?\"", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00198", "bookId": 10376, "start": 50991, "end": 51070, "sha256": "97ff1365ef51ef13c5b2d6dfdc69b689452afbd0e77fb10ed5be0e810898e5b0", "text": "Thowin gave her bad passwood another trial. We heard her say feebly, \"No! No!\"", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00199", "bookId": 10376, "start": 51074, "end": 51382, "sha256": "9839b728b6ee1c07f85e800c75f39b16ece5f9d60ff6fb36c681fd00678aebc6", "text": "With this the woman hid away her half-worn slipper, and led the child out, stroking her black shorn head. Perhaps it occurred to her that brute force is not the solution for such a problem. She did nothing to Judéwin nor to me. She only returned to us our unhappy comrade, and left us alone in the room.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00200", "bookId": 10376, "start": 51386, "end": 51582, "sha256": "33c9622f3fe600c015bb460f21377056d56dd873e2999354eefed8359b4ad20c", "text": "During the first two or three seasons misunderstandings as ridiculous as this one of the snow episode frequently took place, bringing unjustifiable frights and punishments into our little lives.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00201", "bookId": 10376, "start": 51586, "end": 52695, "sha256": "1cf23aad19984ee65c173d07c93f7e6a8930e930c5c7581d7f6c988c46b9e796", "text": "Within a year I was able to express myself somewhat in broken English. As soon as I comprehended a part of what was said and done, a mischievous spirit of revenge possessed me. One day I was called in from my play for some misconduct. I had disregarded a rule which seemed to me very needlessly binding. I was sent into the kitchen to mash the turnips for dinner. It was noon, and steaming dishes were hastily carried into the dining-room. I hated turnips, and their odor which came from the brown jar was offensive to me. With fire in my heart, I took the wooden tool that the paleface woman held out to me. I stood upon a step, and, grasping the handle with both hands, I bent in hot rage over the turnips. I worked my vengeance upon them. All were so busily occupied that no one noticed me. I saw that the turnips were in a pulp, and that further beating could not improve them; but the order was, \"Mash these turnips,\" and mash them I would! I renewed my energy; and as I sent the masher into the bottom of the jar, I felt a satisfying sensation that the weight of my body had gone into it.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00202", "bookId": 10376, "start": 52699, "end": 53198, "sha256": "50fbb7c2daa0dff7a9143e08e72b0dd0acd79330196ebf10967fd215f52eac50", "text": "Just here a paleface woman came up to my table. As she looked into the jar, she shoved my hands roughly aside. I stood fearless and angry. She placed her red hands upon the rim of the jar. Then she gave one lift and stride away from the table. But lo! the pulpy contents fell through the crumbled bottom to the floor I She spared me no scolding phrases that I had earned. I did not heed them. I felt triumphant in my revenge, though deep within me I was a wee bit sorry to have broken the jar.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00203", "bookId": 10376, "start": 53202, "end": 53338, "sha256": "44f9af58f5e5c044824688d51e01a924d2106d2defa46c8f103877f234b468a9", "text": "As I sat eating my dinner, and saw that no turnips were served, I whooped in my heart for having once asserted the rebellion within me.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00204", "bookId": 10376, "start": 53348, "end": 53351, "sha256": "042bf14ef0ebc2b8f29436c42ed32592d55e6c559e473dad955da5ef0c302db3", "text": "IV.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00205", "bookId": 10376, "start": 53355, "end": 53365, "sha256": "ecccbff4af00aea4b34b8fb2dd41e7fda6955b9637052f16f36beb489e7cc2c3", "text": "THE DEVIL.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00206", "bookId": 10376, "start": 53371, "end": 53732, "sha256": "1c6d95c098a3d9bd7362666199e2817dc8abcc6fb53b9a03dad83cc26576e753", "text": "Among the legends the old warriors used to tell me were many stories of evil spirits. But I was taught to fear them no more than those who stalked about in material guise. I never knew there was an insolent chieftain among the bad spirits, who dared to array his forces against the Great Spirit, until I heard this white man's legend from a paleface woman.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00207", "bookId": 10376, "start": 53736, "end": 54506, "sha256": "ef53a394dfc81cbf3a6eaa6aaae65a5dd52f1cb36d61279b60b6e0a3d7c09d51", "text": "Out of a large book she showed me a picture of the white man's devil. I looked in horror upon the strong claws that grew out of his fur-covered fingers. His feet were like his hands. Trailing at his heels was a scaly tail tipped with a serpent's open jaws. His face was a patchwork: he had bearded cheeks, like some I had seen palefaces wear; his nose was an eagle's bill, and his sharp-pointed ears were pricked up like those of a sly fox. Above them a pair of cow's horns curved upward. I trembled with awe, and my heart throbbed in my throat, as I looked at the king of evil spirits. Then I heard the paleface woman say that this terrible creature roamed loose in the world, and that little girls who disobeyed school regulations were to be tortured by him.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00208", "bookId": 10376, "start": 54510, "end": 54974, "sha256": "cf07d290faa27f9ed53292d63568e08d02e019873219286d3a6d36fa35b3f053", "text": "That night I dreamt about this evil divinity. Once again I seemed to be in my mother's cottage. An Indian woman had come to visit my mother. On opposite sides of the kitchen stove, which stood in the center of the small house, my mother and her guest were seated in straight-backed chairs. I played with a train of empty spools hitched together on a string. It was night, and the wick burned feebly. Suddenly I heard some one turn our door-knob from without.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00209", "bookId": 10376, "start": 54978, "end": 55174, "sha256": "cdc237626ea6c81d549182042c532139fed3dfbc648317b8410597103fe8663d", "text": "My mother and the woman hushed their talk, and both looked toward the door. It opened gradually. I waited behind the stove. The hinges squeaked as the door was slowly, very slowly pushed inward.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00210", "bookId": 10376, "start": 55178, "end": 56171, "sha256": "aebaa56203f1aba427ce30f91fd3c97f0b119c6b6d244dbe6fa84600a0a1f10c", "text": "Then in rushed the devil! He was tall! He looked exactly like the picture I had seen of him in the white man's papers. He did not speak to my mother, because he did not know the Indian language, but his glittering yellow eyes were fastened upon me. He took long strides around the stove, passing behind the woman's chair. I threw down my spools, and ran to my mother. He did not fear her, but followed closely after me. Then I ran round and round the stove, crying aloud for help. But my mother and the woman seemed not to know my danger. They sat still, looking quietly upon the devil's chase after me. At last I grew dizzy. My head revolved as on a hidden pivot. My knees became numb, and doubled under my weight like a pair of knife blades without a spring. Beside my mother's chair I fell in a heap. Just as the devil stooped over me with outstretched claws my mother awoke from her quiet indifference, and lifted me on her lap. Whereupon the devil vanished, and I was awake.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00211", "bookId": 10376, "start": 56175, "end": 56586, "sha256": "9cb386b9acf7ebb3ca5ac7da5f45fcf0abf9c585bd2f390940083edef17efa7a", "text": "On the following morning I took my revenge upon the devil. Stealing into the room where a wall of shelves was filled with books, I drew forth The Stories of the Bible. With a broken slate pencil I carried in my apron pocket, I began by scratching out his wicked eyes. A few moments later, when I was ready to leave the room, there was a ragged hole in the page where the picture of the devil had once been.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00212", "bookId": 10376, "start": 56596, "end": 56598, "sha256": "d816c31e610c123f63c806863c99c199a73e629443d055e25e8272dc367e5f53", "text": "V.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00213", "bookId": 10376, "start": 56602, "end": 56614, "sha256": "c4b28a4e557269aee9f3af13546a46eb63d6a4f5e41832acfa69f40fbe6ab8f9", "text": "IRON ROUTINE", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00214", "bookId": 10376, "start": 56620, "end": 56987, "sha256": "ddcf9a2e260a2d9c638d49943d59e6827a77ce012d0e12c7cd2678a429f2fba0", "text": "A loud-clamoring bell awakened us at half-past six in the cold winter mornings. From happy dreams of Western rolling lands and unlassoed freedom we tumbled out upon chilly bare floors back again into a paleface day. We had short time to jump into our shoes and clothes, and wet our eyes with icy water, before a small hand bell was vigorously rung for roll call.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00215", "bookId": 10376, "start": 56991, "end": 57259, "sha256": "f54e97b47b40682871e472d05ec53b77ad73655f8c3d55a360838d2345d5b147", "text": "There were too many drowsy children and too numerous orders for the day to waste a moment in any apology to nature for giving her children such a shock in the early morning. We rushed downstairs, bounding over two high steps at a time, to land in the assembly room.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00216", "bookId": 10376, "start": 57263, "end": 57458, "sha256": "183f9d7c8e835958f282de3c0cabe23ed601b0e2873cd37ba5ac31d50ded43af", "text": "A paleface woman, with a yellow-covered roll book open on her arm and a gnawed pencil in her hand, appeared at the door. Her small, tired face was coldly lighted with a pair of large gray eyes.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00217", "bookId": 10376, "start": 57462, "end": 57762, "sha256": "2d11e3e6ff101181aaadb7800120e6af49236daa405151a9c7af5f63d6e785e4", "text": "She stood still in a halo of authority, while over the rim of her spectacles her eyes pried nervously about the room. Having glanced at her long list of names and called out the first one, she tossed up her chin and peered through the crystals of her spectacles to make sure of the answer \"Here.\"", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00218", "bookId": 10376, "start": 57766, "end": 58403, "sha256": "84705dd914396ff9aaa512233959b2dde6ba088dc6db9d70d412e9b7a2e26e38", "text": "Relentlessly her pencil black-marked our daily records if we were not present to respond to our names, and no chum of ours had done it successfully for us. No matter if a dull headache or the painful cough of slow consumption had delayed the absentee, there was only time enough to mark the tardiness. It was next to impossible to leave the iron routine after the civilizing machine had once begun its day's buzzing; and as it was inbred in me to suffer in silence rather than to appeal to the ears of one whose open eyes could not see my pain, I have many times trudged in the day's harness heavy-footed, like a dumb sick brute.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00219", "bookId": 10376, "start": 58407, "end": 58860, "sha256": "7f4406727163f2f73604ea2bd9a128a0c5daf1ecc181f5e7189f0c51548f0f0c", "text": "Once I lost a dear classmate. I remember well how she used to mope along at my side, until one morning she could not raise her head from her pillow. At her deathbed I stood weeping, as the paleface woman sat near her moistening the dry lips. Among the folds of the bedclothes I saw the open pages of the white man's Bible. The dying Indian girl talked disconnectedly of Jesus the Christ and the paleface who was cooling her swollen hands and feet.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00220", "bookId": 10376, "start": 58864, "end": 59463, "sha256": "8656194cf694ba975fde2e216cf2b770a8a39c4c11a7dedb2e4b7ffcdb19530b", "text": "I grew bitter, and censured the woman for cruel neglect of our physical ills. I despised the pencils that moved automatically, and the one teaspoon which dealt out, from a large bottle, healing to a row of variously ailing Indian children. I blamed the hard-working, well-meaning, ignorant woman who was inculcating in our hearts her superstitious ideas. Though I was sullen in all my little troubles, as soon as I felt better I was ready again to smile upon the cruel woman. Within a week I was again actively testing the chains which tightly bound my individuality like a mummy for burial.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00221", "bookId": 10376, "start": 59467, "end": 59932, "sha256": "d58ba209215b5dd1069b073fec40abb82730a082807eee896022aec1b8946d14", "text": "The melancholy of those black days has left so long a shadow that it darkens the path of years that have since gone by. These sad memories rise above those of smoothly grinding school days. Perhaps my Indian nature is the moaning wind which stirs them now for their present record. But, however tempestuous this is within me, it comes out as the low voice of a curiously colored seashell, which is only for those ears that are bent with compassion to hear it.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00222", "bookId": 10376, "start": 59942, "end": 59945, "sha256": "36dcfd7ef46ff35907e3858c9d25342fa480f250291306cd053e626745258f1a", "text": "VI.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00223", "bookId": 10376, "start": 59949, "end": 59970, "sha256": "630c567deaace7ea268a4a8ee3ae9711ed3aa1c03f96ae2c1df9bf54be5cf802", "text": "FOUR STRANGE SUMMERS.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00224", "bookId": 10376, "start": 59976, "end": 60082, "sha256": "85e1a4130ce84b6de9eb463b266d63799a1717d4b18e09af53a1f1b12ccbf7e0", "text": "After my first three years of school, I roamed again in the Western country through four strange summers.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00225", "bookId": 10376, "start": 60086, "end": 60650, "sha256": "64a6987be11020a0bdc4a27f0830bf6d2a54453b8ed2d3484df542ef242d8919", "text": "During this time I seemed to hang in the heart of chaos, beyond the touch or voice of human aid. My brother, being almost ten years my senior, did not quite understand my feelings. My mother had never gone inside of a schoolhouse, and so she was not capable of comforting her daughter who could read and write. Even nature seemed to have no place for me. I was neither a wee girl nor a tall one; neither a wild Indian nor a tame one. This deplorable situation was the effect of my brief course in the East, and the unsatisfactory \"teenth\" in a girl's years.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00226", "bookId": 10376, "start": 60654, "end": 61138, "sha256": "6c2ff11fb954ef8800a1760a1cc0a04eea52ae670d0aef40bc7c75fb65158280", "text": "It was under these trying conditions that, one bright afternoon, as I sat restless and unhappy in my mother's cabin, I caught the sound of the spirited step of my brother's pony on the road which passed by our dwelling. Soon I heard the wheels of a light buckboard, and Dawée's familiar \"Ho!\" to his pony. He alighted upon the bare ground in front of our house. Tying his pony to one of the projecting corner logs of the low-roofed cottage, he stepped upon the wooden doorstep.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00227", "bookId": 10376, "start": 61142, "end": 61244, "sha256": "ecc2879cf2e296eeef1dfdd09c6aec4352f29e5605d070330e7be14ba19f0993", "text": "I met him there with a hurried greeting, and, as I passed by, he looked a quiet \"What?\" into my eyes.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00228", "bookId": 10376, "start": 61248, "end": 62043, "sha256": "39c9d48edbafcfde3733e199e49315ec6d7ccd5418a8667999320a3bedc04607", "text": "When he began talking with my mother, I slipped the rope from the pony's bridle. Seizing the reins and bracing my feet against the dashboard, I wheeled around in an instant. The pony was ever ready to try his speed. Looking backward, I saw Dawée waving his hand to me. I turned with the curve in the road and disappeared. I followed the winding road which crawled upward between the bases of little hillocks. Deep water-worn ditches ran parallel on either side. A strong wind blew against my cheeks and fluttered my sleeves. The pony reached the top of the highest hill, and began an even race on the level lands. There was nothing moving within that great circular horizon of the Dakota prairies save the tall grasses, over which the wind blew and rolled off in long, shadowy waves.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00229", "bookId": 10376, "start": 62047, "end": 62210, "sha256": "ec8fa3e3be36873a1c72934da1bd6018ab2de30b714b7b7107b063c5fd79dc0b", "text": "Within this vast wigwam of blue and green I rode reckless and insignificant. It satisfied my small consciousness to see the white foam fly from the pony's mouth.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00230", "bookId": 10376, "start": 62214, "end": 62680, "sha256": "c22ad00d2ba6353da91c072a822d2a70a9c4d783d635ee21edc856aa4b593691", "text": "Suddenly, out of the earth a coyote came forth at a swinging trot that was taking the cunning thief toward the hills and the village beyond. Upon the moment's impulse, I gave him a long chase and a wholesome fright. As I turned away to go back to the village, the wolf sank down upon his haunches for rest, for it was a hot summer day; and as I drove slowly homeward, I saw his sharp nose still pointed at me, until I vanished below the margin of the hilltops.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00231", "bookId": 10376, "start": 62684, "end": 63025, "sha256": "8abd63977b2cce3ae8234983818e54c4575c124f35f2cdb603d7c8f15992c1a0", "text": "In a little while I came in sight of my mother's house. Dawée stood in the yard, laughing at an old warrior who was pointing his forefinger, and again waving his whole hand, toward the hills. With his blanket drawn over one shoulder, he talked and motioned excitedly. Dawée turned the old man by the shoulder and pointed me out to him.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00232", "bookId": 10376, "start": 63029, "end": 63448, "sha256": "febbe8a2f9c09cc18cc288d67d8ee654dcca4c36220d05de9993767df8f8e4d2", "text": "\"Oh, han!\" (Oh, yes) the warrior muttered, and went his way. He had climbed the top of his favorite barren hill to survey the surrounding prairies, when he spied my chase after the coyote. His keen eyes recognized the pony and driver. At once uneasy for my safety, he had come running to my mother's cabin to give her warning. I did not appreciate his kindly interest, for there was an unrest gnawing at my heart.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00233", "bookId": 10376, "start": 63452, "end": 63513, "sha256": "82954f93a4c994dfb0869b16b66746176270654419047fe3b525004b61b85dd7", "text": "As soon as he went away, I asked Dawée about something else.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00234", "bookId": 10376, "start": 63517, "end": 63765, "sha256": "a0414772fc239ae69233f0f04034fba4e4b919766e8b6f4ee064fb20be8b0753", "text": "\"No, my baby sister, I cannot take you with me to the party tonight,\" he replied. Though I was not far from fifteen, and I felt that before long I should enjoy all the privileges of my tall cousin, Dawée persisted in calling me his baby sister.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00235", "bookId": 10376, "start": 63769, "end": 64504, "sha256": "7bd71b57ccef8ee09d8a146573e5e29514dc94fd02ae9db47f7af325e54c633d", "text": "That moonlight night, I cried in my mother's presence when I heard the jolly young people pass by our cottage. They were no more young braves in blankets and eagle plumes, nor Indian maids with prettily painted cheeks. They had gone three years to school in the East, and had become civilized. The young men wore the white man's coat and trousers, with bright neckties. The girls wore tight muslin dresses, with ribbons at neck and waist. At these gatherings they talked English. I could speak English almost as well as my brother, but I was not properly dressed to be taken along. I had no hat, no ribbons, and no close-fitting gown. Since my return from school I had thrown away my shoes, and wore again the soft moccasins.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00236", "bookId": 10376, "start": 64508, "end": 64669, "sha256": "b318ede245e848b1120cde6db444ac802b5169fdfa8ce5b32fde75afa6f8bc80", "text": "While Dawée was busily preparing to go I controlled my tears. But when I heard him bounding away on his pony, I buried my face in my arms and cried hot tears.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00237", "bookId": 10376, "start": 64673, "end": 64981, "sha256": "a8154e3675344c2aa34e9df4c7a8582d50930eb8d22210064bf5b5097246735a", "text": "My mother was troubled by my unhappiness. Coming to my side, she offered me the only printed matter we had in our home. It was an Indian Bible, given her some years ago by a missionary. She tried to console me. \"Here, my child, are the white man's papers. Read a little from them,\" she said most piously.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00238", "bookId": 10376, "start": 64985, "end": 65395, "sha256": "ad1f2b2954a9b45997332208215c348ff9ba1625c1d40b3623d57a59ec764fd1", "text": "I took it from her hand, for her sake; but my enraged spirit felt more like burning the book, which afforded me no help, and was a perfect delusion to my mother. I did not read it, but laid it unopened on the floor, where I sat on my feet. The dim yellow light of the braided muslin burning in a small vessel of oil flickered and sizzled in the awful silent storm which followed my rejection of the Bible.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00239", "bookId": 10376, "start": 65399, "end": 65595, "sha256": "f2e50d53964c2283958df0612f08fd05f830c85267150c9e1f13182577628896", "text": "Now my wrath against the fates consumed my tears before they reached my eyes. I sat stony, with a bowed head. My mother threw a shawl over her head and shoulders, and stepped out into the night.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00240", "bookId": 10376, "start": 65599, "end": 65998, "sha256": "ca4030a2996043ebb1f840b1dde8532f37da660c7f0c4f9466b34d1adac4be24", "text": "After an uncertain solitude, I was suddenly aroused by a loud cry piercing the night. It was my mother's voice wailing among the barren hills which held the bones of buried warriors. She called aloud for her brothers' spirits to support her in her helpless misery. My fingers Grey icy cold, as I realized that my unrestrained tears had betrayed my suffering to her, and she was grieving for me.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00241", "bookId": 10376, "start": 66002, "end": 66155, "sha256": "ae84372dafcb48d43b1f6c33c02abdb8171a17c46264c6987bd8439a1d390390", "text": "Before she returned, though I knew she was on her way, for she had ceased her weeping, I extinguished the light, and leaned my head on the window sill.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00242", "bookId": 10376, "start": 66159, "end": 66490, "sha256": "d29655daef9831609337360bfc911f37987032f72a71e888c3d1486f583cc6ee", "text": "Many schemes of running away from my surroundings hovered about in my mind. A few more moons of such a turmoil drove me away to the eastern school. I rode on the white man's iron steed, thinking it would bring me back to my mother in a few winters, when I should be grown tall, and there would be congenial friends awaiting me.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00243", "bookId": 10376, "start": 66500, "end": 66504, "sha256": "88748f6113547074307afd17e2fbd898887ca599eb1854556241c1a417ea59d1", "text": "VII.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00244", "bookId": 10376, "start": 66508, "end": 66542, "sha256": "bfb4055c750c033d0c5d2daca2615494338241e245ec17ae51bf854036a008bd", "text": "INCURRING MY MOTHER'S DISPLEASURE.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00245", "bookId": 10376, "start": 66548, "end": 67055, "sha256": "237702ff52e0607a221b144a991dc4ec8699766d9e49498feed056b1c23d5fd3", "text": "In the second journey to the East I had not come without some precautions. I had a secret interview with one of our best medicine men, and when I left his wigwam I carried securely in my sleeve a tiny bunch of magic roots. This possession assured me of friends wherever I should go. So absolutely did I believe in its charms that I wore it through all the school routine for more than a year. Then, before I lost my faith in the dead roots, I lost the little buckskin bag containing all my good luck.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00246", "bookId": 10376, "start": 67059, "end": 67231, "sha256": "608011df3c86767c508f45059ab80d322649e8aa077b674d56323071311ad967", "text": "At the close of this second term of three years I was the proud owner of my first diploma. The following autumn I ventured upon a college career against my mother's will.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00247", "bookId": 10376, "start": 67235, "end": 67720, "sha256": "f781dff6f985b0d44738134f3e2ba865da4c8a6e9c28c8db44c4b2217b9a9714", "text": "I had written for her approval, but in her reply I found no encouragement. She called my notice to her neighbors' children, who had completed their education in three years. They had returned to their homes, and were then talking English with the frontier settlers. Her few words hinted that I had better give up my slow attempt to learn the white man's ways, and be content to roam over the prairies and find my living upon wild roots. I silenced her by deliberate disobedience.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00248", "bookId": 10376, "start": 67724, "end": 67795, "sha256": "065b4fbf1fe3e6c8d498ec787ac58486e6e1113a7529d6901c9b857ff504405d", "text": "Thus, homeless and heavy-hearted, I began anew my life among strangers.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00249", "bookId": 10376, "start": 67799, "end": 68116, "sha256": "ea427f36db5d47da5f6b71803a460b0ea2b71b120e1548bb3ddafe11172f6969", "text": "As I hid myself in my little room in the college dormitory, away from the scornful and yet curious eyes of the students, I pined for sympathy. Often I wept in secret, wishing I had gone West, to be nourished by my mother's love, instead of remaining among a cold race whose hearts were frozen hard with prejudice.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00250", "bookId": 10376, "start": 68120, "end": 68272, "sha256": "827b62c955cc6550a34698b5518aab086ffc7742510ef68f4ecbb383a707bf1c", "text": "During the fall and winter seasons I scarcely had a real friend, though by that time several of my classmates were courteous to me at a safe distance.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00251", "bookId": 10376, "start": 68276, "end": 68534, "sha256": "1cbdf244ee793b9ab5b860f749399c9e5790592aca4d6f2bfc586e08960d7c2b", "text": "My mother had not yet forgiven my rudeness to her, and I had no moment for letter-writing. By daylight and lamplight, I spun with reeds and thistles, until my hands were tired from their weaving, the magic design which promised me the white man's respect.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00252", "bookId": 10376, "start": 68538, "end": 69208, "sha256": "874395dca5a35dacdbe8992962c84bd48b642dedf660a419cd6fd626e67c19d6", "text": "At length, in the spring term, I entered an oratorical contest among the various classes. As the day of competition approached, it did not seem possible that the event was so near at hand, but it came. In the chapel the classes assembled together, with their invited guests. The high platform was carpeted, and gaily festooned with college colors. A bright white light illumined the room, and outlined clearly the great polished beams that arched the domed ceiling. The assembled crowds filled the air with pulsating murmurs. When the hour for speaking arrived all were hushed. But on the wall the old clock which pointed out the trying moment ticked calmly on.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00253", "bookId": 10376, "start": 69212, "end": 69618, "sha256": "8c89cd847f7760295df6c55c927231065cebb260338dca163751574cc04e8591", "text": "One after another I saw and heard the orators. Still, I could not realize that they longed for the favorable decision of the judges as much as I did. Each contestant received a loud burst of applause, and some were cheered heartily. Too soon my turn came, and I paused a moment behind the curtains for a deep breath. After my concluding words, I heard the same applause that the others had called out.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00254", "bookId": 10376, "start": 69622, "end": 69879, "sha256": "2c8d369dfa8aec1eae5d9dc122865762d79f676e1edb032d9e144f5dc85949d8", "text": "Upon my retreating steps, I was astounded to receive from my fellow-students a large bouquet of roses tied with flowing ribbons. With the lovely flowers I fled from the stage. This friendly token was a rebuke to me for the hard feelings I had borne them.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00255", "bookId": 10376, "start": 69883, "end": 70511, "sha256": "e25a67fc91e4d5a884ca17a235b819f04b96d4767aab3452dcfbf422357cf68b", "text": "Later, the decision of the judges awarded me the first place. Then there was a mad uproar in the hall, where my classmates sang and shouted my name at the top of their lungs; and the disappointed students howled and brayed in fearfully dissonant tin trumpets. In this excitement, happy students rushed forward to offer their congratulations. And I could not conceal a smile when they wished to escort me in a procession to the students' parlor, where all were going to calm themselves. Thanking them for the kind spirit which prompted them to make such a proposition, I walked alone with the night to my own little room.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00256", "bookId": 10376, "start": 70515, "end": 70753, "sha256": "665aecb55af2649f39fe7518d79ed482e9201ab8cfb648f2ddf250a3785d2f96", "text": "A few weeks afterward, I appeared as the college representative in another contest. This time the competition was among orators from different colleges in our State. It was held at the State capital, in one of the largest opera houses.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00257", "bookId": 10376, "start": 70757, "end": 71135, "sha256": "f48a640fbb91890a80fe1fe20f43069270e2ef27b5d3e9ab011d7c6745467f74", "text": "Here again was a strong prejudice against my people. In the evening, as the great audience filled the house, the student bodies began warring among themselves. Fortunately, I was spared witnessing any of the noisy wrangling before the contest began. The slurs against the Indian that stained the lips of our opponents were already burning like a dry fever within my breast.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00258", "bookId": 10376, "start": 71139, "end": 71703, "sha256": "d6d9dc8d715cdd3bbc3b67820d0120af558caff1e7ad6c36780afe803e90cba7", "text": "But after the orations were delivered a deeper burn awaited me. There, before that vast ocean of eyes, some college rowdies threw out a large white flag, with a drawing of a most forlorn Indian girl on it. Under this they had printed in bold black letters words that ridiculed the college which was represented by a \"squaw.\" Such worse than barbarian rudeness embittered me. While we waited for the verdict of the judges, I gleamed fiercely upon the throngs of palefaces. My teeth were hard set, as I saw the white flag still floating insolently in the air.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00259", "bookId": 10376, "start": 71707, "end": 71808, "sha256": "0b59194f41b125b9d582ce9e2405e08677aaf2336d88a9a9a09779e29d682c4a", "text": "Then anxiously we watched the man carry toward the stage the envelope containing the final decision.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00260", "bookId": 10376, "start": 71812, "end": 71878, "sha256": "f0f5a8316f147f77fdb73859a3377ad6c36015d240da821d61031b542d5d17b7", "text": "There were two prizes given, that night, and one of them was mine!", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00261", "bookId": 10376, "start": 71882, "end": 72009, "sha256": "d1832ace1a88548190275306c22983db5774ca294aff1566cdb235a16454f428", "text": "The evil spirit laughed within me when the white flag dropped out of sight, and the hands which hurled it hung limp in defeat.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00262", "bookId": 10376, "start": 72013, "end": 72371, "sha256": "a642d97dd74533da4935c2b08afb3b7352f879cd3b817249c8eb472fcbb15de7", "text": "Leaving the crowd as quickly as possible, I was soon in my room. The rest of the night I sat in an armchair and gazed into the crackling fire. I laughed no more in triumph when thus alone. The little taste of victory did not satisfy a hunger in my heart. In my mind I saw my mother far away on the Western plains, and she was holding a charge against me.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00263", "bookId": 10376, "start": 72381, "end": 72412, "sha256": "d68862928513a935410c8a6b15edc2d10a103a67a3f391f6a05f49efd5cf4589", "text": "AN INDIAN TEACHER AMONG INDIANS", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00264", "bookId": 10376, "start": 72416, "end": 72418, "sha256": "6177fd2664d785bf3c9f9b89a952d6510465c507c1b37b3b4d93295eb409896b", "text": "I.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00265", "bookId": 10376, "start": 72422, "end": 72435, "sha256": "ee1db73bf86be87a9224c23c461c0c3c184bf5a3ebb06a362a5145d7a3dd5cde", "text": "MY FIRST DAY.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00266", "bookId": 10376, "start": 72441, "end": 72812, "sha256": "b9badbf6a27f373054c8f7b5b9452f75728bbf36e23b65421dda720db900d16f", "text": "Though an illness left me unable to continue my college course, my pride kept me from returning to my mother. Had she known of my worn condition, she would have said the white man's papers were not worth the freedom and health I had lost by them. Such a rebuke from my mother would have been unbearable, and as I felt then it would be far too true to be comfortable.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00267", "bookId": 10376, "start": 72816, "end": 73234, "sha256": "af506877d3a62d270e4a260feba5f484621805767d2e9041c7f799d09069cdd3", "text": "Since the winter when I had my first dreams about red apples I had been traveling slowly toward the morning horizon. There had been no doubt about the direction in which I wished to go to spend my energies in a work for the Indian race. Thus I had written my mother briefly, saying my plan for the year was to teach in an Eastern Indian school. Sending this message to her in the West, I started at once eastward.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00268", "bookId": 10376, "start": 73238, "end": 73504, "sha256": "f5832f929e43a20a49994a0e2cb36daef43d61d46e3309db0c73d95976f48549", "text": "Thus I found myself, tired and hot, in a black veiling of car smoke, as I stood wearily on a street corner of an old-fashioned town, waiting for a car. In a few moments more I should be on the school grounds, where a new work was ready for my inexperienced hands.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00269", "bookId": 10376, "start": 73508, "end": 73948, "sha256": "0bd7a026710f1d082695fa43404b0e38d23a60dca84b25e273944ed130e98e90", "text": "Upon entering the school campus, I was surprised at the thickly clustered buildings which made it a quaint little village, much more interesting than the town itself. The large trees among the houses gave the place a cool, refreshing shade, and the grass a deeper green. Within this large court of grass and trees stood a low green pump. The queer boxlike case had a revolving handle on its side, which clanked and creaked constantly.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00270", "bookId": 10376, "start": 73952, "end": 74277, "sha256": "d3d4d71da269495b23a1ea1e1c48d973b02cdcffae47ba0b6a0d892140d7ad34", "text": "I made myself known, and was shown to my room,--a small, carpeted room, with ghastly walls and ceiling. The two windows, both on the same side, were curtained with heavy muslin yellowed with age. A clean white bed was in one corner of the room, and opposite it was a square pine table covered with a black woolen blanket.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00271", "bookId": 10376, "start": 74281, "end": 74995, "sha256": "a89e7060fa17260b0f01d5c0efb85cf32a27c4413f7ae2a46004212091e3fc11", "text": "Without removing my hat from my head, I seated myself in one of the two stiff-backed chairs that were placed beside the table. For several heart throbs I sat still looking from ceiling to floor, from wall to wall, trying hard to imagine years of contentment there. Even while I was wondering if my exhausted strength would sustain me through this undertaking, I heard a heavy tread stop at my door. Opening it, I met the imposing figure of a stately gray-haired man. With a light straw hat in one hand, and the right hand extended for greeting, he smiled kindly upon me. For some reason I was awed by his wondrous height and his strong square shoulders, which I felt were a finger's length above my head.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00272", "bookId": 10376, "start": 74999, "end": 75313, "sha256": "ffec7fb1d69743e470f683c04510853ca28c48237b6e5bcba1a328fda8a3111f", "text": "I was always slight, and my serious illness in the early spring had made me look rather frail and languid. His quick eye measured my height and breadth. Then he looked into my face. I imagined that a visible shadow flitted across his countenance as he let my hand fall. I knew he was no other than my employer.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00273", "bookId": 10376, "start": 75317, "end": 75619, "sha256": "a79aaa39bd82b5864b9bbdb454b248f3b816f6eea6544016287086893869038e", "text": "\"Ah ha! so you are the little Indian girl who created the excitement among the college orators!\" he said, more to himself than to me. I thought I heard a subtle note of disappointment in his voice. Looking in from where he stood, with one sweeping glance, he asked if I lacked anything for my room.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00274", "bookId": 10376, "start": 75623, "end": 75810, "sha256": "910d0f48b0fda21a9e043e5bd05d2c4d257969b2530f63630ef2c4120923979a", "text": "After he turned to go, I listened to his step until it grew faint and was lost in the distance. I was aware that my car-smoked appearance had not concealed the lines of pain on my face.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00275", "bookId": 10376, "start": 75814, "end": 76151, "sha256": "081e31188750ecfaacf55cb5837a35a42a9d67b157ec372f098a5ba1d1024566", "text": "For a short moment my spirit laughed at my ill fortune, and I entertained the idea of exerting myself to make an improvement. But as I tossed my hat off a leaden weakness came over me, and I felt as if years of weariness lay like water-soaked logs upon me. I threw myself upon the bed, and, closing my eyes, forgot my good intention.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00276", "bookId": 10376, "start": 76161, "end": 76164, "sha256": "c7e15ed5d6855b3d9c4d1d9c8df86084dd7b9012db5a79f92d626c17e0c445fc", "text": "II.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00277", "bookId": 10376, "start": 76168, "end": 76184, "sha256": "547753dbd4139e4d86a290c48e02ed0d5c489afbb4e3eaba2d6d4ca94d63c324", "text": "A TRIP WESTWARD.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00278", "bookId": 10376, "start": 76190, "end": 76443, "sha256": "51f29e5300c0ae78e64af7824fcfe173ad6f5e7e7bab0a004fab8131474785d0", "text": "One sultry month I sat at a desk heaped up with work. Now, as I recall it, I wonder how I could have dared to disregard nature's warning with such recklessness. Fortunately, my inheritance of a marvelous endurance enabled me to bend without breaking.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00279", "bookId": 10376, "start": 76447, "end": 76906, "sha256": "b0d59eb581269132f74b09c58c662aef8e23e4868c64d1694a9f178dbc6457ab", "text": "Though I had gone to and fro, from my room to the office, in an unhappy silence, I was watched by those around me. On an early morning I was summoned to the superintendent's office. For a half-hour I listened to his words, and when I returned to my room I remembered one sentence above the rest. It was this: \"I am going to turn you loose to pasture!\" He was sending me West to gather Indian pupils for the school, and this was his way of expressing it.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00280", "bookId": 10376, "start": 76910, "end": 77257, "sha256": "fe800034f9176e297fa500ee2072c2c28f413c870c6ad6900cbfc623911c35fc", "text": "I needed nourishment, but the midsummer's travel across the continent to search the hot prairies for overconfident parents who would entrust their children to strangers was a lean pasturage. However, I dwelt on the hope of seeing my mother. I tried to reason that a change was a rest. Within a couple of days I started toward my mother's home.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00281", "bookId": 10376, "start": 77261, "end": 77915, "sha256": "bbbe4f063127c910863ba4735a4a96ea640b0268cd549ad718a41c31ae87dae8", "text": "The intense heat and the sticky car smoke that followed my homeward trail did not noticeably restore my vitality. Hour after hour I gazed upon the country which was receding rapidly from me. I noticed the gradual expansion of the horizon as we emerged out of the forests into the plains. The great high buildings, whose towers overlooked the dense woodlands, and whose gigantic clusters formed large cities, diminished, together with the groves, until only little log cabins lay snugly in the bosom of the vast prairie. The cloud shadows which drifted about on the waving yellow of long-dried grasses thrilled me like the meeting of old friends.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00282", "bookId": 10376, "start": 77919, "end": 78717, "sha256": "279d0cd39d21ae2bd8dbcc2f3ff0c7a33b3a2c532733efd68f1def617755afea", "text": "At a small station, consisting of a single frame house with a rickety board walk around it, I alighted from the iron horse, just thirty miles from my mother and my brother Dawée. A strong hot wind seemed determined to blow my hat off, and return me to olden days when I roamed bareheaded over the hills. After the puffing engine of my train was gone, I stood on the platform in deep solitude. In the distance I saw the gently rolling land leap up into bare hills. At their bases a broad gray road was winding itself round about them until it came by the station. Among these hills I rode in a light conveyance, with a trusty driver, whose unkempt flaxen hair hung shaggy about his ears and his leather neck of reddish tan. From accident or decay he had lost one of his long front teeth.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00283", "bookId": 10376, "start": 78721, "end": 79151, "sha256": "5d6342ecd29c156dbf6c95e3bf7ef6fdb7afd725781279f5df6ed5bfc7f5a2dc", "text": "Though I call him a paleface, his cheeks were of a brick red. His moist blue eyes, blurred and bloodshot, twitched involuntarily. For a long time he had driven through grass and snow from this solitary station to the Indian village. His weather-stained clothes fitted badly his warped shoulders. He was stooped, and his protruding chin, with its tuft of dry flax, nodded as monotonously as did the head of his faithful beast.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00284", "bookId": 10376, "start": 79155, "end": 79519, "sha256": "3077b3dfbac6f88f462bcfc1215abd07188116abfe9885665cc7ea1144800e24", "text": "All the morning I looked about me, recognizing old familiar sky lines of rugged bluffs and round-topped hills. By the roadside I caught glimpses of various plants whose sweet roots were delicacies among my people. When I saw the first cone-shaped wigwam, I could not help uttering an exclamation which caused my driver a sudden jump out of his drowsy nodding.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00285", "bookId": 10376, "start": 79523, "end": 80149, "sha256": "09ff8f83b93808d712c6934aa419e51a6c7f6f7982c2db6f2689b96082ef1979", "text": "At noon, as we drove through the eastern edge of the reservation, I grew very impatient and restless. Constantly I wondered what my mother would say upon seeing her little daughter grown tall. I had not written her the day of my arrival, thinking I would surprise her. Crossing a ravine thicketed with low shrubs and plum bushes, we approached a large yellow acre of wild sunflowers. Just beyond this nature's garden we drew near to my mother's cottage. Close by the log cabin stood a little canvas-covered wigwam. The driver stopped in front of the open door, and in a long moment my mother appeared at the threshold.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00286", "bookId": 10376, "start": 80153, "end": 80371, "sha256": "c7288f540086c743a278aefda0ba165bdd26e96edc900f9588cc93ca1bb31f6c", "text": "I had expected her to run out to greet me, but she stood still, all the while staring at the weather-beaten man at my side. At length, when her loftiness became unbearable, I called to her, \"Mother, why do you stop?\"", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00287", "bookId": 10376, "start": 80375, "end": 80469, "sha256": "5aea02419337463f0ebc42909ea568667a0eda9f920afa1445933d033316ec44", "text": "This seemed to break the evil moment, and she hastened out to hold my head against her cheek.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00288", "bookId": 10376, "start": 80473, "end": 80683, "sha256": "3c050432f7cfcbe552e1a329f9ef931b72623aea40b865e546c64a2605474aa2", "text": "\"My daughter, what madness possessed you to bring home such a fellow?\" she asked, pointing at the driver, who was fumbling in his pockets for change while he held the bill I gave him between his jagged teeth.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00289", "bookId": 10376, "start": 80687, "end": 80765, "sha256": "de15e8e4c0bf29cc7bc29ed3c3432d3dc0984e8cafbc367280b8a1c4d81316da", "text": "\"Bring him! Why, no, mother, he has brought me! He is a driver!\" I exclaimed.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00290", "bookId": 10376, "start": 80769, "end": 81243, "sha256": "803c0ade00d1d306df9645b17b598b0d66271f43876c879dd4bf4e2e9079f4b5", "text": "Upon this revelation, my mother threw her arms about me and apologized for her mistaken inference. We laughed away the momentary hurt. Then she built a brisk fire on the ground in the tepee, and hung a blackened coffeepot on one of the prongs of a forked pole which leaned over the flames. Placing a pan on a heap of red embers, she baked some unleavened bread. This light luncheon she brought into the cabin, and arranged on a table covered with a checkered oilcloth.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00291", "bookId": 10376, "start": 81247, "end": 81936, "sha256": "08d1b7c470218b36820d4a68a42f13b00eb397b491279b664c0e45d6e9529f0f", "text": "My mother had never gone to school, and though she meant always to give up her own customs for such of the white man's ways as pleased her, she made only compromises. Her two windows, directly opposite each other, she curtained with a pink-flowered print. The naked logs were unstained, and rudely carved with the axe so as to fit into one another. The sod roof was trying to boast of tiny sunflowers, the seeds of which had probably been planted by the constant wind. As I leaned my head against the logs, I discovered the peculiar odor that I could not forget. The rains had soaked the earth and roof so that the smell of damp clay was but the natural breath of such a dwelling.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00292", "bookId": 10376, "start": 81940, "end": 82136, "sha256": "0a733c5c242619b38300bb9d53c746a36f45cd4949c202713f9cf06200c1ec21", "text": "\"Mother, why is not your house cemented? Do you have no interest in a more comfortable shelter?\" I asked, when the apparent inconveniences of her home seemed to suggest indifference on her part.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00293", "bookId": 10376, "start": 82140, "end": 82345, "sha256": "2dcbf11e6c9cc463a40fc90b050df9c15e4435f86a24f96ed75f42b96c5d38ac", "text": "\"You forget, my child, that I am now old, and I do not work with beads any more. Your brother Dawée, too, has lost his position, and we are left without means to buy even a morsel of food,\" she replied.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00294", "bookId": 10376, "start": 82349, "end": 82795, "sha256": "52370a4b87478c8387e0b33e32939aa77ac273b7b0328782d6162875400199e6", "text": "Dawée was a government clerk in our reservation when I last heard from him. I was surprised upon hearing what my mother said concerning his lack of employment. Seeing the puzzled expression on my face, she continued: \"Dawée! Oh, has he not told you that the Great Father at Washington sent a white son to take your brother's pen from him? Since then Dawée has not been able to make use of the education the Eastern school has given him.\"", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00295", "bookId": 10376, "start": 82799, "end": 82912, "sha256": "017350beb1801695709c0bc500b0fef08c7e96eac705e8500c6ce438d36baaaa", "text": "I found no words with which to answer satisfactorily. I found no reason with which to cool my inflamed feelings.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00296", "bookId": 10376, "start": 82916, "end": 83038, "sha256": "84fe647cf4f8b12dceecd6cad3cf8062211c292d334dc9cdc2a47ae1d951ae0d", "text": "Dawée was a whole day's journey off on the prairie, and my mother did not expect him until the next day. We were silent.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00297", "bookId": 10376, "start": 83042, "end": 83638, "sha256": "95371776bef3074877a6fa75eba21ef6ed119982cb0b08e2f851a155a9759d8c", "text": "When, at length, I raised my head to hear more clearly the moaning of the wind in the corner logs, I noticed the daylight streaming into the dingy room through several places where the logs fitted unevenly. Turning to my mother, I urged her to tell me more about Dawée's trouble, but she only said: \"Well, my daughter, this village has been these many winters a refuge for white robbers. The Indian cannot complain to the Great Father in Washington without suffering outrage for it here. Dawée tried to secure justice for our tribe in a small matter, and today you see the folly of it.\"", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00298", "bookId": 10376, "start": 83642, "end": 83707, "sha256": "6ee42e9d1d7033acf310a2fb74b4d6597eccfb98a8362cf224a6d58c95a9429b", "text": "Again, though she stopped to hear what I might say, I was silent.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00299", "bookId": 10376, "start": 83711, "end": 83880, "sha256": "5765d9d4cf30dceee6be98e5e784a47c73e2ba2eb2288dffcf890dbf5cf045e8", "text": "\"My child, there is only one source of justice, and I have been praying steadfastly to the Great Spirit to avenge our wrongs,\" she said, seeing I did not move my lips.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00300", "bookId": 10376, "start": 83884, "end": 84122, "sha256": "34bbc8b697f6a015c65f81df58b7a880135e701aa33848272080daddebd5a63d", "text": "My shattered energy was unable to hold longer any faith, and I cried out desperately: \"Mother, don't pray again! The Great Spirit does not care if we live or die! Let us not look for good or justice: then we shall not be disappointed!\"", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00301", "bookId": 10376, "start": 84126, "end": 84303, "sha256": "e165fa67f36eae7ae9a515894c682cb636b71b6be63562e2a55de374430a65b9", "text": "\"Sh! my child, do not talk so madly. There is Taku Iyotan Wasaka,[1] to which I pray,\" she answered, as she stroked my head again as she used to do when I was a smaller child.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00302", "bookId": 10376, "start": 84307, "end": 84339, "sha256": "bc8783643c1baf59dd06580f7e88ebc53fbce4b136e9cc2c6fa4f00b802e72d9", "text": "[Footnote 1: An absolute Power.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00303", "bookId": 10376, "start": 84349, "end": 84353, "sha256": "f8c27f79b3c0d27534bf7d7fb53370d9cb62a85bdf46de1012aebc74804c0124", "text": "III.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00304", "bookId": 10376, "start": 84357, "end": 84395, "sha256": "83d3a0fc577161616bc301b91a63bc5d469e75d9465313d5fbe8d6a9b9985c6a", "text": "MY MOTHER'S CURSE UPON WHITE SETTLERS.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00305", "bookId": 10376, "start": 84401, "end": 84705, "sha256": "8fe53a8dd6c8ed1179c2a4c93fae7f31a158851cbce183c4aa69c3c5affe301f", "text": "One black night mother and I sat alone in the dim starlight, in front of our wigwam. We were facing the river, as we talked about the shrinking limits of the village. She told me about the poverty-stricken white settlers, who lived in caves dug in the long ravines of the high hills across the river.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00306", "bookId": 10376, "start": 84709, "end": 84885, "sha256": "85f34d9fa75a76092f1e9216c82d54d476cfe74496f31dc7fff47a1858215b5d", "text": "A whole tribe of broad-footed white beggars had rushed hither to make claims on those wild lands. Even as she was telling this I spied a small glimmering light in the bluffs.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00307", "bookId": 10376, "start": 84889, "end": 85198, "sha256": "915aae3c7a8df5a29358a6423f4100a01424b2dd8639f2c82dbad262e246b45f", "text": "\"That is a white man's lodge where you see the burning fire,\" she said. Then, a short distance from it, only a little lower than the first, was another light. As I became accustomed to the night, I saw more and more twinkling lights, here and there, scattered all along the wide black margin of the river.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00308", "bookId": 10376, "start": 85202, "end": 85799, "sha256": "2d06f44de8534a60812a20d28309d26ee4929224d1e7bdf9d68e016d3a8ee51b", "text": "Still looking toward the distant firelight, my mother continued: \"My daughter, beware of the paleface. It was the cruel paleface who caused the death of your sister and your uncle, my brave brother. It is this same paleface who offers in one palm the holy papers, and with the other gives a holy baptism of firewater. He is the hypocrite who reads with one eye, 'Thou shalt not kill,' and with the other gloats upon the sufferings of the Indian race.\" Then suddenly discovering a new fire in the bluffs, she exclaimed, \"Well, well, my daughter, there is the light of another white rascal!\"", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00309", "bookId": 10376, "start": 85803, "end": 86229, "sha256": "17d2287d94d48e8abdcb2d826a6ce722682fb20bec30e362be3f8cdb58c475f9", "text": "She sprang to her feet, and, standing firm beside her wigwam, she sent a curse upon those who sat around the hated white man's light. Raising her right arm forcibly into line with her eye, she threw her whole might into her doubled fist as she shot it vehemently at the strangers. Long she held her outstretched fingers toward the settler's lodge, as if an invisible power passed from them to the evil at which she aimed.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00310", "bookId": 10376, "start": 86239, "end": 86242, "sha256": "042bf14ef0ebc2b8f29436c42ed32592d55e6c559e473dad955da5ef0c302db3", "text": "IV.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00311", "bookId": 10376, "start": 86246, "end": 86260, "sha256": "d8ef86b7471afcab588073b0b3261e43dfe0273a4e93b3d5e8560d28af6d3a49", "text": "RETROSPECTION.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00312", "bookId": 10376, "start": 86266, "end": 86481, "sha256": "917bf741f49a1e04db79dc0be3a1d4ad1b66aa0979ee250750244d07123b2443", "text": "Leaving my mother, I returned to the school in the East. As months passed over me, I slowly comprehended that the large army of white teachers in Indian schools had a larger missionary creed than I had suspected.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00313", "bookId": 10376, "start": 86485, "end": 86968, "sha256": "aa965baf05451f73f8975d6c135c3ab3faa63bffad00cfaa815965015905962e", "text": "It was one which included self-preservation quite as much as Indian education. When I saw an opium-eater holding a position as teacher of Indians, I did not understand what good was expected, until a Christian in power replied that this pumpkin-colored creature had a feeble mother to support. An inebriate paleface sat stupid in a doctor's chair, while Indian patients carried their ailments to untimely graves, because his fair wife was dependent upon him for her daily food.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00314", "bookId": 10376, "start": 86972, "end": 87153, "sha256": "4d5196e74b2ba2d2c0c3988c97466e6e913d9e5d7ea475def1baf38878c782e6", "text": "I find it hard to count that white man a teacher who tortured an ambitious Indian youth by frequently reminding the brave changeling that he was nothing but a \"government pauper.\"", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00315", "bookId": 10376, "start": 87157, "end": 87674, "sha256": "58fa7c531a72f707bcd64f92b9e07892f58118a91a3ec9b393a2389529377a91", "text": "Though I burned with indignation upon discovering on every side instances no less shameful than those I have mentioned, there was no present help. Even the few rare ones who have worked nobly for my race were powerless to choose workmen like themselves. To be sure, a man was sent from the Great Father to inspect Indian schools, but what he saw was usually the students' sample work _made_ for exhibition. I was nettled by this sly cunning of the workmen who hookwinked the Indian's pale Father at Washington.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00316", "bookId": 10376, "start": 87678, "end": 87907, "sha256": "5873e2f6660620c30a910b20d9b487e4edace15e164835d08005cb122632d1cd", "text": "My illness, which prevented the conclusion of my college course, together with my mother's stories of the encroaching frontier settlers, left me in no mood to strain my eyes in searching for latent good in my white co-workers.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00317", "bookId": 10376, "start": 87911, "end": 88272, "sha256": "9b98decdb817d2562b727c4d9650a15b4d144a57117817b1ddde7547cff9c807", "text": "At this stage of my own evolution, I was ready to curse men of small capacity for being the dwarfs their God had made them. In the process of my education I had lost all consciousness of the nature world about me. Thus, when a hidden rage took me to the small white-walled prison which I then called my room, I unknowingly turned away from my one salvation.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00318", "bookId": 10376, "start": 88276, "end": 88470, "sha256": "e283ebcfe6e8be0ec84e378a367735fb544dd5ce26255c4c8e9545fbc6312c1e", "text": "Alone in my room, I sat like the petrified Indian woman of whom my mother used to tell me. I wished my heart's burdens would turn me to unfeeling stone. But alive, in my tomb, I was destitute!", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00319", "bookId": 10376, "start": 88474, "end": 89030, "sha256": "8e0e2671a21c3b372ec78ec2340de6d2933b765a5a220f69211ec67e39500174", "text": "For the white man's papers I had given up my faith in the Great Spirit. For these same papers I had forgotten the healing in trees and brooks. On account of my mother's simple view of life, and my lack of any, I gave her up, also. I made no friends among the race of people I loathed. Like a slender tree, I had been uprooted from my mother, nature, and God. I was shorn of my branches, which had waved in sympathy and love for home and friends. The natural coat of bark which had protected my oversensitive nature was scraped off to the very quick.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00320", "bookId": 10376, "start": 89034, "end": 89333, "sha256": "48c04cc578ec421994fdf90545f44c9f5c913d4137ba646a71668ec0a7f61315", "text": "Now a cold bare pole I seemed to be, planted in a strange earth. Still, I seemed to hope a day would come when my mute aching head, reared upward to the sky, would flash a zigzag lightning across the heavens. With this dream of vent for a long-pent consciousness, I walked again amid the crowds.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00321", "bookId": 10376, "start": 89337, "end": 90096, "sha256": "7ee74c041a7ddcb1becd8ee56dd9ea2eb9873a6a5d5bb79fa9fb3dc4de226b1e", "text": "At last, one weary day in the schoolroom, a new idea presented itself to me. It was a new way of solving the problem of my inner self. I liked it. Thus I resigned my position as teacher; and now I am in an Eastern city, following the long course of study I have set for myself. Now, as I look back upon the recent past, I see it from a distance, as a whole. I remember how, from morning till evening, many specimens of civilized peoples visited the Indian school. The city folks with canes and eyeglasses, the countrymen with sunburnt cheeks and clumsy feet, forgot their relative social ranks in an ignorant curiosity. Both sorts of these Christian palefaces were alike astounded at seeing the children of savage warriors so docile and industrious.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00322", "bookId": 10376, "start": 90100, "end": 90533, "sha256": "9c4f167b079cae6180a66a3d56f1f5f8f34a2dae22faf3494e6515692eeb0841", "text": "As answers to their shallow inquiries they received the students' sample work to look upon. Examining the neatly figured pages, and gazing upon the Indian girls and boys bending over their books, the white visitors walked out of the schoolhouse well satisfied: they were educating the children of the red man! They were paying a liberal fee to the government employees in whose able hands lay the small forest of Indian timber.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00323", "bookId": 10376, "start": 90537, "end": 90826, "sha256": "1e2874f721b4116058ab0a7a7e1ec3fc96c2e8beb9cd2e73c77847c515c52dca", "text": "In this fashion many have passed idly through the Indian schools during the last decade, afterward to boast of their charity to the North American Indian. But few there are who have paused to question whether real life or long-lasting death lies beneath this semblance of civilization.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00324", "bookId": 10376, "start": 90836, "end": 90852, "sha256": "40754cbf98430e4e2fe41be05c1b4bc276ffaabb81eb203f6d9d2588fe8daec4", "text": "THE GREAT SPIRIT", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00325", "bookId": 10376, "start": 90858, "end": 91684, "sha256": "9d0743d98e6db9f6f0b1d2cdde398643514cefb89d308df5aa9176ba9de7111a", "text": "When the spirit swells my breast I love to roam leisurely among the green hills; or sometimes, sitting on the brink of the murmuring Missouri, I marvel at the great blue overhead. With half-closed eyes I watch the huge cloud shadows in their noiseless play upon the high bluffs opposite me, while into my ear ripple the sweet, soft cadences of the river's song. Folded hands lie in my lap, for the time forgot. My heart and I lie small upon the earth like a grain of throbbing sand. Drifting clouds and tinkling waters, together with the warmth of a genial summer day, bespeak with eloquence the loving Mystery round about us. During the idle while I sat upon the sunny river brink, I grew somewhat, though my response be not so clearly manifest as in the green grass fringing the edge of the high bluff back of me.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00326", "bookId": 10376, "start": 91688, "end": 91906, "sha256": "e8cf5c10e115470088d1ed5e95c4272affd45b8734b37035afc7a12b66818064", "text": "At length retracing the uncertain footpath scaling the precipitous embankment, I seek the level lands where grow the wild prairie flowers. And they, the lovely little folk, soothe my soul with their perfumed breath.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00327", "bookId": 10376, "start": 91910, "end": 92210, "sha256": "b836edc4744690cb980fa335594c4c4a4fda9977fad5dac1b6a25b738882b8c2", "text": "Their quaint round faces of varied hue convince the heart which leaps with glad surprise that they, too, are living symbols of omnipotent thought. With a child's eager eye I drink in the myriad star shapes wrought in luxuriant color upon the green. Beautiful is the spiritual essence they embody.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00328", "bookId": 10376, "start": 92214, "end": 92884, "sha256": "2446fb0a755a87ab519d1f3ceb6958378a793fbcd9742882ee5b785fd7cd7d7d", "text": "I leave them nodding in the breeze, but take along with me their impress upon my heart. I pause to rest me upon a rock embedded on the side of a foothill facing the low river bottom. Here the Stone-Boy, of whom the American aborigine tells, frolics about, shooting his baby arrows and shouting aloud with glee at the tiny shafts of lightning that flash from the flying arrow-beaks. What an ideal warrior he became, baffling the siege of the pests of all the land till he triumphed over their united attack. And here he lay--Inyan our great-great-grandfather, older than the hill he rested on, older than the race of men who love to tell of his wonderful career.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00329", "bookId": 10376, "start": 92888, "end": 93164, "sha256": "3b061f5150e42a3d3559469b40a249e35cc57cf19688a997446c41477198a8b2", "text": "Interwoven with the thread of this Indian legend of the rock, I fain would trace a subtle knowledge of the native folk which enabled them to recognize a kinship to any and all parts of this vast universe. By the leading of an ancient trail I move toward the Indian village.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00330", "bookId": 10376, "start": 93168, "end": 93375, "sha256": "0e13f2c049cd22d7e01a0768a30c6fb3768d6402e90968393f5eeaf4efd3af1d", "text": "With the strong, happy sense that both great and small are so surely enfolded in His magnitude that, without a miss, each has his allotted individual ground of opportunities, I am buoyant with good nature.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00331", "bookId": 10376, "start": 93379, "end": 93859, "sha256": "7622c4bb783512a4c4edba3c41f86f15ef85f26c7686493a1b792486cb794c86", "text": "Yellow Breast, swaying upon the slender stem of a wild sunflower, warbles a sweet assurance of this as I pass near by. Breaking off the clear crystal song, he turns his wee head from side to side eyeing me wisely as slowly I plod with moccasined feet. Then again he yields himself to his song of joy. Flit, flit hither and yon, he fills the summer sky with his swift, sweet melody. And truly does it seem his vigorous freedom lies more in his little spirit than in his wing.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00332", "bookId": 10376, "start": 93863, "end": 94675, "sha256": "30da856d4319925220f22b1fa3d46220a481623cbc6bf9a3b7ba8662e755d539", "text": "With these thoughts I reach the log cabin whither I am strongly drawn by the tie of a child to an aged mother. Out bounds my four-footed friend to meet me, frisking about my path with unmistakable delight. Chän is a black shaggy dog, \"a thoroughbred little mongrel\" of whom I am very fond. Chän seems to understand many words in Sioux, and will go to her mat even when I whisper the word, though generally I think she is guided by the tone of the voice. Often she tries to imitate the sliding inflection and long-drawn-out voice to the amusement of our guests, but her articulation is quite beyond my ear. In both my hands I hold her shaggy head and gaze into her large brown eyes. At once the dilated pupils contract into tiny black dots, as if the roguish spirit within would evade my questioning.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00333", "bookId": 10376, "start": 94679, "end": 95576, "sha256": "9775ece35b94f1e2849abd64a1a1861a65ddd3a56f1317cefa3d1ebb1a9a190b", "text": "Finally resuming the chair at my desk I feel in keen sympathy with my fellow-creatures, for I seem to see clearly again that all are akin. The racial lines, which once were bitterly real, now serve nothing more than marking out a living mosaic of human beings. And even here men of the same color are like the ivory keys of one instrument where each resembles all the rest, yet varies from them in pitch and quality of voice. And those creatures who are for a time mere echoes of another's note are not unlike the fable of the thin sick man whose distorted shadow, dressed like a real creature, came to the old master to make him follow as a shadow. Thus with a compassion for all echoes in human guise, I greet the solemn-faced \"native preacher\" whom I find awaiting me. I listen with respect for God's creature, though he mouth most strangely the jangling phrases of a bigoted creed.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00334", "bookId": 10376, "start": 95580, "end": 95682, "sha256": "f604c57b841379789ed06597b7f00278746e69387bac6e19d10924b2edc0e1c1", "text": "As our tribe is one large family, where every person is related to all the others, he addressed me:--", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00335", "bookId": 10376, "start": 95686, "end": 95752, "sha256": "724957dedfff0ea5e4c233c7823ba46dfbf8579c734602866b757770d23dc16a", "text": "\"Cousin, I came from the morning church service to talk with you.\"", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00336", "bookId": 10376, "start": 95756, "end": 95822, "sha256": "4f0f0642412a166197c0f2719518d95ba2d326ed9541e5d4f4763b4d17f328e0", "text": "\"Yes?\" I said interrogatively, as he paused for some word from me.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00337", "bookId": 10376, "start": 95826, "end": 96353, "sha256": "c25dccc66580f0be9b903420bb99655961bf4d262608c727c0f04e73843fd848", "text": "Shifting uneasily about in the straight-backed chair he sat upon, he began: \"Every holy day (Sunday) I look about our little God's house, and not seeing you there, I am disappointed. This is why I come today. Cousin, as I watch you from afar, I see no unbecoming behavior and hear only good reports of you, which all the more burns me with the wish that you were a church member. Cousin, I was taught long years ago by kind missionaries to read the holy book. These godly men taught me also the folly of our old beliefs.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00338", "bookId": 10376, "start": 96357, "end": 96581, "sha256": "273a91aa7a2cb40f850976fe76fa724f08768643bf8ef1a21106cfad714717b5", "text": "\"There is one God who gives reward or punishment to the race of dead men. In the upper region the Christian dead are gathered in unceasing song and prayer. In the deep pit below, the sinful ones dance in torturing flames.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00339", "bookId": 10376, "start": 96585, "end": 96779, "sha256": "809cf0eca11cc27c3c0eee9b53607b480af5d93f9859a278c9df11af7d94a40e", "text": "\"Think upon these things, my cousin, and choose now to avoid the after-doom of hell fire!\" Then followed a long silence in which he clasped tighter and unclasped again his interlocked fingers.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00340", "bookId": 10376, "start": 96783, "end": 96918, "sha256": "0e43b5994eea5a0df0c52bc24001b1b8a6033c44d848de6f4c2aa54e0755e21f", "text": "Like instantaneous lightning flashes came pictures of my own mother's making, for she, too, is now a follower of the new superstition.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00341", "bookId": 10376, "start": 96922, "end": 97303, "sha256": "04b5e070f4c59320b1cd65d255c3a312f77e75a86e1192b819350e58d7287b3e", "text": "\"Knocking out the chinking of our log cabin, some evil hand thrust in a burning taper of braided dry grass, but failed of his intent, for the fire died out and the half-burned brand fell inward to the floor. Directly above it, on a shelf, lay the holy book. This is what we found after our return from a several days' visit. Surely some great power is hid in the sacred book!\"", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00342", "bookId": 10376, "start": 97307, "end": 97543, "sha256": "b310fec1345b553aa754c595787e51524a8b1d624b8e8500b4eda3c1f011e807", "text": "Brushing away from my eyes many like pictures, I offered midday meal to the converted Indian sitting wordless and with downcast face. No sooner had he risen from the table with \"Cousin, I have relished it,\" than the church bell rang.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00343", "bookId": 10376, "start": 97547, "end": 97730, "sha256": "2645a23004a017a1fb02b0358a1786684d7fbb2774de706cb3f646b40ef33dec", "text": "Thither he hurried forth with his afternoon sermon. I watched him as he hastened along, his eyes bent fast upon the dusty road till he disappeared at the end of a quarter of a mile.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00344", "bookId": 10376, "start": 97734, "end": 98372, "sha256": "7ecfc30bc24936fbf33e0212e3cb7c0528849a563d0483df231f80fd74510bcd", "text": "The little incident recalled to mind the copy of a missionary paper brought to my notice a few days ago, in which a \"Christian\" pugilist commented upon a recent article of mine, grossly perverting the spirit of my pen. Still I would not forget that the pale-faced missionary and the hoodooed aborigine are both God's creatures, though small indeed their own conceptions of Infinite Love. A wee child toddling in a wonder world, I prefer to their dogma my excursions into the natural gardens where the voice of the Great Spirit is heard in the twittering of birds, the rippling of mighty waters, and the sweet breathing of flowers.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00345", "bookId": 10376, "start": 98376, "end": 98670, "sha256": "90eff585be834700b1d4af27a501daf66b851198e1b64ca1b49508a628971de8", "text": "Here, in a fleeting quiet, I am awakened by the fluttering robe of the Great Spirit. To my innermost consciousness the phenomenal universe is a royal mantle, vibrating with His divine breath. Caught in its flowing fringes are the spangles and oscillating brilliants of sun, moon, and stars.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00346", "bookId": 10376, "start": 98680, "end": 98702, "sha256": "b93f3bdae00dcce0a0ed03072c970194b377fc332f46b67e80e9fd28fdeb0624", "text": "THE SOFT-HEARTED SIOUX", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00347", "bookId": 10376, "start": 98706, "end": 98708, "sha256": "6177fd2664d785bf3c9f9b89a952d6510465c507c1b37b3b4d93295eb409896b", "text": "I.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00348", "bookId": 10376, "start": 98714, "end": 99143, "sha256": "d4dbaf036fbc6b826b70136cd5e24e821885e359159d0d9f6558b801da9feb9d", "text": "Beside the open fire I sat within our tepee. With my red blanket wrapped tightly about my crossed legs, I was thinking of the coming season, my sixteenth winter. On either side of the wigwam were my parents. My father was whistling a tune between his teeth while polishing with his bare hand a red stone pipe he had recently carved. Almost in front of me, beyond the center fire, my old grandmother sat near the entranceway.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00349", "bookId": 10376, "start": 99147, "end": 99707, "sha256": "0ae8e49bf73e3f79763c44ef6a5e166f88a763deba5c1791d4db55043213c643", "text": "She turned her face toward her right and addressed most of her words to my mother. Now and then she spoke to me, but never did she allow her eyes to rest upon her daughter's husband, my father. It was only upon rare occasions that my grandmother said anything to him. Thus his ears were open and ready to catch the smallest wish she might express. Sometimes when my grandmother had been saying things which pleased him, my father used to comment upon them. At other times, when he could not approve of what was spoken, he used to work or smoke silently.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00350", "bookId": 10376, "start": 99711, "end": 99856, "sha256": "2bdab9e70a2f531cef46901de2fc375f9cbdfd95c676cdb6232fb78f8d0a76a0", "text": "On this night my old grandmother began her talk about me. Filling the bowl of her red stone pipe with dry willow bark, she looked across at me.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00351", "bookId": 10376, "start": 99860, "end": 100191, "sha256": "fbd08947d4c05d5ece82fdd7638bdd3d12698a0603f62f7a67af1d13a8c98f01", "text": "\"My grandchild, you are tall and are no longer a little boy.\" Narrowing her old eyes, she asked, \"My grandchild, when are you going to bring here a handsome young woman?\" I stared into the fire rather than meet her gaze. Waiting for my answer, she stooped forward and through the long stem drew a flame into the red stone pipe.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00352", "bookId": 10376, "start": 100195, "end": 100562, "sha256": "4c80e03109459998054c62b34bcc4e1f3da9acc1aad29740e9aa43077e572d83", "text": "I smiled while my eyes were still fixed upon the bright fire, but I said nothing in reply. Turning to my mother, she offered her the pipe. I glanced at my grandmother. The loose buckskin sleeve fell off at her elbow and showed a wrist covered with silver bracelets. Holding up the fingers of her left hand, she named off the desirable young women of our village.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00353", "bookId": 10376, "start": 100566, "end": 100620, "sha256": "ae20b2db06f2f327644017a69735ac46fbf71d1c9dd9d6ec794315a2fc0e3961", "text": "\"Which one, my grandchild, which one?\" she questioned.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00354", "bookId": 10376, "start": 100624, "end": 100797, "sha256": "490e7035c854a27976e7d732847df091ea2baaa84bd1a96343cb5fb74497abad", "text": "\"Hoh!\" I said, pulling at my blanket in confusion. \"Not yet!\" Here my mother passed the pipe over the fire to my father. Then she, too, began speaking of what I should do.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00355", "bookId": 10376, "start": 100801, "end": 101038, "sha256": "c5e2d68fb756fa54305a5f2fdd1a81525b2e075f499861fa2f9090017d90bae8", "text": "\"My son, be always active. Do not dislike a long hunt. Learn to provide much buffalo meat and many buckskins before you bring home a wife.\" Presently my father gave the pipe to my grandmother, and he took his turn in the exhortations.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00356", "bookId": 10376, "start": 101042, "end": 101264, "sha256": "54a6d4c17a1b75a177f0a92b8b601daece96ce9ebf9b73b4c173686508b10bb4", "text": "\"Ho, my son, I have been counting in my heart the bravest warriors of our people. There is not one of them who won his title in his sixteenth winter. My son, it is a great thing for some brave of sixteen winters to do.\"", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00357", "bookId": 10376, "start": 101268, "end": 101761, "sha256": "7a6f63ba5df97c591a68368c36b4525a9ec8f3e2febcd3b3c9dc59f51117944f", "text": "Not a word had I to give in answer. I knew well the fame of my warrior father. He had earned the right of speaking such words, though even he himself was a brave only at my age. Refusing to smoke my grandmother's pipe because my heart was too much stirred by their words, and sorely troubled with a fear lest I should disappoint them, I arose to go. Drawing my blanket over my shoulders, I said, as I stepped toward the entranceway: \"I go to hobble my pony. It is now late in the night.\"", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00358", "bookId": 10376, "start": 101771, "end": 101774, "sha256": "c7e15ed5d6855b3d9c4d1d9c8df86084dd7b9012db5a79f92d626c17e0c445fc", "text": "II.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00359", "bookId": 10376, "start": 101780, "end": 101946, "sha256": "88923b88376faaf097c776bfd2baecefed357f4530a9d8cbfca4e9d33ff1ad9e", "text": "Nine winters' snows had buried deep that night when my old grandmother, together with my father and mother, designed my future with the glow of a camp fire upon it.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00360", "bookId": 10376, "start": 101950, "end": 102201, "sha256": "9b3122ff919907355bfd638f90fd1d6050b0554f24093623775c4f1c5e166175", "text": "Yet I did not grow up the warrior, huntsman, and husband I was to have been. At the mission school I learned it was wrong to kill. Nine winters I hunted for the soft heart of Christ, and prayed for the huntsmen who chased the buffalo on the plains.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00361", "bookId": 10376, "start": 102205, "end": 102413, "sha256": "e3f828ce774f15f971a4f11e088fdc9bc9138d2c19a6080a6efdf91d4afa8806", "text": "In the autumn of the tenth year I was sent back to my tribe to preach Christianity to them. With the white man's Bible in my hand, and the white man's tender heart in my breast, I returned to my own people.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00362", "bookId": 10376, "start": 102417, "end": 102494, "sha256": "d7689b377f25f70a8068ef17d0f17d9f706a580f5408fef2dc2b9358dcafa81f", "text": "Wearing a foreigner's dress, I walked, a stranger, into my father's village.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00363", "bookId": 10376, "start": 102498, "end": 103064, "sha256": "a90e8cedc14ee05efaf69e365fde9812c2b568d47745623702a0552fe8ec2bd7", "text": "Asking my way, for I had not forgotten my native tongue, an old man led me toward the tepee where my father lay. From my old companion I learned that my father had been sick many moons. As we drew near the tepee, I heard the chanting of a medicine-man within it. At once I wished to enter in and drive from my home the sorcerer of the plains, but the old warrior checked me. \"Ho, wait outside until the medicine-man leaves your father,\" he said. While talking he scanned me from head to feet. Then he retraced his steps toward the heart of the camping-ground.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00364", "bookId": 10376, "start": 103068, "end": 103206, "sha256": "bbe67ff6eaa3755a145f7611af1933d80e7618b2c489328bac72f10de04799f9", "text": "My father's dwelling was on the outer limits of the round-faced village. With every heartthrob I grew more impatient to enter the wigwam.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00365", "bookId": 10376, "start": 103210, "end": 103436, "sha256": "bd8e13ee2bba980162755454063397f3b56b24cc30b32bb07436568c8dac9dde", "text": "While I turned the leaves of my Bible with nervous fingers, the medicine-man came forth from the dwelling and walked hurriedly away. His head and face were closely covered with the loose robe which draped his entire figure.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00366", "bookId": 10376, "start": 103440, "end": 103611, "sha256": "10eb8473467391c413f23a356e7b10132bce5c0c4d6a79e50dd8662cdf80d8b6", "text": "He was tall and large. His long strides I have never forgot. They seemed to me then the uncanny gait of eternal death. Quickly pocketing my Bible, I went into the tepee.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00367", "bookId": 10376, "start": 103615, "end": 104104, "sha256": "ddc4e50cbffb4247936be1822c11e6019428009a38b8effdeb8da7a1975854e5", "text": "Upon a mat lay my father, with furrowed face and gray hair. His eyes and cheeks were sunken far into his head. His sallow skin lay thin upon his pinched nose and high cheekbones. Stooping over him, I took his fevered hand. \"How, Ate?\" I greeted him. A light flashed from his listless eyes and his dried lips parted. \"My son!\" he murmured, in a feeble voice. Then again the wave of joy and recognition receded. He closed his eyes, and his hand dropped from my open palm to the ground.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00368", "bookId": 10376, "start": 104108, "end": 104644, "sha256": "9a17fde212593807e825658102c351a3c4d5b1fd8b8336004ef49843d64e6b9d", "text": "Looking about, I saw an old woman sitting with bowed head. Shaking hands with her, I recognized my mother. I sat down between my father and mother as I used to do, but I did not feel at home. The place where my old grandmother used to sit was now unoccupied. With my mother I bowed my head. Alike our throats were choked and tears were streaming from our eyes; but far apart in spirit our ideas and faiths separated us. My grief was for the soul unsaved; and I thought my mother wept to see a brave man's body broken by sickness.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00369", "bookId": 10376, "start": 104648, "end": 105212, "sha256": "ff37f02f1532b3452c5b33b9763b1afce475ec5026c4d2a2a756bbf1597cdd38", "text": "Useless was my attempt to change the faith in the medicine-man to that abstract power named God. Then one day I became righteously mad with anger that the medicine-man should thus ensnare my father's soul. And when he came to chant his sacred songs I pointed toward the door and bade him go! The man's eyes glared upon me for an instant. Slowly gathering his robe about him, he turned his back upon the sick man and stepped out of our wigwam. \"Ha, ha, ha! my son, I can not live without the medicine-man!\" I heard my father cry when the sacred man was gone.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00370", "bookId": 10376, "start": 105222, "end": 105226, "sha256": "f8c27f79b3c0d27534bf7d7fb53370d9cb62a85bdf46de1012aebc74804c0124", "text": "III.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00371", "bookId": 10376, "start": 105232, "end": 105529, "sha256": "fe5f6c0c2408de9b27bbd56ef6ea6c8fdc41f3ba0823eb5263d10d88d6a720d6", "text": "On a bright day, when the winged seeds of the prairie-grass were flying hither and thither, I walked solemnly toward the centre of the camping-ground. My heart beat hard and irregularly at my side. Tighter I grasped the sacred book I carried under my arm. Now was the beginning of life's work.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00372", "bookId": 10376, "start": 105533, "end": 105740, "sha256": "f73e6f08ed87c486756db2d7576829b6004503e7714e854fd22a9cb204853969", "text": "Though I knew it would be hard, I did not once feel that failure was to be my reward. As I stepped unevenly on the rolling ground, I thought of the warriors soon to wash off their war-paints and follow me.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00373", "bookId": 10376, "start": 105744, "end": 106000, "sha256": "4ade7593b81f591f3b71733e41621463b048b77331183d6d8ca70314b9acdb3c", "text": "At length I reached the place where the people had assembled to hear me preach. In a large circle men and women sat upon the dry red grass. Within the ring I stood, with the white man's Bible in my hand. I tried to tell them of the soft heart of Christ.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00374", "bookId": 10376, "start": 106004, "end": 106202, "sha256": "2ae1f1c05c060a3b250328ed31ad7877f7aa6fc6430383a5e8f2b0744ac7cf6e", "text": "In silence the vast circle of bareheaded warriors sat under an afternoon sun. At last, wiping the wet from my brow, I took my place in the ring. The hush of the assembly filled me with great hope.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00375", "bookId": 10376, "start": 106206, "end": 106302, "sha256": "465e92795a3f62b9b89676bd4e2ce704b7189432852e4e943dc4fb7d33b3afea", "text": "I was turning my thoughts upward to the sky in gratitude, when a stir called me to earth again.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00376", "bookId": 10376, "start": 106306, "end": 106582, "sha256": "338f216771632bff1feacf1bd9525c141d8b069204e71b71bd17ef36d2a0d3cc", "text": "A tall, strong man arose. His loose robe hung in folds over his right shoulder. A pair of snapping black eyes fastened themselves like the poisonous fangs of a serpent upon me. He was the medicine-man. A tremor played about my heart and a chill cooled the fire in my veins.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00377", "bookId": 10376, "start": 106586, "end": 106652, "sha256": "be6ea94953faf564b5d0bfb4fda086135df6ca0998dfd0a0982865dc596a8fa9", "text": "Scornfully he pointed a long forefinger in my direction and asked:", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00378", "bookId": 10376, "start": 106656, "end": 107011, "sha256": "b6e47e3416667c831cd4faf4be72040575f5555c077057ad8f090a007663952a", "text": "\"What loyal son is he who, returning to his father's people, wears a foreigner's dress?\" He paused a moment, and then continued: \"The dress of that foreigner of whom a story says he bound a native of our land, and heaping dry sticks around him, kindled a fire at his feet!\" Waving his hand toward me, he exclaimed, \"Here is the traitor to his people!\"", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00379", "bookId": 10376, "start": 107015, "end": 107185, "sha256": "9fc30a2596cea201a0bf38e62513dc7ecf765f98a2a651fd6190bb236a60ca56", "text": "I was helpless. Before the eyes of the crowd the cunning magician turned my honest heart into a vile nest of treachery. Alas! the people frowned as they looked upon me.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00380", "bookId": 10376, "start": 107189, "end": 107884, "sha256": "557f7b56e850a1ed411bc98dc2da64a796b33d34b45930e0917168bcf43e94c0", "text": "\"Listen!\" he went on. \"Which one of you who have eyed the young man can see through his bosom and warn the people of the nest of young snakes hatching there? Whose ear was so acute that he caught the hissing of snakes whenever the young man opened his mouth? This one has not only proven false to you, but even to the Great Spirit who made him. He is a fool! Why do you sit here giving ear to a foolish man who could not defend his people because he fears to kill, who could not bring venison to renew the life of his sick father? With his prayers, let him drive away the enemy! With his soft heart, let him keep off starvation! We shall go elsewhere to dwell upon an untainted ground.\"", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00381", "bookId": 10376, "start": 107888, "end": 108078, "sha256": "6acd3d338e3b1315a5e40e2379f092291117732000d29a799cd03ec72fca6f75", "text": "With this he disbanded the people. When the sun lowered in the west and the winds were quiet, the village of cone-shaped tepees was gone. The medicine-man had won the hearts of the people.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00382", "bookId": 10376, "start": 108082, "end": 108145, "sha256": "29dbbafcb7d414b85fb4766042f80d3a879f7ba97a39fca873f7c9c90ac707c7", "text": "Only my father's dwelling was left to mark the fighting-ground.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00383", "bookId": 10376, "start": 108155, "end": 108158, "sha256": "042bf14ef0ebc2b8f29436c42ed32592d55e6c559e473dad955da5ef0c302db3", "text": "IV.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00384", "bookId": 10376, "start": 108164, "end": 108770, "sha256": "3a2c5b4a15f35245c76ad46fb84b96a8a4fd17a6e71173781029152f165fd79f", "text": "From a long night at my father's bedside I came out to look upon the morning. The yellow sun hung equally between the snow-covered land and the cloudless blue sky. The light of the new day was cold. The strong breath of winter crusted the snow and fitted crystal shells over the rivers and lakes. As I stood in front of the tepee, thinking of the vast prairies which separated us from our tribe, and wondering if the high sky likewise separated the soft-hearted Son of God from us, the icy blast from the North blew through my hair and skull. My neglected hair had grown long and fell upon my neck.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00385", "bookId": 10376, "start": 108774, "end": 109014, "sha256": "c8a4e47b67502bd240c18c65255a50d8d86a617592e784dea4f0df3a62f1e6e5", "text": "My father had not risen from his bed since the day the medicine-man led the people away. Though I read from the Bible and prayed beside him upon my knees, my father would not listen. Yet I believed my prayers were not unheeded in heaven.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00386", "bookId": 10376, "start": 109018, "end": 109469, "sha256": "0a4993be660e33778448a2dd748d6a1a2572c2b741a47ccbad9a698bc816db66", "text": "\"Ha, ha, ha! my son,\" my father groaned upon the first snowfall. \"My son, our food is gone. There is no one to bring me meat! My son, your soft heart has unfitted you for everything!\" Then covering his face with the buffalo-robe, he said no more. Now while I stood out in that cold winter morning, I was starving. For two days I had not seen any food. But my own cold and hunger did not harass my soul as did the whining cry of the sick old man.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00387", "bookId": 10376, "start": 109473, "end": 109567, "sha256": "137082072abff472d44cf325519956b8bdc945cb98d660f2c51e3ae25ed4906f", "text": "Stepping again into the tepee, I untied my snow-shoes, which were fastened to the tent-poles.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00388", "bookId": 10376, "start": 109571, "end": 109676, "sha256": "feb1b14b14010e22892466bfc11c215121caa19a222b43ed13bbe9ad4c307eb1", "text": "My poor mother, watching by the sick one, and faithfully heaping wood upon the centre fire, spoke to me:", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00389", "bookId": 10376, "start": 109680, "end": 109763, "sha256": "fe15fa62382f3f293ccf695cd5d4dde826cd1da16b666ec8e929afc888f30a28", "text": "\"My son, do not fail again to bring your father meat, or he will starve to death.\"", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00390", "bookId": 10376, "start": 109767, "end": 110198, "sha256": "30d4dd0a51013c7e47a767440d627ca4ae79780e7aecbb8806821486cb95e8d2", "text": "\"How, Ina,\" I answered, sorrowfully. From the tepee I started forth again to hunt food for my aged parents. All day I tracked the white level lands in vain. Nowhere, nowhere were there any other footprints but my own! In the evening of this third fast-day I came back without meat. Only a bundle of sticks for the fire I brought on my back. Dropping the wood outside, I lifted the door-flap and set one foot within the tepee.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00391", "bookId": 10376, "start": 110202, "end": 110534, "sha256": "8524b7b1fb4fb6c844222675ce6952e88b13fc56ceb833f6a77cf72d4d898314", "text": "There I grew dizzy and numb. My eyes swam in tears. Before me lay my old gray-haired father sobbing like a child. In his horny hands he clutched the buffalo-robe, and with his teeth he was gnawing off the edges. Chewing the dry stiff hair and buffalo-skin, my father's eyes sought my hands. Upon seeing them empty, he cried out:", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00392", "bookId": 10376, "start": 110538, "end": 110703, "sha256": "fa3fddccf7f411f81e3887a1a84e69d6d47f5cc196a8bedfc7a1a3ae436ccdad", "text": "\"My son, your soft heart will let me starve before you bring me meat! Two hills eastward stand a herd of cattle. Yet you will see me die before you bring me food!\"", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00393", "bookId": 10376, "start": 110707, "end": 110792, "sha256": "f2086ad864c2f8c6241ec6efc3f6c1aa49eb844271344c43a859b3c25e4f6d31", "text": "Leaving my mother lying with covered head upon her mat, I rushed out into the night.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00394", "bookId": 10376, "start": 110796, "end": 111102, "sha256": "a154c486b71692a816b40c7b63e140e836f23093e0eff3019a05d169746b02c9", "text": "With a strange warmth in my heart and swiftness in my feet, I climbed over the first hill, and soon the second one. The moonlight upon the white country showed me a clear path to the white man's cattle. With my hand upon the knife in my belt, I leaned heavily against the fence while counting the herd.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00395", "bookId": 10376, "start": 111106, "end": 111236, "sha256": "74edfbf6b84b4b67868e38e70fe959cb10080ca7cd8dcdd678dc5f5c93761e6f", "text": "Twenty in all I numbered. From among them I chose the best-fattened creature. Leaping over the fence, I plunged my knife into it.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00396", "bookId": 10376, "start": 111240, "end": 111436, "sha256": "f024688c3b57ecfa02660613dee14118587180844a8bc01e5db4ca59f40ecb5d", "text": "My long knife was sharp, and my hands, no more fearful and slow, slashed off choice chunks of warm flesh. Bending under the meat I had taken for my starving father, I hurried across the prairie.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00397", "bookId": 10376, "start": 111440, "end": 112684, "sha256": "75fad8953f9b50a5b9db639f24e78f5996e661f62cbeb4cab7fe512ceaaf9935", "text": "Toward home I fairly ran with the life-giving food I carried upon my back. Hardly had I climbed the second hill when I heard sounds coming after me. Faster and faster I ran with my load for my father, but the sounds were gaining upon me. I heard the clicking of snowshoes and the squeaking of the leather straps at my heels; yet I did not turn to see what pursued me, for I was intent upon reaching my father. Suddenly like thunder an angry voice shouted curses and threats into my ear! A rough hand wrenched my shoulder and took the meat from me! I stopped struggling to run. A deafening whir filled my head. The moon and stars began to move. Now the white prairie was sky, and the stars lay under my feet. Now again they were turning. At last the starry blue rose up into place. The noise in my ears was still. A great quiet filled the air. In my hand I found my long knife dripping with blood. At my feet a man's figure lay prone in blood-red snow. The horrible scene about me seemed a trick of my senses, for I could not understand it was real. Looking long upon the blood-stained snow, the load of meat for my starving father reached my recognition at last. Quickly I tossed it over my shoulder and started again homeward.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00398", "bookId": 10376, "start": 112688, "end": 112803, "sha256": "8d79c55efc2dc0174098b926b49308cf69efc0b5fc93e9aa7707254f677b9054", "text": "Tired and haunted I reached the door of the wigwam. Carrying the food before me, I entered with it into the tepee.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00399", "bookId": 10376, "start": 112807, "end": 113031, "sha256": "7f0c5a36957be4acc3c6cd2735c07e5db4c9969009ca16da2b844feb3387c460", "text": "\"Father, here is food!\" I cried, as I dropped the meat near my mother. No answer came. Turning about, I beheld my gray-haired father dead! I saw by the unsteady firelight an old gray-haired skeleton lying rigid and stiff.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00400", "bookId": 10376, "start": 113035, "end": 113102, "sha256": "e2de70c02a0972a84bc923618a94ef2e5ab7597edc53b57ee72856e3b352abe6", "text": "Out into the open I started, but the snow at my feet became bloody.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00401", "bookId": 10376, "start": 113112, "end": 113114, "sha256": "d816c31e610c123f63c806863c99c199a73e629443d055e25e8272dc367e5f53", "text": "V.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00402", "bookId": 10376, "start": 113120, "end": 113289, "sha256": "ae4a241ce8d071875e7b0e226aa57ba4e0a308617957fd8432403d8574e6988c", "text": "On the day after my father's death, having led my mother to the camp of the medicineman, I gave myself up to those who were searching for the murderer of the paleface.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00403", "bookId": 10376, "start": 113293, "end": 113368, "sha256": "26bbab2600c1e1e92b4f3ec31c57b74100bff69dbf0943fe959903344c06be28", "text": "They bound me hand and foot. Here in this cell I was placed four days ago.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00404", "bookId": 10376, "start": 113372, "end": 113832, "sha256": "0d96fb09e4d710db0cfd8bde867e265538b0dd6881e78f0ffb7158b2a1a0995a", "text": "The shrieking winter winds have followed me hither. Rattling the bars, they howl unceasingly: \"Your soft heart! your soft heart will see me die before you bring me food!\" Hark! something is clanking the chain on the door. It is being opened. From the dark night without a black figure crosses the threshold. * * * It is the guard. He comes to warn me of my fate. He tells me that tomorrow I must die. In his stern face I laugh aloud. I do not fear death.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00405", "bookId": 10376, "start": 113836, "end": 114173, "sha256": "5b09159052722c468309a829a9766b4b6e21a737e5ca19fee8c6ccf166740d25", "text": "Yet I wonder who shall come to welcome me in the realm of strange sight. Will the loving Jesus grant me pardon and give my soul a soothing sleep? or will my warrior father greet me and receive me as his son? Will my spirit fly upward to a happy heaven? or shall I sink into the bottomless pit, an outcast from a God of infinite love?", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00406", "bookId": 10376, "start": 114177, "end": 114450, "sha256": "fff9c0ad1beca0bb1c75bd1e554d7a069189aad61bb3372fdd061a6247c953fe", "text": "Soon, soon I shall know, for now I see the east is growing red. My heart is strong. My face is calm. My eyes are dry and eager for new scenes. My hands hang quietly at my side. Serene and brave, my soul awaits the men to perch me on the gallows for another flight. I go.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00407", "bookId": 10376, "start": 114460, "end": 114474, "sha256": "799e3b925199ace9a986bf536c00fac8db915b8ef74261907f5e45616667fa7a", "text": "THE TRIAL PATH", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00408", "bookId": 10376, "start": 114480, "end": 115094, "sha256": "2c304afba8c50d999a99a15ce996ed0f3065519ab87993ede98e74c03041c7f7", "text": "It was an autumn night on the plain. The smoke-lapels of the cone-shaped tepee flapped gently in the breeze. From the low night sky, with its myriad fire points, a large bright star peeped in at the smoke-hole of the wigwam between its fluttering lapels, down upon two Dakotas talking in the dark. The mellow stream from the star above, a maid of twenty summers, on a bed of sweetgrass, drank in with her wakeful eyes. On the opposite side of the tepee, beyond the centre fireplace, the grandmother spread her rug. Though once she had lain down, the telling of a story has aroused her to a sitting posture.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00409", "bookId": 10376, "start": 115098, "end": 115175, "sha256": "2cc80301b73628536ddbf1eafa89eaf6d571f08bd339e6393ed511b9c0607784", "text": "Her eyes are tight closed. With a thin palm she strokes her wind-shorn hair.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00410", "bookId": 10376, "start": 115179, "end": 115358, "sha256": "96829cd882990785abf9a7f0b8fe23edf6a00d1e1789814eb7f513ce756a5513", "text": "\"Yes, my grandchild, the legend says the large bright stars are wise old warriors, and the small dim ones are handsome young braves,\" she reiterates, in a high, tremulous voice.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00411", "bookId": 10376, "start": 115362, "end": 115490, "sha256": "4cdfed74a8c5a28ebc1551024e52bff9abdfdadeabed886c760c8cd817f9407e", "text": "\"Then this one peeping in at the smoke-hole yonder is my dear old grandfather,\" muses the young woman, in long-drawn-out words.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00412", "bookId": 10376, "start": 115494, "end": 115870, "sha256": "83946e98a8afb0ae1a9416c09aa0389489c172b2996cd9af23fd9996487b7c63", "text": "Her soft rich voice floats through the darkness within the tepee, over the cold ashes heaped on the centre fire, and passes into the ear of the toothless old woman, who sits dumb in silent reverie. Thence it flies on swifter wing over many winter snows, till at last it cleaves the warm light atmosphere of her grandfather's youth. From there her grandmother made answer:", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00413", "bookId": 10376, "start": 115874, "end": 116307, "sha256": "d61abe7e4429ea95743cfe72f321a9fb2131134dc2249699f40659ffb292034e", "text": "\"Listen! I am young again. It is the day of your grandfather's death. The elder one, I mean, for there were two of them. They were like twins, though they were not brothers. They were friends, inseparable! All things, good and bad, they shared together, save one, which made them mad. In that heated frenzy the younger man slew his most intimate friend. He killed his elder brother, for long had their affection made them kin.\"", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00414", "bookId": 10376, "start": 116311, "end": 116977, "sha256": "b52d382f1089d53b202c8301a5748cf48c9d9196b462d81119bc463b3ecd2517", "text": "The voice of the old woman broke. Swaying her stooped shoulders to and fro as she sat upon her feet, she muttered vain exclamations beneath her breath. Her eyes, closed tight against the night, beheld behind them the light of bygone days. They saw again a rolling black cloud spread itself over the land. Her ear heard the deep rumbling of a tempest in the west. She bent low a cowering head, while angry thunder-birds shrieked across the sky. \"Heyã! heyã!\" (No! no!) groaned the toothless grandmother at the fury she had awakened. But the glorious peace afterward, when yellow sunshine made the people glad, now lured her memory onward through the storm.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00415", "bookId": 10376, "start": 116981, "end": 117313, "sha256": "e439ef12b3ec06423998606c37a1ef22d82fbc3a567a401e4277acd3534e8390", "text": "\"How fast, how loud my heart beats as I listen to the messenger's horrible tale!\" she ejaculates. \"From the fresh grave of the murdered man he hurried to our wigwam. Deliberately crossing his bare shins, he sat down unbidden beside my father, smoking a long-stemmed pipe. He had scarce caught his breath when, panting, he began:", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00416", "bookId": 10376, "start": 117317, "end": 117366, "sha256": "f1afcdf2980fd7c287c96af7803c4f6c27f3cc7d58b8f3bb8791a2e0ce388834", "text": "\"'He was an only son, and a much-adored brother.'", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00417", "bookId": 10376, "start": 117370, "end": 117800, "sha256": "c48efed56677a511fba26acd1aed8f617c1257ce860761d7f33ddbb25b9bb73c", "text": "\"With wild, suspecting eyes he glanced at me as if I were in league with the man-killer, my lover. My father, exhaling sweet-scented smoke, assented--'How,' Then interrupting the 'Eya' on the lips of the round-eyed talebearer, he asked, 'My friend, will you smoke?' He took the pipe by its red-stone bowl, and pointed the long slender stem toward the man. 'Yes, yes, my friend,' replied he, and reached out a long brown arm.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00418", "bookId": 10376, "start": 117804, "end": 118389, "sha256": "fda6e3feec048fed0ff68f9550853ef73129aef6fd2895554a6dd6ae59ad6373", "text": "\"For many heart-throbs he puffed out the blue smoke, which hung like a cloud between us. But even through the smoke-mist I saw his sharp black eyes glittering toward me. I longed to ask what doom awaited the young murderer, but dared not open my lips, lest I burst forth into screams instead. My father plied the question. Returning the pipe, the man replied: 'Oh, the chieftain and his chosen men have had counsel together. They have agreed it is not safe to allow a man-killer loose in our midst. He who kills one of our tribe is an enemy, and must suffer the fate of a foe.'", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00419", "bookId": 10376, "start": 118393, "end": 118436, "sha256": "1d692bb88968294f83c6101d4d03a0117733aa910af52040a1ab81229d6e3d4f", "text": "\"My temples throbbed like a pair of hearts!", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00420", "bookId": 10376, "start": 118440, "end": 119140, "sha256": "001588ec770e0d3a92c98d48806a0e57c08dc094609630fe4e5be51063b4c049", "text": "\"While I listened, a crier passed by my father's tepee. Mounted, and swaying with his pony's steps, he proclaimed in a loud voice these words (hark! I hear them now!): \"Ho-po! Give ear, all you people. A terrible deed is done. Two friends--ay, brothers in heart--have quarreled together. Now one lies buried on the hill, while the other sits, a dreaded man-killer, within his dwelling.\" Says our chieftain: \"He who kills one of our tribe commits the offense of an enemy. As such he must be tried. Let the father of the dead man choose the mode of torture or taking of life. He has suffered livid pain, and he alone can judge how great the punishment must be to avenge his wrong.\" It is done.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00421", "bookId": 10376, "start": 119144, "end": 119807, "sha256": "608a5f272903d26c4af6e4019763e1e577c2b294a5b4778f29bf86b818b2b7b8", "text": "\"'Come, every one, to witness the judgment of a father upon him who was once his son's best friend. A wild pony is now lassoed. The man-killer must mount and ride the ranting beast. Stand you all in two parallel lines from the centre tepee of the bereaved family to the wigwam opposite in the great outer ring. Between you, in the wide space, is the given trial-way. From the outer circle the rider must mount and guide his pony toward the centre tepee. If, having gone the entire distance, the man-killer gains the centre tepee still sitting on the pony's back, his life is spared and pardon given. But should he fall, then he himself has chosen death.'", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00422", "bookId": 10376, "start": 119811, "end": 120599, "sha256": "eed4d53139b616e724abd9158859528e2d6c311e61ced74f1ce2cd14978e0348", "text": "\"The crier's words now cease. A lull holds the village breathless. Then hurrying feet tear along, swish, swish, through the tall grass. Sobbing women hasten toward the trialway. The muffled groan of the round camp-ground is unbearable. With my face hid in the folds of my blanket, I run with the crowd toward the open place in the outer circle of our village. In a moment the two long files of solemn-faced people mark the path of the public trial. Ah! I see strong men trying to lead the lassoed pony, pitching and rearing, with white foam flying from his mouth. I choke with pain as I recognize my handsome lover desolately alone, striding with set face toward the lassoed pony. 'Do not fall! Choose life and me!' I cry in my breast, but over my lips I hold my thick blanket.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00423", "bookId": 10376, "start": 120603, "end": 121120, "sha256": "8753880adb2a4814bbdaaec7d45f773aed8784a624739e66f30030fe845d7260", "text": "\"In an instant he has leaped astride the frightened beast, and the men have let go their hold. Like an arrow sprung from a strong bow, the pony, with extended nostrils, plunges halfway to the centre tepee. With all his might the rider draws the strong reins in. The pony halts with wooden legs. The rider is thrown forward by force, but does not fall. Now the maddened creature pitches, with flying heels. The line of men and women sways outward. Now it is back in place, safe from the kicking, snorting thing.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00424", "bookId": 10376, "start": 121124, "end": 121306, "sha256": "bff412348a58fe95821fd95bba736d60b5891082ba64d11a6e9e20624eb02792", "text": "\"The pony is fierce, with its large black eyes bulging out of their sockets. With humped back and nose to the ground, it leaps into the air. I shut my eyes. I can not see him fall.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00425", "bookId": 10376, "start": 121310, "end": 121930, "sha256": "78cfb25e76a0de3933ca0ad3164bcbaea091e4282b2eccd5c9292735ef710227", "text": "\"A loud shout goes up from the hoarse throats of men and women. I look. So! The wild horse is conquered. My lover dismounts at the doorway of the centre wigwam. The pony, wet with sweat and shaking with exhaustion, stands like a guilty dog at his master's side. Here at the entranceway of the tepee sit the bereaved father, mother, and sister. The old warrior father rises. Stepping forward two long strides, he grasps the hand of the murderer of his only son. Holding it so the people can see, he cries, with compassionate voice, 'My son!' A murmur of surprise sweeps like a puff of sudden wind along the lines.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00426", "bookId": 10376, "start": 121934, "end": 122172, "sha256": "466b40e0ff778c687d3886c45b676628655612ea44d3e3f14c656a6d511a5bb1", "text": "\"The mother, with swollen eyes, with her hair cut square with her shoulders, now rises. Hurrying to the young man, she takes his right hand. 'My son!' she greets him. But on the second word her voice shook, and she turned away in sobs.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00427", "bookId": 10376, "start": 122176, "end": 122472, "sha256": "6a51094e4f376b42673f617bc460a816aaf387d89b384484c8312e85db1341a2", "text": "\"The young people rivet their eyes upon the young woman. She does not stir. With bowed head, she sits motionless. The old warrior speaks to her. 'Shake hands with the young brave, my little daughter. He was your brother's friend for many years. Now he must be both friend and brother to you,'", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00428", "bookId": 10376, "start": 122476, "end": 122603, "sha256": "6f000b3f028ce4510296e86a421c1d58deeb0cee624172bd9f0ca535b6f2f5ae", "text": "\"Hereupon the girl rises. Slowly reaching out her slender hand, she cries, with twitching lips, 'My brother!' The trial ends.\"", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00429", "bookId": 10376, "start": 122607, "end": 122683, "sha256": "487081c61e0277f93578bafc1949352cf984e5881ebc20812f61546b8ee35389", "text": "\"Grandmother!\" exploded the girl on the bed of sweet-grass. \"Is this true?\"", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00430", "bookId": 10376, "start": 122687, "end": 123004, "sha256": "8d302979335e422588fd2761ab00890a5781a1cc1b90bdf2388702b7ef7f67c2", "text": "\"Tosh!\" answered the grandmother, with a warmth in her voice. \"It is all true. During the fifteen winters of our wedded life many ponies passed from our hands, but this little winner, Ohiyesa, was a constant member of our family. At length, on that sad day your grandfather died, Ohiyesa was killed at the grave.\"", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00431", "bookId": 10376, "start": 123008, "end": 123207, "sha256": "add7a273b0cd2092fd0231168eb533ea22558f1188153af101f0b6b948469437", "text": "Though the various groups of stars which move across the sky, marking the passing of time, told how the night was in its zenith, the old Dakota woman ventured an explanation of the burial ceremony.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00432", "bookId": 10376, "start": 123211, "end": 123368, "sha256": "e1fe2d19e5a483581f8a024b31d408b0d0fc631fa95d744ab89b0154fa884886", "text": "\"My grandchild, I have scarce ever breathed the sacred knowledge in my heart. Tonight I must tell you one of them. Surely you are old enough to understand.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00433", "bookId": 10376, "start": 123372, "end": 123704, "sha256": "92c22288523a9cc9b07b9a3afa6dd6f0e13ec0f6ce40fc2b4060ccedaa17ecec", "text": "\"Our wise medicine-man said I did well to hasten Ohiyesa after his master. Perchance on the journey along the ghostpath your grandfather will weary, and in his heart wish for his pony. The creature, already bound on the spirit-trail, will be drawn by that subtle wish. Together master and beast will enter the next camp-ground.\"", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00434", "bookId": 10376, "start": 123708, "end": 123846, "sha256": "2bddde8676540422fdccdcab6f4ce43a3c468e6857169781fd0609d8fd659753", "text": "The woman ceased her talking. But only the deep breathing of the girl broke the quiet, for now the night wind had lulled itself to sleep.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00435", "bookId": 10376, "start": 123850, "end": 124016, "sha256": "c61dcb6124bc251402a0f0893b6f1fb6457ce9df0c7b9de8a4a072f071efc1f5", "text": "\"Hinnu! hinnu! Asleep! I have been talking in the dark, unheard. I did wish the girl would plant in her heart this sacred tale,\" muttered she, in a querulous voice.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00436", "bookId": 10376, "start": 124020, "end": 124207, "sha256": "291eede68cd878d58de1ac9d3e04ad74463dcc63ee0d40f68cd4d66634bfda1a", "text": "Nestling into her bed of sweet-scented grass, she dozed away into another dream. Still the guardian star in the night sky beamed compassionately down upon the little tepee on the plain.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00437", "bookId": 10376, "start": 124217, "end": 124237, "sha256": "049603153d8137c51617740c7d126fb64ff9cc1a2155aca289912c1b4360e894", "text": "A WARRIOR'S DAUGHTER", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00438", "bookId": 10376, "start": 124243, "end": 124456, "sha256": "b05909c0bcebf83d7bd54c54790af79c7186a9cad8e95474a4ef7beed05ccb54", "text": "In the afternoon shadow of a large tepee, with red-painted smoke lapels, sat a warrior father with crossed shins. His head was so poised that his eye swept easily the vast level land to the eastern horizon line.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00439", "bookId": 10376, "start": 124460, "end": 124598, "sha256": "ee2b3b89c1e16421d608a1cf170c34abf1c56e79c5bd3f754ca8afa50fcb9a5a", "text": "He was the chieftain's bravest warrior. He had won by heroic deeds the privilege of staking his wigwam within the great circle of tepees.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00440", "bookId": 10376, "start": 124602, "end": 125175, "sha256": "6b808f8260964a7a640f2d7942f10873b4ea683e623596bada136310478ad94d", "text": "He was also one of the most generous gift givers to the toothless old people. For this he was entitled to the red-painted smoke lapels on his cone-shaped dwelling. He was proud of his honors. He never wearied of rehearsing nightly his own brave deeds. Though by wigwam fires he prated much of his high rank and widespread fame, his great joy was a wee black-eyed daughter of eight sturdy winters. Thus as he sat upon the soft grass, with his wife at his side, bent over her bead work, he was singing a dance song, and beat lightly the rhythm with his slender hands.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00441", "bookId": 10376, "start": 125179, "end": 125302, "sha256": "850645883ee9a5563327cb2870df98e1cb3095c83e08154c7ac09e428b4a2628", "text": "His shrewd eyes softened with pleasure as he watched the easy movements of the small body dancing on the green before him.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00442", "bookId": 10376, "start": 125306, "end": 125471, "sha256": "78112fb6bb827fae000e52916d497f8019f6b230242a00ca9fa1189c06b0f382", "text": "Tusee is taking her first dancing lesson. Her tightly-braided hair curves over both brown ears like a pair of crooked little horns which glisten in the summer sun.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00443", "bookId": 10376, "start": 125475, "end": 125679, "sha256": "47705082819d02ab5bd6b5e6c2ab8e4cf5a1ee41f45767d072fd27d446d22847", "text": "With her snugly moccasined feet close together, and a wee hand at her belt to stay the long string of beads which hang from her bare neck, she bends her knees gently to the rhythm of her father's voice.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00444", "bookId": 10376, "start": 125683, "end": 126082, "sha256": "d91a0ed3dc7d5e087f714b1115dd6684c914ab624d4fb1891d054ab0571f20bb", "text": "Now she ventures upon the earnest movement, slightly upward and sidewise, in a circle. At length the song drops into a closing cadence, and the little woman, clad in beaded deerskin, sits down beside the elder one. Like her mother, she sits upon her feet. In a brief moment the warrior repeats the last refrain. Again Tusee springs to her feet and dances to the swing of the few final measures.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00445", "bookId": 10376, "start": 126086, "end": 126454, "sha256": "6633aaa1fedc2aa9b65a062925d0be56a33621a56f97ed9409a5eb3b84f50419", "text": "Just as the dance was finished, an elderly man, with short, thick hair loose about his square shoulders, rode into their presence from the rear, and leaped lightly from his pony's back. Dropping the rawhide rein to the ground, he tossed himself lazily on the grass. \"Hunhe, you have returned soon,\" said the warrior, while extending a hand to his little daughter.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00446", "bookId": 10376, "start": 126458, "end": 126665, "sha256": "490ef9badd928501b6ccedcddf8d436dfc69deccd77146beeac932437f437f56", "text": "Quickly the child ran to her father's side and cuddled close to him, while he tenderly placed a strong arm about her. Both father and child, eyeing the figure on the grass, waited to hear the man's report.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00447", "bookId": 10376, "start": 126669, "end": 126758, "sha256": "e0c5e9d9aace9cc281e105fb9d6ea6f17e1c59fea667945f6443d0f498fabe3f", "text": "\"It is true,\" began the man, with a stranger's accent. \"This is the night of the dance.\"", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00448", "bookId": 10376, "start": 126762, "end": 126811, "sha256": "8734a08114897fa7ad6294fd6aeae90ffc1830c64f045a7e3d17dca8d4ad8da9", "text": "\"Hunha!\" muttered the warrior with some surprise.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00449", "bookId": 10376, "start": 126815, "end": 127251, "sha256": "b797a9b32925df74b8ec9d7b901f5a30a93002a3cb6e9ee8ae0ef8c9e13a6d22", "text": "Propping himself upon his elbows, the man raised his face. His features were of the Southern type. From an enemy's camp he was taken captive long years ago by Tusee's father. But the unusual qualities of the slave had won the Sioux warrior's heart, and for the last three winters the man had had his freedom. He was made real man again. His hair was allowed to grow. However, he himself had chosen to stay in the warrior's family.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00450", "bookId": 10376, "start": 127255, "end": 127375, "sha256": "d6feb904f4e29755dacca215779957f84994e0ddb9df3fc945397527ebf87d23", "text": "\"Hunha!\" again ejaculated the warrior father. Then turning to his little daughter, he asked, \"Tusee, do you hear that?\"", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00451", "bookId": 10376, "start": 127379, "end": 127426, "sha256": "1e318d8d3264fa9fc891db48a3a2f8406bf440aaef7b86173da20d0699ee01a4", "text": "\"Yes, father, and I am going to dance tonight!\"", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00452", "bookId": 10376, "start": 127430, "end": 127566, "sha256": "e289015531286f6bb3f290300a3ddbdc6d80ac66ab349cf27d21b41b01bcb3c5", "text": "With these words she bounded out of his arm and frolicked about in glee. Hereupon the proud mother's voice rang out in a chiding laugh.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00453", "bookId": 10376, "start": 127570, "end": 127794, "sha256": "3e7b673229e2d82068b5bd4010f04ec9f326c823edd879c93f0f21063837fdc9", "text": "\"My child, in honor of your first dance your father must give a generous gift. His ponies are wild, and roam beyond the great hill. Pray, what has he fit to offer?\" she questioned, the pair of puzzled eyes fixed upon her.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00454", "bookId": 10376, "start": 127798, "end": 127904, "sha256": "cfb0daa51eb4fbfa02522a50d562102e84b8ef2031c07dfb035c66e55e02d7aa", "text": "\"A pony from the herd, mother, a fleet-footed pony from the herd!\" Tusee shouted with sudden inspiration.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00455", "bookId": 10376, "start": 127908, "end": 128239, "sha256": "dbc993db867016a8bd1facd5e7e1c97df2fbc60eb5e8c7e61be57b557ac49636", "text": "Pointing a small forefinger toward the man lying on the grass, she cried, \"Uncle, you will go after the pony tomorrow!\" And pleased with her solution of the problem, she skipped wildly about. Her childish faith in her elders was not conditioned by a knowledge of human limitations, but thought all things possible to grown-ups.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00456", "bookId": 10376, "start": 128243, "end": 128390, "sha256": "ac89b97897841b89ce2e72007f9c9cb0c5350d2c284c50c09981399d86e40b2b", "text": "\"Hähob!\" exclaimed the mother, with a rising inflection, implying by the expletive that her child's buoyant spirit be not weighted with a denial.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00457", "bookId": 10376, "start": 128394, "end": 128473, "sha256": "71a03dbf7b75a023a34d2911bfda0d6c2a9c52e039fe28483c4caa3f9a996625", "text": "Quickly to the hard request the man replied, \"How! I go if Tusee tells me so!\"", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00458", "bookId": 10376, "start": 128477, "end": 128633, "sha256": "c16e0e2d991b29785bc4300dda1e5f44473d80cc3bb492ca4011de198d366e0d", "text": "This delighted the little one, whose black eyes brimmed over with light. Standing in front of the strong man, she clapped her small, brown hands with joy.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00459", "bookId": 10376, "start": 128637, "end": 128984, "sha256": "5d5649a32c680980d63a4aab0d3d07838a506fc5401a593a06015c3edb837d05", "text": "\"That makes me glad! My heart is good! Go, uncle, and bring a handsome pony!\" she cried. In an instant she would have frisked away, but an impulse held her tilting where she stood. In the man's own tongue, for he had taught her many words and phrases, she exploded, \"Thank you, good uncle, thank you!\" then tore away from sheer excess of glee.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00460", "bookId": 10376, "start": 128988, "end": 129082, "sha256": "83aca75b46115a4984fab823a932ea46ec0e20d50dde5e6cec5bf2bbe80c0ebe", "text": "The proud warrior father, smiling and narrowing his eyes, muttered approval, \"Howo! Hechetu!\"", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00461", "bookId": 10376, "start": 129086, "end": 129228, "sha256": "8fd42082f9404cf23103b055953cc0d953772c86f1368879eedcaf718c94a1df", "text": "Like her mother, Tusee has finely pencilled eyebrows and slightly extended nostrils; but in her sturdiness of form she resembles her father.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00462", "bookId": 10376, "start": 129232, "end": 129759, "sha256": "21cf5629cd19a84e4dd560fb3c65bb9d84d9087dd8f14eba8c4672d7eb2514fa", "text": "A loyal daughter, she sits within her tepee making beaded deerskins for her father, while he longs to stave off her every suitor as all unworthy of his old heart's pride. But Tusee is not alone in her dwelling. Near the entrance-way a young brave is half reclining on a mat. In silence he watches the petals of a wild rose growing on the soft buckskin. Quickly the young woman slips the beads on the silvery sinew thread, and works them into the pretty flower design. Finally, in a low, deep voice, the young man begins:", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00463", "bookId": 10376, "start": 129763, "end": 129920, "sha256": "d5f1c0f70057e4bb37a01f068ddb7d77f566761fd9e7126229c0ebb46f12836c", "text": "\"The sun is far past the zenith. It is now only a man's height above the western edge of land. I hurried hither to tell you tomorrow I join the war party.\"", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00464", "bookId": 10376, "start": 129924, "end": 130055, "sha256": "ba2b129fd1299ad72d2e5a480023b5db29a449f10a1fae281977f370b0e64844", "text": "He pauses for reply, but the maid's head drops lower over her deerskin, and her lips are more firmly drawn together. He continues:", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00465", "bookId": 10376, "start": 130059, "end": 130376, "sha256": "b0c099d527b8f3db9b9586ea1ce44b57c647e66093b88ac1678aad2b2bad81f2", "text": "\"Last night in the moonlight I met your warrior father. He seemed to know I had just stepped forth from your tepee. I fear he did not like it, for though I greeted him, he was silent. I halted in his pathway. With what boldness I dared, while my heart was beating hard and fast, I asked him for his only daughter.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00466", "bookId": 10376, "start": 130380, "end": 130537, "sha256": "9073d810d4069c1f81bd5e8f49a27d2f46765cb2b6f127a6d2f7eac426ec8bfc", "text": "\"Drawing himself erect to his tallest height, and gathering his loose robe more closely about his proud figure, he flashed a pair of piercing eyes upon me.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00467", "bookId": 10376, "start": 130541, "end": 130788, "sha256": "11609df1982c52e107956d5678dc22783e666387a1e01f519f71181d7cbb79a9", "text": "\"'Young man,' said he, with a cold, slow voice that chilled me to the marrow of my bones, 'hear me. Naught but an enemy's scalp-lock, plucked fresh with your own hand, will buy Tusee for your wife,' Then he turned on his heel and stalked away.\"", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00468", "bookId": 10376, "start": 130792, "end": 130868, "sha256": "c867fb841ffcbe1924a0fe1f78ef98853c6954e5459a36850961654f9d0b0f13", "text": "Tusee thrusts her work aside. With earnest eyes she scans her lover's face.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00469", "bookId": 10376, "start": 130872, "end": 131024, "sha256": "8ba99090082f42a51ead07a349d192fdd7a1fab2e285322104b32ef0a8bcbc3a", "text": "\"My father's heart is really kind. He would know if you are brave and true,\" murmured the daughter, who wished no ill-will between her two loved ones.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00470", "bookId": 10376, "start": 131028, "end": 131182, "sha256": "6622fe6ffd5fa5be0afb2be535bc31823fe2ef2f5af726781ebe1f9390b5d11e", "text": "Then rising to go, the youth holds out a right hand. \"Grasp my hand once firmly before I go, Hoye. Pray tell me, will you wait and watch for my return?\"", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00471", "bookId": 10376, "start": 131186, "end": 131234, "sha256": "fca733e297879592129f57a543bf86645162a303250394253f5f153a2562cf2c", "text": "Tusee only nods assent, for mere words are vain.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00472", "bookId": 10376, "start": 131238, "end": 131468, "sha256": "6c5e2a1d4d462eeb39c46d993282e966e2798cfd01eea798cc5c42a4738e1ebd", "text": "At early dawn the round camp-ground awakes into song. Men and women sing of bravery and of triumph. They inspire the swelling breasts of the painted warriors mounted on prancing ponies bedecked with the green branches of trees.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00473", "bookId": 10376, "start": 131472, "end": 131777, "sha256": "c922bcbe85a7cf8f3146e8552d66bb03a6fafe21068315e65ccc32af7373f001", "text": "Riding slowly around the great ring of cone-shaped tepees, here and there, a loud-singing warrior swears to avenge a former wrong, and thrusts a bare brown arm against the purple east, calling the Great Spirit to hear his vow. All having made the circuit, the singing war party gallops away southward.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00474", "bookId": 10376, "start": 131781, "end": 132035, "sha256": "5575c976504b776e82f0129eeb1919f9d75190036b47ac1aca2e650db586f764", "text": "Astride their ponies laden with food and deerskins, brave elderly women follow after their warriors. Among the foremost rides a young woman in elaborately beaded buckskin dress. Proudly mounted, she curbs with the single rawhide loop a wild-eyed pony.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00475", "bookId": 10376, "start": 132039, "end": 132171, "sha256": "897590227656b2f917ea7bdd5c1ad2199006340515406deaca502d98d77a7b4a", "text": "It is Tusee on her father's warhorse. Thus the war party of Indian men and their faithful women vanish beyond the southern skyline.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00476", "bookId": 10376, "start": 132175, "end": 132483, "sha256": "00fba4b6f0e834259696b76fdb14042af90c75a6e85da1963916ba0ee365fb11", "text": "A day's journey brings them very near the enemy's borderland. Nightfall finds a pair of twin tepees nestled in a deep ravine. Within one lounge the painted warriors, smoking their pipes and telling weird stories by the firelight, while in the other watchful women crouch uneasily about their center fire.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00477", "bookId": 10376, "start": 132487, "end": 132711, "sha256": "2ec3935d3b97e0419fc1b5afb796804cd39d6df85fcfc2fc723471b99c988fb6", "text": "By the first gray light in the east the tepees are banished. They are gone. The warriors are in the enemy's camp, breaking dreams with their tomahawks. The women are hid away in secret places in the long thicketed ravine.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00478", "bookId": 10376, "start": 132715, "end": 132770, "sha256": "917b30033cd25cd09400cc28b955aaef77552b5244c71c864b99812569b260d8", "text": "The day is far spent, the red sun is low over the west.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00479", "bookId": 10376, "start": 132774, "end": 132996, "sha256": "64adf686291eaaa55958a05bba0a3662ed7b5da7e910cdb0a83215f1c3cf4a0f", "text": "At length straggling warriors return, one by one, to the deep hollow. In the twilight they number their men. Three are missing. Of these absent ones two are dead; but the third one, a young man, is a captive to the foe.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00480", "bookId": 10376, "start": 133000, "end": 133051, "sha256": "1a5d470435168f2214252b6de360ad615be27fe288d0f22d34a27db4ba5757dd", "text": "\"He-he!\" lament the warriors, taking food in haste.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00481", "bookId": 10376, "start": 133055, "end": 133306, "sha256": "b3bdfde11a0b1b81411d4093e037e1c25f9e5b96c104455cdee54cb3d19489e8", "text": "In silence each woman, with long strides, hurries to and fro, tying large bundles on her pony's back. Under cover of night the war party must hasten homeward. Motionless, with bowed head, sits a woman in her hiding-place. She grieves for her lover.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00482", "bookId": 10376, "start": 133310, "end": 134097, "sha256": "fcb8ebde93dc88b4ccc23cce52bc759f731943d8f9ad2cd128fc7c187472b7e0", "text": "In bitterness of spirit she hears the warriors' murmuring words. With set teeth she plans to cheat the hated enemy of their captive. In the meanwhile low signals are given, and the war party, unaware of Tusee's absence, steal quietly away. The soft thud of pony-hoofs grows fainter and fainter. The gradual hush of the empty ravine whirrs noisily in the ear of the young woman. Alert for any sound of footfalls nigh, she holds her breath to listen. Her right hand rests on a long knife in her belt. Ah, yes, she knows where her pony is hid, but not yet has she need of him. Satisfied that no danger is nigh, she prowls forth from her place of hiding. With a panther's tread and pace she climbs the high ridge beyond the low ravine. From thence she spies the enemy's camp-fires.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00483", "bookId": 10376, "start": 134101, "end": 134336, "sha256": "a9ae81ebcc7cc79c47face6ebdb6107f0a8c2aaeef3feb623f2ce83fb2169b20", "text": "Rooted to the barren bluff the slender woman's figure stands on the pinnacle of night, outlined against a starry sky. The cool night breeze wafts to her burning ear snatches of song and drum. With desperate hate she bites her teeth.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00484", "bookId": 10376, "start": 134340, "end": 134429, "sha256": "a52143a738322ee39297c023e04d2bfeb88075f6ddefe76fc3472ee1cfdcb616", "text": "Tusee beckons the stars to witness. With impassioned voice and uplifted face she pleads:", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00485", "bookId": 10376, "start": 134433, "end": 134635, "sha256": "8b26ab4ac22948ef627dbdb7f9bfd868f727496f6eb18e9d58d8cc0537cb7489", "text": "\"Great Spirit, speed me to my lover's rescue! Give me swift cunning for a weapon this night! All-powerful Spirit, grant me my warrior-father's heart, strong to slay a foe and mighty to save a friend!\"", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00486", "bookId": 10376, "start": 134639, "end": 134987, "sha256": "1078268b239e2a1c92870a2f677717cdf470155522e83c8bdb7b1a40da6233e0", "text": "In the midst of the enemy's camp-ground, underneath a temporary dance-house, are men and women in gala-day dress. It is late in the night, but the merry warriors bend and bow their nude, painted bodies before a bright center fire. To the lusty men's voices and the rhythmic throbbing drum, they leap and rebound with feathered headgears waving.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00487", "bookId": 10376, "start": 134991, "end": 135182, "sha256": "cb3fcadcfe0a73021f52abcada01d1c2582ed20569d61c7df49d11760f9e18e4", "text": "Women with red-painted cheeks and long, braided hair sit in a large half-circle against the willow railing. They, too, join in the singing, and rise to dance with their victorious warriors.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00488", "bookId": 10376, "start": 135186, "end": 135313, "sha256": "d9b89d346dd0e96dd601e556d0996a561658800ad56643c11fbea5201191e2d3", "text": "Amid this circular dance arena stands a prisoner bound to a post, haggard with shame and sorrow. He hangs his disheveled head.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00489", "bookId": 10376, "start": 135317, "end": 135502, "sha256": "6d366ac3684b07a70d299cf6a1e0fc2d6592e086ba740e898409c13289e27756", "text": "He stares with unseeing eyes upon the bare earth at his feet. With jeers and smirking faces the dancers mock the Dakota captive. Rowdy braves and small boys hoot and yell in derision.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00490", "bookId": 10376, "start": 135506, "end": 135961, "sha256": "707f00f153d4ab29027edbfb9f60e0be213073bffe4b6f9eec9039d76770ea9f", "text": "Silent among the noisy mob, a tall woman, leaning both elbows on the round willow railing, peers into the lighted arena. The dancing center fire shines bright into her handsome face, intensifying the night in her dark eyes. It breaks into myriad points upon her beaded dress. Unmindful of the surging throng jostling her at either side, she glares in upon the hateful, scoffing men. Suddenly she turns her head. Tittering maids whisper near her ear:", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00491", "bookId": 10376, "start": 135965, "end": 136161, "sha256": "df9cca96b42041dc3d71c61134378432fd43476226127670804f1508142d630d", "text": "\"There! There! See him now, sneering in the captive's face. 'Tis he who sprang upon the young man and dragged him by his long hair to yonder post. See! He is handsome! How gracefully he dances!\"", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00492", "bookId": 10376, "start": 136165, "end": 136540, "sha256": "89e084aa23ebe2a7db738df75e7a536627b93252d31806301711c9cf2f84d5fc", "text": "The silent young woman looks toward the bound captive. She sees a warrior, scarce older than the captive, flourishing a tomahawk in the Dakota's face. A burning rage darts forth from her eyes and brands him for a victim of revenge. Her heart mutters within her breast, \"Come, I wish to meet you, vile foe, who captured my lover and tortures him now with a living death.\"", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00493", "bookId": 10376, "start": 136544, "end": 136978, "sha256": "7ae0957de34acec31c048b2f418232191dc048d13843cc37077960662e2b1d28", "text": "Here the singers hush their voices, and the dancers scatter to their various resting-places along the willow ring. The victor gives a reluctant last twirl of his tomahawk, then, like the others, he leaves the center ground. With head and shoulders swaying from side to side, he carries a high-pointing chin toward the willow railing. Sitting down upon the ground with crossed legs, he fans himself with an outspread turkey wing.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00494", "bookId": 10376, "start": 136982, "end": 137281, "sha256": "8b76dcf2150226f5998836639d7d9f86b8221d9fcdc7a9f2edbcffc68a57b767", "text": "Now and then he stops his haughty blinking to peep out of the corners of his eyes. He hears some one clearing her throat gently. It is unmistakably for his ear. The wing-fan swings irregularly to and fro. At length he turns a proud face over a bare shoulder and beholds a handsome woman smiling.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00495", "bookId": 10376, "start": 137285, "end": 137342, "sha256": "b4d709e037cc8aa1398fdfac6e7772d7415e41430c2531d6ac7d4465a28cad64", "text": "\"Ah, she would speak to a hero!\" thumps his heart wildly.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00496", "bookId": 10376, "start": 137346, "end": 137698, "sha256": "98e10ef7ffcf74afea62d0ce465ca91b974c8740230cbfe1fb8b7a5084886b7c", "text": "The singers raise their voices in unison. The music is irresistible. Again lunges the victor into the open arena. Again he leers into the captive's face. At every interval between the songs he returns to his resting-place. Here the young woman awaits him. As he approaches she smiles boldly into his eyes. He is pleased with her face and her smile.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00497", "bookId": 10376, "start": 137702, "end": 137969, "sha256": "1f2e2131142521250b8718b1078499e45b30acc7adfc43d0733205fe1f3841fb", "text": "Waving his wing-fan spasmodically in front of his face, he sits with his ears pricked up. He catches a low whisper. A hand taps him lightly on the shoulder. The handsome woman speaks to him in his own tongue. \"Come out into the night. I wish to tell you who I am.\"", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00498", "bookId": 10376, "start": 137973, "end": 138154, "sha256": "9f1684a47a3fdace2a299e0f26f7bdac38dc02d38454a99a8f30f1420d6cf7cb", "text": "He must know what sweet words of praise the handsome woman has for him. With both hands he spreads the meshes of the loosely woven willows, and crawls out unnoticed into the dark.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00499", "bookId": 10376, "start": 138158, "end": 138611, "sha256": "37cf712cbec09f2f680a2a488fac776ea0c143608b59adfb34da1284cdb8630a", "text": "Before him stands the young woman. Beckoning him with a slender hand, she steps backward, away from the light and the restless throng of onlookers. He follows with impatient strides. She quickens her pace. He lengthens his strides. Then suddenly the woman turns from him and darts away with amazing speed. Clinching his fists and biting his lower lip, the young man runs after the fleeing woman. In his maddened pursuit he forgets the dance arena.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00500", "bookId": 10376, "start": 138615, "end": 138811, "sha256": "20ccb5b38148d600a3effb4b301d8d57f88257564940d8bf3023db02f161c7bc", "text": "Beside a cluster of low bushes the woman halts. The young man, panting for breath and plunging headlong forward, whispers loud, \"Pray tell me, are you a woman or an evil spirit to lure me away?\"", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00501", "bookId": 10376, "start": 138815, "end": 139000, "sha256": "6005a72919f5c2ff47a51184f0d0110fa25c2b020744594b1520c6222c140a83", "text": "Turning on heels firmly planted in the earth, the woman gives a wild spring forward, like a panther for its prey. In a husky voice she hissed between her teeth, \"I am a Dakota woman!\"", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00502", "bookId": 10376, "start": 139004, "end": 139188, "sha256": "0917a9351c32c10dca019b3b421a57da22a2f3b72c37b3553482674cbc7a756d", "text": "From her unerring long knife the enemy falls heavily at her feet. The Great Spirit heard Tusee's prayer on the hilltop. He gave her a warrior's strong heart to lessen the foe by one.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00503", "bookId": 10376, "start": 139192, "end": 139762, "sha256": "195f318493bede1becdd756fbdf0aabf059ed0a4ad7bf39de7f923ef9d604640", "text": "A bent old woman's figure, with a bundle like a grandchild slung on her back, walks round and round the dance-house. The wearied onlookers are leaving in twos and threes. The tired dancers creep out of the willow railing, and some go out at the entrance way, till the singers, too, rise from the drum and are trudging drowsily homeward. Within the arena the center fire lies broken in red embers. The night no longer lingers about the willow railing, but, hovering into the dance-house, covers here and there a snoring man whom sleep has overpowered where he sat.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00504", "bookId": 10376, "start": 139766, "end": 140055, "sha256": "b4938f1d749e946830134828691f837293c6355523a3391b06efe4e5148457e2", "text": "The captive in his tight-binding rawhide ropes hangs in hopeless despair. Close about him the gloom of night is slowly crouching. Yet the last red, crackling embers cast a faint light upon his long black hair, and, shining through the thick mats, caress his wan face with undying hope.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00505", "bookId": 10376, "start": 140059, "end": 140145, "sha256": "b806b3e7349a871a2c0af99798a26d32a2f6d306d4df48509df6cb920c4321b2", "text": "Still about the dance-house the old woman prowls. Now the embers are gray with ashes.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00506", "bookId": 10376, "start": 140149, "end": 140356, "sha256": "05f9d32dd3ab39b5664264f955c86f8c21e6f997cb4b62d3c8384f0535287d7e", "text": "The old bent woman appears at the entrance way. With a cautious, groping foot she enters. Whispering between her teeth a lullaby for her sleeping child in her blanket, she searches for something forgotten.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00507", "bookId": 10376, "start": 140360, "end": 140485, "sha256": "38c6ea87738266ca6b63a0493958abfd4cc50dc7079fcb92387c5e4fa74250ae", "text": "Noisily snored the dreaming men in the darkest parts. As the lisping old woman draws nigh, the captive again opens his eyes.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00508", "bookId": 10376, "start": 140489, "end": 140998, "sha256": "ec490371c2395379d02096741230952d01380f7218195b471e8bf41e3dfb0af6", "text": "A forefinger she presses to her lip. The young man arouses himself from his stupor. His senses belie him. Before his wide-open eyes the old bent figure straightens into its youthful stature. Tusee herself is beside him. With a stroke upward and downward she severs the cruel cords with her sharp blade. Dropping her blanket from her shoulders, so that it hangs from her girdled waist like a skirt, she shakes the large bundle into a light shawl for her lover. Quickly she spreads it over his bare back.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00509", "bookId": 10376, "start": 141002, "end": 141105, "sha256": "2edb7e8790f3f4796f810bfa465ea2e9346212299494e3b6754c24be7bda1862", "text": "\"Come!\" she whispers, and turns to go; but the young man, numb and helpless, staggers nigh to falling.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00510", "bookId": 10376, "start": 141109, "end": 141380, "sha256": "db26d72ad917d6aec875920e714c838be0fd922bcbf725cffeb24e7d60d1b4bf", "text": "The sight of his weakness makes her strong. A mighty power thrills her body. Stooping beneath his outstretched arms grasping at the air for support, Tusee lifts him upon her broad shoulders. With half-running, triumphant steps she carries him away into the open night.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00511", "bookId": 10376, "start": 141390, "end": 141416, "sha256": "942644958ebbcc1545c043021d4ff6c4a280569f0d893c7775be012a5a6f73fb", "text": "A DREAM OF HER GRANDFATHER", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00512", "bookId": 10376, "start": 141422, "end": 141742, "sha256": "60a9d812ebfcb6ca304383c80ea9bca9d75a51a1a75a4556556c3a140cea3a29", "text": "Her grandfather was a Dakota \"medicine man.\" Among the Indians of his day he was widely known for his successful healing work. He was one of the leading men of the tribe and came to Washington, D.C., with one of the first delegations relative to affairs concerning the Indian people and the United States government.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00513", "bookId": 10376, "start": 141746, "end": 142244, "sha256": "cfc70db5fa1d20e7fb72dd9cf9044468fb7f349e8231476cc04dd8778e2d2d3d", "text": "His was the first band of the Great Sioux Nation to make treaties with the government in the hope of bringing about an amicable arrangement between the red and white Americans. The journey to the nation's capital was made almost entirely on pony-back, there being no railroads, and the Sioux delegation was beset with many hardships on the trail. His visit to Washington, in behalf of peace among men, proved to be his last earthly mission. From a sudden illness, he died and was buried here.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00514", "bookId": 10376, "start": 142248, "end": 143089, "sha256": "54338df1565e5fd450fc474820a275232c7575d3d43b9d565d7b640fa456b232", "text": "When his small granddaughter grew up she learned the white man's tongue, and followed in the footsteps of her grandfather to the very seat of government to carry on his humanitarian work. Though her days were filled with problems for welfare work among her people, she had a strange dream one night during her stay in Washington. The dream was this: Returning from an afternoon out, she found a large cedar chest had been delivered to her home in her absence. She sniffed the sweet perfume of the red wood, which reminded her of the breath of the forest,--and admired the box so neatly made, without trimmings. It looked so clean, strong and durable in its native genuineness. With elation, she took the tag in her hand and read her name aloud. \"Who sent me this cedar chest?\" she asked, and was told it came from her grandfather.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00515", "bookId": 10376, "start": 143093, "end": 143263, "sha256": "5470da91102e4912ef4f44bf4f1d272da6559b5d97ed94e86f7ae31a344e7904", "text": "Wondering what gift it could be her grandfather wished now to confer upon her, wholly disregarding his death years ago, she was all eagerness to open the mystery chest.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00516", "bookId": 10376, "start": 143267, "end": 143704, "sha256": "4ea4de219b8eb6b12d7a6838d5d1b8495052df5522029cba2bd6bc0f13b0631a", "text": "She remembered her childhood days and the stories she loved to hear about the unusual powers of her grandfather,--recalled how she, the wee girl, had coveted the medicine bags, beaded and embroidered in porcupine quills, in symbols designed by the great \"medicine man,\" her grandfather. Well did she remember her merited rebuke that such things were never made for relics. Treasures came in due time to those ready to receive them.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00517", "bookId": 10376, "start": 143708, "end": 143983, "sha256": "38ce7dc175e2223d76796bb31419fd5b389b0dd0fdc22f153ba04143f2012a52", "text": "In great expectancy, she lifted the heavy lid of the cedar chest. \"Oh!\" she exclaimed, with a note of disappointment, seeing no beaded Indian regalia or trinkets. \"Why does my grandfather send such a light gift in a heavy, large box?\" She was mystified and much perplexed.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00518", "bookId": 10376, "start": 143987, "end": 144800, "sha256": "7805ff1a797d4d390e37aefcdbc8d7110939ba8e1c50364c4df28311ca667813", "text": "The gift was a fantastic thing, of texture far more delicate than a spider's filmy web. It was a vision! A picture of an Indian camp, not painted on canvas nor yet written. It was dream-stuff, suspended in the thin air, filling the inclosure of the cedar wood container. As she looked upon it, the picture grew more and more real, exceeding the proportions of the chest. It was all so illusive a breath might have blown it away; yet there it was, real as life,--a circular camp of white cone-shaped tepees, astir with Indian people. The village crier, with flowing head-dress of eagle plumes, mounted on a prancing white pony, rode within the arena. Indian men, women and children stopped in groups and clusters, while bright painted faces peered out of tepee doors, to listen to the chieftain's crier.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00519", "bookId": 10376, "start": 144804, "end": 145022, "sha256": "8e8fd2e03fdd4646ad34392ae434e93419132f989e0f5cf87fbf4e168d340066", "text": "At this point, she, too, heard the full melodious voice. She heard distinctly the Dakota words he proclaimed to the people. \"Be glad! Rejoice! Look up, and see the new day dawning! Help is near! Hear me, every one.\"", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00520", "bookId": 10376, "start": 145026, "end": 145101, "sha256": "e7bac3b1a0800320117460fee2f7c3d460fdecd51e14b1c4bf15a65cef994d51", "text": "She caught the glad tidings and was thrilled with new hope for her people.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00521", "bookId": 10376, "start": 145111, "end": 145159, "sha256": "92bfb254913f8259c69c5b6d4324557a76fc69e73c3c33c0f5d607fdb2ea6219", "text": "THE WIDESPREAD ENIGMA CONCERNING BLUE-STAR WOMAN", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00522", "bookId": 10376, "start": 145165, "end": 145706, "sha256": "cb09c1d153a36a131e680436a7cd517d01a4b4aba53272f8604702e10c06193c", "text": "It was summer on the western plains. Fields of golden sunflowers facing eastward, greeted the rising sun. Blue-Star Woman, with windshorn braids of white hair over each ear, sat in the shade of her log hut before an open fire. Lonely but unmolested she dwelt here like the ground squirrel that took its abode nearby,--both through the easy tolerance of the land owner. The Indian woman held a skillet over the burning embers. A large round cake, with long slashes in its center, was baking and crowding the capacity of the frying pan.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00523", "bookId": 10376, "start": 145710, "end": 146140, "sha256": "45eaf4283779b2b406d0ef7230df11898a16722ad965476db31062396ea65965", "text": "In deep abstraction Blue-Star Woman prepared her morning meal. \"Who am I?\" had become the obsessing riddle of her life. She was no longer a young woman, being in her fifty-third year. In the eyes of the white man's law, it was required of her to give proof of her membership in the Sioux tribe. The unwritten law of heart prompted her naturally to say, \"I am a being. I am Blue-Star Woman. A piece of earth is my birthright.\"", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00524", "bookId": 10376, "start": 146144, "end": 146612, "sha256": "cdaccfe32e3b5fc747b9788e8e605e29959df1aa6b8951f81c6f722d1480a709", "text": "It was taught, for reasons now forgot, that an Indian should never pronounce his or her name in answer to any inquiry. It was probably a means of protection in the days of black magic. Be this as it may, Blue-Star Woman lived in times when this teaching was disregarded. It gained her nothing, however, to pronounce her name to the government official to whom she applied for her share of tribal land. His persistent question was always, \"Who were your parents?\"", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00525", "bookId": 10376, "start": 146616, "end": 147542, "sha256": "659e12e0d12f10e99a0fe55cb72dfb0c9160c44f671319610ff1597f7dd82cae", "text": "Blue-Star Woman was left an orphan at a tender age. She did not remember them. They were long gone to the spirit-land,-and she could not understand why they should be recalled to earth on her account. It was another one of the old, old teachings of her race that the names of the dead should not be idly spoken. It had become a sacrilege to mention carelessly the name of any departed one, especially in matters of disputes over worldy possessions. The unfortunate circumstances of her early childhood, together with the lack of written records of a roving people, placed a formidable barrier between her and her heritage. The fact was events of far greater importance to the tribe than her reincarnation had passed unrecorded in books. The verbal reports of the old-time men and women of the tribe were varied,--some were actually contradictory. Blue-Star Woman was unable to find even a twig of her family tree.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00526", "bookId": 10376, "start": 147546, "end": 148134, "sha256": "21feeb634b1cb996eb86e78741ca287b1ff1dd0b60bc8f5090cf5f99509abc9a", "text": "She sharpened one end of a long stick and with it speared the fried bread when it was browned. Heedless of the hot bread's \"Tsing!\" in a high treble as it was lifted from the fire, she added it to the six others which had preceded it. It had been many a moon since she had had a meal of fried bread, for she was too poor to buy at any one time all the necessary ingredients, particularly the fat in which to fry it. During the breadmaking, the smoke-blackened coffeepot boiled over. The aroma of freshly made coffee smote her nostrils and roused her from the tantalizing memories.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00527", "bookId": 10376, "start": 148138, "end": 148778, "sha256": "0b9e7078d2d0c9790b6f3a572daf5c5853389bf5822a4ee3ee463aaefa5b8bbc", "text": "The day before, friendly spirits, the unseen ones, had guided her aimless footsteps to her Indian neighbor's house. No sooner had she entered than she saw on the table some grocery bundles. \"Iye-que, fortunate one!\" she exclaimed as she took the straight-backed chair offered her. At once the Indian hostess untied the bundles and measured out a cupful of green coffee beans and a pound of lard. She gave them to Blue-Star Woman, saying, \"I want to share my good fortune. Take these home with you.\" Thus it was that Blue-Star Woman had come into unexpected possession of the materials which now contributed richly to her breakfast.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00528", "bookId": 10376, "start": 148782, "end": 149499, "sha256": "06196c176e6744c709889551396bf1c9c8f11d440d2807e5d1c01bf726c6cd40", "text": "The generosity of her friend had often saved her from starvation. Generosity is said to be a fault of Indian people, but neither the Pilgrim Fathers nor Blue-Star Woman ever held it seriously against them. Blue-Star Woman was even grateful for this gift of food. She was fond of coffee,-that black drink brought hither by those daring voyagers of long ago. The coffee habit was one of the signs of her progress in the white man's civilization, also had she emerged from the tepee into a log hut, another achievement. She had learned to read the primer and to write her name. Little Blue-Star attended school unhindered by a fond mother's fears that a foreign teacher might not spare the rod with her darling.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00529", "bookId": 10376, "start": 149503, "end": 149813, "sha256": "445464aa2b9566a4bf9a5405c17c00934cbc5a0dea0122a021e030a91e4c212c", "text": "Blue-Star Woman was her individual name. For untold ages the Indian race had not used family names. A new-born child was given a brand-new name. Blue-Star Woman was proud to write her name for which she would not be required to substitute another's upon her marriage, as is the custom of civilized peoples.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00530", "bookId": 10376, "start": 149817, "end": 150439, "sha256": "4a2a43e63b9def9bc669b308b3c85ba67117f21d953d1bbf6b21a30dc6ef1380", "text": "\"The times are changed now,\" she muttered under her breath. \"My individual name seems to mean nothing.\" Looking out into space, she saw the nodding sunflowers, and they acquiesced with her. Their drying leaves reminded her of the near approach of autumn. Then soon, very soon, the ice would freeze along the banks of the muddy river. The day of the first ice was her birthday. She would be fifty-four winters old. How futile had been all these winters to secure her a share in tribal lands. A weary smile flickered across her face as she sat there on the ground like a bronze figure of patience and long-suffering.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00531", "bookId": 10376, "start": 150443, "end": 151141, "sha256": "fda6bc13cabb6849c53dab386a142e1fc4703d743f3c259e494ac42fa7a265ec", "text": "The breadmaking was finished. The skillet was set aside to cool. She poured the appetizing coffee into her tin cup. With fried bread and black coffee she regaled herself. Again her mind reverted to her riddle. \"The missionary preacher said he could not explain the white man's law to me. He who reads daily from the Holy Bible, which he tells me is God's book, cannot understand mere man's laws. This also puzzles me,\" thought she to herself. \"Once a wise leader of our people, addressing a president of this country, said: 'I am a man. You are another. The Great Spirit is our witness!' This is simple and easy to understand, but the times are changed. The white man's laws are strange.\"", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00532", "bookId": 10376, "start": 151145, "end": 151421, "sha256": "56f838e0a7b06c2b67cff30c2dbec8440507cd2e44181469dd4ffebf798785f8", "text": "Blue-Star Woman broke off a piece of fried bread between a thumb and forefinger. She ate it hungrily, and sipped from her cup of fragrant coffee. \"I do not understand the white man's law. It's like walking in the dark. In this darkness, I am growing fearful of everything.\"", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00533", "bookId": 10376, "start": 151425, "end": 151524, "sha256": "7a3d75135fda71f6401650a80e313091feb5676543f83926c391bc1e6c90c053", "text": "Oblivious to the world, she had not heard the footfall of two Indian men who now stood before her.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00534", "bookId": 10376, "start": 151528, "end": 151984, "sha256": "e8425fb6477b97797887be25054b4f741497099d63a81ca761ab76907b8e6519", "text": "Their short-cropped hair looked blue-black in contrast to the faded civilian clothes they wore. Their white man's shoes were rusty and unpolished. To the unconventional eyes of the old Indian woman, their celluloid collars appeared like shining marks of civilization. Blue-Star Woman looked up from the lap of mother earth without rising. \"Hinnu, hinnu!\" she ejaculated in undisguised surprise. \"Pray, who are these would-be white men?\" she inquired.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00535", "bookId": 10376, "start": 151988, "end": 152451, "sha256": "007f49405a0c5deadc61cec882362d71fbf19070aeaf9dfa7799673fc7bb7204", "text": "In one voice and by an assumed relationship the two Indian men addressed her. \"Aunt, I shake hands with you.\" Again Blue-Star Woman remarked, \"Oh, indeed! these near white men speak my native tongue and shake hands according to our custom.\" Did she guess the truth, she would have known they were simply deluded mortals, deceiving others and themselves most of all. Boisterously laughing and making conversation, they each in turn gripped her withered hand.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00536", "bookId": 10376, "start": 152455, "end": 152909, "sha256": "2e1ad5422daa7398797553ea13ce9b499afce337a54d38100eabaadf5436b8e3", "text": "Like a sudden flurry of wind, tossing loose ends of things, they broke into her quiet morning hour and threw her groping thoughts into greater chaos. Masking their real errand with long-drawn faces, they feigned a concern for her welfare only. \"We come to ask how you are living. We heard you were slowly starving to death. We heard you are one of those Indians who have been cheated out of their share in tribal lands by the government officials.\"", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00537", "bookId": 10376, "start": 152913, "end": 152957, "sha256": "bf159899f60c619659b7714a6f2a300fe40e8271e6a99a6612a30b8549e350a8", "text": "Blue-Star Woman became intensely interested.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00538", "bookId": 10376, "start": 152961, "end": 153441, "sha256": "5aa48398c8e2cdf7cabd6fc3db14c649a01ea6d0bb9c9ddf35c7ab2a84b205f4", "text": "\"You see we are educated in the white man's ways,\" they said with protruding chests. One unconsciously thrust his thumbs into the arm-holes of his ill-fitting coat and strutted about in his pride. \"We can help you get your land. We want to help our aunt. All old people like you ought to be helped before the younger ones. The old will die soon, and they may never get the benefit of their land unless some one like us helps them to get their rights, without further delay.\"", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00539", "bookId": 10376, "start": 153445, "end": 153482, "sha256": "9f96e7824573af24cefe32a7e10ddea9d5e052e6a102d41fefbeb5a21d632b02", "text": "Blue-Star Woman listened attentively.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00540", "bookId": 10376, "start": 153486, "end": 153947, "sha256": "f9327ccc64e3e82794e131e9b8d1bbbfaee625a5d15835e02022e30979fc5d0c", "text": "Motioning to the mats she spread upon the ground, she said: \"Be seated, my nephews.\" She accepted the relationship assumed for the occasion. \"I will give you some breakfast.\" Quickly she set before them a generous helping of fried bread and cups of coffee. Resuming her own meal, she continued, \"You are wonderfully kind. It is true, my nephews, that I have grown old trying to secure my share of land. It may not be long till I shall pass under the sod.\"", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00541", "bookId": 10376, "start": 153951, "end": 154721, "sha256": "c9c74e768bdb2b897217060584b0e767c2c50612eb1be80e58aad4d4258798d4", "text": "The two men responded with \"How, how,\" which meant, \"Go on with your story. We are all ears.\" Blue-Star Woman had not yet detected any particular sharpness about their ears, but by an impulse she looked up into their faces and scrutinized them. They were busily engaged in eating. Their eyes were fast upon the food on the mat in front of their crossed shins. Inwardly she made a passing observation how, like ravenous wolves, her nephews devoured their food. Coyotes in midwinter could not have been more starved. Without comment she offered them the remaining fried cakes, and between them they took it all. She offered the second helping of coffee, which they accepted without hesitancy. Filling their cups, she placed her empty coffeepot on the dead ashes.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00542", "bookId": 10376, "start": 154725, "end": 155367, "sha256": "2fe2627109fc34fd69724220caa23646ab6cedcff174a2be3b0714d8bad29173", "text": "To them she rehearsed her many hardships. It had become a habit now to tell her long story of disappointments with all its petty details. It was only another instance of good intentions gone awry. It was a paradox upon a land of prophecy that its path to future glory be stained with the blood of its aborigines. Incongruous as it is, the two nephews, with their white associates, were glad of a condition so profitable to them. Their solicitation for Blue-Star Woman was not at all altruistic. They thrived in their grafting business. They and their occupation were the by-product of an unwieldly bureaucracy over the nation's wards.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00543", "bookId": 10376, "start": 155371, "end": 156057, "sha256": "e167f317c90f1cb4b044aae34cff3c6de195a9a6ffaabb508eba120320723c5d", "text": "\"Dear aunt, you failed to establish the facts of your identity,\" they told her. Hereupon Blue-Star Woman's countenance fell. It was ever the same old words. It was the old song of the government official she loathed to hear. The next remark restored her courage. \"If any one can discover evidence, it's us! I tell you, aunt, we'll fix it all up for you.\" It was a great relief to the old Indian woman to be thus unburdened of her riddle, with a prospect of possessing land. \"There is one thing you will have to do,--that is, to pay us half of your land and money when you get them.\" Here was a pause, and Blue-Star Woman answered slowly, \"Y-e-s,\" in an uncertain frame of mind.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00544", "bookId": 10376, "start": 156061, "end": 156665, "sha256": "12ea589c1c8635e2aa0c734b17a4ed5f3bc493de09b8fc1575f460add38bc1f8", "text": "The shrewd schemers noted her behavior. \"Wouldn't you rather have a half of a crust of bread than none at all?\" they asked. She was duly impressed with the force of their argument. In her heart she agreed, \"A little something to eat is better than nothing!\" The two men talked in regular relays. The flow of smooth words was continuous and so much like purring that all the woman's suspicions were put soundly to sleep. \"Look here, aunt, you know very well that prairie fire is met with a back-fire.\" Blue-Star Woman, recalling her experiences in fire-fighting, quickly responded, \"Yes, oh, yes.\"", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00545", "bookId": 10376, "start": 156669, "end": 156951, "sha256": "6f380d3ee835c7732b161511b1dc7ef68da10bdb99b8e785cd9b9cb71605f87b", "text": "\"In just the same way, we fight crooks with crooks. We have clever white lawyers working with us. They are the back-fire.\" Then, as if remembering some particular incident, they both laughed aloud and said, \"Yes, and sometimes they use us as the back-fire! We trade fifty-fifty.\"", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00546", "bookId": 10376, "start": 156955, "end": 157633, "sha256": "b59812fe1ddf225c6576ffc615c406b7c2cf44841367f0fd84df8a1b4f6d5fe4", "text": "Blue-Star Woman sat with her chin in the palm of one hand with elbow resting in the other. She rocked herself slightly forward and backward. At length she answered, \"Yes, I will pay you half of my share in tribal land and money when I get them. In bygone days, brave young men of the order of the White-Horse-Riders sought out the aged, the poor, the widows and orphans to aid them, but they did their good work without pay. The White-Horse-Riders are gone. The times are changed. I am a poor old Indian woman. I need warm clothing before winter begins to blow its icicles through us. I need fire wood. I need food. As you have said, a little help is better than none.\"", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00547", "bookId": 10376, "start": 157637, "end": 157688, "sha256": "561fb018c4b8500f88934029f2c1452f87280789259e1fbb88f9c783f64676a8", "text": "Hereupon the two pretenders scored another success.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00548", "bookId": 10376, "start": 157692, "end": 158318, "sha256": "0ed22ba11e7c4a57db2228d60f68125938e78c80ed90772818ebcc5108c65f92", "text": "They rose to their feet. They had eaten up all the fried bread and drained the coffeepot. They shook hands with Blue-Star Woman and departed. In the quiet that followed their departure she sat munching her small piece of bread, which, by a lucky chance, she had taken on her plate before the hungry wolves had come. Very slowly she ate the fragment of fried bread as if to increase it by diligent mastication. A self-condemning sense of guilt disturbed her. In her dire need she had become involved with tricksters. Her nephews laughingly told her, \"We use crooks, and crooks use us in the skirmish over Indian lands.\"", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00549", "bookId": 10376, "start": 158322, "end": 158644, "sha256": "5c94dbaf898cbc61f10709502d507601629769cbc32c75f90eb2eca78639d5ca", "text": "The friendly shade of the house shrank away from her and hid itself under the narrow eaves of the dirt covered roof. She shrugged her shoulders. The sun high in the sky had witnessed the affair and now glared down upon her white head. Gathering upon her arm the mats and cooking utensils, she hobbled into her log hut.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00550", "bookId": 10376, "start": 158648, "end": 158996, "sha256": "c615fc25f8451b6da68eb16f51e7800e373689886112542521c77b830ae0a839", "text": "Under the brooding wilderness silence, on the Sioux Indian Reservation, the superintendent summoned together the leading Indian men of the tribe. He read a letter which he had received from headquarters in Washington, D.C. It announced the enrollment of Blue-Star Woman on their tribal roll of members and the approval of allotting land to her.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00551", "bookId": 10376, "start": 159000, "end": 159358, "sha256": "b637591bd121c4eaa4b2ed2aa96fc8e831a5ace1e2bee2ef64209b26ae4955ff", "text": "It came as a great shock to the tribesmen. Without their knowledge and consent their property was given to a strange woman. They protested in vain. The superintendent said, \"I received this letter from Washington. I have read it to you for your information. I have fulfilled my duty. I can do no more.\" With these fateful words he dismissed the assembly.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00552", "bookId": 10376, "start": 159362, "end": 159744, "sha256": "a26b9cb6175c6eb0556a6c249abe7dcbfbbe049cfad31e9c1231086e2b76072e", "text": "Heavy hearted, Chief High Flier returned to his dwelling. Smoking his long-stemmed pipe he pondered over the case of Blue-Star Woman. The Indian's guardian had got into a way of usurping autocratic power in disposing of the wards' property. It was growing intolerable. \"No doubt this Indian woman is entitled to allotment, but where? Certainly not here,\" he thought to himself.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00553", "bookId": 10376, "start": 159748, "end": 159993, "sha256": "57baeef9b4e9ff6374663dd41b0087eee1d54336d5f918b4bad39a40b2075b79", "text": "Laying down his pipe, he called his little granddaughter from her play, \"You are my interpreter and scribe,\" he said. \"Bring your paper and pencil.\" A letter was written in the child's sprawling hand, and signed by the old chieftain. It read:", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00554", "bookId": 10376, "start": 159997, "end": 160008, "sha256": "20dfc64dbca421429a5e6b7c48f146ce92d4dbaaf87f7a7188920ff15c2af9f5", "text": "\"My Friend:", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00555", "bookId": 10376, "start": 160012, "end": 160907, "sha256": "421c3fab7dc15f70ed3a1cccc196c1a149032871794afcb35869a8339525b326", "text": "\"I make letter to you. My heart is sad. Washington give my tribe's land to a woman called Blue-Star. We do not know her. We were not asked to give land, but our land is taken from us to give to another Indian. This is not right. Lots of little children of my tribe have no land. Why this strange woman get our land which belongs to our children? Go to Washington and ask if our treaties tell him to give our property away without asking us. Tell him I thought we made good treaties on paper, but now our children cry for food. We are too poor. We cannot give even to our own little children. Washington is very rich. Washington now owns our country. If he wants to help this poor Indian woman, Blue-Star, let him give her some of his land and his money. This is all I will say until you answer me. I shake hands with you with my heart. The Great Spirit hears my words. They are true.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00556", "bookId": 10376, "start": 160911, "end": 160924, "sha256": "4c297867f5da56357f8c880404d35a887e942d0f726db6c970d0520650ac9855", "text": "\"Your friend,", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00557", "bookId": 10376, "start": 160928, "end": 160946, "sha256": "f69703f0f915cc20389e4a00b4549e19b18abf5818cf3b44d199c57a56ad7dce", "text": "\"CHIEF HIGH FLIER.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00558", "bookId": 10376, "start": 160950, "end": 160965, "sha256": "c61fda2aebc5c947fac88067ae3c4bd9255e66d27a2c834b0af160b5e25ffff3", "text": "\"X (his mark).\"", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00559", "bookId": 10376, "start": 160969, "end": 161071, "sha256": "829f2c63188e2906b1469de8e39a1913f51592f720167664c6866cca97fce9dc", "text": "The letter was addressed to a prominent American woman. A stamp was carefully placed on the envelope.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00560", "bookId": 10376, "start": 161075, "end": 161746, "sha256": "8fe534c83fd651bcf31764108012f2113d94db7f5324af68829a154fbb19ae1b", "text": "Early the next morning, before the dew was off the grass, the chieftain's riding pony was caught from the pasture and brought to his log house. It was saddled and bridled by a younger man, his son with whom he made his home. The old chieftain came out, carrying in one hand his long-stemmed pipe and tobacco pouch. His blanket was loosely girdled about his waist. Tightly holding the saddle horn, he placed a moccasined foot carefully into the stirrup and pulled himself up awkwardly into the saddle, muttering to himself, \"Alas, I can no more leap into my saddle. I now must crawl about in my helplessness.\" He was past eighty years of age, and no longer agile.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00561", "bookId": 10376, "start": 161750, "end": 162611, "sha256": "0178cb04aefdd2bb62d115d7a1c99f7fe0d976c63d90d8c6db595cb319c25fb3", "text": "He set upon his ten-mile trip to the only post office for hundreds of miles around. In his shirt pocket, he carried the letter destined, in due season, to reach the heart of American people. His pony, grown old in service, jogged along the dusty road. Memories of other days thronged the wayside, and for the lonely rider transformed all the country. Those days were gone when the Indian youths were taught to be truthful,--to be merciful to the poor. Those days were gone when moral cleanliness was a chief virtue; when public feasts were given in honor of the virtuous girls and young men of the tribe. Untold mischief is now possible through these broken ancient laws. The younger generation were not being properly trained in the high virtues. A slowly starving race was growing mad, and the pitifully weak sold their lands for a pot of porridge.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00562", "bookId": 10376, "start": 162615, "end": 162959, "sha256": "46a19b61928faa9ad63511092a3427592eb244ee83ca6c0f27ff78ecb584c94d", "text": "\"He, he, he! He, he, he!\" he lamented. \"Small Voice Woman, my own relative is being represented as the mother of this strange Blue-Star--the papers were made by two young Indian men who have learned the white man's ways. Why must I be forced to accept the mischief of children? My memory is clear. My reputation for veracity is well known.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00563", "bookId": 10376, "start": 162963, "end": 163555, "sha256": "4a9b1da0c5da4177110335ba4cfe7326755e5099cd36e4adf0c97b1897c112e4", "text": "\"Small Voice Woman lived in my house until her death. She had only one child and it was a _boy_!\" He held his hand over this thumping heart, and was reminded of the letter in his pocket. \"This letter,--what will happen when it reaches my good friend?\" he asked himself. The chieftain rubbed his dim eyes and groaned, \"If only my good friend knew the folly of turning my letter into the hands of bureaucrats! In face of repeated defeat, I am daring once more to send this one letter.\" An inner voice said in his ear, \"And this one letter will share the same fate of the other letters.\"", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00564", "bookId": 10376, "start": 163559, "end": 163915, "sha256": "3365fa378b9ec5a9da5a1451b60cf0cec38610a1dab8246faf57b4fdef9fd8ed", "text": "Startled by the unexpected voice, he jerked upon the bridle reins and brought the drowsy pony to a sudden halt. There was no one near. He found himself a mile from the post office, for the cluster of government buildings, where lived the superintendent, were now in plain sight. His thin frame shook with emotion. He could not go there with his letter.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00565", "bookId": 10376, "start": 163919, "end": 164468, "sha256": "64f1bd212c8c5c6003ede6f071ee83b43c4bf64d48bb769f6b30f029da8cf708", "text": "He dismounted from his pony. His quavering voice chanted a bravery song as he gathered dry grasses and the dead stalks of last year's sunflowers. He built a fire, and crying aloud, for his sorrow was greater than he could bear, he cast the letter into the flames. The fire consumed it. He sent his message on the wings of fire and he believed she would get it. He yet trusted that help would come to his people before it was too late. The pony tossed his head in a readiness to go. He knew he was on the return trip and he was glad to travel.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00566", "bookId": 10376, "start": 164472, "end": 165193, "sha256": "95e24dcb8fb479ae480943194c998b067ea8580aab923f9c724f8530a5bb2878", "text": "The wind which blew so gently at dawn was now increased into a gale as the sun approached the zenith. The chieftain, on his way home, sensed a coming storm. He looked upward to the sky and around in every direction. Behind him, in the distance, he saw a cloud of dust. He saw several horsemen whipping their ponies and riding at great speed. Occasionally he heard their shouts, as if calling after some one. He slackened his pony's pace and frequently looked over his shoulder to see who the riders were advancing in hot haste upon him. He was growing curious. In a short time the riders surrounded him. On their coats shone brass buttons, and on their hats were gold cords and tassels. They were Indian police.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00567", "bookId": 10376, "start": 165197, "end": 165421, "sha256": "e30c563ea23ed1b1e74694507438fc8b5e1aae122c1a0504dc6c5cff0b339db9", "text": "\"Wan!\" he exclaimed, finding himself the object of their chase. It was their foolish ilk who had murdered the great leader, Sitting Bull. \"Pray, what is the joke? Why do young men surround an old man quietly riding home?\"", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00568", "bookId": 10376, "start": 165425, "end": 165764, "sha256": "e8dbf36cd996e24cf6520d0ebf0062937f74e3d4332b42e4d689a7a1c1bd2215", "text": "\"Uncle,\" said the spokesman, \"we are hirelings, as you know. We are sent by the government superintendent to arrest you and take you back with us. The superintendent says you are one of the bad Indians, singing war songs and opposing the government all the time; this morning you were seen trying to set fire to the government agency.\"", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00569", "bookId": 10376, "start": 165768, "end": 165897, "sha256": "32fd0bf6949345d43cbacde583ae329a401a08a732c673dff2f9271a31da310d", "text": "\"Hunhunhe!\" replied the old chief, placing the palm of his hand over his mouth agap in astonishment. \"All this is unbelievable!\"", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00570", "bookId": 10376, "start": 165901, "end": 166528, "sha256": "26e0a89748d9f893922b278edbf31e6a47f69b0a0a83b5789fbaec3ec2a167ca", "text": "The policeman took hold of the pony's bridle and turned the reluctant little beast around. They led it back with them and the old chieftain set unresisting in the saddle. High Flier was taken before the superintendent, who charged him with setting fires to destroy government buildings and found him guilty. Thus Chief High Flier was sent to jail. He had already suffered much during his life. He was the voiceless man of America. And now in his old age he was cast into prison. The chagrin of it all, together with his utter helplessness to defend his own or his people's human rights, weighed heavily upon his spirit.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00571", "bookId": 10376, "start": 166532, "end": 167368, "sha256": "6cfd47105ec7190d2533226b5b44cfc8bd9647f374244fc378f6e755e9f57496", "text": "The foul air of the dingy cell nauseated him who loved the open. He sat wearily down upon the tattered mattress, which lay on the rough board floor. He drew his robe closely about his tall figure, holding it partially over his face, his hands covered within the folds. In profound gloom the gray-haired prisoner sat there, without a stir for long hours and knew not when the day ended and night began. He sat buried in his desperation. His eyes were closed, but he could not sleep. Bread and water in tin receptacles set upon the floor beside him untouched. He was not hungry. Venturesome mice crept out upon the floor and scampered in the dim starlight streaming through the iron bars of the cell window. They squeaked as they dared each other to run across his moccasined feet, but the chieftain neither saw nor heard them.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00572", "bookId": 10376, "start": 167372, "end": 167617, "sha256": "ded671a77efb41d1407e3a20a092a6aa0848296237a3502ff719eb242f3fb109", "text": "A terrific struggle was waged within his being. He fought as he never fought before. Tenaciously he hung upon hope for the day of salvation--that hope hoary with age. Defying all odds against him, he refused to surrender faith in good people.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00573", "bookId": 10376, "start": 167621, "end": 168537, "sha256": "06da439f3c07fbccdc74dede92b22924353c34aaa4c8888d3c362b14c485b46c", "text": "Underneath his blanket, wrapped so closely about him, stole a luminous light. Before his stricken consciousness appeared a vision. Lo, his good friend, the American woman to whom he had sent his messages by fire, now stood there a legion! A vast multitude of women, with uplifted hands, gazed upon a huge stone image. Their upturned faces were eager and very earnest. The stone figure was that of a woman upon the brink of the Great Waters, facing eastward. The myriad living hands remained uplifted till the stone woman began to show signs of life. Very majestically she turned around, and, lo, she smiled upon this great galaxy of American women. She was the Statue of Liberty! It was she, who, though representing human liberty, formerly turned her back upon the American aborigine. Her face was aglow with compassion. Her eyes swept across the outspread continent of America, the home of the red man.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00574", "bookId": 10376, "start": 168541, "end": 168793, "sha256": "b7fde0619cb971a35712a25834da69e0559191f7dbab1206b825e1f67ee9a359", "text": "At this moment her torch flamed brighter and whiter till its radiance reached into the obscure and remote places of the land. Her light of liberty penetrated Indian reservations. A loud shout of joy rose up from the Indians of the earth, everywhere!", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00575", "bookId": 10376, "start": 168797, "end": 169193, "sha256": "678eba3f1cc5419e36d48623b1e6b03b9b3b2fe825c25b48a7cc9071cb3cfc32", "text": "All too soon the picture was gone. Chief High Flier awoke. He lay prostrate on the floor where during the night he had fallen. He rose and took his seat again upon the mattress. Another day was ushered into his life. In his heart lay the secret vision of hope born in the midnight of his sorrows. It enabled him to serve his jail sentence with a mute dignity which baffled those who saw him.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00576", "bookId": 10376, "start": 169197, "end": 169964, "sha256": "34a982a817ed7b2f9f3c8ad6d0bf7488a8c494b2ccac6b10de977142a375f47d", "text": "Finally came the day of his release. There was rejoicing over all the land. The desolate hills that harbored wailing voices nightly now were hushed and still. Only gladness filled the air. A crowd gathered around the jail to greet the chieftain. His son stood at the entrance way, while the guard unlocked the prison door. Serenely quiet, the old Indian chief stepped forth. An unseen stone in his path caused him to stumble slightly, but his son grasped him by the hand and steadied his tottering steps. He led him to a heavy lumber wagon drawn by a small pony team which he had brought to take him home. The people thronged about him--hundreds shook hands with him and went away singing native songs of joy for the safe return to them of their absent one.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00577", "bookId": 10376, "start": 169968, "end": 170662, "sha256": "6f97c7636a527a51c0ff65a50b6534d9b179c5a3fb1182ddf15296747733b7b4", "text": "Among the happy people came Blue-Star Woman's two nephews. Each shook the chieftain's hand. One of them held out an ink pad saying, \"We are glad we were able to get you out of jail. We have great influence with the Indian Bureau in Washington, D.C. When you need help, let us know. Here press your thumb in this pad.\" His companion took from his pocket a document prepared for the old chief's signature, and held it on the wagon wheel for the thumb mark. The chieftain was taken by surprise. He looked into his son's eyes to know the meaning of these two men. \"It is our agreement,\" he explained to his old father. \"I pledged to pay them half of your land if they got you out of jail.\"", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00578", "bookId": 10376, "start": 170666, "end": 170834, "sha256": "165c2eb8df940abd3ee52a8a63749632dddb36b25e6636cc2a9f23a1820f43d5", "text": "The old chieftain sighed, but made no comment. Words were vain. He pressed his indelible thumb mark, his signature it was, upon the deed, and drove home with his son.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00579", "bookId": 10376, "start": 170847, "end": 170880, "sha256": "92bf9343d426ee004c3cb7caa3f283036b2f3626f071d4807d38518427facd12", "text": "* * * * *", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00580", "bookId": 10376, "start": 170886, "end": 170910, "sha256": "979b979e71a7c7b8aa248aa28020e13833fd916f806be102436fe19aa195c187", "text": "AMERICA'S INDIAN PROBLEM", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00581", "bookId": 10376, "start": 170914, "end": 171341, "sha256": "24edad8f2a49e72a05ac59edf78cbe1ab43a797a366bcc2fb0a478e20a3f54e5", "text": "The hospitality of the American aborigine, it is told, saved the early settlers from starvation during the first bleak winters. In commemoration of having been so well received, Newport erected \"a cross as a sign of English dominion.\" With sweet words he quieted the suspicions of Chief Powhatan, his friend. He \"told him that the arms (of the cross) represented Powhatan and himself, and the middle their united league.\"", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00582", "bookId": 10376, "start": 171345, "end": 171801, "sha256": "c111208cbb51280088241251a90224af901a44754c1b1faf51f9ba8d222b8ac7", "text": "DeSoto and his Spaniards were graciously received by the Indian Princess Cofachiqui in the South. While on a sight-seeing tour they entered the ancestral tombs of those Indians. DeSoto \"dipped into the pearls and gave his two joined hands full to each cavalier to make rosaries of, he said, to say prayers for their sins on. We imagine if their prayers were in proportion to their sins they must have spent the most of their time at their devotions.\"", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00583", "bookId": 10376, "start": 171805, "end": 172201, "sha256": "adee1b9713b251f5b8e1245e29e271536b869ae7822c1e261851f4d8c2186300", "text": "It was in this fashion that the old world snatched away the fee in the land of the new. It was in this fashion that America was divided between the powers of Europe and the aborigines were dispossessed of their country. The barbaric rule of might from which the paleface had fled hither for refuge caught up with him again, and in the melee the hospitable native suffered \"legal disability.\"", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00584", "bookId": 10376, "start": 172205, "end": 172808, "sha256": "eff4161566107475b0db1a946a6a81d8046fcac25d80b05badca2f9ad07d0ad2", "text": "History tells that it was from the English and the Spanish our government inherited its legal victims, the American Indians, whom to this day we hold as wards and not as citizens of their own freedom loving land. A long century of dishonor followed this inheritance of somebody's loot. Now the time is at hand when the American Indian shall have his day in court through the help of the women of America. The stain upon America's fair name is to be removed, and the remnant of the Indian nation, suffering from malnutrition, is to number among the invited invisible guests at your dinner tables.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00585", "bookId": 10376, "start": 172812, "end": 173154, "sha256": "88f4d3ac6dacf5f5e0e181d806921f906301a6fb2ee5457ac8445634b1580b92", "text": "In this undertaking there must be cooperation of head, heart and hand. We serve both our own government and a voiceless people within our midst. We would open the door of American opportunity to the red man and encourage him to find his rightful place in our American life. We would remove the barriers that hinder his normal development.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00586", "bookId": 10376, "start": 173158, "end": 173543, "sha256": "c4ad797b2600c97c0b3680ef8e90c95c795ef857185189481f89a40e33bccfb8", "text": "Wardship is no substitute for American citizenship, therefore we seek his enfranchisement. The many treaties made in good faith with the Indian by our government we would like to see equitably settled. By a constructive program we hope to do away with the \"piecemeal legislation\" affecting Indians here and there which has proven an exceedingly expensive and disappointing method.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00587", "bookId": 10376, "start": 173547, "end": 174217, "sha256": "34a082397fc27b6e6042853889aaa0741164a38af5478a4c7395ffb6bd50af0a", "text": "Do you know what _your_ Bureau of Indian Affairs, in Washington, D.C., really is? How it is organized and how it deals with wards of the nation? This is our first study. Let us be informed of facts and then we may formulate our opinions. In the remaining space allowed me I shall quote from the report of the Bureau of Municipal Research, in their investigation of the Indian Bureau, published by them in the September issue, 1915, No. 65, \"Municipal Research,\" 261 Broadway, New York City. This report is just as good for our use today as when it was first made, for very little, if any, change has been made in the administration of Indian Affairs since then.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00588", "bookId": 10376, "start": 174223, "end": 174238, "sha256": "a38f24525b66008762594d015ae1edef8a9454edb00bd2b38d021f835a14e513", "text": "PREFATORY NOTE.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00589", "bookId": 10376, "start": 174242, "end": 174467, "sha256": "1c74435d434067c51af91447b740b187f8ba48610ea522f4e93081a60270b8a9", "text": "\"While this report was printed for the information of members of Congress, it was not made a part of the report of the Joint Commission of Congress, at whose request it was prepared, and is not available for distribution.\"", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00590", "bookId": 10376, "start": 174473, "end": 174551, "sha256": "ab88c84ecbbe4a0061171fbbaa70dfe01632a382baf6a0f1f34743330d195f12", "text": "UNPUBLISHED DIGEST OF STATUTORY AND TREATY PROVISIONS GOVERNING INDIAN FUNDS.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00591", "bookId": 10376, "start": 174555, "end": 175286, "sha256": "11eb7864c3ffde6939abeadd21a46cec0634e6970f1cdac1ba55c90d099b3b8f", "text": "\"When in 1913 inquiry was made into the accounting and reporting methods of the Indian Office by the President's Commission on Economy and Efficiency, it was found there was no digest of the provisions of statutes and treaties with Indian tribes governing Indian funds and the trust obligations of the government. Such a digest was therefore prepared. It was not completed, however, until after Congress adjourned March 4, 1913. Then, instead of being published, it found its way into the pigeon-holes in the Interior Department and the Civil Service Commission, where the working papers and unpublished reports of the commission were ordered stored. The digest itself would make a document of about three hundred pages.\"", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00592", "bookId": 10376, "start": 175292, "end": 175328, "sha256": "ffd0392d5b0f6bb5ca59b4b1fd55e319834d12d52affff02ee047ba38168bd52", "text": "UNPUBLISHED OUTLINE OF ORGANIZATION.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00593", "bookId": 10376, "start": 175332, "end": 176365, "sha256": "87d6d9f16977f7055da02a1dac5b2d989cf6b74526a8810054cc31d9839d97c9", "text": "\"By order of the President, the commission, in cooperation with various persons assigned to this work, also prepared at great pains a complete analysis of the organization of every department, office and commission of the federal government as of July 1, 1912. This represented a complete picture of the government as a whole in summary outline; it also represented an accurate picture of every administrative bureau, office, and of every operative or field station, and showed in his working relation each of the 500,000 officers and employes in the public service. The report in typewritten form was one of the working documents used in the preparation of the 'budget' submitted by President Taft to Congress in February, 1913. The 'budget' was ordered printed by Congress, but the cost thereof was to be charged against the President's appropriation. There was not enough money remaining in this appropriation to warrant the printing of the report on organization. It, therefore, also found repose in a dark closet.\"", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00594", "bookId": 10376, "start": 176371, "end": 176417, "sha256": "b501218404f5e76208b63b579b8993d0a3daf350f742aca44db0c748181ec03a", "text": "TOO VOLUMINOUS TO BE MADE PART OF THIS SERIES.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00595", "bookId": 10376, "start": 176421, "end": 177090, "sha256": "56d1b5f594eaed993ffe513ece302544750617fd5742beaf7189e6c475d093b8", "text": "\"Congress alone could make the necessary provision for the publication of these materials; the documents are too voluminous to be printed as a part of this series, even if official permission were granted. It is again suggested, however, that the data might be made readily accessible and available to students by placing in manuscript division of the Library of Congress one copy of the unpublished reports and working papers of the President's Commission on Economy and Efficiency. This action was recommended by the commission, but the only official action taken was to order that the materials be placed under lock and key in the Civil Service Commission.\"", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00596", "bookId": 10376, "start": 177096, "end": 177132, "sha256": "68009b898664b1482715407c96cf0c219604867b96898a0b087576c4c24003d8", "text": "NEED FOR SPECIAL CARE IN MANAGEMENT.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00597", "bookId": 10376, "start": 177136, "end": 177780, "sha256": "5e84d9bda6491af48763750e44fb5e6e5ba9a77e0de9bef4c843698baa1828e1", "text": "\"The need for special care in the management of Indian Affairs lies in the fact that in theory of law the Indian has not the rights of a citizen. He has not even the rights of a foreign resident. The Indian individually does not have access to the courts; he can not individually appeal to the administrative and judicial branches of the public service for the enforcement of his rights. He himself is considered as a ward of the United States. His property and funds are held in trust. * * * The Indian Office is the agency of the government for administering both the guardianship of the Indian and the trusteeship of his properties.\"", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00598", "bookId": 10376, "start": 177786, "end": 177828, "sha256": "8ae78502572b86732c3767f8af0657c75feb1dc384171948c53ff596c5986961", "text": "CONDITIONS ADVERSE TO GOOD ADMINISTRATION.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00599", "bookId": 10376, "start": 177832, "end": 178687, "sha256": "f91143ded16a19c0e9d3ac3a05f9d36ca082ba76b14f1c5eb4330b62903d5f5a", "text": "\"The legal status of the Indian and his property is the condition which makes it incumbent on the government to assume the obligation of protector. What is of special interest in this inquiry is to note the conditions under which the Indian Office has been required to conduct its business. In no other relation are the agents of the government under conditions more adverse to efficient administration. The influence which make for the infidelity to trusteeship, for subversion of properties and funds, for the violation of physical and moral welfare have been powerful. The opportunities and inducements are much greater than those which have operated with ruinous effect on other branches of public service and on the trustees and officers of our great private corporations. In many instances, the integrity of these have been broken down.\"", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00600", "bookId": 10376, "start": 178693, "end": 178725, "sha256": "307a6ef032cde916f4c7aed18f049f434179213783bf1623a98d99fedbe565d5", "text": "GOVERNMENT MACHINERY INADEQUATE.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00601", "bookId": 10376, "start": 178729, "end": 179423, "sha256": "f63a26478c950983f266f82a716e3d4bc5391b0318e7772276a427914968e0b1", "text": "\"* * * Behind the sham protection, which operated largely as a blind to publicity, have been at all times great wealth in the form of Indian funds to be subverted; valuable lands, mines, oil fields, and other natural resources to be despoiled or appropriated to the use of the trader; and large profits to be made by those dealing with trustees who were animated by motives of gain. This has been the situation in which the Indian Service has been for more than a century--the Indian during all this time having his rights and properties to greater or less extent neglected; the guardian, the government, in many instances, passive to conditions which have contributed to his undoing.\"", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00602", "bookId": 10376, "start": 179429, "end": 179457, "sha256": "aaf00f0d4741d451112a69e683e33dab7b550b5e795ada96c90dbdecd3c14db3", "text": "OPPORTUNITIES STILL PRESENT.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00603", "bookId": 10376, "start": 179461, "end": 180120, "sha256": "e6f03b72518f72e3ac6a78e351a5e5505caa9110a14d9b6db6a33a69e92787b8", "text": "\"And still, due to the increasing value of his remaining estate, there is left an inducement to fraud, corruption, and institutional incompetence almost beyond the possibility of comprehension. The properties and funds of the Indians today are estimated at not less than one thousand millions of dollars. There is still a great obligation to be discharged, which must run through many years. The government itself owes many millions of dollars for Indian moneys which it has converted to its own use, and it is of interest to note that it does not know and the officers do not know what is the present condition of the Indian funds in their keeping.\"", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00604", "bookId": 10376, "start": 180126, "end": 180142, "sha256": "d4f1a68f62c29b8e32a287a8586262f642256cbe54aa50f6858e482bd37afb2f", "text": "PRIMARY DEFECTS.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00605", "bookId": 10376, "start": 180146, "end": 180989, "sha256": "a42fd19d4f8bd891f2e859f4007df5fc2b2e2b4a82d316c3221cf4e3bd20f31a", "text": "\"* * * The story of the mismanagement of Indian Affairs is only a chapter in the history of the mismanagement of corporate trusts. The Indian has been the victim of the same kind of neglect, the same abortive processes, the same malpractices as have the life insurance policyholders, the bank depositor, the industrial and transportation shareholder. The form of organization of the trusteeship has been one which does not provide for independent audit and supervision. The institutional methods and practices have been such that they do not provide either a fact basis for official judgment or publicity of facts which, if made available, would supply evidence of infidelity. In the operation of this machinery, there has not been the means provided for effective official scrutiny and the public conscience could not be reached.\"", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00606", "bookId": 10376, "start": 180995, "end": 181027, "sha256": "b6ac0948b208b56832564caf50bb6598b6988618e72323b93bb43b9f62ed04ce", "text": "AMPLE PRECEDENTS TO BE FOLLOWED.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00607", "bookId": 10376, "start": 181031, "end": 181845, "sha256": "27b61eef79d31f0a67784983bb9b4b358e1f8f49ddb0a05daa205b518ffa8024", "text": "\"Precedents to be followed are ample. In private corporate trusts that have been mismanaged a basis of appeal has been found only when some favorable circumstance has brought to light conditions so shocking as to cause those people who have possessed political power, as a matter of self-protection, to demand a thorough reorganization and revision of methods. The same motive has lain back of legislation for the Indian. But the motive to political action has been less effective, for the reason that in the past the Indians who have acted in self-protection have either been killed or placed in confinement. All the machinery of government has been set to work to repress rather than to provide adequate means for justly dealing with a large population which had no political rights.\"--Edict Magazine.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00608", "bookId": 10376, "start": 181858, "end": 181891, "sha256": "92bf9343d426ee004c3cb7caa3f283036b2f3626f071d4807d38518427facd12", "text": "* * * * *", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00609", "bookId": 10376, "start": 181897, "end": 181932, "sha256": "5c586ed313046bd9d49dc2768ea2655386d12b5d49bc143d20ecc3ef4536a143", "text": "_This Book should be in every home_", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00610", "bookId": 10376, "start": 181936, "end": 181954, "sha256": "45ec753aebb22045268b743dff0913e04c33bd41431eb4320eca8b3bbe0a39ac", "text": "Old Indian Legends", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00611", "bookId": 10376, "start": 181960, "end": 182004, "sha256": "fe84acdaf5873b52bcc77f0a48407903883ec0e8c97801f8f4962083484024a5", "text": "25 Seminole Avenue, Forest Hill, L.I., N.Y.,", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00612", "bookId": 10376, "start": 182008, "end": 182024, "sha256": "710f555c53eb6a05b0da3c06ac9400effa179402f4675ae8b320b34f60b530aa", "text": "August 25, 1919.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00613", "bookId": 10376, "start": 182028, "end": 182044, "sha256": "43503bc132deefb8005dc3e25272a36a6d2ac20aaddec30890807363d74b267c", "text": "Dear Zitkala-Sa:", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00614", "bookId": 10376, "start": 182048, "end": 182245, "sha256": "9f1863b68bef57167dada21ae479d9df83ea81000bea8a58629504c6d15cf135", "text": "I thank you for your book on Indian legends. I have read them with exquisite pleasure. Like all folk tales they mirror the child life of the world. There is in them a note of wild, strange music.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00615", "bookId": 10376, "start": 182249, "end": 182629, "sha256": "0300634ffe18454261e6a05a75e9b9c114b59c9a5c0cd1dbd42d92428b01dec8", "text": "You have translated them into our language in a way that will keep them alive in the hearts of men. They are so young, so fresh, so full of the odors of the virgin forest untrod by the foot of white man! The thoughts of your people seem dipped in the colors of the rainbow, palpitant with the play of winds, eerie with the thrill of a spirit-world unseen but felt and feared.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00616", "bookId": 10376, "start": 182633, "end": 182904, "sha256": "ffe4b9c0f2ac0cb27b906c54ac9dd3ba2d710b274846d100c3b775d6dd8b57b4", "text": "Your tales of birds, beast, tree and spirit can not but hold captive the hearts of all children. They will kindle in their young minds that eternal wonder which creates poetry and keeps life fresh and eager. I wish you and your little book of Indian tales all success.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00617", "bookId": 10376, "start": 182908, "end": 182919, "sha256": "ba45db0c1db94e1c01f12ea9cf6669c0b8cc6f51b03a27ec916b252fc15b7b2b", "text": "I am always", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00618", "bookId": 10376, "start": 182923, "end": 182945, "sha256": "52107b5e6bd7e35915a4038719570f80100a54dd02e76a4f22a5c35c504c5421", "text": "Sincerely your friend,", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00619", "bookId": 10376, "start": 182949, "end": 182971, "sha256": "41f372149d67298d252a7e7d542ab6afde35654e8f12693ac158b505883dac65", "text": "(Signed) HELEN KELLER.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00620", "bookId": 10376, "start": 182987, "end": 183053, "sha256": "c477c1750113ac55fa5e35c8e55c3b532724f7df6fc521507192731f3b43310a", "text": "*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK AMERICAN INDIAN STORIES ***", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00621", "bookId": 10376, "start": 183067, "end": 183150, "sha256": "1d51416f58ccf2e0cbf9d6c33fc0c63852bee02e894080cc5737bee02089024e", "text": "Updated editions will replace the previous one—the old editions will be renamed.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG10376.B00622", "bookId": 10376, "start": 183154, "end": 184361, "sha256": "c0760ed3642c948c0431f2de78b6dd0234aacd2ed8de5c62d642c1a292d3b83d", "text": "Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without permission and without paying copyright royalties. Special rules, set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to copying and distributing Project Gutenberg™ electronic works to protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG™ concept and trademark. Project Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you charge for an eBook, except by following the terms of the trademark license, including paying royalties for use of the Project Gutenberg trademark. If you do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the trademark license is very easy. You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and research. Project Gutenberg eBooks may be modified and printed and given away—you may do practically ANYTHING in the United States with eBooks not protected by U.S. copyright law. 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If you are not located in the United States, you will have to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this eBook.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00003", "bookId": 33504, "start": 498, "end": 602, "sha256": "9f3bb99e2e6418b56ff8dc355f4a59c07756f25ceb76a6f622ae2774bf95bab1", "text": "Title: Opticks or, A treatise of the reflections, refractions, inflections and colours of light", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00004", "bookId": 33504, "start": 606, "end": 626, "sha256": "2555482701f18fee82b7186ed5c2bcec8704cda3a795d09265164da34dff4b2f", "text": "Author: Isaac Newton", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; 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MDCCXXX.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00022", "bookId": 33504, "start": 1421, "end": 1451, "sha256": "cc9f3bddb8bbbbed0f05a7a506ad54ce4c122593e466e2019628eee1a128aa2f", "text": "TITLE PAGE OF THE 1730 EDITION", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00023", "bookId": 33504, "start": 1461, "end": 1494, "sha256": "44e3408a1ee441df840e4650480b5cb2e3ae2081fca92684790e4ac5240673f7", "text": "SIR ISAAC NEWTON'S ADVERTISEMENTS", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00024", "bookId": 33504, "start": 1504, "end": 1519, "sha256": "cace248fd5323e0f6ef7c8e53e225ab41d17fb57616667842674087b86a46063", "text": "Advertisement I", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00025", "bookId": 33504, "start": 1525, "end": 2489, "sha256": "46137cc9821502e061bb52b8b1260a0beeae83942d885b94400e84a376ba728b", "text": "_Part of the ensuing Discourse about Light was written at the Desire of some Gentlemen of the_ Royal-Society, _in the Year 1675, and then sent to their Secretary, and read at their Meetings, and the rest was added about twelve Years after to complete the Theory; except the third Book, and the last Proposition of the Second, which were since put together out of scatter'd Papers. To avoid being engaged in Disputes about these Matters, I have hitherto delayed the printing, and should still have delayed it, had not the Importunity of Friends prevailed upon me. If any other Papers writ on this Subject are got out of my Hands they are imperfect, and were perhaps written before I had tried all the Experiments here set down, and fully satisfied my self about the Laws of Refractions and Composition of Colours. I have here publish'd what I think proper to come abroad, wishing that it may not be translated into another Language without my Consent._", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00026", "bookId": 33504, "start": 2493, "end": 3074, "sha256": "7b6a0c1eb2cad0fa1d86c57aa7560dcf076909b8c07520bd09694dcfd2e7b10c", "text": "_The Crowns of Colours, which sometimes appear about the Sun and Moon, I have endeavoured to give an Account of; but for want of sufficient Observations leave that Matter to be farther examined. The Subject of the Third Book I have also left imperfect, not having tried all the Experiments which I intended when I was about these Matters, nor repeated some of those which I did try, until I had satisfied my self about all their Circumstances. To communicate what I have tried, and leave the rest to others for farther Enquiry, is all my Design in publishing these Papers._", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00027", "bookId": 33504, "start": 3078, "end": 3849, "sha256": "80d2f213cd3558ded7978f22618140812f877fd62e6ef5732380651bacd652f1", "text": "_In a Letter written to Mr._ Leibnitz _in the year 1679, and published by Dr._ Wallis, _I mention'd a Method by which I had found some general Theorems about squaring Curvilinear Figures, or comparing them with the Conic Sections, or other the simplest Figures with which they may be compared. And some Years ago I lent out a Manuscript containing such Theorems, and having since met with some Things copied out of it, I have on this Occasion made it publick, prefixing to it an_ Introduction, _and subjoining a_ Scholium _concerning that Method. And I have joined with it another small Tract concerning the Curvilinear Figures of the Second Kind, which was also written many Years ago, and made known to some Friends, who have solicited the making it publick._", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00028", "bookId": 33504, "start": 3893, "end": 3900, "sha256": "534f2cd90693ecf616f5f4ff5a58e472838b76ab9cf636851a53279babe20885", "text": "_I. N._", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00029", "bookId": 33504, "start": 3904, "end": 3918, "sha256": "fd053312ba8356a73b70721ebc4476d414ad8bc045f58c67b2b21d7567a041f5", "text": "April 1, 1704.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00030", "bookId": 33504, "start": 3924, "end": 3940, "sha256": "7638e387bce8e904b07cbe4bfbc16d894e51bdda85f85b2e97d8654c5f10abf1", "text": "Advertisement II", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00031", "bookId": 33504, "start": 3944, "end": 4402, "sha256": "0d44631ef277287b78b4cbdeda91c83f524173c49b3b8c06d5468aa73c9f9c41", "text": "_In this Second Edition of these Opticks I have omitted the Mathematical Tracts publish'd at the End of the former Edition, as not belonging to the Subject. And at the End of the Third Book I have added some Questions. And to shew that I do not take Gravity for an essential Property of Bodies, I have added one Question concerning its Cause, chusing to propose it by way of a Question, because I am not yet satisfied about it for want of Experiments._", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00032", "bookId": 33504, "start": 4446, "end": 4453, "sha256": "534f2cd90693ecf616f5f4ff5a58e472838b76ab9cf636851a53279babe20885", "text": "_I. 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Since Sir_ Isaac's Lectiones Opticae, _which he publickly read in the University of_ Cambridge _in the Years 1669, 1670, and 1671, are lately printed, it has been thought proper to make at the bottom of the Pages several Citations from thence, where may be found the Demonstrations, which the Author omitted in these_ Opticks.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00036", "bookId": 33504, "start": 5049, "end": 5082, "sha256": "92bf9343d426ee004c3cb7caa3f283036b2f3626f071d4807d38518427facd12", "text": "* * * * *", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00037", "bookId": 33504, "start": 5086, "end": 5289, "sha256": "d3a1bd9f35c1d976cce6c784e5488ae073520c6e76042adbd311e2dc201be8a9", "text": "Transcriber's Note: There are several greek letters used in the descriptions of the illustrations. They are signified by [Greek: letter]. Square roots are noted by the letters sqrt before the equation.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00038", "bookId": 33504, "start": 5300, "end": 5333, "sha256": "92bf9343d426ee004c3cb7caa3f283036b2f3626f071d4807d38518427facd12", "text": "* * * * *", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00039", "bookId": 33504, "start": 5337, "end": 5362, "sha256": "dfd67b5cfc30b2232bc58efea6d5479f776b1d5934035d91db509bccad6e9465", "text": "THE FIRST BOOK OF OPTICKS", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00040", "bookId": 33504, "start": 5372, "end": 5381, "sha256": "4568825658b8e534045609feded47bbe811b0553efb22ae2e965bab14c662e0e", "text": "_PART I._", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00041", "bookId": 33504, "start": 5387, "end": 5597, "sha256": "07a9cb247d4bd51d40f244f7b9b7f63e9f0d3fd2516053741b405eec8cd859a3", "text": "My Design in this Book is not to explain the Properties of Light by Hypotheses, but to propose and prove them by Reason and Experiments: In order to which I shall premise the following Definitions and Axioms.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00042", "bookId": 33504, "start": 5607, "end": 5620, "sha256": "d20bd53aa6a1d108dd08b219704fa39e4ffbb6a77cbb3201d71143fe52b8ed85", "text": "_DEFINITIONS_", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00043", "bookId": 33504, "start": 5626, "end": 5635, "sha256": "31025c420cc513d670ac21d57fbb9683cff716442bcca176f879a923157a2c55", "text": "DEFIN. I.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00044", "bookId": 33504, "start": 5639, "end": 6376, "sha256": "c7445b102fae0631d38d314308795f9f8ef4ab9b60532fc088f8449c9fda76be", "text": "_By the Rays of Light I understand its least Parts, and those as well Successive in the same Lines, as Contemporary in several Lines._ For it is manifest that Light consists of Parts, both Successive and Contemporary; because in the same place you may stop that which comes one moment, and let pass that which comes presently after; and in the same time you may stop it in any one place, and let it pass in any other. For that part of Light which is stopp'd cannot be the same with that which is let pass. The least Light or part of Light, which may be stopp'd alone without the rest of the Light, or propagated alone, or do or suffer any thing alone, which the rest of the Light doth not or suffers not, I call a Ray of Light.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00045", "bookId": 33504, "start": 6382, "end": 6392, "sha256": "61a795d6a2647b3e2c88472e930b9c0aa9ba010c8ff3f9f58099b421ce0bbe2f", "text": "DEFIN. II.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00046", "bookId": 33504, "start": 6396, "end": 7390, "sha256": "5430708e6e27053bfccb96224a63c9a6fc311f331cee569228b9eeb8362bc484", "text": "_Refrangibility of the Rays of Light, is their Disposition to be refracted or turned out of their Way in passing out of one transparent Body or Medium into another. And a greater or less Refrangibility of Rays, is their Disposition to be turned more or less out of their Way in like Incidences on the same Medium._ Mathematicians usually consider the Rays of Light to be Lines reaching from the luminous Body to the Body illuminated, and the refraction of those Rays to be the bending or breaking of those lines in their passing out of one Medium into another. And thus may Rays and Refractions be considered, if Light be propagated in an instant. But by an Argument taken from the AEquations of the times of the Eclipses of _Jupiter's Satellites_, it seems that Light is propagated in time, spending in its passage from the Sun to us about seven Minutes of time: And therefore I have chosen to define Rays and Refractions in such general terms as may agree to Light in both cases.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00047", "bookId": 33504, "start": 7396, "end": 7407, "sha256": "8aec648e60e95e8e132d57f00b892469de690cd0caecb35199a746a2b6f23996", "text": "DEFIN. III.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00048", "bookId": 33504, "start": 7411, "end": 7989, "sha256": "db3eeac2e4022f54d1e4ef0790460f85a63e666f116d3dba0fdf1fadc9e8909a", "text": "_Reflexibility of Rays, is their Disposition to be reflected or turned back into the same Medium from any other Medium upon whose Surface they fall. And Rays are more or less reflexible, which are turned back more or less easily._ As if Light pass out of a Glass into Air, and by being inclined more and more to the common Surface of the Glass and Air, begins at length to be totally reflected by that Surface; those sorts of Rays which at like Incidences are reflected most copiously, or by inclining the Rays begin soonest to be totally reflected, are most reflexible.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00049", "bookId": 33504, "start": 7995, "end": 8005, "sha256": "e03acdc6c4cfedf6ffde3bf93698cd4c7ae87a49d62fcbcd52b26695109ce062", "text": "DEFIN. IV.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00050", "bookId": 33504, "start": 8009, "end": 8194, "sha256": "f217f14673fb5bc50dc2b85a6077cb3ba079a8fd7b9da351282137a83edee726", "text": "_The Angle of Incidence is that Angle, which the Line described by the incident Ray contains with the Perpendicular to the reflecting or refracting Surface at the Point of Incidence._", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00051", "bookId": 33504, "start": 8200, "end": 8209, "sha256": "5d3ab972b70b640b74f4f6304301edef43c7ffc03b833db74934f90813f0f9a1", "text": "DEFIN. V.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00052", "bookId": 33504, "start": 8213, "end": 8428, "sha256": "ad9893bdca4299135b19647af8b618d7013571a299f35541d1ecfa47a1a592ab", "text": "_The Angle of Reflexion or Refraction, is the Angle which the line described by the reflected or refracted Ray containeth with the Perpendicular to the reflecting or refracting Surface at the Point of Incidence._", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00053", "bookId": 33504, "start": 8434, "end": 8444, "sha256": "083835fe4d594dd2970011395c189bbd46be6849c8674507378c2c95d16beaa0", "text": "DEFIN. VI.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00054", "bookId": 33504, "start": 8448, "end": 8570, "sha256": "7630f0111a89ba7206e1cec4c5842a1ac8e07e98c396ac8b3452d016fc14046a", "text": "_The Sines of Incidence, Reflexion, and Refraction, are the Sines of the Angles of Incidence, Reflexion, and Refraction._", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00055", "bookId": 33504, "start": 8576, "end": 8586, "sha256": "05b3149f385731a534182571a9c34833c3d3b1ca77d68b1b3dbb0e29705776ce", "text": "DEFIN. VII", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00056", "bookId": 33504, "start": 8590, "end": 9023, "sha256": "90e73c3984af2a3e48cb9005a6dceb05e4df2564fe61ff2e1e446e68efdad8bd", "text": "_The Light whose Rays are all alike Refrangible, I call Simple, Homogeneal and Similar; and that whose Rays are some more Refrangible than others, I call Compound, Heterogeneal and Dissimilar._ The former Light I call Homogeneal, not because I would affirm it so in all respects, but because the Rays which agree in Refrangibility, agree at least in all those their other Properties which I consider in the following Discourse.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00057", "bookId": 33504, "start": 9029, "end": 9041, "sha256": "29bc1cf735309c190cca76bad67c7a33a3eccc840194800fb768700b6b78ed3f", "text": "DEFIN. VIII.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00058", "bookId": 33504, "start": 9045, "end": 9295, "sha256": "54e22aa9322c5aee4ea8166f7da7b46bcf90bca044c6430caea85ea45974aef6", "text": "_The Colours of Homogeneal Lights, I call Primary, Homogeneal and Simple; and those of Heterogeneal Lights, Heterogeneal and Compound._ For these are always compounded of the colours of Homogeneal Lights; as will appear in the following Discourse.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00059", "bookId": 33504, "start": 9305, "end": 9314, "sha256": "1e28f6a6951658365c0846ea4cbe1557147b3e001a2ad1790e498595ad471166", "text": "_AXIOMS._", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00060", "bookId": 33504, "start": 9320, "end": 9326, "sha256": "fe8a62a9e7aa41958a33dd10dfefdb9f633ad843e049d9c463d42b7b878b5869", "text": "AX. I.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00061", "bookId": 33504, "start": 9330, "end": 9431, "sha256": "ec9771ce760e3bca0b27628744a3318a649f63aad650f77249ecdbca9809a0db", "text": "_The Angles of Reflexion and Refraction, lie in one and the same Plane with the Angle of Incidence._", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00062", "bookId": 33504, "start": 9437, "end": 9444, "sha256": "c18e3125fc04af6079e8226cb8c419109dcf89611ca58a662139c32f86db5ecd", "text": "AX. II.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00063", "bookId": 33504, "start": 9448, "end": 9508, "sha256": "99e9330a4f8c0b9d485ed6ba584319c09426229f4128b6fe370048874df56823", "text": "_The Angle of Reflexion is equal to the Angle of Incidence._", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00064", "bookId": 33504, "start": 9514, "end": 9522, "sha256": "8cbbc95e92964d3eab2eba96d6bf2844b33bc897d86a4c03372019bef467116e", "text": "AX. III.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00065", "bookId": 33504, "start": 9526, "end": 9677, "sha256": "a01270cacdb2966e6e5a3c4fc253f463da3617f52b5e84a1ca4980e6d001c34f", "text": "_If the refracted Ray be returned directly back to the Point of Incidence, it shall be refracted into the Line before described by the incident Ray._", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00066", "bookId": 33504, "start": 9683, "end": 9690, "sha256": "6c5ecb07fccf57d8af298b647464465b690d1e5320e8e36953afa02eaa67838b", "text": "AX. IV.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00067", "bookId": 33504, "start": 9694, "end": 9862, "sha256": "e3861ae7f46300312c374767fb7ae5a84523f9bcfd1cfd6909d96b577e32076b", "text": "_Refraction out of the rarer Medium into the denser, is made towards the Perpendicular; that is, so that the Angle of Refraction be less than the Angle of Incidence._", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00068", "bookId": 33504, "start": 9868, "end": 9874, "sha256": "d4bb4b677d544ccf13a4b4ae723bc5d45e3545f774fa76e00342791e583df7ba", "text": "AX. V.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00069", "bookId": 33504, "start": 9878, "end": 9982, "sha256": "058f8b3c4ef52aab40e15e9b8246f15ee6337da6c33c999e2074050b8cb02a3f", "text": "_The Sine of Incidence is either accurately or very nearly in a given Ratio to the Sine of Refraction._", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00070", "bookId": 33504, "start": 9986, "end": 10524, "sha256": "3da620a91e595e46515850031f97c79787272d62e8fe427aa91a4258be768141", "text": "Whence if that Proportion be known in any one Inclination of the incident Ray, 'tis known in all the Inclinations, and thereby the Refraction in all cases of Incidence on the same refracting Body may be determined. Thus if the Refraction be made out of Air into Water, the Sine of Incidence of the red Light is to the Sine of its Refraction as 4 to 3. If out of Air into Glass, the Sines are as 17 to 11. In Light of other Colours the Sines have other Proportions: but the difference is so little that it need seldom be considered.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00071", "bookId": 33504, "start": 10528, "end": 10550, "sha256": "2780ec5eb3fb1210140486ee0b8179e56ec6476179d520a71b0c6a04f1ce336d", "text": "[Illustration: FIG. 1]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00072", "bookId": 33504, "start": 10554, "end": 12146, "sha256": "bee069a87eb1f7f16948634ab9e016284f124c753a34d40329f12a094e04c571", "text": "Suppose therefore, that RS [in _Fig._ 1.] represents the Surface of stagnating Water, and that C is the point of Incidence in which any Ray coming in the Air from A in the Line AC is reflected or refracted, and I would know whither this Ray shall go after Reflexion or Refraction: I erect upon the Surface of the Water from the point of Incidence the Perpendicular CP and produce it downwards to Q, and conclude by the first Axiom, that the Ray after Reflexion and Refraction, shall be found somewhere in the Plane of the Angle of Incidence ACP produced. I let fall therefore upon the Perpendicular CP the Sine of Incidence AD; and if the reflected Ray be desired, I produce AD to B so that DB be equal to AD, and draw CB. For this Line CB shall be the reflected Ray; the Angle of Reflexion BCP and its Sine BD being equal to the Angle and Sine of Incidence, as they ought to be by the second Axiom, But if the refracted Ray be desired, I produce AD to H, so that DH may be to AD as the Sine of Refraction to the Sine of Incidence, that is, (if the Light be red) as 3 to 4; and about the Center C and in the Plane ACP with the Radius CA describing a Circle ABE, I draw a parallel to the Perpendicular CPQ, the Line HE cutting the Circumference in E, and joining CE, this Line CE shall be the Line of the refracted Ray. For if EF be let fall perpendicularly on the Line PQ, this Line EF shall be the Sine of Refraction of the Ray CE, the Angle of Refraction being ECQ; and this Sine EF is equal to DH, and consequently in Proportion to the Sine of Incidence AD as 3 to 4.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00073", "bookId": 33504, "start": 12150, "end": 13338, "sha256": "51077a69a22bb30793f0c41fd2a78ac7f9cbfc0159e1e81350f963115d769b3a", "text": "In like manner, if there be a Prism of Glass (that is, a Glass bounded with two Equal and Parallel Triangular ends, and three plain and well polished Sides, which meet in three Parallel Lines running from the three Angles of one end to the three Angles of the other end) and if the Refraction of the Light in passing cross this Prism be desired: Let ACB [in _Fig._ 2.] represent a Plane cutting this Prism transversly to its three Parallel lines or edges there where the Light passeth through it, and let DE be the Ray incident upon the first side of the Prism AC where the Light goes into the Glass; and by putting the Proportion of the Sine of Incidence to the Sine of Refraction as 17 to 11 find EF the first refracted Ray. Then taking this Ray for the Incident Ray upon the second side of the Glass BC where the Light goes out, find the next refracted Ray FG by putting the Proportion of the Sine of Incidence to the Sine of Refraction as 11 to 17. For if the Sine of Incidence out of Air into Glass be to the Sine of Refraction as 17 to 11, the Sine of Incidence out of Glass into Air must on the contrary be to the Sine of Refraction as 11 to 17, by the third Axiom.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00074", "bookId": 33504, "start": 13342, "end": 13365, "sha256": "cbabaa1835202203dbb317cace993b33281ae5b35cc94ccbff9525c3ee46a886", "text": "[Illustration: FIG. 2.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00075", "bookId": 33504, "start": 13369, "end": 14199, "sha256": "23173cece4ff98d30fdbfe87dbf3fbbe5c522daa3a211764b875251e848150e5", "text": "Much after the same manner, if ACBD [in _Fig._ 3.] represent a Glass spherically convex on both sides (usually called a _Lens_, such as is a Burning-glass, or Spectacle-glass, or an Object-glass of a Telescope) and it be required to know how Light falling upon it from any lucid point Q shall be refracted, let QM represent a Ray falling upon any point M of its first spherical Surface ACB, and by erecting a Perpendicular to the Glass at the point M, find the first refracted Ray MN by the Proportion of the Sines 17 to 11. Let that Ray in going out of the Glass be incident upon N, and then find the second refracted Ray N_q_ by the Proportion of the Sines 11 to 17. And after the same manner may the Refraction be found when the Lens is convex on one side and plane or concave on the other, or concave on both sides.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00076", "bookId": 33504, "start": 14203, "end": 14226, "sha256": "93987a544b734349ca441eca4eff23520b6c1db7c42d972e33a01c61140917ae", "text": "[Illustration: FIG. 3.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00077", "bookId": 33504, "start": 14232, "end": 14239, "sha256": "af6d9ebe4112265ad949f6b0974ea0ba82038c02931fc5ca9ec6ca3da9d724d3", "text": "AX. VI.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00078", "bookId": 33504, "start": 14243, "end": 14736, "sha256": "413aafc53832ddde30ced3bd7da1bb8c04162d88c3f577c570e590791c451dac", "text": "_Homogeneal Rays which flow from several Points of any Object, and fall perpendicularly or almost perpendicularly on any reflecting or refracting Plane or spherical Surface, shall afterwards diverge from so many other Points, or be parallel to so many other Lines, or converge to so many other Points, either accurately or without any sensible Error. And the same thing will happen, if the Rays be reflected or refracted successively by two or three or more Plane or Spherical Surfaces._", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00079", "bookId": 33504, "start": 14740, "end": 15007, "sha256": "8e1f87c7bc6cf5945ee5aaefcf7365194131125d479c7f0e58cdea6850d34f77", "text": "The Point from which Rays diverge or to which they converge may be called their _Focus_. And the Focus of the incident Rays being given, that of the reflected or refracted ones may be found by finding the Refraction of any two Rays, as above; or more readily thus.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00080", "bookId": 33504, "start": 15011, "end": 15487, "sha256": "bf414b94159e13bf9b981587232bed5087c37e3240b9ab87a24e69f49decbeb1", "text": "_Cas._ 1. Let ACB [in _Fig._ 4.] be a reflecting or refracting Plane, and Q the Focus of the incident Rays, and Q_q_C a Perpendicular to that Plane. And if this Perpendicular be produced to _q_, so that _q_C be equal to QC, the Point _q_ shall be the Focus of the reflected Rays: Or if _q_C be taken on the same side of the Plane with QC, and in proportion to QC as the Sine of Incidence to the Sine of Refraction, the Point _q_ shall be the Focus of the refracted Rays.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00081", "bookId": 33504, "start": 15491, "end": 15514, "sha256": "48da5aab500d9907956435b8da8de09fb6154e2fe75c32e0e9060489a1f25106", "text": "[Illustration: FIG. 4.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00082", "bookId": 33504, "start": 15518, "end": 15903, "sha256": "dcd6e3eef99e81087050b33565f045c0bb58830bf31d85329a0bc2fb50b23f81", "text": "_Cas._ 2. Let ACB [in _Fig._ 5.] be the reflecting Surface of any Sphere whose Centre is E. Bisect any Radius thereof, (suppose EC) in T, and if in that Radius on the same side the Point T you take the Points Q and _q_, so that TQ, TE, and T_q_, be continual Proportionals, and the Point Q be the Focus of the incident Rays, the Point _q_ shall be the Focus of the reflected ones.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00083", "bookId": 33504, "start": 15907, "end": 15930, "sha256": "a2e8051d643316eaab5617dedf8b5aa4a5a1d24917f26d3d62894cda8b0e466a", "text": "[Illustration: FIG. 5.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00084", "bookId": 33504, "start": 15934, "end": 16529, "sha256": "3d9dccd52d4569bbc37dbbae1b9d8342102d04574101646a7989588f23a10373", "text": "_Cas._ 3. Let ACB [in _Fig._ 6.] be the refracting Surface of any Sphere whose Centre is E. In any Radius thereof EC produced both ways take ET and C_t_ equal to one another and severally in such Proportion to that Radius as the lesser of the Sines of Incidence and Refraction hath to the difference of those Sines. And then if in the same Line you find any two Points Q and _q_, so that TQ be to ET as E_t_ to _tq_, taking _tq_ the contrary way from _t_ which TQ lieth from T, and if the Point Q be the Focus of any incident Rays, the Point _q_ shall be the Focus of the refracted ones.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00085", "bookId": 33504, "start": 16533, "end": 16556, "sha256": "160fbea29bda93164c070da134d39bf502994b1b09ffe59bb8533952328958f9", "text": "[Illustration: FIG. 6.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00086", "bookId": 33504, "start": 16560, "end": 16662, "sha256": "aee24cbb14d1ae5e847455748a9dfe87141dde31b7f2e112ab3f3648eeae21f7", "text": "And by the same means the Focus of the Rays after two or more Reflexions or Refractions may be found.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00087", "bookId": 33504, "start": 16666, "end": 16689, "sha256": "b46779b3a533a6be5e45f28fc5087e42c0e7cf8ccae359720c9273fdf996e91d", "text": "[Illustration: FIG. 7.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00088", "bookId": 33504, "start": 16693, "end": 17657, "sha256": "ef81bf3359d15271759d2ff456881061975723bbf68964284c7b05d322ecc99e", "text": "_Cas._ 4. Let ACBD [in _Fig._ 7.] be any refracting Lens, spherically Convex or Concave or Plane on either side, and let CD be its Axis (that is, the Line which cuts both its Surfaces perpendicularly, and passes through the Centres of the Spheres,) and in this Axis produced let F and _f_ be the Foci of the refracted Rays found as above, when the incident Rays on both sides the Lens are parallel to the same Axis; and upon the Diameter F_f_ bisected in E, describe a Circle. Suppose now that any Point Q be the Focus of any incident Rays. Draw QE cutting the said Circle in T and _t_, and therein take _tq_ in such proportion to _t_E as _t_E or TE hath to TQ. Let _tq_ lie the contrary way from _t_ which TQ doth from T, and _q_ shall be the Focus of the refracted Rays without any sensible Error, provided the Point Q be not so remote from the Axis, nor the Lens so broad as to make any of the Rays fall too obliquely on the refracting Surfaces.[A]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00089", "bookId": 33504, "start": 17661, "end": 17872, "sha256": "7dfa408f75ef20a17f29ce2eb8f9ea2b3208cf742d7d2041d864b8780bfee48f", "text": "And by the like Operations may the reflecting or refracting Surfaces be found when the two Foci are given, and thereby a Lens be formed, which shall make the Rays flow towards or from what Place you please.[B]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00090", "bookId": 33504, "start": 17876, "end": 18841, "sha256": "746a0c4917727c384e000ddc2157def62e60de560bc9026f719c93f234fc2097", "text": "So then the Meaning of this Axiom is, that if Rays fall upon any Plane or Spherical Surface or Lens, and before their Incidence flow from or towards any Point Q, they shall after Reflexion or Refraction flow from or towards the Point _q_ found by the foregoing Rules. And if the incident Rays flow from or towards several points Q, the reflected or refracted Rays shall flow from or towards so many other Points _q_ found by the same Rules. Whether the reflected and refracted Rays flow from or towards the Point _q_ is easily known by the situation of that Point. For if that Point be on the same side of the reflecting or refracting Surface or Lens with the Point Q, and the incident Rays flow from the Point Q, the reflected flow towards the Point _q_ and the refracted from it; and if the incident Rays flow towards Q, the reflected flow from _q_, and the refracted towards it. And the contrary happens when _q_ is on the other side of the Surface.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00091", "bookId": 33504, "start": 18847, "end": 18855, "sha256": "8fd8a1008ecf75cf4bf19b5f2483771daa7990b4ed9c9495debb4439a1a2133f", "text": "AX. VII.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00092", "bookId": 33504, "start": 18859, "end": 19107, "sha256": "27a77e453bc28161364ad68ef8d59aba1d7069d7d33f915d78959cf678fe4b64", "text": "_Wherever the Rays which come from all the Points of any Object meet again in so many Points after they have been made to converge by Reflection or Refraction, there they will make a Picture of the Object upon any white Body on which they fall._", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00093", "bookId": 33504, "start": 19111, "end": 20127, "sha256": "52bf11ce913fd1d56217c61b2f1cd7f59a0aaa064fc69b73dbf2ea5187832d8c", "text": "So if PR [in _Fig._ 3.] represent any Object without Doors, and AB be a Lens placed at a hole in the Window-shut of a dark Chamber, whereby the Rays that come from any Point Q of that Object are made to converge and meet again in the Point _q_; and if a Sheet of white Paper be held at _q_ for the Light there to fall upon it, the Picture of that Object PR will appear upon the Paper in its proper shape and Colours. For as the Light which comes from the Point Q goes to the Point _q_, so the Light which comes from other Points P and R of the Object, will go to so many other correspondent Points _p_ and _r_ (as is manifest by the sixth Axiom;) so that every Point of the Object shall illuminate a correspondent Point of the Picture, and thereby make a Picture like the Object in Shape and Colour, this only excepted, that the Picture shall be inverted. And this is the Reason of that vulgar Experiment of casting the Species of Objects from abroad upon a Wall or Sheet of white Paper in a dark Room.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00094", "bookId": 33504, "start": 20131, "end": 22850, "sha256": "f84f071840733e206ff7bffdb25c138619802a3b27fde29bf13bb00ef4a87ff5", "text": "In like manner, when a Man views any Object PQR, [in _Fig._ 8.] the Light which comes from the several Points of the Object is so refracted by the transparent skins and humours of the Eye, (that is, by the outward coat EFG, called the _Tunica Cornea_, and by the crystalline humour AB which is beyond the Pupil _mk_) as to converge and meet again in so many Points in the bottom of the Eye, and there to paint the Picture of the Object upon that skin (called the _Tunica Retina_) with which the bottom of the Eye is covered. For Anatomists, when they have taken off from the bottom of the Eye that outward and most thick Coat called the _Dura Mater_, can then see through the thinner Coats, the Pictures of Objects lively painted thereon. And these Pictures, propagated by Motion along the Fibres of the Optick Nerves into the Brain, are the cause of Vision. For accordingly as these Pictures are perfect or imperfect, the Object is seen perfectly or imperfectly. If the Eye be tinged with any colour (as in the Disease of the _Jaundice_) so as to tinge the Pictures in the bottom of the Eye with that Colour, then all Objects appear tinged with the same Colour. If the Humours of the Eye by old Age decay, so as by shrinking to make the _Cornea_ and Coat of the _Crystalline Humour_ grow flatter than before, the Light will not be refracted enough, and for want of a sufficient Refraction will not converge to the bottom of the Eye but to some place beyond it, and by consequence paint in the bottom of the Eye a confused Picture, and according to the Indistinctness of this Picture the Object will appear confused. This is the reason of the decay of sight in old Men, and shews why their Sight is mended by Spectacles. For those Convex glasses supply the defect of plumpness in the Eye, and by increasing the Refraction make the Rays converge sooner, so as to convene distinctly at the bottom of the Eye if the Glass have a due degree of convexity. And the contrary happens in short-sighted Men whose Eyes are too plump. For the Refraction being now too great, the Rays converge and convene in the Eyes before they come at the bottom; and therefore the Picture made in the bottom and the Vision caused thereby will not be distinct, unless the Object be brought so near the Eye as that the place where the converging Rays convene may be removed to the bottom, or that the plumpness of the Eye be taken off and the Refractions diminished by a Concave-glass of a due degree of Concavity, or lastly that by Age the Eye grow flatter till it come to a due Figure: For short-sighted Men see remote Objects best in Old Age, and therefore they are accounted to have the most lasting Eyes.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00095", "bookId": 33504, "start": 22854, "end": 22877, "sha256": "3aa6ba3d6bf2a0ab771391609449be481fcfb743295d547dcfa130de3fe4bf5b", "text": "[Illustration: FIG. 8.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00096", "bookId": 33504, "start": 22883, "end": 22892, "sha256": "ab782dc4d432df577b1fbeba17c2ff944a34139b9be3dc14533595064e9c1627", "text": "AX. VIII.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00097", "bookId": 33504, "start": 22896, "end": 23069, "sha256": "9856ab65c58c153d0def2589c2676f27787512935210f5d4a74243f7acb901de", "text": "_An Object seen by Reflexion or Refraction, appears in that place from whence the Rays after their last Reflexion or Refraction diverge in falling on the Spectator's Eye._", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00098", "bookId": 33504, "start": 23073, "end": 23096, "sha256": "71c1051d449c7e228674fcff969159c75509ee8237e7164fc6827261a495de81", "text": "[Illustration: FIG. 9.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00099", "bookId": 33504, "start": 23100, "end": 23732, "sha256": "dde6777b86e4d674f6ab1b1ed9ff003c9539556f8ebfe1a7e01ad2fc56912a45", "text": "If the Object A [in FIG. 9.] be seen by Reflexion of a Looking-glass _mn_, it shall appear, not in its proper place A, but behind the Glass at _a_, from whence any Rays AB, AC, AD, which flow from one and the same Point of the Object, do after their Reflexion made in the Points B, C, D, diverge in going from the Glass to E, F, G, where they are incident on the Spectator's Eyes. For these Rays do make the same Picture in the bottom of the Eyes as if they had come from the Object really placed at _a_ without the Interposition of the Looking-glass; and all Vision is made according to the place and shape of that Picture.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00100", "bookId": 33504, "start": 23736, "end": 23952, "sha256": "4e9e5352f04addca38768029d37b2da81b835bbbc8e0ab4bf19b593c41baec59", "text": "In like manner the Object D [in FIG. 2.] seen through a Prism, appears not in its proper place D, but is thence translated to some other place _d_ situated in the last refracted Ray FG drawn backward from F to _d_.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00101", "bookId": 33504, "start": 23956, "end": 23980, "sha256": "a88a5e31ef3fdfdce1281e458d726cca4d1200b34b8eaba241a19dff73a3b064", "text": "[Illustration: FIG. 10.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00102", "bookId": 33504, "start": 23984, "end": 24840, "sha256": "568ec4bced2654e04f6f7ead82c4a35f8ed43b7acfe91d9572d610c5e730f1c8", "text": "And so the Object Q [in FIG. 10.] seen through the Lens AB, appears at the place _q_ from whence the Rays diverge in passing from the Lens to the Eye. Now it is to be noted, that the Image of the Object at _q_ is so much bigger or lesser than the Object it self at Q, as the distance of the Image at _q_ from the Lens AB is bigger or less than the distance of the Object at Q from the same Lens. And if the Object be seen through two or more such Convex or Concave-glasses, every Glass shall make a new Image, and the Object shall appear in the place of the bigness of the last Image. Which consideration unfolds the Theory of Microscopes and Telescopes. For that Theory consists in almost nothing else than the describing such Glasses as shall make the last Image of any Object as distinct and large and luminous as it can conveniently be made.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00103", "bookId": 33504, "start": 24844, "end": 25345, "sha256": "5d20802a91513fd6e1489ea30eeccd79783446bbbffaabebba700b1752971b1e", "text": "I have now given in Axioms and their Explications the sum of what hath hitherto been treated of in Opticks. For what hath been generally agreed on I content my self to assume under the notion of Principles, in order to what I have farther to write. And this may suffice for an Introduction to Readers of quick Wit and good Understanding not yet versed in Opticks: Although those who are already acquainted with this Science, and have handled Glasses, will more readily apprehend what followeth.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00104", "bookId": 33504, "start": 25349, "end": 25359, "sha256": "55ef8349ad07203ec2cca0f3d97640f57c9e65b07c838ffd97e6bcdc1006aed5", "text": "FOOTNOTES:", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00105", "bookId": 33504, "start": 25363, "end": 25655, "sha256": "85ffb48624b77657090d30a7c4185df08d9e1c741c0f3b6ff532b9eac16aed1f", "text": "[A] In our Author's _Lectiones Opticae_, Part I. Sect. IV. Prop 29, 30, there is an elegant Method of determining these _Foci_; not only in spherical Surfaces, but likewise in any other curved Figure whatever: And in Prop. 32, 33, the same thing is done for any Ray lying out of the Axis.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00106", "bookId": 33504, "start": 25659, "end": 25680, "sha256": "06ada42839100e30a4c0b4405bf82336bbce1f91ca7f19767339149d6f45f4b3", "text": "[B] _Ibid._ Prop. 34.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00107", "bookId": 33504, "start": 25690, "end": 25705, "sha256": "8e2c382b516bccb82a5e915ed4b68af13d4cf21560d22e455d472031cdbdb3ca", "text": "_PROPOSITIONS._", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00108", "bookId": 33504, "start": 25713, "end": 25733, "sha256": "509bc9d52eab704d9bacda012590122398426aa9de0d321b3e0fe65048d27ea9", "text": "_PROP._ I. THEOR. I.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00109", "bookId": 33504, "start": 25737, "end": 25812, "sha256": "0a2f59b747841cff6873ce424355e9ca4175db8c119db6806c3cd08010734195", "text": "_Lights which differ in Colour, differ also in Degrees of Refrangibility._", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00110", "bookId": 33504, "start": 25816, "end": 25841, "sha256": "f2a918c940733f73dfdb687070c519fcd03567546ee1f18461abf89cd12da4e0", "text": "The PROOF by Experiments.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00111", "bookId": 33504, "start": 25845, "end": 25856, "sha256": "19ac7c9e2ae602241742c7aa2f4d762f8f06b8ef53aa1c90fe5f0b6644ccb97c", "text": "_Exper._ 1.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00112", "bookId": 33504, "start": 25860, "end": 27943, "sha256": "e7f66ff8c23dedd7b8234e6e26b621ef61dcc0cbc0e76e562cb0912fbdbd3b95", "text": "I took a black oblong stiff Paper terminated by Parallel Sides, and with a Perpendicular right Line drawn cross from one Side to the other, distinguished it into two equal Parts. One of these parts I painted with a red colour and the other with a blue. The Paper was very black, and the Colours intense and thickly laid on, that the Phaenomenon might be more conspicuous. This Paper I view'd through a Prism of solid Glass, whose two Sides through which the Light passed to the Eye were plane and well polished, and contained an Angle of about sixty degrees; which Angle I call the refracting Angle of the Prism. And whilst I view'd it, I held it and the Prism before a Window in such manner that the Sides of the Paper were parallel to the Prism, and both those Sides and the Prism were parallel to the Horizon, and the cross Line was also parallel to it: and that the Light which fell from the Window upon the Paper made an Angle with the Paper, equal to that Angle which was made with the same Paper by the Light reflected from it to the Eye. Beyond the Prism was the Wall of the Chamber under the Window covered over with black Cloth, and the Cloth was involved in Darkness that no Light might be reflected from thence, which in passing by the Edges of the Paper to the Eye, might mingle itself with the Light of the Paper, and obscure the Phaenomenon thereof. These things being thus ordered, I found that if the refracting Angle of the Prism be turned upwards, so that the Paper may seem to be lifted upwards by the Refraction, its blue half will be lifted higher by the Refraction than its red half. But if the refracting Angle of the Prism be turned downward, so that the Paper may seem to be carried lower by the Refraction, its blue half will be carried something lower thereby than its red half. Wherefore in both Cases the Light which comes from the blue half of the Paper through the Prism to the Eye, does in like Circumstances suffer a greater Refraction than the Light which comes from the red half, and by consequence is more refrangible.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00113", "bookId": 33504, "start": 27947, "end": 28962, "sha256": "01206c55d31136a141ee5cb5e6e3b95ab9b39fbacfd83cf69694c4347bc20066", "text": "_Illustration._ In the eleventh Figure, MN represents the Window, and DE the Paper terminated with parallel Sides DJ and HE, and by the transverse Line FG distinguished into two halfs, the one DG of an intensely blue Colour, the other FE of an intensely red. And BAC_cab_ represents the Prism whose refracting Planes AB_ba_ and AC_ca_ meet in the Edge of the refracting Angle A_a_. This Edge A_a_ being upward, is parallel both to the Horizon, and to the Parallel-Edges of the Paper DJ and HE, and the transverse Line FG is perpendicular to the Plane of the Window. And _de_ represents the Image of the Paper seen by Refraction upwards in such manner, that the blue half DG is carried higher to _dg_ than the red half FE is to _fe_, and therefore suffers a greater Refraction. If the Edge of the refracting Angle be turned downward, the Image of the Paper will be refracted downward; suppose to [Greek: de], and the blue half will be refracted lower to [Greek: dg] than the red half is to [Greek: pe].", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00114", "bookId": 33504, "start": 28966, "end": 28990, "sha256": "c3d93b3596954f2e973d201186e936abfd9f10570df30a0ff35e6513d326e7ad", "text": "[Illustration: FIG. 11.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00115", "bookId": 33504, "start": 28994, "end": 32150, "sha256": "543fb9df1c21f217b1ace5806dd86821ca83d200da5741f076d1ccd5e98fac2f", "text": "_Exper._ 2. About the aforesaid Paper, whose two halfs were painted over with red and blue, and which was stiff like thin Pasteboard, I lapped several times a slender Thred of very black Silk, in such manner that the several parts of the Thred might appear upon the Colours like so many black Lines drawn over them, or like long and slender dark Shadows cast upon them. I might have drawn black Lines with a Pen, but the Threds were smaller and better defined. This Paper thus coloured and lined I set against a Wall perpendicularly to the Horizon, so that one of the Colours might stand to the Right Hand, and the other to the Left. Close before the Paper, at the Confine of the Colours below, I placed a Candle to illuminate the Paper strongly: For the Experiment was tried in the Night. The Flame of the Candle reached up to the lower edge of the Paper, or a very little higher. Then at the distance of six Feet, and one or two Inches from the Paper upon the Floor I erected a Glass Lens four Inches and a quarter broad, which might collect the Rays coming from the several Points of the Paper, and make them converge towards so many other Points at the same distance of six Feet, and one or two Inches on the other side of the Lens, and so form the Image of the coloured Paper upon a white Paper placed there, after the same manner that a Lens at a Hole in a Window casts the Images of Objects abroad upon a Sheet of white Paper in a dark Room. The aforesaid white Paper, erected perpendicular to the Horizon, and to the Rays which fell upon it from the Lens, I moved sometimes towards the Lens, sometimes from it, to find the Places where the Images of the blue and red Parts of the coloured Paper appeared most distinct. Those Places I easily knew by the Images of the black Lines which I had made by winding the Silk about the Paper. For the Images of those fine and slender Lines (which by reason of their Blackness were like Shadows on the Colours) were confused and scarce visible, unless when the Colours on either side of each Line were terminated most distinctly, Noting therefore, as diligently as I could, the Places where the Images of the red and blue halfs of the coloured Paper appeared most distinct, I found that where the red half of the Paper appeared distinct, the blue half appeared confused, so that the black Lines drawn upon it could scarce be seen; and on the contrary, where the blue half appeared most distinct, the red half appeared confused, so that the black Lines upon it were scarce visible. And between the two Places where these Images appeared distinct there was the distance of an Inch and a half; the distance of the white Paper from the Lens, when the Image of the red half of the coloured Paper appeared most distinct, being greater by an Inch and an half than the distance of the same white Paper from the Lens, when the Image of the blue half appeared most distinct. In like Incidences therefore of the blue and red upon the Lens, the blue was refracted more by the Lens than the red, so as to converge sooner by an Inch and a half, and therefore is more refrangible.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00116", "bookId": 33504, "start": 32154, "end": 32538, "sha256": "ae5e9d32aba7cde3512eabd73f71eee726f236a9d7cd2a6180e23bdbfa3d13e1", "text": "_Illustration._ In the twelfth Figure (p. 27), DE signifies the coloured Paper, DG the blue half, FE the red half, MN the Lens, HJ the white Paper in that Place where the red half with its black Lines appeared distinct, and _hi_ the same Paper in that Place where the blue half appeared distinct. The Place _hi_ was nearer to the Lens MN than the Place HJ by an Inch and an half.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00117", "bookId": 33504, "start": 32542, "end": 34086, "sha256": "dbd3ab32668b6ea75460314e1edc007604b554076cf642a73960cf64072d2281", "text": "_Scholium._ The same Things succeed, notwithstanding that some of the Circumstances be varied; as in the first Experiment when the Prism and Paper are any ways inclined to the Horizon, and in both when coloured Lines are drawn upon very black Paper. But in the Description of these Experiments, I have set down such Circumstances, by which either the Phaenomenon might be render'd more conspicuous, or a Novice might more easily try them, or by which I did try them only. The same Thing, I have often done in the following Experiments: Concerning all which, this one Admonition may suffice. Now from these Experiments it follows not, that all the Light of the blue is more refrangible than all the Light of the red: For both Lights are mixed of Rays differently refrangible, so that in the red there are some Rays not less refrangible than those of the blue, and in the blue there are some Rays not more refrangible than those of the red: But these Rays, in proportion to the whole Light, are but few, and serve to diminish the Event of the Experiment, but are not able to destroy it. For, if the red and blue Colours were more dilute and weak, the distance of the Images would be less than an Inch and a half; and if they were more intense and full, that distance would be greater, as will appear hereafter. These Experiments may suffice for the Colours of Natural Bodies. For in the Colours made by the Refraction of Prisms, this Proposition will appear by the Experiments which are now to follow in the next Proposition.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00118", "bookId": 33504, "start": 34092, "end": 34114, "sha256": "00f64d64e2db8fc28b705b0b8a32117667eae0b2b6540a543048087a9ee09d47", "text": "_PROP._ II. THEOR. II.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00119", "bookId": 33504, "start": 34118, "end": 34182, "sha256": "2c635763f5fa6edcf5fb775835c5efbd6f9faaaaa55bccddd52435661f4071c8", "text": "_The Light of the Sun consists of Rays differently Refrangible._", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00120", "bookId": 33504, "start": 34186, "end": 34211, "sha256": "f2a918c940733f73dfdb687070c519fcd03567546ee1f18461abf89cd12da4e0", "text": "The PROOF by Experiments.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00121", "bookId": 33504, "start": 34215, "end": 34239, "sha256": "a5c47c4599f930c4c8462772cdc94ae40d2b8081931c3cab01933f9857caf9b0", "text": "[Illustration: FIG. 12.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00122", "bookId": 33504, "start": 34243, "end": 34267, "sha256": "9ef1c9b38cd8dcd5f5d3f1741495765d4634558f06c71ae13e6e75d1af16e537", "text": "[Illustration: FIG. 13.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00123", "bookId": 33504, "start": 34271, "end": 34282, "sha256": "55bc1df48e9675dd0908c975e892961994b922f53e6f3dea420eeec530fd394a", "text": "_Exper._ 3.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00124", "bookId": 33504, "start": 34286, "end": 42539, "sha256": "60006e272a1b8838aaaea2bef9cf9dd3ee303fa8d5d9cc6738c203aa17cf570c", "text": "In a very dark Chamber, at a round Hole, about one third Part of an Inch broad, made in the Shut of a Window, I placed a Glass Prism, whereby the Beam of the Sun's Light, which came in at that Hole, might be refracted upwards toward the opposite Wall of the Chamber, and there form a colour'd Image of the Sun. The Axis of the Prism (that is, the Line passing through the middle of the Prism from one end of it to the other end parallel to the edge of the Refracting Angle) was in this and the following Experiments perpendicular to the incident Rays. About this Axis I turned the Prism slowly, and saw the refracted Light on the Wall, or coloured Image of the Sun, first to descend, and then to ascend. Between the Descent and Ascent, when the Image seemed Stationary, I stopp'd the Prism, and fix'd it in that Posture, that it should be moved no more. For in that Posture the Refractions of the Light at the two Sides of the refracting Angle, that is, at the Entrance of the Rays into the Prism, and at their going out of it, were equal to one another.[C] So also in other Experiments, as often as I would have the Refractions on both sides the Prism to be equal to one another, I noted the Place where the Image of the Sun formed by the refracted Light stood still between its two contrary Motions, in the common Period of its Progress and Regress; and when the Image fell upon that Place, I made fast the Prism. And in this Posture, as the most convenient, it is to be understood that all the Prisms are placed in the following Experiments, unless where some other Posture is described. The Prism therefore being placed in this Posture, I let the refracted Light fall perpendicularly upon a Sheet of white Paper at the opposite Wall of the Chamber, and observed the Figure and Dimensions of the Solar Image formed on the Paper by that Light. This Image was Oblong and not Oval, but terminated with two Rectilinear and Parallel Sides, and two Semicircular Ends. On its Sides it was bounded pretty distinctly, but on its Ends very confusedly and indistinctly, the Light there decaying and vanishing by degrees. The Breadth of this Image answered to the Sun's Diameter, and was about two Inches and the eighth Part of an Inch, including the Penumbra. For the Image was eighteen Feet and an half distant from the Prism, and at this distance that Breadth, if diminished by the Diameter of the Hole in the Window-shut, that is by a quarter of an Inch, subtended an Angle at the Prism of about half a Degree, which is the Sun's apparent Diameter. But the Length of the Image was about ten Inches and a quarter, and the Length of the Rectilinear Sides about eight Inches; and the refracting Angle of the Prism, whereby so great a Length was made, was 64 degrees. With a less Angle the Length of the Image was less, the Breadth remaining the same. If the Prism was turned about its Axis that way which made the Rays emerge more obliquely out of the second refracting Surface of the Prism, the Image soon became an Inch or two longer, or more; and if the Prism was turned about the contrary way, so as to make the Rays fall more obliquely on the first refracting Surface, the Image soon became an Inch or two shorter. And therefore in trying this Experiment, I was as curious as I could be in placing the Prism by the above-mention'd Rule exactly in such a Posture, that the Refractions of the Rays at their Emergence out of the Prism might be equal to that at their Incidence on it. This Prism had some Veins running along within the Glass from one end to the other, which scattered some of the Sun's Light irregularly, but had no sensible Effect in increasing the Length of the coloured Spectrum. For I tried the same Experiment with other Prisms with the same Success. And particularly with a Prism which seemed free from such Veins, and whose refracting Angle was 62-1/2 Degrees, I found the Length of the Image 9-3/4 or 10 Inches at the distance of 18-1/2 Feet from the Prism, the Breadth of the Hole in the Window-shut being 1/4 of an Inch, as before. And because it is easy to commit a Mistake in placing the Prism in its due Posture, I repeated the Experiment four or five Times, and always found the Length of the Image that which is set down above. With another Prism of clearer Glass and better Polish, which seemed free from Veins, and whose refracting Angle was 63-1/2 Degrees, the Length of this Image at the same distance of 18-1/2 Feet was also about 10 Inches, or 10-1/8. Beyond these Measures for about a 1/4 or 1/3 of an Inch at either end of the Spectrum the Light of the Clouds seemed to be a little tinged with red and violet, but so very faintly, that I suspected that Tincture might either wholly, or in great Measure arise from some Rays of the Spectrum scattered irregularly by some Inequalities in the Substance and Polish of the Glass, and therefore I did not include it in these Measures. Now the different Magnitude of the hole in the Window-shut, and different thickness of the Prism where the Rays passed through it, and different inclinations of the Prism to the Horizon, made no sensible changes in the length of the Image. Neither did the different matter of the Prisms make any: for in a Vessel made of polished Plates of Glass cemented together in the shape of a Prism and filled with Water, there is the like Success of the Experiment according to the quantity of the Refraction. It is farther to be observed, that the Rays went on in right Lines from the Prism to the Image, and therefore at their very going out of the Prism had all that Inclination to one another from which the length of the Image proceeded, that is, the Inclination of more than two degrees and an half. And yet according to the Laws of Opticks vulgarly received, they could not possibly be so much inclined to one another.[D] For let EG [_Fig._ 13. (p. 27)] represent the Window-shut, F the hole made therein through which a beam of the Sun's Light was transmitted into the darkened Chamber, and ABC a Triangular Imaginary Plane whereby the Prism is feigned to be cut transversely through the middle of the Light. Or if you please, let ABC represent the Prism it self, looking directly towards the Spectator's Eye with its nearer end: And let XY be the Sun, MN the Paper upon which the Solar Image or Spectrum is cast, and PT the Image it self whose sides towards _v_ and _w_ are Rectilinear and Parallel, and ends towards P and T Semicircular. YKHP and XLJT are two Rays, the first of which comes from the lower part of the Sun to the higher part of the Image, and is refracted in the Prism at K and H, and the latter comes from the higher part of the Sun to the lower part of the Image, and is refracted at L and J. Since the Refractions on both sides the Prism are equal to one another, that is, the Refraction at K equal to the Refraction at J, and the Refraction at L equal to the Refraction at H, so that the Refractions of the incident Rays at K and L taken together, are equal to the Refractions of the emergent Rays at H and J taken together: it follows by adding equal things to equal things, that the Refractions at K and H taken together, are equal to the Refractions at J and L taken together, and therefore the two Rays being equally refracted, have the same Inclination to one another after Refraction which they had before; that is, the Inclination of half a Degree answering to the Sun's Diameter. For so great was the inclination of the Rays to one another before Refraction. So then, the length of the Image PT would by the Rules of Vulgar Opticks subtend an Angle of half a Degree at the Prism, and by Consequence be equal to the breadth _vw_; and therefore the Image would be round. Thus it would be were the two Rays XLJT and YKHP, and all the rest which form the Image P_w_T_v_, alike refrangible. And therefore seeing by Experience it is found that the Image is not round, but about five times longer than broad, the Rays which going to the upper end P of the Image suffer the greatest Refraction, must be more refrangible than those which go to the lower end T, unless the Inequality of Refraction be casual.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00125", "bookId": 33504, "start": 42543, "end": 43101, "sha256": "fc27c1e09d300bea23ecf9dcff147777c49e179186ba85f5d487dd48ab556c70", "text": "This Image or Spectrum PT was coloured, being red at its least refracted end T, and violet at its most refracted end P, and yellow green and blue in the intermediate Spaces. Which agrees with the first Proposition, that Lights which differ in Colour, do also differ in Refrangibility. The length of the Image in the foregoing Experiments, I measured from the faintest and outmost red at one end, to the faintest and outmost blue at the other end, excepting only a little Penumbra, whose breadth scarce exceeded a quarter of an Inch, as was said above.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00126", "bookId": 33504, "start": 43105, "end": 44338, "sha256": "e52a7be8e807bc6e7c42ef13240f0678af03d94bfb3bdb14f44ae20e9543921c", "text": "_Exper._ 4. In the Sun's Beam which was propagated into the Room through the hole in the Window-shut, at the distance of some Feet from the hole, I held the Prism in such a Posture, that its Axis might be perpendicular to that Beam. Then I looked through the Prism upon the hole, and turning the Prism to and fro about its Axis, to make the Image of the Hole ascend and descend, when between its two contrary Motions it seemed Stationary, I stopp'd the Prism, that the Refractions of both sides of the refracting Angle might be equal to each other, as in the former Experiment. In this situation of the Prism viewing through it the said Hole, I observed the length of its refracted Image to be many times greater than its breadth, and that the most refracted part thereof appeared violet, the least refracted red, the middle parts blue, green and yellow in order. The same thing happen'd when I removed the Prism out of the Sun's Light, and looked through it upon the hole shining by the Light of the Clouds beyond it. And yet if the Refraction were done regularly according to one certain Proportion of the Sines of Incidence and Refraction as is vulgarly supposed, the refracted Image ought to have appeared round.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00127", "bookId": 33504, "start": 44342, "end": 44852, "sha256": "ba1955faa2dc34033975abd0da96d07527575cabfac73c26a3527c6e6cac76dc", "text": "So then, by these two Experiments it appears, that in Equal Incidences there is a considerable inequality of Refractions. But whence this inequality arises, whether it be that some of the incident Rays are refracted more, and others less, constantly, or by chance, or that one and the same Ray is by Refraction disturbed, shatter'd, dilated, and as it were split and spread into many diverging Rays, as _Grimaldo_ supposes, does not yet appear by these Experiments, but will appear by those that follow.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00128", "bookId": 33504, "start": 44856, "end": 46050, "sha256": "fee8c0290dc8818996ae3f0bf4efc96d56c23c5e7e92d063e8143857b29784e5", "text": "_Exper._ 5. Considering therefore, that if in the third Experiment the Image of the Sun should be drawn out into an oblong Form, either by a Dilatation of every Ray, or by any other casual inequality of the Refractions, the same oblong Image would by a second Refraction made sideways be drawn out as much in breadth by the like Dilatation of the Rays, or other casual inequality of the Refractions sideways, I tried what would be the Effects of such a second Refraction. For this end I ordered all things as in the third Experiment, and then placed a second Prism immediately after the first in a cross Position to it, that it might again refract the beam of the Sun's Light which came to it through the first Prism. In the first Prism this beam was refracted upwards, and in the second sideways. And I found that by the Refraction of the second Prism, the breadth of the Image was not increased, but its superior part, which in the first Prism suffered the greater Refraction, and appeared violet and blue, did again in the second Prism suffer a greater Refraction than its inferior part, which appeared red and yellow, and this without any Dilatation of the Image in breadth.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00129", "bookId": 33504, "start": 46054, "end": 46077, "sha256": "7b7a6a61a988a484c646ad6988b3446a1a20b286655f970e9ce86b140dc1bc58", "text": "[Illustration: FIG. 14]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00130", "bookId": 33504, "start": 46081, "end": 49313, "sha256": "1460e682c904c71b3c20cfa2983b9d150947907d6cf43ecad54af64607b69fcf", "text": "_Illustration._ Let S [_Fig._ 14, 15.] represent the Sun, F the hole in the Window, ABC the first Prism, DH the second Prism, Y the round Image of the Sun made by a direct beam of Light when the Prisms are taken away, PT the oblong Image of the Sun made by that beam passing through the first Prism alone, when the second Prism is taken away, and _pt_ the Image made by the cross Refractions of both Prisms together. Now if the Rays which tend towards the several Points of the round Image Y were dilated and spread by the Refraction of the first Prism, so that they should not any longer go in single Lines to single Points, but that every Ray being split, shattered, and changed from a Linear Ray to a Superficies of Rays diverging from the Point of Refraction, and lying in the Plane of the Angles of Incidence and Refraction, they should go in those Planes to so many Lines reaching almost from one end of the Image PT to the other, and if that Image should thence become oblong: those Rays and their several parts tending towards the several Points of the Image PT ought to be again dilated and spread sideways by the transverse Refraction of the second Prism, so as to compose a four square Image, such as is represented at [Greek: pt]. For the better understanding of which, let the Image PT be distinguished into five equal parts PQK, KQRL, LRSM, MSVN, NVT. And by the same irregularity that the orbicular Light Y is by the Refraction of the first Prism dilated and drawn out into a long Image PT, the Light PQK which takes up a space of the same length and breadth with the Light Y ought to be by the Refraction of the second Prism dilated and drawn out into the long Image _[Greek: p]qkp_, and the Light KQRL into the long Image _kqrl_, and the Lights LRSM, MSVN, NVT, into so many other long Images _lrsm_, _msvn_, _nvt[Greek: t]_; and all these long Images would compose the four square Images _[Greek: pt]_. Thus it ought to be were every Ray dilated by Refraction, and spread into a triangular Superficies of Rays diverging from the Point of Refraction. For the second Refraction would spread the Rays one way as much as the first doth another, and so dilate the Image in breadth as much as the first doth in length. And the same thing ought to happen, were some rays casually refracted more than others. But the Event is otherwise. The Image PT was not made broader by the Refraction of the second Prism, but only became oblique, as 'tis represented at _pt_, its upper end P being by the Refraction translated to a greater distance than its lower end T. So then the Light which went towards the upper end P of the Image, was (at equal Incidences) more refracted in the second Prism, than the Light which tended towards the lower end T, that is the blue and violet, than the red and yellow; and therefore was more refrangible. The same Light was by the Refraction of the first Prism translated farther from the place Y to which it tended before Refraction; and therefore suffered as well in the first Prism as in the second a greater Refraction than the rest of the Light, and by consequence was more refrangible than the rest, even before its incidence on the first Prism.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00131", "bookId": 33504, "start": 49317, "end": 49755, "sha256": "b34187a43bab6673d46c93e55653ca93fdd1fb556697390113a4ba3bdef9b474", "text": "Sometimes I placed a third Prism after the second, and sometimes also a fourth after the third, by all which the Image might be often refracted sideways: but the Rays which were more refracted than the rest in the first Prism were also more refracted in all the rest, and that without any Dilatation of the Image sideways: and therefore those Rays for their constancy of a greater Refraction are deservedly reputed more refrangible.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00132", "bookId": 33504, "start": 49759, "end": 49782, "sha256": "7d6abbc5ce2443923bf3e723e35b90d9504054712ae617308b4003756a583b2e", "text": "[Illustration: FIG. 15]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00133", "bookId": 33504, "start": 49786, "end": 52820, "sha256": "1d95dc484ae16c197080342b66d1cadd37a53f1c68f9c087528a12ab2e697513", "text": "But that the meaning of this Experiment may more clearly appear, it is to be considered that the Rays which are equally refrangible do fall upon a Circle answering to the Sun's Disque. For this was proved in the third Experiment. By a Circle I understand not here a perfect geometrical Circle, but any orbicular Figure whose length is equal to its breadth, and which, as to Sense, may seem circular. Let therefore AG [in _Fig._ 15.] represent the Circle which all the most refrangible Rays propagated from the whole Disque of the Sun, would illuminate and paint upon the opposite Wall if they were alone; EL the Circle which all the least refrangible Rays would in like manner illuminate and paint if they were alone; BH, CJ, DK, the Circles which so many intermediate sorts of Rays would successively paint upon the Wall, if they were singly propagated from the Sun in successive order, the rest being always intercepted; and conceive that there are other intermediate Circles without Number, which innumerable other intermediate sorts of Rays would successively paint upon the Wall if the Sun should successively emit every sort apart. And seeing the Sun emits all these sorts at once, they must all together illuminate and paint innumerable equal Circles, of all which, being according to their degrees of Refrangibility placed in order in a continual Series, that oblong Spectrum PT is composed which I described in the third Experiment. Now if the Sun's circular Image Y [in _Fig._ 15.] which is made by an unrefracted beam of Light was by any Dilation of the single Rays, or by any other irregularity in the Refraction of the first Prism, converted into the oblong Spectrum, PT: then ought every Circle AG, BH, CJ, &c. in that Spectrum, by the cross Refraction of the second Prism again dilating or otherwise scattering the Rays as before, to be in like manner drawn out and transformed into an oblong Figure, and thereby the breadth of the Image PT would be now as much augmented as the length of the Image Y was before by the Refraction of the first Prism; and thus by the Refractions of both Prisms together would be formed a four square Figure _p[Greek: p]t[Greek: t]_, as I described above. Wherefore since the breadth of the Spectrum PT is not increased by the Refraction sideways, it is certain that the Rays are not split or dilated, or otherways irregularly scatter'd by that Refraction, but that every Circle is by a regular and uniform Refraction translated entire into another Place, as the Circle AG by the greatest Refraction into the place _ag_, the Circle BH by a less Refraction into the place _bh_, the Circle CJ by a Refraction still less into the place _ci_, and so of the rest; by which means a new Spectrum _pt_ inclined to the former PT is in like manner composed of Circles lying in a right Line; and these Circles must be of the same bigness with the former, because the breadths of all the Spectrums Y, PT and _pt_ at equal distances from the Prisms are equal.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00134", "bookId": 33504, "start": 52824, "end": 55697, "sha256": "0d3068a946b6f20954cf3804a5dae3ca3d3be5077b2be028b9502bb34d11dc26", "text": "I considered farther, that by the breadth of the hole F through which the Light enters into the dark Chamber, there is a Penumbra made in the Circuit of the Spectrum Y, and that Penumbra remains in the rectilinear Sides of the Spectrums PT and _pt_. I placed therefore at that hole a Lens or Object-glass of a Telescope which might cast the Image of the Sun distinctly on Y without any Penumbra at all, and found that the Penumbra of the rectilinear Sides of the oblong Spectrums PT and _pt_ was also thereby taken away, so that those Sides appeared as distinctly defined as did the Circumference of the first Image Y. Thus it happens if the Glass of the Prisms be free from Veins, and their sides be accurately plane and well polished without those numberless Waves or Curles which usually arise from Sand-holes a little smoothed in polishing with Putty. If the Glass be only well polished and free from Veins, and the Sides not accurately plane, but a little Convex or Concave, as it frequently happens; yet may the three Spectrums Y, PT and _pt_ want Penumbras, but not in equal distances from the Prisms. Now from this want of Penumbras, I knew more certainly that every one of the Circles was refracted according to some most regular, uniform and constant Law. For if there were any irregularity in the Refraction, the right Lines AE and GL, which all the Circles in the Spectrum PT do touch, could not by that Refraction be translated into the Lines _ae_ and _gl_ as distinct and straight as they were before, but there would arise in those translated Lines some Penumbra or Crookedness or Undulation, or other sensible Perturbation contrary to what is found by Experience. Whatsoever Penumbra or Perturbation should be made in the Circles by the cross Refraction of the second Prism, all that Penumbra or Perturbation would be conspicuous in the right Lines _ae_ and _gl_ which touch those Circles. And therefore since there is no such Penumbra or Perturbation in those right Lines, there must be none in the Circles. Since the distance between those Tangents or breadth of the Spectrum is not increased by the Refractions, the Diameters of the Circles are not increased thereby. Since those Tangents continue to be right Lines, every Circle which in the first Prism is more or less refracted, is exactly in the same proportion more or less refracted in the second. And seeing all these things continue to succeed after the same manner when the Rays are again in a third Prism, and again in a fourth refracted sideways, it is evident that the Rays of one and the same Circle, as to their degree of Refrangibility, continue always uniform and homogeneal to one another, and that those of several Circles do differ in degree of Refrangibility, and that in some certain and constant Proportion. Which is the thing I was to prove.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00135", "bookId": 33504, "start": 55701, "end": 56693, "sha256": "1f0c428f5046ba6c9e2000258558f2b1bbb3fdbee7a685011b63befce9ae5536", "text": "There is yet another Circumstance or two of this Experiment by which it becomes still more plain and convincing. Let the second Prism DH [in _Fig._ 16.] be placed not immediately after the first, but at some distance from it; suppose in the mid-way between it and the Wall on which the oblong Spectrum PT is cast, so that the Light from the first Prism may fall upon it in the form of an oblong Spectrum [Greek: pt] parallel to this second Prism, and be refracted sideways to form the oblong Spectrum _pt_ upon the Wall. And you will find as before, that this Spectrum _pt_ is inclined to that Spectrum PT, which the first Prism forms alone without the second; the blue ends P and _p_ being farther distant from one another than the red ones T and _t_, and by consequence that the Rays which go to the blue end [Greek: p] of the Image [Greek: pt], and which therefore suffer the greatest Refraction in the first Prism, are again in the second Prism more refracted than the rest.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00136", "bookId": 33504, "start": 56697, "end": 56721, "sha256": "9d7ab9a09427452a01bfc6e39150a4785f194e3814ca8335e023a130d97c4c7a", "text": "[Illustration: FIG. 16.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00137", "bookId": 33504, "start": 56725, "end": 56749, "sha256": "58ff45789b2699b898e3cb67da6fabefaff7179faa5fb0e5dceb6e92aa1a3566", "text": "[Illustration: FIG. 17.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00138", "bookId": 33504, "start": 56753, "end": 58187, "sha256": "e2ce4318f1be285545561cb9eeecef152d7a12b53dac34e374bd3610ee3c1946", "text": "The same thing I try'd also by letting the Sun's Light into a dark Room through two little round holes F and [Greek: ph] [in _Fig._ 17.] made in the Window, and with two parallel Prisms ABC and [Greek: abg] placed at those holes (one at each) refracting those two beams of Light to the opposite Wall of the Chamber, in such manner that the two colour'd Images PT and MN which they there painted were joined end to end and lay in one straight Line, the red end T of the one touching the blue end M of the other. For if these two refracted Beams were again by a third Prism DH placed cross to the two first, refracted sideways, and the Spectrums thereby translated to some other part of the Wall of the Chamber, suppose the Spectrum PT to _pt_ and the Spectrum MN to _mn_, these translated Spectrums _pt_ and _mn_ would not lie in one straight Line with their ends contiguous as before, but be broken off from one another and become parallel, the blue end _m_ of the Image _mn_ being by a greater Refraction translated farther from its former place MT, than the red end _t_ of the other Image _pt_ from the same place MT; which puts the Proposition past Dispute. And this happens whether the third Prism DH be placed immediately after the two first, or at a great distance from them, so that the Light refracted in the two first Prisms be either white and circular, or coloured and oblong when it falls on the third.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00139", "bookId": 33504, "start": 58191, "end": 60046, "sha256": "12677c41f0f38938f123ae1506e39ebb2ca1cf8c6b411904b1509163bec7f13c", "text": "_Exper._ 6. In the middle of two thin Boards I made round holes a third part of an Inch in diameter, and in the Window-shut a much broader hole being made to let into my darkned Chamber a large Beam of the Sun's Light; I placed a Prism behind the Shut in that beam to refract it towards the opposite Wall, and close behind the Prism I fixed one of the Boards, in such manner that the middle of the refracted Light might pass through the hole made in it, and the rest be intercepted by the Board. Then at the distance of about twelve Feet from the first Board I fixed the other Board in such manner that the middle of the refracted Light which came through the hole in the first Board, and fell upon the opposite Wall, might pass through the hole in this other Board, and the rest being intercepted by the Board might paint upon it the coloured Spectrum of the Sun. And close behind this Board I fixed another Prism to refract the Light which came through the hole. Then I returned speedily to the first Prism, and by turning it slowly to and fro about its Axis, I caused the Image which fell upon the second Board to move up and down upon that Board, that all its parts might successively pass through the hole in that Board and fall upon the Prism behind it. And in the mean time, I noted the places on the opposite Wall to which that Light after its Refraction in the second Prism did pass; and by the difference of the places I found that the Light which being most refracted in the first Prism did go to the blue end of the Image, was again more refracted in the second Prism than the Light which went to the red end of that Image, which proves as well the first Proposition as the second. And this happened whether the Axis of the two Prisms were parallel, or inclined to one another, and to the Horizon in any given Angles.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00140", "bookId": 33504, "start": 60050, "end": 62057, "sha256": "54e16080c96354ef5f838bb1d18953232f13d3fd3d401c8c5d095e5ba9026cb7", "text": "_Illustration._ Let F [in _Fig._ 18.] be the wide hole in the Window-shut, through which the Sun shines upon the first Prism ABC, and let the refracted Light fall upon the middle of the Board DE, and the middle part of that Light upon the hole G made in the middle part of that Board. Let this trajected part of that Light fall again upon the middle of the second Board _de_, and there paint such an oblong coloured Image of the Sun as was described in the third Experiment. By turning the Prism ABC slowly to and fro about its Axis, this Image will be made to move up and down the Board _de_, and by this means all its parts from one end to the other may be made to pass successively through the hole _g_ which is made in the middle of that Board. In the mean while another Prism _abc_ is to be fixed next after that hole _g_, to refract the trajected Light a second time. And these things being thus ordered, I marked the places M and N of the opposite Wall upon which the refracted Light fell, and found that whilst the two Boards and second Prism remained unmoved, those places by turning the first Prism about its Axis were changed perpetually. For when the lower part of the Light which fell upon the second Board _de_ was cast through the hole _g_, it went to a lower place M on the Wall and when the higher part of that Light was cast through the same hole _g_, it went to a higher place N on the Wall, and when any intermediate part of the Light was cast through that hole, it went to some place on the Wall between M and N. The unchanged Position of the holes in the Boards, made the Incidence of the Rays upon the second Prism to be the same in all cases. And yet in that common Incidence some of the Rays were more refracted, and others less. And those were more refracted in this Prism, which by a greater Refraction in the first Prism were more turned out of the way, and therefore for their Constancy of being more refracted are deservedly called more refrangible.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00141", "bookId": 33504, "start": 62061, "end": 62085, "sha256": "14f6507c1c996fdf06cff405be0f48079ffcb200952d6afbafaab362c36f51c4", "text": "[Illustration: FIG. 18.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00142", "bookId": 33504, "start": 62089, "end": 62113, "sha256": "5ebaa83254f0b4c47f5b852540908924ce119c8000682b709602d3db6c7adde9", "text": "[Illustration: FIG. 20.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00143", "bookId": 33504, "start": 62117, "end": 63422, "sha256": "23caf132648a98dae47a3804a5bf266eb40b0164bf5e485e1f6b625dfcaf37e5", "text": "_Exper._ 7. At two holes made near one another in my Window-shut I placed two Prisms, one at each, which might cast upon the opposite Wall (after the manner of the third Experiment) two oblong coloured Images of the Sun. And at a little distance from the Wall I placed a long slender Paper with straight and parallel edges, and ordered the Prisms and Paper so, that the red Colour of one Image might fall directly upon one half of the Paper, and the violet Colour of the other Image upon the other half of the same Paper; so that the Paper appeared of two Colours, red and violet, much after the manner of the painted Paper in the first and second Experiments. Then with a black Cloth I covered the Wall behind the Paper, that no Light might be reflected from it to disturb the Experiment, and viewing the Paper through a third Prism held parallel to it, I saw that half of it which was illuminated by the violet Light to be divided from the other half by a greater Refraction, especially when I went a good way off from the Paper. For when I viewed it too near at hand, the two halfs of the Paper did not appear fully divided from one another, but seemed contiguous at one of their Angles like the painted Paper in the first Experiment. Which also happened when the Paper was too broad.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00144", "bookId": 33504, "start": 63426, "end": 63450, "sha256": "1360b1f544e738f20b4e1d74d306833145a7eabadec71e084c922b8a66915dcd", "text": "[Illustration: FIG. 19.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00145", "bookId": 33504, "start": 63454, "end": 64706, "sha256": "f27d9891dc59ec4a28685c72bada7455d45a56cb58fee1fcd7ef8bd253c50659", "text": "Sometimes instead of the Paper I used a white Thred, and this appeared through the Prism divided into two parallel Threds as is represented in the nineteenth Figure, where DG denotes the Thred illuminated with violet Light from D to E and with red Light from F to G, and _defg_ are the parts of the Thred seen by Refraction. If one half of the Thred be constantly illuminated with red, and the other half be illuminated with all the Colours successively, (which may be done by causing one of the Prisms to be turned about its Axis whilst the other remains unmoved) this other half in viewing the Thred through the Prism, will appear in a continual right Line with the first half when illuminated with red, and begin to be a little divided from it when illuminated with Orange, and remove farther from it when illuminated with yellow, and still farther when with green, and farther when with blue, and go yet farther off when illuminated with Indigo, and farthest when with deep violet. Which plainly shews, that the Lights of several Colours are more and more refrangible one than another, in this Order of their Colours, red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, deep violet; and so proves as well the first Proposition as the second.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00146", "bookId": 33504, "start": 64710, "end": 65270, "sha256": "73785b5e09343046d72aa4d30f835722f7c722960a28d352537bd37f8e493515", "text": "I caused also the coloured Spectrums PT [in _Fig._ 17.] and MN made in a dark Chamber by the Refractions of two Prisms to lie in a Right Line end to end, as was described above in the fifth Experiment, and viewing them through a third Prism held parallel to their Length, they appeared no longer in a Right Line, but became broken from one another, as they are represented at _pt_ and _mn_, the violet end _m_ of the Spectrum _mn_ being by a greater Refraction translated farther from its former Place MT than the red end _t_ of the other Spectrum _pt_.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00147", "bookId": 33504, "start": 65274, "end": 66043, "sha256": "083c04458bb0005c552985062cb6447809be67c21c005755ca134d82397c915f", "text": "I farther caused those two Spectrums PT [in _Fig._ 20.] and MN to become co-incident in an inverted Order of their Colours, the red end of each falling on the violet end of the other, as they are represented in the oblong Figure PTMN; and then viewing them through a Prism DH held parallel to their Length, they appeared not co-incident, as when view'd with the naked Eye, but in the form of two distinct Spectrums _pt_ and _mn_ crossing one another in the middle after the manner of the Letter X. Which shews that the red of the one Spectrum and violet of the other, which were co-incident at PN and MT, being parted from one another by a greater Refraction of the violet to _p_ and _m_ than of the red to _n_ and _t_, do differ in degrees of Refrangibility.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00148", "bookId": 33504, "start": 66047, "end": 67693, "sha256": "73db16586e24be730643ba64801e37ca7b6c71ecaaefcd74edfe7d869149c480", "text": "I illuminated also a little Circular Piece of white Paper all over with the Lights of both Prisms intermixed, and when it was illuminated with the red of one Spectrum, and deep violet of the other, so as by the Mixture of those Colours to appear all over purple, I viewed the Paper, first at a less distance, and then at a greater, through a third Prism; and as I went from the Paper, the refracted Image thereof became more and more divided by the unequal Refraction of the two mixed Colours, and at length parted into two distinct Images, a red one and a violet one, whereof the violet was farthest from the Paper, and therefore suffered the greatest Refraction. And when that Prism at the Window, which cast the violet on the Paper was taken away, the violet Image disappeared; but when the other Prism was taken away the red vanished; which shews, that these two Images were nothing else than the Lights of the two Prisms, which had been intermixed on the purple Paper, but were parted again by their unequal Refractions made in the third Prism, through which the Paper was view'd. This also was observable, that if one of the Prisms at the Window, suppose that which cast the violet on the Paper, was turned about its Axis to make all the Colours in this order, violet, indigo, blue, green, yellow, orange, red, fall successively on the Paper from that Prism, the violet Image changed Colour accordingly, turning successively to indigo, blue, green, yellow and red, and in changing Colour came nearer and nearer to the red Image made by the other Prism, until when it was also red both Images became fully co-incident.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00149", "bookId": 33504, "start": 67697, "end": 68380, "sha256": "f704a59df3b73f1c2b5fb3bddb5571c7998483a234f8adc3a70f5ed40f137ab3", "text": "I placed also two Paper Circles very near one another, the one in the red Light of one Prism, and the other in the violet Light of the other. The Circles were each of them an Inch in diameter, and behind them the Wall was dark, that the Experiment might not be disturbed by any Light coming from thence. These Circles thus illuminated, I viewed through a Prism, so held, that the Refraction might be made towards the red Circle, and as I went from them they came nearer and nearer together, and at length became co-incident; and afterwards when I went still farther off, they parted again in a contrary Order, the violet by a greater Refraction being carried beyond the red.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00150", "bookId": 33504, "start": 68384, "end": 71039, "sha256": "812ece20da9f9b2d6898f3e0b3d32dd7a9a083765ce6312d4b612dde4d837812", "text": "_Exper._ 8. In Summer, when the Sun's Light uses to be strongest, I placed a Prism at the Hole of the Window-shut, as in the third Experiment, yet so that its Axis might be parallel to the Axis of the World, and at the opposite Wall in the Sun's refracted Light, I placed an open Book. Then going six Feet and two Inches from the Book, I placed there the above-mentioned Lens, by which the Light reflected from the Book might be made to converge and meet again at the distance of six Feet and two Inches behind the Lens, and there paint the Species of the Book upon a Sheet of white Paper much after the manner of the second Experiment. The Book and Lens being made fast, I noted the Place where the Paper was, when the Letters of the Book, illuminated by the fullest red Light of the Solar Image falling upon it, did cast their Species on that Paper most distinctly: And then I stay'd till by the Motion of the Sun, and consequent Motion of his Image on the Book, all the Colours from that red to the middle of the blue pass'd over those Letters; and when those Letters were illuminated by that blue, I noted again the Place of the Paper when they cast their Species most distinctly upon it: And I found that this last Place of the Paper was nearer to the Lens than its former Place by about two Inches and an half, or two and three quarters. So much sooner therefore did the Light in the violet end of the Image by a greater Refraction converge and meet, than the Light in the red end. But in trying this, the Chamber was as dark as I could make it. For, if these Colours be diluted and weakned by the Mixture of any adventitious Light, the distance between the Places of the Paper will not be so great. This distance in the second Experiment, where the Colours of natural Bodies were made use of, was but an Inch and an half, by reason of the Imperfection of those Colours. Here in the Colours of the Prism, which are manifestly more full, intense, and lively than those of natural Bodies, the distance is two Inches and three quarters. And were the Colours still more full, I question not but that the distance would be considerably greater. For the coloured Light of the Prism, by the interfering of the Circles described in the second Figure of the fifth Experiment, and also by the Light of the very bright Clouds next the Sun's Body intermixing with these Colours, and by the Light scattered by the Inequalities in the Polish of the Prism, was so very much compounded, that the Species which those faint and dark Colours, the indigo and violet, cast upon the Paper were not distinct enough to be well observed.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00151", "bookId": 33504, "start": 71043, "end": 73719, "sha256": "61901c13699d096b2b0a6a3e2676710a2f98c2d986e576e1e2477d44155a3cb1", "text": "_Exper._ 9. A Prism, whose two Angles at its Base were equal to one another, and half right ones, and the third a right one, I placed in a Beam of the Sun's Light let into a dark Chamber through a Hole in the Window-shut, as in the third Experiment. And turning the Prism slowly about its Axis, until all the Light which went through one of its Angles, and was refracted by it began to be reflected by its Base, at which till then it went out of the Glass, I observed that those Rays which had suffered the greatest Refraction were sooner reflected than the rest. I conceived therefore, that those Rays of the reflected Light, which were most refrangible, did first of all by a total Reflexion become more copious in that Light than the rest, and that afterwards the rest also, by a total Reflexion, became as copious as these. To try this, I made the reflected Light pass through another Prism, and being refracted by it to fall afterwards upon a Sheet of white Paper placed at some distance behind it, and there by that Refraction to paint the usual Colours of the Prism. And then causing the first Prism to be turned about its Axis as above, I observed that when those Rays, which in this Prism had suffered the greatest Refraction, and appeared of a blue and violet Colour began to be totally reflected, the blue and violet Light on the Paper, which was most refracted in the second Prism, received a sensible Increase above that of the red and yellow, which was least refracted; and afterwards, when the rest of the Light which was green, yellow, and red, began to be totally reflected in the first Prism, the Light of those Colours on the Paper received as great an Increase as the violet and blue had done before. Whence 'tis manifest, that the Beam of Light reflected by the Base of the Prism, being augmented first by the more refrangible Rays, and afterwards by the less refrangible ones, is compounded of Rays differently refrangible. And that all such reflected Light is of the same Nature with the Sun's Light before its Incidence on the Base of the Prism, no Man ever doubted; it being generally allowed, that Light by such Reflexions suffers no Alteration in its Modifications and Properties. I do not here take Notice of any Refractions made in the sides of the first Prism, because the Light enters it perpendicularly at the first side, and goes out perpendicularly at the second side, and therefore suffers none. So then, the Sun's incident Light being of the same Temper and Constitution with his emergent Light, and the last being compounded of Rays differently refrangible, the first must be in like manner compounded.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00152", "bookId": 33504, "start": 73723, "end": 73747, "sha256": "802195b5d479203fa5a330e2f0cbbad106be539f50df0e4212e647c4514ee4de", "text": "[Illustration: FIG. 21.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00153", "bookId": 33504, "start": 73751, "end": 75038, "sha256": "1a63cc7596dfbe3f7e30f2639b4d370de07db0e031af82a35478c710c8cdf26b", "text": "_Illustration._ In the twenty-first Figure, ABC is the first Prism, BC its Base, B and C its equal Angles at the Base, each of 45 Degrees, A its rectangular Vertex, FM a beam of the Sun's Light let into a dark Room through a hole F one third part of an Inch broad, M its Incidence on the Base of the Prism, MG a less refracted Ray, MH a more refracted Ray, MN the beam of Light reflected from the Base, VXY the second Prism by which this beam in passing through it is refracted, N_t_ the less refracted Light of this beam, and N_p_ the more refracted part thereof. When the first Prism ABC is turned about its Axis according to the order of the Letters ABC, the Rays MH emerge more and more obliquely out of that Prism, and at length after their most oblique Emergence are reflected towards N, and going on to _p_ do increase the Number of the Rays N_p_. Afterwards by continuing the Motion of the first Prism, the Rays MG are also reflected to N and increase the number of the Rays N_t_. And therefore the Light MN admits into its Composition, first the more refrangible Rays, and then the less refrangible Rays, and yet after this Composition is of the same Nature with the Sun's immediate Light FM, the Reflexion of the specular Base BC causing no Alteration therein.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00154", "bookId": 33504, "start": 75042, "end": 77420, "sha256": "46622f53b47f62de7128014872a84980f55b3168d52bdff9e3c3e6f110b7fa5c", "text": "_Exper._ 10. Two Prisms, which were alike in Shape, I tied so together, that their Axis and opposite Sides being parallel, they composed a Parallelopiped. And, the Sun shining into my dark Chamber through a little hole in the Window-shut, I placed that Parallelopiped in his beam at some distance from the hole, in such a Posture, that the Axes of the Prisms might be perpendicular to the incident Rays, and that those Rays being incident upon the first Side of one Prism, might go on through the two contiguous Sides of both Prisms, and emerge out of the last Side of the second Prism. This Side being parallel to the first Side of the first Prism, caused the emerging Light to be parallel to the incident. Then, beyond these two Prisms I placed a third, which might refract that emergent Light, and by that Refraction cast the usual Colours of the Prism upon the opposite Wall, or upon a sheet of white Paper held at a convenient Distance behind the Prism for that refracted Light to fall upon it. After this I turned the Parallelopiped about its Axis, and found that when the contiguous Sides of the two Prisms became so oblique to the incident Rays, that those Rays began all of them to be reflected, those Rays which in the third Prism had suffered the greatest Refraction, and painted the Paper with violet and blue, were first of all by a total Reflexion taken out of the transmitted Light, the rest remaining and on the Paper painting their Colours of green, yellow, orange and red, as before; and afterwards by continuing the Motion of the two Prisms, the rest of the Rays also by a total Reflexion vanished in order, according to their degrees of Refrangibility. The Light therefore which emerged out of the two Prisms is compounded of Rays differently refrangible, seeing the more refrangible Rays may be taken out of it, while the less refrangible remain. But this Light being trajected only through the parallel Superficies of the two Prisms, if it suffer'd any change by the Refraction of one Superficies it lost that Impression by the contrary Refraction of the other Superficies, and so being restor'd to its pristine Constitution, became of the same Nature and Condition as at first before its Incidence on those Prisms; and therefore, before its Incidence, was as much compounded of Rays differently refrangible, as afterwards.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00155", "bookId": 33504, "start": 77424, "end": 77448, "sha256": "065a2f48a5000fdeaf285e82045026e3636957345ceae668ace67ae4c267af76", "text": "[Illustration: FIG. 22.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00156", "bookId": 33504, "start": 77452, "end": 80971, "sha256": "33e9541ed5d868823e69b72bf38948363fb98aa8ef973f5ac7e8f13b4fbacbd6", "text": "_Illustration._ In the twenty second Figure ABC and BCD are the two Prisms tied together in the form of a Parallelopiped, their Sides BC and CB being contiguous, and their Sides AB and CD parallel. And HJK is the third Prism, by which the Sun's Light propagated through the hole F into the dark Chamber, and there passing through those sides of the Prisms AB, BC, CB and CD, is refracted at O to the white Paper PT, falling there partly upon P by a greater Refraction, partly upon T by a less Refraction, and partly upon R and other intermediate places by intermediate Refractions. By turning the Parallelopiped ACBD about its Axis, according to the order of the Letters A, C, D, B, at length when the contiguous Planes BC and CB become sufficiently oblique to the Rays FM, which are incident upon them at M, there will vanish totally out of the refracted Light OPT, first of all the most refracted Rays OP, (the rest OR and OT remaining as before) then the Rays OR and other intermediate ones, and lastly, the least refracted Rays OT. For when the Plane BC becomes sufficiently oblique to the Rays incident upon it, those Rays will begin to be totally reflected by it towards N; and first the most refrangible Rays will be totally reflected (as was explained in the preceding Experiment) and by Consequence must first disappear at P, and afterwards the rest as they are in order totally reflected to N, they must disappear in the same order at R and T. So then the Rays which at O suffer the greatest Refraction, may be taken out of the Light MO whilst the rest of the Rays remain in it, and therefore that Light MO is compounded of Rays differently refrangible. And because the Planes AB and CD are parallel, and therefore by equal and contrary Refractions destroy one anothers Effects, the incident Light FM must be of the same Kind and Nature with the emergent Light MO, and therefore doth also consist of Rays differently refrangible. These two Lights FM and MO, before the most refrangible Rays are separated out of the emergent Light MO, agree in Colour, and in all other Properties so far as my Observation reaches, and therefore are deservedly reputed of the same Nature and Constitution, and by Consequence the one is compounded as well as the other. But after the most refrangible Rays begin to be totally reflected, and thereby separated out of the emergent Light MO, that Light changes its Colour from white to a dilute and faint yellow, a pretty good orange, a very full red successively, and then totally vanishes. For after the most refrangible Rays which paint the Paper at P with a purple Colour, are by a total Reflexion taken out of the beam of Light MO, the rest of the Colours which appear on the Paper at R and T being mix'd in the Light MO compound there a faint yellow, and after the blue and part of the green which appear on the Paper between P and R are taken away, the rest which appear between R and T (that is the yellow, orange, red and a little green) being mixed in the beam MO compound there an orange; and when all the Rays are by Reflexion taken out of the beam MO, except the least refrangible, which at T appear of a full red, their Colour is the same in that beam MO as afterwards at T, the Refraction of the Prism HJK serving only to separate the differently refrangible Rays, without making any Alteration in their Colours, as shall be more fully proved hereafter. All which confirms as well the first Proposition as the second.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00157", "bookId": 33504, "start": 80975, "end": 82315, "sha256": "9ce13b2d58147adde0984d628ede10f3ba5b15a85051cce7e4bddc83f5e527a2", "text": "_Scholium._ If this Experiment and the former be conjoined and made one by applying a fourth Prism VXY [in _Fig._ 22.] to refract the reflected beam MN towards _tp_, the Conclusion will be clearer. For then the Light N_p_ which in the fourth Prism is more refracted, will become fuller and stronger when the Light OP, which in the third Prism HJK is more refracted, vanishes at P; and afterwards when the less refracted Light OT vanishes at T, the less refracted Light N_t_ will become increased whilst the more refracted Light at _p_ receives no farther increase. And as the trajected beam MO in vanishing is always of such a Colour as ought to result from the mixture of the Colours which fall upon the Paper PT, so is the reflected beam MN always of such a Colour as ought to result from the mixture of the Colours which fall upon the Paper _pt_. For when the most refrangible Rays are by a total Reflexion taken out of the beam MO, and leave that beam of an orange Colour, the Excess of those Rays in the reflected Light, does not only make the violet, indigo and blue at _p_ more full, but also makes the beam MN change from the yellowish Colour of the Sun's Light, to a pale white inclining to blue, and afterward recover its yellowish Colour again, so soon as all the rest of the transmitted Light MOT is reflected.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00158", "bookId": 33504, "start": 82319, "end": 84118, "sha256": "676b9839a91ca346b95e849d950d794b816a18ef8ee763150dded14e0d2059d1", "text": "Now seeing that in all this variety of Experiments, whether the Trial be made in Light reflected, and that either from natural Bodies, as in the first and second Experiment, or specular, as in the ninth; or in Light refracted, and that either before the unequally refracted Rays are by diverging separated from one another, and losing their whiteness which they have altogether, appear severally of several Colours, as in the fifth Experiment; or after they are separated from one another, and appear colour'd as in the sixth, seventh, and eighth Experiments; or in Light trajected through parallel Superficies, destroying each others Effects, as in the tenth Experiment; there are always found Rays, which at equal Incidences on the same Medium suffer unequal Refractions, and that without any splitting or dilating of single Rays, or contingence in the inequality of the Refractions, as is proved in the fifth and sixth Experiments. And seeing the Rays which differ in Refrangibility may be parted and sorted from one another, and that either by Refraction as in the third Experiment, or by Reflexion as in the tenth, and then the several sorts apart at equal Incidences suffer unequal Refractions, and those sorts are more refracted than others after Separation, which were more refracted before it, as in the sixth and following Experiments, and if the Sun's Light be trajected through three or more cross Prisms successively, those Rays which in the first Prism are refracted more than others, are in all the following Prisms refracted more than others in the same Rate and Proportion, as appears by the fifth Experiment; it's manifest that the Sun's Light is an heterogeneous Mixture of Rays, some of which are constantly more refrangible than others, as was proposed.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00159", "bookId": 33504, "start": 84124, "end": 84148, "sha256": "3be84c45c25ffbff872ae9551c9f33af9c0cf85ccf534149ff390183c52f5f71", "text": "_PROP._ III. THEOR. III.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00160", "bookId": 33504, "start": 84152, "end": 84290, "sha256": "9e0de6da0e3c1152dafb744f86e060b282358d319c5a02c12abd63d95c28ccf9", "text": "_The Sun's Light consists of Rays differing in Reflexibility, and those Rays are more reflexible than others which are more refrangible._", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00161", "bookId": 33504, "start": 84294, "end": 84827, "sha256": "27b1604d76d52af683d633d2c2a2710576caae810f58953b29d07c67e300e53e", "text": "This is manifest by the ninth and tenth Experiments: For in the ninth Experiment, by turning the Prism about its Axis, until the Rays within it which in going out into the Air were refracted by its Base, became so oblique to that Base, as to begin to be totally reflected thereby; those Rays became first of all totally reflected, which before at equal Incidences with the rest had suffered the greatest Refraction. And the same thing happens in the Reflexion made by the common Base of the two Prisms in the tenth Experiment.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00162", "bookId": 33504, "start": 84833, "end": 84853, "sha256": "8cb3831a8ad99f1f7199e645019fb57ba60a4bd2a5c3eb5543452acdf25c510a", "text": "_PROP._ IV. PROB. I.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00163", "bookId": 33504, "start": 84857, "end": 84929, "sha256": "d7cf095fc7158a9dfd8958ee3cbc05212f89990ce03f9aa1d2f45052285b9449", "text": "_To separate from one another the heterogeneous Rays of compound Light._", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00164", "bookId": 33504, "start": 84933, "end": 84957, "sha256": "aa5fd29b526969ad8ea352f855b9ec76a0d2bc3b59211fa7614c0e744e4f3c73", "text": "[Illustration: FIG. 23.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00165", "bookId": 33504, "start": 84961, "end": 87538, "sha256": "eb45701055299eb5278471ef3629149373b6ad59b4b9e58e4c643e6c8423c2b2", "text": "The heterogeneous Rays are in some measure separated from one another by the Refraction of the Prism in the third Experiment, and in the fifth Experiment, by taking away the Penumbra from the rectilinear sides of the coloured Image, that Separation in those very rectilinear sides or straight edges of the Image becomes perfect. But in all places between those rectilinear edges, those innumerable Circles there described, which are severally illuminated by homogeneal Rays, by interfering with one another, and being every where commix'd, do render the Light sufficiently compound. But if these Circles, whilst their Centers keep their Distances and Positions, could be made less in Diameter, their interfering one with another, and by Consequence the Mixture of the heterogeneous Rays would be proportionally diminish'd. In the twenty third Figure let AG, BH, CJ, DK, EL, FM be the Circles which so many sorts of Rays flowing from the same disque of the Sun, do in the third Experiment illuminate; of all which and innumerable other intermediate ones lying in a continual Series between the two rectilinear and parallel edges of the Sun's oblong Image PT, that Image is compos'd, as was explained in the fifth Experiment. And let _ag_, _bh_, _ci_, _dk_, _el_, _fm_ be so many less Circles lying in a like continual Series between two parallel right Lines _af_ and _gm_ with the same distances between their Centers, and illuminated by the same sorts of Rays, that is the Circle _ag_ with the same sort by which the corresponding Circle AG was illuminated, and the Circle _bh_ with the same sort by which the corresponding Circle BH was illuminated, and the rest of the Circles _ci_, _dk_, _el_, _fm_ respectively, with the same sorts of Rays by which the several corresponding Circles CJ, DK, EL, FM were illuminated. In the Figure PT composed of the greater Circles, three of those Circles AG, BH, CJ, are so expanded into one another, that the three sorts of Rays by which those Circles are illuminated, together with other innumerable sorts of intermediate Rays, are mixed at QR in the middle of the Circle BH. And the like Mixture happens throughout almost the whole length of the Figure PT. But in the Figure _pt_ composed of the less Circles, the three less Circles _ag_, _bh_, _ci_, which answer to those three greater, do not extend into one another; nor are there any where mingled so much as any two of the three sorts of Rays by which those Circles are illuminated, and which in the Figure PT are all of them intermingled at BH.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00166", "bookId": 33504, "start": 87542, "end": 88458, "sha256": "f21c599766774ce658ea068c8da4bf9bc75ed6b3038923c4cddcdee1bf88bdf8", "text": "Now he that shall thus consider it, will easily understand that the Mixture is diminished in the same Proportion with the Diameters of the Circles. If the Diameters of the Circles whilst their Centers remain the same, be made three times less than before, the Mixture will be also three times less; if ten times less, the Mixture will be ten times less, and so of other Proportions. That is, the Mixture of the Rays in the greater Figure PT will be to their Mixture in the less _pt_, as the Latitude of the greater Figure is to the Latitude of the less. For the Latitudes of these Figures are equal to the Diameters of their Circles. And hence it easily follows, that the Mixture of the Rays in the refracted Spectrum _pt_ is to the Mixture of the Rays in the direct and immediate Light of the Sun, as the breadth of that Spectrum is to the difference between the length and breadth of the same Spectrum.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00167", "bookId": 33504, "start": 88462, "end": 89898, "sha256": "593852d116cd351b60a8155c0c979b86067284ae315859d48cc8e4c9e246271a", "text": "So then, if we would diminish the Mixture of the Rays, we are to diminish the Diameters of the Circles. Now these would be diminished if the Sun's Diameter to which they answer could be made less than it is, or (which comes to the same Purpose) if without Doors, at a great distance from the Prism towards the Sun, some opake Body were placed, with a round hole in the middle of it, to intercept all the Sun's Light, excepting so much as coming from the middle of his Body could pass through that Hole to the Prism. For so the Circles AG, BH, and the rest, would not any longer answer to the whole Disque of the Sun, but only to that Part of it which could be seen from the Prism through that Hole, that it is to the apparent Magnitude of that Hole view'd from the Prism. But that these Circles may answer more distinctly to that Hole, a Lens is to be placed by the Prism to cast the Image of the Hole, (that is, every one of the Circles AG, BH, &c.) distinctly upon the Paper at PT, after such a manner, as by a Lens placed at a Window, the Species of Objects abroad are cast distinctly upon a Paper within the Room, and the rectilinear Sides of the oblong Solar Image in the fifth Experiment became distinct without any Penumbra. If this be done, it will not be necessary to place that Hole very far off, no not beyond the Window. And therefore instead of that Hole, I used the Hole in the Window-shut, as follows.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00168", "bookId": 33504, "start": 89902, "end": 91702, "sha256": "28eca5961ce7b57518f5fbdf838fd7e7f616b8fb0130d36addc54e8a71c05bb0", "text": "_Exper._ 11. In the Sun's Light let into my darken'd Chamber through a small round Hole in my Window-shut, at about ten or twelve Feet from the Window, I placed a Lens, by which the Image of the Hole might be distinctly cast upon a Sheet of white Paper, placed at the distance of six, eight, ten, or twelve Feet from the Lens. For, according to the difference of the Lenses I used various distances, which I think not worth the while to describe. Then immediately after the Lens I placed a Prism, by which the trajected Light might be refracted either upwards or sideways, and thereby the round Image, which the Lens alone did cast upon the Paper might be drawn out into a long one with Parallel Sides, as in the third Experiment. This oblong Image I let fall upon another Paper at about the same distance from the Prism as before, moving the Paper either towards the Prism or from it, until I found the just distance where the Rectilinear Sides of the Image became most distinct. For in this Case, the Circular Images of the Hole, which compose that Image after the same manner that the Circles _ag_, _bh_, _ci_, &c. do the Figure _pt_ [in _Fig._ 23.] were terminated most distinctly without any Penumbra, and therefore extended into one another the least that they could, and by consequence the Mixture of the heterogeneous Rays was now the least of all. By this means I used to form an oblong Image (such as is _pt_) [in _Fig._ 23, and 24.] of Circular Images of the Hole, (such as are _ag_, _bh_, _ci_, &c.) and by using a greater or less Hole in the Window-shut, I made the Circular Images _ag_, _bh_, _ci_, &c. of which it was formed, to become greater or less at pleasure, and thereby the Mixture of the Rays in the Image _pt_ to be as much, or as little as I desired.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00169", "bookId": 33504, "start": 91706, "end": 91730, "sha256": "1ea6de4dc0cc8b45a391ccc9056610727e2e56f4292eaa94bd931de80e33f8de", "text": "[Illustration: FIG. 24.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00170", "bookId": 33504, "start": 91734, "end": 93609, "sha256": "bf6c0ff44002169a42ce77632230de5c70c30bf0df48a4a4299d4f1247449d96", "text": "_Illustration._ In the twenty-fourth Figure, F represents the Circular Hole in the Window-shut, MN the Lens, whereby the Image or Species of that Hole is cast distinctly upon a Paper at J, ABC the Prism, whereby the Rays are at their emerging out of the Lens refracted from J towards another Paper at _pt_, and the round Image at J is turned into an oblong Image _pt_ falling on that other Paper. This Image _pt_ consists of Circles placed one after another in a Rectilinear Order, as was sufficiently explained in the fifth Experiment; and these Circles are equal to the Circle J, and consequently answer in magnitude to the Hole F; and therefore by diminishing that Hole they may be at pleasure diminished, whilst their Centers remain in their Places. By this means I made the Breadth of the Image _pt_ to be forty times, and sometimes sixty or seventy times less than its Length. As for instance, if the Breadth of the Hole F be one tenth of an Inch, and MF the distance of the Lens from the Hole be 12 Feet; and if _p_B or _p_M the distance of the Image _pt_ from the Prism or Lens be 10 Feet, and the refracting Angle of the Prism be 62 Degrees, the Breadth of the Image _pt_ will be one twelfth of an Inch, and the Length about six Inches, and therefore the Length to the Breadth as 72 to 1, and by consequence the Light of this Image 71 times less compound than the Sun's direct Light. And Light thus far simple and homogeneal, is sufficient for trying all the Experiments in this Book about simple Light. For the Composition of heterogeneal Rays is in this Light so little, that it is scarce to be discovered and perceiv'd by Sense, except perhaps in the indigo and violet. For these being dark Colours do easily suffer a sensible Allay by that little scattering Light which uses to be refracted irregularly by the Inequalities of the Prism.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00171", "bookId": 33504, "start": 93613, "end": 94061, "sha256": "8a78761e317ad61342eee377f685a0dcb77bc0edac943e8888dd552d9a6c5a9b", "text": "Yet instead of the Circular Hole F, 'tis better to substitute an oblong Hole shaped like a long Parallelogram with its Length parallel to the Prism ABC. For if this Hole be an Inch or two long, and but a tenth or twentieth Part of an Inch broad, or narrower; the Light of the Image _pt_ will be as simple as before, or simpler, and the Image will become much broader, and therefore more fit to have Experiments try'd in its Light than before.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00172", "bookId": 33504, "start": 94065, "end": 95286, "sha256": "2cffdda21a1796b7919c59033e9d0167698a635a59fe31effafd58a381dbb65b", "text": "Instead of this Parallelogram Hole may be substituted a triangular one of equal Sides, whose Base, for instance, is about the tenth Part of an Inch, and its Height an Inch or more. For by this means, if the Axis of the Prism be parallel to the Perpendicular of the Triangle, the Image _pt_ [in _Fig._ 25.] will now be form'd of equicrural Triangles _ag_, _bh_, _ci_, _dk_, _el_, _fm_, &c. and innumerable other intermediate ones answering to the triangular Hole in Shape and Bigness, and lying one after another in a continual Series between two Parallel Lines _af_ and _gm_. These Triangles are a little intermingled at their Bases, but not at their Vertices; and therefore the Light on the brighter Side _af_ of the Image, where the Bases of the Triangles are, is a little compounded, but on the darker Side _gm_ is altogether uncompounded, and in all Places between the Sides the Composition is proportional to the distances of the Places from that obscurer Side _gm_. And having a Spectrum _pt_ of such a Composition, we may try Experiments either in its stronger and less simple Light near the Side _af_, or in its weaker and simpler Light near the other Side _gm_, as it shall seem most convenient.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00173", "bookId": 33504, "start": 95290, "end": 95314, "sha256": "ba602d4bd4efce6e3c679ca7bc173e3c86c92fbb6e18fb1a66ada23ecf2b5a09", "text": "[Illustration: FIG. 25.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00174", "bookId": 33504, "start": 95318, "end": 97254, "sha256": "800820fd19928e4457abff311f0eeefb24d21c01b2ebdc9636a8525f1c4c8a8c", "text": "But in making Experiments of this kind, the Chamber ought to be made as dark as can be, lest any Foreign Light mingle it self with the Light of the Spectrum _pt_, and render it compound; especially if we would try Experiments in the more simple Light next the Side _gm_ of the Spectrum; which being fainter, will have a less proportion to the Foreign Light; and so by the mixture of that Light be more troubled, and made more compound. The Lens also ought to be good, such as may serve for optical Uses, and the Prism ought to have a large Angle, suppose of 65 or 70 Degrees, and to be well wrought, being made of Glass free from Bubbles and Veins, with its Sides not a little convex or concave, as usually happens, but truly plane, and its Polish elaborate, as in working Optick-glasses, and not such as is usually wrought with Putty, whereby the edges of the Sand-holes being worn away, there are left all over the Glass a numberless Company of very little convex polite Risings like Waves. The edges also of the Prism and Lens, so far as they may make any irregular Refraction, must be covered with a black Paper glewed on. And all the Light of the Sun's Beam let into the Chamber, which is useless and unprofitable to the Experiment, ought to be intercepted with black Paper, or other black Obstacles. For otherwise the useless Light being reflected every way in the Chamber, will mix with the oblong Spectrum, and help to disturb it. In trying these Things, so much diligence is not altogether necessary, but it will promote the Success of the Experiments, and by a very scrupulous Examiner of Things deserves to be apply'd. It's difficult to get Glass Prisms fit for this Purpose, and therefore I used sometimes prismatick Vessels made with pieces of broken Looking-glasses, and filled with Rain Water. And to increase the Refraction, I sometimes impregnated the Water strongly with _Saccharum Saturni_.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00175", "bookId": 33504, "start": 97260, "end": 97281, "sha256": "1a400599bd0eb09c62f46eda23a5f419eefa33318b53362c16bc4dec35da8585", "text": "_PROP._ V. THEOR. IV.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00176", "bookId": 33504, "start": 97285, "end": 97544, "sha256": "6ef3cd54a8944f575a9a479c73277ffcba7d1dca042e5b02f9eec86fd8ebde53", "text": "_Homogeneal Light is refracted regularly without any Dilatation splitting or shattering of the Rays, and the confused Vision of Objects seen through refracting Bodies by heterogeneal Light arises from the different Refrangibility of several sorts of Rays._", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00177", "bookId": 33504, "start": 97548, "end": 97703, "sha256": "8fe6af9960fc9fb13679c745d893119cd7a4fb9af546d70abe963e7865f15708", "text": "The first Part of this Proposition has been already sufficiently proved in the fifth Experiment, and will farther appear by the Experiments which follow.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00178", "bookId": 33504, "start": 97707, "end": 98569, "sha256": "3f15edd2b580c04eb7a7efad376000a58e1f95e86b47541de7dc472c9f1ddea7", "text": "_Exper._ 12. In the middle of a black Paper I made a round Hole about a fifth or sixth Part of an Inch in diameter. Upon this Paper I caused the Spectrum of homogeneal Light described in the former Proposition, so to fall, that some part of the Light might pass through the Hole of the Paper. This transmitted part of the Light I refracted with a Prism placed behind the Paper, and letting this refracted Light fall perpendicularly upon a white Paper two or three Feet distant from the Prism, I found that the Spectrum formed on the Paper by this Light was not oblong, as when 'tis made (in the third Experiment) by refracting the Sun's compound Light, but was (so far as I could judge by my Eye) perfectly circular, the Length being no greater than the Breadth. Which shews, that this Light is refracted regularly without any Dilatation of the Rays.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00179", "bookId": 33504, "start": 98573, "end": 99214, "sha256": "19c8e3c00a0ab97177f053d650c9a8797e61396fd90cdb48d0656465ad57004d", "text": "_Exper._ 13. In the homogeneal Light I placed a Paper Circle of a quarter of an Inch in diameter, and in the Sun's unrefracted heterogeneal white Light I placed another Paper Circle of the same Bigness. And going from the Papers to the distance of some Feet, I viewed both Circles through a Prism. The Circle illuminated by the Sun's heterogeneal Light appeared very oblong, as in the fourth Experiment, the Length being many times greater than the Breadth; but the other Circle, illuminated with homogeneal Light, appeared circular and distinctly defined, as when 'tis view'd with the naked Eye. Which proves the whole Proposition.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00180", "bookId": 33504, "start": 99218, "end": 100495, "sha256": "32f9c84a997affbaff7dabaf625ca7392563b749c37eb50abf9a9b39aacdb581", "text": "_Exper._ 14. In the homogeneal Light I placed Flies, and such-like minute Objects, and viewing them through a Prism, I saw their Parts as distinctly defined, as if I had viewed them with the naked Eye. The same Objects placed in the Sun's unrefracted heterogeneal Light, which was white, I viewed also through a Prism, and saw them most confusedly defined, so that I could not distinguish their smaller Parts from one another. I placed also the Letters of a small print, one while in the homogeneal Light, and then in the heterogeneal, and viewing them through a Prism, they appeared in the latter Case so confused and indistinct, that I could not read them; but in the former they appeared so distinct, that I could read readily, and thought I saw them as distinct, as when I view'd them with my naked Eye. In both Cases I view'd the same Objects, through the same Prism at the same distance from me, and in the same Situation. There was no difference, but in the Light by which the Objects were illuminated, and which in one Case was simple, and in the other compound; and therefore, the distinct Vision in the former Case, and confused in the latter, could arise from nothing else than from that difference of the Lights. Which proves the whole Proposition.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00181", "bookId": 33504, "start": 100499, "end": 100634, "sha256": "9c1be34850cbf9e0e8293e6de1c6c7f49e4ca62e6d285dec155633fe0448dc37", "text": "And in these three Experiments it is farther very remarkable, that the Colour of homogeneal Light was never changed by the Refraction.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00182", "bookId": 33504, "start": 100640, "end": 100661, "sha256": "8b6f3b1ed30dc566e7be94cc4efa9f0a48287ee329a018425e2dd979f9b9073a", "text": "_PROP._ VI. THEOR. V.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00183", "bookId": 33504, "start": 100665, "end": 100767, "sha256": "2ef03e4473960e27fe893a45f68ecca3ac3e2d3d066f8c27a7dd24ef278eab92", "text": "_The Sine of Incidence of every Ray considered apart, is to its Sine of Refraction in a given Ratio._", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00184", "bookId": 33504, "start": 100771, "end": 101702, "sha256": "959e028c6c4e25a06d13ca2e918bf9783b76d3761d9c3d809a0f41a891023997", "text": "That every Ray consider'd apart, is constant to it self in some degree of Refrangibility, is sufficiently manifest out of what has been said. Those Rays, which in the first Refraction, are at equal Incidences most refracted, are also in the following Refractions at equal Incidences most refracted; and so of the least refrangible, and the rest which have any mean Degree of Refrangibility, as is manifest by the fifth, sixth, seventh, eighth, and ninth Experiments. And those which the first Time at like Incidences are equally refracted, are again at like Incidences equally and uniformly refracted, and that whether they be refracted before they be separated from one another, as in the fifth Experiment, or whether they be refracted apart, as in the twelfth, thirteenth and fourteenth Experiments. The Refraction therefore of every Ray apart is regular, and what Rule that Refraction observes we are now to shew.[E]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00185", "bookId": 33504, "start": 101706, "end": 103416, "sha256": "aee117b9ac2dffc442257d0157fd2ebc984748e06942d1775787414d357b6630", "text": "The late Writers in Opticks teach, that the Sines of Incidence are in a given Proportion to the Sines of Refraction, as was explained in the fifth Axiom, and some by Instruments fitted for measuring of Refractions, or otherwise experimentally examining this Proportion, do acquaint us that they have found it accurate. But whilst they, not understanding the different Refrangibility of several Rays, conceived them all to be refracted according to one and the same Proportion, 'tis to be presumed that they adapted their Measures only to the middle of the refracted Light; so that from their Measures we may conclude only that the Rays which have a mean Degree of Refrangibility, that is, those which when separated from the rest appear green, are refracted according to a given Proportion of their Sines. And therefore we are now to shew, that the like given Proportions obtain in all the rest. That it should be so is very reasonable, Nature being ever conformable to her self; but an experimental Proof is desired. And such a Proof will be had, if we can shew that the Sines of Refraction of Rays differently refrangible are one to another in a given Proportion when their Sines of Incidence are equal. For, if the Sines of Refraction of all the Rays are in given Proportions to the Sine of Refractions of a Ray which has a mean Degree of Refrangibility, and this Sine is in a given Proportion to the equal Sines of Incidence, those other Sines of Refraction will also be in given Proportions to the equal Sines of Incidence. Now, when the Sines of Incidence are equal, it will appear by the following Experiment, that the Sines of Refraction are in a given Proportion to one another.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00186", "bookId": 33504, "start": 103420, "end": 103444, "sha256": "7f1a19c09da6346c308f8dc84c3f0fe636d78e9331deb73c7f1f26fd9e685ccc", "text": "[Illustration: FIG. 26.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00187", "bookId": 33504, "start": 103448, "end": 106816, "sha256": "d10a010803fb3621b16a77a9e188ca241d8d44a1ecb46c9092240cf617dd34c1", "text": "_Exper._ 15. The Sun shining into a dark Chamber through a little round Hole in the Window-shut, let S [in _Fig._ 26.] represent his round white Image painted on the opposite Wall by his direct Light, PT his oblong coloured Image made by refracting that Light with a Prism placed at the Window; and _pt_, or _2p 2t_, _3p 3t_, his oblong colour'd Image made by refracting again the same Light sideways with a second Prism placed immediately after the first in a cross Position to it, as was explained in the fifth Experiment; that is to say, _pt_ when the Refraction of the second Prism is small, _2p 2t_ when its Refraction is greater, and _3p 3t_ when it is greatest. For such will be the diversity of the Refractions, if the refracting Angle of the second Prism be of various Magnitudes; suppose of fifteen or twenty Degrees to make the Image _pt_, of thirty or forty to make the Image _2p 2t_, and of sixty to make the Image _3p 3t_. But for want of solid Glass Prisms with Angles of convenient Bignesses, there may be Vessels made of polished Plates of Glass cemented together in the form of Prisms and filled with Water. These things being thus ordered, I observed that all the solar Images or coloured Spectrums PT, _pt_, _2p 2t_, _3p 3t_ did very nearly converge to the place S on which the direct Light of the Sun fell and painted his white round Image when the Prisms were taken away. The Axis of the Spectrum PT, that is the Line drawn through the middle of it parallel to its rectilinear Sides, did when produced pass exactly through the middle of that white round Image S. And when the Refraction of the second Prism was equal to the Refraction of the first, the refracting Angles of them both being about 60 Degrees, the Axis of the Spectrum _3p 3t_ made by that Refraction, did when produced pass also through the middle of the same white round Image S. But when the Refraction of the second Prism was less than that of the first, the produced Axes of the Spectrums _tp_ or _2t 2p_ made by that Refraction did cut the produced Axis of the Spectrum TP in the points _m_ and _n_, a little beyond the Center of that white round Image S. Whence the proportion of the Line 3_t_T to the Line 3_p_P was a little greater than the Proportion of 2_t_T or 2_p_P, and this Proportion a little greater than that of _t_T to _p_P. Now when the Light of the Spectrum PT falls perpendicularly upon the Wall, those Lines 3_t_T, 3_p_P, and 2_t_T, and 2_p_P, and _t_T, _p_P, are the Tangents of the Refractions, and therefore by this Experiment the Proportions of the Tangents of the Refractions are obtained, from whence the Proportions of the Sines being derived, they come out equal, so far as by viewing the Spectrums, and using some mathematical Reasoning I could estimate. For I did not make an accurate Computation. So then the Proposition holds true in every Ray apart, so far as appears by Experiment. And that it is accurately true, may be demonstrated upon this Supposition. _That Bodies refract Light by acting upon its Rays in Lines perpendicular to their Surfaces._ But in order to this Demonstration, I must distinguish the Motion of every Ray into two Motions, the one perpendicular to the refracting Surface, the other parallel to it, and concerning the perpendicular Motion lay down the following Proposition.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00188", "bookId": 33504, "start": 106820, "end": 107556, "sha256": "b7c4fb513491a70b356b6cff838aa0abeef9a3f05643dddbcf1658f55484d3ee", "text": "If any Motion or moving thing whatsoever be incident with any Velocity on any broad and thin space terminated on both sides by two parallel Planes, and in its Passage through that space be urged perpendicularly towards the farther Plane by any force which at given distances from the Plane is of given Quantities; the perpendicular velocity of that Motion or Thing, at its emerging out of that space, shall be always equal to the square Root of the sum of the square of the perpendicular velocity of that Motion or Thing at its Incidence on that space; and of the square of the perpendicular velocity which that Motion or Thing would have at its Emergence, if at its Incidence its perpendicular velocity was infinitely little.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00189", "bookId": 33504, "start": 107560, "end": 107859, "sha256": "c8ee8da616fd0d96f15683b4447785e0e4603303b97e4da81cc9510128b24899", "text": "And the same Proposition holds true of any Motion or Thing perpendicularly retarded in its passage through that space, if instead of the sum of the two Squares you take their difference. The Demonstration Mathematicians will easily find out, and therefore I shall not trouble the Reader with it.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00190", "bookId": 33504, "start": 107863, "end": 110227, "sha256": "264e6592c3702ce0fd199f0ec9064be662e7daa5a864c1a89a7c09e880e9f9f7", "text": "Suppose now that a Ray coming most obliquely in the Line MC [in _Fig._ 1.] be refracted at C by the Plane RS into the Line CN, and if it be required to find the Line CE, into which any other Ray AC shall be refracted; let MC, AD, be the Sines of Incidence of the two Rays, and NG, EF, their Sines of Refraction, and let the equal Motions of the incident Rays be represented by the equal Lines MC and AC, and the Motion MC being considered as parallel to the refracting Plane, let the other Motion AC be distinguished into two Motions AD and DC, one of which AD is parallel, and the other DC perpendicular to the refracting Surface. In like manner, let the Motions of the emerging Rays be distinguish'd into two, whereof the perpendicular ones are MC/NG x CG and AD/EF x CF. And if the force of the refracting Plane begins to act upon the Rays either in that Plane or at a certain distance from it on the one side, and ends at a certain distance from it on the other side, and in all places between those two limits acts upon the Rays in Lines perpendicular to that refracting Plane, and the Actions upon the Rays at equal distances from the refracting Plane be equal, and at unequal ones either equal or unequal according to any rate whatever; that Motion of the Ray which is parallel to the refracting Plane, will suffer no Alteration by that Force; and that Motion which is perpendicular to it will be altered according to the rule of the foregoing Proposition. If therefore for the perpendicular velocity of the emerging Ray CN you write MC/NG x CG as above, then the perpendicular velocity of any other emerging Ray CE which was AD/EF x CF, will be equal to the square Root of CD_q_ + (_MCq/NGq_ x CG_q_). And by squaring these Equals, and adding to them the Equals AD_q_ and MC_q_ - CD_q_, and dividing the Sums by the Equals CF_q_ + EF_q_ and CG_q_ + NG_q_, you will have _MCq/NGq_ equal to _ADq/EFq_. Whence AD, the Sine of Incidence, is to EF the Sine of Refraction, as MC to NG, that is, in a given _ratio_. And this Demonstration being general, without determining what Light is, or by what kind of Force it is refracted, or assuming any thing farther than that the refracting Body acts upon the Rays in Lines perpendicular to its Surface; I take it to be a very convincing Argument of the full truth of this Proposition.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00191", "bookId": 33504, "start": 110231, "end": 110442, "sha256": "7f6fe67e4346868d2a166127bc630426871e71847cf10832efabb07335c172a7", "text": "So then, if the _ratio_ of the Sines of Incidence and Refraction of any sort of Rays be found in any one case, 'tis given in all cases; and this may be readily found by the Method in the following Proposition.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00192", "bookId": 33504, "start": 110448, "end": 110471, "sha256": "dccc8107f85a7ad9725d848b6bb22e8df8809852819677f96adc1e57604ebd02", "text": "_PROP._ VII. THEOR. VI.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00193", "bookId": 33504, "start": 110475, "end": 110571, "sha256": "2090ff28c65332bc187145986fbae58fbde2ea4ee21771b50de2bdc66a7d95c2", "text": "_The Perfection of Telescopes is impeded by the different Refrangibility of the Rays of Light._", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00194", "bookId": 33504, "start": 110575, "end": 110957, "sha256": "c4d22abe1bc8789ab1129dffb15cc47a104372c94c5dd3b35d352b12c25344ca", "text": "The Imperfection of Telescopes is vulgarly attributed to the spherical Figures of the Glasses, and therefore Mathematicians have propounded to figure them by the conical Sections. To shew that they are mistaken, I have inserted this Proposition; the truth of which will appear by the measure of the Refractions of the several sorts of Rays; and these measures I thus determine.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00195", "bookId": 33504, "start": 110961, "end": 112439, "sha256": "1670981995ad7e30dad6eb523faf0043e5084032759cad7a60e5142f7edddae0", "text": "In the third Experiment of this first Part, where the refracting Angle of the Prism was 62-1/2 Degrees, the half of that Angle 31 deg. 15 min. is the Angle of Incidence of the Rays at their going out of the Glass into the Air[F]; and the Sine of this Angle is 5188, the Radius being 10000. When the Axis of this Prism was parallel to the Horizon, and the Refraction of the Rays at their Incidence on this Prism equal to that at their Emergence out of it, I observed with a Quadrant the Angle which the mean refrangible Rays, (that is those which went to the middle of the Sun's coloured Image) made with the Horizon, and by this Angle and the Sun's altitude observed at the same time, I found the Angle which the emergent Rays contained with the incident to be 44 deg. and 40 min. and the half of this Angle added to the Angle of Incidence 31 deg. 15 min. makes the Angle of Refraction, which is therefore 53 deg. 35 min. and its Sine 8047. These are the Sines of Incidence and Refraction of the mean refrangible Rays, and their Proportion in round Numbers is 20 to 31. This Glass was of a Colour inclining to green. The last of the Prisms mentioned in the third Experiment was of clear white Glass. Its refracting Angle 63-1/2 Degrees. The Angle which the emergent Rays contained, with the incident 45 deg. 50 min. The Sine of half the first Angle 5262. The Sine of half the Sum of the Angles 8157. And their Proportion in round Numbers 20 to 31, as before.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00196", "bookId": 33504, "start": 112443, "end": 114051, "sha256": "a32c2733abad7fd30c78ca996415cf169c9ccca987dec36d833ea0de53c773b2", "text": "From the Length of the Image, which was about 9-3/4 or 10 Inches, subduct its Breadth, which was 2-1/8 Inches, and the Remainder 7-3/4 Inches would be the Length of the Image were the Sun but a Point, and therefore subtends the Angle which the most and least refrangible Rays, when incident on the Prism in the same Lines, do contain with one another after their Emergence. Whence this Angle is 2 deg. 0'. 7''. For the distance between the Image and the Prism where this Angle is made, was 18-1/2 Feet, and at that distance the Chord 7-3/4 Inches subtends an Angle of 2 deg. 0'. 7''. Now half this Angle is the Angle which these emergent Rays contain with the emergent mean refrangible Rays, and a quarter thereof, that is 30'. 2''. may be accounted the Angle which they would contain with the same emergent mean refrangible Rays, were they co-incident to them within the Glass, and suffered no other Refraction than that at their Emergence. For, if two equal Refractions, the one at the Incidence of the Rays on the Prism, the other at their Emergence, make half the Angle 2 deg. 0'. 7''. then one of those Refractions will make about a quarter of that Angle, and this quarter added to, and subducted from the Angle of Refraction of the mean refrangible Rays, which was 53 deg. 35', gives the Angles of Refraction of the most and least refrangible Rays 54 deg. 5' 2'', and 53 deg. 4' 58'', whose Sines are 8099 and 7995, the common Angle of Incidence being 31 deg. 15', and its Sine 5188; and these Sines in the least round Numbers are in proportion to one another, as 78 and 77 to 50.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00197", "bookId": 33504, "start": 114055, "end": 114505, "sha256": "0442c4d815fb8f93b35345dcc8abc471f1a2aeae7d3d3b57572181a62eb76134", "text": "Now, if you subduct the common Sine of Incidence 50 from the Sines of Refraction 77 and 78, the Remainders 27 and 28 shew, that in small Refractions the Refraction of the least refrangible Rays is to the Refraction of the most refrangible ones, as 27 to 28 very nearly, and that the difference of the Refractions of the least refrangible and most refrangible Rays is about the 27-1/2th Part of the whole Refraction of the mean refrangible Rays.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00198", "bookId": 33504, "start": 114509, "end": 115042, "sha256": "94daf019951b1c7ec416fa8d24d22af9a9ce722a7146ecef3b56141053b304cd", "text": "Whence they that are skilled in Opticks will easily understand,[G] that the Breadth of the least circular Space, into which Object-glasses of Telescopes can collect all sorts of Parallel Rays, is about the 27-1/2th Part of half the Aperture of the Glass, or 55th Part of the whole Aperture; and that the Focus of the most refrangible Rays is nearer to the Object-glass than the Focus of the least refrangible ones, by about the 27-1/2th Part of the distance between the Object-glass and the Focus of the mean refrangible ones.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00199", "bookId": 33504, "start": 115046, "end": 115616, "sha256": "d326fde0d80a3eb72b7eb7a617331b11883ac466ddb6c713dd359f27c77966ca", "text": "And if Rays of all sorts, flowing from any one lucid Point in the Axis of any convex Lens, be made by the Refraction of the Lens to converge to Points not too remote from the Lens, the Focus of the most refrangible Rays shall be nearer to the Lens than the Focus of the least refrangible ones, by a distance which is to the 27-1/2th Part of the distance of the Focus of the mean refrangible Rays from the Lens, as the distance between that Focus and the lucid Point, from whence the Rays flow, is to the distance between that lucid Point and the Lens very nearly.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00200", "bookId": 33504, "start": 115620, "end": 115909, "sha256": "83ad72743979709d12ddc6fc4a3fe514255c9f6ed9f65d1660b9291369a688f0", "text": "Now to examine whether the Difference between the Refractions, which the most refrangible and the least refrangible Rays flowing from the same Point suffer in the Object-glasses of Telescopes and such-like Glasses, be so great as is here described, I contrived the following Experiment.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00201", "bookId": 33504, "start": 115913, "end": 121677, "sha256": "8047655c05bb3cbf7bd2e51adfbe159c62d37f34b1bfa2c2eed67cb54dc7b0d7", "text": "_Exper._ 16. The Lens which I used in the second and eighth Experiments, being placed six Feet and an Inch distant from any Object, collected the Species of that Object by the mean refrangible Rays at the distance of six Feet and an Inch from the Lens on the other side. And therefore by the foregoing Rule, it ought to collect the Species of that Object by the least refrangible Rays at the distance of six Feet and 3-2/3 Inches from the Lens, and by the most refrangible ones at the distance of five Feet and 10-1/3 Inches from it: So that between the two Places, where these least and most refrangible Rays collect the Species, there may be the distance of about 5-1/3 Inches. For by that Rule, as six Feet and an Inch (the distance of the Lens from the lucid Object) is to twelve Feet and two Inches (the distance of the lucid Object from the Focus of the mean refrangible Rays) that is, as One is to Two; so is the 27-1/2th Part of six Feet and an Inch (the distance between the Lens and the same Focus) to the distance between the Focus of the most refrangible Rays and the Focus of the least refrangible ones, which is therefore 5-17/55 Inches, that is very nearly 5-1/3 Inches. Now to know whether this Measure was true, I repeated the second and eighth Experiment with coloured Light, which was less compounded than that I there made use of: For I now separated the heterogeneous Rays from one another by the Method I described in the eleventh Experiment, so as to make a coloured Spectrum about twelve or fifteen Times longer than broad. This Spectrum I cast on a printed Book, and placing the above-mentioned Lens at the distance of six Feet and an Inch from this Spectrum to collect the Species of the illuminated Letters at the same distance on the other side, I found that the Species of the Letters illuminated with blue were nearer to the Lens than those illuminated with deep red by about three Inches, or three and a quarter; but the Species of the Letters illuminated with indigo and violet appeared so confused and indistinct, that I could not read them: Whereupon viewing the Prism, I found it was full of Veins running from one end of the Glass to the other; so that the Refraction could not be regular. I took another Prism therefore which was free from Veins, and instead of the Letters I used two or three Parallel black Lines a little broader than the Strokes of the Letters, and casting the Colours upon these Lines in such manner, that the Lines ran along the Colours from one end of the Spectrum to the other, I found that the Focus where the indigo, or confine of this Colour and violet cast the Species of the black Lines most distinctly, to be about four Inches, or 4-1/4 nearer to the Lens than the Focus, where the deepest red cast the Species of the same black Lines most distinctly. The violet was so faint and dark, that I could not discern the Species of the Lines distinctly by that Colour; and therefore considering that the Prism was made of a dark coloured Glass inclining to green, I took another Prism of clear white Glass; but the Spectrum of Colours which this Prism made had long white Streams of faint Light shooting out from both ends of the Colours, which made me conclude that something was amiss; and viewing the Prism, I found two or three little Bubbles in the Glass, which refracted the Light irregularly. Wherefore I covered that Part of the Glass with black Paper, and letting the Light pass through another Part of it which was free from such Bubbles, the Spectrum of Colours became free from those irregular Streams of Light, and was now such as I desired. But still I found the violet so dark and faint, that I could scarce see the Species of the Lines by the violet, and not at all by the deepest Part of it, which was next the end of the Spectrum. I suspected therefore, that this faint and dark Colour might be allayed by that scattering Light which was refracted, and reflected irregularly, partly by some very small Bubbles in the Glasses, and partly by the Inequalities of their Polish; which Light, tho' it was but little, yet it being of a white Colour, might suffice to affect the Sense so strongly as to disturb the Phaenomena of that weak and dark Colour the violet, and therefore I tried, as in the 12th, 13th, and 14th Experiments, whether the Light of this Colour did not consist of a sensible Mixture of heterogeneous Rays, but found it did not. Nor did the Refractions cause any other sensible Colour than violet to emerge out of this Light, as they would have done out of white Light, and by consequence out of this violet Light had it been sensibly compounded with white Light. And therefore I concluded, that the reason why I could not see the Species of the Lines distinctly by this Colour, was only the Darkness of this Colour, and Thinness of its Light, and its distance from the Axis of the Lens; I divided therefore those Parallel black Lines into equal Parts, by which I might readily know the distances of the Colours in the Spectrum from one another, and noted the distances of the Lens from the Foci of such Colours, as cast the Species of the Lines distinctly, and then considered whether the difference of those distances bear such proportion to 5-1/3 Inches, the greatest Difference of the distances, which the Foci of the deepest red and violet ought to have from the Lens, as the distance of the observed Colours from one another in the Spectrum bear to the greatest distance of the deepest red and violet measured in the Rectilinear Sides of the Spectrum, that is, to the Length of those Sides, or Excess of the Length of the Spectrum above its Breadth. And my Observations were as follows.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00202", "bookId": 33504, "start": 121681, "end": 122612, "sha256": "a9f4808b599a8f8e6e1188151d2f2bfa743321c33128f6b4246ed39c0d72d19f", "text": "When I observed and compared the deepest sensible red, and the Colour in the Confine of green and blue, which at the Rectilinear Sides of the Spectrum was distant from it half the Length of those Sides, the Focus where the Confine of green and blue cast the Species of the Lines distinctly on the Paper, was nearer to the Lens than the Focus, where the red cast those Lines distinctly on it by about 2-1/2 or 2-3/4 Inches. For sometimes the Measures were a little greater, sometimes a little less, but seldom varied from one another above 1/3 of an Inch. For it was very difficult to define the Places of the Foci, without some little Errors. Now, if the Colours distant half the Length of the Image, (measured at its Rectilinear Sides) give 2-1/2 or 2-3/4 Difference of the distances of their Foci from the Lens, then the Colours distant the whole Length ought to give 5 or 5-1/2 Inches difference of those distances.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00203", "bookId": 33504, "start": 122616, "end": 123910, "sha256": "07571464f7a665bd2b2450b61f9d4ef00fe6166d0f505b2040b5f54228c90559", "text": "But here it's to be noted, that I could not see the red to the full end of the Spectrum, but only to the Center of the Semicircle which bounded that end, or a little farther; and therefore I compared this red not with that Colour which was exactly in the middle of the Spectrum, or Confine of green and blue, but with that which verged a little more to the blue than to the green: And as I reckoned the whole Length of the Colours not to be the whole Length of the Spectrum, but the Length of its Rectilinear Sides, so compleating the semicircular Ends into Circles, when either of the observed Colours fell within those Circles, I measured the distance of that Colour from the semicircular End of the Spectrum, and subducting half this distance from the measured distance of the two Colours, I took the Remainder for their corrected distance; and in these Observations set down this corrected distance for the difference of the distances of their Foci from the Lens. For, as the Length of the Rectilinear Sides of the Spectrum would be the whole Length of all the Colours, were the Circles of which (as we shewed) that Spectrum consists contracted and reduced to Physical Points, so in that Case this corrected distance would be the real distance of the two observed Colours.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00204", "bookId": 33504, "start": 123914, "end": 124217, "sha256": "8aa995a712e08393da5c2bc1514b2b266ba195123f8d7d53131742afefc17750", "text": "When therefore I farther observed the deepest sensible red, and that blue whose corrected distance from it was 7/12 Parts of the Length of the Rectilinear Sides of the Spectrum, the difference of the distances of their Foci from the Lens was about 3-1/4 Inches, and as 7 to 12, so is 3-1/4 to 5-4/7.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00205", "bookId": 33504, "start": 124221, "end": 124501, "sha256": "35a704a1f90597cd693cf91de3591f572b95365f5770b823d5cc9948b541fa7a", "text": "When I observed the deepest sensible red, and that indigo whose corrected distance was 8/12 or 2/3 of the Length of the Rectilinear Sides of the Spectrum, the difference of the distances of their Foci from the Lens, was about 3-2/3 Inches, and as 2 to 3, so is 3-2/3 to 5-1/2.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00206", "bookId": 33504, "start": 124505, "end": 124798, "sha256": "abf3ffd18f851e7588957c46ee7d1ceaa6178e032aee1f322b4ce6c73f04c983", "text": "When I observed the deepest sensible red, and that deep indigo whose corrected distance from one another was 9/12 or 3/4 of the Length of the Rectilinear Sides of the Spectrum, the difference of the distances of their Foci from the Lens was about 4 Inches; and as 3 to 4, so is 4 to 5-1/3.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00207", "bookId": 33504, "start": 124802, "end": 126524, "sha256": "ebc62383ca4f54f846729e11cc8574d031c3e0146bc4a224754bb913e8f84d3b", "text": "When I observed the deepest sensible red, and that Part of the violet next the indigo, whose corrected distance from the red was 10/12 or 5/6 of the Length of the Rectilinear Sides of the Spectrum, the difference of the distances of their Foci from the Lens was about 4-1/2 Inches, and as 5 to 6, so is 4-1/2 to 5-2/5. For sometimes, when the Lens was advantageously placed, so that its Axis respected the blue, and all Things else were well ordered, and the Sun shone clear, and I held my Eye very near to the Paper on which the Lens cast the Species of the Lines, I could see pretty distinctly the Species of those Lines by that Part of the violet which was next the indigo; and sometimes I could see them by above half the violet, For in making these Experiments I had observed, that the Species of those Colours only appear distinct, which were in or near the Axis of the Lens: So that if the blue or indigo were in the Axis, I could see their Species distinctly; and then the red appeared much less distinct than before. Wherefore I contrived to make the Spectrum of Colours shorter than before, so that both its Ends might be nearer to the Axis of the Lens. And now its Length was about 2-1/2 Inches, and Breadth about 1/5 or 1/6 of an Inch. Also instead of the black Lines on which the Spectrum was cast, I made one black Line broader than those, that I might see its Species more easily; and this Line I divided by short cross Lines into equal Parts, for measuring the distances of the observed Colours. And now I could sometimes see the Species of this Line with its Divisions almost as far as the Center of the semicircular violet End of the Spectrum, and made these farther Observations.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00208", "bookId": 33504, "start": 126528, "end": 126925, "sha256": "856a589109986047e85fa63b834cf1b28ab76780f3bea3deb4f25c26babff0f4", "text": "When I observed the deepest sensible red, and that Part of the violet, whose corrected distance from it was about 8/9 Parts of the Rectilinear Sides of the Spectrum, the Difference of the distances of the Foci of those Colours from the Lens, was one time 4-2/3, another time 4-3/4, another time 4-7/8 Inches; and as 8 to 9, so are 4-2/3, 4-3/4, 4-7/8, to 5-1/4, 5-11/32, 5-31/64 respectively.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00209", "bookId": 33504, "start": 126929, "end": 127448, "sha256": "4b75b66c7a03c3903727dc87c137706f361c0efbba291cca29ab04f1166b2863", "text": "When I observed the deepest sensible red, and deepest sensible violet, (the corrected distance of which Colours, when all Things were ordered to the best Advantage, and the Sun shone very clear, was about 11/12 or 15/16 Parts of the Length of the Rectilinear Sides of the coloured Spectrum) I found the Difference of the distances of their Foci from the Lens sometimes 4-3/4 sometimes 5-1/4, and for the most part 5 Inches or thereabouts; and as 11 to 12, or 15 to 16, so is five Inches to 5-2/2 or 5-1/3 Inches.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00210", "bookId": 33504, "start": 127452, "end": 128002, "sha256": "6b2955d7b6e59edb128acfbe5a33d946300720540cbce3ed05a21e308d5e6aeb", "text": "And by this Progression of Experiments I satisfied my self, that had the Light at the very Ends of the Spectrum been strong enough to make the Species of the black Lines appear plainly on the Paper, the Focus of the deepest violet would have been found nearer to the Lens, than the Focus of the deepest red, by about 5-1/3 Inches at least. And this is a farther Evidence, that the Sines of Incidence and Refraction of the several sorts of Rays, hold the same Proportion to one another in the smallest Refractions which they do in the greatest.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00211", "bookId": 33504, "start": 128006, "end": 129033, "sha256": "2ec9729ba981d47e3c0a6e16bd86da5b5fdfc44d5c171523b6baf3e2cde92b1a", "text": "My Progress in making this nice and troublesome Experiment I have set down more at large, that they that shall try it after me may be aware of the Circumspection requisite to make it succeed well. And if they cannot make it succeed so well as I did, they may notwithstanding collect by the Proportion of the distance of the Colours of the Spectrum, to the Difference of the distances of their Foci from the Lens, what would be the Success in the more distant Colours by a better trial. And yet, if they use a broader Lens than I did, and fix it to a long strait Staff, by means of which it may be readily and truly directed to the Colour whose Focus is desired, I question not but the Experiment will succeed better with them than it did with me. For I directed the Axis as nearly as I could to the middle of the Colours, and then the faint Ends of the Spectrum being remote from the Axis, cast their Species less distinctly on the Paper than they would have done, had the Axis been successively directed to them.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00212", "bookId": 33504, "start": 129037, "end": 131880, "sha256": "236dc031a0167f627bc3ac98dcc65e6c357c727cd1a4fe87990c38cbf86d907d", "text": "Now by what has been said, it's certain that the Rays which differ in Refrangibility do not converge to the same Focus; but if they flow from a lucid Point, as far from the Lens on one side as their Foci are on the other, the Focus of the most refrangible Rays shall be nearer to the Lens than that of the least refrangible, by above the fourteenth Part of the whole distance; and if they flow from a lucid Point, so very remote from the Lens, that before their Incidence they may be accounted parallel, the Focus of the most refrangible Rays shall be nearer to the Lens than the Focus of the least refrangible, by about the 27th or 28th Part of their whole distance from it. And the Diameter of the Circle in the middle Space between those two Foci which they illuminate, when they fall there on any Plane, perpendicular to the Axis (which Circle is the least into which they can all be gathered) is about the 55th Part of the Diameter of the Aperture of the Glass. So that 'tis a wonder, that Telescopes represent Objects so distinct as they do. But were all the Rays of Light equally refrangible, the Error arising only from the Sphericalness of the Figures of Glasses would be many hundred times less. For, if the Object-glass of a Telescope be Plano-convex, and the Plane side be turned towards the Object, and the Diameter of the Sphere, whereof this Glass is a Segment, be called D, and the Semi-diameter of the Aperture of the Glass be called S, and the Sine of Incidence out of Glass into Air, be to the Sine of Refraction as I to R; the Rays which come parallel to the Axis of the Glass, shall in the Place where the Image of the Object is most distinctly made, be scattered all over a little Circle, whose Diameter is _(Rq/Iq) x (S cub./D quad.)_ very nearly,[H] as I gather by computing the Errors of the Rays by the Method of infinite Series, and rejecting the Terms, whose Quantities are inconsiderable. As for instance, if the Sine of Incidence I, be to the Sine of Refraction R, as 20 to 31, and if D the Diameter of the Sphere, to which the Convex-side of the Glass is ground, be 100 Feet or 1200 Inches, and S the Semi-diameter of the Aperture be two Inches, the Diameter of the little Circle, (that is (_Rq x S cub.)/(Iq x D quad._)) will be (31 x 31 x 8)/(20 x 20 x 1200 x 1200) (or 961/72000000) Parts of an Inch. But the Diameter of the little Circle, through which these Rays are scattered by unequal Refrangibility, will be about the 55th Part of the Aperture of the Object-glass, which here is four Inches. And therefore, the Error arising from the Spherical Figure of the Glass, is to the Error arising from the different Refrangibility of the Rays, as 961/72000000 to 4/55, that is as 1 to 5449; and therefore being in comparison so very little, deserves not to be considered.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00213", "bookId": 33504, "start": 131884, "end": 131908, "sha256": "67025312e0f793729f021142771a2eb4abea48c2d8ea5a91ad0798b9bde4ab0b", "text": "[Illustration: FIG. 27.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00214", "bookId": 33504, "start": 131912, "end": 133463, "sha256": "ab66dbe239388b941f04602d542c152868e1a4781a24c4835cb9182b72fa1dd2", "text": "But you will say, if the Errors caused by the different Refrangibility be so very great, how comes it to pass, that Objects appear through Telescopes so distinct as they do? I answer, 'tis because the erring Rays are not scattered uniformly over all that Circular Space, but collected infinitely more densely in the Center than in any other Part of the Circle, and in the Way from the Center to the Circumference, grow continually rarer and rarer, so as at the Circumference to become infinitely rare; and by reason of their Rarity are not strong enough to be visible, unless in the Center and very near it. Let ADE [in _Fig._ 27.] represent one of those Circles described with the Center C, and Semi-diameter AC, and let BFG be a smaller Circle concentrick to the former, cutting with its Circumference the Diameter AC in B, and bisect AC in N; and by my reckoning, the Density of the Light in any Place B, will be to its Density in N, as AB to BC; and the whole Light within the lesser Circle BFG, will be to the whole Light within the greater AED, as the Excess of the Square of AC above the Square of AB, is to the Square of AC. As if BC be the fifth Part of AC, the Light will be four times denser in B than in N, and the whole Light within the less Circle, will be to the whole Light within the greater, as nine to twenty-five. Whence it's evident, that the Light within the less Circle, must strike the Sense much more strongly, than that faint and dilated Light round about between it and the Circumference of the greater.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00215", "bookId": 33504, "start": 133467, "end": 137549, "sha256": "1905a224e316768321b2b403f8c25e0a46ce4fbcbf245b0fff123f48ab7133a8", "text": "But it's farther to be noted, that the most luminous of the Prismatick Colours are the yellow and orange. These affect the Senses more strongly than all the rest together, and next to these in strength are the red and green. The blue compared with these is a faint and dark Colour, and the indigo and violet are much darker and fainter, so that these compared with the stronger Colours are little to be regarded. The Images of Objects are therefore to be placed, not in the Focus of the mean refrangible Rays, which are in the Confine of green and blue, but in the Focus of those Rays which are in the middle of the orange and yellow; there where the Colour is most luminous and fulgent, that is in the brightest yellow, that yellow which inclines more to orange than to green. And by the Refraction of these Rays (whose Sines of Incidence and Refraction in Glass are as 17 and 11) the Refraction of Glass and Crystal for Optical Uses is to be measured. Let us therefore place the Image of the Object in the Focus of these Rays, and all the yellow and orange will fall within a Circle, whose Diameter is about the 250th Part of the Diameter of the Aperture of the Glass. And if you add the brighter half of the red, (that half which is next the orange) and the brighter half of the green, (that half which is next the yellow) about three fifth Parts of the Light of these two Colours will fall within the same Circle, and two fifth Parts will fall without it round about; and that which falls without will be spread through almost as much more space as that which falls within, and so in the gross be almost three times rarer. Of the other half of the red and green, (that is of the deep dark red and willow green) about one quarter will fall within this Circle, and three quarters without, and that which falls without will be spread through about four or five times more space than that which falls within; and so in the gross be rarer, and if compared with the whole Light within it, will be about 25 times rarer than all that taken in the gross; or rather more than 30 or 40 times rarer, because the deep red in the end of the Spectrum of Colours made by a Prism is very thin and rare, and the willow green is something rarer than the orange and yellow. The Light of these Colours therefore being so very much rarer than that within the Circle, will scarce affect the Sense, especially since the deep red and willow green of this Light, are much darker Colours than the rest. And for the same reason the blue and violet being much darker Colours than these, and much more rarified, may be neglected. For the dense and bright Light of the Circle, will obscure the rare and weak Light of these dark Colours round about it, and render them almost insensible. The sensible Image of a lucid Point is therefore scarce broader than a Circle, whose Diameter is the 250th Part of the Diameter of the Aperture of the Object-glass of a good Telescope, or not much broader, if you except a faint and dark misty Light round about it, which a Spectator will scarce regard. And therefore in a Telescope, whose Aperture is four Inches, and Length an hundred Feet, it exceeds not 2'' 45''', or 3''. And in a Telescope whose Aperture is two Inches, and Length 20 or 30 Feet, it may be 5'' or 6'', and scarce above. And this answers well to Experience: For some Astronomers have found the Diameters of the fix'd Stars, in Telescopes of between 20 and 60 Feet in length, to be about 5'' or 6'', or at most 8'' or 10'' in diameter. But if the Eye-Glass be tincted faintly with the Smoak of a Lamp or Torch, to obscure the Light of the Star, the fainter Light in the Circumference of the Star ceases to be visible, and the Star (if the Glass be sufficiently soiled with Smoak) appears something more like a mathematical Point. And for the same Reason, the enormous Part of the Light in the Circumference of every lucid Point ought to be less discernible in shorter Telescopes than in longer, because the shorter transmit less Light to the Eye.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00216", "bookId": 33504, "start": 137553, "end": 138128, "sha256": "6d4f2eaf08b8015ab2452eacdabd0314be027caee7d9cae3c554881e3835e2fd", "text": "Now, that the fix'd Stars, by reason of their immense Distance, appear like Points, unless so far as their Light is dilated by Refraction, may appear from hence; that when the Moon passes over them and eclipses them, their Light vanishes, not gradually like that of the Planets, but all at once; and in the end of the Eclipse it returns into Sight all at once, or certainly in less time than the second of a Minute; the Refraction of the Moon's Atmosphere a little protracting the time in which the Light of the Star first vanishes, and afterwards returns into Sight.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00217", "bookId": 33504, "start": 138132, "end": 138998, "sha256": "3925a81ada401c79020d3d28dfab257c64a6ce8581f2d89c66420f1963603ddc", "text": "Now, if we suppose the sensible Image of a lucid Point, to be even 250 times narrower than the Aperture of the Glass; yet this Image would be still much greater than if it were only from the spherical Figure of the Glass. For were it not for the different Refrangibility of the Rays, its breadth in an 100 Foot Telescope whose aperture is 4 Inches, would be but 961/72000000 parts of an Inch, as is manifest by the foregoing Computation. And therefore in this case the greatest Errors arising from the spherical Figure of the Glass, would be to the greatest sensible Errors arising from the different Refrangibility of the Rays as 961/72000000 to 4/250 at most, that is only as 1 to 1200. And this sufficiently shews that it is not the spherical Figures of Glasses, but the different Refrangibility of the Rays which hinders the perfection of Telescopes.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00218", "bookId": 33504, "start": 139002, "end": 140093, "sha256": "319ad78d9062bafc400d91504d36b3fac6d4603d4bbbb45b0e8a80aa0e99e572", "text": "There is another Argument by which it may appear that the different Refrangibility of Rays, is the true cause of the imperfection of Telescopes. For the Errors of the Rays arising from the spherical Figures of Object-glasses, are as the Cubes of the Apertures of the Object Glasses; and thence to make Telescopes of various Lengths magnify with equal distinctness, the Apertures of the Object-glasses, and the Charges or magnifying Powers ought to be as the Cubes of the square Roots of their lengths; which doth not answer to Experience. But the Errors of the Rays arising from the different Refrangibility, are as the Apertures of the Object-glasses; and thence to make Telescopes of various lengths, magnify with equal distinctness, their Apertures and Charges ought to be as the square Roots of their lengths; and this answers to Experience, as is well known. For Instance, a Telescope of 64 Feet in length, with an Aperture of 2-2/3 Inches, magnifies about 120 times, with as much distinctness as one of a Foot in length, with 1/3 of an Inch aperture, magnifies 15 times.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00219", "bookId": 33504, "start": 140097, "end": 140121, "sha256": "15961ce0203b1c87a360a66efbbbb8fca422ccc93f50dc0b1f96bcc75124322a", "text": "[Illustration: FIG. 28.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00220", "bookId": 33504, "start": 140125, "end": 141926, "sha256": "c83dce2d3b7c4bca1ac148ebb899cf3d059ba45f2f60e3b7f87fb24dd7c7cbf0", "text": "Now were it not for this different Refrangibility of Rays, Telescopes might be brought to a greater perfection than we have yet describ'd, by composing the Object-glass of two Glasses with Water between them. Let ADFC [in _Fig._ 28.] represent the Object-glass composed of two Glasses ABED and BEFC, alike convex on the outsides AGD and CHF, and alike concave on the insides BME, BNE, with Water in the concavity BMEN. Let the Sine of Incidence out of Glass into Air be as I to R, and out of Water into Air, as K to R, and by consequence out of Glass into Water, as I to K: and let the Diameter of the Sphere to which the convex sides AGD and CHF are ground be D, and the Diameter of the Sphere to which the concave sides BME and BNE, are ground be to D, as the Cube Root of KK--KI to the Cube Root of RK--RI: and the Refractions on the concave sides of the Glasses, will very much correct the Errors of the Refractions on the convex sides, so far as they arise from the sphericalness of the Figure. And by this means might Telescopes be brought to sufficient perfection, were it not for the different Refrangibility of several sorts of Rays. But by reason of this different Refrangibility, I do not yet see any other means of improving Telescopes by Refractions alone, than that of increasing their lengths, for which end the late Contrivance of _Hugenius_ seems well accommodated. For very long Tubes are cumbersome, and scarce to be readily managed, and by reason of their length are very apt to bend, and shake by bending, so as to cause a continual trembling in the Objects, whereby it becomes difficult to see them distinctly: whereas by his Contrivance the Glasses are readily manageable, and the Object-glass being fix'd upon a strong upright Pole becomes more steady.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00221", "bookId": 33504, "start": 141930, "end": 146295, "sha256": "be51aaceb229b68ccfbd4329e22c55846e59410026aa41d4dff878b0ddf086c6", "text": "Seeing therefore the Improvement of Telescopes of given lengths by Refractions is desperate; I contrived heretofore a Perspective by Reflexion, using instead of an Object-glass a concave Metal. The diameter of the Sphere to which the Metal was ground concave was about 25 _English_ Inches, and by consequence the length of the Instrument about six Inches and a quarter. The Eye-glass was Plano-convex, and the diameter of the Sphere to which the convex side was ground was about 1/5 of an Inch, or a little less, and by consequence it magnified between 30 and 40 times. By another way of measuring I found that it magnified about 35 times. The concave Metal bore an Aperture of an Inch and a third part; but the Aperture was limited not by an opake Circle, covering the Limb of the Metal round about, but by an opake Circle placed between the Eyeglass and the Eye, and perforated in the middle with a little round hole for the Rays to pass through to the Eye. For this Circle by being placed here, stopp'd much of the erroneous Light, which otherwise would have disturbed the Vision. By comparing it with a pretty good Perspective of four Feet in length, made with a concave Eye-glass, I could read at a greater distance with my own Instrument than with the Glass. Yet Objects appeared much darker in it than in the Glass, and that partly because more Light was lost by Reflexion in the Metal, than by Refraction in the Glass, and partly because my Instrument was overcharged. Had it magnified but 30 or 25 times, it would have made the Object appear more brisk and pleasant. Two of these I made about 16 Years ago, and have one of them still by me, by which I can prove the truth of what I write. Yet it is not so good as at the first. For the concave has been divers times tarnished and cleared again, by rubbing it with very soft Leather. When I made these an Artist in _London_ undertook to imitate it; but using another way of polishing them than I did, he fell much short of what I had attained to, as I afterwards understood by discoursing the Under-workman he had employed. The Polish I used was in this manner. I had two round Copper Plates, each six Inches in Diameter, the one convex, the other concave, ground very true to one another. On the convex I ground the Object-Metal or Concave which was to be polish'd, 'till it had taken the Figure of the Convex and was ready for a Polish. Then I pitched over the convex very thinly, by dropping melted Pitch upon it, and warming it to keep the Pitch soft, whilst I ground it with the concave Copper wetted to make it spread eavenly all over the convex. Thus by working it well I made it as thin as a Groat, and after the convex was cold I ground it again to give it as true a Figure as I could. Then I took Putty which I had made very fine by washing it from all its grosser Particles, and laying a little of this upon the Pitch, I ground it upon the Pitch with the concave Copper, till it had done making a Noise; and then upon the Pitch I ground the Object-Metal with a brisk motion, for about two or three Minutes of time, leaning hard upon it. Then I put fresh Putty upon the Pitch, and ground it again till it had done making a noise, and afterwards ground the Object-Metal upon it as before. And this Work I repeated till the Metal was polished, grinding it the last time with all my strength for a good while together, and frequently breathing upon the Pitch, to keep it moist without laying on any more fresh Putty. The Object-Metal was two Inches broad, and about one third part of an Inch thick, to keep it from bending. I had two of these Metals, and when I had polished them both, I tried which was best, and ground the other again, to see if I could make it better than that which I kept. And thus by many Trials I learn'd the way of polishing, till I made those two reflecting Perspectives I spake of above. For this Art of polishing will be better learn'd by repeated Practice than by my Description. Before I ground the Object-Metal on the Pitch, I always ground the Putty on it with the concave Copper, till it had done making a noise, because if the Particles of the Putty were not by this means made to stick fast in the Pitch, they would by rolling up and down grate and fret the Object-Metal and fill it full of little holes.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00222", "bookId": 33504, "start": 146299, "end": 148781, "sha256": "2d5792df075e1f9e118c9bc5712106575163fadae81e3ea4946ce0bc4dad9e70", "text": "But because Metal is more difficult to polish than Glass, and is afterwards very apt to be spoiled by tarnishing, and reflects not so much Light as Glass quick-silver'd over does: I would propound to use instead of the Metal, a Glass ground concave on the foreside, and as much convex on the backside, and quick-silver'd over on the convex side. The Glass must be every where of the same thickness exactly. Otherwise it will make Objects look colour'd and indistinct. By such a Glass I tried about five or six Years ago to make a reflecting Telescope of four Feet in length to magnify about 150 times, and I satisfied my self that there wants nothing but a good Artist to bring the Design to perfection. For the Glass being wrought by one of our _London_ Artists after such a manner as they grind Glasses for Telescopes, though it seemed as well wrought as the Object-glasses use to be, yet when it was quick-silver'd, the Reflexion discovered innumerable Inequalities all over the Glass. And by reason of these Inequalities, Objects appeared indistinct in this Instrument. For the Errors of reflected Rays caused by any Inequality of the Glass, are about six times greater than the Errors of refracted Rays caused by the like Inequalities. Yet by this Experiment I satisfied my self that the Reflexion on the concave side of the Glass, which I feared would disturb the Vision, did no sensible prejudice to it, and by consequence that nothing is wanting to perfect these Telescopes, but good Workmen who can grind and polish Glasses truly spherical. An Object-glass of a fourteen Foot Telescope, made by an Artificer at _London_, I once mended considerably, by grinding it on Pitch with Putty, and leaning very easily on it in the grinding, lest the Putty should scratch it. Whether this way may not do well enough for polishing these reflecting Glasses, I have not yet tried. But he that shall try either this or any other way of polishing which he may think better, may do well to make his Glasses ready for polishing, by grinding them without that Violence, wherewith our _London_ Workmen press their Glasses in grinding. For by such violent pressure, Glasses are apt to bend a little in the grinding, and such bending will certainly spoil their Figure. To recommend therefore the consideration of these reflecting Glasses to such Artists as are curious in figuring Glasses, I shall describe this optical Instrument in the following Proposition.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00223", "bookId": 33504, "start": 148787, "end": 148810, "sha256": "99145839a8bf9f5f7dfc3133c5b79a118c6d16b66cd7bd4164ddcd331cc08e9e", "text": "_PROP._ VIII. PROB. II.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00224", "bookId": 33504, "start": 148814, "end": 148838, "sha256": "977616facc1c2a27b080887d96ce6aeaf91eae94d5cef236ac4ed83ee046d6a5", "text": "_To shorten Telescopes._", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00225", "bookId": 33504, "start": 148842, "end": 151842, "sha256": "d3452d63488367465d095c9ec158edbf90aebd5ebadda61dc8e8df827b722d78", "text": "Let ABCD [in _Fig._ 29.] represent a Glass spherically concave on the foreside AB, and as much convex on the backside CD, so that it be every where of an equal thickness. Let it not be thicker on one side than on the other, lest it make Objects appear colour'd and indistinct, and let it be very truly wrought and quick-silver'd over on the backside; and set in the Tube VXYZ which must be very black within. Let EFG represent a Prism of Glass or Crystal placed near the other end of the Tube, in the middle of it, by means of a handle of Brass or Iron FGK, to the end of which made flat it is cemented. Let this Prism be rectangular at E, and let the other two Angles at F and G be accurately equal to each other, and by consequence equal to half right ones, and let the plane sides FE and GE be square, and by consequence the third side FG a rectangular Parallelogram, whose length is to its breadth in a subduplicate proportion of two to one. Let it be so placed in the Tube, that the Axis of the Speculum may pass through the middle of the square side EF perpendicularly and by consequence through the middle of the side FG at an Angle of 45 Degrees, and let the side EF be turned towards the Speculum, and the distance of this Prism from the Speculum be such that the Rays of the Light PQ, RS, &c. which are incident upon the Speculum in Lines parallel to the Axis thereof, may enter the Prism at the side EF, and be reflected by the side FG, and thence go out of it through the side GE, to the Point T, which must be the common Focus of the Speculum ABDC, and of a Plano-convex Eye-glass H, through which those Rays must pass to the Eye. And let the Rays at their coming out of the Glass pass through a small round hole, or aperture made in a little plate of Lead, Brass, or Silver, wherewith the Glass is to be covered, which hole must be no bigger than is necessary for Light enough to pass through. For so it will render the Object distinct, the Plate in which 'tis made intercepting all the erroneous part of the Light which comes from the verges of the Speculum AB. Such an Instrument well made, if it be six Foot long, (reckoning the length from the Speculum to the Prism, and thence to the Focus T) will bear an aperture of six Inches at the Speculum, and magnify between two and three hundred times. But the hole H here limits the aperture with more advantage, than if the aperture was placed at the Speculum. If the Instrument be made longer or shorter, the aperture must be in proportion as the Cube of the square-square Root of the length, and the magnifying as the aperture. But it's convenient that the Speculum be an Inch or two broader than the aperture at the least, and that the Glass of the Speculum be thick, that it bend not in the working. The Prism EFG must be no bigger than is necessary, and its back side FG must not be quick-silver'd over. For without quicksilver it will reflect all the Light incident on it from the Speculum.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00226", "bookId": 33504, "start": 151846, "end": 151870, "sha256": "f08f99f7996999962e9fa237d774aecc67de4c1fa899397d726b09eeee33da91", "text": "[Illustration: FIG. 29.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00227", "bookId": 33504, "start": 151874, "end": 152281, "sha256": "9f4383f0422e5f8bf386654fab8e61c854e227103a209b6042ec6a8f298d713a", "text": "In this Instrument the Object will be inverted, but may be erected by making the square sides FF and EG of the Prism EFG not plane but spherically convex, that the Rays may cross as well before they come at it as afterwards between it and the Eye-glass. If it be desired that the Instrument bear a larger aperture, that may be also done by composing the Speculum of two Glasses with Water between them.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00228", "bookId": 33504, "start": 152285, "end": 153699, "sha256": "9e2c58b689d454811b1933fd879f68c18af5b1abd935afe4ce3fd948ec0cfec1", "text": "If the Theory of making Telescopes could at length be fully brought into Practice, yet there would be certain Bounds beyond which Telescopes could not perform. For the Air through which we look upon the Stars, is in a perpetual Tremor; as may be seen by the tremulous Motion of Shadows cast from high Towers, and by the twinkling of the fix'd Stars. But these Stars do not twinkle when viewed through Telescopes which have large apertures. For the Rays of Light which pass through divers parts of the aperture, tremble each of them apart, and by means of their various and sometimes contrary Tremors, fall at one and the same time upon different points in the bottom of the Eye, and their trembling Motions are too quick and confused to be perceived severally. And all these illuminated Points constitute one broad lucid Point, composed of those many trembling Points confusedly and insensibly mixed with one another by very short and swift Tremors, and thereby cause the Star to appear broader than it is, and without any trembling of the whole. Long Telescopes may cause Objects to appear brighter and larger than short ones can do, but they cannot be so formed as to take away that confusion of the Rays which arises from the Tremors of the Atmosphere. The only Remedy is a most serene and quiet Air, such as may perhaps be found on the tops of the highest Mountains above the grosser Clouds.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00229", "bookId": 33504, "start": 153703, "end": 153713, "sha256": "55ef8349ad07203ec2cca0f3d97640f57c9e65b07c838ffd97e6bcdc1006aed5", "text": "FOOTNOTES:", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00230", "bookId": 33504, "start": 153717, "end": 153813, "sha256": "350e37c9bebf97a3b85cbd89480a5eee81b33c88818a779d9d2d729d5be7116d", "text": "[C] _See our_ Author's Lectiones Opticae Sec. 10. _Sect. II. Sec. 29. and Sect. III. Prop. 25._", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00231", "bookId": 33504, "start": 153817, "end": 153883, "sha256": "2c74e03cf59ca43dc147900e14235962c100d7719a22f6bf4da74cb028e6fe37", "text": "[D] See our Author's _Lectiones Opticae_, Part. I. Sect. 1. Sec.5.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00232", "bookId": 33504, "start": 153887, "end": 153974, "sha256": "876bc69061c8be35d2c8b8a8469a0e6fd83544b11561eef8ba00ab6e6ed48cba", "text": "[E] _This is very fully treated of in our_ Author's Lect. Optic. _Part_ I. _Sect._ II.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00233", "bookId": 33504, "start": 153978, "end": 154040, "sha256": "aa6218e579082ed2e992a6a35bbfe3a2a008e953906fd249f6c95f4b7bfc5da4", "text": "[F] _See our_ Author's Lect. Optic. Part I. Sect. II. Sec. 29.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00234", "bookId": 33504, "start": 154044, "end": 154134, "sha256": "4f5619c5464d1fed1a1ec9b62edb4501b870ce0a54f51dfc1f1e9094533d9a3b", "text": "[G] _This is demonstrated in our_ Author's Lect. Optic. _Part_ I. _Sect._ IV. _Prop._ 37.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00235", "bookId": 33504, "start": 154138, "end": 154232, "sha256": "97cac54ffefa8f3493660c604f89a44cb29f225b0d772330c6b6d9c75d20edc3", "text": "[H] _How to do this, is shewn in our_ Author's Lect. Optic. _Part_ I. _Sect._ IV. _Prop._ 31.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00236", "bookId": 33504, "start": 154242, "end": 154267, "sha256": "dfd67b5cfc30b2232bc58efea6d5479f776b1d5934035d91db509bccad6e9465", "text": "THE FIRST BOOK OF OPTICKS", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00237", "bookId": 33504, "start": 154277, "end": 154287, "sha256": "da0c0d4ed1bbb591dad415944ae9d02ed1507f4b3c2aa81407a42672708bbcb5", "text": "_PART II._", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00238", "bookId": 33504, "start": 154293, "end": 154313, "sha256": "509bc9d52eab704d9bacda012590122398426aa9de0d321b3e0fe65048d27ea9", "text": "_PROP._ I. THEOR. I.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00239", "bookId": 33504, "start": 154317, "end": 154511, "sha256": "1ccf60bfef3d2c397e8b2d2af3f5562d173e771ceac1142a06601140f28307bf", "text": "_The Phaenomena of Colours in refracted or reflected Light are not caused by new Modifications of the Light variously impress'd, according to the various Terminations of the Light and Shadow_.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00240", "bookId": 33504, "start": 154515, "end": 154540, "sha256": "f2a918c940733f73dfdb687070c519fcd03567546ee1f18461abf89cd12da4e0", "text": "The PROOF by Experiments.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00241", "bookId": 33504, "start": 154544, "end": 157150, "sha256": "9f4a87e05652dd463eaacdbfc4169f77984969f43548b15537d9558a994012c8", "text": "_Exper._ 1. For if the Sun shine into a very dark Chamber through an oblong hole F, [in _Fig._ 1.] whose breadth is the sixth or eighth part of an Inch, or something less; and his beam FH do afterwards pass first through a very large Prism ABC, distant about 20 Feet from the hole, and parallel to it, and then (with its white part) through an oblong hole H, whose breadth is about the fortieth or sixtieth part of an Inch, and which is made in a black opake Body GI, and placed at the distance of two or three Feet from the Prism, in a parallel Situation both to the Prism and to the former hole, and if this white Light thus transmitted through the hole H, fall afterwards upon a white Paper _pt_, placed after that hole H, at the distance of three or four Feet from it, and there paint the usual Colours of the Prism, suppose red at _t_, yellow at _s_, green at _r_, blue at _q_, and violet at _p_; you may with an Iron Wire, or any such like slender opake Body, whose breadth is about the tenth part of an Inch, by intercepting the Rays at _k_, _l_, _m_, _n_ or _o_, take away any one of the Colours at _t_, _s_, _r_, _q_ or _p_, whilst the other Colours remain upon the Paper as before; or with an Obstacle something bigger you may take away any two, or three, or four Colours together, the rest remaining: So that any one of the Colours as well as violet may become outmost in the Confine of the Shadow towards _p_, and any one of them as well as red may become outmost in the Confine of the Shadow towards _t_, and any one of them may also border upon the Shadow made within the Colours by the Obstacle R intercepting some intermediate part of the Light; and, lastly, any one of them by being left alone, may border upon the Shadow on either hand. All the Colours have themselves indifferently to any Confines of Shadow, and therefore the differences of these Colours from one another, do not arise from the different Confines of Shadow, whereby Light is variously modified, as has hitherto been the Opinion of Philosophers. In trying these things 'tis to be observed, that by how much the holes F and H are narrower, and the Intervals between them and the Prism greater, and the Chamber darker, by so much the better doth the Experiment succeed; provided the Light be not so far diminished, but that the Colours at _pt_ be sufficiently visible. To procure a Prism of solid Glass large enough for this Experiment will be difficult, and therefore a prismatick Vessel must be made of polish'd Glass Plates cemented together, and filled with salt Water or clear Oil.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00242", "bookId": 33504, "start": 157154, "end": 157177, "sha256": "af530d5d0380f51d8d7573eaf39271d6dd62ebba374fa61cdebcb8cb4f9567e0", "text": "[Illustration: FIG. 1.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00243", "bookId": 33504, "start": 157181, "end": 158285, "sha256": "392c85856657e15e321d8b8e40f4d4a3ce831472c12b3cb65f477d3514e8dee3", "text": "_Exper._ 2. The Sun's Light let into a dark Chamber through the round hole F, [in _Fig._ 2.] half an Inch wide, passed first through the Prism ABC placed at the hole, and then through a Lens PT something more than four Inches broad, and about eight Feet distant from the Prism, and thence converged to O the Focus of the Lens distant from it about three Feet, and there fell upon a white Paper DE. If that Paper was perpendicular to that Light incident upon it, as 'tis represented in the posture DE, all the Colours upon it at O appeared white. But if the Paper being turned about an Axis parallel to the Prism, became very much inclined to the Light, as 'tis represented in the Positions _de_ and _[Greek: de]_; the same Light in the one case appeared yellow and red, in the other blue. Here one and the same part of the Light in one and the same place, according to the various Inclinations of the Paper, appeared in one case white, in another yellow or red, in a third blue, whilst the Confine of Light and shadow, and the Refractions of the Prism in all these cases remained the same.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00244", "bookId": 33504, "start": 158289, "end": 158312, "sha256": "cbabaa1835202203dbb317cace993b33281ae5b35cc94ccbff9525c3ee46a886", "text": "[Illustration: FIG. 2.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00245", "bookId": 33504, "start": 158316, "end": 158339, "sha256": "93987a544b734349ca441eca4eff23520b6c1db7c42d972e33a01c61140917ae", "text": "[Illustration: FIG. 3.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00246", "bookId": 33504, "start": 158343, "end": 159933, "sha256": "72981b287f491dff80cdd410d7700f5c9b919ba3b6cfb06e4efcd73eea826459", "text": "_Exper._ 3. Such another Experiment may be more easily tried as follows. Let a broad beam of the Sun's Light coming into a dark Chamber through a hole in the Window-shut be refracted by a large Prism ABC, [in _Fig._ 3.] whose refracting Angle C is more than 60 Degrees, and so soon as it comes out of the Prism, let it fall upon the white Paper DE glewed upon a stiff Plane; and this Light, when the Paper is perpendicular to it, as 'tis represented in DE, will appear perfectly white upon the Paper; but when the Paper is very much inclin'd to it in such a manner as to keep always parallel to the Axis of the Prism, the whiteness of the whole Light upon the Paper will according to the inclination of the Paper this way or that way, change either into yellow and red, as in the posture _de_, or into blue and violet, as in the posture [Greek: de]. And if the Light before it fall upon the Paper be twice refracted the same way by two parallel Prisms, these Colours will become the more conspicuous. Here all the middle parts of the broad beam of white Light which fell upon the Paper, did without any Confine of Shadow to modify it, become colour'd all over with one uniform Colour, the Colour being always the same in the middle of the Paper as at the edges, and this Colour changed according to the various Obliquity of the reflecting Paper, without any change in the Refractions or Shadow, or in the Light which fell upon the Paper. And therefore these Colours are to be derived from some other Cause than the new Modifications of Light by Refractions and Shadows.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00247", "bookId": 33504, "start": 159937, "end": 160632, "sha256": "086e94437fe4fe7af28b9f96b44b84ab73dd01ff06ec8cc2d23b24faf5328a38", "text": "If it be asked, what then is their Cause? I answer, That the Paper in the posture _de_, being more oblique to the more refrangible Rays than to the less refrangible ones, is more strongly illuminated by the latter than by the former, and therefore the less refrangible Rays are predominant in the reflected Light. And where-ever they are predominant in any Light, they tinge it with red or yellow, as may in some measure appear by the first Proposition of the first Part of this Book, and will more fully appear hereafter. And the contrary happens in the posture of the Paper [Greek: de], the more refrangible Rays being then predominant which always tinge Light with blues and violets.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00248", "bookId": 33504, "start": 160636, "end": 161240, "sha256": "d85917981dde7227b1dd154ca3aecf5854a0309ad95f0e5db181d21595c396d3", "text": "_Exper._ 4. The Colours of Bubbles with which Children play are various, and change their Situation variously, without any respect to any Confine or Shadow. If such a Bubble be cover'd with a concave Glass, to keep it from being agitated by any Wind or Motion of the Air, the Colours will slowly and regularly change their situation, even whilst the Eye and the Bubble, and all Bodies which emit any Light, or cast any Shadow, remain unmoved. And therefore their Colours arise from some regular Cause which depends not on any Confine of Shadow. What this Cause is will be shewed in the next Book.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00249", "bookId": 33504, "start": 161244, "end": 162918, "sha256": "7015c7179352297a88d5fb48aefdf28c2a0fe4ec0fe212b664a7832765d23ca4", "text": "To these Experiments may be added the tenth Experiment of the first Part of this first Book, where the Sun's Light in a dark Room being trajected through the parallel Superficies of two Prisms tied together in the form of a Parallelopipede, became totally of one uniform yellow or red Colour, at its emerging out of the Prisms. Here, in the production of these Colours, the Confine of Shadow can have nothing to do. For the Light changes from white to yellow, orange and red successively, without any alteration of the Confine of Shadow: And at both edges of the emerging Light where the contrary Confines of Shadow ought to produce different Effects, the Colour is one and the same, whether it be white, yellow, orange or red: And in the middle of the emerging Light, where there is no Confine of Shadow at all, the Colour is the very same as at the edges, the whole Light at its very first Emergence being of one uniform Colour, whether white, yellow, orange or red, and going on thence perpetually without any change of Colour, such as the Confine of Shadow is vulgarly supposed to work in refracted Light after its Emergence. Neither can these Colours arise from any new Modifications of the Light by Refractions, because they change successively from white to yellow, orange and red, while the Refractions remain the same, and also because the Refractions are made contrary ways by parallel Superficies which destroy one another's Effects. They arise not therefore from any Modifications of Light made by Refractions and Shadows, but have some other Cause. What that Cause is we shewed above in this tenth Experiment, and need not here repeat it.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00250", "bookId": 33504, "start": 162922, "end": 164104, "sha256": "eb40ad89dcc9c14573d12f92dace5adfd42902d9166e9e4d891f614210693d78", "text": "There is yet another material Circumstance of this Experiment. For this emerging Light being by a third Prism HIK [in _Fig._ 22. _Part_ I.][I] refracted towards the Paper PT, and there painting the usual Colours of the Prism, red, yellow, green, blue, violet: If these Colours arose from the Refractions of that Prism modifying the Light, they would not be in the Light before its Incidence on that Prism. And yet in that Experiment we found, that when by turning the two first Prisms about their common Axis all the Colours were made to vanish but the red; the Light which makes that red being left alone, appeared of the very same red Colour before its Incidence on the third Prism. And in general we find by other Experiments, that when the Rays which differ in Refrangibility are separated from one another, and any one Sort of them is considered apart, the Colour of the Light which they compose cannot be changed by any Refraction or Reflexion whatever, as it ought to be were Colours nothing else than Modifications of Light caused by Refractions, and Reflexions, and Shadows. This Unchangeableness of Colour I am now to describe in the following Proposition.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00251", "bookId": 33504, "start": 164110, "end": 164132, "sha256": "00f64d64e2db8fc28b705b0b8a32117667eae0b2b6540a543048087a9ee09d47", "text": "_PROP._ II. THEOR. II.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00252", "bookId": 33504, "start": 164136, "end": 164290, "sha256": "1a503852e5345cc64652d00d753efde58078946b05cd3d87f87f4f64c522d6f5", "text": "_All homogeneal Light has its proper Colour answering to its Degree of Refrangibility, and that Colour cannot be changed by Reflexions and Refractions._", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00253", "bookId": 33504, "start": 164294, "end": 164932, "sha256": "3d4f91c2d8d6fb626050c4114bec99390b35618a23ca88e2f4de310b5568d831", "text": "In the Experiments of the fourth Proposition of the first Part of this first Book, when I had separated the heterogeneous Rays from one another, the Spectrum _pt_ formed by the separated Rays, did in the Progress from its End _p_, on which the most refrangible Rays fell, unto its other End _t_, on which the least refrangible Rays fell, appear tinged with this Series of Colours, violet, indigo, blue, green, yellow, orange, red, together with all their intermediate Degrees in a continual Succession perpetually varying. So that there appeared as many Degrees of Colours, as there were sorts of Rays differing in Refrangibility.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00254", "bookId": 33504, "start": 164936, "end": 166733, "sha256": "091e3149fc77774a6bfbe259314d6e3ad885e3ccb3ed3fea22bced9e1bcdf71b", "text": "_Exper._ 5. Now, that these Colours could not be changed by Refraction, I knew by refracting with a Prism sometimes one very little Part of this Light, sometimes another very little Part, as is described in the twelfth Experiment of the first Part of this Book. For by this Refraction the Colour of the Light was never changed in the least. If any Part of the red Light was refracted, it remained totally of the same red Colour as before. No orange, no yellow, no green or blue, no other new Colour was produced by that Refraction. Neither did the Colour any ways change by repeated Refractions, but continued always the same red entirely as at first. The like Constancy and Immutability I found also in the blue, green, and other Colours. So also, if I looked through a Prism upon any Body illuminated with any part of this homogeneal Light, as in the fourteenth Experiment of the first Part of this Book is described; I could not perceive any new Colour generated this way. All Bodies illuminated with compound Light appear through Prisms confused, (as was said above) and tinged with various new Colours, but those illuminated with homogeneal Light appeared through Prisms neither less distinct, nor otherwise colour'd, than when viewed with the naked Eyes. Their Colours were not in the least changed by the Refraction of the interposed Prism. I speak here of a sensible Change of Colour: For the Light which I here call homogeneal, being not absolutely homogeneal, there ought to arise some little Change of Colour from its Heterogeneity. But, if that Heterogeneity was so little as it might be made by the said Experiments of the fourth Proposition, that Change was not sensible, and therefore in Experiments, where Sense is Judge, ought to be accounted none at all.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00255", "bookId": 33504, "start": 166737, "end": 167550, "sha256": "3511cca714b5b3c484a4bd21849e50424226fa0950f3e93eb98483bf2a45f67e", "text": "_Exper._ 6. And as these Colours were not changeable by Refractions, so neither were they by Reflexions. For all white, grey, red, yellow, green, blue, violet Bodies, as Paper, Ashes, red Lead, Orpiment, Indico Bise, Gold, Silver, Copper, Grass, blue Flowers, Violets, Bubbles of Water tinged with various Colours, Peacock's Feathers, the Tincture of _Lignum Nephriticum_, and such-like, in red homogeneal Light appeared totally red, in blue Light totally blue, in green Light totally green, and so of other Colours. In the homogeneal Light of any Colour they all appeared totally of that same Colour, with this only Difference, that some of them reflected that Light more strongly, others more faintly. I never yet found any Body, which by reflecting homogeneal Light could sensibly change its Colour.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00256", "bookId": 33504, "start": 167554, "end": 167865, "sha256": "fb05583a2d5f55c3cf40560d487b6d763fda7f9abaa8df89be35433475843cab", "text": "From all which it is manifest, that if the Sun's Light consisted of but one sort of Rays, there would be but one Colour in the whole World, nor would it be possible to produce any new Colour by Reflexions and Refractions, and by consequence that the variety of Colours depends upon the Composition of Light.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00257", "bookId": 33504, "start": 167871, "end": 167884, "sha256": "da42a12ab1bcb3cd86abfa6c8c67887faf67c7970f578da5152466db46664d70", "text": "_DEFINITION._", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00258", "bookId": 33504, "start": 167888, "end": 169152, "sha256": "b62925b0ea5500cf47b378f0f5a2e3c829c79983e542227cc3be13f93174352c", "text": "The homogeneal Light and Rays which appear red, or rather make Objects appear so, I call Rubrifick or Red-making; those which make Objects appear yellow, green, blue, and violet, I call Yellow-making, Green-making, Blue-making, Violet-making, and so of the rest. And if at any time I speak of Light and Rays as coloured or endued with Colours, I would be understood to speak not philosophically and properly, but grossly, and accordingly to such Conceptions as vulgar People in seeing all these Experiments would be apt to frame. For the Rays to speak properly are not coloured. In them there is nothing else than a certain Power and Disposition to stir up a Sensation of this or that Colour. For as Sound in a Bell or musical String, or other sounding Body, is nothing but a trembling Motion, and in the Air nothing but that Motion propagated from the Object, and in the Sensorium 'tis a Sense of that Motion under the Form of Sound; so Colours in the Object are nothing but a Disposition to reflect this or that sort of Rays more copiously than the rest; in the Rays they are nothing but their Dispositions to propagate this or that Motion into the Sensorium, and in the Sensorium they are Sensations of those Motions under the Forms of Colours.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00259", "bookId": 33504, "start": 169158, "end": 169179, "sha256": "dedd172e30c21f4ebf81c5a3a998c1a4d72e68245cef367348c5ef2ebfabc10c", "text": "_PROP._ III. PROB. I.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00260", "bookId": 33504, "start": 169183, "end": 169289, "sha256": "d8fe39fe3b0d82a9c3ad876b2a7cbfb60fae4d90ad7d4c8e8b68e333a2b88c2c", "text": "_To define the Refrangibility of the several sorts of homogeneal Light answering to the several Colours._", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00261", "bookId": 33504, "start": 169293, "end": 169357, "sha256": "21c3e94a694cc84ab786f6e16a5a83d0abdfcc15ce50cb5d0bdf59f49faedb96", "text": "For determining this Problem I made the following Experiment.[J]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00262", "bookId": 33504, "start": 169361, "end": 172017, "sha256": "c1e1c7b6d388e9e42b5d99d5e3d51aff2b2327a42914ed18c7c386cdfa03089c", "text": "_Exper._ 7. When I had caused the Rectilinear Sides AF, GM, [in _Fig._ 4.] of the Spectrum of Colours made by the Prism to be distinctly defined, as in the fifth Experiment of the first Part of this Book is described, there were found in it all the homogeneal Colours in the same Order and Situation one among another as in the Spectrum of simple Light, described in the fourth Proposition of that Part. For the Circles of which the Spectrum of compound Light PT is composed, and which in the middle Parts of the Spectrum interfere, and are intermix'd with one another, are not intermix'd in their outmost Parts where they touch those Rectilinear Sides AF and GM. And therefore, in those Rectilinear Sides when distinctly defined, there is no new Colour generated by Refraction. I observed also, that if any where between the two outmost Circles TMF and PGA a Right Line, as [Greek: gd], was cross to the Spectrum, so as both Ends to fall perpendicularly upon its Rectilinear Sides, there appeared one and the same Colour, and degree of Colour from one End of this Line to the other. I delineated therefore in a Paper the Perimeter of the Spectrum FAP GMT, and in trying the third Experiment of the first Part of this Book, I held the Paper so that the Spectrum might fall upon this delineated Figure, and agree with it exactly, whilst an Assistant, whose Eyes for distinguishing Colours were more critical than mine, did by Right Lines [Greek: ab, gd, ez,] &c. drawn cross the Spectrum, note the Confines of the Colours, that is of the red M[Greek: ab]F, of the orange [Greek: agdb], of the yellow [Greek: gezd], of the green [Greek: eethz], of the blue [Greek: eikth], of the indico [Greek: ilmk], and of the violet [Greek: l]GA[Greek: m]. And this Operation being divers times repeated both in the same, and in several Papers, I found that the Observations agreed well enough with one another, and that the Rectilinear Sides MG and FA were by the said cross Lines divided after the manner of a Musical Chord. Let GM be produced to X, that MX may be equal to GM, and conceive GX, [Greek: l]X, [Greek: i]X, [Greek: e]X, [Greek: e]X, [Greek: g]X, [Greek: a]X, MX, to be in proportion to one another, as the Numbers, 1, 8/9, 5/6, 3/4, 2/3, 3/5, 9/16, 1/2, and so to represent the Chords of the Key, and of a Tone, a third Minor, a fourth, a fifth, a sixth Major, a seventh and an eighth above that Key: And the Intervals M[Greek: a], [Greek: ag], [Greek: ge], [Greek: ee], [Greek: ei], [Greek: il], and [Greek: l]G, will be the Spaces which the several Colours (red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, violet) take up.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00263", "bookId": 33504, "start": 172021, "end": 172044, "sha256": "48da5aab500d9907956435b8da8de09fb6154e2fe75c32e0e9060489a1f25106", "text": "[Illustration: FIG. 4.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00264", "bookId": 33504, "start": 172048, "end": 172071, "sha256": "a2e8051d643316eaab5617dedf8b5aa4a5a1d24917f26d3d62894cda8b0e466a", "text": "[Illustration: FIG. 5.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00265", "bookId": 33504, "start": 172075, "end": 173878, "sha256": "c432b75f66061a0192b02558691e3b5a7d48f59636cae92cefb4ee5433a97997", "text": "Now these Intervals or Spaces subtending the Differences of the Refractions of the Rays going to the Limits of those Colours, that is, to the Points M, [Greek: a], [Greek: g], [Greek: e], [Greek: e], [Greek: i], [Greek: l], G, may without any sensible Error be accounted proportional to the Differences of the Sines of Refraction of those Rays having one common Sine of Incidence, and therefore since the common Sine of Incidence of the most and least refrangible Rays out of Glass into Air was (by a Method described above) found in proportion to their Sines of Refraction, as 50 to 77 and 78, divide the Difference between the Sines of Refraction 77 and 78, as the Line GM is divided by those Intervals, and you will have 77, 77-1/8, 77-1/5, 77-1/3, 77-1/2, 77-2/3, 77-7/9, 78, the Sines of Refraction of those Rays out of Glass into Air, their common Sine of Incidence being 50. So then the Sines of the Incidences of all the red-making Rays out of Glass into Air, were to the Sines of their Refractions, not greater than 50 to 77, nor less than 50 to 77-1/8, but they varied from one another according to all intermediate Proportions. And the Sines of the Incidences of the green-making Rays were to the Sines of their Refractions in all Proportions from that of 50 to 77-1/3, unto that of 50 to 77-1/2. And by the like Limits above-mentioned were the Refractions of the Rays belonging to the rest of the Colours defined, the Sines of the red-making Rays extending from 77 to 77-1/8, those of the orange-making from 77-1/8 to 77-1/5, those of the yellow-making from 77-1/5 to 77-1/3, those of the green-making from 77-1/3 to 77-1/2, those of the blue-making from 77-1/2 to 77-2/3, those of the indigo-making from 77-2/3 to 77-7/9, and those of the violet from 77-7/9, to 78.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00266", "bookId": 33504, "start": 173882, "end": 174086, "sha256": "92e2c1502381256e5ce4250af6fd40eff20446e20fa93156f6db94b188bf06fd", "text": "These are the Laws of the Refractions made out of Glass into Air, and thence by the third Axiom of the first Part of this Book, the Laws of the Refractions made out of Air into Glass are easily derived.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00267", "bookId": 33504, "start": 174090, "end": 175239, "sha256": "0a0c790b31475e8ee88b7932f38de51d44a9dadce47c56a39add85f0f6bf0cee", "text": "_Exper._ 8. I found moreover, that when Light goes out of Air through several contiguous refracting Mediums as through Water and Glass, and thence goes out again into Air, whether the refracting Superficies be parallel or inclin'd to one another, that Light as often as by contrary Refractions 'tis so corrected, that it emergeth in Lines parallel to those in which it was incident, continues ever after to be white. But if the emergent Rays be inclined to the incident, the Whiteness of the emerging Light will by degrees in passing on from the Place of Emergence, become tinged in its Edges with Colours. This I try'd by refracting Light with Prisms of Glass placed within a Prismatick Vessel of Water. Now those Colours argue a diverging and separation of the heterogeneous Rays from one another by means of their unequal Refractions, as in what follows will more fully appear. And, on the contrary, the permanent whiteness argues, that in like Incidences of the Rays there is no such separation of the emerging Rays, and by consequence no inequality of their whole Refractions. Whence I seem to gather the two following Theorems.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00268", "bookId": 33504, "start": 175243, "end": 175515, "sha256": "0edf39cac734eea9f3e95727efcc554efc6107f5561c1e88f4eb0182d3e55503", "text": "1. The Excesses of the Sines of Refraction of several sorts of Rays above their common Sine of Incidence when the Refractions are made out of divers denser Mediums immediately into one and the same rarer Medium, suppose of Air, are to one another in a given Proportion.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00269", "bookId": 33504, "start": 175519, "end": 175907, "sha256": "8325713335da8b448792fac19cadb7dee0031d05663e4c4d48f689190a43939d", "text": "2. The Proportion of the Sine of Incidence to the Sine of Refraction of one and the same sort of Rays out of one Medium into another, is composed of the Proportion of the Sine of Incidence to the Sine of Refraction out of the first Medium into any third Medium, and of the Proportion of the Sine of Incidence to the Sine of Refraction out of that third Medium into the second Medium.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00270", "bookId": 33504, "start": 175911, "end": 176894, "sha256": "c45458750d3ffdbdb6940281b6626ce700e572e9784dad4f14a65ad4fd5adf92", "text": "By the first Theorem the Refractions of the Rays of every sort made out of any Medium into Air are known by having the Refraction of the Rays of any one sort. As for instance, if the Refractions of the Rays of every sort out of Rain-water into Air be desired, let the common Sine of Incidence out of Glass into Air be subducted from the Sines of Refraction, and the Excesses will be 27, 27-1/8, 27-1/5, 27-1/3, 27-1/2, 27-2/3, 27-7/9, 28. Suppose now that the Sine of Incidence of the least refrangible Rays be to their Sine of Refraction out of Rain-water into Air as 3 to 4, and say as 1 the difference of those Sines is to 3 the Sine of Incidence, so is 27 the least of the Excesses above-mentioned to a fourth Number 81; and 81 will be the common Sine of Incidence out of Rain-water into Air, to which Sine if you add all the above-mentioned Excesses, you will have the desired Sines of the Refractions 108, 108-1/8, 108-1/5, 108-1/3, 108-1/2, 108-2/3, 108-7/9, 109.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00271", "bookId": 33504, "start": 176898, "end": 177472, "sha256": "84eda0302d69e26a16bd86555f7217a7463ef4fb4259537bee6a76bf004f8a98", "text": "By the latter Theorem the Refraction out of one Medium into another is gathered as often as you have the Refractions out of them both into any third Medium. As if the Sine of Incidence of any Ray out of Glass into Air be to its Sine of Refraction, as 20 to 31, and the Sine of Incidence of the same Ray out of Air into Water, be to its Sine of Refraction as 4 to 3; the Sine of Incidence of that Ray out of Glass into Water will be to its Sine of Refraction as 20 to 31 and 4 to 3 jointly, that is, as the Factum of 20 and 4 to the Factum of 31 and 3, or as 80 to 93.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00272", "bookId": 33504, "start": 177476, "end": 178424, "sha256": "f242a26a437abac26e782ac15542bad64c04aa90c11dc0fb7aac6148a3a5ce8a", "text": "And these Theorems being admitted into Opticks, there would be scope enough of handling that Science voluminously after a new manner,[K] not only by teaching those things which tend to the perfection of Vision, but also by determining mathematically all kinds of Phaenomena of Colours which could be produced by Refractions. For to do this, there is nothing else requisite than to find out the Separations of heterogeneous Rays, and their various Mixtures and Proportions in every Mixture. By this way of arguing I invented almost all the Phaenomena described in these Books, beside some others less necessary to the Argument; and by the successes I met with in the Trials, I dare promise, that to him who shall argue truly, and then try all things with good Glasses and sufficient Circumspection, the expected Event will not be wanting. But he is first to know what Colours will arise from any others mix'd in any assigned Proportion.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00273", "bookId": 33504, "start": 178430, "end": 178453, "sha256": "303fed03f6f74f436b2274207b7bc2a70f638cdcff5537827f8213b998b352a0", "text": "_PROP._ IV. THEOR. III.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00274", "bookId": 33504, "start": 178457, "end": 178989, "sha256": "8a4fb3964f9e244468b220a27a235e03a6d08c8ba9979b2e9e100affea716403", "text": "_Colours may be produced by Composition which shall be like to the Colours of homogeneal Light as to the Appearance of Colour, but not as to the Immutability of Colour and Constitution of Light. And those Colours by how much they are more compounded by so much are they less full and intense, and by too much Composition they maybe diluted and weaken'd till they cease, and the Mixture becomes white or grey. There may be also Colours produced by Composition, which are not fully like any of the Colours of homogeneal Light._", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00275", "bookId": 33504, "start": 178993, "end": 180942, "sha256": "40f095d884ac9e0e0818e91fb0ae439987b33ca1b35a5838d5b628e49b9ff15c", "text": "For a Mixture of homogeneal red and yellow compounds an Orange, like in appearance of Colour to that orange which in the series of unmixed prismatick Colours lies between them; but the Light of one orange is homogeneal as to Refrangibility, and that of the other is heterogeneal, and the Colour of the one, if viewed through a Prism, remains unchanged, that of the other is changed and resolved into its component Colours red and yellow. And after the same manner other neighbouring homogeneal Colours may compound new Colours, like the intermediate homogeneal ones, as yellow and green, the Colour between them both, and afterwards, if blue be added, there will be made a green the middle Colour of the three which enter the Composition. For the yellow and blue on either hand, if they are equal in quantity they draw the intermediate green equally towards themselves in Composition, and so keep it as it were in AEquilibrion, that it verge not more to the yellow on the one hand, and to the blue on the other, but by their mix'd Actions remain still a middle Colour. To this mix'd green there may be farther added some red and violet, and yet the green will not presently cease, but only grow less full and vivid, and by increasing the red and violet, it will grow more and more dilute, until by the prevalence of the added Colours it be overcome and turned into whiteness, or some other Colour. So if to the Colour of any homogeneal Light, the Sun's white Light composed of all sorts of Rays be added, that Colour will not vanish or change its Species, but be diluted, and by adding more and more white it will be diluted more and more perpetually. Lastly, If red and violet be mingled, there will be generated according to their various Proportions various Purples, such as are not like in appearance to the Colour of any homogeneal Light, and of these Purples mix'd with yellow and blue may be made other new Colours.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00276", "bookId": 33504, "start": 180948, "end": 180969, "sha256": "1a400599bd0eb09c62f46eda23a5f419eefa33318b53362c16bc4dec35da8585", "text": "_PROP._ V. THEOR. IV.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00277", "bookId": 33504, "start": 180973, "end": 181167, "sha256": "ba135a768cd2f714b06241f0bbe9afd053f7a0ca02ac216a0ee671c7c4c8b783", "text": "_Whiteness and all grey Colours between white and black, may be compounded of Colours, and the whiteness of the Sun's Light is compounded of all the primary Colours mix'd in a due Proportion._", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00278", "bookId": 33504, "start": 181171, "end": 181196, "sha256": "f2a918c940733f73dfdb687070c519fcd03567546ee1f18461abf89cd12da4e0", "text": "The PROOF by Experiments.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00279", "bookId": 33504, "start": 181200, "end": 183260, "sha256": "2c916bcc93fc83221431ec6745c6b59c754b4ba64ff8aee8238fe4cfcf6a41e7", "text": "_Exper._ 9. The Sun shining into a dark Chamber through a little round hole in the Window-shut, and his Light being there refracted by a Prism to cast his coloured Image PT [in _Fig._ 5.] upon the opposite Wall: I held a white Paper V to that image in such manner that it might be illuminated by the colour'd Light reflected from thence, and yet not intercept any part of that Light in its passage from the Prism to the Spectrum. And I found that when the Paper was held nearer to any Colour than to the rest, it appeared of that Colour to which it approached nearest; but when it was equally or almost equally distant from all the Colours, so that it might be equally illuminated by them all it appeared white. And in this last situation of the Paper, if some Colours were intercepted, the Paper lost its white Colour, and appeared of the Colour of the rest of the Light which was not intercepted. So then the Paper was illuminated with Lights of various Colours, namely, red, yellow, green, blue and violet, and every part of the Light retained its proper Colour, until it was incident on the Paper, and became reflected thence to the Eye; so that if it had been either alone (the rest of the Light being intercepted) or if it had abounded most, and been predominant in the Light reflected from the Paper, it would have tinged the Paper with its own Colour; and yet being mixed with the rest of the Colours in a due proportion, it made the Paper look white, and therefore by a Composition with the rest produced that Colour. The several parts of the coloured Light reflected from the Spectrum, whilst they are propagated from thence through the Air, do perpetually retain their proper Colours, because wherever they fall upon the Eyes of any Spectator, they make the several parts of the Spectrum to appear under their proper Colours. They retain therefore their proper Colours when they fall upon the Paper V, and so by the confusion and perfect mixture of those Colours compound the whiteness of the Light reflected from thence.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00280", "bookId": 33504, "start": 183264, "end": 184586, "sha256": "1e12e5cc6637e8075d5acd182c98198cd3d76665c9804765f049f6d8e5bd3bad", "text": "_Exper._ 10. Let that Spectrum or solar Image PT [in _Fig._ 6.] fall now upon the Lens MN above four Inches broad, and about six Feet distant from the Prism ABC and so figured that it may cause the coloured Light which divergeth from the Prism to converge and meet again at its Focus G, about six or eight Feet distant from the Lens, and there to fall perpendicularly upon a white Paper DE. And if you move this Paper to and fro, you will perceive that near the Lens, as at _de_, the whole solar Image (suppose at _pt_) will appear upon it intensely coloured after the manner above-explained, and that by receding from the Lens those Colours will perpetually come towards one another, and by mixing more and more dilute one another continually, until at length the Paper come to the Focus G, where by a perfect mixture they will wholly vanish and be converted into whiteness, the whole Light appearing now upon the Paper like a little white Circle. And afterwards by receding farther from the Lens, the Rays which before converged will now cross one another in the Focus G, and diverge from thence, and thereby make the Colours to appear again, but yet in a contrary order; suppose at [Greek: de], where the red _t_ is now above which before was below, and the violet _p_ is below which before was above.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00281", "bookId": 33504, "start": 184590, "end": 185872, "sha256": "4b8f9d8a061b560f46f3cc1c33099e3f0c3381d21d8a33cbd193c0e9a2801b33", "text": "Let us now stop the Paper at the Focus G, where the Light appears totally white and circular, and let us consider its whiteness. I say, that this is composed of the converging Colours. For if any of those Colours be intercepted at the Lens, the whiteness will cease and degenerate into that Colour which ariseth from the composition of the other Colours which are not intercepted. And then if the intercepted Colours be let pass and fall upon that compound Colour, they mix with it, and by their mixture restore the whiteness. So if the violet, blue and green be intercepted, the remaining yellow, orange and red will compound upon the Paper an orange, and then if the intercepted Colours be let pass, they will fall upon this compounded orange, and together with it decompound a white. So also if the red and violet be intercepted, the remaining yellow, green and blue, will compound a green upon the Paper, and then the red and violet being let pass will fall upon this green, and together with it decompound a white. And that in this Composition of white the several Rays do not suffer any Change in their colorific Qualities by acting upon one another, but are only mixed, and by a mixture of their Colours produce white, may farther appear by these Arguments.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00282", "bookId": 33504, "start": 185876, "end": 185899, "sha256": "160fbea29bda93164c070da134d39bf502994b1b09ffe59bb8533952328958f9", "text": "[Illustration: FIG. 6.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00283", "bookId": 33504, "start": 185903, "end": 186351, "sha256": "5d47c5de6d64f255ad3afe46a27033c0b295a16e41bbe95b4a27a04541c7da53", "text": "If the Paper be placed beyond the Focus G, suppose at [Greek: de], and then the red Colour at the Lens be alternately intercepted, and let pass again, the violet Colour on the Paper will not suffer any Change thereby, as it ought to do if the several sorts of Rays acted upon one another in the Focus G, where they cross. Neither will the red upon the Paper be changed by any alternate stopping, and letting pass the violet which crosseth it.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00284", "bookId": 33504, "start": 186355, "end": 187218, "sha256": "5b68d200cf7bbe747b8dd49dedb7daae806fd604525ee23e137c5de79ab1ae5e", "text": "And if the Paper be placed at the Focus G, and the white round Image at G be viewed through the Prism HIK, and by the Refraction of that Prism be translated to the place _rv_, and there appear tinged with various Colours, namely, the violet at _v_ and red at _r_, and others between, and then the red Colours at the Lens be often stopp'd and let pass by turns, the red at _r_ will accordingly disappear, and return as often, but the violet at _v_ will not thereby suffer any Change. And so by stopping and letting pass alternately the blue at the Lens, the blue at _v_ will accordingly disappear and return, without any Change made in the red at _r_. The red therefore depends on one sort of Rays, and the blue on another sort, which in the Focus G where they are commix'd, do not act on one another. And there is the same Reason of the other Colours.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00285", "bookId": 33504, "start": 187222, "end": 188460, "sha256": "2e630cb987ad58a196307429a535317b277dcf93c9ebf3bcc9817574e91143a7", "text": "I considered farther, that when the most refrangible Rays P_p_, and the least refrangible ones T_t_, are by converging inclined to one another, the Paper, if held very oblique to those Rays in the Focus G, might reflect one sort of them more copiously than the other sort, and by that Means the reflected Light would be tinged in that Focus with the Colour of the predominant Rays, provided those Rays severally retained their Colours, or colorific Qualities in the Composition of White made by them in that Focus. But if they did not retain them in that White, but became all of them severally endued there with a Disposition to strike the Sense with the Perception of White, then they could never lose their Whiteness by such Reflexions. I inclined therefore the Paper to the Rays very obliquely, as in the second Experiment of this second Part of the first Book, that the most refrangible Rays, might be more copiously reflected than the rest, and the Whiteness at Length changed successively into blue, indigo, and violet. Then I inclined it the contrary Way, that the least refrangible Rays might be more copious in the reflected Light than the rest, and the Whiteness turned successively to yellow, orange, and red.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00286", "bookId": 33504, "start": 188464, "end": 191689, "sha256": "7cc6815e072d4bdcef1e200081d1717072beeea44bccd90cf949568852f106b3", "text": "Lastly, I made an Instrument XY in fashion of a Comb, whose Teeth being in number sixteen, were about an Inch and a half broad, and the Intervals of the Teeth about two Inches wide. Then by interposing successively the Teeth of this Instrument near the Lens, I intercepted Part of the Colours by the interposed Tooth, whilst the rest of them went on through the Interval of the Teeth to the Paper DE, and there painted a round Solar Image. But the Paper I had first placed so, that the Image might appear white as often as the Comb was taken away; and then the Comb being as was said interposed, that Whiteness by reason of the intercepted Part of the Colours at the Lens did always change into the Colour compounded of those Colours which were not intercepted, and that Colour was by the Motion of the Comb perpetually varied so, that in the passing of every Tooth over the Lens all these Colours, red, yellow, green, blue, and purple, did always succeed one another. I caused therefore all the Teeth to pass successively over the Lens, and when the Motion was slow, there appeared a perpetual Succession of the Colours upon the Paper: But if I so much accelerated the Motion, that the Colours by reason of their quick Succession could not be distinguished from one another, the Appearance of the single Colours ceased. There was no red, no yellow, no green, no blue, nor purple to be seen any longer, but from a Confusion of them all there arose one uniform white Colour. Of the Light which now by the Mixture of all the Colours appeared white, there was no Part really white. One Part was red, another yellow, a third green, a fourth blue, a fifth purple, and every Part retains its proper Colour till it strike the Sensorium. If the Impressions follow one another slowly, so that they may be severally perceived, there is made a distinct Sensation of all the Colours one after another in a continual Succession. But if the Impressions follow one another so quickly, that they cannot be severally perceived, there ariseth out of them all one common Sensation, which is neither of this Colour alone nor of that alone, but hath it self indifferently to 'em all, and this is a Sensation of Whiteness. By the Quickness of the Successions, the Impressions of the several Colours are confounded in the Sensorium, and out of that Confusion ariseth a mix'd Sensation. If a burning Coal be nimbly moved round in a Circle with Gyrations continually repeated, the whole Circle will appear like Fire; the reason of which is, that the Sensation of the Coal in the several Places of that Circle remains impress'd on the Sensorium, until the Coal return again to the same Place. And so in a quick Consecution of the Colours the Impression of every Colour remains in the Sensorium, until a Revolution of all the Colours be compleated, and that first Colour return again. The Impressions therefore of all the successive Colours are at once in the Sensorium, and jointly stir up a Sensation of them all; and so it is manifest by this Experiment, that the commix'd Impressions of all the Colours do stir up and beget a Sensation of white, that is, that Whiteness is compounded of all the Colours.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00287", "bookId": 33504, "start": 191693, "end": 192019, "sha256": "c925b009e12cae026815ee04647b6599c2912cc43c66093171b50d8da0a7a61f", "text": "And if the Comb be now taken away, that all the Colours may at once pass from the Lens to the Paper, and be there intermixed, and together reflected thence to the Spectator's Eyes; their Impressions on the Sensorium being now more subtilly and perfectly commixed there, ought much more to stir up a Sensation of Whiteness.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00288", "bookId": 33504, "start": 192023, "end": 192361, "sha256": "a353abc5b53a60c35316805305a7d75f1a478ab514148e0c94ec56e8b504cdf8", "text": "You may instead of the Lens use two Prisms HIK and LMN, which by refracting the coloured Light the contrary Way to that of the first Refraction, may make the diverging Rays converge and meet again in G, as you see represented in the seventh Figure. For where they meet and mix, they will compose a white Light, as when a Lens is used.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00289", "bookId": 33504, "start": 192365, "end": 193494, "sha256": "3c24c9f9e515d8eb1b5b0f797bf5956454b89f2c6b65baea81ff7a8e52c9bffd", "text": "_Exper._ 11. Let the Sun's coloured Image PT [in _Fig._ 8.] fall upon the Wall of a dark Chamber, as in the third Experiment of the first Book, and let the same be viewed through a Prism _abc_, held parallel to the Prism ABC, by whose Refraction that Image was made, and let it now appear lower than before, suppose in the Place S over-against the red Colour T. And if you go near to the Image PT, the Spectrum S will appear oblong and coloured like the Image PT; but if you recede from it, the Colours of the spectrum S will be contracted more and more, and at length vanish, that Spectrum S becoming perfectly round and white; and if you recede yet farther, the Colours will emerge again, but in a contrary Order. Now that Spectrum S appears white in that Case, when the Rays of several sorts which converge from the several Parts of the Image PT, to the Prism _abc_, are so refracted unequally by it, that in their Passage from the Prism to the Eye they may diverge from one and the same Point of the Spectrum S, and so fall afterwards upon one and the same Point in the bottom of the Eye, and there be mingled.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00290", "bookId": 33504, "start": 193498, "end": 193521, "sha256": "b46779b3a533a6be5e45f28fc5087e42c0e7cf8ccae359720c9273fdf996e91d", "text": "[Illustration: FIG. 7.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00291", "bookId": 33504, "start": 193525, "end": 193548, "sha256": "3aa6ba3d6bf2a0ab771391609449be481fcfb743295d547dcfa130de3fe4bf5b", "text": "[Illustration: FIG. 8.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00292", "bookId": 33504, "start": 193552, "end": 193988, "sha256": "846f60d2fd4b023b647b1046b733724c67af2a957b38c5201936f312568cecd6", "text": "And farther, if the Comb be here made use of, by whose Teeth the Colours at the Image PT may be successively intercepted; the Spectrum S, when the Comb is moved slowly, will be perpetually tinged with successive Colours: But when by accelerating the Motion of the Comb, the Succession of the Colours is so quick that they cannot be severally seen, that Spectrum S, by a confused and mix'd Sensation of them all, will appear white.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00293", "bookId": 33504, "start": 193992, "end": 194953, "sha256": "3401665d3144a0c5dd66c724f767c915ee0a900f8352af2a00c47710b3a884b6", "text": "_Exper._ 12. The Sun shining through a large Prism ABC [in _Fig._ 9.] upon a Comb XY, placed immediately behind the Prism, his Light which passed through the Interstices of the Teeth fell upon a white Paper DE. The Breadths of the Teeth were equal to their Interstices, and seven Teeth together with their Interstices took up an Inch in Breadth. Now, when the Paper was about two or three Inches distant from the Comb, the Light which passed through its several Interstices painted so many Ranges of Colours, _kl_, _mn_, _op_, _qr_, &c. which were parallel to one another, and contiguous, and without any Mixture of white. And these Ranges of Colours, if the Comb was moved continually up and down with a reciprocal Motion, ascended and descended in the Paper, and when the Motion of the Comb was so quick, that the Colours could not be distinguished from one another, the whole Paper by their Confusion and Mixture in the Sensorium appeared white.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00294", "bookId": 33504, "start": 194957, "end": 194980, "sha256": "71c1051d449c7e228674fcff969159c75509ee8237e7164fc6827261a495de81", "text": "[Illustration: FIG. 9.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00295", "bookId": 33504, "start": 194984, "end": 195392, "sha256": "44be730f9d85c493bbb63666d21ab3eb1727994fc8e46d07ffbadcc3313a3610", "text": "Let the Comb now rest, and let the Paper be removed farther from the Prism, and the several Ranges of Colours will be dilated and expanded into one another more and more, and by mixing their Colours will dilute one another, and at length, when the distance of the Paper from the Comb is about a Foot, or a little more (suppose in the Place 2D 2E) they will so far dilute one another, as to become white.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00296", "bookId": 33504, "start": 195396, "end": 195868, "sha256": "19d3535d544bb347da546e22c0a28dd864d4e876ac7c930662927032f6df45cb", "text": "With any Obstacle, let all the Light be now stopp'd which passes through any one Interval of the Teeth, so that the Range of Colours which comes from thence may be taken away, and you will see the Light of the rest of the Ranges to be expanded into the Place of the Range taken away, and there to be coloured. Let the intercepted Range pass on as before, and its Colours falling upon the Colours of the other Ranges, and mixing with them, will restore the Whiteness.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00297", "bookId": 33504, "start": 195872, "end": 196565, "sha256": "9fb2ef24ecf18b077ad68c707e0b062d805ca8512472d55a2c8e0cc147f64a25", "text": "Let the Paper 2D 2E be now very much inclined to the Rays, so that the most refrangible Rays may be more copiously reflected than the rest, and the white Colour of the Paper through the Excess of those Rays will be changed into blue and violet. Let the Paper be as much inclined the contrary way, that the least refrangible Rays may be now more copiously reflected than the rest, and by their Excess the Whiteness will be changed into yellow and red. The several Rays therefore in that white Light do retain their colorific Qualities, by which those of any sort, whenever they become more copious than the rest, do by their Excess and Predominance cause their proper Colour to appear.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00298", "bookId": 33504, "start": 196569, "end": 196855, "sha256": "22b35a889e13bb9c3db278b30e08e9a7209fd2e88443fe2fa22430a5492d2449", "text": "And by the same way of arguing, applied to the third Experiment of this second Part of the first Book, it may be concluded, that the white Colour of all refracted Light at its very first Emergence, where it appears as white as before its Incidence, is compounded of various Colours.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00299", "bookId": 33504, "start": 196859, "end": 196883, "sha256": "a88a5e31ef3fdfdce1281e458d726cca4d1200b34b8eaba241a19dff73a3b064", "text": "[Illustration: FIG. 10.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00300", "bookId": 33504, "start": 196887, "end": 198065, "sha256": "f4ac9c6757d9f938dd4590bf568d7b42f437cc7b17d0a64b4b3a3dc76f22b545", "text": "_Exper._ 13. In the foregoing Experiment the several Intervals of the Teeth of the Comb do the Office of so many Prisms, every Interval producing the Phaenomenon of one Prism. Whence instead of those Intervals using several Prisms, I try'd to compound Whiteness by mixing their Colours, and did it by using only three Prisms, as also by using only two as follows. Let two Prisms ABC and _abc_, [in _Fig._ 10.] whose refracting Angles B and _b_ are equal, be so placed parallel to one another, that the refracting Angle B of the one may touch the Angle _c_ at the Base of the other, and their Planes CB and _cb_, at which the Rays emerge, may lie in Directum. Then let the Light trajected through them fall upon the Paper MN, distant about 8 or 12 Inches from the Prisms. And the Colours generated by the interior Limits B and _c_ of the two Prisms, will be mingled at PT, and there compound white. For if either Prism be taken away, the Colours made by the other will appear in that Place PT, and when the Prism is restored to its Place again, so that its Colours may there fall upon the Colours of the other, the Mixture of them both will restore the Whiteness.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00301", "bookId": 33504, "start": 198069, "end": 199975, "sha256": "35c497c9c3755b29b2bb348a75900410ea5f9846d29bfde3718d6a59b82a38c9", "text": "This Experiment succeeds also, as I have tried, when the Angle _b_ of the lower Prism, is a little greater than the Angle B of the upper, and between the interior Angles B and _c_, there intercedes some Space B_c_, as is represented in the Figure, and the refracting Planes BC and _bc_, are neither in Directum, nor parallel to one another. For there is nothing more requisite to the Success of this Experiment, than that the Rays of all sorts may be uniformly mixed upon the Paper in the Place PT. If the most refrangible Rays coming from the superior Prism take up all the Space from M to P, the Rays of the same sort which come from the inferior Prism ought to begin at P, and take up all the rest of the Space from thence towards N. If the least refrangible Rays coming from the superior Prism take up the Space MT, the Rays of the same kind which come from the other Prism ought to begin at T, and take up the remaining Space TN. If one sort of the Rays which have intermediate Degrees of Refrangibility, and come from the superior Prism be extended through the Space MQ, and another sort of those Rays through the Space MR, and a third sort of them through the Space MS, the same sorts of Rays coming from the lower Prism, ought to illuminate the remaining Spaces QN, RN, SN, respectively. And the same is to be understood of all the other sorts of Rays. For thus the Rays of every sort will be scattered uniformly and evenly through the whole Space MN, and so being every where mix'd in the same Proportion, they must every where produce the same Colour. And therefore, since by this Mixture they produce white in the Exterior Spaces MP and TN, they must also produce white in the Interior Space PT. This is the reason of the Composition by which Whiteness was produced in this Experiment, and by what other way soever I made the like Composition, the Result was Whiteness.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00302", "bookId": 33504, "start": 199979, "end": 200353, "sha256": "e421947b1c8611e8820fc5db380b60fc7768c3bfed986a13d96fa4f443ce648e", "text": "Lastly, If with the Teeth of a Comb of a due Size, the coloured Lights of the two Prisms which fall upon the Space PT be alternately intercepted, that Space PT, when the Motion of the Comb is slow, will always appear coloured, but by accelerating the Motion of the Comb so much that the successive Colours cannot be distinguished from one another, it will appear white.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00303", "bookId": 33504, "start": 200357, "end": 200883, "sha256": "94cc9d08f95d3d39fc49c179a46349b346a5b359a37af58b49265c7b6488bafa", "text": "_Exper._ 14. Hitherto I have produced Whiteness by mixing the Colours of Prisms. If now the Colours of natural Bodies are to be mingled, let Water a little thicken'd with Soap be agitated to raise a Froth, and after that Froth has stood a little, there will appear to one that shall view it intently various Colours every where in the Surfaces of the several Bubbles; but to one that shall go so far off, that he cannot distinguish the Colours from one another, the whole Froth will grow white with a perfect Whiteness.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00304", "bookId": 33504, "start": 200887, "end": 203951, "sha256": "46185af202e8b89c253df32f66e2e9f7ec12b2b09c55a6ca780b51d33a7260b7", "text": "_Exper._ 15. Lastly, In attempting to compound a white, by mixing the coloured Powders which Painters use, I consider'd that all colour'd Powders do suppress and stop in them a very considerable Part of the Light by which they are illuminated. For they become colour'd by reflecting the Light of their own Colours more copiously, and that of all other Colours more sparingly, and yet they do not reflect the Light of their own Colours so copiously as white Bodies do. If red Lead, for instance, and a white Paper, be placed in the red Light of the colour'd Spectrum made in a dark Chamber by the Refraction of a Prism, as is described in the third Experiment of the first Part of this Book; the Paper will appear more lucid than the red Lead, and therefore reflects the red-making Rays more copiously than red Lead doth. And if they be held in the Light of any other Colour, the Light reflected by the Paper will exceed the Light reflected by the red Lead in a much greater Proportion. And the like happens in Powders of other Colours. And therefore by mixing such Powders, we are not to expect a strong and full White, such as is that of Paper, but some dusky obscure one, such as might arise from a Mixture of Light and Darkness, or from white and black, that is, a grey, or dun, or russet brown, such as are the Colours of a Man's Nail, of a Mouse, of Ashes, of ordinary Stones, of Mortar, of Dust and Dirt in High-ways, and the like. And such a dark white I have often produced by mixing colour'd Powders. For thus one Part of red Lead, and five Parts of _Viride AEris_, composed a dun Colour like that of a Mouse. For these two Colours were severally so compounded of others, that in both together were a Mixture of all Colours; and there was less red Lead used than _Viride AEris_, because of the Fulness of its Colour. Again, one Part of red Lead, and four Parts of blue Bise, composed a dun Colour verging a little to purple, and by adding to this a certain Mixture of Orpiment and _Viride AEris_ in a due Proportion, the Mixture lost its purple Tincture, and became perfectly dun. But the Experiment succeeded best without Minium thus. To Orpiment I added by little and little a certain full bright purple, which Painters use, until the Orpiment ceased to be yellow, and became of a pale red. Then I diluted that red by adding a little _Viride AEris_, and a little more blue Bise than _Viride AEris_, until it became of such a grey or pale white, as verged to no one of the Colours more than to another. For thus it became of a Colour equal in Whiteness to that of Ashes, or of Wood newly cut, or of a Man's Skin. The Orpiment reflected more Light than did any other of the Powders, and therefore conduced more to the Whiteness of the compounded Colour than they. To assign the Proportions accurately may be difficult, by reason of the different Goodness of Powders of the same kind. Accordingly, as the Colour of any Powder is more or less full and luminous, it ought to be used in a less or greater Proportion.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00305", "bookId": 33504, "start": 203955, "end": 206579, "sha256": "4ef1559f8104744cfe0a248daaa98a370240e7adceced7e30590e4d397596e8e", "text": "Now, considering that these grey and dun Colours may be also produced by mixing Whites and Blacks, and by consequence differ from perfect Whites, not in Species of Colours, but only in degree of Luminousness, it is manifest that there is nothing more requisite to make them perfectly white than to increase their Light sufficiently; and, on the contrary, if by increasing their Light they can be brought to perfect Whiteness, it will thence also follow, that they are of the same Species of Colour with the best Whites, and differ from them only in the Quantity of Light. And this I tried as follows. I took the third of the above-mention'd grey Mixtures, (that which was compounded of Orpiment, Purple, Bise, and _Viride AEris_) and rubbed it thickly upon the Floor of my Chamber, where the Sun shone upon it through the opened Casement; and by it, in the shadow, I laid a Piece of white Paper of the same Bigness. Then going from them to the distance of 12 or 18 Feet, so that I could not discern the Unevenness of the Surface of the Powder, nor the little Shadows let fall from the gritty Particles thereof; the Powder appeared intensely white, so as to transcend even the Paper it self in Whiteness, especially if the Paper were a little shaded from the Light of the Clouds, and then the Paper compared with the Powder appeared of such a grey Colour as the Powder had done before. But by laying the Paper where the Sun shines through the Glass of the Window, or by shutting the Window that the Sun might shine through the Glass upon the Powder, and by such other fit Means of increasing or decreasing the Lights wherewith the Powder and Paper were illuminated, the Light wherewith the Powder is illuminated may be made stronger in such a due Proportion than the Light wherewith the Paper is illuminated, that they shall both appear exactly alike in Whiteness. For when I was trying this, a Friend coming to visit me, I stopp'd him at the Door, and before I told him what the Colours were, or what I was doing; I asked him, Which of the two Whites were the best, and wherein they differed? And after he had at that distance viewed them well, he answer'd, that they were both good Whites, and that he could not say which was best, nor wherein their Colours differed. Now, if you consider, that this White of the Powder in the Sun-shine was compounded of the Colours which the component Powders (Orpiment, Purple, Bise, and _Viride AEris_) have in the same Sun-shine, you must acknowledge by this Experiment, as well as by the former, that perfect Whiteness may be compounded of Colours.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00306", "bookId": 33504, "start": 206583, "end": 207083, "sha256": "d3a3cba580d78b0cf0a1abfde9273f0639ff923cc28c34f873852b78ebe34745", "text": "From what has been said it is also evident, that the Whiteness of the Sun's Light is compounded of all the Colours wherewith the several sorts of Rays whereof that Light consists, when by their several Refrangibilities they are separated from one another, do tinge Paper or any other white Body whereon they fall. For those Colours (by _Prop._ II. _Part_ 2.) are unchangeable, and whenever all those Rays with those their Colours are mix'd again, they reproduce the same white Light as before.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00307", "bookId": 33504, "start": 207089, "end": 207110, "sha256": "496039ff3d7603f975a1daf2720a4161405e1c3f0bdef82229cd4902d6157f55", "text": "_PROP._ VI. PROB. II.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00308", "bookId": 33504, "start": 207114, "end": 207231, "sha256": "5b3fef72c66e95b16ec56536d5c9ba60a5a6b9a1f92996355ed790d69410f69b", "text": "_In a mixture of Primary Colours, the Quantity and Quality of each being given, to know the Colour of the Compound._", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00309", "bookId": 33504, "start": 207235, "end": 207259, "sha256": "c3d93b3596954f2e973d201186e936abfd9f10570df30a0ff35e6513d326e7ad", "text": "[Illustration: FIG. 11.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00310", "bookId": 33504, "start": 207263, "end": 211080, "sha256": "877b25347bcab4ece193e7ce9b3bc6d1075bb6ac4b2b87b9625d84b832a10bad", "text": "With the Center O [in _Fig._ 11.] and Radius OD describe a Circle ADF, and distinguish its Circumference into seven Parts DE, EF, FG, GA, AB, BC, CD, proportional to the seven Musical Tones or Intervals of the eight Sounds, _Sol_, _la_, _fa_, _sol_, _la_, _mi_, _fa_, _sol_, contained in an eight, that is, proportional to the Number 1/9, 1/16, 1/10, 1/9, 1/16, 1/16, 1/9. Let the first Part DE represent a red Colour, the second EF orange, the third FG yellow, the fourth CA green, the fifth AB blue, the sixth BC indigo, and the seventh CD violet. And conceive that these are all the Colours of uncompounded Light gradually passing into one another, as they do when made by Prisms; the Circumference DEFGABCD, representing the whole Series of Colours from one end of the Sun's colour'd Image to the other, so that from D to E be all degrees of red, at E the mean Colour between red and orange, from E to F all degrees of orange, at F the mean between orange and yellow, from F to G all degrees of yellow, and so on. Let _p_ be the Center of Gravity of the Arch DE, and _q_, _r_, _s_, _t_, _u_, _x_, the Centers of Gravity of the Arches EF, FG, GA, AB, BC, and CD respectively, and about those Centers of Gravity let Circles proportional to the Number of Rays of each Colour in the given Mixture be describ'd: that is, the Circle _p_ proportional to the Number of the red-making Rays in the Mixture, the Circle _q_ proportional to the Number of the orange-making Rays in the Mixture, and so of the rest. Find the common Center of Gravity of all those Circles, _p_, _q_, _r_, _s_, _t_, _u_, _x_. Let that Center be Z; and from the Center of the Circle ADF, through Z to the Circumference, drawing the Right Line OY, the Place of the Point Y in the Circumference shall shew the Colour arising from the Composition of all the Colours in the given Mixture, and the Line OZ shall be proportional to the Fulness or Intenseness of the Colour, that is, to its distance from Whiteness. As if Y fall in the middle between F and G, the compounded Colour shall be the best yellow; if Y verge from the middle towards F or G, the compound Colour shall accordingly be a yellow, verging towards orange or green. If Z fall upon the Circumference, the Colour shall be intense and florid in the highest Degree; if it fall in the mid-way between the Circumference and Center, it shall be but half so intense, that is, it shall be such a Colour as would be made by diluting the intensest yellow with an equal quantity of whiteness; and if it fall upon the center O, the Colour shall have lost all its intenseness, and become a white. But it is to be noted, That if the point Z fall in or near the line OD, the main ingredients being the red and violet, the Colour compounded shall not be any of the prismatick Colours, but a purple, inclining to red or violet, accordingly as the point Z lieth on the side of the line DO towards E or towards C, and in general the compounded violet is more bright and more fiery than the uncompounded. Also if only two of the primary Colours which in the circle are opposite to one another be mixed in an equal proportion, the point Z shall fall upon the center O, and yet the Colour compounded of those two shall not be perfectly white, but some faint anonymous Colour. For I could never yet by mixing only two primary Colours produce a perfect white. Whether it may be compounded of a mixture of three taken at equal distances in the circumference I do not know, but of four or five I do not much question but it may. But these are Curiosities of little or no moment to the understanding the Phaenomena of Nature. For in all whites produced by Nature, there uses to be a mixture of all sorts of Rays, and by consequence a composition of all Colours.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00311", "bookId": 33504, "start": 211084, "end": 212398, "sha256": "a3d5a02e6f1ab6c5571cdcccca5cea746a4a9604cdf175dbabc821a2935cf040", "text": "To give an instance of this Rule; suppose a Colour is compounded of these homogeneal Colours, of violet one part, of indigo one part, of blue two parts, of green three parts, of yellow five parts, of orange six parts, and of red ten parts. Proportional to these parts describe the Circles _x_, _v_, _t_, _s_, _r_, _q_, _p_, respectively, that is, so that if the Circle _x_ be one, the Circle _v_ may be one, the Circle _t_ two, the Circle _s_ three, and the Circles _r_, _q_ and _p_, five, six and ten. Then I find Z the common center of gravity of these Circles, and through Z drawing the Line OY, the Point Y falls upon the circumference between E and F, something nearer to E than to F, and thence I conclude, that the Colour compounded of these Ingredients will be an orange, verging a little more to red than to yellow. Also I find that OZ is a little less than one half of OY, and thence I conclude, that this orange hath a little less than half the fulness or intenseness of an uncompounded orange; that is to say, that it is such an orange as may be made by mixing an homogeneal orange with a good white in the proportion of the Line OZ to the Line ZY, this Proportion being not of the quantities of mixed orange and white Powders, but of the quantities of the Lights reflected from them.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00312", "bookId": 33504, "start": 212402, "end": 212841, "sha256": "7e72158b21414cacde55d4713086bac0e1e52b22a62247424eda466ebc2f21b1", "text": "This Rule I conceive accurate enough for practice, though not mathematically accurate; and the truth of it may be sufficiently proved to Sense, by stopping any of the Colours at the Lens in the tenth Experiment of this Book. For the rest of the Colours which are not stopp'd, but pass on to the Focus of the Lens, will there compound either accurately or very nearly such a Colour, as by this Rule ought to result from their Mixture.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00313", "bookId": 33504, "start": 212847, "end": 212869, "sha256": "0daaed026c9baef914b1c73274ebb60fd91f7d4a04f96e57190e469b8f49a6c9", "text": "_PROP._ VII. THEOR. V.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00314", "bookId": 33504, "start": 212873, "end": 213138, "sha256": "7dc324f8fc43ba5877007d9becc631a407bdb59523b2c2380ff075f83259c288", "text": "_All the Colours in the Universe which are made by Light, and depend not on the Power of Imagination, are either the Colours of homogeneal Lights, or compounded of these, and that either accurately or very nearly, according to the Rule of the foregoing Problem._", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00315", "bookId": 33504, "start": 213142, "end": 217626, "sha256": "61773ac20969f4ef3cb2b2b29790f92c157797001329d67fe0a8aacb884fb493", "text": "For it has been proved (in _Prop. 1. Part 2._) that the changes of Colours made by Refractions do not arise from any new Modifications of the Rays impress'd by those Refractions, and by the various Terminations of Light and Shadow, as has been the constant and general Opinion of Philosophers. It has also been proved that the several Colours of the homogeneal Rays do constantly answer to their degrees of Refrangibility, (_Prop._ 1. _Part_ 1. and _Prop._ 2. _Part_ 2.) and that their degrees of Refrangibility cannot be changed by Refractions and Reflexions (_Prop._ 2. _Part_ 1.) and by consequence that those their Colours are likewise immutable. It has also been proved directly by refracting and reflecting homogeneal Lights apart, that their Colours cannot be changed, (_Prop._ 2. _Part_ 2.) It has been proved also, that when the several sorts of Rays are mixed, and in crossing pass through the same space, they do not act on one another so as to change each others colorific qualities. (_Exper._ 10. _Part_ 2.) but by mixing their Actions in the Sensorium beget a Sensation differing from what either would do apart, that is a Sensation of a mean Colour between their proper Colours; and particularly when by the concourse and mixtures of all sorts of Rays, a white Colour is produced, the white is a mixture of all the Colours which the Rays would have apart, (_Prop._ 5. _Part_ 2.) The Rays in that mixture do not lose or alter their several colorific qualities, but by all their various kinds of Actions mix'd in the Sensorium, beget a Sensation of a middling Colour between all their Colours, which is whiteness. For whiteness is a mean between all Colours, having it self indifferently to them all, so as with equal facility to be tinged with any of them. A red Powder mixed with a little blue, or a blue with a little red, doth not presently lose its Colour, but a white Powder mix'd with any Colour is presently tinged with that Colour, and is equally capable of being tinged with any Colour whatever. It has been shewed also, that as the Sun's Light is mix'd of all sorts of Rays, so its whiteness is a mixture of the Colours of all sorts of Rays; those Rays having from the beginning their several colorific qualities as well as their several Refrangibilities, and retaining them perpetually unchanged notwithstanding any Refractions or Reflexions they may at any time suffer, and that whenever any sort of the Sun's Rays is by any means (as by Reflexion in _Exper._ 9, and 10. _Part_ 1. or by Refraction as happens in all Refractions) separated from the rest, they then manifest their proper Colours. These things have been prov'd, and the sum of all this amounts to the Proposition here to be proved. For if the Sun's Light is mix'd of several sorts of Rays, each of which have originally their several Refrangibilities and colorific Qualities, and notwithstanding their Refractions and Reflexions, and their various Separations or Mixtures, keep those their original Properties perpetually the same without alteration; then all the Colours in the World must be such as constantly ought to arise from the original colorific qualities of the Rays whereof the Lights consist by which those Colours are seen. And therefore if the reason of any Colour whatever be required, we have nothing else to do than to consider how the Rays in the Sun's Light have by Reflexions or Refractions, or other causes, been parted from one another, or mixed together; or otherwise to find out what sorts of Rays are in the Light by which that Colour is made, and in what Proportion; and then by the last Problem to learn the Colour which ought to arise by mixing those Rays (or their Colours) in that proportion. I speak here of Colours so far as they arise from Light. For they appear sometimes by other Causes, as when by the power of Phantasy we see Colours in a Dream, or a Mad-man sees things before him which are not there; or when we see Fire by striking the Eye, or see Colours like the Eye of a Peacock's Feather, by pressing our Eyes in either corner whilst we look the other way. Where these and such like Causes interpose not, the Colour always answers to the sort or sorts of the Rays whereof the Light consists, as I have constantly found in whatever Phaenomena of Colours I have hitherto been able to examine. I shall in the following Propositions give instances of this in the Phaenomena of chiefest note.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00316", "bookId": 33504, "start": 217632, "end": 217656, "sha256": "1f1b32d56667ac9e120672284e7eaa5625de257c710decb3b1ef84feb705f146", "text": "_PROP._ VIII. PROB. III.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00317", "bookId": 33504, "start": 217660, "end": 217739, "sha256": "dd19348ac0b0e7c168751798b15c605a2a082a79f506e753c5f930a5ba8bd94e", "text": "_By the discovered Properties of Light to explain the Colours made by Prisms._", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00318", "bookId": 33504, "start": 217743, "end": 219846, "sha256": "d9cacbd385da7b317d839edc2e097a3fa7415202e0ed4174948b73835ed9cb29", "text": "Let ABC [in _Fig._ 12.] represent a Prism refracting the Light of the Sun, which comes into a dark Chamber through a hole F[Greek: ph] almost as broad as the Prism, and let MN represent a white Paper on which the refracted Light is cast, and suppose the most refrangible or deepest violet-making Rays fall upon the Space P[Greek: p], the least refrangible or deepest red-making Rays upon the Space T[Greek: t], the middle sort between the indigo-making and blue-making Rays upon the Space Q[Greek: ch], the middle sort of the green-making Rays upon the Space R, the middle sort between the yellow-making and orange-making Rays upon the Space S[Greek: s], and other intermediate sorts upon intermediate Spaces. For so the Spaces upon which the several sorts adequately fall will by reason of the different Refrangibility of those sorts be one lower than another. Now if the Paper MN be so near the Prism that the Spaces PT and [Greek: pt] do not interfere with one another, the distance between them T[Greek: p] will be illuminated by all the sorts of Rays in that proportion to one another which they have at their very first coming out of the Prism, and consequently be white. But the Spaces PT and [Greek: pt] on either hand, will not be illuminated by them all, and therefore will appear coloured. And particularly at P, where the outmost violet-making Rays fall alone, the Colour must be the deepest violet. At Q where the violet-making and indigo-making Rays are mixed, it must be a violet inclining much to indigo. At R where the violet-making, indigo-making, blue-making, and one half of the green-making Rays are mixed, their Colours must (by the construction of the second Problem) compound a middle Colour between indigo and blue. At S where all the Rays are mixed, except the red-making and orange-making, their Colours ought by the same Rule to compound a faint blue, verging more to green than indigo. And in the progress from S to T, this blue will grow more and more faint and dilute, till at T, where all the Colours begin to be mixed, it ends in whiteness.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00319", "bookId": 33504, "start": 219850, "end": 219874, "sha256": "a5c47c4599f930c4c8462772cdc94ae40d2b8081931c3cab01933f9857caf9b0", "text": "[Illustration: FIG. 12.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00320", "bookId": 33504, "start": 219878, "end": 220563, "sha256": "37233952345f65b8c1a1c9d14304917924bf62f02926e0d7beaa87e1af0bc66f", "text": "So again, on the other side of the white at [Greek: t], where the least refrangible or utmost red-making Rays are alone, the Colour must be the deepest red. At [Greek: s] the mixture of red and orange will compound a red inclining to orange. At [Greek: r] the mixture of red, orange, yellow, and one half of the green must compound a middle Colour between orange and yellow. At [Greek: ch] the mixture of all Colours but violet and indigo will compound a faint yellow, verging more to green than to orange. And this yellow will grow more faint and dilute continually in its progress from [Greek: ch] to [Greek: p], where by a mixture of all sorts of Rays it will become white.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00321", "bookId": 33504, "start": 220567, "end": 221081, "sha256": "84e82c242ab31d0dcb7a35abaae59fea15681bd6a2d182c61f8df79a6a12dd78", "text": "These Colours ought to appear were the Sun's Light perfectly white: But because it inclines to yellow, the Excess of the yellow-making Rays whereby 'tis tinged with that Colour, being mixed with the faint blue between S and T, will draw it to a faint green. And so the Colours in order from P to [Greek: t] ought to be violet, indigo, blue, very faint green, white, faint yellow, orange, red. Thus it is by the computation: And they that please to view the Colours made by a Prism will find it so in Nature.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00322", "bookId": 33504, "start": 221085, "end": 221646, "sha256": "95c99d209b2351415ea9b143b4bd8f6069b70edb06d49c8c7cc18621cdb802f5", "text": "These are the Colours on both sides the white when the Paper is held between the Prism and the Point X where the Colours meet, and the interjacent white vanishes. For if the Paper be held still farther off from the Prism, the most refrangible and least refrangible Rays will be wanting in the middle of the Light, and the rest of the Rays which are found there, will by mixture produce a fuller green than before. Also the yellow and blue will now become less compounded, and by consequence more intense than before. And this also agrees with experience.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00323", "bookId": 33504, "start": 221650, "end": 222534, "sha256": "4b98803703e250b806b3d3b6adc731464b8f62394e8196a5f2a610531475cb30", "text": "And if one look through a Prism upon a white Object encompassed with blackness or darkness, the reason of the Colours arising on the edges is much the same, as will appear to one that shall a little consider it. If a black Object be encompassed with a white one, the Colours which appear through the Prism are to be derived from the Light of the white one, spreading into the Regions of the black, and therefore they appear in a contrary order to that, when a white Object is surrounded with black. And the same is to be understood when an Object is viewed, whose parts are some of them less luminous than others. For in the borders of the more and less luminous Parts, Colours ought always by the same Principles to arise from the Excess of the Light of the more luminous, and to be of the same kind as if the darker parts were black, but yet to be more faint and dilute.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00324", "bookId": 33504, "start": 222538, "end": 223133, "sha256": "7ac38e52c070081e5604a5f03e8f97617a897c15bab01462835c3c40a946f340", "text": "What is said of Colours made by Prisms may be easily applied to Colours made by the Glasses of Telescopes or Microscopes, or by the Humours of the Eye. For if the Object-glass of a Telescope be thicker on one side than on the other, or if one half of the Glass, or one half of the Pupil of the Eye be cover'd with any opake substance; the Object-glass, or that part of it or of the Eye which is not cover'd, may be consider'd as a Wedge with crooked Sides, and every Wedge of Glass or other pellucid Substance has the effect of a Prism in refracting the Light which passes through it.[L]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00325", "bookId": 33504, "start": 223137, "end": 223740, "sha256": "1dbb4e86ce3c68cc625dcd686f92489b24129e45e7269f4ad7de4336f44a31a6", "text": "How the Colours in the ninth and tenth Experiments of the first Part arise from the different Reflexibility of Light, is evident by what was there said. But it is observable in the ninth Experiment, that whilst the Sun's direct Light is yellow, the Excess of the blue-making Rays in the reflected beam of Light MN, suffices only to bring that yellow to a pale white inclining to blue, and not to tinge it with a manifestly blue Colour. To obtain therefore a better blue, I used instead of the yellow Light of the Sun the white Light of the Clouds, by varying a little the Experiment, as follows.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00326", "bookId": 33504, "start": 223744, "end": 223768, "sha256": "9ef1c9b38cd8dcd5f5d3f1741495765d4634558f06c71ae13e6e75d1af16e537", "text": "[Illustration: FIG. 13.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00327", "bookId": 33504, "start": 223772, "end": 226867, "sha256": "c6260bbc1775c4b98a745521737f4c3417375ca2493bd3cee8f880b3060f486e", "text": "_Exper._ 16 Let HFG [in _Fig._ 13.] represent a Prism in the open Air, and S the Eye of the Spectator, viewing the Clouds by their Light coming into the Prism at the Plane Side FIGK, and reflected in it by its Base HEIG, and thence going out through its Plane Side HEFK to the Eye. And when the Prism and Eye are conveniently placed, so that the Angles of Incidence and Reflexion at the Base may be about 40 Degrees, the Spectator will see a Bow MN of a blue Colour, running from one End of the Base to the other, with the Concave Side towards him, and the Part of the Base IMNG beyond this Bow will be brighter than the other Part EMNH on the other Side of it. This blue Colour MN being made by nothing else than by Reflexion of a specular Superficies, seems so odd a Phaenomenon, and so difficult to be explained by the vulgar Hypothesis of Philosophers, that I could not but think it deserved to be taken Notice of. Now for understanding the Reason of it, suppose the Plane ABC to cut the Plane Sides and Base of the Prism perpendicularly. From the Eye to the Line BC, wherein that Plane cuts the Base, draw the Lines S_p_ and S_t_, in the Angles S_pc_ 50 degr. 1/9, and S_tc_ 49 degr. 1/28, and the Point _p_ will be the Limit beyond which none of the most refrangible Rays can pass through the Base of the Prism, and be refracted, whose Incidence is such that they may be reflected to the Eye; and the Point _t_ will be the like Limit for the least refrangible Rays, that is, beyond which none of them can pass through the Base, whose Incidence is such that by Reflexion they may come to the Eye. And the Point _r_ taken in the middle Way between _p_ and _t_, will be the like Limit for the meanly refrangible Rays. And therefore all the least refrangible Rays which fall upon the Base beyond _t_, that is, between _t_ and B, and can come from thence to the Eye, will be reflected thither: But on this side _t_, that is, between _t_ and _c_, many of these Rays will be transmitted through the Base. And all the most refrangible Rays which fall upon the Base beyond _p_, that is, between, _p_ and B, and can by Reflexion come from thence to the Eye, will be reflected thither, but every where between _p_ and _c_, many of these Rays will get through the Base, and be refracted; and the same is to be understood of the meanly refrangible Rays on either side of the Point _r_. Whence it follows, that the Base of the Prism must every where between _t_ and B, by a total Reflexion of all sorts of Rays to the Eye, look white and bright. And every where between _p_ and C, by reason of the Transmission of many Rays of every sort, look more pale, obscure, and dark. But at _r_, and in other Places between _p_ and _t_, where all the more refrangible Rays are reflected to the Eye, and many of the less refrangible are transmitted, the Excess of the most refrangible in the reflected Light will tinge that Light with their Colour, which is violet and blue. And this happens by taking the Line C _prt_ B any where between the Ends of the Prism HG and EI.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00328", "bookId": 33504, "start": 226873, "end": 226894, "sha256": "d51a946a2d2b8399202594cfc12527765b39fbbfd29e19ab192b3367cbe1f14e", "text": "_PROP._ IX. PROB. IV.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00329", "bookId": 33504, "start": 226898, "end": 226978, "sha256": "d8bd7a9428419d8d4c936c028a9995007c6ddf86e415afbeef0df8e960d07649", "text": "_By the discovered Properties of Light to explain the Colours of the Rain-bow._", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00330", "bookId": 33504, "start": 226982, "end": 227006, "sha256": "4929add90f33ca6cb7246b38d6176216f93143f6b5ba8693142d19335495e985", "text": "[Illustration: FIG. 14.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00331", "bookId": 33504, "start": 227010, "end": 230523, "sha256": "c5a49d14fb6d989a7e0f48d3077cbe10201456b4613488546ebf7c7835862d68", "text": "This Bow never appears, but where it rains in the Sun-shine, and may be made artificially by spouting up Water which may break aloft, and scatter into Drops, and fall down like Rain. For the Sun shining upon these Drops certainly causes the Bow to appear to a Spectator standing in a due Position to the Rain and Sun. And hence it is now agreed upon, that this Bow is made by Refraction of the Sun's Light in drops of falling Rain. This was understood by some of the Antients, and of late more fully discover'd and explain'd by the famous _Antonius de Dominis_ Archbishop of _Spalato_, in his book _De Radiis Visus & Lucis_, published by his Friend _Bartolus_ at _Venice_, in the Year 1611, and written above 20 Years before. For he teaches there how the interior Bow is made in round Drops of Rain by two Refractions of the Sun's Light, and one Reflexion between them, and the exterior by two Refractions, and two sorts of Reflexions between them in each Drop of Water, and proves his Explications by Experiments made with a Phial full of Water, and with Globes of Glass filled with Water, and placed in the Sun to make the Colours of the two Bows appear in them. The same Explication _Des-Cartes_ hath pursued in his Meteors, and mended that of the exterior Bow. But whilst they understood not the true Origin of Colours, it's necessary to pursue it here a little farther. For understanding therefore how the Bow is made, let a Drop of Rain, or any other spherical transparent Body be represented by the Sphere BNFG, [in _Fig._ 14.] described with the Center C, and Semi-diameter CN. And let AN be one of the Sun's Rays incident upon it at N, and thence refracted to F, where let it either go out of the Sphere by Refraction towards V, or be reflected to G; and at G let it either go out by Refraction to R, or be reflected to H; and at H let it go out by Refraction towards S, cutting the incident Ray in Y. Produce AN and RG, till they meet in X, and upon AX and NF, let fall the Perpendiculars CD and CE, and produce CD till it fall upon the Circumference at L. Parallel to the incident Ray AN draw the Diameter BQ, and let the Sine of Incidence out of Air into Water be to the Sine of Refraction as I to R. Now, if you suppose the Point of Incidence N to move from the Point B, continually till it come to L, the Arch QF will first increase and then decrease, and so will the Angle AXR which the Rays AN and GR contain; and the Arch QF and Angle AXR will be biggest when ND is to CN as sqrt(II - RR) to sqrt(3)RR, in which case NE will be to ND as 2R to I. Also the Angle AYS, which the Rays AN and HS contain will first decrease, and then increase and grow least when ND is to CN as sqrt(II - RR) to sqrt(8)RR, in which case NE will be to ND, as 3R to I. And so the Angle which the next emergent Ray (that is, the emergent Ray after three Reflexions) contains with the incident Ray AN will come to its Limit when ND is to CN as sqrt(II - RR) to sqrt(15)RR, in which case NE will be to ND as 4R to I. And the Angle which the Ray next after that Emergent, that is, the Ray emergent after four Reflexions, contains with the Incident, will come to its Limit, when ND is to CN as sqrt(II - RR) to sqrt(24)RR, in which case NE will be to ND as 5R to I; and so on infinitely, the Numbers 3, 8, 15, 24, &c. being gather'd by continual Addition of the Terms of the arithmetical Progression 3, 5, 7, 9, &c. The Truth of all this Mathematicians will easily examine.[M]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00332", "bookId": 33504, "start": 230527, "end": 231415, "sha256": "475e1c4c279406f527f4b95f6de96b8b99c5a26b61ce8e0e0b026f2ebaecc006", "text": "Now it is to be observed, that as when the Sun comes to his Tropicks, Days increase and decrease but a very little for a great while together; so when by increasing the distance CD, these Angles come to their Limits, they vary their quantity but very little for some time together, and therefore a far greater number of the Rays which fall upon all the Points N in the Quadrant BL, shall emerge in the Limits of these Angles, than in any other Inclinations. And farther it is to be observed, that the Rays which differ in Refrangibility will have different Limits of their Angles of Emergence, and by consequence according to their different Degrees of Refrangibility emerge most copiously in different Angles, and being separated from one another appear each in their proper Colours. And what those Angles are may be easily gather'd from the foregoing Theorem by Computation.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00333", "bookId": 33504, "start": 231419, "end": 231861, "sha256": "6e3ab463feddbd0f60bd9936b7d2c84430f282c74cea8b670f6c49d8d3d62ac3", "text": "For in the least refrangible Rays the Sines I and R (as was found above) are 108 and 81, and thence by Computation the greatest Angle AXR will be found 42 Degrees and 2 Minutes, and the least Angle AYS, 50 Degrees and 57 Minutes. And in the most refrangible Rays the Sines I and R are 109 and 81, and thence by Computation the greatest Angle AXR will be found 40 Degrees and 17 Minutes, and the least Angle AYS 54 Degrees and 7 Minutes.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00334", "bookId": 33504, "start": 231865, "end": 233637, "sha256": "3a2f8c11395c11637a1afa16f66a2db2943d04eae74e7ee5b2dd9028a8c2a17e", "text": "Suppose now that O [in _Fig._ 15.] is the Spectator's Eye, and OP a Line drawn parallel to the Sun's Rays and let POE, POF, POG, POH, be Angles of 40 Degr. 17 Min. 42 Degr. 2 Min. 50 Degr. 57 Min. and 54 Degr. 7 Min. respectively, and these Angles turned about their common Side OP, shall with their other Sides OE, OF; OG, OH, describe the Verges of two Rain-bows AF, BE and CHDG. For if E, F, G, H, be drops placed any where in the conical Superficies described by OE, OF, OG, OH, and be illuminated by the Sun's Rays SE, SF, SG, SH; the Angle SEO being equal to the Angle POE, or 40 Degr. 17 Min. shall be the greatest Angle in which the most refrangible Rays can after one Reflexion be refracted to the Eye, and therefore all the Drops in the Line OE shall send the most refrangible Rays most copiously to the Eye, and thereby strike the Senses with the deepest violet Colour in that Region. And in like manner the Angle SFO being equal to the Angle POF, or 42 Degr. 2 Min. shall be the greatest in which the least refrangible Rays after one Reflexion can emerge out of the Drops, and therefore those Rays shall come most copiously to the Eye from the Drops in the Line OF, and strike the Senses with the deepest red Colour in that Region. And by the same Argument, the Rays which have intermediate Degrees of Refrangibility shall come most copiously from Drops between E and F, and strike the Senses with the intermediate Colours, in the Order which their Degrees of Refrangibility require, that is in the Progress from E to F, or from the inside of the Bow to the outside in this order, violet, indigo, blue, green, yellow, orange, red. But the violet, by the mixture of the white Light of the Clouds, will appear faint and incline to purple.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00335", "bookId": 33504, "start": 233641, "end": 233665, "sha256": "046d4e0f159c61789228545c1274bff23e05333002adbfe5369b3b2d4717ed3a", "text": "[Illustration: FIG. 15.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00336", "bookId": 33504, "start": 233669, "end": 234936, "sha256": "ebd002b425c3544ed74d154f24bda941c32f207f673cad8ce253ea939e1606bf", "text": "Again, the Angle SGO being equal to the Angle POG, or 50 Gr. 51 Min. shall be the least Angle in which the least refrangible Rays can after two Reflexions emerge out of the Drops, and therefore the least refrangible Rays shall come most copiously to the Eye from the Drops in the Line OG, and strike the Sense with the deepest red in that Region. And the Angle SHO being equal to the Angle POH, or 54 Gr. 7 Min. shall be the least Angle, in which the most refrangible Rays after two Reflexions can emerge out of the Drops; and therefore those Rays shall come most copiously to the Eye from the Drops in the Line OH, and strike the Senses with the deepest violet in that Region. And by the same Argument, the Drops in the Regions between G and H shall strike the Sense with the intermediate Colours in the Order which their Degrees of Refrangibility require, that is, in the Progress from G to H, or from the inside of the Bow to the outside in this order, red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, violet. And since these four Lines OE, OF, OG, OH, may be situated any where in the above-mention'd conical Superficies; what is said of the Drops and Colours in these Lines is to be understood of the Drops and Colours every where in those Superficies.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00337", "bookId": 33504, "start": 234940, "end": 237374, "sha256": "85cec7ee263960b9961927246f64e9fb913cda8149d216c5d0c53e29fa13c16a", "text": "Thus shall there be made two Bows of Colours, an interior and stronger, by one Reflexion in the Drops, and an exterior and fainter by two; for the Light becomes fainter by every Reflexion. And their Colours shall lie in a contrary Order to one another, the red of both Bows bordering upon the Space GF, which is between the Bows. The Breadth of the interior Bow EOF measured cross the Colours shall be 1 Degr. 45 Min. and the Breadth of the exterior GOH shall be 3 Degr. 10 Min. and the distance between them GOF shall be 8 Gr. 15 Min. the greatest Semi-diameter of the innermost, that is, the Angle POF being 42 Gr. 2 Min. and the least Semi-diameter of the outermost POG, being 50 Gr. 57 Min. These are the Measures of the Bows, as they would be were the Sun but a Point; for by the Breadth of his Body, the Breadth of the Bows will be increased, and their Distance decreased by half a Degree, and so the breadth of the interior Iris will be 2 Degr. 15 Min. that of the exterior 3 Degr. 40 Min. their distance 8 Degr. 25 Min. the greatest Semi-diameter of the interior Bow 42 Degr. 17 Min. and the least of the exterior 50 Degr. 42 Min. And such are the Dimensions of the Bows in the Heavens found to be very nearly, when their Colours appear strong and perfect. For once, by such means as I then had, I measured the greatest Semi-diameter of the interior Iris about 42 Degrees, and the breadth of the red, yellow and green in that Iris 63 or 64 Minutes, besides the outmost faint red obscured by the brightness of the Clouds, for which we may allow 3 or 4 Minutes more. The breadth of the blue was about 40 Minutes more besides the violet, which was so much obscured by the brightness of the Clouds, that I could not measure its breadth. But supposing the breadth of the blue and violet together to equal that of the red, yellow and green together, the whole breadth of this Iris will be about 2-1/4 Degrees, as above. The least distance between this Iris and the exterior Iris was about 8 Degrees and 30 Minutes. The exterior Iris was broader than the interior, but so faint, especially on the blue side, that I could not measure its breadth distinctly. At another time when both Bows appeared more distinct, I measured the breadth of the interior Iris 2 Gr. 10', and the breadth of the red, yellow and green in the exterior Iris, was to the breadth of the same Colours in the interior as 3 to 2.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00338", "bookId": 33504, "start": 237378, "end": 238546, "sha256": "cace8cb9084d0bb08ec79a52c289c58a48c383e9188933e62859fcc700ee3fad", "text": "This Explication of the Rain-bow is yet farther confirmed by the known Experiment (made by _Antonius de Dominis_ and _Des-Cartes_) of hanging up any where in the Sun-shine a Glass Globe filled with Water, and viewing it in such a posture, that the Rays which come from the Globe to the Eye may contain with the Sun's Rays an Angle of either 42 or 50 Degrees. For if the Angle be about 42 or 43 Degrees, the Spectator (suppose at O) shall see a full red Colour in that side of the Globe opposed to the Sun as 'tis represented at F, and if that Angle become less (suppose by depressing the Globe to E) there will appear other Colours, yellow, green and blue successive in the same side of the Globe. But if the Angle be made about 50 Degrees (suppose by lifting up the Globe to G) there will appear a red Colour in that side of the Globe towards the Sun, and if the Angle be made greater (suppose by lifting up the Globe to H) the red will turn successively to the other Colours, yellow, green and blue. The same thing I have tried, by letting a Globe rest, and raising or depressing the Eye, or otherwise moving it to make the Angle of a just magnitude.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00339", "bookId": 33504, "start": 238550, "end": 239567, "sha256": "47a8fb7113fecfd1ef48fc2e61e04c410e47bf995555934410da335c3ba52363", "text": "I have heard it represented, that if the Light of a Candle be refracted by a Prism to the Eye; when the blue Colour falls upon the Eye, the Spectator shall see red in the Prism, and when the red falls upon the Eye he shall see blue; and if this were certain, the Colours of the Globe and Rain-bow ought to appear in a contrary order to what we find. But the Colours of the Candle being very faint, the mistake seems to arise from the difficulty of discerning what Colours fall on the Eye. For, on the contrary, I have sometimes had occasion to observe in the Sun's Light refracted by a Prism, that the Spectator always sees that Colour in the Prism which falls upon his Eye. And the same I have found true also in Candle-light. For when the Prism is moved slowly from the Line which is drawn directly from the Candle to the Eye, the red appears first in the Prism and then the blue, and therefore each of them is seen when it falls upon the Eye. For the red passes over the Eye first, and then the blue.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00340", "bookId": 33504, "start": 239571, "end": 240827, "sha256": "e830b64ec76c5c950457bce7cf76663d4ba11e9c41fdddef8970b455d6fd9674", "text": "The Light which comes through drops of Rain by two Refractions without any Reflexion, ought to appear strongest at the distance of about 26 Degrees from the Sun, and to decay gradually both ways as the distance from him increases and decreases. And the same is to be understood of Light transmitted through spherical Hail-stones. And if the Hail be a little flatted, as it often is, the Light transmitted may grow so strong at a little less distance than that of 26 Degrees, as to form a Halo about the Sun or Moon; which Halo, as often as the Hail-stones are duly figured may be colour'd, and then it must be red within by the least refrangible Rays, and blue without by the most refrangible ones, especially if the Hail-stones have opake Globules of Snow in their center to intercept the Light within the Halo (as _Hugenius_ has observ'd) and make the inside thereof more distinctly defined than it would otherwise be. For such Hail-stones, though spherical, by terminating the Light by the Snow, may make a Halo red within and colourless without, and darker in the red than without, as Halos used to be. For of those Rays which pass close by the Snow the Rubriform will be least refracted, and so come to the Eye in the directest Lines.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00341", "bookId": 33504, "start": 240831, "end": 241084, "sha256": "7a5d718918a52f4318f6c9f66cf1090231f1e63628b8598a7ac22c7d28a9480e", "text": "The Light which passes through a drop of Rain after two Refractions, and three or more Reflexions, is scarce strong enough to cause a sensible Bow; but in those Cylinders of Ice by which _Hugenius_ explains the _Parhelia_, it may perhaps be sensible.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00342", "bookId": 33504, "start": 241090, "end": 241109, "sha256": "4d0435b728eb25102c34225f636f6caa7526f44ede8656a728fd744e54d1a00d", "text": "_PROP._ X. PROB. V.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00343", "bookId": 33504, "start": 241113, "end": 241205, "sha256": "ca7b41e6e3a08219c847c1d71bd95325a2ae1bd9bfa7d65529ccbfdd27878877", "text": "_By the discovered Properties of Light to explain the permanent Colours of Natural Bodies._", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00344", "bookId": 33504, "start": 241209, "end": 241708, "sha256": "6b812987ffb625c858a0e2e69c37af6d11aa7d24a2ed3f234fdc92e1556b4d5f", "text": "These Colours arise from hence, that some natural Bodies reflect some sorts of Rays, others other sorts more copiously than the rest. Minium reflects the least refrangible or red-making Rays most copiously, and thence appears red. Violets reflect the most refrangible most copiously, and thence have their Colour, and so of other Bodies. Every Body reflects the Rays of its own Colour more copiously than the rest, and from their excess and predominance in the reflected Light has its Colour.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00345", "bookId": 33504, "start": 241712, "end": 243620, "sha256": "b6d4171f4690096e851cf71567c6f4870312f6b8a890a678b1a529c9e710c595", "text": "_Exper._ 17. For if in the homogeneal Lights obtained by the solution of the Problem proposed in the fourth Proposition of the first Part of this Book, you place Bodies of several Colours, you will find, as I have done, that every Body looks most splendid and luminous in the Light of its own Colour. Cinnaber in the homogeneal red Light is most resplendent, in the green Light it is manifestly less resplendent, and in the blue Light still less. Indigo in the violet blue Light is most resplendent, and its splendor is gradually diminish'd, as it is removed thence by degrees through the green and yellow Light to the red. By a Leek the green Light, and next that the blue and yellow which compound green, are more strongly reflected than the other Colours red and violet, and so of the rest. But to make these Experiments the more manifest, such Bodies ought to be chosen as have the fullest and most vivid Colours, and two of those Bodies are to be compared together. Thus, for instance, if Cinnaber and _ultra_-marine blue, or some other full blue be held together in the red homogeneal Light, they will both appear red, but the Cinnaber will appear of a strongly luminous and resplendent red, and the _ultra_-marine blue of a faint obscure and dark red; and if they be held together in the blue homogeneal Light, they will both appear blue, but the _ultra_-marine will appear of a strongly luminous and resplendent blue, and the Cinnaber of a faint and dark blue. Which puts it out of dispute that the Cinnaber reflects the red Light much more copiously than the _ultra_-marine doth, and the _ultra_-marine reflects the blue Light much more copiously than the Cinnaber doth. The same Experiment may be tried successfully with red Lead and Indigo, or with any other two colour'd Bodies, if due allowance be made for the different strength or weakness of their Colour and Light.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00346", "bookId": 33504, "start": 243624, "end": 244061, "sha256": "57869d7494c25418c493decebd0a24bfe5636a9828b730289ac0b820b2f44d8b", "text": "And as the reason of the Colours of natural Bodies is evident by these Experiments, so it is farther confirmed and put past dispute by the two first Experiments of the first Part, whereby 'twas proved in such Bodies that the reflected Lights which differ in Colours do differ also in degrees of Refrangibility. For thence it's certain, that some Bodies reflect the more refrangible, others the less refrangible Rays more copiously.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00347", "bookId": 33504, "start": 244065, "end": 244285, "sha256": "7a52395078526d544c4eca6153a5ddb7ec98c2a71112428d3db0cef77adc567f", "text": "And that this is not only a true reason of these Colours, but even the only reason, may appear farther from this Consideration, that the Colour of homogeneal Light cannot be changed by the Reflexion of natural Bodies.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00348", "bookId": 33504, "start": 244289, "end": 244528, "sha256": "c0d847620b7eab5f81d938664587e2d699f961c9fe4a9cd6b375bc82139e6b97", "text": "For if Bodies by Reflexion cannot in the least change the Colour of any one sort of Rays, they cannot appear colour'd by any other means than by reflecting those which either are of their own Colour, or which by mixture must produce it.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00349", "bookId": 33504, "start": 244532, "end": 245974, "sha256": "56cd853b25dc731251689e9bf3205916b41f2b24031082acdc1b7f96088e061c", "text": "But in trying Experiments of this kind care must be had that the Light be sufficiently homogeneal. For if Bodies be illuminated by the ordinary prismatick Colours, they will appear neither of their own Day-light Colours, nor of the Colour of the Light cast on them, but of some middle Colour between both, as I have found by Experience. Thus red Lead (for instance) illuminated with the ordinary prismatick green will not appear either red or green, but orange or yellow, or between yellow and green, accordingly as the green Light by which 'tis illuminated is more or less compounded. For because red Lead appears red when illuminated with white Light, wherein all sorts of Rays are equally mix'd, and in the green Light all sorts of Rays are not equally mix'd, the Excess of the yellow-making, green-making and blue-making Rays in the incident green Light, will cause those Rays to abound so much in the reflected Light, as to draw the Colour from red towards their Colour. And because the red Lead reflects the red-making Rays most copiously in proportion to their number, and next after them the orange-making and yellow-making Rays; these Rays in the reflected Light will be more in proportion to the Light than they were in the incident green Light, and thereby will draw the reflected Light from green towards their Colour. And therefore the red Lead will appear neither red nor green, but of a Colour between both.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00350", "bookId": 33504, "start": 245978, "end": 247416, "sha256": "60966ab6d35f4ca3943967821e50d187cf48fbfa3c8937422b71dfbb870039ae", "text": "In transparently colour'd Liquors 'tis observable, that their Colour uses to vary with their thickness. Thus, for instance, a red Liquor in a conical Glass held between the Light and the Eye, looks of a pale and dilute yellow at the bottom where 'tis thin, and a little higher where 'tis thicker grows orange, and where 'tis still thicker becomes red, and where 'tis thickest the red is deepest and darkest. For it is to be conceiv'd that such a Liquor stops the indigo-making and violet-making Rays most easily, the blue-making Rays more difficultly, the green-making Rays still more difficultly, and the red-making most difficultly: And that if the thickness of the Liquor be only so much as suffices to stop a competent number of the violet-making and indigo-making Rays, without diminishing much the number of the rest, the rest must (by _Prop._ 6. _Part_ 2.) compound a pale yellow. But if the Liquor be so much thicker as to stop also a great number of the blue-making Rays, and some of the green-making, the rest must compound an orange; and where it is so thick as to stop also a great number of the green-making and a considerable number of the yellow-making, the rest must begin to compound a red, and this red must grow deeper and darker as the yellow-making and orange-making Rays are more and more stopp'd by increasing the thickness of the Liquor, so that few Rays besides the red-making can get through.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00351", "bookId": 33504, "start": 247420, "end": 248529, "sha256": "3d28eaf16530b941055d3b9e7fbb03e4e1c2cf914140b663e428787438fb2652", "text": "Of this kind is an Experiment lately related to me by Mr. _Halley_, who, in diving deep into the Sea in a diving Vessel, found in a clear Sun-shine Day, that when he was sunk many Fathoms deep into the Water the upper part of his Hand on which the Sun shone directly through the Water and through a small Glass Window in the Vessel appeared of a red Colour, like that of a Damask Rose, and the Water below and the under part of his Hand illuminated by Light reflected from the Water below look'd green. For thence it may be gather'd, that the Sea-Water reflects back the violet and blue-making Rays most easily, and lets the red-making Rays pass most freely and copiously to great Depths. For thereby the Sun's direct Light at all great Depths, by reason of the predominating red-making Rays, must appear red; and the greater the Depth is, the fuller and intenser must that red be. And at such Depths as the violet-making Rays scarce penetrate unto, the blue-making, green-making, and yellow-making Rays being reflected from below more copiously than the red-making ones, must compound a green.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00352", "bookId": 33504, "start": 248533, "end": 249273, "sha256": "3ffc7031c8597373d2c71fe8651bf9f3b53698445eba40e12f9af34d9d1e921e", "text": "Now, if there be two Liquors of full Colours, suppose a red and blue, and both of them so thick as suffices to make their Colours sufficiently full; though either Liquor be sufficiently transparent apart, yet will you not be able to see through both together. For, if only the red-making Rays pass through one Liquor, and only the blue-making through the other, no Rays can pass through both. This Mr. _Hook_ tried casually with Glass Wedges filled with red and blue Liquors, and was surprized at the unexpected Event, the reason of it being then unknown; which makes me trust the more to his Experiment, though I have not tried it my self. But he that would repeat it, must take care the Liquors be of very good and full Colours.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00353", "bookId": 33504, "start": 249277, "end": 251687, "sha256": "a83e936a03112e222d58b6adab8efa54e37d9b6f100fab679d194fdd3756a4cf", "text": "Now, whilst Bodies become coloured by reflecting or transmitting this or that sort of Rays more copiously than the rest, it is to be conceived that they stop and stifle in themselves the Rays which they do not reflect or transmit. For, if Gold be foliated and held between your Eye and the Light, the Light looks of a greenish blue, and therefore massy Gold lets into its Body the blue-making Rays to be reflected to and fro within it till they be stopp'd and stifled, whilst it reflects the yellow-making outwards, and thereby looks yellow. And much after the same manner that Leaf Gold is yellow by reflected, and blue by transmitted Light, and massy Gold is yellow in all Positions of the Eye; there are some Liquors, as the Tincture of _Lignum Nephriticum_, and some sorts of Glass which transmit one sort of Light most copiously, and reflect another sort, and thereby look of several Colours, according to the Position of the Eye to the Light. But, if these Liquors or Glasses were so thick and massy that no Light could get through them, I question not but they would like all other opake Bodies appear of one and the same Colour in all Positions of the Eye, though this I cannot yet affirm by Experience. For all colour'd Bodies, so far as my Observation reaches, may be seen through if made sufficiently thin, and therefore are in some measure transparent, and differ only in degrees of Transparency from tinged transparent Liquors; these Liquors, as well as those Bodies, by a sufficient Thickness becoming opake. A transparent Body which looks of any Colour by transmitted Light, may also look of the same Colour by reflected Light, the Light of that Colour being reflected by the farther Surface of the Body, or by the Air beyond it. And then the reflected Colour will be diminished, and perhaps cease, by making the Body very thick, and pitching it on the backside to diminish the Reflexion of its farther Surface, so that the Light reflected from the tinging Particles may predominate. In such Cases, the Colour of the reflected Light will be apt to vary from that of the Light transmitted. But whence it is that tinged Bodies and Liquors reflect some sort of Rays, and intromit or transmit other sorts, shall be said in the next Book. In this Proposition I content my self to have put it past dispute, that Bodies have such Properties, and thence appear colour'd.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00354", "bookId": 33504, "start": 251693, "end": 251714, "sha256": "af1b586384079c3166fab807f0f17a4904792219f78d9fd670b55bf4c7cfb39e", "text": "_PROP._ XI. PROB. VI.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00355", "bookId": 33504, "start": 251718, "end": 251911, "sha256": "15b4eaca3a65870a8b7c45860d9569f944911b442873beea02786ed83cd26583", "text": "_By mixing colour'd Lights to compound a beam of Light of the same Colour and Nature with a beam of the Sun's direct Light, and therein to experience the Truth of the foregoing Propositions._", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00356", "bookId": 33504, "start": 251915, "end": 251939, "sha256": "9d7ab9a09427452a01bfc6e39150a4785f194e3814ca8335e023a130d97c4c7a", "text": "[Illustration: FIG. 16.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00357", "bookId": 33504, "start": 251943, "end": 254390, "sha256": "131e87a531bf2f8f1eaa63d1f7d7cdea47854f1fcd84f98adecef0fbd6c64c9b", "text": "Let ABC _abc_ [in _Fig._ 16.] represent a Prism, by which the Sun's Light let into a dark Chamber through the Hole F, may be refracted towards the Lens MN, and paint upon it at _p_, _q_, _r_, _s_, and _t_, the usual Colours violet, blue, green, yellow, and red, and let the diverging Rays by the Refraction of this Lens converge again towards X, and there, by the mixture of all those their Colours, compound a white according to what was shewn above. Then let another Prism DEG _deg_, parallel to the former, be placed at X, to refract that white Light upwards towards Y. Let the refracting Angles of the Prisms, and their distances from the Lens be equal, so that the Rays which converged from the Lens towards X, and without Refraction, would there have crossed and diverged again, may by the Refraction of the second Prism be reduced into Parallelism and diverge no more. For then those Rays will recompose a beam of white Light XY. If the refracting Angle of either Prism be the bigger, that Prism must be so much the nearer to the Lens. You will know when the Prisms and the Lens are well set together, by observing if the beam of Light XY, which comes out of the second Prism be perfectly white to the very edges of the Light, and at all distances from the Prism continue perfectly and totally white like a beam of the Sun's Light. For till this happens, the Position of the Prisms and Lens to one another must be corrected; and then if by the help of a long beam of Wood, as is represented in the Figure, or by a Tube, or some other such Instrument, made for that Purpose, they be made fast in that Situation, you may try all the same Experiments in this compounded beam of Light XY, which have been made in the Sun's direct Light. For this compounded beam of Light has the same appearance, and is endow'd with all the same Properties with a direct beam of the Sun's Light, so far as my Observation reaches. And in trying Experiments in this beam you may by stopping any of the Colours, _p_, _q_, _r_, _s_, and _t_, at the Lens, see how the Colours produced in the Experiments are no other than those which the Rays had at the Lens before they entered the Composition of this Beam: And by consequence, that they arise not from any new Modifications of the Light by Refractions and Reflexions, but from the various Separations and Mixtures of the Rays originally endow'd with their colour-making Qualities.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00358", "bookId": 33504, "start": 254394, "end": 255953, "sha256": "b8ae4e64578edd137e84baff91f7cbf10c039c056516c0cf07150ad28bcd5eb0", "text": "So, for instance, having with a Lens 4-1/4 Inches broad, and two Prisms on either hand 6-1/4 Feet distant from the Lens, made such a beam of compounded Light; to examine the reason of the Colours made by Prisms, I refracted this compounded beam of Light XY with another Prism HIK _kh_, and thereby cast the usual Prismatick Colours PQRST upon the Paper LV placed behind. And then by stopping any of the Colours _p_, _q_, _r_, _s_, _t_, at the Lens, I found that the same Colour would vanish at the Paper. So if the Purple _p_ was stopp'd at the Lens, the Purple P upon the Paper would vanish, and the rest of the Colours would remain unalter'd, unless perhaps the blue, so far as some purple latent in it at the Lens might be separated from it by the following Refractions. And so by intercepting the green upon the Lens, the green R upon the Paper would vanish, and so of the rest; which plainly shews, that as the white beam of Light XY was compounded of several Lights variously colour'd at the Lens, so the Colours which afterwards emerge out of it by new Refractions are no other than those of which its Whiteness was compounded. The Refraction of the Prism HIK _kh_ generates the Colours PQRST upon the Paper, not by changing the colorific Qualities of the Rays, but by separating the Rays which had the very same colorific Qualities before they enter'd the Composition of the refracted beam of white Light XY. For otherwise the Rays which were of one Colour at the Lens might be of another upon the Paper, contrary to what we find.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00359", "bookId": 33504, "start": 255957, "end": 258065, "sha256": "79985a646a4a0660d306162e7dcfbd946452bfef9e93e51813220f6bceededa7", "text": "So again, to examine the reason of the Colours of natural Bodies, I placed such Bodies in the Beam of Light XY, and found that they all appeared there of those their own Colours which they have in Day-light, and that those Colours depend upon the Rays which had the same Colours at the Lens before they enter'd the Composition of that beam. Thus, for instance, Cinnaber illuminated by this beam appears of the same red Colour as in Day-light; and if at the Lens you intercept the green-making and blue-making Rays, its redness will become more full and lively: But if you there intercept the red-making Rays, it will not any longer appear red, but become yellow or green, or of some other Colour, according to the sorts of Rays which you do not intercept. So Gold in this Light XY appears of the same yellow Colour as in Day-light, but by intercepting at the Lens a due Quantity of the yellow-making Rays it will appear white like Silver (as I have tried) which shews that its yellowness arises from the Excess of the intercepted Rays tinging that Whiteness with their Colour when they are let pass. So the Infusion of _Lignum Nephriticum_ (as I have also tried) when held in this beam of Light XY, looks blue by the reflected Part of the Light, and red by the transmitted Part of it, as when 'tis view'd in Day-light; but if you intercept the blue at the Lens the Infusion will lose its reflected blue Colour, whilst its transmitted red remains perfect, and by the loss of some blue-making Rays, wherewith it was allay'd, becomes more intense and full. And, on the contrary, if the red and orange-making Rays be intercepted at the Lens, the Infusion will lose its transmitted red, whilst its blue will remain and become more full and perfect. Which shews, that the Infusion does not tinge the Rays with blue and red, but only transmits those most copiously which were red-making before, and reflects those most copiously which were blue-making before. And after the same manner may the Reasons of other Phaenomena be examined, by trying them in this artificial beam of Light XY.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00360", "bookId": 33504, "start": 258069, "end": 258079, "sha256": "55ef8349ad07203ec2cca0f3d97640f57c9e65b07c838ffd97e6bcdc1006aed5", "text": "FOOTNOTES:", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00361", "bookId": 33504, "start": 258083, "end": 258097, "sha256": "f6517d2f961e9bdcb7dde673d53ac5d71ff2bdaf2f308c2771feb5215c0ab7b2", "text": "[I] See p. 59.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00362", "bookId": 33504, "start": 258101, "end": 258169, "sha256": "6b8b423c1aeffcffcfceea9b641409fe7c0bf451205532982b206438d8464146", "text": "[J] _See our_ Author's Lect. Optic. _Part_ II. _Sect._ II. _p._ 239.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00363", "bookId": 33504, "start": 258173, "end": 258279, "sha256": "4185ca97751b2b6c2d54376e107c0712f2d457a4bba629e0e3611cc911680e78", "text": "[K] _As is done in our_ Author's Lect. Optic. _Part_ I. _Sect._ III. _and_ IV. _and Part_ II. _Sect._ II.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00364", "bookId": 33504, "start": 258283, "end": 258358, "sha256": "d8a559f35bab782903bd34a9e4dfb3947c8edb827bb68724cf0a0136744385a7", "text": "[L] _See our_ Author's Lect. Optic. _Part_ II. _Sect._ II. _pag._ 269, &c.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00365", "bookId": 33504, "start": 258362, "end": 258461, "sha256": "c6253b2710755ab97dcb3d3c74b7619b67bf038e4b9bb9c54bf158b52ed8b4ab", "text": "[M] _This is demonstrated in our_ Author's Lect. Optic. _Part_ I. _Sect._ IV. _Prop._ 35 _and_ 36.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00366", "bookId": 33504, "start": 258471, "end": 258474, "sha256": "a3e5514bcfd79e7649e30fbf98826208f3da47833b4223b68cff2db23beb3801", "text": "THE", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00367", "bookId": 33504, "start": 258478, "end": 258489, "sha256": "36bf9e601f7ceb999193b4ac8a8c5bfeaf38fa47ea9457259b92c6833530e80b", "text": "SECOND BOOK", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00368", "bookId": 33504, "start": 258493, "end": 258495, "sha256": "270826d41d0a807d41e14d413e764fd30dab7a7bcd1e478ea94b9e812671042b", "text": "OF", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00369", "bookId": 33504, "start": 258499, "end": 258506, "sha256": "8f9b5f1c324b8f0b89df0677c58417201875f4f9faa2dee3223d78da2e06f2f4", "text": "OPTICKS", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00370", "bookId": 33504, "start": 258516, "end": 258525, "sha256": "4568825658b8e534045609feded47bbe811b0553efb22ae2e965bab14c662e0e", "text": "_PART I._", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00371", "bookId": 33504, "start": 258529, "end": 258624, "sha256": "6c66c68b6254fd571128c9bc5383dece8a3652dccd260123892cc66d0230e4de", "text": "_Observations concerning the Reflexions, Refractions, and Colours of thin transparent Bodies._", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00372", "bookId": 33504, "start": 258630, "end": 259554, "sha256": "5120cb30db1ac1f1ec7a96414fc832267a5c3a7f94022d0891051c55d3cc12f8", "text": "It has been observed by others, that transparent Substances, as Glass, Water, Air, &c. when made very thin by being blown into Bubbles, or otherwise formed into Plates, do exhibit various Colours according to their various thinness, altho' at a greater thickness they appear very clear and colourless. In the former Book I forbore to treat of these Colours, because they seemed of a more difficult Consideration, and were not necessary for establishing the Properties of Light there discoursed of. But because they may conduce to farther Discoveries for compleating the Theory of Light, especially as to the constitution of the parts of natural Bodies, on which their Colours or Transparency depend; I have here set down an account of them. To render this Discourse short and distinct, I have first described the principal of my Observations, and then consider'd and made use of them. The Observations are these.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00373", "bookId": 33504, "start": 259558, "end": 260817, "sha256": "48f18f54383138b027df11bab59a33e11c247865d0782d0b5ac11ce0cc60cd7a", "text": "_Obs._ 1. Compressing two Prisms hard together that their sides (which by chance were a very little convex) might somewhere touch one another: I found the place in which they touched to become absolutely transparent, as if they had there been one continued piece of Glass. For when the Light fell so obliquely on the Air, which in other places was between them, as to be all reflected; it seemed in that place of contact to be wholly transmitted, insomuch that when look'd upon, it appeared like a black or dark spot, by reason that little or no sensible Light was reflected from thence, as from other places; and when looked through it seemed (as it were) a hole in that Air which was formed into a thin Plate, by being compress'd between the Glasses. And through this hole Objects that were beyond might be seen distinctly, which could not at all be seen through other parts of the Glasses where the Air was interjacent. Although the Glasses were a little convex, yet this transparent spot was of a considerable breadth, which breadth seemed principally to proceed from the yielding inwards of the parts of the Glasses, by reason of their mutual pressure. For by pressing them very hard together it would become much broader than otherwise.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00374", "bookId": 33504, "start": 260821, "end": 261393, "sha256": "f374d25638bdf6888c8bc9e529cb071aea2a978693e3336e744b3f9de21f017b", "text": "_Obs._ 2. When the Plate of Air, by turning the Prisms about their common Axis, became so little inclined to the incident Rays, that some of them began to be transmitted, there arose in it many slender Arcs of Colours which at first were shaped almost like the Conchoid, as you see them delineated in the first Figure. And by continuing the Motion of the Prisms, these Arcs increased and bended more and more about the said transparent spot, till they were compleated into Circles or Rings incompassing it, and afterwards continually grew more and more contracted.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00375", "bookId": 33504, "start": 261397, "end": 261420, "sha256": "af530d5d0380f51d8d7573eaf39271d6dd62ebba374fa61cdebcb8cb4f9567e0", "text": "[Illustration: FIG. 1.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00376", "bookId": 33504, "start": 261424, "end": 261938, "sha256": "a43f0c0b8797b7208daca2259545df47d34371c51fe4a7b6c2b10f6e465b709b", "text": "These Arcs at their first appearance were of a violet and blue Colour, and between them were white Arcs of Circles, which presently by continuing the Motion of the Prisms became a little tinged in their inward Limbs with red and yellow, and to their outward Limbs the blue was adjacent. So that the order of these Colours from the central dark spot, was at that time white, blue, violet; black, red, orange, yellow, white, blue, violet, &c. But the yellow and red were much fainter than the blue and violet.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00377", "bookId": 33504, "start": 261942, "end": 262558, "sha256": "32aeeba75439fb4c78d4a80a9c34131393c9e4c24c3bfa18be8e23f759a85588", "text": "The Motion of the Prisms about their Axis being continued, these Colours contracted more and more, shrinking towards the whiteness on either side of it, until they totally vanished into it. And then the Circles in those parts appear'd black and white, without any other Colours intermix'd. But by farther moving the Prisms about, the Colours again emerged out of the whiteness, the violet and blue at its inward Limb, and at its outward Limb the red and yellow. So that now their order from the central Spot was white, yellow, red; black; violet, blue, white, yellow, red, &c. contrary to what it was before.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00378", "bookId": 33504, "start": 262562, "end": 263303, "sha256": "abdccd975938f300f2e36f9977d8dd15f5b3e785b20cf651845dd9f637e9fd6f", "text": "_Obs._ 3. When the Rings or some parts of them appeared only black and white, they were very distinct and well defined, and the blackness seemed as intense as that of the central Spot. Also in the Borders of the Rings, where the Colours began to emerge out of the whiteness, they were pretty distinct, which made them visible to a very great multitude. I have sometimes number'd above thirty Successions (reckoning every black and white Ring for one Succession) and seen more of them, which by reason of their smalness I could not number. But in other Positions of the Prisms, at which the Rings appeared of many Colours, I could not distinguish above eight or nine of them, and the Exterior of those were very confused and dilute.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00379", "bookId": 33504, "start": 263307, "end": 264015, "sha256": "33ac29df0ad41f5e76ab9850db24902ecc2ad6f54c1248adcc90f9073b4b1b4d", "text": "In these two Observations to see the Rings distinct, and without any other Colour than Black and white, I found it necessary to hold my Eye at a good distance from them. For by approaching nearer, although in the same inclination of my Eye to the Plane of the Rings, there emerged a bluish Colour out of the white, which by dilating it self more and more into the black, render'd the Circles less distinct, and left the white a little tinged with red and yellow. I found also by looking through a slit or oblong hole, which was narrower than the pupil of my Eye, and held close to it parallel to the Prisms, I could see the Circles much distincter and visible to a far greater number than otherwise.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00380", "bookId": 33504, "start": 264019, "end": 265803, "sha256": "0b870c46acec00b9e27922dbaaf04269dd6f8232397baa1712d8cc9688135664", "text": "_Obs._ 4. To observe more nicely the order of the Colours which arose out of the white Circles as the Rays became less and less inclined to the Plate of Air; I took two Object-glasses, the one a Plano-convex for a fourteen Foot Telescope, and the other a large double Convex for one of about fifty Foot; and upon this, laying the other with its plane side downwards, I pressed them slowly together, to make the Colours successively emerge in the middle of the Circles, and then slowly lifted the upper Glass from the lower to make them successively vanish again in the same place. The Colour, which by pressing the Glasses together, emerged last in the middle of the other Colours, would upon its first appearance look like a Circle of a Colour almost uniform from the circumference to the center and by compressing the Glasses still more, grow continually broader until a new Colour emerged in its center, and thereby it became a Ring encompassing that new Colour. And by compressing the Glasses still more, the diameter of this Ring would increase, and the breadth of its Orbit or Perimeter decrease until another new Colour emerged in the center of the last: And so on until a third, a fourth, a fifth, and other following new Colours successively emerged there, and became Rings encompassing the innermost Colour, the last of which was the black Spot. And, on the contrary, by lifting up the upper Glass from the lower, the diameter of the Rings would decrease, and the breadth of their Orbit increase, until their Colours reached successively to the center; and then they being of a considerable breadth, I could more easily discern and distinguish their Species than before. And by this means I observ'd their Succession and Quantity to be as followeth.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00381", "bookId": 33504, "start": 265807, "end": 267851, "sha256": "0ebc23bc1dad77713b2e55313ab58ea9021e40ad6ee6872bad7e97f29b6500d9", "text": "Next to the pellucid central Spot made by the contact of the Glasses succeeded blue, white, yellow, and red. The blue was so little in quantity, that I could not discern it in the Circles made by the Prisms, nor could I well distinguish any violet in it, but the yellow and red were pretty copious, and seemed about as much in extent as the white, and four or five times more than the blue. The next Circuit in order of Colours immediately encompassing these were violet, blue, green, yellow, and red: and these were all of them copious and vivid, excepting the green, which was very little in quantity, and seemed much more faint and dilute than the other Colours. Of the other four, the violet was the least in extent, and the blue less than the yellow or red. The third Circuit or Order was purple, blue, green, yellow, and red; in which the purple seemed more reddish than the violet in the former Circuit, and the green was much more conspicuous, being as brisk and copious as any of the other Colours, except the yellow, but the red began to be a little faded, inclining very much to purple. After this succeeded the fourth Circuit of green and red. The green was very copious and lively, inclining on the one side to blue, and on the other side to yellow. But in this fourth Circuit there was neither violet, blue, nor yellow, and the red was very imperfect and dirty. Also the succeeding Colours became more and more imperfect and dilute, till after three or four revolutions they ended in perfect whiteness. Their form, when the Glasses were most compress'd so as to make the black Spot appear in the center, is delineated in the second Figure; where _a_, _b_, _c_, _d_, _e_: _f_, _g_, _h_, _i_, _k_: _l_, _m_, _n_, _o_, _p_: _q_, _r_: _s_, _t_: _v_, _x_: _y_, _z_, denote the Colours reckon'd in order from the center, black, blue, white, yellow, red: violet, blue, green, yellow, red: purple, blue, green, yellow, red: green, red: greenish blue, red: greenish blue, pale red: greenish blue, reddish white.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00382", "bookId": 33504, "start": 267855, "end": 267878, "sha256": "cbabaa1835202203dbb317cace993b33281ae5b35cc94ccbff9525c3ee46a886", "text": "[Illustration: FIG. 2.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00383", "bookId": 33504, "start": 267882, "end": 268816, "sha256": "439712776e23e656dac4cafc56a735ba41210bb8c55320a3c0dcc6e8659152bd", "text": "_Obs._ 5. To determine the interval of the Glasses, or thickness of the interjacent Air, by which each Colour was produced, I measured the Diameters of the first six Rings at the most lucid part of their Orbits, and squaring them, I found their Squares to be in the arithmetical Progression of the odd Numbers, 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11. And since one of these Glasses was plane, and the other spherical, their Intervals at those Rings must be in the same Progression. I measured also the Diameters of the dark or faint Rings between the more lucid Colours, and found their Squares to be in the arithmetical Progression of the even Numbers, 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12. And it being very nice and difficult to take these measures exactly; I repeated them divers times at divers parts of the Glasses, that by their Agreement I might be confirmed in them. And the same method I used in determining some others of the following Observations.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00384", "bookId": 33504, "start": 268820, "end": 271467, "sha256": "a374ca2488006aab956b42874d5b0cb9ff6c80b94333a41a43831d15e3c7a10a", "text": "_Obs._ 6. The Diameter of the sixth Ring at the most lucid part of its Orbit was 58/100 parts of an Inch, and the Diameter of the Sphere on which the double convex Object-glass was ground was about 102 Feet, and hence I gathered the thickness of the Air or Aereal Interval of the Glasses at that Ring. But some time after, suspecting that in making this Observation I had not determined the Diameter of the Sphere with sufficient accurateness, and being uncertain whether the Plano-convex Glass was truly plane, and not something concave or convex on that side which I accounted plane; and whether I had not pressed the Glasses together, as I often did, to make them touch; (For by pressing such Glasses together their parts easily yield inwards, and the Rings thereby become sensibly broader than they would be, did the Glasses keep their Figures.) I repeated the Experiment, and found the Diameter of the sixth lucid Ring about 55/100 parts of an Inch. I repeated the Experiment also with such an Object-glass of another Telescope as I had at hand. This was a double Convex ground on both sides to one and the same Sphere, and its Focus was distant from it 83-2/5 Inches. And thence, if the Sines of Incidence and Refraction of the bright yellow Light be assumed in proportion as 11 to 17, the Diameter of the Sphere to which the Glass was figured will by computation be found 182 Inches. This Glass I laid upon a flat one, so that the black Spot appeared in the middle of the Rings of Colours without any other Pressure than that of the weight of the Glass. And now measuring the Diameter of the fifth dark Circle as accurately as I could, I found it the fifth part of an Inch precisely. This Measure was taken with the points of a pair of Compasses on the upper Surface on the upper Glass, and my Eye was about eight or nine Inches distance from the Glass, almost perpendicularly over it, and the Glass was 1/6 of an Inch thick, and thence it is easy to collect that the true Diameter of the Ring between the Glasses was greater than its measur'd Diameter above the Glasses in the Proportion of 80 to 79, or thereabouts, and by consequence equal to 16/79 parts of an Inch, and its true Semi-diameter equal to 8/79 parts. Now as the Diameter of the Sphere (182 Inches) is to the Semi-diameter of this fifth dark Ring (8/79 parts of an Inch) so is this Semi-diameter to the thickness of the Air at this fifth dark Ring; which is therefore 32/567931 or 100/1774784. Parts of an Inch; and the fifth Part thereof, _viz._ the 1/88739 Part of an Inch, is the Thickness of the Air at the first of these dark Rings.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00385", "bookId": 33504, "start": 271471, "end": 272391, "sha256": "a2edc52e5d49560370a040ca6c334be3fd0c9b0cf58564bb05328ce4f1949b43", "text": "The same Experiment I repeated with another double convex Object-glass ground on both sides to one and the same Sphere. Its Focus was distant from it 168-1/2 Inches, and therefore the Diameter of that Sphere was 184 Inches. This Glass being laid upon the same plain Glass, the Diameter of the fifth of the dark Rings, when the black Spot in their Center appear'd plainly without pressing the Glasses, was by the measure of the Compasses upon the upper Glass 121/600 Parts of an Inch, and by consequence between the Glasses it was 1222/6000: For the upper Glass was 1/8 of an Inch thick, and my Eye was distant from it 8 Inches. And a third proportional to half this from the Diameter of the Sphere is 5/88850 Parts of an Inch. This is therefore the Thickness of the Air at this Ring, and a fifth Part thereof, _viz._ the 1/88850th Part of an Inch is the Thickness thereof at the first of the Rings, as above.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00386", "bookId": 33504, "start": 272395, "end": 272717, "sha256": "d1bfc833c0cb9bb60454cd0cb41c2837d925431f7f2d399805af2f0d611b9919", "text": "I tried the same Thing, by laying these Object-glasses upon flat Pieces of a broken Looking-glass, and found the same Measures of the Rings: Which makes me rely upon them till they can be determin'd more accurately by Glasses ground to larger Spheres, though in such Glasses greater care must be taken of a true Plane.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00387", "bookId": 33504, "start": 272721, "end": 273916, "sha256": "d129404f3ff9c97deb48741d0f6759a7f6cf47f3646292e48e6a65aea9ba3acd", "text": "These Dimensions were taken, when my Eye was placed almost perpendicularly over the Glasses, being about an Inch, or an Inch and a quarter, distant from the incident Rays, and eight Inches distant from the Glass; so that the Rays were inclined to the Glass in an Angle of about four Degrees. Whence by the following Observation you will understand, that had the Rays been perpendicular to the Glasses, the Thickness of the Air at these Rings would have been less in the Proportion of the Radius to the Secant of four Degrees, that is, of 10000 to 10024. Let the Thicknesses found be therefore diminish'd in this Proportion, and they will become 1/88952 and 1/89063, or (to use the nearest round Number) the 1/89000th Part of an Inch. This is the Thickness of the Air at the darkest Part of the first dark Ring made by perpendicular Rays; and half this Thickness multiplied by the Progression, 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, &c. gives the Thicknesses of the Air at the most luminous Parts of all the brightest Rings, _viz._ 1/178000, 3/178000, 5/178000, 7/178000, &c. their arithmetical Means 2/178000, 4/178000, 6/178000, &c. being its Thicknesses at the darkest Parts of all the dark ones.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00388", "bookId": 33504, "start": 273920, "end": 274507, "sha256": "4ac66ba5fa40dde2a58d53220a867d0823e8fdc44ab7178c75f9803404367cd8", "text": "_Obs._ 7. The Rings were least, when my Eye was placed perpendicularly over the Glasses in the Axis of the Rings: And when I view'd them obliquely they became bigger, continually swelling as I removed my Eye farther from the Axis. And partly by measuring the Diameter of the same Circle at several Obliquities of my Eye, partly by other Means, as also by making use of the two Prisms for very great Obliquities, I found its Diameter, and consequently the Thickness of the Air at its Perimeter in all those Obliquities to be very nearly in the Proportions express'd in this Table.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00389", "bookId": 33504, "start": 274511, "end": 276437, "sha256": "cb27f8a0f62811af6ce8118e1c30aabcb4f000784c44b317d927bec5cab94656", "text": "-------------------+--------------------+----------+---------- Angle of Incidence |Angle of Refraction |Diameter |Thickness on | into | of the | of the the Air. | the Air. | Ring. | Air. -------------------+--------------------+----------+---------- Deg. Min. | | | | | | 00 00 | 00 00 | 10 | 10 | | | 06 26 | 10 00 | 10-1/13 | 10-2/13 | | | 12 45 | 20 00 | 10-1/3 | 10-2/3 | | | 18 49 | 30 00 | 10-3/4 | 11-1/2 | | | 24 30 | 40 00 | 11-2/5 | 13 | | | 29 37 | 50 00 | 12-1/2 | 15-1/2 | | | 33 58 | 60 00 | 14 | 20 | | | 35 47 | 65 00 | 15-1/4 | 23-1/4 | | | 37 19 | 70 00 | 16-4/5 | 28-1/4 | | | 38 33 | 75 00 | 19-1/4 | 37 | | | 39 27 | 80 00 | 22-6/7 | 52-1/4 | | | 40 00 | 85 00 | 29 | 84-1/12 | | | 40 11 | 90 00 | 35 | 122-1/2 -------------------+--------------------+----------+----------", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00390", "bookId": 33504, "start": 276441, "end": 276964, "sha256": "de64eb6e22ce2cbc90c32c406791ae4793e764a4dae7d3deadea03ce3936f230", "text": "In the two first Columns are express'd the Obliquities of the incident and emergent Rays to the Plate of the Air, that is, their Angles of Incidence and Refraction. In the third Column the Diameter of any colour'd Ring at those Obliquities is expressed in Parts, of which ten constitute that Diameter when the Rays are perpendicular. And in the fourth Column the Thickness of the Air at the Circumference of that Ring is expressed in Parts, of which also ten constitute its Thickness when the Rays are perpendicular.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00391", "bookId": 33504, "start": 276968, "end": 277585, "sha256": "6fdd0cf0efdfbbb216178d7984c13b471133b9bf75e0a5cd9f720bd3d885cb53", "text": "And from these Measures I seem to gather this Rule: That the Thickness of the Air is proportional to the Secant of an Angle, whose Sine is a certain mean Proportional between the Sines of Incidence and Refraction. And that mean Proportional, so far as by these Measures I can determine it, is the first of an hundred and six arithmetical mean Proportionals between those Sines counted from the bigger Sine, that is, from the Sine of Refraction when the Refraction is made out of the Glass into the Plate of Air, or from the Sine of Incidence when the Refraction is made out of the Plate of Air into the Glass.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00392", "bookId": 33504, "start": 277589, "end": 278887, "sha256": "73f0ca4691df27ad9205cfca3ff6ee1f003e83ba3b3c32f75424f41a9cbe731d", "text": "_Obs._ 8. The dark Spot in the middle of the Rings increased also by the Obliquation of the Eye, although almost insensibly. But, if instead of the Object-glasses the Prisms were made use of, its Increase was more manifest when viewed so obliquely that no Colours appear'd about it. It was least when the Rays were incident most obliquely on the interjacent Air, and as the obliquity decreased it increased more and more until the colour'd Rings appear'd, and then decreased again, but not so much as it increased before. And hence it is evident, that the Transparency was not only at the absolute Contact of the Glasses, but also where they had some little Interval. I have sometimes observed the Diameter of that Spot to be between half and two fifth parts of the Diameter of the exterior Circumference of the red in the first Circuit or Revolution of Colours when view'd almost perpendicularly; whereas when view'd obliquely it hath wholly vanish'd and become opake and white like the other parts of the Glass; whence it may be collected that the Glasses did then scarcely, or not at all, touch one another, and that their Interval at the perimeter of that Spot when view'd perpendicularly was about a fifth or sixth part of their Interval at the circumference of the said red.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00393", "bookId": 33504, "start": 278891, "end": 280296, "sha256": "e64b952f6f7dba3cfd0ee336750aa1f5b69728e2810b21ebd4b0bc91f400d1ee", "text": "_Obs._ 9. By looking through the two contiguous Object-glasses, I found that the interjacent Air exhibited Rings of Colours, as well by transmitting Light as by reflecting it. The central Spot was now white, and from it the order of the Colours were yellowish red; black, violet, blue, white, yellow, red; violet, blue, green, yellow, red, &c. But these Colours were very faint and dilute, unless when the Light was trajected very obliquely through the Glasses: For by that means they became pretty vivid. Only the first yellowish red, like the blue in the fourth Observation, was so little and faint as scarcely to be discern'd. Comparing the colour'd Rings made by Reflexion, with these made by transmission of the Light; I found that white was opposite to black, red to blue, yellow to violet, and green to a Compound of red and violet. That is, those parts of the Glass were black when looked through, which when looked upon appeared white, and on the contrary. And so those which in one case exhibited blue, did in the other case exhibit red. And the like of the other Colours. The manner you have represented in the third Figure, where AB, CD, are the Surfaces of the Glasses contiguous at E, and the black Lines between them are their Distances in arithmetical Progression, and the Colours written above are seen by reflected Light, and those below by Light transmitted (p. 209).", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00394", "bookId": 33504, "start": 280300, "end": 281213, "sha256": "6d13e80dd33498b80ccfc292434214ebcb00c90139496b740bc4983184f27709", "text": "_Obs._ 10. Wetting the Object-glasses a little at their edges, the Water crept in slowly between them, and the Circles thereby became less and the Colours more faint: Insomuch that as the Water crept along, one half of them at which it first arrived would appear broken off from the other half, and contracted into a less Room. By measuring them I found the Proportions of their Diameters to the Diameters of the like Circles made by Air to be about seven to eight, and consequently the Intervals of the Glasses at like Circles, caused by those two Mediums Water and Air, are as about three to four. Perhaps it may be a general Rule, That if any other Medium more or less dense than Water be compress'd between the Glasses, their Intervals at the Rings caused thereby will be to their Intervals caused by interjacent Air, as the Sines are which measure the Refraction made out of that Medium into Air.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00395", "bookId": 33504, "start": 281217, "end": 281857, "sha256": "1efaeefd53d64418c687d74b3e8397321aad3fb9e3b9cd7d3225315fe47fba9b", "text": "_Obs._ 11. When the Water was between the Glasses, if I pressed the upper Glass variously at its edges to make the Rings move nimbly from one place to another, a little white Spot would immediately follow the center of them, which upon creeping in of the ambient Water into that place would presently vanish. Its appearance was such as interjacent Air would have caused, and it exhibited the same Colours. But it was not air, for where any Bubbles of Air were in the Water they would not vanish. The Reflexion must have rather been caused by a subtiler Medium, which could recede through the Glasses at the creeping in of the Water.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00396", "bookId": 33504, "start": 281861, "end": 282437, "sha256": "b0fd5ef086f6a9e1275f870e05e5d9652e7b34093231db54fbd684b5ea9073b4", "text": "_Obs._ 12. These Observations were made in the open Air. But farther to examine the Effects of colour'd Light falling on the Glasses, I darken'd the Room, and view'd them by Reflexion of the Colours of a Prism cast on a Sheet of white Paper, my Eye being so placed that I could see the colour'd Paper by Reflexion in the Glasses, as in a Looking-glass. And by this means the Rings became distincter and visible to a far greater number than in the open Air. I have sometimes seen more than twenty of them, whereas in the open Air I could not discern above eight or nine.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00397", "bookId": 33504, "start": 282441, "end": 282464, "sha256": "93987a544b734349ca441eca4eff23520b6c1db7c42d972e33a01c61140917ae", "text": "[Illustration: FIG. 3.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00398", "bookId": 33504, "start": 282468, "end": 284251, "sha256": "d0932cb87bb46f8e6ad01c4f3f7259f4c29f6d4607c1dd34d1b0adeab5129f8c", "text": "_Obs._ 13. Appointing an Assistant to move the Prism to and fro about its Axis, that all the Colours might successively fall on that part of the Paper which I saw by Reflexion from that part of the Glasses, where the Circles appear'd, so that all the Colours might be successively reflected from the Circles to my Eye, whilst I held it immovable, I found the Circles which the red Light made to be manifestly bigger than those which were made by the blue and violet. And it was very pleasant to see them gradually swell or contract accordingly as the Colour of the Light was changed. The Interval of the Glasses at any of the Rings when they were made by the utmost red Light, was to their Interval at the same Ring when made by the utmost violet, greater than as 3 to 2, and less than as 13 to 8. By the most of my Observations it was as 14 to 9. And this Proportion seem'd very nearly the same in all Obliquities of my Eye; unless when two Prisms were made use of instead of the Object-glasses. For then at a certain great obliquity of my Eye, the Rings made by the several Colours seem'd equal, and at a greater obliquity those made by the violet would be greater than the same Rings made by the red: the Refraction of the Prism in this case causing the most refrangible Rays to fall more obliquely on that plate of the Air than the least refrangible ones. Thus the Experiment succeeded in the colour'd Light, which was sufficiently strong and copious to make the Rings sensible. And thence it may be gather'd, that if the most refrangible and least refrangible Rays had been copious enough to make the Rings sensible without the mixture of other Rays, the Proportion which here was 14 to 9 would have been a little greater, suppose 14-1/4 or 14-1/3 to 9.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00399", "bookId": 33504, "start": 284255, "end": 286854, "sha256": "a859c22541e20c10d1565dc707193341c7f52ab136793289b36c87b328d96f1d", "text": "_Obs._ 14. Whilst the Prism was turn'd about its Axis with an uniform Motion, to make all the several Colours fall successively upon the Object-glasses, and thereby to make the Rings contract and dilate: The Contraction or Dilatation of each Ring thus made by the variation of its Colour was swiftest in the red, and slowest in the violet, and in the intermediate Colours it had intermediate degrees of Celerity. Comparing the quantity of Contraction and Dilatation made by all the degrees of each Colour, I found that it was greatest in the red; less in the yellow, still less in the blue, and least in the violet. And to make as just an Estimation as I could of the Proportions of their Contractions or Dilatations, I observ'd that the whole Contraction or Dilatation of the Diameter of any Ring made by all the degrees of red, was to that of the Diameter of the same Ring made by all the degrees of violet, as about four to three, or five to four, and that when the Light was of the middle Colour between yellow and green, the Diameter of the Ring was very nearly an arithmetical Mean between the greatest Diameter of the same Ring made by the outmost red, and the least Diameter thereof made by the outmost violet: Contrary to what happens in the Colours of the oblong Spectrum made by the Refraction of a Prism, where the red is most contracted, the violet most expanded, and in the midst of all the Colours is the Confine of green and blue. And hence I seem to collect that the thicknesses of the Air between the Glasses there, where the Ring is successively made by the limits of the five principal Colours (red, yellow, green, blue, violet) in order (that is, by the extreme red, by the limit of red and yellow in the middle of the orange, by the limit of yellow and green, by the limit of green and blue, by the limit of blue and violet in the middle of the indigo, and by the extreme violet) are to one another very nearly as the sixth lengths of a Chord which found the Notes in a sixth Major, _sol_, _la_, _mi_, _fa_, _sol_, _la_. But it agrees something better with the Observation to say, that the thicknesses of the Air between the Glasses there, where the Rings are successively made by the limits of the seven Colours, red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, violet in order, are to one another as the Cube Roots of the Squares of the eight lengths of a Chord, which found the Notes in an eighth, _sol_, _la_, _fa_, _sol_, _la_, _mi_, _fa_, _sol_; that is, as the Cube Roots of the Squares of the Numbers, 1, 8/9, 5/6, 3/4, 2/3, 3/5, 9/16, 1/2.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00400", "bookId": 33504, "start": 286858, "end": 287790, "sha256": "35aab9f35436162e8be4eba99e807022bdbe7dc1b8cadc82abcae720be3d28c9", "text": "_Obs._ 15. These Rings were not of various Colours like those made in the open Air, but appeared all over of that prismatick Colour only with which they were illuminated. And by projecting the prismatick Colours immediately upon the Glasses, I found that the Light which fell on the dark Spaces which were between the Colour'd Rings was transmitted through the Glasses without any variation of Colour. For on a white Paper placed behind, it would paint Rings of the same Colour with those which were reflected, and of the bigness of their immediate Spaces. And from thence the origin of these Rings is manifest; namely, that the Air between the Glasses, according to its various thickness, is disposed in some places to reflect, and in others to transmit the Light of any one Colour (as you may see represented in the fourth Figure) and in the same place to reflect that of one Colour where it transmits that of another.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00401", "bookId": 33504, "start": 287794, "end": 287817, "sha256": "48da5aab500d9907956435b8da8de09fb6154e2fe75c32e0e9060489a1f25106", "text": "[Illustration: FIG. 4.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00402", "bookId": 33504, "start": 287821, "end": 288166, "sha256": "2f34d875fea9f518d8f01f8634cda0de4de535ad0395848acd4fc239c7711054", "text": "_Obs._ 16. The Squares of the Diameters of these Rings made by any prismatick Colour were in arithmetical Progression, as in the fifth Observation. And the Diameter of the sixth Circle, when made by the citrine yellow, and viewed almost perpendicularly was about 58/100 parts of an Inch, or a little less, agreeable to the sixth Observation.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00403", "bookId": 33504, "start": 288170, "end": 288530, "sha256": "1a8a82c771349f15c85f075181931003480e4adef452c8cbd1b0ec4e15f67151", "text": "The precedent Observations were made with a rarer thin Medium, terminated by a denser, such as was Air or Water compress'd between two Glasses. In those that follow are set down the Appearances of a denser Medium thin'd within a rarer, such as are Plates of Muscovy Glass, Bubbles of Water, and some other thin Substances terminated on all sides with air.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00404", "bookId": 33504, "start": 288534, "end": 290175, "sha256": "70bda81cbf4a679057f79dba2b07830735f877818cac657a92c3f8478d52091e", "text": "_Obs._ 17. If a Bubble be blown with Water first made tenacious by dissolving a little Soap in it, 'tis a common Observation, that after a while it will appear tinged with a great variety of Colours. To defend these Bubbles from being agitated by the external Air (whereby their Colours are irregularly moved one among another, so that no accurate Observation can be made of them,) as soon as I had blown any of them I cover'd it with a clear Glass, and by that means its Colours emerged in a very regular order, like so many concentrick Rings encompassing the top of the Bubble. And as the Bubble grew thinner by the continual subsiding of the Water, these Rings dilated slowly and overspread the whole Bubble, descending in order to the bottom of it, where they vanish'd successively. In the mean while, after all the Colours were emerged at the top, there grew in the center of the Rings a small round black Spot, like that in the first Observation, which continually dilated it self till it became sometimes more than 1/2 or 3/4 of an Inch in breadth before the Bubble broke. At first I thought there had been no Light reflected from the Water in that place, but observing it more curiously, I saw within it several smaller round Spots, which appeared much blacker and darker than the rest, whereby I knew that there was some Reflexion at the other places which were not so dark as those Spots. And by farther Tryal I found that I could see the Images of some things (as of a Candle or the Sun) very faintly reflected, not only from the great black Spot, but also from the little darker Spots which were within it.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00405", "bookId": 33504, "start": 290179, "end": 290533, "sha256": "2a833b77c99fe20db51927fc7b1407c68e7ee48c67468cdd3b764259a07d2ea1", "text": "Besides the aforesaid colour'd Rings there would often appear small Spots of Colours, ascending and descending up and down the sides of the Bubble, by reason of some Inequalities in the subsiding of the Water. And sometimes small black Spots generated at the sides would ascend up to the larger black Spot at the top of the Bubble, and unite with it.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00406", "bookId": 33504, "start": 290537, "end": 291080, "sha256": "ce8d941dcd606491b3ab28f51117b375d5306ebab1a6b5728cda82ce2f282b76", "text": "_Obs._ 18. Because the Colours of these Bubbles were more extended and lively than those of the Air thinn'd between two Glasses, and so more easy to be distinguish'd, I shall here give you a farther description of their order, as they were observ'd in viewing them by Reflexion of the Skies when of a white Colour, whilst a black substance was placed behind the Bubble. And they were these, red, blue; red, blue; red, blue; red, green; red, yellow, green, blue, purple; red, yellow, green, blue, violet; red, yellow, white, blue, black.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00407", "bookId": 33504, "start": 291084, "end": 291381, "sha256": "352a3b7ea8b406bb888211eb2f9f9db065dbd9b0b32d4be2a7ea08b1c87dec58", "text": "The three first Successions of red and blue were very dilute and dirty, especially the first, where the red seem'd in a manner to be white. Among these there was scarce any other Colour sensible besides red and blue, only the blues (and principally the second blue) inclined a little to green.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00408", "bookId": 33504, "start": 291385, "end": 291716, "sha256": "277bb9d1e900d38a701c2d36a5a52faa8f450df804fdf1b44251703a62574806", "text": "The fourth red was also dilute and dirty, but not so much as the former three; after that succeeded little or no yellow, but a copious green, which at first inclined a little to yellow, and then became a pretty brisk and good willow green, and afterwards changed to a bluish Colour; but there succeeded neither blue nor violet.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00409", "bookId": 33504, "start": 291720, "end": 292206, "sha256": "855d4f11c212db492d18ba620a4cb6e64b0917cfd7311fa0a0d3682a6277854a", "text": "The fifth red at first inclined very much to purple, and afterwards became more bright and brisk, but yet not very pure. This was succeeded with a very bright and intense yellow, which was but little in quantity, and soon chang'd to green: But that green was copious and something more pure, deep and lively, than the former green. After that follow'd an excellent blue of a bright Sky-colour, and then a purple, which was less in quantity than the blue, and much inclined to red.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00410", "bookId": 33504, "start": 292210, "end": 292915, "sha256": "ff935e7d33df480143e608595e6fe7472d4fb484f8529ef47e664709bb4aa810", "text": "The sixth red was at first of a very fair and lively scarlet, and soon after of a brighter Colour, being very pure and brisk, and the best of all the reds. Then after a lively orange follow'd an intense bright and copious yellow, which was also the best of all the yellows, and this changed first to a greenish yellow, and then to a greenish blue; but the green between the yellow and the blue, was very little and dilute, seeming rather a greenish white than a green. The blue which succeeded became very good, and of a very bright Sky-colour, but yet something inferior to the former blue; and the violet was intense and deep with little or no redness in it. And less in quantity than the blue.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00411", "bookId": 33504, "start": 292919, "end": 294243, "sha256": "9be471ecb76fc3d182f783211c92983b43e6b91debbe6d6ed08ecb9655184a46", "text": "In the last red appeared a tincture of scarlet next to violet, which soon changed to a brighter Colour, inclining to an orange; and the yellow which follow'd was at first pretty good and lively, but afterwards it grew more dilute until by degrees it ended in perfect whiteness. And this whiteness, if the Water was very tenacious and well-temper'd, would slowly spread and dilate it self over the greater part of the Bubble; continually growing paler at the top, where at length it would crack in many places, and those cracks, as they dilated, would appear of a pretty good, but yet obscure and dark Sky-colour; the white between the blue Spots diminishing, until it resembled the Threds of an irregular Net-work, and soon after vanish'd, and left all the upper part of the Bubble of the said dark blue Colour. And this Colour, after the aforesaid manner, dilated it self downwards, until sometimes it hath overspread the whole Bubble. In the mean while at the top, which was of a darker blue than the bottom, and appear'd also full of many round blue Spots, something darker than the rest, there would emerge one or more very black Spots, and within those, other Spots of an intenser blackness, which I mention'd in the former Observation; and these continually dilated themselves until the Bubble broke.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00412", "bookId": 33504, "start": 294247, "end": 294568, "sha256": "d03c24351b34fdef1548556ec7a4e519181370b0611d1b839ab371bfa110cc43", "text": "If the Water was not very tenacious, the black Spots would break forth in the white, without any sensible intervention of the blue. And sometimes they would break forth within the precedent yellow, or red, or perhaps within the blue of the second order, before the intermediate Colours had time to display themselves.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00413", "bookId": 33504, "start": 294572, "end": 294904, "sha256": "c0cbdf7468c8b68149a904cf200b11b22858ed36ad663fcb72a0949eb5dadd4d", "text": "By this description you may perceive how great an affinity these Colours have with those of Air described in the fourth Observation, although set down in a contrary order, by reason that they begin to appear when the Bubble is thickest, and are most conveniently reckon'd from the lowest and thickest part of the Bubble upwards.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00414", "bookId": 33504, "start": 294908, "end": 295695, "sha256": "c72430c47e6831967803007b499d929097226ae14d1697bacf6a7980f073cff6", "text": "_Obs._ 19. Viewing in several oblique Positions of my Eye the Rings of Colours emerging on the top of the Bubble, I found that they were sensibly dilated by increasing the obliquity, but yet not so much by far as those made by thinn'd Air in the seventh Observation. For there they were dilated so much as, when view'd most obliquely, to arrive at a part of the Plate more than twelve times thicker than that where they appear'd when viewed perpendicularly; whereas in this case the thickness of the Water, at which they arrived when viewed most obliquely, was to that thickness which exhibited them by perpendicular Rays, something less than as 8 to 5. By the best of my Observations it was between 15 and 15-1/2 to 10; an increase about 24 times less than in the other case.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00415", "bookId": 33504, "start": 295699, "end": 296649, "sha256": "c890e4106fa21c5b63cfbea4566c71c04e85e096b8397ba472997e10b3c2d12e", "text": "Sometimes the Bubble would become of an uniform thickness all over, except at the top of it near the black Spot, as I knew, because it would exhibit the same appearance of Colours in all Positions of the Eye. And then the Colours which were seen at its apparent circumference by the obliquest Rays, would be different from those that were seen in other places, by Rays less oblique to it. And divers Spectators might see the same part of it of differing Colours, by viewing it at very differing Obliquities. Now observing how much the Colours at the same places of the Bubble, or at divers places of equal thickness, were varied by the several Obliquities of the Rays; by the assistance of the 4th, 14th, 16th and 18th Observations, as they are hereafter explain'd, I collect the thickness of the Water requisite to exhibit any one and the same Colour, at several Obliquities, to be very nearly in the Proportion expressed in this Table.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00416", "bookId": 33504, "start": 296653, "end": 297567, "sha256": "58aa2d41b683b8ca87569829180c8afc8c3d9a86ca74bdaf3803c6a42b56d910", "text": "-----------------+------------------+---------------- Incidence on | Refraction into | Thickness of the Water. | the Water. | the Water. -----------------+------------------+---------------- Deg. Min. | Deg. Min. | | | 00 00 | 00 00 | 10 | | 15 00 | 11 11 | 10-1/4 | | 30 00 | 22 1 | 10-4/5 | | 45 00 | 32 2 | 11-4/5 | | 60 00 | 40 30 | 13 | | 75 00 | 46 25 | 14-1/2 | | 90 00 | 48 35 | 15-1/5 -----------------+------------------+----------------", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00417", "bookId": 33504, "start": 297571, "end": 298673, "sha256": "4b1fdae09286f6cc8ac63b02865031e359b82e2ed89a9466c910d4887952c334", "text": "In the two first Columns are express'd the Obliquities of the Rays to the Superficies of the Water, that is, their Angles of Incidence and Refraction. Where I suppose, that the Sines which measure them are in round Numbers, as 3 to 4, though probably the Dissolution of Soap in the Water, may a little alter its refractive Virtue. In the third Column, the Thickness of the Bubble, at which any one Colour is exhibited in those several Obliquities, is express'd in Parts, of which ten constitute its Thickness when the Rays are perpendicular. And the Rule found by the seventh Observation agrees well with these Measures, if duly apply'd; namely, that the Thickness of a Plate of Water requisite to exhibit one and the same Colour at several Obliquities of the Eye, is proportional to the Secant of an Angle, whose Sine is the first of an hundred and six arithmetical mean Proportionals between the Sines of Incidence and Refraction counted from the lesser Sine, that is, from the Sine of Refraction when the Refraction is made out of Air into Water, otherwise from the Sine of Incidence.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00418", "bookId": 33504, "start": 298677, "end": 299577, "sha256": "89c88532a405613a4e6ac0e1bc5f94878d51889c90abd8f1d82b2b661574641e", "text": "I have sometimes observ'd, that the Colours which arise on polish'd Steel by heating it, or on Bell-metal, and some other metalline Substances, when melted and pour'd on the Ground, where they may cool in the open Air, have, like the Colours of Water-bubbles, been a little changed by viewing them at divers Obliquities, and particularly that a deep blue, or violet, when view'd very obliquely, hath been changed to a deep red. But the Changes of these Colours are not so great and sensible as of those made by Water. For the Scoria, or vitrified Part of the Metal, which most Metals when heated or melted do continually protrude, and send out to their Surface, and which by covering the Metals in form of a thin glassy Skin, causes these Colours, is much denser than Water; and I find that the Change made by the Obliquation of the Eye is least in Colours of the densest thin Substances.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00419", "bookId": 33504, "start": 299581, "end": 300098, "sha256": "c07178852753be165466b01e5b613a6c7f577fb143db0bff7af910863fdd652f", "text": "_Obs._ 20. As in the ninth Observation, so here, the Bubble, by transmitted Light, appear'd of a contrary Colour to that, which it exhibited by Reflexion. Thus when the Bubble being look'd on by the Light of the Clouds reflected from it, seemed red at its apparent Circumference, if the Clouds at the same time, or immediately after, were view'd through it, the Colour at its Circumference would be blue. And, on the contrary, when by reflected Light it appeared blue, it would appear red by transmitted Light.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00420", "bookId": 33504, "start": 300102, "end": 300712, "sha256": "8e62fb446f84606e979aeaf30adcf00d2922ceda4400730eb4ecb93f173dc36f", "text": "_Obs._ 21. By wetting very thin Plates of _Muscovy_ Glass, whose thinness made the like Colours appear, the Colours became more faint and languid, especially by wetting the Plates on that side opposite to the Eye: But I could not perceive any variation of their Species. So then the thickness of a Plate requisite to produce any Colour, depends only on the density of the Plate, and not on that of the ambient Medium. And hence, by the 10th and 16th Observations, may be known the thickness which Bubbles of Water, or Plates of _Muscovy_ Glass, or other Substances, have at any Colour produced by them.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00421", "bookId": 33504, "start": 300716, "end": 301089, "sha256": "86474c0abb089e65a3ec57395841b7bf8ca2e0a6a89650c11f89f10cc9316491", "text": "_Obs._ 22. A thin transparent Body, which is denser than its ambient Medium, exhibits more brisk and vivid Colours than that which is so much rarer; as I have particularly observed in the Air and Glass. For blowing Glass very thin at a Lamp Furnace, those Plates encompassed with Air did exhibit Colours much more vivid than those of Air made thin between two Glasses.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00422", "bookId": 33504, "start": 301093, "end": 301734, "sha256": "8a56d1ab3ff0480f05cc96e2892334425f2ad7d5a1e1c3f892ff49400d9da312", "text": "_Obs._ 23. Comparing the quantity of Light reflected from the several Rings, I found that it was most copious from the first or inmost, and in the exterior Rings became gradually less and less. Also the whiteness of the first Ring was stronger than that reflected from those parts of the thin Medium or Plate which were without the Rings; as I could manifestly perceive by viewing at a distance the Rings made by the two Object-glasses; or by comparing two Bubbles of Water blown at distant Times, in the first of which the Whiteness appear'd, which succeeded all the Colours, and in the other, the Whiteness which preceded them all.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00423", "bookId": 33504, "start": 301738, "end": 302521, "sha256": "fbfdc60e05403904b3e3c37855b219d17ed135863a1e74dc4768fc0bb1f559be", "text": "_Obs._ 24. When the two Object-glasses were lay'd upon one another, so as to make the Rings of the Colours appear, though with my naked Eye I could not discern above eight or nine of those Rings, yet by viewing them through a Prism I have seen a far greater Multitude, insomuch that I could number more than forty, besides many others, that were so very small and close together, that I could not keep my Eye steady on them severally so as to number them, but by their Extent I have sometimes estimated them to be more than an hundred. And I believe the Experiment may be improved to the Discovery of far greater Numbers. For they seem to be really unlimited, though visible only so far as they can be separated by the Refraction of the Prism, as I shall hereafter explain.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00424", "bookId": 33504, "start": 302525, "end": 302548, "sha256": "a2e8051d643316eaab5617dedf8b5aa4a5a1d24917f26d3d62894cda8b0e466a", "text": "[Illustration: FIG. 5.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00425", "bookId": 33504, "start": 302552, "end": 303434, "sha256": "03f3ab63ef36c8d1210fcb8be66d196a61534ba71b5a6d2bec97f5d4ee86e52b", "text": "But it was but one side of these Rings, namely, that towards which the Refraction was made, which by that Refraction was render'd distinct, and the other side became more confused than when view'd by the naked Eye, insomuch that there I could not discern above one or two, and sometimes none of those Rings, of which I could discern eight or nine with my naked Eye. And their Segments or Arcs, which on the other side appear'd so numerous, for the most part exceeded not the third Part of a Circle. If the Refraction was very great, or the Prism very distant from the Object-glasses, the middle Part of those Arcs became also confused, so as to disappear and constitute an even Whiteness, whilst on either side their Ends, as also the whole Arcs farthest from the Center, became distincter than before, appearing in the Form as you see them design'd in the fifth Figure.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00426", "bookId": 33504, "start": 303438, "end": 304068, "sha256": "22cafac538d55f7eb4f885abed3d2ab478299cf9b5317c0a07172d3b41e602d5", "text": "The Arcs, where they seem'd distinctest, were only white and black successively, without any other Colours intermix'd. But in other Places there appeared Colours, whose Order was inverted by the refraction in such manner, that if I first held the Prism very near the Object-glasses, and then gradually removed it farther off towards my Eye, the Colours of the 2d, 3d, 4th, and following Rings, shrunk towards the white that emerged between them, until they wholly vanish'd into it at the middle of the Arcs, and afterwards emerged again in a contrary Order. But at the Ends of the Arcs they retain'd their Order unchanged.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00427", "bookId": 33504, "start": 304072, "end": 304995, "sha256": "b31a523fb23f06b4be81850dffcefafe3d64345f62b24de0efe87904c585c587", "text": "I have sometimes so lay'd one Object-glass upon the other, that to the naked Eye they have all over seem'd uniformly white, without the least Appearance of any of the colour'd Rings; and yet by viewing them through a Prism, great Multitudes of those Rings have discover'd themselves. And in like manner Plates of _Muscovy_ Glass, and Bubbles of Glass blown at a Lamp-Furnace, which were not so thin as to exhibit any Colours to the naked Eye, have through the Prism exhibited a great Variety of them ranged irregularly up and down in the Form of Waves. And so Bubbles of Water, before they began to exhibit their Colours to the naked Eye of a Bystander, have appeared through a Prism, girded about with many parallel and horizontal Rings; to produce which Effect, it was necessary to hold the Prism parallel, or very nearly parallel to the Horizon, and to dispose it so that the Rays might be refracted upwards.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00428", "bookId": 33504, "start": 305005, "end": 305008, "sha256": "a3e5514bcfd79e7649e30fbf98826208f3da47833b4223b68cff2db23beb3801", "text": "THE", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00429", "bookId": 33504, "start": 305012, "end": 305023, "sha256": "36bf9e601f7ceb999193b4ac8a8c5bfeaf38fa47ea9457259b92c6833530e80b", "text": "SECOND BOOK", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00430", "bookId": 33504, "start": 305027, "end": 305029, "sha256": "270826d41d0a807d41e14d413e764fd30dab7a7bcd1e478ea94b9e812671042b", "text": "OF", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00431", "bookId": 33504, "start": 305033, "end": 305040, "sha256": "8f9b5f1c324b8f0b89df0677c58417201875f4f9faa2dee3223d78da2e06f2f4", "text": "OPTICKS", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00432", "bookId": 33504, "start": 305046, "end": 305056, "sha256": "da0c0d4ed1bbb591dad415944ae9d02ed1507f4b3c2aa81407a42672708bbcb5", "text": "_PART II._", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00433", "bookId": 33504, "start": 305060, "end": 305102, "sha256": "5d37d53ad050671c9c3075ecbfcacc622c054d33bf45007f646ca90e9132596d", "text": "_Remarks upon the foregoing Observations._", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00434", "bookId": 33504, "start": 305108, "end": 306324, "sha256": "9fb3f034cf291a6a17ae62cefa0ba266aa723cda469b6dd2bf69c8df43c26f6c", "text": "Having given my Observations of these Colours, before I make use of them to unfold the Causes of the Colours of natural Bodies, it is convenient that by the simplest of them, such as are the 2d, 3d, 4th, 9th, 12th, 18th, 20th, and 24th, I first explain the more compounded. And first to shew how the Colours in the fourth and eighteenth Observations are produced, let there be taken in any Right Line from the Point Y, [in _Fig._ 6.] the Lengths YA, YB, YC, YD, YE, YF, YG, YH, in proportion to one another, as the Cube-Roots of the Squares of the Numbers, 1/2, 9/16, 3/5, 2/3, 3/4, 5/6, 8/9, 1, whereby the Lengths of a Musical Chord to sound all the Notes in an eighth are represented; that is, in the Proportion of the Numbers 6300, 6814, 7114, 7631, 8255, 8855, 9243, 10000. And at the Points A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, let Perpendiculars A[Greek: a], B[Greek: b], &c. be erected, by whose Intervals the Extent of the several Colours set underneath against them, is to be represented. Then divide the Line _A[Greek: a]_ in such Proportion as the Numbers 1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 9, 10, 11, &c. set at the Points of Division denote. And through those Divisions from Y draw Lines 1I, 2K, 3L, 5M, 6N, 7O, &c.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00435", "bookId": 33504, "start": 306328, "end": 307206, "sha256": "a0e9c274b2c05d5808a54cc71478af436b283a67573b9f9766192d50b706fdd2", "text": "Now, if A2 be supposed to represent the Thickness of any thin transparent Body, at which the outmost Violet is most copiously reflected in the first Ring, or Series of Colours, then by the 13th Observation, HK will represent its Thickness, at which the utmost Red is most copiously reflected in the same Series. Also by the 5th and 16th Observations, A6 and HN will denote the Thicknesses at which those extreme Colours are most copiously reflected in the second Series, and A10 and HQ the Thicknesses at which they are most copiously reflected in the third Series, and so on. And the Thickness at which any of the intermediate Colours are reflected most copiously, will, according to the 14th Observation, be defined by the distance of the Line AH from the intermediate parts of the Lines 2K, 6N, 10Q, &c. against which the Names of those Colours are written below.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00436", "bookId": 33504, "start": 307210, "end": 307233, "sha256": "160fbea29bda93164c070da134d39bf502994b1b09ffe59bb8533952328958f9", "text": "[Illustration: FIG. 6.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00437", "bookId": 33504, "start": 307237, "end": 308262, "sha256": "267ae5853958805dc3a433720c7492c2d931b55d8a11e4b4decf769c1b7aa4f6", "text": "But farther, to define the Latitude of these Colours in each Ring or Series, let A1 design the least thickness, and A3 the greatest thickness, at which the extreme violet in the first Series is reflected, and let HI, and HL, design the like limits for the extreme red, and let the intermediate Colours be limited by the intermediate parts of the Lines 1I, and 3L, against which the Names of those Colours are written, and so on: But yet with this caution, that the Reflexions be supposed strongest at the intermediate Spaces, 2K, 6N, 10Q, &c. and from thence to decrease gradually towards these limits, 1I, 3L, 5M, 7O, &c. on either side; where you must not conceive them to be precisely limited, but to decay indefinitely. And whereas I have assign'd the same Latitude to every Series, I did it, because although the Colours in the first Series seem to be a little broader than the rest, by reason of a stronger Reflexion there, yet that inequality is so insensible as scarcely to be determin'd by Observation.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00438", "bookId": 33504, "start": 308266, "end": 309297, "sha256": "e3e33ba5177ec48040af5e207268f8104d53fdde78508c0651f482b042af099d", "text": "Now according to this Description, conceiving that the Rays originally of several Colours are by turns reflected at the Spaces 1I, L3, 5M, O7, 9PR11, &c. and transmitted at the Spaces AHI1, 3LM5, 7OP9, &c. it is easy to know what Colour must in the open Air be exhibited at any thickness of a transparent thin Body. For if a Ruler be applied parallel to AH, at that distance from it by which the thickness of the Body is represented, the alternate Spaces 1IL3, 5MO7, &c. which it crosseth will denote the reflected original Colours, of which the Colour exhibited in the open Air is compounded. Thus if the constitution of the green in the third Series of Colours be desired, apply the Ruler as you see at [Greek: prsph], and by its passing through some of the blue at [Greek: p] and yellow at [Greek: s], as well as through the green at [Greek: r], you may conclude that the green exhibited at that thickness of the Body is principally constituted of original green, but not without a mixture of some blue and yellow.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00439", "bookId": 33504, "start": 309301, "end": 311943, "sha256": "5a87b6ce86ecb08a47d964861d9331ecaeffef9cc16db2f3447e120b70dbb0d9", "text": "By this means you may know how the Colours from the center of the Rings outward ought to succeed in order as they were described in the 4th and 18th Observations. For if you move the Ruler gradually from AH through all distances, having pass'd over the first Space which denotes little or no Reflexion to be made by thinnest Substances, it will first arrive at 1 the violet, and then very quickly at the blue and green, which together with that violet compound blue, and then at the yellow and red, by whose farther addition that blue is converted into whiteness, which whiteness continues during the transit of the edge of the Ruler from I to 3, and after that by the successive deficience of its component Colours, turns first to compound yellow, and then to red, and last of all the red ceaseth at L. Then begin the Colours of the second Series, which succeed in order during the transit of the edge of the Ruler from 5 to O, and are more lively than before, because more expanded and severed. And for the same reason instead of the former white there intercedes between the blue and yellow a mixture of orange, yellow, green, blue and indigo, all which together ought to exhibit a dilute and imperfect green. So the Colours of the third Series all succeed in order; first, the violet, which a little interferes with the red of the second order, and is thereby inclined to a reddish purple; then the blue and green, which are less mix'd with other Colours, and consequently more lively than before, especially the green: Then follows the yellow, some of which towards the green is distinct and good, but that part of it towards the succeeding red, as also that red is mix'd with the violet and blue of the fourth Series, whereby various degrees of red very much inclining to purple are compounded. This violet and blue, which should succeed this red, being mixed with, and hidden in it, there succeeds a green. And this at first is much inclined to blue, but soon becomes a good green, the only unmix'd and lively Colour in this fourth Series. For as it verges towards the yellow, it begins to interfere with the Colours of the fifth Series, by whose mixture the succeeding yellow and red are very much diluted and made dirty, especially the yellow, which being the weaker Colour is scarce able to shew it self. After this the several Series interfere more and more, and their Colours become more and more intermix'd, till after three or four more revolutions (in which the red and blue predominate by turns) all sorts of Colours are in all places pretty equally blended, and compound an even whiteness.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00440", "bookId": 33504, "start": 311947, "end": 312189, "sha256": "844e0556758b5647b46c0897f48deb98154d39df01a9da7d7f1be6f3a3f269d2", "text": "And since by the 15th Observation the Rays endued with one Colour are transmitted, where those of another Colour are reflected, the reason of the Colours made by the transmitted Light in the 9th and 20th Observations is from hence evident.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00441", "bookId": 33504, "start": 312193, "end": 313066, "sha256": "f7d847b30ef4b308e64b47fcb16ee106fe4d9eed3e12e3216cefaa962571058b", "text": "If not only the Order and Species of these Colours, but also the precise thickness of the Plate, or thin Body at which they are exhibited, be desired in parts of an Inch, that may be also obtained by assistance of the 6th or 16th Observations. For according to those Observations the thickness of the thinned Air, which between two Glasses exhibited the most luminous parts of the first six Rings were 1/178000, 3/178000, 5/178000, 7/178000, 9/178000, 11/178000 parts of an Inch. Suppose the Light reflected most copiously at these thicknesses be the bright citrine yellow, or confine of yellow and orange, and these thicknesses will be F[Greek: l], F[Greek: m], F[Greek: u], F[Greek: x], F[Greek: o], F[Greek: t]. And this being known, it is easy to determine what thickness of Air is represented by G[Greek: ph], or by any other distance of the Ruler from AH.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00442", "bookId": 33504, "start": 313070, "end": 314217, "sha256": "456a26b5914c8ab03c7f3db68e398556ac85c3025469df0fef6bbb15cc39367e", "text": "But farther, since by the 10th Observation the thickness of Air was to the thickness of Water, which between the same Glasses exhibited the same Colour, as 4 to 3, and by the 21st Observation the Colours of thin Bodies are not varied by varying the ambient Medium; the thickness of a Bubble of Water, exhibiting any Colour, will be 3/4 of the thickness of Air producing the same Colour. And so according to the same 10th and 21st Observations, the thickness of a Plate of Glass, whose Refraction of the mean refrangible Ray, is measured by the proportion of the Sines 31 to 20, may be 20/31 of the thickness of Air producing the same Colours; and the like of other Mediums. I do not affirm, that this proportion of 20 to 31, holds in all the Rays; for the Sines of other sorts of Rays have other Proportions. But the differences of those Proportions are so little that I do not here consider them. On these Grounds I have composed the following Table, wherein the thickness of Air, Water, and Glass, at which each Colour is most intense and specifick, is expressed in parts of an Inch divided into ten hundred thousand equal parts.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00443", "bookId": 33504, "start": 314221, "end": 315180, "sha256": "78465cf492be3f6fa88f42e96ac8f70b909c4e5426043a74083079b368cca769", "text": "Now if this Table be compared with the 6th Scheme, you will there see the constitution of each Colour, as to its Ingredients, or the original Colours of which it is compounded, and thence be enabled to judge of its Intenseness or Imperfection; which may suffice in explication of the 4th and 18th Observations, unless it be farther desired to delineate the manner how the Colours appear, when the two Object-glasses are laid upon one another. To do which, let there be described a large Arc of a Circle, and a streight Line which may touch that Arc, and parallel to that Tangent several occult Lines, at such distances from it, as the Numbers set against the several Colours in the Table denote. For the Arc, and its Tangent, will represent the Superficies of the Glasses terminating the interjacent Air; and the places where the occult Lines cut the Arc will show at what distances from the center, or Point of contact, each Colour is reflected.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00444", "bookId": 33504, "start": 315184, "end": 318605, "sha256": "e417762ad529c140140322aed7aab185f488522eaf99965f7317a3e2b511e2e7", "text": "_The thickness of colour'd Plates and Particles of_ _____________|_______________ / \\ Air. Water. Glass. |---------+----------+----------+ {Very black | 1/2 | 3/8 | 10/31 | {Black | 1 | 3/4 | 20/31 | {Beginning of | | | | { Black | 2 | 1-1/2 | 1-2/7 | Their Colours of the {Blue | 2-2/5 | 1-4/5 | 1-11/22 | first Order, {White | 5-1/4 | 3-7/8 | 3-2/5 | {Yellow | 7-1/9 | 5-1/3 | 4-3/5 | {Orange | 8 | 6 | 5-1/6 | {Red | 9 | 6-3/4 | 5-4/5 | |---------+----------+----------| {Violet | 11-1/6 | 8-3/8 | 7-1/5 | {Indigo | 12-5/6 | 9-5/8 | 8-2/11 | {Blue | 14 | 10-1/2 | 9 | {Green | 15-1/8 | 11-2/3 | 9-5/7 | Of the second order, {Yellow | 16-2/7 | 12-1/5 | 10-2/5 | {Orange | 17-2/9 | 13 | 11-1/9 | {Bright red | 18-1/3 | 13-3/4 | 11-5/6 | {Scarlet | 19-2/3 | 14-3/4 | 12-2/3 | |---------+----------+----------| {Purple | 21 | 15-3/4 | 13-11/20 | {Indigo | 22-1/10 | 16-4/7 | 14-1/4 | {Blue | 23-2/5 | 17-11/20 | 15-1/10 | Of the third Order, {Green | 25-1/5 | 18-9/10 | 16-1/4 | {Yellow | 27-1/7 | 20-1/3 | 17-1/2 | {Red | 29 | 21-3/4 | 18-5/7 | {Bluish red | 32 | 24 | 20-2/3 | |---------+----------+----------| {Bluish green | 34 | 25-1/2 | 22 | {Green | 35-2/7 | 26-1/2 | 22-3/4 | Of the fourth Order, {Yellowish green | 36 | 27 | 23-2/9 | {Red | 40-1/3 | 30-1/4 | 26 | |---------+----------+----------| {Greenish blue | 46 | 34-1/2 | 29-2/3 | Of the fifth Order, {Red | 52-1/2 | 39-3/8 | 34 | |---------+----------+----------| {Greenish blue | 58-3/4 | 44 | 38 | Of the sixth Order, {Red | 65 | 48-3/4 | 42 | |---------+----------+----------| Of the seventh Order, {Greenish blue | 71 | 53-1/4 | 45-4/5 | {Ruddy White | 77 | 57-3/4 | 49-2/3 | |---------+----------+----------|", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00445", "bookId": 33504, "start": 318609, "end": 319530, "sha256": "0f01382984f7cf2a9bd51b2a929d21a906f2c79954243db83867eef016db25ea", "text": "There are also other Uses of this Table: For by its assistance the thickness of the Bubble in the 19th Observation was determin'd by the Colours which it exhibited. And so the bigness of the parts of natural Bodies may be conjectured by their Colours, as shall be hereafter shewn. Also, if two or more very thin Plates be laid one upon another, so as to compose one Plate equalling them all in thickness, the resulting Colour may be hereby determin'd. For instance, Mr. _Hook_ observed, as is mentioned in his _Micrographia_, that a faint yellow Plate of _Muscovy_ Glass laid upon a blue one, constituted a very deep purple. The yellow of the first Order is a faint one, and the thickness of the Plate exhibiting it, according to the Table is 4-3/5, to which add 9, the thickness exhibiting blue of the second Order, and the Sum will be 13-3/5, which is the thickness exhibiting the purple of the third Order.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00446", "bookId": 33504, "start": 319534, "end": 321467, "sha256": "f1ca0aa787030789df1f81340bffe3d9453bfd72606f1d644ab1146a01685be2", "text": "To explain, in the next place, the circumstances of the 2d and 3d Observations; that is, how the Rings of the Colours may (by turning the Prisms about their common Axis the contrary way to that expressed in those Observations) be converted into white and black Rings, and afterwards into Rings of Colours again, the Colours of each Ring lying now in an inverted order; it must be remember'd, that those Rings of Colours are dilated by the obliquation of the Rays to the Air which intercedes the Glasses, and that according to the Table in the 7th Observation, their Dilatation or Increase of their Diameter is most manifest and speedy when they are obliquest. Now the Rays of yellow being more refracted by the first Superficies of the said Air than those of red, are thereby made more oblique to the second Superficies, at which they are reflected to produce the colour'd Rings, and consequently the yellow Circle in each Ring will be more dilated than the red; and the Excess of its Dilatation will be so much the greater, by how much the greater is the obliquity of the Rays, until at last it become of equal extent with the red of the same Ring. And for the same reason the green, blue and violet, will be also so much dilated by the still greater obliquity of their Rays, as to become all very nearly of equal extent with the red, that is, equally distant from the center of the Rings. And then all the Colours of the same Ring must be co-incident, and by their mixture exhibit a white Ring. And these white Rings must have black and dark Rings between them, because they do not spread and interfere with one another, as before. And for that reason also they must become distincter, and visible to far greater numbers. But yet the violet being obliquest will be something more dilated, in proportion to its extent, than the other Colours, and so very apt to appear at the exterior Verges of the white.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00447", "bookId": 33504, "start": 321471, "end": 322275, "sha256": "cff264c26f56eb8389738e6ff1f118ae97ceaaa0aa6b8b61a7726a0b61f075ba", "text": "Afterwards, by a greater obliquity of the Rays, the violet and blue become more sensibly dilated than the red and yellow, and so being farther removed from the center of the Rings, the Colours must emerge out of the white in an order contrary to that which they had before; the violet and blue at the exterior Limbs of each Ring, and the red and yellow at the interior. And the violet, by reason of the greatest obliquity of its Rays, being in proportion most of all expanded, will soonest appear at the exterior Limb of each white Ring, and become more conspicuous than the rest. And the several Series of Colours belonging to the several Rings, will, by their unfolding and spreading, begin again to interfere, and thereby render the Rings less distinct, and not visible to so great numbers.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00448", "bookId": 33504, "start": 322279, "end": 322744, "sha256": "d9ba2d174e7001255ea768144ce73aa395d8975076d820d163ac3ea6bd09f2d4", "text": "If instead of the Prisms the Object-glasses be made use of, the Rings which they exhibit become not white and distinct by the obliquity of the Eye, by reason that the Rays in their passage through that Air which intercedes the Glasses are very nearly parallel to those Lines in which they were first incident on the Glasses, and consequently the Rays endued with several Colours are not inclined one more than another to that Air, as it happens in the Prisms.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00449", "bookId": 33504, "start": 322748, "end": 324275, "sha256": "1d81cfaf26624a4aab671e649fa6e2e8b051129d8fde90def028b5574e746d91", "text": "There is yet another circumstance of these Experiments to be consider'd, and that is why the black and white Rings which when view'd at a distance appear distinct, should not only become confused by viewing them near at hand, but also yield a violet Colour at both the edges of every white Ring. And the reason is, that the Rays which enter the Eye at several parts of the Pupil, have several Obliquities to the Glasses, and those which are most oblique, if consider'd apart, would represent the Rings bigger than those which are the least oblique. Whence the breadth of the Perimeter of every white Ring is expanded outwards by the obliquest Rays, and inwards by the least oblique. And this Expansion is so much the greater by how much the greater is the difference of the Obliquity; that is, by how much the Pupil is wider, or the Eye nearer to the Glasses. And the breadth of the violet must be most expanded, because the Rays apt to excite a Sensation of that Colour are most oblique to a second or farther Superficies of the thinn'd Air at which they are reflected, and have also the greatest variation of Obliquity, which makes that Colour soonest emerge out of the edges of the white. And as the breadth of every Ring is thus augmented, the dark Intervals must be diminish'd, until the neighbouring Rings become continuous, and are blended, the exterior first, and then those nearer the center; so that they can no longer be distinguish'd apart, but seem to constitute an even and uniform whiteness.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00450", "bookId": 33504, "start": 324279, "end": 326036, "sha256": "71a05d3d28f78ae1e07f47eb7bac16f542c3d250deb118ee0ea7372663b9e689", "text": "Among all the Observations there is none accompanied with so odd circumstances as the twenty-fourth. Of those the principal are, that in thin Plates, which to the naked Eye seem of an even and uniform transparent whiteness, without any terminations of Shadows, the Refraction of a Prism should make Rings of Colours appear, whereas it usually makes Objects appear colour'd only there where they are terminated with Shadows, or have parts unequally luminous; and that it should make those Rings exceedingly distinct and white, although it usually renders Objects confused and coloured. The Cause of these things you will understand by considering, that all the Rings of Colours are really in the Plate, when view'd with the naked Eye, although by reason of the great breadth of their Circumferences they so much interfere and are blended together, that they seem to constitute an uniform whiteness. But when the Rays pass through the Prism to the Eye, the Orbits of the several Colours in every Ring are refracted, some more than others, according to their degrees of Refrangibility: By which means the Colours on one side of the Ring (that is in the circumference on one side of its center), become more unfolded and dilated, and those on the other side more complicated and contracted. And where by a due Refraction they are so much contracted, that the several Rings become narrower than to interfere with one another, they must appear distinct, and also white, if the constituent Colours be so much contracted as to be wholly co-incident. But on the other side, where the Orbit of every Ring is made broader by the farther unfolding of its Colours, it must interfere more with other Rings than before, and so become less distinct.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00451", "bookId": 33504, "start": 326040, "end": 326063, "sha256": "b46779b3a533a6be5e45f28fc5087e42c0e7cf8ccae359720c9273fdf996e91d", "text": "[Illustration: FIG. 7.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00452", "bookId": 33504, "start": 326067, "end": 328788, "sha256": "b81c28d516f024d8055e55f2d8a929badfa4fab2ebb8228cf5ffc000dafe4770", "text": "To explain this a little farther, suppose the concentrick Circles AV, and BX, [in _Fig._ 7.] represent the red and violet of any Order, which, together with the intermediate Colours, constitute any one of these Rings. Now these being view'd through a Prism, the violet Circle BX, will, by a greater Refraction, be farther translated from its place than the red AV, and so approach nearer to it on that side of the Circles, towards which the Refractions are made. For instance, if the red be translated to _av_, the violet may be translated to _bx_, so as to approach nearer to it at _x_ than before; and if the red be farther translated to av, the violet may be so much farther translated to bx as to convene with it at x; and if the red be yet farther translated to [Greek: aY], the violet may be still so much farther translated to [Greek: bx] as to pass beyond it at [Greek: x], and convene with it at _e_ and _f_. And this being understood not only of the red and violet, but of all the other intermediate Colours, and also of every revolution of those Colours, you will easily perceive how those of the same revolution or order, by their nearness at _xv_ and [Greek: Yx], and their coincidence at xv, _e_ and _f_, ought to constitute pretty distinct Arcs of Circles, especially at xv, or at _e_ and _f_; and that they will appear severally at _x_[Greek: u] and at xv exhibit whiteness by their coincidence, and again appear severally at [Greek: Yx], but yet in a contrary order to that which they had before, and still retain beyond _e_ and _f_. But on the other side, at _ab_, ab, or [Greek: ab], these Colours must become much more confused by being dilated and spread so as to interfere with those of other Orders. And the same confusion will happen at [Greek: Ux] between _e_ and _f_, if the Refraction be very great, or the Prism very distant from the Object-glasses: In which case no parts of the Rings will be seen, save only two little Arcs at _e_ and _f_, whose distance from one another will be augmented by removing the Prism still farther from the Object-glasses: And these little Arcs must be distinctest and whitest at their middle, and at their ends, where they begin to grow confused, they must be colour'd. And the Colours at one end of every Arc must be in a contrary order to those at the other end, by reason that they cross in the intermediate white; namely, their ends, which verge towards [Greek: Ux], will be red and yellow on that side next the center, and blue and violet on the other side. But their other ends which verge from [Greek: Ux], will on the contrary be blue and violet on that side towards the center, and on the other side red and yellow.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00453", "bookId": 33504, "start": 328792, "end": 329551, "sha256": "2502659ab0994aee40971ab3c81c9fbc4042f8518c3208eecffdcd00eea278df", "text": "Now as all these things follow from the properties of Light by a mathematical way of reasoning, so the truth of them may be manifested by Experiments. For in a dark Room, by viewing these Rings through a Prism, by reflexion of the several prismatick Colours, which an assistant causes to move to and fro upon a Wall or Paper from whence they are reflected, whilst the Spectator's Eye, the Prism, and the Object-glasses, (as in the 13th Observation,) are placed steady; the Position of the Circles made successively by the several Colours, will be found such, in respect of one another, as I have described in the Figures _abxv_, or abxv, or _[Greek: abxU]_. And by the same method the truth of the Explications of other Observations may be examined.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00454", "bookId": 33504, "start": 329555, "end": 331006, "sha256": "0695087c23264c6b88bfc68bd4ca603d783fe09a9c44ed07429792595006f1a0", "text": "By what hath been said, the like Phaenomena of Water and thin Plates of Glass may be understood. But in small fragments of those Plates there is this farther observable, that where they lie flat upon a Table, and are turned about their centers whilst they are view'd through a Prism, they will in some postures exhibit Waves of various Colours; and some of them exhibit these Waves in one or two Positions only, but the most of them do in all Positions exhibit them, and make them for the most part appear almost all over the Plates. The reason is, that the Superficies of such Plates are not even, but have many Cavities and Swellings, which, how shallow soever, do a little vary the thickness of the Plate. For at the several sides of those Cavities, for the Reasons newly described, there ought to be produced Waves in several postures of the Prism. Now though it be but some very small and narrower parts of the Glass, by which these Waves for the most part are caused, yet they may seem to extend themselves over the whole Glass, because from the narrowest of those parts there are Colours of several Orders, that is, of several Rings, confusedly reflected, which by Refraction of the Prism are unfolded, separated, and, according to their degrees of Refraction, dispersed to several places, so as to constitute so many several Waves, as there were divers orders of Colours promiscuously reflected from that part of the Glass.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00455", "bookId": 33504, "start": 331010, "end": 331982, "sha256": "60bf338652ba6e1a5f42ff46724512ef200ae5cc2b15f05d9005d578ce23cfb0", "text": "These are the principal Phaenomena of thin Plates or Bubbles, whose Explications depend on the properties of Light, which I have heretofore deliver'd. And these you see do necessarily follow from them, and agree with them, even to their very least circumstances; and not only so, but do very much tend to their proof. Thus, by the 24th Observation it appears, that the Rays of several Colours, made as well by thin Plates or Bubbles, as by Refractions of a Prism, have several degrees of Refrangibility; whereby those of each order, which at the reflexion from the Plate or Bubble are intermix'd with those of other orders, are separated from them by Refraction, and associated together so as to become visible by themselves like Arcs of Circles. For if the Rays were all alike refrangible, 'tis impossible that the whiteness, which to the naked Sense appears uniform, should by Refraction have its parts transposed and ranged into those black and white Arcs.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00456", "bookId": 33504, "start": 331986, "end": 332738, "sha256": "e6ad54feb74f9e7d258dea6b7f6aa1f08d05cb97285b8fec712d8b05cb2e5981", "text": "It appears also that the unequal Refractions of difform Rays proceed not from any contingent irregularities; such as are Veins, an uneven Polish, or fortuitous Position of the Pores of Glass; unequal and casual Motions in the Air or AEther, the spreading, breaking, or dividing the same Ray into many diverging parts; or the like. For, admitting any such irregularities, it would be impossible for Refractions to render those Rings so very distinct, and well defined, as they do in the 24th Observation. It is necessary therefore that every Ray have its proper and constant degree of Refrangibility connate with it, according to which its refraction is ever justly and regularly perform'd; and that several Rays have several of those degrees.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00457", "bookId": 33504, "start": 332742, "end": 333135, "sha256": "772ca81bc633782a131f5c1bc32ef9c8d9cb5d7674a52f67e1493ad3a2820c6d", "text": "And what is said of their Refrangibility may be also understood of their Reflexibility, that is, of their Dispositions to be reflected, some at a greater, and others at a less thickness of thin Plates or Bubbles; namely, that those Dispositions are also connate with the Rays, and immutable; as may appear by the 13th, 14th, and 15th Observations, compared with the fourth and eighteenth.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00458", "bookId": 33504, "start": 333139, "end": 333926, "sha256": "b7bd220e6fe610aab1931eb1441e894e3518c22f7ac0c1bbc949c67c6cd9fb5c", "text": "By the Precedent Observations it appears also, that whiteness is a dissimilar mixture of all Colours, and that Light is a mixture of Rays endued with all those Colours. For, considering the multitude of the Rings of Colours in the 3d, 12th, and 24th Observations, it is manifest, that although in the 4th and 18th Observations there appear no more than eight or nine of those Rings, yet there are really a far greater number, which so much interfere and mingle with one another, as after those eight or nine revolutions to dilute one another wholly, and constitute an even and sensibly uniform whiteness. And consequently that whiteness must be allow'd a mixture of all Colours, and the Light which conveys it to the Eye must be a mixture of Rays endued with all those Colours.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00459", "bookId": 33504, "start": 333930, "end": 335239, "sha256": "0ebfcc150457f08fb0312f53bbdd9e76a0d5361efccffc7ac8931737fe5c939f", "text": "But farther; by the 24th Observation it appears, that there is a constant relation between Colours and Refrangibility; the most refrangible Rays being violet, the least refrangible red, and those of intermediate Colours having proportionably intermediate degrees of Refrangibility. And by the 13th, 14th, and 15th Observations, compared with the 4th or 18th there appears to be the same constant relation between Colour and Reflexibility; the violet being in like circumstances reflected at least thicknesses of any thin Plate or Bubble, the red at greatest thicknesses, and the intermediate Colours at intermediate thicknesses. Whence it follows, that the colorifick Dispositions of Rays are also connate with them, and immutable; and by consequence, that all the Productions and Appearances of Colours in the World are derived, not from any physical Change caused in Light by Refraction or Reflexion, but only from the various Mixtures or Separations of Rays, by virtue of their different Refrangibility or Reflexibility. And in this respect the Science of Colours becomes a Speculation as truly mathematical as any other part of Opticks. I mean, so far as they depend on the Nature of Light, and are not produced or alter'd by the Power of Imagination, or by striking or pressing the Eye.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00460", "bookId": 33504, "start": 335249, "end": 335252, "sha256": "a3e5514bcfd79e7649e30fbf98826208f3da47833b4223b68cff2db23beb3801", "text": "THE", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00461", "bookId": 33504, "start": 335256, "end": 335267, "sha256": "36bf9e601f7ceb999193b4ac8a8c5bfeaf38fa47ea9457259b92c6833530e80b", "text": "SECOND BOOK", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00462", "bookId": 33504, "start": 335271, "end": 335273, "sha256": "270826d41d0a807d41e14d413e764fd30dab7a7bcd1e478ea94b9e812671042b", "text": "OF", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00463", "bookId": 33504, "start": 335277, "end": 335284, "sha256": "8f9b5f1c324b8f0b89df0677c58417201875f4f9faa2dee3223d78da2e06f2f4", "text": "OPTICKS", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00464", "bookId": 33504, "start": 335290, "end": 335301, "sha256": "4d8daac8629ae233a07abeef1337e05d91a8aada7401144012e097e2cd656d5e", "text": "_PART III._", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00465", "bookId": 33504, "start": 335305, "end": 335424, "sha256": "b64844e1e06fab4d38b9432de580ab849b026216d4d39a09dd57ba709aa0bbfd", "text": "_Of the permanent Colours of natural Bodies, and the Analogy between them and the Colours of thin transparent Plates._", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00466", "bookId": 33504, "start": 335428, "end": 335961, "sha256": "682e4bfc3eb4f230fd91959c31a7340b1af53f201a3c226717810cc710b365c0", "text": "I am now come to another part of this Design, which is to consider how the Phaenomena of thin transparent Plates stand related to those of all other natural Bodies. Of these Bodies I have already told you that they appear of divers Colours, accordingly as they are disposed to reflect most copiously the Rays originally endued with those Colours. But their Constitutions, whereby they reflect some Rays more copiously than others, remain to be discover'd; and these I shall endeavour to manifest in the following Propositions.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00467", "bookId": 33504, "start": 335967, "end": 335975, "sha256": "39724bb1787cb952eee6601cd7c490767ce9c818057ca393e8df889321d9699b", "text": "PROP. I.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00468", "bookId": 33504, "start": 335979, "end": 336259, "sha256": "b5a2766209a47ff8c43f68eab8f49d0100e0a2ec1b6d5fd14742a19a12ee2953", "text": "_Those Superficies of transparent Bodies reflect the greatest quantity of Light, which have the greatest refracting Power; that is, which intercede Mediums that differ most in their refractive Densities. And in the Confines of equally refracting Mediums there is no Reflexion._", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00469", "bookId": 33504, "start": 336263, "end": 337525, "sha256": "21f442dcb7d42bfe404e411977dea8217a32ce58e948e823413d6e0b0159fd65", "text": "The Analogy between Reflexion and Refraction will appear by considering, that when Light passeth obliquely out of one Medium into another which refracts from the perpendicular, the greater is the difference of their refractive Density, the less Obliquity of Incidence is requisite to cause a total Reflexion. For as the Sines are which measure the Refraction, so is the Sine of Incidence at which the total Reflexion begins, to the Radius of the Circle; and consequently that Angle of Incidence is least where there is the greatest difference of the Sines. Thus in the passing of Light out of Water into Air, where the Refraction is measured by the Ratio of the Sines 3 to 4, the total Reflexion begins when the Angle of Incidence is about 48 Degrees 35 Minutes. In passing out of Glass into Air, where the Refraction is measured by the Ratio of the Sines 20 to 31, the total Reflexion begins when the Angle of Incidence is 40 Degrees 10 Minutes; and so in passing out of Crystal, or more strongly refracting Mediums into Air, there is still a less obliquity requisite to cause a total reflexion. Superficies therefore which refract most do soonest reflect all the Light which is incident on them, and so must be allowed most strongly reflexive.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00470", "bookId": 33504, "start": 337529, "end": 339587, "sha256": "f3ac57c742d40f9c1d4524d2b537c5ecdd7972cea4700c226f7607a6258bbf69", "text": "But the truth of this Proposition will farther appear by observing, that in the Superficies interceding two transparent Mediums, (such as are Air, Water, Oil, common Glass, Crystal, metalline Glasses, Island Glasses, white transparent Arsenick, Diamonds, &c.) the Reflexion is stronger or weaker accordingly, as the Superficies hath a greater or less refracting Power. For in the Confine of Air and Sal-gem 'tis stronger than in the Confine of Air and Water, and still stronger in the Confine of Air and common Glass or Crystal, and stronger in the Confine of Air and a Diamond. If any of these, and such like transparent Solids, be immerged in Water, its Reflexion becomes, much weaker than before; and still weaker if they be immerged in the more strongly refracting Liquors of well rectified Oil of Vitriol or Spirit of Turpentine. If Water be distinguish'd into two parts by any imaginary Surface, the Reflexion in the Confine of those two parts is none at all. In the Confine of Water and Ice 'tis very little; in that of Water and Oil 'tis something greater; in that of Water and Sal-gem still greater; and in that of Water and Glass, or Crystal or other denser Substances still greater, accordingly as those Mediums differ more or less in their refracting Powers. Hence in the Confine of common Glass and Crystal, there ought to be a weak Reflexion, and a stronger Reflexion in the Confine of common and metalline Glass; though I have not yet tried this. But in the Confine of two Glasses of equal density, there is not any sensible Reflexion; as was shewn in the first Observation. And the same may be understood of the Superficies interceding two Crystals, or two Liquors, or any other Substances in which no Refraction is caused. So then the reason why uniform pellucid Mediums (such as Water, Glass, or Crystal,) have no sensible Reflexion but in their external Superficies, where they are adjacent to other Mediums of a different density, is because all their contiguous parts have one and the same degree of density.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00471", "bookId": 33504, "start": 339593, "end": 339602, "sha256": "2d09d06eff278732ab3129e7b0cc305623d54cff31003620a6e7e3c184737e4f", "text": "PROP. II.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00472", "bookId": 33504, "start": 339606, "end": 339792, "sha256": "fea9ee5c86fbedf430d8115028587ff9701836c2375b14b47998f61e907a0e1b", "text": "_The least parts of almost all natural Bodies are in some measure transparent: And the Opacity of those Bodies ariseth from the multitude of Reflexions caused in their internal Parts._", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00473", "bookId": 33504, "start": 339796, "end": 340472, "sha256": "ab7a4a28ae4a99837fe3aa2deccfb26cf771447c02b2a5608bc68d6a537b8f3e", "text": "That this is so has been observed by others, and will easily be granted by them that have been conversant with Microscopes. And it may be also tried by applying any substance to a hole through which some Light is immitted into a dark Room. For how opake soever that Substance may seem in the open Air, it will by that means appear very manifestly transparent, if it be of a sufficient thinness. Only white metalline Bodies must be excepted, which by reason of their excessive density seem to reflect almost all the Light incident on their first Superficies; unless by solution in Menstruums they be reduced into very small Particles, and then they become transparent.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00474", "bookId": 33504, "start": 340478, "end": 340488, "sha256": "35a8b93e0460802f8fcaf98d76e52f26cfa182eaf1dacc853dd68ffc96583257", "text": "PROP. III.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00475", "bookId": 33504, "start": 340492, "end": 340908, "sha256": "7af4d7d780a05ba95105e1eabe881480ccdfe0a2ce22cfeefea875e250b7f392", "text": "_Between the parts of opake and colour'd Bodies are many Spaces, either empty, or replenish'd with Mediums of other Densities; as Water between the tinging Corpuscles wherewith any Liquor is impregnated, Air between the aqueous Globules that constitute Clouds or Mists; and for the most part Spaces void of both Air and Water, but yet perhaps not wholly void of all Substance, between the parts of hard Bodies._", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00476", "bookId": 33504, "start": 340912, "end": 341324, "sha256": "46f7a5b3aebba151fd1b297a8275c5fbc2a33f517928ff73ea773156be275d07", "text": "The truth of this is evinced by the two precedent Propositions: For by the second Proposition there are many Reflexions made by the internal parts of Bodies, which, by the first Proposition, would not happen if the parts of those Bodies were continued without any such Interstices between them; because Reflexions are caused only in Superficies, which intercede Mediums of a differing density, by _Prop._ 1.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00477", "bookId": 33504, "start": 341328, "end": 342703, "sha256": "743e3b349a62ff3ae6fc8ce36ae53d43db4bad5dbb805c32f44478a5f24b3f94", "text": "But farther, that this discontinuity of parts is the principal Cause of the opacity of Bodies, will appear by considering, that opake Substances become transparent by filling their Pores with any Substance of equal or almost equal density with their parts. Thus Paper dipped in Water or Oil, the _Oculus Mundi_ Stone steep'd in Water, Linnen Cloth oiled or varnish'd, and many other Substances soaked in such Liquors as will intimately pervade their little Pores, become by that means more transparent than otherwise; so, on the contrary, the most transparent Substances, may, by evacuating their Pores, or separating their parts, be render'd sufficiently opake; as Salts or wet Paper, or the _Oculus Mundi_ Stone by being dried, Horn by being scraped, Glass by being reduced to Powder, or otherwise flawed; Turpentine by being stirred about with Water till they mix imperfectly, and Water by being form'd into many small Bubbles, either alone in the form of Froth, or by shaking it together with Oil of Turpentine, or Oil Olive, or with some other convenient Liquor, with which it will not perfectly incorporate. And to the increase of the opacity of these Bodies, it conduces something, that by the 23d Observation the Reflexions of very thin transparent Substances are considerably stronger than those made by the same Substances of a greater thickness.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00478", "bookId": 33504, "start": 342709, "end": 342718, "sha256": "ce62b39a4443145a12c0b0af2bc4f69e72e3e1fa3e95b9d3c61dd52cd2005d2e", "text": "PROP. IV.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00479", "bookId": 33504, "start": 342722, "end": 342849, "sha256": "55642d5d69e21b9f2eba13e06798160b0672d792c5f4956f76283208c84d20da", "text": "_The Parts of Bodies and their Interstices must not be less than of some definite bigness, to render them opake and colour'd._", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00480", "bookId": 33504, "start": 342853, "end": 343425, "sha256": "008b38da8928a8963f7285796e525a18b5b0d3115f89ee3958558111a5ba2e55", "text": "For the opakest Bodies, if their parts be subtilly divided, (as Metals, by being dissolved in acid Menstruums, &c.) become perfectly transparent. And you may also remember, that in the eighth Observation there was no sensible reflexion at the Superficies of the Object-glasses, where they were very near one another, though they did not absolutely touch. And in the 17th Observation the Reflexion of the Water-bubble where it became thinnest was almost insensible, so as to cause very black Spots to appear on the top of the Bubble, by the want of reflected Light.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00481", "bookId": 33504, "start": 343429, "end": 343762, "sha256": "0c7260526aff102658893c8ad4f683ba655318b1af232eb7d9817734f1060733", "text": "On these grounds I perceive it is that Water, Salt, Glass, Stones, and such like Substances, are transparent. For, upon divers Considerations, they seem to be as full of Pores or Interstices between their parts as other Bodies are, but yet their Parts and Interstices to be too small to cause Reflexions in their common Surfaces.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00482", "bookId": 33504, "start": 343768, "end": 343776, "sha256": "071d079ba4c3e099c83222cf5d239761b738b396f1d191fe58dc43aee3749006", "text": "PROP. V.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00483", "bookId": 33504, "start": 343780, "end": 344048, "sha256": "5aacc2611ee6e1e8cb5aa233b8278130c9493479a4c36c208f4f5cd9e0125b69", "text": "_The transparent parts of Bodies, according to their several sizes, reflect Rays of one Colour, and transmit those of another, on the same grounds that thin Plates or Bubbles do reflect or transmit those Rays. And this I take to be the ground of all their Colours._", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00484", "bookId": 33504, "start": 344052, "end": 344627, "sha256": "dc7c8222e84ef66667fe04daf43123ca5d79f142ade39e54dca46b07514252dd", "text": "For if a thinn'd or plated Body, which being of an even thickness, appears all over of one uniform Colour, should be slit into Threads, or broken into Fragments, of the same thickness with the Plate; I see no reason why every Thread or Fragment should not keep its Colour, and by consequence why a heap of those Threads or Fragments should not constitute a Mass or Powder of the same Colour, which the Plate exhibited before it was broken. And the parts of all natural Bodies being like so many Fragments of a Plate, must on the same grounds exhibit the same Colours.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00485", "bookId": 33504, "start": 344631, "end": 348088, "sha256": "91cea184afea176612a137e25cb79da4467ed4d423aa3d5d144cdd73014461ea", "text": "Now, that they do so will appear by the affinity of their Properties. The finely colour'd Feathers of some Birds, and particularly those of Peacocks Tails, do, in the very same part of the Feather, appear of several Colours in several Positions of the Eye, after the very same manner that thin Plates were found to do in the 7th and 19th Observations, and therefore their Colours arise from the thinness of the transparent parts of the Feathers; that is, from the slenderness of the very fine Hairs, or _Capillamenta_, which grow out of the sides of the grosser lateral Branches or Fibres of those Feathers. And to the same purpose it is, that the Webs of some Spiders, by being spun very fine, have appeared colour'd, as some have observ'd, and that the colour'd Fibres of some Silks, by varying the Position of the Eye, do vary their Colour. Also the Colours of Silks, Cloths, and other Substances, which Water or Oil can intimately penetrate, become more faint and obscure by being immerged in those Liquors, and recover their Vigor again by being dried; much after the manner declared of thin Bodies in the 10th and 21st Observations. Leaf-Gold, some sorts of painted Glass, the Infusion of _Lignum Nephriticum_, and some other Substances, reflect one Colour, and transmit another; like thin Bodies in the 9th and 20th Observations. And some of those colour'd Powders which Painters use, may have their Colours a little changed, by being very elaborately and finely ground. Where I see not what can be justly pretended for those changes, besides the breaking of their parts into less parts by that contrition, after the same manner that the Colour of a thin Plate is changed by varying its thickness. For which reason also it is that the colour'd Flowers of Plants and Vegetables, by being bruised, usually become more transparent than before, or at least in some degree or other change their Colours. Nor is it much less to my purpose, that, by mixing divers Liquors, very odd and remarkable Productions and Changes of Colours may be effected, of which no cause can be more obvious and rational than that the saline Corpuscles of one Liquor do variously act upon or unite with the tinging Corpuscles of another, so as to make them swell, or shrink, (whereby not only their bulk but their density also may be changed,) or to divide them into smaller Corpuscles, (whereby a colour'd Liquor may become transparent,) or to make many of them associate into one cluster, whereby two transparent Liquors may compose a colour'd one. For we see how apt those saline Menstruums are to penetrate and dissolve Substances to which they are applied, and some of them to precipitate what others dissolve. In like manner, if we consider the various Phaenomena of the Atmosphere, we may observe, that when Vapours are first raised, they hinder not the transparency of the Air, being divided into parts too small to cause any Reflexion in their Superficies. But when in order to compose drops of Rain they begin to coalesce and constitute Globules of all intermediate sizes, those Globules, when they become of convenient size to reflect some Colours and transmit others, may constitute Clouds of various Colours according to their sizes. And I see not what can be rationally conceived in so transparent a Substance as Water for the production of these Colours, besides the various sizes of its fluid and globular Parcels.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00486", "bookId": 33504, "start": 348094, "end": 348103, "sha256": "84fd0b470e1eb94270e85195f32d3adcded8121811e720cb7f8e210c095af390", "text": "PROP. VI.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00487", "bookId": 33504, "start": 348107, "end": 348221, "sha256": "95658fa4ba43bd810f41f624565db0a665443a4ae1f217a152431226587c5b34", "text": "_The parts of Bodies on which their Colours depend, are denser than the Medium which pervades their Interstices._", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00488", "bookId": 33504, "start": 348225, "end": 349305, "sha256": "cf3e83c1fe93744c9f49251fd0a252eeb77f67e8d2a91a3880755b3addfb67a1", "text": "This will appear by considering, that the Colour of a Body depends not only on the Rays which are incident perpendicularly on its parts, but on those also which are incident at all other Angles. And that according to the 7th Observation, a very little variation of obliquity will change the reflected Colour, where the thin Body or small Particles is rarer than the ambient Medium, insomuch that such a small Particle will at diversly oblique Incidences reflect all sorts of Colours, in so great a variety that the Colour resulting from them all, confusedly reflected from a heap of such Particles, must rather be a white or grey than any other Colour, or at best it must be but a very imperfect and dirty Colour. Whereas if the thin Body or small Particle be much denser than the ambient Medium, the Colours, according to the 19th Observation, are so little changed by the variation of obliquity, that the Rays which are reflected least obliquely may predominate over the rest, so much as to cause a heap of such Particles to appear very intensely of their Colour.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00489", "bookId": 33504, "start": 349309, "end": 349551, "sha256": "427bf042fe5359ee1025b8a9c6ad9f3e8ba17f659923f47a4940f80b8b8a0904", "text": "It conduces also something to the confirmation of this Proposition, that, according to the 22d Observation, the Colours exhibited by the denser thin Body within the rarer, are more brisk than those exhibited by the rarer within the denser.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00490", "bookId": 33504, "start": 349557, "end": 349567, "sha256": "cfd89b9a027104bb2236164d922cc11c08d7b829da988e55ba19cecb3a4e7526", "text": "PROP. VII.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00491", "bookId": 33504, "start": 349571, "end": 349663, "sha256": "49feb71f2833d42a3ace350554d5470c05fd209e00386971d8822a36dd2d6a4e", "text": "_The bigness of the component parts of natural Bodies may be conjectured by their Colours._", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00492", "bookId": 33504, "start": 349667, "end": 350367, "sha256": "ee502d9c8544362fac277b95d0b669f1245a77b85d56a4103975e101cfce29e7", "text": "For since the parts of these Bodies, by _Prop._ 5. do most probably exhibit the same Colours with a Plate of equal thickness, provided they have the same refractive density; and since their parts seem for the most part to have much the same density with Water or Glass, as by many circumstances is obvious to collect; to determine the sizes of those parts, you need only have recourse to the precedent Tables, in which the thickness of Water or Glass exhibiting any Colour is expressed. Thus if it be desired to know the diameter of a Corpuscle, which being of equal density with Glass shall reflect green of the third Order; the Number 16-1/4 shews it to be (16-1/4)/10000 parts of an Inch.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00493", "bookId": 33504, "start": 350371, "end": 350574, "sha256": "953e583d3f5c2304483282dbc80099d84216c2254e3f8b36d723999c6c070c42", "text": "The greatest difficulty is here to know of what Order the Colour of any Body is. And for this end we must have recourse to the 4th and 18th Observations; from whence may be collected these particulars.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00494", "bookId": 33504, "start": 350578, "end": 350893, "sha256": "ae2d2899f0527e9710a2e088456a801585d9c84afd215097f93b13c955e486e8", "text": "_Scarlets_, and other _reds_, _oranges_, and _yellows_, if they be pure and intense, are most probably of the second order. Those of the first and third order also may be pretty good; only the yellow of the first order is faint, and the orange and red of the third Order have a great Mixture of violet and blue.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00495", "bookId": 33504, "start": 350897, "end": 351746, "sha256": "5f5110daf80d08dba23b36e91bea929538f12b0b15a18b6fdaf5ae5e08012d19", "text": "There may be good _Greens_ of the fourth Order, but the purest are of the third. And of this Order the green of all Vegetables seems to be, partly by reason of the Intenseness of their Colours, and partly because when they wither some of them turn to a greenish yellow, and others to a more perfect yellow or orange, or perhaps to red, passing first through all the aforesaid intermediate Colours. Which Changes seem to be effected by the exhaling of the Moisture which may leave the tinging Corpuscles more dense, and something augmented by the Accretion of the oily and earthy Part of that Moisture. Now the green, without doubt, is of the same Order with those Colours into which it changeth, because the Changes are gradual, and those Colours, though usually not very full, yet are often too full and lively to be of the fourth Order.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00496", "bookId": 33504, "start": 351750, "end": 352614, "sha256": "03c11d40505ed0ecd7c234aea53964472004e3409390f71956f2187e0ec20ebd", "text": "_Blues_ and _Purples_ may be either of the second or third Order, but the best are of the third. Thus the Colour of Violets seems to be of that Order, because their Syrup by acid Liquors turns red, and by urinous and alcalizate turns green. For since it is of the Nature of Acids to dissolve or attenuate, and of Alcalies to precipitate or incrassate, if the Purple Colour of the Syrup was of the second Order, an acid Liquor by attenuating its tinging Corpuscles would change it to a red of the first Order, and an Alcali by incrassating them would change it to a green of the second Order; which red and green, especially the green, seem too imperfect to be the Colours produced by these Changes. But if the said Purple be supposed of the third Order, its Change to red of the second, and green of the third, may without any Inconvenience be allow'd.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00497", "bookId": 33504, "start": 352618, "end": 352985, "sha256": "bc1d6063d546ef318148ab81c5d260b8ec092241b9462fc122c716b32c764e44", "text": "If there be found any Body of a deeper and less reddish Purple than that of the Violets, its Colour most probably is of the second Order. But yet there being no Body commonly known whose Colour is constantly more deep than theirs, I have made use of their Name to denote the deepest and least reddish Purples, such as manifestly transcend their Colour in purity.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00498", "bookId": 33504, "start": 352989, "end": 353632, "sha256": "2bab960366c157ffe91d284a566b7ed1647ef4858c6c0cef0211b53fa2e41846", "text": "The _blue_ of the first Order, though very faint and little, may possibly be the Colour of some Substances; and particularly the azure Colour of the Skies seems to be of this Order. For all Vapours when they begin to condense and coalesce into small Parcels, become first of that Bigness, whereby such an Azure must be reflected before they can constitute Clouds of other Colours. And so this being the first Colour which Vapours begin to reflect, it ought to be the Colour of the finest and most transparent Skies, in which Vapours are not arrived to that Grossness requisite to reflect other Colours, as we find it is by Experience.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00499", "bookId": 33504, "start": 353636, "end": 357121, "sha256": "3e282a65464f58662650bc8745b256204e10cd037e8c9e67b732652ac7e1417a", "text": "_Whiteness_, if most intense and luminous, is that of the first Order, if less strong and luminous, a Mixture of the Colours of several Orders. Of this last kind is the Whiteness of Froth, Paper, Linnen, and most white Substances; of the former I reckon that of white Metals to be. For whilst the densest of Metals, Gold, if foliated, is transparent, and all Metals become transparent if dissolved in Menstruums or vitrified, the Opacity of white Metals ariseth not from their Density alone. They being less dense than Gold would be more transparent than it, did not some other Cause concur with their Density to make them opake. And this Cause I take to be such a Bigness of their Particles as fits them to reflect the white of the first order. For, if they be of other Thicknesses they may reflect other Colours, as is manifest by the Colours which appear upon hot Steel in tempering it, and sometimes upon the Surface of melted Metals in the Skin or Scoria which arises upon them in their cooling. And as the white of the first order is the strongest which can be made by Plates of transparent Substances, so it ought to be stronger in the denser Substances of Metals than in the rarer of Air, Water, and Glass. Nor do I see but that metallick Substances of such a Thickness as may fit them to reflect the white of the first order, may, by reason of their great Density (according to the Tenor of the first of these Propositions) reflect all the Light incident upon them, and so be as opake and splendent as it's possible for any Body to be. Gold, or Copper mix'd with less than half their Weight of Silver, or Tin, or Regulus of Antimony, in fusion, or amalgamed with a very little Mercury, become white; which shews both that the Particles of white Metals have much more Superficies, and so are smaller, than those of Gold and Copper, and also that they are so opake as not to suffer the Particles of Gold or Copper to shine through them. Now it is scarce to be doubted but that the Colours of Gold and Copper are of the second and third order, and therefore the Particles of white Metals cannot be much bigger than is requisite to make them reflect the white of the first order. The Volatility of Mercury argues that they are not much bigger, nor may they be much less, lest they lose their Opacity, and become either transparent as they do when attenuated by Vitrification, or by Solution in Menstruums, or black as they do when ground smaller, by rubbing Silver, or Tin, or Lead, upon other Substances to draw black Lines. The first and only Colour which white Metals take by grinding their Particles smaller, is black, and therefore their white ought to be that which borders upon the black Spot in the Center of the Rings of Colours, that is, the white of the first order. But, if you would hence gather the Bigness of metallick Particles, you must allow for their Density. For were Mercury transparent, its Density is such that the Sine of Incidence upon it (by my Computation) would be to the Sine of its Refraction, as 71 to 20, or 7 to 2. And therefore the Thickness of its Particles, that they may exhibit the same Colours with those of Bubbles of Water, ought to be less than the Thickness of the Skin of those Bubbles in the Proportion of 2 to 7. Whence it's possible, that the Particles of Mercury may be as little as the Particles of some transparent and volatile Fluids, and yet reflect the white of the first order.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00500", "bookId": 33504, "start": 357125, "end": 359014, "sha256": "64e2271c0b367a7ce35939af0de5eae0513235ca6043110d5908fb803ba9e66f", "text": "Lastly, for the production of _black_, the Corpuscles must be less than any of those which exhibit Colours. For at all greater sizes there is too much Light reflected to constitute this Colour. But if they be supposed a little less than is requisite to reflect the white and very faint blue of the first order, they will, according to the 4th, 8th, 17th and 18th Observations, reflect so very little Light as to appear intensely black, and yet may perhaps variously refract it to and fro within themselves so long, until it happen to be stifled and lost, by which means they will appear black in all positions of the Eye without any transparency. And from hence may be understood why Fire, and the more subtile dissolver Putrefaction, by dividing the Particles of Substances, turn them to black, why small quantities of black Substances impart their Colour very freely and intensely to other Substances to which they are applied; the minute Particles of these, by reason of their very great number, easily overspreading the gross Particles of others; why Glass ground very elaborately with Sand on a Copper Plate, 'till it be well polish'd, makes the Sand, together with what is worn off from the Glass and Copper, become very black: why black Substances do soonest of all others become hot in the Sun's Light and burn, (which Effect may proceed partly from the multitude of Refractions in a little room, and partly from the easy Commotion of so very small Corpuscles;) and why blacks are usually a little inclined to a bluish Colour. For that they are so may be seen by illuminating white Paper by Light reflected from black Substances. For the Paper will usually appear of a bluish white; and the reason is, that black borders in the obscure blue of the order described in the 18th Observation, and therefore reflects more Rays of that Colour than of any other.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00501", "bookId": 33504, "start": 359018, "end": 361015, "sha256": "bfdf24bb853953de03cbe184ff98619c2ceaee3038b149ecb91b4df1c974fe91", "text": "In these Descriptions I have been the more particular, because it is not impossible but that Microscopes may at length be improved to the discovery of the Particles of Bodies on which their Colours depend, if they are not already in some measure arrived to that degree of perfection. For if those Instruments are or can be so far improved as with sufficient distinctness to represent Objects five or six hundred times bigger than at a Foot distance they appear to our naked Eyes, I should hope that we might be able to discover some of the greatest of those Corpuscles. And by one that would magnify three or four thousand times perhaps they might all be discover'd, but those which produce blackness. In the mean while I see nothing material in this Discourse that may rationally be doubted of, excepting this Position: That transparent Corpuscles of the same thickness and density with a Plate, do exhibit the same Colour. And this I would have understood not without some Latitude, as well because those Corpuscles may be of irregular Figures, and many Rays must be obliquely incident on them, and so have a shorter way through them than the length of their Diameters, as because the straitness of the Medium put in on all sides within such Corpuscles may a little alter its Motions or other qualities on which the Reflexion depends. But yet I cannot much suspect the last, because I have observed of some small Plates of Muscovy Glass which were of an even thickness, that through a Microscope they have appeared of the same Colour at their edges and corners where the included Medium was terminated, which they appeared of in other places. However it will add much to our Satisfaction, if those Corpuscles can be discover'd with Microscopes; which if we shall at length attain to, I fear it will be the utmost improvement of this Sense. For it seems impossible to see the more secret and noble Works of Nature within the Corpuscles by reason of their transparency.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00502", "bookId": 33504, "start": 361021, "end": 361032, "sha256": "d0bfb02474c3efeedec6344c52cb20c86e02c471ea1d8abc2c92e43808b663fb", "text": "PROP. VIII.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00503", "bookId": 33504, "start": 361036, "end": 361160, "sha256": "fb14bc0e662768f7dc5e0f4cdfc9373db905dcaebb799ba6cfa1d9afd8004eb2", "text": "_The Cause of Reflexion is not the impinging of Light on the solid or impervious parts of Bodies, as is commonly believed._", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00504", "bookId": 33504, "start": 361164, "end": 367352, "sha256": "c3fd68cddbe5620f5189202f70edb1827ad17236e4abce8b6b6929866ee67258", "text": "This will appear by the following Considerations. First, That in the passage of Light out of Glass into Air there is a Reflexion as strong as in its passage out of Air into Glass, or rather a little stronger, and by many degrees stronger than in its passage out of Glass into Water. And it seems not probable that Air should have more strongly reflecting parts than Water or Glass. But if that should possibly be supposed, yet it will avail nothing; for the Reflexion is as strong or stronger when the Air is drawn away from the Glass, (suppose by the Air-Pump invented by _Otto Gueriet_, and improved and made useful by Mr. _Boyle_) as when it is adjacent to it. Secondly, If Light in its passage out of Glass into Air be incident more obliquely than at an Angle of 40 or 41 Degrees it is wholly reflected, if less obliquely it is in great measure transmitted. Now it is not to be imagined that Light at one degree of obliquity should meet with Pores enough in the Air to transmit the greater part of it, and at another degree of obliquity should meet with nothing but parts to reflect it wholly, especially considering that in its passage out of Air into Glass, how oblique soever be its Incidence, it finds Pores enough in the Glass to transmit a great part of it. If any Man suppose that it is not reflected by the Air, but by the outmost superficial parts of the Glass, there is still the same difficulty: Besides, that such a Supposition is unintelligible, and will also appear to be false by applying Water behind some part of the Glass instead of Air. For so in a convenient obliquity of the Rays, suppose of 45 or 46 Degrees, at which they are all reflected where the Air is adjacent to the Glass, they shall be in great measure transmitted where the Water is adjacent to it; which argues, that their Reflexion or Transmission depends on the constitution of the Air and Water behind the Glass, and not on the striking of the Rays upon the parts of the Glass. Thirdly, If the Colours made by a Prism placed at the entrance of a Beam of Light into a darken'd Room be successively cast on a second Prism placed at a greater distance from the former, in such manner that they are all alike incident upon it, the second Prism may be so inclined to the incident Rays, that those which are of a blue Colour shall be all reflected by it, and yet those of a red Colour pretty copiously transmitted. Now if the Reflexion be caused by the parts of Air or Glass, I would ask, why at the same Obliquity of Incidence the blue should wholly impinge on those parts, so as to be all reflected, and yet the red find Pores enough to be in a great measure transmitted. Fourthly, Where two Glasses touch one another, there is no sensible Reflexion, as was declared in the first Observation; and yet I see no reason why the Rays should not impinge on the parts of Glass, as much when contiguous to other Glass as when contiguous to Air. Fifthly, When the top of a Water-Bubble (in the 17th Observation,) by the continual subsiding and exhaling of the Water grew very thin, there was such a little and almost insensible quantity of Light reflected from it, that it appeared intensely black; whereas round about that black Spot, where the Water was thicker, the Reflexion was so strong as to make the Water seem very white. Nor is it only at the least thickness of thin Plates or Bubbles, that there is no manifest Reflexion, but at many other thicknesses continually greater and greater. For in the 15th Observation the Rays of the same Colour were by turns transmitted at one thickness, and reflected at another thickness, for an indeterminate number of Successions. And yet in the Superficies of the thinned Body, where it is of any one thickness, there are as many parts for the Rays to impinge on, as where it is of any other thickness. Sixthly, If Reflexion were caused by the parts of reflecting Bodies, it would be impossible for thin Plates or Bubbles, at one and the same place, to reflect the Rays of one Colour, and transmit those of another, as they do according to the 13th and 15th Observations. For it is not to be imagined that at one place the Rays which, for instance, exhibit a blue Colour, should have the fortune to dash upon the parts, and those which exhibit a red to hit upon the Pores of the Body; and then at another place, where the Body is either a little thicker or a little thinner, that on the contrary the blue should hit upon its pores, and the red upon its parts. Lastly, Were the Rays of Light reflected by impinging on the solid parts of Bodies, their Reflexions from polish'd Bodies could not be so regular as they are. For in polishing Glass with Sand, Putty, or Tripoly, it is not to be imagined that those Substances can, by grating and fretting the Glass, bring all its least Particles to an accurate Polish; so that all their Surfaces shall be truly plain or truly spherical, and look all the same way, so as together to compose one even Surface. The smaller the Particles of those Substances are, the smaller will be the Scratches by which they continually fret and wear away the Glass until it be polish'd; but be they never so small they can wear away the Glass no otherwise than by grating and scratching it, and breaking the Protuberances; and therefore polish it no otherwise than by bringing its roughness to a very fine Grain, so that the Scratches and Frettings of the Surface become too small to be visible. And therefore if Light were reflected by impinging upon the solid parts of the Glass, it would be scatter'd as much by the most polish'd Glass as by the roughest. So then it remains a Problem, how Glass polish'd by fretting Substances can reflect Light so regularly as it does. And this Problem is scarce otherwise to be solved, than by saying, that the Reflexion of a Ray is effected, not by a single point of the reflecting Body, but by some power of the Body which is evenly diffused all over its Surface, and by which it acts upon the Ray without immediate Contact. For that the parts of Bodies do act upon Light at a distance shall be shewn hereafter.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00505", "bookId": 33504, "start": 367356, "end": 368036, "sha256": "ad71e23f403118e739b5aeeb8e414e04450746e691b8e881e5ea61193b955b65", "text": "Now if Light be reflected, not by impinging on the solid parts of Bodies, but by some other principle; it's probable that as many of its Rays as impinge on the solid parts of Bodies are not reflected but stifled and lost in the Bodies. For otherwise we must allow two sorts of Reflexions. Should all the Rays be reflected which impinge on the internal parts of clear Water or Crystal, those Substances would rather have a cloudy Colour than a clear Transparency. To make Bodies look black, it's necessary that many Rays be stopp'd, retained, and lost in them; and it seems not probable that any Rays can be stopp'd and stifled in them which do not impinge on their parts.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00506", "bookId": 33504, "start": 368040, "end": 369186, "sha256": "e0272330cb42f957d891040e935a0bb3ea5011a60eae1a5d4d12e4705b482c75", "text": "And hence we may understand that Bodies are much more rare and porous than is commonly believed. Water is nineteen times lighter, and by consequence nineteen times rarer than Gold; and Gold is so rare as very readily and without the least opposition to transmit the magnetick Effluvia, and easily to admit Quicksilver into its Pores, and to let Water pass through it. For a concave Sphere of Gold filled with Water, and solder'd up, has, upon pressing the Sphere with great force, let the Water squeeze through it, and stand all over its outside in multitudes of small Drops, like Dew, without bursting or cracking the Body of the Gold, as I have been inform'd by an Eye witness. From all which we may conclude, that Gold has more Pores than solid parts, and by consequence that Water has above forty times more Pores than Parts. And he that shall find out an Hypothesis, by which Water may be so rare, and yet not be capable of compression by force, may doubtless by the same Hypothesis make Gold, and Water, and all other Bodies, as much rarer as he pleases; so that Light may find a ready passage through transparent Substances.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00507", "bookId": 33504, "start": 369190, "end": 371633, "sha256": "0aaa551ff6848fff0e18ad95eadb458897d87b2252e03f362f288d944e2b4a61", "text": "The Magnet acts upon Iron through all dense Bodies not magnetick nor red hot, without any diminution of its Virtue; as for instance, through Gold, Silver, Lead, Glass, Water. The gravitating Power of the Sun is transmitted through the vast Bodies of the Planets without any diminution, so as to act upon all their parts to their very centers with the same Force and according to the same Laws, as if the part upon which it acts were not surrounded with the Body of the Planet, The Rays of Light, whether they be very small Bodies projected, or only Motion or Force propagated, are moved in right Lines; and whenever a Ray of Light is by any Obstacle turned out of its rectilinear way, it will never return into the same rectilinear way, unless perhaps by very great accident. And yet Light is transmitted through pellucid solid Bodies in right Lines to very great distances. How Bodies can have a sufficient quantity of Pores for producing these Effects is very difficult to conceive, but perhaps not altogether impossible. For the Colours of Bodies arise from the Magnitudes of the Particles which reflect them, as was explained above. Now if we conceive these Particles of Bodies to be so disposed amongst themselves, that the Intervals or empty Spaces between them may be equal in magnitude to them all; and that these Particles may be composed of other Particles much smaller, which have as much empty Space between them as equals all the Magnitudes of these smaller Particles: And that in like manner these smaller Particles are again composed of others much smaller, all which together are equal to all the Pores or empty Spaces between them; and so on perpetually till you come to solid Particles, such as have no Pores or empty Spaces within them: And if in any gross Body there be, for instance, three such degrees of Particles, the least of which are solid; this Body will have seven times more Pores than solid Parts. But if there be four such degrees of Particles, the least of which are solid, the Body will have fifteen times more Pores than solid Parts. If there be five degrees, the Body will have one and thirty times more Pores than solid Parts. If six degrees, the Body will have sixty and three times more Pores than solid Parts. And so on perpetually. And there are other ways of conceiving how Bodies may be exceeding porous. But what is really their inward Frame is not yet known to us.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00508", "bookId": 33504, "start": 371639, "end": 371648, "sha256": "12ea5ad87673d667841176e0424e2c29911edb8db6f3acadef7aea5d2e21aa5a", "text": "PROP. IX.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00509", "bookId": 33504, "start": 371652, "end": 371760, "sha256": "fe3afdf4d070284033fa0c05c3a66fc365d5f6fd7e54898bc795794595c7fbad", "text": "_Bodies reflect and refract Light by one and the same power, variously exercised in various Circumstances._", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00510", "bookId": 33504, "start": 371764, "end": 372749, "sha256": "4a15fc976b1fdb4ed6b188c6e64c29b8361f88f60f1350d41391611daa42ea1f", "text": "This appears by several Considerations. First, Because when Light goes out of Glass into Air, as obliquely as it can possibly do. If its Incidence be made still more oblique, it becomes totally reflected. For the power of the Glass after it has refracted the Light as obliquely as is possible, if the Incidence be still made more oblique, becomes too strong to let any of its Rays go through, and by consequence causes total Reflexions. Secondly, Because Light is alternately reflected and transmitted by thin Plates of Glass for many Successions, accordingly as the thickness of the Plate increases in an arithmetical Progression. For here the thickness of the Glass determines whether that Power by which Glass acts upon Light shall cause it to be reflected, or suffer it to be transmitted. And, Thirdly, because those Surfaces of transparent Bodies which have the greatest refracting power, reflect the greatest quantity of Light, as was shewn in the first Proposition.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00511", "bookId": 33504, "start": 372755, "end": 372763, "sha256": "9269c9e5175dbfd483189cc9328e6cc112715b3a1c92cc7d5721c69d77d642b8", "text": "PROP. X.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00512", "bookId": 33504, "start": 372767, "end": 373107, "sha256": "9d882d88be965dd3bb4a80a73627341b6d95745c4dcc7947248839ae8c8e5154", "text": "_If Light be swifter in Bodies than in Vacuo, in the proportion of the Sines which measure the Refraction of the Bodies, the Forces of the Bodies to reflect and refract Light, are very nearly proportional to the densities of the same Bodies; excepting that unctuous and sulphureous Bodies refract more than others of this same density._", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00513", "bookId": 33504, "start": 373111, "end": 373134, "sha256": "3aa6ba3d6bf2a0ab771391609449be481fcfb743295d547dcfa130de3fe4bf5b", "text": "[Illustration: FIG. 8.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00514", "bookId": 33504, "start": 373138, "end": 373778, "sha256": "5498eb1146b09bfb4243e7c38b22dd127ab41fde5f50b834493338eaab1230b1", "text": "Let AB represent the refracting plane Surface of any Body, and IC a Ray incident very obliquely upon the Body in C, so that the Angle ACI may be infinitely little, and let CR be the refracted Ray. From a given Point B perpendicular to the refracting Surface erect BR meeting with the refracting Ray CR in R, and if CR represent the Motion of the refracted Ray, and this Motion be distinguish'd into two Motions CB and BR, whereof CB is parallel to the refracting Plane, and BR perpendicular to it: CB shall represent the Motion of the incident Ray, and BR the Motion generated by the Refraction, as Opticians have of late explain'd.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00515", "bookId": 33504, "start": 373782, "end": 375302, "sha256": "755494e0a66d7aeb2b4185e429e161a44423dc3eb6e00f6e1435fd7943413bcf", "text": "Now if any Body or Thing, in moving through any Space of a given breadth terminated on both sides by two parallel Planes, be urged forward in all parts of that Space by Forces tending directly forwards towards the last Plane, and before its Incidence on the first Plane, had no Motion towards it, or but an infinitely little one; and if the Forces in all parts of that Space, between the Planes, be at equal distances from the Planes equal to one another, but at several distances be bigger or less in any given Proportion, the Motion generated by the Forces in the whole passage of the Body or thing through that Space shall be in a subduplicate Proportion of the Forces, as Mathematicians will easily understand. And therefore, if the Space of activity of the refracting Superficies of the Body be consider'd as such a Space, the Motion of the Ray generated by the refracting Force of the Body, during its passage through that Space, that is, the Motion BR, must be in subduplicate Proportion of that refracting Force. I say therefore, that the Square of the Line BR, and by consequence the refracting Force of the Body, is very nearly as the density of the same Body. For this will appear by the following Table, wherein the Proportion of the Sines which measure the Refractions of several Bodies, the Square of BR, supposing CB an unite, the Densities of the Bodies estimated by their Specifick Gravities, and their Refractive Power in respect of their Densities are set down in several Columns.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00516", "bookId": 33504, "start": 375306, "end": 378174, "sha256": "23b1acdb8caf8089e8f59f500e7afea80689e4c11011d65ddafa88e0569f85c1", "text": "---------------------+----------------+----------------+----------+----------- | | | | | | The Square | The | The | | of BR, to | density | refractive | The Proportion | which the | and | Power of | of the Sines of| refracting | specifick| the Body | Incidence and | force of the | gravity | in respect The refracting | Refraction of | Body is | of the | of its Bodies. | yellow Light. | proportionate. | Body. | density. ---------------------+----------------+----------------+----------+----------- A Pseudo-Topazius, | | | | being a natural, | | | | pellucid, brittle, | 23 to 14 | 1'699 | 4'27 | 3979 hairy Stone, of a | | | | yellow Colour. | | | | Air. | 3201 to 3200 | 0'000625 | 0'0012 | 5208 Glass of Antimony. | 17 to 9 | 2'568 | 5'28 | 4864 A Selenitis. | 61 to 41 | 1'213 | 2'252 | 5386 Glass vulgar. | 31 to 20 | 1'4025 | 2'58 | 5436 Crystal of the Rock. | 25 to 16 | 1'445 | 2'65 | 5450 Island Crystal. | 5 to 3 | 1'778 | 2'72 | 6536 Sal Gemmae. | 17 to 11 | 1'388 | 2'143 | 6477 Alume. | 35 to 24 | 1'1267 | 1'714 | 6570 Borax. | 22 to 15 | 1'1511 | 1'714 | 6716 Niter. | 32 to 21 | 1'345 | 1'9 | 7079 Dantzick Vitriol. | 303 to 200 | 1'295 | 1'715 | 7551 Oil of Vitriol. | 10 to 7 | 1'041 | 1'7 | 6124 Rain Water. | 529 to 396 | 0'7845 | 1' | 7845 Gum Arabick. | 31 to 21 | 1'179 | 1'375 | 8574 Spirit of Wine well | | | | rectified. | 100 to 73 | 0'8765 | 0'866 | 10121 Camphire. | 3 to 2 | 1'25 | 0'996 | 12551 Oil Olive. | 22 to 15 | 1'1511 | 0'913 | 12607 Linseed Oil. | 40 to 27 | 1'1948 | 0'932 | 12819 Spirit of Turpentine.| 25 to 17 | 1'1626 | 0'874 | 13222 Amber. | 14 to 9 | 1'42 | 1'04 | 13654 A Diamond. | 100 to 41 | 4'949 | 3'4 | 14556 ---------------------+----------------+----------------+----------+-----------", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00517", "bookId": 33504, "start": 378178, "end": 379198, "sha256": "eec62c845c448c09b605976cf5f3fb32db7f9424b2a9e6c4533dfc086f19626c", "text": "The Refraction of the Air in this Table is determin'd by that of the Atmosphere observed by Astronomers. For, if Light pass through many refracting Substances or Mediums gradually denser and denser, and terminated with parallel Surfaces, the Sum of all the Refractions will be equal to the single Refraction which it would have suffer'd in passing immediately out of the first Medium into the last. And this holds true, though the Number of the refracting Substances be increased to Infinity, and the Distances from one another as much decreased, so that the Light may be refracted in every Point of its Passage, and by continual Refractions bent into a Curve-Line. And therefore the whole Refraction of Light in passing through the Atmosphere from the highest and rarest Part thereof down to the lowest and densest Part, must be equal to the Refraction which it would suffer in passing at like Obliquity out of a Vacuum immediately into Air of equal Density with that in the lowest Part of the Atmosphere.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00518", "bookId": 33504, "start": 379202, "end": 380149, "sha256": "c66a3f7eadb5ff7e0548056ca107e13e4635456800726204d3f997c881794d0a", "text": "Now, although a Pseudo-Topaz, a Selenitis, Rock Crystal, Island Crystal, Vulgar Glass (that is, Sand melted together) and Glass of Antimony, which are terrestrial stony alcalizate Concretes, and Air which probably arises from such Substances by Fermentation, be Substances very differing from one another in Density, yet by this Table, they have their refractive Powers almost in the same Proportion to one another as their Densities are, excepting that the Refraction of that strange Substance, Island Crystal is a little bigger than the rest. And particularly Air, which is 3500 Times rarer than the Pseudo-Topaz, and 4400 Times rarer than Glass of Antimony, and 2000 Times rarer than the Selenitis, Glass vulgar, or Crystal of the Rock, has notwithstanding its rarity the same refractive Power in respect of its Density which those very dense Substances have in respect of theirs, excepting so far as those differ from one another.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00519", "bookId": 33504, "start": 380153, "end": 380663, "sha256": "3d987f8fc679a227a61e9d9926caa528a974588e033fe49276648815e1f77565", "text": "Again, the Refraction of Camphire, Oil Olive, Linseed Oil, Spirit of Turpentine and Amber, which are fat sulphureous unctuous Bodies, and a Diamond, which probably is an unctuous Substance coagulated, have their refractive Powers in Proportion to one another as their Densities without any considerable Variation. But the refractive Powers of these unctuous Substances are two or three Times greater in respect of their Densities than the refractive Powers of the former Substances in respect of theirs.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00520", "bookId": 33504, "start": 380667, "end": 380951, "sha256": "499fefffbc096a4e98252abb8454e5f79ab51e33f2f7ba00f94ae9599ca7a29f", "text": "Water has a refractive Power in a middle degree between those two sorts of Substances, and probably is of a middle nature. For out of it grow all vegetable and animal Substances, which consist as well of sulphureous fat and inflamable Parts, as of earthy lean and alcalizate ones.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00521", "bookId": 33504, "start": 380955, "end": 381313, "sha256": "8538f89f080cbed40e22155c04830b13a221eeec19be5334a721f049da1eb78f", "text": "Salts and Vitriols have refractive Powers in a middle degree between those of earthy Substances and Water, and accordingly are composed of those two sorts of Substances. For by distillation and rectification of their Spirits a great Part of them goes into Water, and a great Part remains behind in the form of a dry fix'd Earth capable of Vitrification.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00522", "bookId": 33504, "start": 381317, "end": 382227, "sha256": "6fb9687e4dcb7fc3573f8824cc9075623f264c48ce0303cbf3efcc01bfc2569a", "text": "Spirit of Wine has a refractive Power in a middle degree between those of Water and oily Substances, and accordingly seems to be composed of both, united by Fermentation; the Water, by means of some saline Spirits with which 'tis impregnated, dissolving the Oil, and volatizing it by the Action. For Spirit of Wine is inflamable by means of its oily Parts, and being distilled often from Salt of Tartar, grow by every distillation more and more aqueous and phlegmatick. And Chymists observe, that Vegetables (as Lavender, Rue, Marjoram, &c.) distilled _per se_, before fermentation yield Oils without any burning Spirits, but after fermentation yield ardent Spirits without Oils: Which shews, that their Oil is by fermentation converted into Spirit. They find also, that if Oils be poured in a small quantity upon fermentating Vegetables, they distil over after fermentation in the form of Spirits.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00523", "bookId": 33504, "start": 382231, "end": 383159, "sha256": "565198d945f5ea63a9d3e165bd6d204c716b0bc71e643704251d6143dbab82fc", "text": "So then, by the foregoing Table, all Bodies seem to have their refractive Powers proportional to their Densities, (or very nearly;) excepting so far as they partake more or less of sulphureous oily Particles, and thereby have their refractive Power made greater or less. Whence it seems rational to attribute the refractive Power of all Bodies chiefly, if not wholly, to the sulphureous Parts with which they abound. For it's probable that all Bodies abound more or less with Sulphurs. And as Light congregated by a Burning-glass acts most upon sulphureous Bodies, to turn them into Fire and Flame; so, since all Action is mutual, Sulphurs ought to act most upon Light. For that the action between Light and Bodies is mutual, may appear from this Consideration; That the densest Bodies which refract and reflect Light most strongly, grow hottest in the Summer Sun, by the action of the refracted or reflected Light.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00524", "bookId": 33504, "start": 383163, "end": 384225, "sha256": "61d43c62f2f2898ecd247b7eb7b5eb69233a5bad1fa7c2bbabb307c312061292", "text": "I have hitherto explain'd the power of Bodies to reflect and refract, and shew'd, that thin transparent Plates, Fibres, and Particles, do, according to their several thicknesses and densities, reflect several sorts of Rays, and thereby appear of several Colours; and by consequence that nothing more is requisite for producing all the Colours of natural Bodies, than the several sizes and densities of their transparent Particles. But whence it is that these Plates, Fibres, and Particles, do, according to their several thicknesses and densities, reflect several sorts of Rays, I have not yet explain'd. To give some insight into this matter, and make way for understanding the next part of this Book, I shall conclude this part with a few more Propositions. Those which preceded respect the nature of Bodies, these the nature of Light: For both must be understood, before the reason of their Actions upon one another can be known. And because the last Proposition depended upon the velocity of Light, I will begin with a Proposition of that kind.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00525", "bookId": 33504, "start": 384231, "end": 384240, "sha256": "2c3f3cbd78b5f46c327d01c4aafddee4a091c29705efb322d81bc6fbafce8760", "text": "PROP. XI.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00526", "bookId": 33504, "start": 384244, "end": 384385, "sha256": "e708691a9f22c96a517f00d2e438887d9e943754ce16dc37a424c3edf4673bfb", "text": "_Light is propagated from luminous Bodies in time, and spends about seven or eight Minutes of an Hour in passing from the Sun to the Earth._", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00527", "bookId": 33504, "start": 384389, "end": 385464, "sha256": "3ad432d493313993ef33a49e65ea97f4c1af9669a2f1af0790bcf6dae285b989", "text": "This was observed first by _Roemer_, and then by others, by means of the Eclipses of the Satellites of _Jupiter_. For these Eclipses, when the Earth is between the Sun and _Jupiter_, happen about seven or eight Minutes sooner than they ought to do by the Tables, and when the Earth is beyond the Sun they happen about seven or eight Minutes later than they ought to do; the reason being, that the Light of the Satellites has farther to go in the latter case than in the former by the Diameter of the Earth's Orbit. Some inequalities of time may arise from the Excentricities of the Orbs of the Satellites; but those cannot answer in all the Satellites, and at all times to the Position and Distance of the Earth from the Sun. The mean motions of _Jupiter_'s Satellites is also swifter in his descent from his Aphelium to his Perihelium, than in his ascent in the other half of his Orb. But this inequality has no respect to the position of the Earth, and in the three interior Satellites is insensible, as I find by computation from the Theory of their Gravity.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00528", "bookId": 33504, "start": 385470, "end": 385480, "sha256": "9e825520823b86432d43f8bd4f89c0193f2c460f57dbe0e971d56080b18cf237", "text": "PROP. XII.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00529", "bookId": 33504, "start": 385484, "end": 385823, "sha256": "4de7cc4c1087c9c8ee82a16fcb6b5788004428f6fe120b67de5ecb22538f0080", "text": "_Every Ray of Light in its passage through any refracting Surface is put into a certain transient Constitution or State, which in the progress of the Ray returns at equal Intervals, and disposes the Ray at every return to be easily transmitted through the next refracting Surface, and between the returns to be easily reflected by it._", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00530", "bookId": 33504, "start": 385827, "end": 387099, "sha256": "a1981a3569afd586f9f881acd3adaf327151bf72d33eb19ff170a72e1c807415", "text": "This is manifest by the 5th, 9th, 12th, and 15th Observations. For by those Observations it appears, that one and the same sort of Rays at equal Angles of Incidence on any thin transparent Plate, is alternately reflected and transmitted for many Successions accordingly as the thickness of the Plate increases in arithmetical Progression of the Numbers, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, &c. so that if the first Reflexion (that which makes the first or innermost of the Rings of Colours there described) be made at the thickness 1, the Rays shall be transmitted at the thicknesses 0, 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, &c. and thereby make the central Spot and Rings of Light, which appear by transmission, and be reflected at the thickness 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, &c. and thereby make the Rings which appear by Reflexion. And this alternate Reflexion and Transmission, as I gather by the 24th Observation, continues for above an hundred vicissitudes, and by the Observations in the next part of this Book, for many thousands, being propagated from one Surface of a Glass Plate to the other, though the thickness of the Plate be a quarter of an Inch or above: So that this alternation seems to be propagated from every refracting Surface to all distances without end or limitation.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00531", "bookId": 33504, "start": 387103, "end": 387435, "sha256": "a731943f320255d2ab40bad1e639bd38ab16bfec3af8ba7c81ef84412366a195", "text": "This alternate Reflexion and Refraction depends on both the Surfaces of every thin Plate, because it depends on their distance. By the 21st Observation, if either Surface of a thin Plate of _Muscovy_ Glass be wetted, the Colours caused by the alternate Reflexion and Refraction grow faint, and therefore it depends on them both.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00532", "bookId": 33504, "start": 387439, "end": 387601, "sha256": "6fe42d7f61555098bf63466d43bd057fdd695ea9498c66f8ea7295816552912b", "text": "It is therefore perform'd at the second Surface; for if it were perform'd at the first, before the Rays arrive at the second, it would not depend on the second.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00533", "bookId": 33504, "start": 387605, "end": 388671, "sha256": "511746870e047b7dfea3f325c4d4318e36e305a5a62519832d290e687e031657", "text": "It is also influenced by some action or disposition, propagated from the first to the second, because otherwise at the second it would not depend on the first. And this action or disposition, in its propagation, intermits and returns by equal Intervals, because in all its progress it inclines the Ray at one distance from the first Surface to be reflected by the second, at another to be transmitted by it, and that by equal Intervals for innumerable vicissitudes. And because the Ray is disposed to Reflexion at the distances 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, &c. and to Transmission at the distances 0, 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, &c. (for its transmission through the first Surface, is at the distance 0, and it is transmitted through both together, if their distance be infinitely little or much less than 1) the disposition to be transmitted at the distances 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, &c. is to be accounted a return of the same disposition which the Ray first had at the distance 0, that is at its transmission through the first refracting Surface. All which is the thing I would prove.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00534", "bookId": 33504, "start": 388675, "end": 390292, "sha256": "d2dc461962d931a9119e0bdf331eb5c09c684dff9dab290289d6f4e82483752f", "text": "What kind of action or disposition this is; Whether it consists in a circulating or a vibrating motion of the Ray, or of the Medium, or something else, I do not here enquire. Those that are averse from assenting to any new Discoveries, but such as they can explain by an Hypothesis, may for the present suppose, that as Stones by falling upon Water put the Water into an undulating Motion, and all Bodies by percussion excite vibrations in the Air; so the Rays of Light, by impinging on any refracting or reflecting Surface, excite vibrations in the refracting or reflecting Medium or Substance, and by exciting them agitate the solid parts of the refracting or reflecting Body, and by agitating them cause the Body to grow warm or hot; that the vibrations thus excited are propagated in the refracting or reflecting Medium or Substance, much after the manner that vibrations are propagated in the Air for causing Sound, and move faster than the Rays so as to overtake them; and that when any Ray is in that part of the vibration which conspires with its Motion, it easily breaks through a refracting Surface, but when it is in the contrary part of the vibration which impedes its Motion, it is easily reflected; and, by consequence, that every Ray is successively disposed to be easily reflected, or easily transmitted, by every vibration which overtakes it. But whether this Hypothesis be true or false I do not here consider. I content my self with the bare Discovery, that the Rays of Light are by some cause or other alternately disposed to be reflected or refracted for many vicissitudes.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00535", "bookId": 33504, "start": 390298, "end": 390309, "sha256": "65b3342bb96179f29b3267bb578003e864b77ae818b56539333f9cd3b2551d98", "text": "DEFINITION.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00536", "bookId": 33504, "start": 390313, "end": 390589, "sha256": "19b540060ad49bf839706e159b78d9cc6f2db38b5a62729f2cf482bab8b7641c", "text": "_The returns of the disposition of any Ray to be reflected I will call its_ Fits of easy Reflexion, _and those of its disposition to be transmitted its_ Fits of easy Transmission, _and the space it passes between every return and the next return, the_ Interval of its Fits.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00537", "bookId": 33504, "start": 390595, "end": 390606, "sha256": "bce78df85e49473a055ca8406186f12ebc3366ed825856e15df48211b928da36", "text": "PROP. XIII.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00538", "bookId": 33504, "start": 390610, "end": 390850, "sha256": "7c9d2b8b8fd267a882e43a9b5da25cf1ec5a1b8962d9ac0e580286ab94b61eb0", "text": "_The reason why the Surfaces of all thick transparent Bodies reflect part of the Light incident on them, and refract the rest, is, that some Rays at their Incidence are in Fits of easy Reflexion, and others in Fits of easy Transmission._", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00539", "bookId": 33504, "start": 390854, "end": 391293, "sha256": "5c399d5740d22d647380d92397844acc9beac058778b351feb9634f34bcbf3ea", "text": "This may be gather'd from the 24th Observation, where the Light reflected by thin Plates of Air and Glass, which to the naked Eye appear'd evenly white all over the Plate, did through a Prism appear waved with many Successions of Light and Darkness made by alternate Fits of easy Reflexion and easy Transmission, the Prism severing and distinguishing the Waves of which the white reflected Light was composed, as was explain'd above.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00540", "bookId": 33504, "start": 391297, "end": 391627, "sha256": "38e142c357f05183d1b5700b1c31a0f128cea2c9e3b089ea950c6698a9ddd890", "text": "And hence Light is in Fits of easy Reflexion and easy Transmission, before its Incidence on transparent Bodies. And probably it is put into such fits at its first emission from luminous Bodies, and continues in them during all its progress. For these Fits are of a lasting nature, as will appear by the next part of this Book.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00541", "bookId": 33504, "start": 391631, "end": 392248, "sha256": "c3b702b6455eb11effc3db4fb621160dc5c4a7b6070a2c0d531ecb3abb6afafb", "text": "In this Proposition I suppose the transparent Bodies to be thick; because if the thickness of the Body be much less than the Interval of the Fits of easy Reflexion and Transmission of the Rays, the Body loseth its reflecting power. For if the Rays, which at their entering into the Body are put into Fits of easy Transmission, arrive at the farthest Surface of the Body before they be out of those Fits, they must be transmitted. And this is the reason why Bubbles of Water lose their reflecting power when they grow very thin; and why all opake Bodies, when reduced into very small parts, become transparent.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00542", "bookId": 33504, "start": 392254, "end": 392264, "sha256": "66feeff6135adfe2257cc3d7b639973a48542228997d2c9e717881b3b4bbc5e9", "text": "PROP. XIV.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00543", "bookId": 33504, "start": 392268, "end": 392444, "sha256": "4e990c24a1fa4b4d4b5e4ac5a74d0cfd80385296c4f4cd45bb534b8fc93bb90d", "text": "_Those Surfaces of transparent Bodies, which if the Ray be in a Fit of Refraction do refract it most strongly, if the Ray be in a Fit of Reflexion do reflect it most easily._", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00544", "bookId": 33504, "start": 392448, "end": 392971, "sha256": "07f25c760b2af172fd3d435910a27de4d10a0e39f60bd83fe77df5d9ed47ad93", "text": "For we shewed above, in _Prop._ 8. that the cause of Reflexion is not the impinging of Light on the solid impervious parts of Bodies, but some other power by which those solid parts act on Light at a distance. We shewed also in _Prop._ 9. that Bodies reflect and refract Light by one and the same power, variously exercised in various circumstances; and in _Prop._ 1. that the most strongly refracting Surfaces reflect the most Light: All which compared together evince and rarify both this and the last Proposition.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00545", "bookId": 33504, "start": 392977, "end": 392986, "sha256": "ed41314f29503ef97b979e54e83bc67fa15b3ce012f5818a60e70fb6b27e78fb", "text": "PROP. XV.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00546", "bookId": 33504, "start": 392990, "end": 393468, "sha256": "4ca92a4de380f6791199c6aa35712236abbdee971bef391d4ea3ca3274affaec", "text": "_In any one and the same sort of Rays, emerging in any Angle out of any refracting Surface into one and the same Medium, the Interval of the following Fits of easy Reflexion and Transmission are either accurately or very nearly, as the Rectangle of the Secant of the Angle of Refraction, and of the Secant of another Angle, whose Sine is the first of 106 arithmetical mean Proportionals, between the Sines of Incidence and Refraction, counted from the Sine of Refraction._", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00547", "bookId": 33504, "start": 393472, "end": 393522, "sha256": "c4ae0c92aa2d4dbaf2f5246b0db686995f5a6d33d434ef60e7566cf53e763f72", "text": "This is manifest by the 7th and 19th Observations.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00548", "bookId": 33504, "start": 393528, "end": 393538, "sha256": "5a2e32fcc85553df56704a7178972b4b1e8300b307ac93a1a6ec0a777850c887", "text": "PROP. XVI.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00549", "bookId": 33504, "start": 393542, "end": 394074, "sha256": "5a359d38305ae101402ded64f5de55727d2cb522c185c3f33babf9736d1d955a", "text": "_In several sorts of Rays emerging in equal Angles out of any refracting Surface into the same Medium, the Intervals of the following Fits of easy Reflexion and easy Transmission are either accurately, or very nearly, as the Cube-Roots of the Squares of the lengths of a Chord, which found the Notes in an Eight_, sol, la, fa, sol, la, mi, fa, sol, _with all their intermediate degrees answering to the Colours of those Rays, according to the Analogy described in the seventh Experiment of the second Part of the first Book._", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00550", "bookId": 33504, "start": 394078, "end": 394129, "sha256": "e69ecc27ba54624bb14960cb05b422dcb7a215fb7fc3a740ee2c036fd9001d31", "text": "This is manifest by the 13th and 14th Observations.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00551", "bookId": 33504, "start": 394135, "end": 394146, "sha256": "88dde67d391fb69fb6c5efb57e23e2da9436769cd9cf5bd1c98030918778ce9e", "text": "PROP. XVII.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00552", "bookId": 33504, "start": 394150, "end": 394461, "sha256": "6d97cf78d6b5c85f2178e6291dce2ad159ad880177f4264d8cc14dcd8a79a664", "text": "_If Rays of any sort pass perpendicularly into several Mediums, the Intervals of the Fits of easy Reflexion and Transmission in any one Medium, are to those Intervals in any other, as the Sine of Incidence to the Sine of Refraction, when the Rays pass out of the first of those two Mediums into the second._", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00553", "bookId": 33504, "start": 394465, "end": 394506, "sha256": "d97681c22ff86fd62a893c7257d3701b2163d6e11544378178dce175d4fbeac0", "text": "This is manifest by the 10th Observation.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00554", "bookId": 33504, "start": 394512, "end": 394524, "sha256": "b0a1ae2717c6828499a32953c04d56c2326032c2291f6d4e416d8fdbc5ae3f80", "text": "PROP. XVIII.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00555", "bookId": 33504, "start": 394528, "end": 394810, "sha256": "142c00f3941412a44d4f44a1099269baceb3b271d90b355665a165d279ec964f", "text": "_If the Rays which paint the Colour in the Confine of yellow and orange pass perpendicularly out of any Medium into Air, the Intervals of their Fits of easy Reflexion are the 1/89000th part of an Inch. And of the same length are the Intervals of their Fits of easy Transmission._", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00556", "bookId": 33504, "start": 394814, "end": 395325, "sha256": "00874c1ab9be99b39c8e4f94a2864f8d23bd7fc22e0f7d5a443000f1b1d9897c", "text": "This is manifest by the 6th Observation. From these Propositions it is easy to collect the Intervals of the Fits of easy Reflexion and easy Transmission of any sort of Rays refracted in any angle into any Medium; and thence to know, whether the Rays shall be reflected or transmitted at their subsequent Incidence upon any other pellucid Medium. Which thing, being useful for understanding the next part of this Book, was here to be set down. And for the same reason I add the two following Propositions.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00557", "bookId": 33504, "start": 395331, "end": 395341, "sha256": "d38d7e4201c5aa05e83a2cd3c38141b7b03cef1611bdf94d47ee3bcafea29ff4", "text": "PROP. XIX.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00558", "bookId": 33504, "start": 395345, "end": 395754, "sha256": "0a6d2b30f745dc771bb05dfbd48b67bbb8a555fe4b68b0cc82e05e658fb9ba2d", "text": "_If any sort of Rays falling on the polite Surface of any pellucid Medium be reflected back, the Fits of easy Reflexion, which they have at the point of Reflexion, shall still continue to return; and the Returns shall be at distances from the point of Reflexion in the arithmetical progression of the Numbers 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, &c. and between these Fits the Rays shall be in Fits of easy Transmission._", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00559", "bookId": 33504, "start": 395758, "end": 396481, "sha256": "98ae5ea54132e89050437495224edc2ff18b621c0e542ef8351aa0344d28fdf6", "text": "For since the Fits of easy Reflexion and easy Transmission are of a returning nature, there is no reason why these Fits, which continued till the Ray arrived at the reflecting Medium, and there inclined the Ray to Reflexion, should there cease. And if the Ray at the point of Reflexion was in a Fit of easy Reflexion, the progression of the distances of these Fits from that point must begin from 0, and so be of the Numbers 0, 2, 4, 6, 8, &c. And therefore the progression of the distances of the intermediate Fits of easy Transmission, reckon'd from the same point, must be in the progression of the odd Numbers 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, &c. contrary to what happens when the Fits are propagated from points of Refraction.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00560", "bookId": 33504, "start": 396487, "end": 396496, "sha256": "13f51431a97331ebd245ed53bc1ddb6508bef59549f6f0048d806e1a327e9aa9", "text": "PROP. XX.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00561", "bookId": 33504, "start": 396500, "end": 396796, "sha256": "56925d6981f62bd31739188cd882c4ed68b8bb5e12e65ecb5ebe2ac020512f98", "text": "_The Intervals of the Fits of easy Reflexion and easy Transmission, propagated from points of Reflexion into any Medium, are equal to the Intervals of the like Fits, which the same Rays would have, if refracted into the same Medium in Angles of Refraction equal to their Angles of Reflexion._", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00562", "bookId": 33504, "start": 396800, "end": 398135, "sha256": "e54e699db7a2bf981721aee79a1d45206d1a34703d81b51e5365311931226a64", "text": "For when Light is reflected by the second Surface of thin Plates, it goes out afterwards freely at the first Surface to make the Rings of Colours which appear by Reflexion; and, by the freedom of its egress, makes the Colours of these Rings more vivid and strong than those which appear on the other side of the Plates by the transmitted Light. The reflected Rays are therefore in Fits of easy Transmission at their egress; which would not always happen, if the Intervals of the Fits within the Plate after Reflexion were not equal, both in length and number, to their Intervals before it. And this confirms also the proportions set down in the former Proposition. For if the Rays both in going in and out at the first Surface be in Fits of easy Transmission, and the Intervals and Numbers of those Fits between the first and second Surface, before and after Reflexion, be equal, the distances of the Fits of easy Transmission from either Surface, must be in the same progression after Reflexion as before; that is, from the first Surface which transmitted them in the progression of the even Numbers 0, 2, 4, 6, 8, &c. and from the second which reflected them, in that of the odd Numbers 1, 3, 5, 7, &c. But these two Propositions will become much more evident by the Observations in the following part of this Book.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00563", "bookId": 33504, "start": 398145, "end": 398148, "sha256": "a3e5514bcfd79e7649e30fbf98826208f3da47833b4223b68cff2db23beb3801", "text": "THE", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00564", "bookId": 33504, "start": 398152, "end": 398163, "sha256": "36bf9e601f7ceb999193b4ac8a8c5bfeaf38fa47ea9457259b92c6833530e80b", "text": "SECOND BOOK", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00565", "bookId": 33504, "start": 398167, "end": 398169, "sha256": "270826d41d0a807d41e14d413e764fd30dab7a7bcd1e478ea94b9e812671042b", "text": "OF", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00566", "bookId": 33504, "start": 398173, "end": 398180, "sha256": "8f9b5f1c324b8f0b89df0677c58417201875f4f9faa2dee3223d78da2e06f2f4", "text": "OPTICKS", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00567", "bookId": 33504, "start": 398186, "end": 398196, "sha256": "db5fb2ce1d68c26a76982b752541ec8d44a77138fbf473806837646dc6fd2f42", "text": "_PART IV._", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00568", "bookId": 33504, "start": 398200, "end": 398291, "sha256": "e6b5465b4a7f9e08050b03fcf0b2d214d7c372ce103b50c069d7019413d6a56e", "text": "_Observations concerning the Reflexions and Colours of thick transparent polish'd Plates._", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00569", "bookId": 33504, "start": 398295, "end": 398779, "sha256": "617098088a43abd485a88ec4676eaf6faeccefe1d31031952aa22a37ee77dcb8", "text": "There is no Glass or Speculum how well soever polished, but, besides the Light which it refracts or reflects regularly, scatters every way irregularly a faint Light, by means of which the polish'd Surface, when illuminated in a dark room by a beam of the Sun's Light, may be easily seen in all positions of the Eye. There are certain Phaenomena of this scatter'd Light, which when I first observed them, seem'd very strange and surprizing to me. My Observations were as follows.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00570", "bookId": 33504, "start": 398783, "end": 400715, "sha256": "7fdbae1394b52b4b2109d21b6b92a8a810b62812a79e5fef08522ac02f9eb283", "text": "_Obs._ 1. The Sun shining into my darken'd Chamber through a hole one third of an Inch wide, I let the intromitted beam of Light fall perpendicularly upon a Glass Speculum ground concave on one side and convex on the other, to a Sphere of five Feet and eleven Inches Radius, and Quick-silver'd over on the convex side. And holding a white opake Chart, or a Quire of Paper at the center of the Spheres to which the Speculum was ground, that is, at the distance of about five Feet and eleven Inches from the Speculum, in such manner, that the beam of Light might pass through a little hole made in the middle of the Chart to the Speculum, and thence be reflected back to the same hole: I observed upon the Chart four or five concentric Irises or Rings of Colours, like Rain-bows, encompassing the hole much after the manner that those, which in the fourth and following Observations of the first part of this Book appear'd between the Object-glasses, encompassed the black Spot, but yet larger and fainter than those. These Rings as they grew larger and larger became diluter and fainter, so that the fifth was scarce visible. Yet sometimes, when the Sun shone very clear, there appear'd faint Lineaments of a sixth and seventh. If the distance of the Chart from the Speculum was much greater or much less than that of six Feet, the Rings became dilute and vanish'd. And if the distance of the Speculum from the Window was much greater than that of six Feet, the reflected beam of Light would be so broad at the distance of six Feet from the Speculum where the Rings appear'd, as to obscure one or two of the innermost Rings. And therefore I usually placed the Speculum at about six Feet from the Window; so that its Focus might there fall in with the center of its concavity at the Rings upon the Chart. And this Posture is always to be understood in the following Observations where no other is express'd.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00571", "bookId": 33504, "start": 400719, "end": 401302, "sha256": "3bfe21bd5a6a62f51d846eb1aa5c8cc8ea3b78a83ca7edfe620cbe515a4d4d7f", "text": "_Obs._ 2. The Colours of these Rain-bows succeeded one another from the center outwards, in the same form and order with those which were made in the ninth Observation of the first Part of this Book by Light not reflected, but transmitted through the two Object-glasses. For, first, there was in their common center a white round Spot of faint Light, something broader than the reflected beam of Light, which beam sometimes fell upon the middle of the Spot, and sometimes by a little inclination of the Speculum receded from the middle, and left the Spot white to the center.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00572", "bookId": 33504, "start": 401306, "end": 401742, "sha256": "492491bfef3130b9872d00592487f85c976f3d8ffc8628ee4f593dbbec6236b3", "text": "This white Spot was immediately encompassed with a dark grey or russet, and that dark grey with the Colours of the first Iris; which Colours on the inside next the dark grey were a little violet and indigo, and next to that a blue, which on the outside grew pale, and then succeeded a little greenish yellow, and after that a brighter yellow, and then on the outward edge of the Iris a red which on the outside inclined to purple.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00573", "bookId": 33504, "start": 401746, "end": 401919, "sha256": "c810530bb32cf304d8c13e4f09e2a658aa56d7810cab7f20a393ab10374b64ac", "text": "This Iris was immediately encompassed with a second, whose Colours were in order from the inside outwards, purple, blue, green, yellow, light red, a red mix'd with purple.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00574", "bookId": 33504, "start": 401923, "end": 402105, "sha256": "fb54f9d42fc75c6f173a17a90fabdd74adf5d431c9698415c24f55f246c66b7f", "text": "Then immediately follow'd the Colours of the third Iris, which were in order outwards a green inclining to purple, a good green, and a red more bright than that of the former Iris.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00575", "bookId": 33504, "start": 402109, "end": 402246, "sha256": "58361e43ad876ccc8c079dbb049fcf769f821139b54e1027f1d04bb9cb1e9ec2", "text": "The fourth and fifth Iris seem'd of a bluish green within, and red without, but so faintly that it was difficult to discern the Colours.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00576", "bookId": 33504, "start": 402250, "end": 403465, "sha256": "42e8415855a8c88cf7d52da6c8abf4bdf554ff9f29a9a941a0c40230ef7d9876", "text": "_Obs._ 3. Measuring the Diameters of these Rings upon the Chart as accurately as I could, I found them also in the same proportion to one another with the Rings made by Light transmitted through the two Object-glasses. For the Diameters of the four first of the bright Rings measured between the brightest parts of their Orbits, at the distance of six Feet from the Speculum were 1-11/16, 2-3/8, 2-11/12, 3-3/8 Inches, whose Squares are in arithmetical progression of the numbers 1, 2, 3, 4. If the white circular Spot in the middle be reckon'd amongst the Rings, and its central Light, where it seems to be most luminous, be put equipollent to an infinitely little Ring; the Squares of the Diameters of the Rings will be in the progression 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, &c. I measured also the Diameters of the dark Circles between these luminous ones, and found their Squares in the progression of the numbers 1/2, 1-1/2, 2-1/2, 3-1/2, &c. the Diameters of the first four at the distance of six Feet from the Speculum, being 1-3/16, 2-1/16, 2-2/3, 3-3/20 Inches. If the distance of the Chart from the Speculum was increased or diminished, the Diameters of the Circles were increased or diminished proportionally.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00577", "bookId": 33504, "start": 403469, "end": 404287, "sha256": "f58c764511a88d4a6108ef2a6f16099c97ce74b26ac17c4f595833447a8de0c9", "text": "_Obs._ 4. By the analogy between these Rings and those described in the Observations of the first Part of this Book, I suspected that there were many more of them which spread into one another, and by interfering mix'd their Colours, and diluted one another so that they could not be seen apart. I viewed them therefore through a Prism, as I did those in the 24th Observation of the first Part of this Book. And when the Prism was so placed as by refracting the Light of their mix'd Colours to separate them, and distinguish the Rings from one another, as it did those in that Observation, I could then see them distincter than before, and easily number eight or nine of them, and sometimes twelve or thirteen. And had not their Light been so very faint, I question not but that I might have seen many more.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00578", "bookId": 33504, "start": 404291, "end": 408517, "sha256": "2bd16a224700a5bf7e2ad7d481856cb54944fa7de8fa19c292e3fdaecfc4fb8b", "text": "_Obs._ 5. Placing a Prism at the Window to refract the intromitted beam of Light, and cast the oblong Spectrum of Colours on the Speculum: I covered the Speculum with a black Paper which had in the middle of it a hole to let any one of the Colours pass through to the Speculum, whilst the rest were intercepted by the Paper. And now I found Rings of that Colour only which fell upon the Speculum. If the Speculum was illuminated with red, the Rings were totally red with dark Intervals, if with blue they were totally blue, and so of the other Colours. And when they were illuminated with any one Colour, the Squares of their Diameters measured between their most luminous Parts, were in the arithmetical Progression of the Numbers, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4 and the Squares of the Diameters of their dark Intervals in the Progression of the intermediate Numbers 1/2, 1-1/2, 2-1/2, 3-1/2. But if the Colour was varied, they varied their Magnitude. In the red they were largest, in the indigo and violet least, and in the intermediate Colours yellow, green, and blue, they were of several intermediate Bignesses answering to the Colour, that is, greater in yellow than in green, and greater in green than in blue. And hence I knew, that when the Speculum was illuminated with white Light, the red and yellow on the outside of the Rings were produced by the least refrangible Rays, and the blue and violet by the most refrangible, and that the Colours of each Ring spread into the Colours of the neighbouring Rings on either side, after the manner explain'd in the first and second Part of this Book, and by mixing diluted one another so that they could not be distinguish'd, unless near the Center where they were least mix'd. For in this Observation I could see the Rings more distinctly, and to a greater Number than before, being able in the yellow Light to number eight or nine of them, besides a faint shadow of a tenth. To satisfy my self how much the Colours of the several Rings spread into one another, I measured the Diameters of the second and third Rings, and found them when made by the Confine of the red and orange to be to the same Diameters when made by the Confine of blue and indigo, as 9 to 8, or thereabouts. For it was hard to determine this Proportion accurately. Also the Circles made successively by the red, yellow, and green, differ'd more from one another than those made successively by the green, blue, and indigo. For the Circle made by the violet was too dark to be seen. To carry on the Computation, let us therefore suppose that the Differences of the Diameters of the Circles made by the outmost red, the Confine of red and orange, the Confine of orange and yellow, the Confine of yellow and green, the Confine of green and blue, the Confine of blue and indigo, the Confine of indigo and violet, and outmost violet, are in proportion as the Differences of the Lengths of a Monochord which sound the Tones in an Eight; _sol_, _la_, _fa_, _sol_, _la_, _mi_, _fa_, _sol_, that is, as the Numbers 1/9, 1/18, 1/12, 1/12, 2/27, 1/27, 1/18. And if the Diameter of the Circle made by the Confine of red and orange be 9A, and that of the Circle made by the Confine of blue and indigo be 8A as above; their difference 9A-8A will be to the difference of the Diameters of the Circles made by the outmost red, and by the Confine of red and orange, as 1/18 + 1/12 + 1/12 + 2/27 to 1/9, that is as 8/27 to 1/9, or 8 to 3, and to the difference of the Circles made by the outmost violet, and by the Confine of blue and indigo, as 1/18 + 1/12 + 1/12 + 2/27 to 1/27 + 1/18, that is, as 8/27 to 5/54, or as 16 to 5. And therefore these differences will be 3/8A and 5/16A. Add the first to 9A and subduct the last from 8A, and you will have the Diameters of the Circles made by the least and most refrangible Rays 75/8A and ((61-1/2)/8)A. These diameters are therefore to one another as 75 to 61-1/2 or 50 to 41, and their Squares as 2500 to 1681, that is, as 3 to 2 very nearly. Which proportion differs not much from the proportion of the Diameters of the Circles made by the outmost red and outmost violet, in the 13th Observation of the first part of this Book.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00579", "bookId": 33504, "start": 408521, "end": 410343, "sha256": "ec2a22abbfc8cfe8b067bf3c9ac961f31340ce9da428ba9a75a480e50171e300", "text": "_Obs._ 6. Placing my Eye where these Rings appear'd plainest, I saw the Speculum tinged all over with Waves of Colours, (red, yellow, green, blue;) like those which in the Observations of the first part of this Book appeared between the Object-glasses, and upon Bubbles of Water, but much larger. And after the manner of those, they were of various magnitudes in various Positions of the Eye, swelling and shrinking as I moved my Eye this way and that way. They were formed like Arcs of concentrick Circles, as those were; and when my Eye was over against the center of the concavity of the Speculum, (that is, 5 Feet and 10 Inches distant from the Speculum,) their common center was in a right Line with that center of concavity, and with the hole in the Window. But in other postures of my Eye their center had other positions. They appear'd by the Light of the Clouds propagated to the Speculum through the hole in the Window; and when the Sun shone through that hole upon the Speculum, his Light upon it was of the Colour of the Ring whereon it fell, but by its splendor obscured the Rings made by the Light of the Clouds, unless when the Speculum was removed to a great distance from the Window, so that his Light upon it might be broad and faint. By varying the position of my Eye, and moving it nearer to or farther from the direct beam of the Sun's Light, the Colour of the Sun's reflected Light constantly varied upon the Speculum, as it did upon my Eye, the same Colour always appearing to a Bystander upon my Eye which to me appear'd upon the Speculum. And thence I knew that the Rings of Colours upon the Chart were made by these reflected Colours, propagated thither from the Speculum in several Angles, and that their production depended not upon the termination of Light and Shadow.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00580", "bookId": 33504, "start": 410347, "end": 416799, "sha256": "ad8b7e824a2f6dc944ad851db7ff08f4d014e86f8272e8e3087d28a54da2121b", "text": "_Obs._ 7. By the Analogy of all these Phaenomena with those of the like Rings of Colours described in the first part of this Book, it seemed to me that these Colours were produced by this thick Plate of Glass, much after the manner that those were produced by very thin Plates. For, upon trial, I found that if the Quick-silver were rubb'd off from the backside of the Speculum, the Glass alone would cause the same Rings of Colours, but much more faint than before; and therefore the Phaenomenon depends not upon the Quick-silver, unless so far as the Quick-silver by increasing the Reflexion of the backside of the Glass increases the Light of the Rings of Colours. I found also that a Speculum of Metal without Glass made some Years since for optical uses, and very well wrought, produced none of those Rings; and thence I understood that these Rings arise not from one specular Surface alone, but depend upon the two Surfaces of the Plate of Glass whereof the Speculum was made, and upon the thickness of the Glass between them. For as in the 7th and 19th Observations of the first part of this Book a thin Plate of Air, Water, or Glass of an even thickness appeared of one Colour when the Rays were perpendicular to it, of another when they were a little oblique, of another when more oblique, of another when still more oblique, and so on; so here, in the sixth Observation, the Light which emerged out of the Glass in several Obliquities, made the Glass appear of several Colours, and being propagated in those Obliquities to the Chart, there painted Rings of those Colours. And as the reason why a thin Plate appeared of several Colours in several Obliquities of the Rays, was, that the Rays of one and the same sort are reflected by the thin Plate at one obliquity and transmitted at another, and those of other sorts transmitted where these are reflected, and reflected where these are transmitted: So the reason why the thick Plate of Glass whereof the Speculum was made did appear of various Colours in various Obliquities, and in those Obliquities propagated those Colours to the Chart, was, that the Rays of one and the same sort did at one Obliquity emerge out of the Glass, at another did not emerge, but were reflected back towards the Quick-silver by the hither Surface of the Glass, and accordingly as the Obliquity became greater and greater, emerged and were reflected alternately for many Successions; and that in one and the same Obliquity the Rays of one sort were reflected, and those of another transmitted. This is manifest by the fifth Observation of this part of this Book. For in that Observation, when the Speculum was illuminated by any one of the prismatick Colours, that Light made many Rings of the same Colour upon the Chart with dark Intervals, and therefore at its emergence out of the Speculum was alternately transmitted and not transmitted from the Speculum to the Chart for many Successions, according to the various Obliquities of its Emergence. And when the Colour cast on the Speculum by the Prism was varied, the Rings became of the Colour cast on it, and varied their bigness with their Colour, and therefore the Light was now alternately transmitted and not transmitted from the Speculum to the Chart at other Obliquities than before. It seemed to me therefore that these Rings were of one and the same original with those of thin Plates, but yet with this difference, that those of thin Plates are made by the alternate Reflexions and Transmissions of the Rays at the second Surface of the Plate, after one passage through it; but here the Rays go twice through the Plate before they are alternately reflected and transmitted. First, they go through it from the first Surface to the Quick-silver, and then return through it from the Quick-silver to the first Surface, and there are either transmitted to the Chart or reflected back to the Quick-silver, accordingly as they are in their Fits of easy Reflexion or Transmission when they arrive at that Surface. For the Intervals of the Fits of the Rays which fall perpendicularly on the Speculum, and are reflected back in the same perpendicular Lines, by reason of the equality of these Angles and Lines, are of the same length and number within the Glass after Reflexion as before, by the 19th Proposition of the third part of this Book. And therefore since all the Rays that enter through the first Surface are in their Fits of easy Transmission at their entrance, and as many of these as are reflected by the second are in their Fits of easy Reflexion there, all these must be again in their Fits of easy Transmission at their return to the first, and by consequence there go out of the Glass to the Chart, and form upon it the white Spot of Light in the center of the Rings. For the reason holds good in all sorts of Rays, and therefore all sorts must go out promiscuously to that Spot, and by their mixture cause it to be white. But the Intervals of the Fits of those Rays which are reflected more obliquely than they enter, must be greater after Reflexion than before, by the 15th and 20th Propositions. And thence it may happen that the Rays at their return to the first Surface, may in certain Obliquities be in Fits of easy Reflexion, and return back to the Quick-silver, and in other intermediate Obliquities be again in Fits of easy Transmission, and so go out to the Chart, and paint on it the Rings of Colours about the white Spot. And because the Intervals of the Fits at equal obliquities are greater and fewer in the less refrangible Rays, and less and more numerous in the more refrangible, therefore the less refrangible at equal obliquities shall make fewer Rings than the more refrangible, and the Rings made by those shall be larger than the like number of Rings made by these; that is, the red Rings shall be larger than the yellow, the yellow than the green, the green than the blue, and the blue than the violet, as they were really found to be in the fifth Observation. And therefore the first Ring of all Colours encompassing the white Spot of Light shall be red without any violet within, and yellow, and green, and blue in the middle, as it was found in the second Observation; and these Colours in the second Ring, and those that follow, shall be more expanded, till they spread into one another, and blend one another by interfering.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00581", "bookId": 33504, "start": 416803, "end": 417033, "sha256": "2bd223f17e4414c992a56e59a4a02cd489c2e9c45fa3b8be6e573e3cfda0ce59", "text": "These seem to be the reasons of these Rings in general; and this put me upon observing the thickness of the Glass, and considering whether the dimensions and proportions of the Rings may be truly derived from it by computation.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00582", "bookId": 33504, "start": 417037, "end": 423382, "sha256": "4214dce94b8cee532bae5d466e18ec59a6b47aedc9e739038d94d2f6927a9eae", "text": "_Obs._ 8. I measured therefore the thickness of this concavo-convex Plate of Glass, and found it every where 1/4 of an Inch precisely. Now, by the sixth Observation of the first Part of this Book, a thin Plate of Air transmits the brightest Light of the first Ring, that is, the bright yellow, when its thickness is the 1/89000th part of an Inch; and by the tenth Observation of the same Part, a thin Plate of Glass transmits the same Light of the same Ring, when its thickness is less in proportion of the Sine of Refraction to the Sine of Incidence, that is, when its thickness is the 11/1513000th or 1/137545th part of an Inch, supposing the Sines are as 11 to 17. And if this thickness be doubled, it transmits the same bright Light of the second Ring; if tripled, it transmits that of the third, and so on; the bright yellow Light in all these cases being in its Fits of Transmission. And therefore if its thickness be multiplied 34386 times, so as to become 1/4 of an Inch, it transmits the same bright Light of the 34386th Ring. Suppose this be the bright yellow Light transmitted perpendicularly from the reflecting convex side of the Glass through the concave side to the white Spot in the center of the Rings of Colours on the Chart: And by a Rule in the 7th and 19th Observations in the first Part of this Book, and by the 15th and 20th Propositions of the third Part of this Book, if the Rays be made oblique to the Glass, the thickness of the Glass requisite to transmit the same bright Light of the same Ring in any obliquity, is to this thickness of 1/4 of an Inch, as the Secant of a certain Angle to the Radius, the Sine of which Angle is the first of an hundred and six arithmetical Means between the Sines of Incidence and Refraction, counted from the Sine of Incidence when the Refraction is made out of any plated Body into any Medium encompassing it; that is, in this case, out of Glass into Air. Now if the thickness of the Glass be increased by degrees, so as to bear to its first thickness, (_viz._ that of a quarter of an Inch,) the Proportions which 34386 (the number of Fits of the perpendicular Rays in going through the Glass towards the white Spot in the center of the Rings,) hath to 34385, 34384, 34383, and 34382, (the numbers of the Fits of the oblique Rays in going through the Glass towards the first, second, third, and fourth Rings of Colours,) and if the first thickness be divided into 100000000 equal parts, the increased thicknesses will be 100002908, 100005816, 100008725, and 100011633, and the Angles of which these thicknesses are Secants will be 26' 13'', 37' 5'', 45' 6'', and 52' 26'', the Radius being 100000000; and the Sines of these Angles are 762, 1079, 1321, and 1525, and the proportional Sines of Refraction 1172, 1659, 2031, and 2345, the Radius being 100000. For since the Sines of Incidence out of Glass into Air are to the Sines of Refraction as 11 to 17, and to the above-mentioned Secants as 11 to the first of 106 arithmetical Means between 11 and 17, that is, as 11 to 11-6/106, those Secants will be to the Sines of Refraction as 11-6/106, to 17, and by this Analogy will give these Sines. So then, if the obliquities of the Rays to the concave Surface of the Glass be such that the Sines of their Refraction in passing out of the Glass through that Surface into the Air be 1172, 1659, 2031, 2345, the bright Light of the 34386th Ring shall emerge at the thicknesses of the Glass, which are to 1/4 of an Inch as 34386 to 34385, 34384, 34383, 34382, respectively. And therefore, if the thickness in all these Cases be 1/4 of an Inch (as it is in the Glass of which the Speculum was made) the bright Light of the 34385th Ring shall emerge where the Sine of Refraction is 1172, and that of the 34384th, 34383th, and 34382th Ring where the Sine is 1659, 2031, and 2345 respectively. And in these Angles of Refraction the Light of these Rings shall be propagated from the Speculum to the Chart, and there paint Rings about the white central round Spot of Light which we said was the Light of the 34386th Ring. And the Semidiameters of these Rings shall subtend the Angles of Refraction made at the Concave-Surface of the Speculum, and by consequence their Diameters shall be to the distance of the Chart from the Speculum as those Sines of Refraction doubled are to the Radius, that is, as 1172, 1659, 2031, and 2345, doubled are to 100000. And therefore, if the distance of the Chart from the Concave-Surface of the Speculum be six Feet (as it was in the third of these Observations) the Diameters of the Rings of this bright yellow Light upon the Chart shall be 1'688, 2'389, 2'925, 3'375 Inches: For these Diameters are to six Feet, as the above-mention'd Sines doubled are to the Radius. Now, these Diameters of the bright yellow Rings, thus found by Computation are the very same with those found in the third of these Observations by measuring them, _viz._ with 1-11/16, 2-3/8, 2-11/12, and 3-3/8 Inches, and therefore the Theory of deriving these Rings from the thickness of the Plate of Glass of which the Speculum was made, and from the Obliquity of the emerging Rays agrees with the Observation. In this Computation I have equalled the Diameters of the bright Rings made by Light of all Colours, to the Diameters of the Rings made by the bright yellow. For this yellow makes the brightest Part of the Rings of all Colours. If you desire the Diameters of the Rings made by the Light of any other unmix'd Colour, you may find them readily by putting them to the Diameters of the bright yellow ones in a subduplicate Proportion of the Intervals of the Fits of the Rays of those Colours when equally inclined to the refracting or reflecting Surface which caused those Fits, that is, by putting the Diameters of the Rings made by the Rays in the Extremities and Limits of the seven Colours, red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, violet, proportional to the Cube-roots of the Numbers, 1, 8/9, 5/6, 3/4, 2/3, 3/5, 9/16, 1/2, which express the Lengths of a Monochord sounding the Notes in an Eighth: For by this means the Diameters of the Rings of these Colours will be found pretty nearly in the same Proportion to one another, which they ought to have by the fifth of these Observations.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00583", "bookId": 33504, "start": 423386, "end": 423757, "sha256": "b304c03812fde12b5807edb881a6c2315c59880893ce7a653f662936d761cfac", "text": "And thus I satisfy'd my self, that these Rings were of the same kind and Original with those of thin Plates, and by consequence that the Fits or alternate Dispositions of the Rays to be reflected and transmitted are propagated to great distances from every reflecting and refracting Surface. But yet to put the matter out of doubt, I added the following Observation.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00584", "bookId": 33504, "start": 423761, "end": 425225, "sha256": "b0219b1cc0aeec2989f4b7f33ccf31893543656f5a743189d3ac0a4eba2dbf32", "text": "_Obs._ 9. If these Rings thus depend on the thickness of the Plate of Glass, their Diameters at equal distances from several Speculums made of such concavo-convex Plates of Glass as are ground on the same Sphere, ought to be reciprocally in a subduplicate Proportion of the thicknesses of the Plates of Glass. And if this Proportion be found true by experience it will amount to a demonstration that these Rings (like those formed in thin Plates) do depend on the thickness of the Glass. I procured therefore another concavo-convex Plate of Glass ground on both sides to the same Sphere with the former Plate. Its thickness was 5/62 Parts of an Inch; and the Diameters of the three first bright Rings measured between the brightest Parts of their Orbits at the distance of six Feet from the Glass were 3.4-1/6.5-1/8. Inches. Now, the thickness of the other Glass being 1/4 of an Inch was to the thickness of this Glass as 1/4 to 5/62, that is as 31 to 10, or 310000000 to 100000000, and the Roots of these Numbers are 17607 and 10000, and in the Proportion of the first of these Roots to the second are the Diameters of the bright Rings made in this Observation by the thinner Glass, 3.4-1/6.5-1/8, to the Diameters of the same Rings made in the third of these Observations by the thicker Glass 1-11/16, 2-3/8. 2-11/12, that is, the Diameters of the Rings are reciprocally in a subduplicate Proportion of the thicknesses of the Plates of Glass.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00585", "bookId": 33504, "start": 425229, "end": 426511, "sha256": "428537244aa263d8d513724e85615f63f47142f076fa039fd88b93ffe1dddd8e", "text": "So then in Plates of Glass which are alike concave on one side, and alike convex on the other side, and alike quick-silver'd on the convex sides, and differ in nothing but their thickness, the Diameters of the Rings are reciprocally in a subduplicate Proportion of the thicknesses of the Plates. And this shews sufficiently that the Rings depend on both the Surfaces of the Glass. They depend on the convex Surface, because they are more luminous when that Surface is quick-silver'd over than when it is without Quick-silver. They depend also upon the concave Surface, because without that Surface a Speculum makes them not. They depend on both Surfaces, and on the distances between them, because their bigness is varied by varying only that distance. And this dependence is of the same kind with that which the Colours of thin Plates have on the distance of the Surfaces of those Plates, because the bigness of the Rings, and their Proportion to one another, and the variation of their bigness arising from the variation of the thickness of the Glass, and the Orders of their Colours, is such as ought to result from the Propositions in the end of the third Part of this Book, derived from the Phaenomena of the Colours of thin Plates set down in the first Part.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00586", "bookId": 33504, "start": 426515, "end": 426799, "sha256": "a91f1961fb5fa0e2a2191f472bba5b07064e4bd23390728049dde7ba8b18a71a", "text": "There are yet other Phaenomena of these Rings of Colours, but such as follow from the same Propositions, and therefore confirm both the Truth of those Propositions, and the Analogy between these Rings and the Rings of Colours made by very thin Plates. I shall subjoin some of them.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00587", "bookId": 33504, "start": 426803, "end": 428467, "sha256": "a818ab67a887f55a4d31aa9b4edca2b615f5e87c7e1fe12bc5a2a261d40cd736", "text": "_Obs._ 10. When the beam of the Sun's Light was reflected back from the Speculum not directly to the hole in the Window, but to a place a little distant from it, the common center of that Spot, and of all the Rings of Colours fell in the middle way between the beam of the incident Light, and the beam of the reflected Light, and by consequence in the center of the spherical concavity of the Speculum, whenever the Chart on which the Rings of Colours fell was placed at that center. And as the beam of reflected Light by inclining the Speculum receded more and more from the beam of incident Light and from the common center of the colour'd Rings between them, those Rings grew bigger and bigger, and so also did the white round Spot, and new Rings of Colours emerged successively out of their common center, and the white Spot became a white Ring encompassing them; and the incident and reflected beams of Light always fell upon the opposite parts of this white Ring, illuminating its Perimeter like two mock Suns in the opposite parts of an Iris. So then the Diameter of this Ring, measured from the middle of its Light on one side to the middle of its Light on the other side, was always equal to the distance between the middle of the incident beam of Light, and the middle of the reflected beam measured at the Chart on which the Rings appeared: And the Rays which form'd this Ring were reflected by the Speculum in Angles equal to their Angles of Incidence, and by consequence to their Angles of Refraction at their entrance into the Glass, but yet their Angles of Reflexion were not in the same Planes with their Angles of Incidence.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00588", "bookId": 33504, "start": 428471, "end": 429491, "sha256": "80b7fd42a7aeea5408291c3d3bb780073df178e69a6f041a15b17fe2699c4e41", "text": "_Obs._ 11. The Colours of the new Rings were in a contrary order to those of the former, and arose after this manner. The white round Spot of Light in the middle of the Rings continued white to the center till the distance of the incident and reflected beams at the Chart was about 7/8 parts of an Inch, and then it began to grow dark in the middle. And when that distance was about 1-3/16 of an Inch, the white Spot was become a Ring encompassing a dark round Spot which in the middle inclined to violet and indigo. And the luminous Rings encompassing it were grown equal to those dark ones which in the four first Observations encompassed them, that is to say, the white Spot was grown a white Ring equal to the first of those dark Rings, and the first of those luminous Rings was now grown equal to the second of those dark ones, and the second of those luminous ones to the third of those dark ones, and so on. For the Diameters of the luminous Rings were now 1-3/16, 2-1/16, 2-2/3, 3-3/20, &c. Inches.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00589", "bookId": 33504, "start": 429495, "end": 430300, "sha256": "6c2a0390c30a39bbb4f4b7710672d45f89b85cddc17d16350a8cf37f6910df00", "text": "When the distance between the incident and reflected beams of Light became a little bigger, there emerged out of the middle of the dark Spot after the indigo a blue, and then out of that blue a pale green, and soon after a yellow and red. And when the Colour at the center was brightest, being between yellow and red, the bright Rings were grown equal to those Rings which in the four first Observations next encompassed them; that is to say, the white Spot in the middle of those Rings was now become a white Ring equal to the first of those bright Rings, and the first of those bright ones was now become equal to the second of those, and so on. For the Diameters of the white Ring, and of the other luminous Rings encompassing it, were now 1-11/16, 2-3/8, 2-11/12, 3-3/8, &c. or thereabouts.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00590", "bookId": 33504, "start": 430304, "end": 431152, "sha256": "8e890c60c7569984adeec722a9f34a0926e6b82d143947ad840be62fbdb67cf0", "text": "When the distance of the two beams of Light at the Chart was a little more increased, there emerged out of the middle in order after the red, a purple, a blue, a green, a yellow, and a red inclining much to purple, and when the Colour was brightest being between yellow and red, the former indigo, blue, green, yellow and red, were become an Iris or Ring of Colours equal to the first of those luminous Rings which appeared in the four first Observations, and the white Ring which was now become the second of the luminous Rings was grown equal to the second of those, and the first of those which was now become the third Ring was become equal to the third of those, and so on. For their Diameters were 1-11/16, 2-3/8, 2-11/12, 3-3/8 Inches, the distance of the two beams of Light, and the Diameter of the white Ring being 2-3/8 Inches.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00591", "bookId": 33504, "start": 431156, "end": 431735, "sha256": "52affb0c9cfaa7b9718ec9847e2e40cff1e6ca049dea310a71ee0778594f9e89", "text": "When these two beams became more distant there emerged out of the middle of the purplish red, first a darker round Spot, and then out of the middle of that Spot a brighter. And now the former Colours (purple, blue, green, yellow, and purplish red) were become a Ring equal to the first of the bright Rings mentioned in the four first Observations, and the Rings about this Ring were grown equal to the Rings about that respectively; the distance between the two beams of Light and the Diameter of the white Ring (which was now become the third Ring) being about 3 Inches.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00592", "bookId": 33504, "start": 431739, "end": 432537, "sha256": "2c579600ae8122910ebff3ccf617e19a1fa7e8d3621a105e9f08b44b79a0d6d2", "text": "The Colours of the Rings in the middle began now to grow very dilute, and if the distance between the two Beams was increased half an Inch, or an Inch more, they vanish'd whilst the white Ring, with one or two of the Rings next it on either side, continued still visible. But if the distance of the two beams of Light was still more increased, these also vanished: For the Light which coming from several parts of the hole in the Window fell upon the Speculum in several Angles of Incidence, made Rings of several bignesses, which diluted and blotted out one another, as I knew by intercepting some part of that Light. For if I intercepted that part which was nearest to the Axis of the Speculum the Rings would be less, if the other part which was remotest from it they would be bigger.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00593", "bookId": 33504, "start": 432541, "end": 434287, "sha256": "4ae04b0d35b9ec03302c82f6537c0d3ffe62252f1f4116f7155f100a49da8c8a", "text": "_Obs._ 12. When the Colours of the Prism were cast successively on the Speculum, that Ring which in the two last Observations was white, was of the same bigness in all the Colours, but the Rings without it were greater in the green than in the blue, and still greater in the yellow, and greatest in the red. And, on the contrary, the Rings within that white Circle were less in the green than in the blue, and still less in the yellow, and least in the red. For the Angles of Reflexion of those Rays which made this Ring, being equal to their Angles of Incidence, the Fits of every reflected Ray within the Glass after Reflexion are equal in length and number to the Fits of the same Ray within the Glass before its Incidence on the reflecting Surface. And therefore since all the Rays of all sorts at their entrance into the Glass were in a Fit of Transmission, they were also in a Fit of Transmission at their returning to the same Surface after Reflexion; and by consequence were transmitted, and went out to the white Ring on the Chart. This is the reason why that Ring was of the same bigness in all the Colours, and why in a mixture of all it appears white. But in Rays which are reflected in other Angles, the Intervals of the Fits of the least refrangible being greatest, make the Rings of their Colour in their progress from this white Ring, either outwards or inwards, increase or decrease by the greatest steps; so that the Rings of this Colour without are greatest, and within least. And this is the reason why in the last Observation, when the Speculum was illuminated with white Light, the exterior Rings made by all Colours appeared red without and blue within, and the interior blue without and red within.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00594", "bookId": 33504, "start": 434291, "end": 435192, "sha256": "e8f7cf86b6feddbe735cef04b25afa3c36185fc68964a7193f78a44ce6403683", "text": "These are the Phaenomena of thick convexo-concave Plates of Glass, which are every where of the same thickness. There are yet other Phaenomena when these Plates are a little thicker on one side than on the other, and others when the Plates are more or less concave than convex, or plano-convex, or double-convex. For in all these cases the Plates make Rings of Colours, but after various manners; all which, so far as I have yet observed, follow from the Propositions in the end of the third part of this Book, and so conspire to confirm the truth of those Propositions. But the Phaenomena are too various, and the Calculations whereby they follow from those Propositions too intricate to be here prosecuted. I content my self with having prosecuted this kind of Phaenomena so far as to discover their Cause, and by discovering it to ratify the Propositions in the third Part of this Book.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00595", "bookId": 33504, "start": 435196, "end": 439344, "sha256": "8dce2f3aac81dcce066611a61af6093c360c91aa796ff6d5a2cb6e0c2f0dc804", "text": "_Obs._ 13. As Light reflected by a Lens quick-silver'd on the backside makes the Rings of Colours above described, so it ought to make the like Rings of Colours in passing through a drop of Water. At the first Reflexion of the Rays within the drop, some Colours ought to be transmitted, as in the case of a Lens, and others to be reflected back to the Eye. For instance, if the Diameter of a small drop or globule of Water be about the 500th part of an Inch, so that a red-making Ray in passing through the middle of this globule has 250 Fits of easy Transmission within the globule, and that all the red-making Rays which are at a certain distance from this middle Ray round about it have 249 Fits within the globule, and all the like Rays at a certain farther distance round about it have 248 Fits, and all those at a certain farther distance 247 Fits, and so on; these concentrick Circles of Rays after their transmission, falling on a white Paper, will make concentrick Rings of red upon the Paper, supposing the Light which passes through one single globule, strong enough to be sensible. And, in like manner, the Rays of other Colours will make Rings of other Colours. Suppose now that in a fair Day the Sun shines through a thin Cloud of such globules of Water or Hail, and that the globules are all of the same bigness; and the Sun seen through this Cloud shall appear encompassed with the like concentrick Rings of Colours, and the Diameter of the first Ring of red shall be 7-1/4 Degrees, that of the second 10-1/4 Degrees, that of the third 12 Degrees 33 Minutes. And accordingly as the Globules of Water are bigger or less, the Rings shall be less or bigger. This is the Theory, and Experience answers it. For in _June_ 1692, I saw by reflexion in a Vessel of stagnating Water three Halos, Crowns, or Rings of Colours about the Sun, like three little Rain-bows, concentrick to his Body. The Colours of the first or innermost Crown were blue next the Sun, red without, and white in the middle between the blue and red. Those of the second Crown were purple and blue within, and pale red without, and green in the middle. And those of the third were pale blue within, and pale red without; these Crowns enclosed one another immediately, so that their Colours proceeded in this continual order from the Sun outward: blue, white, red; purple, blue, green, pale yellow and red; pale blue, pale red. The Diameter of the second Crown measured from the middle of the yellow and red on one side of the Sun, to the middle of the same Colour on the other side was 9-1/3 Degrees, or thereabouts. The Diameters of the first and third I had not time to measure, but that of the first seemed to be about five or six Degrees, and that of the third about twelve. The like Crowns appear sometimes about the Moon; for in the beginning of the Year 1664, _Febr._ 19th at Night, I saw two such Crowns about her. The Diameter of the first or innermost was about three Degrees, and that of the second about five Degrees and an half. Next about the Moon was a Circle of white, and next about that the inner Crown, which was of a bluish green within next the white, and of a yellow and red without, and next about these Colours were blue and green on the inside of the outward Crown, and red on the outside of it. At the same time there appear'd a Halo about 22 Degrees 35' distant from the center of the Moon. It was elliptical, and its long Diameter was perpendicular to the Horizon, verging below farthest from the Moon. I am told that the Moon has sometimes three or more concentrick Crowns of Colours encompassing one another next about her Body. The more equal the globules of Water or Ice are to one another, the more Crowns of Colours will appear, and the Colours will be the more lively. The Halo at the distance of 22-1/2 Degrees from the Moon is of another sort. By its being oval and remoter from the Moon below than above, I conclude, that it was made by Refraction in some sort of Hail or Snow floating in the Air in an horizontal posture, the refracting Angle being about 58 or 60 Degrees.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00596", "bookId": 33504, "start": 439354, "end": 439357, "sha256": "a3e5514bcfd79e7649e30fbf98826208f3da47833b4223b68cff2db23beb3801", "text": "THE", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00597", "bookId": 33504, "start": 439361, "end": 439371, "sha256": "fb18fbd7a14c3c718b54d3a681cada74f82ab03abff0545deed6240725f27a35", "text": "THIRD BOOK", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00598", "bookId": 33504, "start": 439375, "end": 439377, "sha256": "270826d41d0a807d41e14d413e764fd30dab7a7bcd1e478ea94b9e812671042b", "text": "OF", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00599", "bookId": 33504, "start": 439381, "end": 439388, "sha256": "8f9b5f1c324b8f0b89df0677c58417201875f4f9faa2dee3223d78da2e06f2f4", "text": "OPTICKS", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00600", "bookId": 33504, "start": 439394, "end": 439403, "sha256": "4568825658b8e534045609feded47bbe811b0553efb22ae2e965bab14c662e0e", "text": "_PART I._", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00601", "bookId": 33504, "start": 439407, "end": 439500, "sha256": "7d919e0cd57455c792fa439b38ae1f85bed89bce2655000c51780e08ab852167", "text": "_Observations concerning the Inflexions of the Rays of Light, and the Colours made thereby._", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00602", "bookId": 33504, "start": 439504, "end": 440211, "sha256": "9c600ccf40e313100a5d752f0712b4f6c8376dfab3ee1f648cfa1abe34ed9ff0", "text": "Grimaldo has inform'd us, that if a beam of the Sun's Light be let into a dark Room through a very small hole, the Shadows of things in this Light will be larger than they ought to be if the Rays went on by the Bodies in straight Lines, and that these Shadows have three parallel Fringes, Bands or Ranks of colour'd Light adjacent to them. But if the Hole be enlarged the Fringes grow broad and run into one another, so that they cannot be distinguish'd. These broad Shadows and Fringes have been reckon'd by some to proceed from the ordinary refraction of the Air, but without due examination of the Matter. For the circumstances of the Phaenomenon, so far as I have observed them, are as follows.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00603", "bookId": 33504, "start": 440215, "end": 441280, "sha256": "328889690ed0a16ab2a84705fc9ed31fa2831981603168510fee05fd32d10572", "text": "_Obs._ 1. I made in a piece of Lead a small Hole with a Pin, whose breadth was the 42d part of an Inch. For 21 of those Pins laid together took up the breadth of half an Inch. Through this Hole I let into my darken'd Chamber a beam of the Sun's Light, and found that the Shadows of Hairs, Thred, Pins, Straws, and such like slender Substances placed in this beam of Light, were considerably broader than they ought to be, if the Rays of Light passed on by these Bodies in right Lines. And particularly a Hair of a Man's Head, whose breadth was but the 280th part of an Inch, being held in this Light, at the distance of about twelve Feet from the Hole, did cast a Shadow which at the distance of four Inches from the Hair was the sixtieth part of an Inch broad, that is, above four times broader than the Hair, and at the distance of two Feet from the Hair was about the eight and twentieth part of an Inch broad, that is, ten times broader than the Hair, and at the distance of ten Feet was the eighth part of an Inch broad, that is 35 times broader.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00604", "bookId": 33504, "start": 441284, "end": 442070, "sha256": "3cf4cb667dd21979685668e4218c12c7968f3ce345aed3425b6fc68bc37018a4", "text": "Nor is it material whether the Hair be encompassed with Air, or with any other pellucid Substance. For I wetted a polish'd Plate of Glass, and laid the Hair in the Water upon the Glass, and then laying another polish'd Plate of Glass upon it, so that the Water might fill up the space between the Glasses, I held them in the aforesaid beam of Light, so that the Light might pass through them perpendicularly, and the Shadow of the Hair was at the same distances as big as before. The Shadows of Scratches made in polish'd Plates of Glass were also much broader than they ought to be, and the Veins in polish'd Plates of Glass did also cast the like broad Shadows. And therefore the great breadth of these Shadows proceeds from some other cause than the Refraction of the Air.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00605", "bookId": 33504, "start": 442074, "end": 443602, "sha256": "b27e9fc10266a2a7ab9f2ea520bc237507b9e805ef43ca79f9bd53f7370e652b", "text": "Let the Circle X [in _Fig._ 1.] represent the middle of the Hair; ADG, BEH, CFI, three Rays passing by one side of the Hair at several distances; KNQ, LOR, MPS, three other Rays passing by the other side of the Hair at the like distances; D, E, F, and N, O, P, the places where the Rays are bent in their passage by the Hair; G, H, I, and Q, R, S, the places where the Rays fall on a Paper GQ; IS the breadth of the Shadow of the Hair cast on the Paper, and TI, VS, two Rays passing to the Points I and S without bending when the Hair is taken away. And it's manifest that all the Light between these two Rays TI and VS is bent in passing by the Hair, and turned aside from the Shadow IS, because if any part of this Light were not bent it would fall on the Paper within the Shadow, and there illuminate the Paper, contrary to experience. And because when the Paper is at a great distance from the Hair, the Shadow is broad, and therefore the Rays TI and VS are at a great distance from one another, it follows that the Hair acts upon the Rays of Light at a good distance in their passing by it. But the Action is strongest on the Rays which pass by at least distances, and grows weaker and weaker accordingly as the Rays pass by at distances greater and greater, as is represented in the Scheme: For thence it comes to pass, that the Shadow of the Hair is much broader in proportion to the distance of the Paper from the Hair, when the Paper is nearer the Hair, than when it is at a great distance from it.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00606", "bookId": 33504, "start": 443606, "end": 445853, "sha256": "6f54786ad6dd80569af4438ca8c20b7c20ceab7bcbb17c05d3efc0854f169afc", "text": "_Obs._ 2. The Shadows of all Bodies (Metals, Stones, Glass, Wood, Horn, Ice, &c.) in this Light were border'd with three Parallel Fringes or Bands of colour'd Light, whereof that which was contiguous to the Shadow was broadest and most luminous, and that which was remotest from it was narrowest, and so faint, as not easily to be visible. It was difficult to distinguish the Colours, unless when the Light fell very obliquely upon a smooth Paper, or some other smooth white Body, so as to make them appear much broader than they would otherwise do. And then the Colours were plainly visible in this Order: The first or innermost Fringe was violet and deep blue next the Shadow, and then light blue, green, and yellow in the middle, and red without. The second Fringe was almost contiguous to the first, and the third to the second, and both were blue within, and yellow and red without, but their Colours were very faint, especially those of the third. The Colours therefore proceeded in this order from the Shadow; violet, indigo, pale blue, green, yellow, red; blue, yellow, red; pale blue, pale yellow and red. The Shadows made by Scratches and Bubbles in polish'd Plates of Glass were border'd with the like Fringes of colour'd Light. And if Plates of Looking-glass sloop'd off near the edges with a Diamond-cut, be held in the same beam of Light, the Light which passes through the parallel Planes of the Glass will be border'd with the like Fringes of Colours where those Planes meet with the Diamond-cut, and by this means there will sometimes appear four or five Fringes of Colours. Let AB, CD [in _Fig._ 2.] represent the parallel Planes of a Looking-glass, and BD the Plane of the Diamond-cut, making at B a very obtuse Angle with the Plane AB. And let all the Light between the Rays ENI and FBM pass directly through the parallel Planes of the Glass, and fall upon the Paper between I and M, and all the Light between the Rays GO and HD be refracted by the oblique Plane of the Diamond-cut BD, and fall upon the Paper between K and L; and the Light which passes directly through the parallel Planes of the Glass, and falls upon the Paper between I and M, will be border'd with three or more Fringes at M.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00607", "bookId": 33504, "start": 445857, "end": 445880, "sha256": "af530d5d0380f51d8d7573eaf39271d6dd62ebba374fa61cdebcb8cb4f9567e0", "text": "[Illustration: FIG. 1.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00608", "bookId": 33504, "start": 445884, "end": 445907, "sha256": "cbabaa1835202203dbb317cace993b33281ae5b35cc94ccbff9525c3ee46a886", "text": "[Illustration: FIG. 2.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00609", "bookId": 33504, "start": 445911, "end": 446144, "sha256": "dfcccc047e7e25a7a3f5500122bc40024d24196a060c2c35263674aa1527e8da", "text": "So by looking on the Sun through a Feather or black Ribband held close to the Eye, several Rain-bows will appear; the Shadows which the Fibres or Threds cast on the _Tunica Retina_, being border'd with the like Fringes of Colours.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00610", "bookId": 33504, "start": 446148, "end": 446547, "sha256": "314bac63caba8871b59eafb58f2e1971116b82d19fd5242c3751b2b691e3a064", "text": "_Obs._ 3. When the Hair was twelve Feet distant from this Hole, and its Shadow fell obliquely upon a flat white Scale of Inches and Parts of an Inch placed half a Foot beyond it, and also when the Shadow fell perpendicularly upon the same Scale placed nine Feet beyond it; I measured the breadth of the Shadow and Fringes as accurately as I could, and found them in Parts of an Inch as follows.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00611", "bookId": 33504, "start": 446551, "end": 448977, "sha256": "4ea7dd17657a3a14e187c105b61bc879a4ce7b473de8687aaeb42d76b0776538", "text": "-------------------------------------------+-----------+-------- | half a | Nine At the Distance of | Foot | Feet -------------------------------------------+-----------+-------- The breadth of the Shadow | 1/54 | 1/9 -------------------------------------------+-----------+-------- The breadth between the Middles of the | 1/38 | brightest Light of the innermost Fringes | or | on either side the Shadow | 1/39 | 7/50 -------------------------------------------+-----------+-------- The breadth between the Middles of the | | brightest Light of the middlemost Fringes| | on either side the Shadow | 1/23-1/2 | 4/17 -------------------------------------------+-----------+-------- The breadth between the Middles of the | 1/18 | brightest Light of the outmost Fringes | or | on either side the Shadow | 1/18-1/2 | 3/10 -------------------------------------------+-----------+-------- The distance between the Middles of the | | brightest Light of the first and second | | Fringes | 1/120 | 1/21 -------------------------------------------+-----------+-------- The distance between the Middles of the | | brightest Light of the second and third | | Fringes | 1/170 | 1/31 -------------------------------------------+-----------+-------- The breadth of the luminous Part (green, | | white, yellow, and red) of the first | | Fringe | 1/170 | 1/32 -------------------------------------------+-----------+-------- The breadth of the darker Space between | | the first and second Fringes | 1/240 | 1/45 -------------------------------------------+-----------+-------- The breadth of the luminous Part of the | | second Fringe | 1/290 | 1/55 -------------------------------------------+-----------+-------- The breadth of the darker Space between | | the second and third Fringes | 1/340 | 1/63 -------------------------------------------+-----------+--------", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00612", "bookId": 33504, "start": 448981, "end": 449271, "sha256": "f1fc08f3c2ad9030bb80c3f8da02f0ac8f54549aee0b924dea85ae7c39a9ffe2", "text": "These Measures I took by letting the Shadow of the Hair, at half a Foot distance, fall so obliquely on the Scale, as to appear twelve times broader than when it fell perpendicularly on it at the same distance, and setting down in this Table the twelfth part of the Measures I then took.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00613", "bookId": 33504, "start": 449275, "end": 451310, "sha256": "b9761a13779d79dbc38b41f3ddb973f02a50ce015fecbd3215328beb6ed330ac", "text": "_Obs._ 4. When the Shadow and Fringes were cast obliquely upon a smooth white Body, and that Body was removed farther and farther from the Hair, the first Fringe began to appear and look brighter than the rest of the Light at the distance of less than a quarter of an Inch from the Hair, and the dark Line or Shadow between that and the second Fringe began to appear at a less distance from the Hair than that of the third part of an Inch. The second Fringe began to appear at a distance from the Hair of less than half an Inch, and the Shadow between that and the third Fringe at a distance less than an inch, and the third Fringe at a distance less than three Inches. At greater distances they became much more sensible, but kept very nearly the same proportion of their breadths and intervals which they had at their first appearing. For the distance between the middle of the first, and middle of the second Fringe, was to the distance between the middle of the second and middle of the third Fringe, as three to two, or ten to seven. And the last of these two distances was equal to the breadth of the bright Light or luminous part of the first Fringe. And this breadth was to the breadth of the bright Light of the second Fringe as seven to four, and to the dark Interval of the first and second Fringe as three to two, and to the like dark Interval between the second and third as two to one. For the breadths of the Fringes seem'd to be in the progression of the Numbers 1, sqrt(1/3), sqrt(1/5), and their Intervals to be in the same progression with them; that is, the Fringes and their Intervals together to be in the continual progression of the Numbers 1, sqrt(1/2), sqrt(1/3), sqrt(1/4), sqrt(1/5), or thereabouts. And these Proportions held the same very nearly at all distances from the Hair; the dark Intervals of the Fringes being as broad in proportion to the breadth of the Fringes at their first appearance as afterwards at great distances from the Hair, though not so dark and distinct.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00614", "bookId": 33504, "start": 451314, "end": 454169, "sha256": "5ccc8ca5130205f048a903bf2d86ae94bd9d8080c252a30f08d7af37e6f650ef", "text": "_Obs._ 5. The Sun shining into my darken'd Chamber through a hole a quarter of an Inch broad, I placed at the distance of two or three Feet from the Hole a Sheet of Pasteboard, which was black'd all over on both sides, and in the middle of it had a hole about three quarters of an Inch square for the Light to pass through. And behind the hole I fasten'd to the Pasteboard with Pitch the blade of a sharp Knife, to intercept some part of the Light which passed through the hole. The Planes of the Pasteboard and blade of the Knife were parallel to one another, and perpendicular to the Rays. And when they were so placed that none of the Sun's Light fell on the Pasteboard, but all of it passed through the hole to the Knife, and there part of it fell upon the blade of the Knife, and part of it passed by its edge; I let this part of the Light which passed by, fall on a white Paper two or three Feet beyond the Knife, and there saw two streams of faint Light shoot out both ways from the beam of Light into the shadow, like the Tails of Comets. But because the Sun's direct Light by its brightness upon the Paper obscured these faint streams, so that I could scarce see them, I made a little hole in the midst of the Paper for that Light to pass through and fall on a black Cloth behind it; and then I saw the two streams plainly. They were like one another, and pretty nearly equal in length, and breadth, and quantity of Light. Their Light at that end next the Sun's direct Light was pretty strong for the space of about a quarter of an Inch, or half an Inch, and in all its progress from that direct Light decreased gradually till it became insensible. The whole length of either of these streams measured upon the paper at the distance of three Feet from the Knife was about six or eight Inches; so that it subtended an Angle at the edge of the Knife of about 10 or 12, or at most 14 Degrees. Yet sometimes I thought I saw it shoot three or four Degrees farther, but with a Light so very faint that I could scarce perceive it, and suspected it might (in some measure at least) arise from some other cause than the two streams did. For placing my Eye in that Light beyond the end of that stream which was behind the Knife, and looking towards the Knife, I could see a line of Light upon its edge, and that not only when my Eye was in the line of the Streams, but also when it was without that line either towards the point of the Knife, or towards the handle. This line of Light appear'd contiguous to the edge of the Knife, and was narrower than the Light of the innermost Fringe, and narrowest when my Eye was farthest from the direct Light, and therefore seem'd to pass between the Light of that Fringe and the edge of the Knife, and that which passed nearest the edge to be most bent, though not all of it.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00615", "bookId": 33504, "start": 454173, "end": 454942, "sha256": "ef7c6c5ca8ca107fe5e68caecdf6435a3565b776c499b75973186150f0809968", "text": "_Obs._ 6. I placed another Knife by this, so that their edges might be parallel, and look towards one another, and that the beam of Light might fall upon both the Knives, and some part of it pass between their edges. And when the distance of their edges was about the 400th part of an Inch, the stream parted in the middle, and left a Shadow between the two parts. This Shadow was so black and dark that all the Light which passed between the Knives seem'd to be bent, and turn'd aside to the one hand or to the other. And as the Knives still approach'd one another the Shadow grew broader, and the streams shorter at their inward ends which were next the Shadow, until upon the contact of the Knives the whole Light vanish'd, leaving its place to the Shadow.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00616", "bookId": 33504, "start": 454946, "end": 455566, "sha256": "cf7157a22ed7fd199dfecc9a0e2b7c719104016fe67b52a0b38c79b7877dc44b", "text": "And hence I gather that the Light which is least bent, and goes to the inward ends of the streams, passes by the edges of the Knives at the greatest distance, and this distance when the Shadow begins to appear between the streams, is about the 800th part of an Inch. And the Light which passes by the edges of the Knives at distances still less and less, is more and more bent, and goes to those parts of the streams which are farther and farther from the direct Light; because when the Knives approach one another till they touch, those parts of the streams vanish last which are farthest from the direct Light.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00617", "bookId": 33504, "start": 455570, "end": 457223, "sha256": "4416e7f074b323359f36db252df3c8ddecda90f903d81a355bb59b85df9d7f01", "text": "_Obs._ 7. In the fifth Observation the Fringes did not appear, but by reason of the breadth of the hole in the Window became so broad as to run into one another, and by joining, to make one continued Light in the beginning of the streams. But in the sixth, as the Knives approached one another, a little before the Shadow appeared between the two streams, the Fringes began to appear on the inner ends of the Streams on either side of the direct Light; three on one side made by the edge of one Knife, and three on the other side made by the edge of the other Knife. They were distinctest when the Knives were placed at the greatest distance from the hole in the Window, and still became more distinct by making the hole less, insomuch that I could sometimes see a faint lineament of a fourth Fringe beyond the three above mention'd. And as the Knives continually approach'd one another, the Fringes grew distincter and larger, until they vanish'd. The outmost Fringe vanish'd first, and the middlemost next, and the innermost last. And after they were all vanish'd, and the line of Light which was in the middle between them was grown very broad, enlarging it self on both sides into the streams of Light described in the fifth Observation, the above-mention'd Shadow began to appear in the middle of this line, and divide it along the middle into two lines of Light, and increased until the whole Light vanish'd. This enlargement of the Fringes was so great that the Rays which go to the innermost Fringe seem'd to be bent above twenty times more when this Fringe was ready to vanish, than when one of the Knives was taken away.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00618", "bookId": 33504, "start": 457227, "end": 457777, "sha256": "80fe120673bf170d40e3a2f14a1cc060ced15fb2fb98bfdd24312e66fbe3449c", "text": "And from this and the former Observation compared, I gather, that the Light of the first Fringe passed by the edge of the Knife at a distance greater than the 800th part of an Inch, and the Light of the second Fringe passed by the edge of the Knife at a greater distance than the Light of the first Fringe did, and that of the third at a greater distance than that of the second, and that of the streams of Light described in the fifth and sixth Observations passed by the edges of the Knives at less distances than that of any of the Fringes.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00619", "bookId": 33504, "start": 457781, "end": 459368, "sha256": "6b1bfc070e463cb32d16bfb09ee0ed04eb853d421240563a7f8d95ea60dd0830", "text": "_Obs._ 8. I caused the edges of two Knives to be ground truly strait, and pricking their points into a Board so that their edges might look towards one another, and meeting near their points contain a rectilinear Angle, I fasten'd their Handles together with Pitch to make this Angle invariable. The distance of the edges of the Knives from one another at the distance of four Inches from the angular Point, where the edges of the Knives met, was the eighth part of an Inch; and therefore the Angle contain'd by the edges was about one Degree 54: The Knives thus fix'd together I placed in a beam of the Sun's Light, let into my darken'd Chamber through a Hole the 42d Part of an Inch wide, at the distance of 10 or 15 Feet from the Hole, and let the Light which passed between their edges fall very obliquely upon a smooth white Ruler at the distance of half an Inch, or an Inch from the Knives, and there saw the Fringes by the two edges of the Knives run along the edges of the Shadows of the Knives in Lines parallel to those edges without growing sensibly broader, till they met in Angles equal to the Angle contained by the edges of the Knives, and where they met and joined they ended without crossing one another. But if the Ruler was held at a much greater distance from the Knives, the Fringes where they were farther from the Place of their Meeting, were a little narrower, and became something broader and broader as they approach'd nearer and nearer to one another, and after they met they cross'd one another, and then became much broader than before.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00620", "bookId": 33504, "start": 459372, "end": 459724, "sha256": "cdd78d2d74f60d76622381ac353a2f77345a762b3774f19769512a557caaa3b7", "text": "Whence I gather that the distances at which the Fringes pass by the Knives are not increased nor alter'd by the approach of the Knives, but the Angles in which the Rays are there bent are much increased by that approach; and that the Knife which is nearest any Ray determines which way the Ray shall be bent, and the other Knife increases the bent.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00621", "bookId": 33504, "start": 459728, "end": 461562, "sha256": "c19a87a5711f717071368f846e19313fb88a8a7a9a8c07342950e64eb80dc4ac", "text": "_Obs._ 9. When the Rays fell very obliquely upon the Ruler at the distance of the third Part of an Inch from the Knives, the dark Line between the first and second Fringe of the Shadow of one Knife, and the dark Line between the first and second Fringe of the Shadow of the other knife met with one another, at the distance of the fifth Part of an Inch from the end of the Light which passed between the Knives at the concourse of their edges. And therefore the distance of the edges of the Knives at the meeting of these dark Lines was the 160th Part of an Inch. For as four Inches to the eighth Part of an Inch, so is any Length of the edges of the Knives measured from the point of their concourse to the distance of the edges of the Knives at the end of that Length, and so is the fifth Part of an Inch to the 160th Part. So then the dark Lines above-mention'd meet in the middle of the Light which passes between the Knives where they are distant the 160th Part of an Inch, and the one half of that Light passes by the edge of one Knife at a distance not greater than the 320th Part of an Inch, and falling upon the Paper makes the Fringes of the Shadow of that Knife, and the other half passes by the edge of the other Knife, at a distance not greater than the 320th Part of an Inch, and falling upon the Paper makes the Fringes of the Shadow of the other Knife. But if the Paper be held at a distance from the Knives greater than the third Part of an Inch, the dark Lines above-mention'd meet at a greater distance than the fifth Part of an Inch from the end of the Light which passed between the Knives at the concourse of their edges; and therefore the Light which falls upon the Paper where those dark Lines meet passes between the Knives where the edges are distant above the 160th part of an Inch.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00622", "bookId": 33504, "start": 461566, "end": 461956, "sha256": "05e3b4bc7140de6423aca0392bdf5a299d1e69e5133aaf555bc12916024c8463", "text": "For at another time, when the two Knives were distant eight Feet and five Inches from the little hole in the Window, made with a small Pin as above, the Light which fell upon the Paper where the aforesaid dark lines met, passed between the Knives, where the distance between their edges was as in the following Table, when the distance of the Paper from the Knives was also as follows.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00623", "bookId": 33504, "start": 461960, "end": 462620, "sha256": "5876371bb1cb80820068deb3f9402c931d85ea9f1db7fbe61801a9b75a882f6b", "text": "-----------------------------+------------------------------ | Distances between the edges Distances of the Paper | of the Knives in millesimal from the Knives in Inches. | parts of an Inch. -----------------------------+------------------------------ 1-1/2. | 0'012 3-1/3. | 0'020 8-3/5. | 0'034 32. | 0'057 96. | 0'081 131. | 0'087 _____________________________|______________________________", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00624", "bookId": 33504, "start": 462624, "end": 462989, "sha256": "f8b66ffc082d30cb582da29d46a7f45a45a1a2a5298210531ea33406ed91df8c", "text": "And hence I gather, that the Light which makes the Fringes upon the Paper is not the same Light at all distances of the Paper from the Knives, but when the Paper is held near the Knives, the Fringes are made by Light which passes by the edges of the Knives at a less distance, and is more bent than when the Paper is held at a greater distance from the Knives.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00625", "bookId": 33504, "start": 462993, "end": 463016, "sha256": "93987a544b734349ca441eca4eff23520b6c1db7c42d972e33a01c61140917ae", "text": "[Illustration: FIG. 3.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00626", "bookId": 33504, "start": 463020, "end": 465580, "sha256": "9fa8be3206fdd0564e3cca78a6b45dc1b0fd200b5162582fd110e166a859a4aa", "text": "_Obs._ 10. When the Fringes of the Shadows of the Knives fell perpendicularly upon a Paper at a great distance from the Knives, they were in the form of Hyperbola's, and their Dimensions were as follows. Let CA, CB [in _Fig._ 3.] represent Lines drawn upon the Paper parallel to the edges of the Knives, and between which all the Light would fall, if it passed between the edges of the Knives without inflexion; DE a Right Line drawn through C making the Angles ACD, BCE, equal to one another, and terminating all the Light which falls upon the Paper from the point where the edges of the Knives meet; _eis_, _fkt_, and _glv_, three hyperbolical Lines representing the Terminus of the Shadow of one of the Knives, the dark Line between the first and second Fringes of that Shadow, and the dark Line between the second and third Fringes of the same Shadow; _xip_, _ykq_, and _zlr_, three other hyperbolical Lines representing the Terminus of the Shadow of the other Knife, the dark Line between the first and second Fringes of that Shadow, and the dark line between the second and third Fringes of the same Shadow. And conceive that these three Hyperbola's are like and equal to the former three, and cross them in the points _i_, _k_, and _l_, and that the Shadows of the Knives are terminated and distinguish'd from the first luminous Fringes by the lines _eis_ and _xip_, until the meeting and crossing of the Fringes, and then those lines cross the Fringes in the form of dark lines, terminating the first luminous Fringes within side, and distinguishing them from another Light which begins to appear at _i_, and illuminates all the triangular space _ip_DE_s_ comprehended by these dark lines, and the right line DE. Of these Hyperbola's one Asymptote is the line DE, and their other Asymptotes are parallel to the lines CA and CB. Let _rv_ represent a line drawn any where upon the Paper parallel to the Asymptote DE, and let this line cross the right lines AC in _m_, and BC in _n_, and the six dark hyperbolical lines in _p_, _q_, _r_; _s_, _t_, _v_; and by measuring the distances _ps_, _qt_, _rv_, and thence collecting the lengths of the Ordinates _np_, _nq_, _nr_ or _ms_, _mt_, _mv_, and doing this at several distances of the line _rv_ from the Asymptote DD, you may find as many points of these Hyperbola's as you please, and thereby know that these curve lines are Hyperbola's differing little from the conical Hyperbola. And by measuring the lines C_i_, C_k_, C_l_, you may find other points of these Curves.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00627", "bookId": 33504, "start": 465584, "end": 466387, "sha256": "4ea1c7708e12502188a422bfe19e0702ba5e3a3c027bab8f217ddce39ed0f2c0", "text": "For instance; when the Knives were distant from the hole in the Window ten Feet, and the Paper from the Knives nine Feet, and the Angle contained by the edges of the Knives to which the Angle ACB is equal, was subtended by a Chord which was to the Radius as 1 to 32, and the distance of the line _rv_ from the Asymptote DE was half an Inch: I measured the lines _ps_, _qt_, _rv_, and found them 0'35, 0'65, 0'98 Inches respectively; and by adding to their halfs the line 1/2 _mn_, (which here was the 128th part of an Inch, or 0'0078 Inches,) the Sums _np_, _nq_, _nr_, were 0'1828, 0'3328, 0'4978 Inches. I measured also the distances of the brightest parts of the Fringes which run between _pq_ and _st_, _qr_ and _tv_, and next beyond _r_ and _v_, and found them 0'5, 0'8, and 1'17 Inches.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00628", "bookId": 33504, "start": 466391, "end": 468104, "sha256": "de31b0fea6960515019c669910d2818af8e5a6bece58a892435bedf26ac59577", "text": "_Obs._ 11. The Sun shining into my darken'd Room through a small round hole made in a Plate of Lead with a slender Pin, as above; I placed at the hole a Prism to refract the Light, and form on the opposite Wall the Spectrum of Colours, described in the third Experiment of the first Book. And then I found that the Shadows of all Bodies held in the colour'd Light between the Prism and the Wall, were border'd with Fringes of the Colour of that Light in which they were held. In the full red Light they were totally red without any sensible blue or violet, and in the deep blue Light they were totally blue without any sensible red or yellow; and so in the green Light they were totally green, excepting a little yellow and blue, which were mixed in the green Light of the Prism. And comparing the Fringes made in the several colour'd Lights, I found that those made in the red Light were largest, those made in the violet were least, and those made in the green were of a middle bigness. For the Fringes with which the Shadow of a Man's Hair were bordered, being measured cross the Shadow at the distance of six Inches from the Hair, the distance between the middle and most luminous part of the first or innermost Fringe on one side of the Shadow, and that of the like Fringe on the other side of the Shadow, was in the full red Light 1/37-1/4 of an Inch, and in the full violet 7/46. And the like distance between the middle and most luminous parts of the second Fringes on either side the Shadow was in the full red Light 1/22, and in the violet 1/27 of an Inch. And these distances of the Fringes held the same proportion at all distances from the Hair without any sensible variation.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00629", "bookId": 33504, "start": 468108, "end": 468687, "sha256": "539ed8bd7a00f16877a725bd7190dc6fe9978cbc17c022d2b43c5e6bd6460165", "text": "So then the Rays which made these Fringes in the red Light passed by the Hair at a greater distance than those did which made the like Fringes in the violet; and therefore the Hair in causing these Fringes acted alike upon the red Light or least refrangible Rays at a greater distance, and upon the violet or most refrangible Rays at a less distance, and by those actions disposed the red Light into Larger Fringes, and the violet into smaller, and the Lights of intermediate Colours into Fringes of intermediate bignesses without changing the Colour of any sort of Light.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00630", "bookId": 33504, "start": 468691, "end": 470993, "sha256": "b185345ca44f751e738d9f20f036bf24c4335580459e01ac046408322564ac25", "text": "When therefore the Hair in the first and second of these Observations was held in the white beam of the Sun's Light, and cast a Shadow which was border'd with three Fringes of coloured Light, those Colours arose not from any new modifications impress'd upon the Rays of Light by the Hair, but only from the various inflexions whereby the several Sorts of Rays were separated from one another, which before separation, by the mixture of all their Colours, composed the white beam of the Sun's Light, but whenever separated compose Lights of the several Colours which they are originally disposed to exhibit. In this 11th Observation, where the Colours are separated before the Light passes by the Hair, the least refrangible Rays, which when separated from the rest make red, were inflected at a greater distance from the Hair, so as to make three red Fringes at a greater distance from the middle of the Shadow of the Hair; and the most refrangible Rays which when separated make violet, were inflected at a less distance from the Hair, so as to make three violet Fringes at a less distance from the middle of the Shadow of the Hair. And other Rays of intermediate degrees of Refrangibility were inflected at intermediate distances from the Hair, so as to make Fringes of intermediate Colours at intermediate distances from the middle of the Shadow of the Hair. And in the second Observation, where all the Colours are mix'd in the white Light which passes by the Hair, these Colours are separated by the various inflexions of the Rays, and the Fringes which they make appear all together, and the innermost Fringes being contiguous make one broad Fringe composed of all the Colours in due order, the violet lying on the inside of the Fringe next the Shadow, the red on the outside farthest from the Shadow, and the blue, green, and yellow, in the middle. And, in like manner, the middlemost Fringes of all the Colours lying in order, and being contiguous, make another broad Fringe composed of all the Colours; and the outmost Fringes of all the Colours lying in order, and being contiguous, make a third broad Fringe composed of all the Colours. These are the three Fringes of colour'd Light with which the Shadows of all Bodies are border'd in the second Observation.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00631", "bookId": 33504, "start": 470997, "end": 471543, "sha256": "8356ae0413e46db3c33b60289137f9f00eb1f174ec46fd48aec051df8a4d4477", "text": "When I made the foregoing Observations, I design'd to repeat most of them with more care and exactness, and to make some new ones for determining the manner how the Rays of Light are bent in their passage by Bodies, for making the Fringes of Colours with the dark lines between them. But I was then interrupted, and cannot now think of taking these things into farther Consideration. And since I have not finish'd this part of my Design, I shall conclude with proposing only some Queries, in order to a farther search to be made by others.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00632", "bookId": 33504, "start": 471547, "end": 471715, "sha256": "08a30e40de514952be8d434d52c2d83099ddcac6fef17a7e68ea57265f16952a", "text": "_Query_ 1. Do not Bodies act upon Light at a distance, and by their action bend its Rays; and is not this action (_caeteris paribus_) strongest at the least distance?", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00633", "bookId": 33504, "start": 471719, "end": 472024, "sha256": "93bee5588dae2ea5cb4afb46f4fea5c24ab9dd22af51d24f2ffc3a1bfe4f49f9", "text": "_Qu._ 2. Do not the Rays which differ in Refrangibility differ also in Flexibity; and are they not by their different Inflexions separated from one another, so as after separation to make the Colours in the three Fringes above described? And after what manner are they inflected to make those Fringes?", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00634", "bookId": 33504, "start": 472028, "end": 472283, "sha256": "f4ac6e366b04163f5e93d60d40eb2545c74562650a4b63fb2be5f2e7810a15fd", "text": "_Qu._ 3. Are not the Rays of Light in passing by the edges and sides of Bodies, bent several times backwards and forwards, with a motion like that of an Eel? And do not the three Fringes of colour'd Light above-mention'd arise from three such bendings?", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00635", "bookId": 33504, "start": 472287, "end": 472555, "sha256": "25782ffb85f29b083b3dc0aafb6dbba2b47221910c19b020845f947348ff65e1", "text": "_Qu._ 4. Do not the Rays of Light which fall upon Bodies, and are reflected or refracted, begin to bend before they arrive at the Bodies; and are they not reflected, refracted, and inflected, by one and the same Principle, acting variously in various Circumstances?", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00636", "bookId": 33504, "start": 472559, "end": 472825, "sha256": "6a5281473433c7577a21b943c555c403d95c4cd756e49d487122d6169dbac05b", "text": "_Qu._ 5. Do not Bodies and Light act mutually upon one another; that is to say, Bodies upon Light in emitting, reflecting, refracting and inflecting it, and Light upon Bodies for heating them, and putting their parts into a vibrating motion wherein heat consists?", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00637", "bookId": 33504, "start": 472829, "end": 473100, "sha256": "bd16f9e255105f419476e81e4e05d1a7943c8663a7fe1c31d7230e2fd121d8fa", "text": "_Qu._ 6. Do not black Bodies conceive heat more easily from Light than those of other Colours do, by reason that the Light falling on them is not reflected outwards, but enters the Bodies, and is often reflected and refracted within them, until it be stifled and lost?", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00638", "bookId": 33504, "start": 473104, "end": 473316, "sha256": "be56b84b00a910aca54aa76ae888139a9377a28d17659833c1f290165e3f91e2", "text": "_Qu._ 7. Is not the strength and vigor of the action between Light and sulphureous Bodies observed above, one reason why sulphureous Bodies take fire more readily, and burn more vehemently than other Bodies do?", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00639", "bookId": 33504, "start": 473320, "end": 475722, "sha256": "3185150beb277f3cfaad07015280717e8b0f0dc028be13afedd0a7fc8e4a1d43", "text": "_Qu._ 8. Do not all fix'd Bodies, when heated beyond a certain degree, emit Light and shine; and is not this Emission perform'd by the vibrating motions of their parts? And do not all Bodies which abound with terrestrial parts, and especially with sulphureous ones, emit Light as often as those parts are sufficiently agitated; whether that agitation be made by Heat, or by Friction, or Percussion, or Putrefaction, or by any vital Motion, or any other Cause? As for instance; Sea-Water in a raging Storm; Quick-silver agitated in _vacuo_; the Back of a Cat, or Neck of a Horse, obliquely struck or rubbed in a dark place; Wood, Flesh and Fish while they putrefy; Vapours arising from putrefy'd Waters, usually call'd _Ignes Fatui_; Stacks of moist Hay or Corn growing hot by fermentation; Glow-worms and the Eyes of some Animals by vital Motions; the vulgar _Phosphorus_ agitated by the attrition of any Body, or by the acid Particles of the Air; Amber and some Diamonds by striking, pressing or rubbing them; Scrapings of Steel struck off with a Flint; Iron hammer'd very nimbly till it become so hot as to kindle Sulphur thrown upon it; the Axletrees of Chariots taking fire by the rapid rotation of the Wheels; and some Liquors mix'd with one another whose Particles come together with an Impetus, as Oil of Vitriol distilled from its weight of Nitre, and then mix'd with twice its weight of Oil of Anniseeds. So also a Globe of Glass about 8 or 10 Inches in diameter, being put into a Frame where it may be swiftly turn'd round its Axis, will in turning shine where it rubs against the palm of ones Hand apply'd to it: And if at the same time a piece of white Paper or white Cloth, or the end of ones Finger be held at the distance of about a quarter of an Inch or half an Inch from that part of the Glass where it is most in motion, the electrick Vapour which is excited by the friction of the Glass against the Hand, will by dashing against the white Paper, Cloth or Finger, be put into such an agitation as to emit Light, and make the white Paper, Cloth or Finger, appear lucid like a Glowworm; and in rushing out of the Glass will sometimes push against the finger so as to be felt. And the same things have been found by rubbing a long and large Cylinder or Glass or Amber with a Paper held in ones hand, and continuing the friction till the Glass grew warm.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00640", "bookId": 33504, "start": 475726, "end": 475891, "sha256": "4ff19d49509cd80c106a8d5fadf58defd0c49eb0eed69c386a0ad06d16bca8cb", "text": "_Qu._ 9. Is not Fire a Body heated so hot as to emit Light copiously? For what else is a red hot Iron than Fire? And what else is a burning Coal than red hot Wood?", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00641", "bookId": 33504, "start": 475895, "end": 478770, "sha256": "90ae952fb263525a60a157245966e0835c1f8bd49d7e13638861fc357b3ae5f4", "text": "_Qu._ 10. Is not Flame a Vapour, Fume or Exhalation heated red hot, that is, so hot as to shine? For Bodies do not flame without emitting a copious Fume, and this Fume burns in the Flame. The _Ignis Fatuus_ is a Vapour shining without heat, and is there not the same difference between this Vapour and Flame, as between rotten Wood shining without heat and burning Coals of Fire? In distilling hot Spirits, if the Head of the Still be taken off, the Vapour which ascends out of the Still will take fire at the Flame of a Candle, and turn into Flame, and the Flame will run along the Vapour from the Candle to the Still. Some Bodies heated by Motion, or Fermentation, if the heat grow intense, fume copiously, and if the heat be great enough the Fumes will shine and become Flame. Metals in fusion do not flame for want of a copious Fume, except Spelter, which fumes copiously, and thereby flames. All flaming Bodies, as Oil, Tallow, Wax, Wood, fossil Coals, Pitch, Sulphur, by flaming waste and vanish into burning Smoke, which Smoke, if the Flame be put out, is very thick and visible, and sometimes smells strongly, but in the Flame loses its smell by burning, and according to the nature of the Smoke the Flame is of several Colours, as that of Sulphur blue, that of Copper open'd with sublimate green, that of Tallow yellow, that of Camphire white. Smoke passing through Flame cannot but grow red hot, and red hot Smoke can have no other appearance than that of Flame. When Gun-powder takes fire, it goes away into Flaming Smoke. For the Charcoal and Sulphur easily take fire, and set fire to the Nitre, and the Spirit of the Nitre being thereby rarified into Vapour, rushes out with Explosion much after the manner that the Vapour of Water rushes out of an AEolipile; the Sulphur also being volatile is converted into Vapour, and augments the Explosion. And the acid Vapour of the Sulphur (namely that which distils under a Bell into Oil of Sulphur,) entring violently into the fix'd Body of the Nitre, sets loose the Spirit of the Nitre, and excites a great Fermentation, whereby the Heat is farther augmented, and the fix'd Body of the Nitre is also rarified into Fume, and the Explosion is thereby made more vehement and quick. For if Salt of Tartar be mix'd with Gun-powder, and that Mixture be warm'd till it takes fire, the Explosion will be more violent and quick than that of Gun-powder alone; which cannot proceed from any other cause than the action of the Vapour of the Gun-powder upon the Salt of Tartar, whereby that Salt is rarified. The Explosion of Gun-powder arises therefore from the violent action whereby all the Mixture being quickly and vehemently heated, is rarified and converted into Fume and Vapour: which Vapour, by the violence of that action, becoming so hot as to shine, appears in the form of Flame.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00642", "bookId": 33504, "start": 478774, "end": 481091, "sha256": "279d4f89ff8ec9631f216af5f9bed80cade1b32984e2c72b49ad6d3475cb4952", "text": "_Qu._ 11. Do not great Bodies conserve their heat the longest, their parts heating one another, and may not great dense and fix'd Bodies, when heated beyond a certain degree, emit Light so copiously, as by the Emission and Re-action of its Light, and the Reflexions and Refractions of its Rays within its Pores to grow still hotter, till it comes to a certain period of heat, such as is that of the Sun? And are not the Sun and fix'd Stars great Earths vehemently hot, whose heat is conserved by the greatness of the Bodies, and the mutual Action and Reaction between them, and the Light which they emit, and whose parts are kept from fuming away, not only by their fixity, but also by the vast weight and density of the Atmospheres incumbent upon them; and very strongly compressing them, and condensing the Vapours and Exhalations which arise from them? For if Water be made warm in any pellucid Vessel emptied of Air, that Water in the _Vacuum_ will bubble and boil as vehemently as it would in the open Air in a Vessel set upon the Fire till it conceives a much greater heat. For the weight of the incumbent Atmosphere keeps down the Vapours, and hinders the Water from boiling, until it grow much hotter than is requisite to make it boil _in vacuo_. Also a mixture of Tin and Lead being put upon a red hot Iron _in vacuo_ emits a Fume and Flame, but the same Mixture in the open Air, by reason of the incumbent Atmosphere, does not so much as emit any Fume which can be perceived by Sight. In like manner the great weight of the Atmosphere which lies upon the Globe of the Sun may hinder Bodies there from rising up and going away from the Sun in the form of Vapours and Fumes, unless by means of a far greater heat than that which on the Surface of our Earth would very easily turn them into Vapours and Fumes. And the same great weight may condense those Vapours and Exhalations as soon as they shall at any time begin to ascend from the Sun, and make them presently fall back again into him, and by that action increase his Heat much after the manner that in our Earth the Air increases the Heat of a culinary Fire. And the same weight may hinder the Globe of the Sun from being diminish'd, unless by the Emission of Light, and a very small quantity of Vapours and Exhalations.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00643", "bookId": 33504, "start": 481095, "end": 481959, "sha256": "66cefa55674e36138c9f20865d49ec8d1506c0943b2f9d8a78ec0627981f22dd", "text": "_Qu._ 12. Do not the Rays of Light in falling upon the bottom of the Eye excite Vibrations in the _Tunica Retina_? Which Vibrations, being propagated along the solid Fibres of the optick Nerves into the Brain, cause the Sense of seeing. For because dense Bodies conserve their Heat a long time, and the densest Bodies conserve their Heat the longest, the Vibrations of their parts are of a lasting nature, and therefore may be propagated along solid Fibres of uniform dense Matter to a great distance, for conveying into the Brain the impressions made upon all the Organs of Sense. For that Motion which can continue long in one and the same part of a Body, can be propagated a long way from one part to another, supposing the Body homogeneal, so that the Motion may not be reflected, refracted, interrupted or disorder'd by any unevenness of the Body.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00644", "bookId": 33504, "start": 481963, "end": 482583, "sha256": "0f0c6433144f4047d8103962f8de2d87e831f4f320275af5be40404b1e518627", "text": "_Qu._ 13. Do not several sorts of Rays make Vibrations of several bignesses, which according to their bignesses excite Sensations of several Colours, much after the manner that the Vibrations of the Air, according to their several bignesses excite Sensations of several Sounds? And particularly do not the most refrangible Rays excite the shortest Vibrations for making a Sensation of deep violet, the least refrangible the largest for making a Sensation of deep red, and the several intermediate sorts of Rays, Vibrations of several intermediate bignesses to make Sensations of the several intermediate Colours?", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00645", "bookId": 33504, "start": 482587, "end": 482976, "sha256": "7488daef5929b918b2eefa69d28d2300606e3573440a36a8150e691447dcc226", "text": "_Qu._ 14. May not the harmony and discord of Colours arise from the proportions of the Vibrations propagated through the Fibres of the optick Nerves into the Brain, as the harmony and discord of Sounds arise from the proportions of the Vibrations of the Air? For some Colours, if they be view'd together, are agreeable to one another, as those of Gold and Indigo, and others disagree.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00646", "bookId": 33504, "start": 482980, "end": 484206, "sha256": "841d42bb20d48f997a753b051146a3e82a3a24d74c9a59e95fab8f59e580df86", "text": "_Qu._ 15. Are not the Species of Objects seen with both Eyes united where the optick Nerves meet before they come into the Brain, the Fibres on the right side of both Nerves uniting there, and after union going thence into the Brain in the Nerve which is on the right side of the Head, and the Fibres on the left side of both Nerves uniting in the same place, and after union going into the Brain in the Nerve which is on the left side of the Head, and these two Nerves meeting in the Brain in such a manner that their Fibres make but one entire Species or Picture, half of which on the right side of the Sensorium comes from the right side of both Eyes through the right side of both optick Nerves to the place where the Nerves meet, and from thence on the right side of the Head into the Brain, and the other half on the left side of the Sensorium comes in like manner from the left side of both Eyes. For the optick Nerves of such Animals as look the same way with both Eyes (as of Men, Dogs, Sheep, Oxen, &c.) meet before they come into the Brain, but the optick Nerves of such Animals as do not look the same way with both Eyes (as of Fishes, and of the Chameleon,) do not meet, if I am rightly inform'd.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00647", "bookId": 33504, "start": 484210, "end": 485431, "sha256": "6498389116f7e8448dc4b9c8b3c07e638059d496b199ddcb03b70a4348d05375", "text": "_Qu._ 16. When a Man in the dark presses either corner of his Eye with his Finger, and turns his Eye away from his Finger, he will see a Circle of Colours like those in the Feather of a Peacock's Tail. If the Eye and the Finger remain quiet these Colours vanish in a second Minute of Time, but if the Finger be moved with a quavering Motion they appear again. Do not these Colours arise from such Motions excited in the bottom of the Eye by the Pressure and Motion of the Finger, as, at other times are excited there by Light for causing Vision? And do not the Motions once excited continue about a Second of Time before they cease? And when a Man by a stroke upon his Eye sees a flash of Light, are not the like Motions excited in the _Retina_ by the stroke? And when a Coal of Fire moved nimbly in the circumference of a Circle, makes the whole circumference appear like a Circle of Fire; is it not because the Motions excited in the bottom of the Eye by the Rays of Light are of a lasting nature, and continue till the Coal of Fire in going round returns to its former place? And considering the lastingness of the Motions excited in the bottom of the Eye by Light, are they not of a vibrating nature?", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00648", "bookId": 33504, "start": 485435, "end": 486840, "sha256": "db79edb65cb58fc686ca4c63e0c1e662a129629717ddb0c805a21865d73a76ab", "text": "_Qu._ 17. If a stone be thrown into stagnating Water, the Waves excited thereby continue some time to arise in the place where the Stone fell into the Water, and are propagated from thence in concentrick Circles upon the Surface of the Water to great distances. And the Vibrations or Tremors excited in the Air by percussion, continue a little time to move from the place of percussion in concentrick Spheres to great distances. And in like manner, when a Ray of Light falls upon the Surface of any pellucid Body, and is there refracted or reflected, may not Waves of Vibrations, or Tremors, be thereby excited in the refracting or reflecting Medium at the point of Incidence, and continue to arise there, and to be propagated from thence as long as they continue to arise and be propagated, when they are excited in the bottom of the Eye by the Pressure or Motion of the Finger, or by the Light which comes from the Coal of Fire in the Experiments above-mention'd? and are not these Vibrations propagated from the point of Incidence to great distances? And do they not overtake the Rays of Light, and by overtaking them successively, do they not put them into the Fits of easy Reflexion and easy Transmission described above? For if the Rays endeavour to recede from the densest part of the Vibration, they may be alternately accelerated and retarded by the Vibrations overtaking them.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00649", "bookId": 33504, "start": 486844, "end": 488263, "sha256": "d2157ced95a1c7b3c47fd6ace99355ad51c7199d5d83f339f7faa967f22b2244", "text": "_Qu._ 18. If in two large tall cylindrical Vessels of Glass inverted, two little Thermometers be suspended so as not to touch the Vessels, and the Air be drawn out of one of these Vessels, and these Vessels thus prepared be carried out of a cold place into a warm one; the Thermometer _in vacuo_ will grow warm as much, and almost as soon as the Thermometer which is not _in vacuo_. And when the Vessels are carried back into the cold place, the Thermometer _in vacuo_ will grow cold almost as soon as the other Thermometer. Is not the Heat of the warm Room convey'd through the _Vacuum_ by the Vibrations of a much subtiler Medium than Air, which after the Air was drawn out remained in the _Vacuum_? And is not this Medium the same with that Medium by which Light is refracted and reflected, and by whose Vibrations Light communicates Heat to Bodies, and is put into Fits of easy Reflexion and easy Transmission? And do not the Vibrations of this Medium in hot Bodies contribute to the intenseness and duration of their Heat? And do not hot Bodies communicate their Heat to contiguous cold ones, by the Vibrations of this Medium propagated from them into the cold ones? And is not this Medium exceedingly more rare and subtile than the Air, and exceedingly more elastick and active? And doth it not readily pervade all Bodies? And is it not (by its elastick force) expanded through all the Heavens?", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00650", "bookId": 33504, "start": 488267, "end": 488932, "sha256": "d854af28714a97be907339e04bc31e548e09db6ae9a2e748e973c3a7b61bc8cd", "text": "_Qu._ 19. Doth not the Refraction of Light proceed from the different density of this AEthereal Medium in different places, the Light receding always from the denser parts of the Medium? And is not the density thereof greater in free and open Spaces void of Air and other grosser Bodies, than within the Pores of Water, Glass, Crystal, Gems, and other compact Bodies? For when Light passes through Glass or Crystal, and falling very obliquely upon the farther Surface thereof is totally reflected, the total Reflexion ought to proceed rather from the density and vigour of the Medium without and beyond the Glass, than from the rarity and weakness thereof.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00651", "bookId": 33504, "start": 488936, "end": 489443, "sha256": "628bd3f454d07563aa09d7d1ed42dfb722da4b53f71a78e166f30ce939402094", "text": "_Qu._ 20. Doth not this AEthereal Medium in passing out of Water, Glass, Crystal, and other compact and dense Bodies into empty Spaces, grow denser and denser by degrees, and by that means refract the Rays of Light not in a point, but by bending them gradually in curve Lines? And doth not the gradual condensation of this Medium extend to some distance from the Bodies, and thereby cause the Inflexions of the Rays of Light, which pass by the edges of dense Bodies, at some distance from the Bodies?", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00652", "bookId": 33504, "start": 489447, "end": 491635, "sha256": "50b88ca6b9e5fd64442754f6286148108bd2f62ff301f2f3aed792cdbdcc0a8e", "text": "_Qu._ 21. Is not this Medium much rarer within the dense Bodies of the Sun, Stars, Planets and Comets, than in the empty celestial Spaces between them? And in passing from them to great distances, doth it not grow denser and denser perpetually, and thereby cause the gravity of those great Bodies towards one another, and of their parts towards the Bodies; every Body endeavouring to go from the denser parts of the Medium towards the rarer? For if this Medium be rarer within the Sun's Body than at its Surface, and rarer there than at the hundredth part of an Inch from its Body, and rarer there than at the fiftieth part of an Inch from its Body, and rarer there than at the Orb of _Saturn_; I see no reason why the Increase of density should stop any where, and not rather be continued through all distances from the Sun to _Saturn_, and beyond. And though this Increase of density may at great distances be exceeding slow, yet if the elastick force of this Medium be exceeding great, it may suffice to impel Bodies from the denser parts of the Medium towards the rarer, with all that power which we call Gravity. And that the elastick force of this Medium is exceeding great, may be gather'd from the swiftness of its Vibrations. Sounds move about 1140 _English_ Feet in a second Minute of Time, and in seven or eight Minutes of Time they move about one hundred _English_ Miles. Light moves from the Sun to us in about seven or eight Minutes of Time, which distance is about 70,000,000 _English_ Miles, supposing the horizontal Parallax of the Sun to be about 12''. And the Vibrations or Pulses of this Medium, that they may cause the alternate Fits of easy Transmission and easy Reflexion, must be swifter than Light, and by consequence above 700,000 times swifter than Sounds. And therefore the elastick force of this Medium, in proportion to its density, must be above 700000 x 700000 (that is, above 490,000,000,000) times greater than the elastick force of the Air is in proportion to its density. For the Velocities of the Pulses of elastick Mediums are in a subduplicate _Ratio_ of the Elasticities and the Rarities of the Mediums taken together.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00653", "bookId": 33504, "start": 491639, "end": 492701, "sha256": "97236048fb95a840b27487f984a42056494e42a6848f1780b86f000124d14e94", "text": "As Attraction is stronger in small Magnets than in great ones in proportion to their Bulk, and Gravity is greater in the Surfaces of small Planets than in those of great ones in proportion to their bulk, and small Bodies are agitated much more by electric attraction than great ones; so the smallness of the Rays of Light may contribute very much to the power of the Agent by which they are refracted. And so if any one should suppose that _AEther_ (like our Air) may contain Particles which endeavour to recede from one another (for I do not know what this _AEther_ is) and that its Particles are exceedingly smaller than those of Air, or even than those of Light: The exceeding smallness of its Particles may contribute to the greatness of the force by which those Particles may recede from one another, and thereby make that Medium exceedingly more rare and elastick than Air, and by consequence exceedingly less able to resist the motions of Projectiles, and exceedingly more able to press upon gross Bodies, by endeavouring to expand it self.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00654", "bookId": 33504, "start": 492705, "end": 494221, "sha256": "a8da7d14eeb638e7c645585fe4885fb0ec314202e8d3e80893999d3d4dd9ab4b", "text": "_Qu._ 22. May not Planets and Comets, and all gross Bodies, perform their Motions more freely, and with less resistance in this AEthereal Medium than in any Fluid, which fills all Space adequately without leaving any Pores, and by consequence is much denser than Quick-silver or Gold? And may not its resistance be so small, as to be inconsiderable? For instance; If this _AEther_ (for so I will call it) should be supposed 700000 times more elastick than our Air, and above 700000 times more rare; its resistance would be above 600,000,000 times less than that of Water. And so small a resistance would scarce make any sensible alteration in the Motions of the Planets in ten thousand Years. If any one would ask how a Medium can be so rare, let him tell me how the Air, in the upper parts of the Atmosphere, can be above an hundred thousand thousand times rarer than Gold. Let him also tell me, how an electrick Body can by Friction emit an Exhalation so rare and subtile, and yet so potent, as by its Emission to cause no sensible Diminution of the weight of the electrick Body, and to be expanded through a Sphere, whose Diameter is above two Feet, and yet to be able to agitate and carry up Leaf Copper, or Leaf Gold, at the distance of above a Foot from the electrick Body? And how the Effluvia of a Magnet can be so rare and subtile, as to pass through a Plate of Glass without any Resistance or Diminution of their Force, and yet so potent as to turn a magnetick Needle beyond the Glass?", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00655", "bookId": 33504, "start": 494225, "end": 494763, "sha256": "eab8b18c4ddb060eb44142c19fd82f0210e09024702d3e1e72f9fb12de5c268a", "text": "_Qu._ 23. Is not Vision perform'd chiefly by the Vibrations of this Medium, excited in the bottom of the Eye by the Rays of Light, and propagated through the solid, pellucid and uniform Capillamenta of the optick Nerves into the place of Sensation? And is not Hearing perform'd by the Vibrations either of this or some other Medium, excited in the auditory Nerves by the Tremors of the Air, and propagated through the solid, pellucid and uniform Capillamenta of those Nerves into the place of Sensation? And so of the other Senses.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00656", "bookId": 33504, "start": 494767, "end": 495649, "sha256": "1389daca8486a946593fb2dd2c6351eedb7547d9eab295e71e6ac03ef958e66e", "text": "_Qu._ 24. Is not Animal Motion perform'd by the Vibrations of this Medium, excited in the Brain by the power of the Will, and propagated from thence through the solid, pellucid and uniform Capillamenta of the Nerves into the Muscles, for contracting and dilating them? I suppose that the Capillamenta of the Nerves are each of them solid and uniform, that the vibrating Motion of the AEthereal Medium may be propagated along them from one end to the other uniformly, and without interruption: For Obstructions in the Nerves create Palsies. And that they may be sufficiently uniform, I suppose them to be pellucid when view'd singly, tho' the Reflexions in their cylindrical Surfaces may make the whole Nerve (composed of many Capillamenta) appear opake and white. For opacity arises from reflecting Surfaces, such as may disturb and interrupt the Motions of this Medium.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00657", "bookId": 33504, "start": 495653, "end": 495700, "sha256": "f91392bd631ccf3495397764dbef4cb7c77bb4a3f60a6571b80934debd85c3a3", "text": "[Sidenote: _See the following Scheme, p. 356._]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00658", "bookId": 33504, "start": 495704, "end": 498258, "sha256": "bd55f497f834c3eb2795b7c255294e9ae9902858d982be3c5b267a3ebb6592d2", "text": "_Qu._ 25. Are there not other original Properties of the Rays of Light, besides those already described? An instance of another original Property we have in the Refraction of Island Crystal, described first by _Erasmus Bartholine_, and afterwards more exactly by _Hugenius_, in his Book _De la Lumiere_. This Crystal is a pellucid fissile Stone, clear as Water or Crystal of the Rock, and without Colour; enduring a red Heat without losing its transparency, and in a very strong Heat calcining without Fusion. Steep'd a Day or two in Water, it loses its natural Polish. Being rubb'd on Cloth, it attracts pieces of Straws and other light things, like Ambar or Glass; and with _Aqua fortis_ it makes an Ebullition. It seems to be a sort of Talk, and is found in form of an oblique Parallelopiped, with six parallelogram Sides and eight solid Angles. The obtuse Angles of the Parallelograms are each of them 101 Degrees and 52 Minutes; the acute ones 78 Degrees and 8 Minutes. Two of the solid Angles opposite to one another, as C and E, are compassed each of them with three of these obtuse Angles, and each of the other six with one obtuse and two acute ones. It cleaves easily in planes parallel to any of its Sides, and not in any other Planes. It cleaves with a glossy polite Surface not perfectly plane, but with some little unevenness. It is easily scratch'd, and by reason of its softness it takes a Polish very difficultly. It polishes better upon polish'd Looking-glass than upon Metal, and perhaps better upon Pitch, Leather or Parchment. Afterwards it must be rubb'd with a little Oil or white of an Egg, to fill up its Scratches; whereby it will become very transparent and polite. But for several Experiments, it is not necessary to polish it. If a piece of this crystalline Stone be laid upon a Book, every Letter of the Book seen through it will appear double, by means of a double Refraction. And if any beam of Light falls either perpendicularly, or in any oblique Angle upon any Surface of this Crystal, it becomes divided into two beams by means of the same double Refraction. Which beams are of the same Colour with the incident beam of Light, and seem equal to one another in the quantity of their Light, or very nearly equal. One of these Refractions is perform'd by the usual Rule of Opticks, the Sine of Incidence out of Air into this Crystal being to the Sine of Refraction, as five to three. The other Refraction, which may be called the unusual Refraction, is perform'd by the following Rule.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00659", "bookId": 33504, "start": 498262, "end": 498285, "sha256": "48da5aab500d9907956435b8da8de09fb6154e2fe75c32e0e9060489a1f25106", "text": "[Illustration: FIG. 4.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00660", "bookId": 33504, "start": 498289, "end": 499066, "sha256": "9705f37deda71369bf9fc1bf67f3f023fa990423c2ec1f3ac100916bb22464be", "text": "Let ADBC represent the refracting Surface of the Crystal, C the biggest solid Angle at that Surface, GEHF the opposite Surface, and CK a perpendicular on that Surface. This perpendicular makes with the edge of the Crystal CF, an Angle of 19 Degr. 3'. Join KF, and in it take KL, so that the Angle KCL be 6 Degr. 40'. and the Angle LCF 12 Degr. 23'. And if ST represent any beam of Light incident at T in any Angle upon the refracting Surface ADBC, let TV be the refracted beam determin'd by the given Portion of the Sines 5 to 3, according to the usual Rule of Opticks. Draw VX parallel and equal to KL. Draw it the same way from V in which L lieth from K; and joining TX, this line TX shall be the other refracted beam carried from T to X, by the unusual Refraction.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00661", "bookId": 33504, "start": 499070, "end": 499772, "sha256": "0fe3a05cce83c208b7c5c7dff4c3fb0e041fbeff67291eaab89a7aa7ffa9da19", "text": "If therefore the incident beam ST be perpendicular to the refracting Surface, the two beams TV and TX, into which it shall become divided, shall be parallel to the lines CK and CL; one of those beams going through the Crystal perpendicularly, as it ought to do by the usual Laws of Opticks, and the other TX by an unusual Refraction diverging from the perpendicular, and making with it an Angle VTX of about 6-2/3 Degrees, as is found by Experience. And hence, the Plane VTX, and such like Planes which are parallel to the Plane CFK, may be called the Planes of perpendicular Refraction. And the Coast towards which the lines KL and VX are drawn, may be call'd the Coast of unusual Refraction.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00662", "bookId": 33504, "start": 499776, "end": 499930, "sha256": "19e672b72ff46bdb5d0942258097f5a8dacc6a38ea1b0d7bb195f172d2e3a440", "text": "In like manner Crystal of the Rock has a double Refraction: But the difference of the two Refractions is not so great and manifest as in Island Crystal.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00663", "bookId": 33504, "start": 499934, "end": 500523, "sha256": "0098d6fd08fdbd2c50438a252c2b7eb41aeeed7bf6d85cbd57ea5f0d9bdde1bd", "text": "When the beam ST incident on Island Crystal is divided into two beams TV and TX, and these two beams arrive at the farther Surface of the Glass; the beam TV, which was refracted at the first Surface after the usual manner, shall be again refracted entirely after the usual manner at the second Surface; and the beam TX, which was refracted after the unusual manner in the first Surface, shall be again refracted entirely after the unusual manner in the second Surface; so that both these beams shall emerge out of the second Surface in lines parallel to the first incident beam ST.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00664", "bookId": 33504, "start": 500527, "end": 501219, "sha256": "3f884eb39875a846b99101da6fa8adf382d8e3cd5fe986dc13ad4e86f74fe241", "text": "And if two pieces of Island Crystal be placed one after another, in such manner that all the Surfaces of the latter be parallel to all the corresponding Surfaces of the former: The Rays which are refracted after the usual manner in the first Surface of the first Crystal, shall be refracted after the usual manner in all the following Surfaces; and the Rays which are refracted after the unusual manner in the first Surface, shall be refracted after the unusual manner in all the following Surfaces. And the same thing happens, though the Surfaces of the Crystals be any ways inclined to one another, provided that their Planes of perpendicular Refraction be parallel to one another.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00665", "bookId": 33504, "start": 501223, "end": 501945, "sha256": "8355c6c48c7fa983885ab771ce7b943090feaead6f80ce01a2a4fe569875f379", "text": "And therefore there is an original difference in the Rays of Light, by means of which some Rays are in this Experiment constantly refracted after the usual manner, and others constantly after the unusual manner: For if the difference be not original, but arises from new Modifications impress'd on the Rays at their first Refraction, it would be alter'd by new Modifications in the three following Refractions; whereas it suffers no alteration, but is constant, and has the same effect upon the Rays in all the Refractions. The unusual Refraction is therefore perform'd by an original property of the Rays. And it remains to be enquired, whether the Rays have not more original Properties than are yet discover'd.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00666", "bookId": 33504, "start": 501949, "end": 505340, "sha256": "9957f1bd7a39d435d7394098d6c416b99985b97eb17cc17ef52541675d33f861", "text": "_Qu._ 26. Have not the Rays of Light several sides, endued with several original Properties? For if the Planes of perpendicular Refraction of the second Crystal be at right Angles with the Planes of perpendicular Refraction of the first Crystal, the Rays which are refracted after the usual manner in passing through the first Crystal, will be all of them refracted after the unusual manner in passing through the second Crystal; and the Rays which are refracted after the unusual manner in passing through the first Crystal, will be all of them refracted after the usual manner in passing through the second Crystal. And therefore there are not two sorts of Rays differing in their nature from one another, one of which is constantly and in all Positions refracted after the usual manner, and the other constantly and in all Positions after the unusual manner. The difference between the two sorts of Rays in the Experiment mention'd in the 25th Question, was only in the Positions of the Sides of the Rays to the Planes of perpendicular Refraction. For one and the same Ray is here refracted sometimes after the usual, and sometimes after the unusual manner, according to the Position which its Sides have to the Crystals. If the Sides of the Ray are posited the same way to both Crystals, it is refracted after the same manner in them both: But if that side of the Ray which looks towards the Coast of the unusual Refraction of the first Crystal, be 90 Degrees from that side of the same Ray which looks toward the Coast of the unusual Refraction of the second Crystal, (which may be effected by varying the Position of the second Crystal to the first, and by consequence to the Rays of Light,) the Ray shall be refracted after several manners in the several Crystals. There is nothing more required to determine whether the Rays of Light which fall upon the second Crystal shall be refracted after the usual or after the unusual manner, but to turn about this Crystal, so that the Coast of this Crystal's unusual Refraction may be on this or on that side of the Ray. And therefore every Ray may be consider'd as having four Sides or Quarters, two of which opposite to one another incline the Ray to be refracted after the unusual manner, as often as either of them are turn'd towards the Coast of unusual Refraction; and the other two, whenever either of them are turn'd towards the Coast of unusual Refraction, do not incline it to be otherwise refracted than after the usual manner. The two first may therefore be call'd the Sides of unusual Refraction. And since these Dispositions were in the Rays before their Incidence on the second, third, and fourth Surfaces of the two Crystals, and suffered no alteration (so far as appears,) by the Refraction of the Rays in their passage through those Surfaces, and the Rays were refracted by the same Laws in all the four Surfaces; it appears that those Dispositions were in the Rays originally, and suffer'd no alteration by the first Refraction, and that by means of those Dispositions the Rays were refracted at their Incidence on the first Surface of the first Crystal, some of them after the usual, and some of them after the unusual manner, accordingly as their Sides of unusual Refraction were then turn'd towards the Coast of the unusual Refraction of that Crystal, or sideways from it.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00667", "bookId": 33504, "start": 505344, "end": 505696, "sha256": "b21821e2a79aebb660d22bd61d321cdca09fc4271601cb541a7698206a7fe46c", "text": "Every Ray of Light has therefore two opposite Sides, originally endued with a Property on which the unusual Refraction depends, and the other two opposite Sides not endued with that Property. And it remains to be enquired, whether there are not more Properties of Light by which the Sides of the Rays differ, and are distinguished from one another.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00668", "bookId": 33504, "start": 505700, "end": 506170, "sha256": "259e93c2f5c5d1d07182b4b3f417747bed1bfdbadc37cbbe34eb76b4e4a6d4e1", "text": "In explaining the difference of the Sides of the Rays above mention'd, I have supposed that the Rays fall perpendicularly on the first Crystal. But if they fall obliquely on it, the Success is the same. Those Rays which are refracted after the usual manner in the first Crystal, will be refracted after the unusual manner in the second Crystal, supposing the Planes of perpendicular Refraction to be at right Angles with one another, as above; and on the contrary.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00669", "bookId": 33504, "start": 506174, "end": 506693, "sha256": "0e7ca788f0fbe97ad0fdaddc3eae84569a46181c9a222ace6ba1d5f6733b1569", "text": "If the Planes of the perpendicular Refraction of the two Crystals be neither parallel nor perpendicular to one another, but contain an acute Angle: The two beams of Light which emerge out of the first Crystal, will be each of them divided into two more at their Incidence on the second Crystal. For in this case the Rays in each of the two beams will some of them have their Sides of unusual Refraction, and some of them their other Sides turn'd towards the Coast of the unusual Refraction of the second Crystal.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00670", "bookId": 33504, "start": 506697, "end": 506992, "sha256": "de29d623ad65c8da6927087fa57f2223b32f8e5ab02e4e50aeec244f0762cfd9", "text": "_Qu._ 27. Are not all Hypotheses erroneous which have hitherto been invented for explaining the Phaenomena of Light, by new Modifications of the Rays? For those Phaenomena depend not upon new Modifications, as has been supposed, but upon the original and unchangeable Properties of the Rays.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00671", "bookId": 33504, "start": 506996, "end": 507320, "sha256": "b6f99667759b000d6dac05e6691f62acd1ab3c6d430b001906406441d06122fd", "text": "_Qu._ 28. Are not all Hypotheses erroneous, in which Light is supposed to consist in Pression or Motion, propagated through a fluid Medium? For in all these Hypotheses the Phaenomena of Light have been hitherto explain'd by supposing that they arise from new Modifications of the Rays; which is an erroneous Supposition.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00672", "bookId": 33504, "start": 507324, "end": 509331, "sha256": "d1f46773b8524e8c447357113af9053ca5883a2aa63ec9be5554d1fa25c1b481", "text": "If Light consisted only in Pression propagated without actual Motion, it would not be able to agitate and heat the Bodies which refract and reflect it. If it consisted in Motion propagated to all distances in an instant, it would require an infinite force every moment, in every shining Particle, to generate that Motion. And if it consisted in Pression or Motion, propagated either in an instant or in time, it would bend into the Shadow. For Pression or Motion cannot be propagated in a Fluid in right Lines, beyond an Obstacle which stops part of the Motion, but will bend and spread every way into the quiescent Medium which lies beyond the Obstacle. Gravity tends downwards, but the Pressure of Water arising from Gravity tends every way with equal Force, and is propagated as readily, and with as much force sideways as downwards, and through crooked passages as through strait ones. The Waves on the Surface of stagnating Water, passing by the sides of a broad Obstacle which stops part of them, bend afterwards and dilate themselves gradually into the quiet Water behind the Obstacle. The Waves, Pulses or Vibrations of the Air, wherein Sounds consist, bend manifestly, though not so much as the Waves of Water. For a Bell or a Cannon may be heard beyond a Hill which intercepts the sight of the sounding Body, and Sounds are propagated as readily through crooked Pipes as through streight ones. But Light is never known to follow crooked Passages nor to bend into the Shadow. For the fix'd Stars by the Interposition of any of the Planets cease to be seen. And so do the Parts of the Sun by the Interposition of the Moon, _Mercury_ or _Venus_. The Rays which pass very near to the edges of any Body, are bent a little by the action of the Body, as we shew'd above; but this bending is not towards but from the Shadow, and is perform'd only in the passage of the Ray by the Body, and at a very small distance from it. So soon as the Ray is past the Body, it goes right on.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00673", "bookId": 33504, "start": 509335, "end": 509469, "sha256": "929beee1c90e488d306488dac2d2038db850a739a1a6419446608f713e12c417", "text": "[Sidenote: _Mais pour dire comment cela se fait, je n'ay rien trove jusqu' ici qui me satisfasse._ C. H. de la lumiere, c. 5, p. 91.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00674", "bookId": 33504, "start": 509473, "end": 511062, "sha256": "a9dbd12c16fccd0a88c43298683974164ea8ebd004d600570decf031f0f68ad8", "text": "To explain the unusual Refraction of Island Crystal by Pression or Motion propagated, has not hitherto been attempted (to my knowledge) except by _Huygens_, who for that end supposed two several vibrating Mediums within that Crystal. But when he tried the Refractions in two successive pieces of that Crystal, and found them such as is mention'd above; he confessed himself at a loss for explaining them. For Pressions or Motions, propagated from a shining Body through an uniform Medium, must be on all sides alike; whereas by those Experiments it appears, that the Rays of Light have different Properties in their different Sides. He suspected that the Pulses of _AEther_ in passing through the first Crystal might receive certain new Modifications, which might determine them to be propagated in this or that Medium within the second Crystal, according to the Position of that Crystal. But what Modifications those might be he could not say, nor think of any thing satisfactory in that Point. And if he had known that the unusual Refraction depends not on new Modifications, but on the original and unchangeable Dispositions of the Rays, he would have found it as difficult to explain how those Dispositions which he supposed to be impress'd on the Rays by the first Crystal, could be in them before their Incidence on that Crystal, and in general, how all Rays emitted by shining Bodies, can have those Dispositions in them from the beginning. To me, at least, this seems inexplicable, if Light be nothing else than Pression or Motion propagated through _AEther_.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00675", "bookId": 33504, "start": 511066, "end": 512064, "sha256": "f54d9eff27af2c6278be79d6ba6ca97a8fc87db43fa416e4235927d734d46c8c", "text": "And it is as difficult to explain by these Hypotheses, how Rays can be alternately in Fits of easy Reflexion and easy Transmission; unless perhaps one might suppose that there are in all Space two AEthereal vibrating Mediums, and that the Vibrations of one of them constitute Light, and the Vibrations of the other are swifter, and as often as they overtake the Vibrations of the first, put them into those Fits. But how two _AEthers_ can be diffused through all Space, one of which acts upon the other, and by consequence is re-acted upon, without retarding, shattering, dispersing and confounding one anothers Motions, is inconceivable. And against filling the Heavens with fluid Mediums, unless they be exceeding rare, a great Objection arises from the regular and very lasting Motions of the Planets and Comets in all manner of Courses through the Heavens. For thence it is manifest, that the Heavens are void of all sensible Resistance, and by consequence of all sensible Matter.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00676", "bookId": 33504, "start": 512068, "end": 512948, "sha256": "fe24210f24a77212cab3dfebd03a3bd0a4008b307fb46e6b8b45890c12f12bd0", "text": "For the resisting Power of fluid Mediums arises partly from the Attrition of the Parts of the Medium, and partly from the _Vis inertiae_ of the Matter. That part of the Resistance of a spherical Body which arises from the Attrition of the Parts of the Medium is very nearly as the Diameter, or, at the most, as the _Factum_ of the Diameter, and the Velocity of the spherical Body together. And that part of the Resistance which arises from the _Vis inertiae_ of the Matter, is as the Square of that _Factum_. And by this difference the two sorts of Resistance may be distinguish'd from one another in any Medium; and these being distinguish'd, it will be found that almost all the Resistance of Bodies of a competent Magnitude moving in Air, Water, Quick-silver, and such like Fluids with a competent Velocity, arises from the _Vis inertiae_ of the Parts of the Fluid.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00677", "bookId": 33504, "start": 512952, "end": 516103, "sha256": "c4d406f1b0972c759ddbb5356faad8725fca4afbc1a17bf09a6164a38ae61b46", "text": "Now that part of the resisting Power of any Medium which arises from the Tenacity, Friction or Attrition of the Parts of the Medium, may be diminish'd by dividing the Matter into smaller Parts, and making the Parts more smooth and slippery: But that part of the Resistance which arises from the _Vis inertiae_, is proportional to the Density of the Matter, and cannot be diminish'd by dividing the Matter into smaller Parts, nor by any other means than by decreasing the Density of the Medium. And for these Reasons the Density of fluid Mediums is very nearly proportional to their Resistance. Liquors which differ not much in Density, as Water, Spirit of Wine, Spirit of Turpentine, hot Oil, differ not much in Resistance. Water is thirteen or fourteen times lighter than Quick-silver and by consequence thirteen or fourteen times rarer, and its Resistance is less than that of Quick-silver in the same Proportion, or thereabouts, as I have found by Experiments made with Pendulums. The open Air in which we breathe is eight or nine hundred times lighter than Water, and by consequence eight or nine hundred times rarer, and accordingly its Resistance is less than that of Water in the same Proportion, or thereabouts; as I have also found by Experiments made with Pendulums. And in thinner Air the Resistance is still less, and at length, by ratifying the Air, becomes insensible. For small Feathers falling in the open Air meet with great Resistance, but in a tall Glass well emptied of Air, they fall as fast as Lead or Gold, as I have seen tried several times. Whence the Resistance seems still to decrease in proportion to the Density of the Fluid. For I do not find by any Experiments, that Bodies moving in Quick-silver, Water or Air, meet with any other sensible Resistance than what arises from the Density and Tenacity of those sensible Fluids, as they would do if the Pores of those Fluids, and all other Spaces, were filled with a dense and subtile Fluid. Now if the Resistance in a Vessel well emptied of Air, was but an hundred times less than in the open Air, it would be about a million of times less than in Quick-silver. But it seems to be much less in such a Vessel, and still much less in the Heavens, at the height of three or four hundred Miles from the Earth, or above. For Mr. _Boyle_ has shew'd that Air may be rarified above ten thousand times in Vessels of Glass; and the Heavens are much emptier of Air than any _Vacuum_ we can make below. For since the Air is compress'd by the Weight of the incumbent Atmosphere, and the Density of Air is proportional to the Force compressing it, it follows by Computation, that at the height of about seven and a half _English_ Miles from the Earth, the Air is four times rarer than at the Surface of the Earth; and at the height of 15 Miles it is sixteen times rarer than that at the Surface of the Earth; and at the height of 22-1/2, 30, or 38 Miles, it is respectively 64, 256, or 1024 times rarer, or thereabouts; and at the height of 76, 152, 228 Miles, it is about 1000000, 1000000000000, or 1000000000000000000 times rarer; and so on.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00678", "bookId": 33504, "start": 516107, "end": 518257, "sha256": "9f453ea3cce1ff6d8d4a7a5c5b8afcaf41f1c383e4ee844a49bc170a042bfc73", "text": "Heat promotes Fluidity very much by diminishing the Tenacity of Bodies. It makes many Bodies fluid which are not fluid in cold, and increases the Fluidity of tenacious Liquids, as of Oil, Balsam, and Honey, and thereby decreases their Resistance. But it decreases not the Resistance of Water considerably, as it would do if any considerable part of the Resistance of Water arose from the Attrition or Tenacity of its Parts. And therefore the Resistance of Water arises principally and almost entirely from the _Vis inertiae_ of its Matter; and by consequence, if the Heavens were as dense as Water, they would not have much less Resistance than Water; if as dense as Quick-silver, they would not have much less Resistance than Quick-silver; if absolutely dense, or full of Matter without any _Vacuum_, let the Matter be never so subtil and fluid, they would have a greater Resistance than Quick-silver. A solid Globe in such a Medium would lose above half its Motion in moving three times the length of its Diameter, and a Globe not solid (such as are the Planets,) would be retarded sooner. And therefore to make way for the regular and lasting Motions of the Planets and Comets, it's necessary to empty the Heavens of all Matter, except perhaps some very thin Vapours, Steams, or Effluvia, arising from the Atmospheres of the Earth, Planets, and Comets, and from such an exceedingly rare AEthereal Medium as we described above. A dense Fluid can be of no use for explaining the Phaenomena of Nature, the Motions of the Planets and Comets being better explain'd without it. It serves only to disturb and retard the Motions of those great Bodies, and make the Frame of Nature languish: And in the Pores of Bodies, it serves only to stop the vibrating Motions of their Parts, wherein their Heat and Activity consists. And as it is of no use, and hinders the Operations of Nature, and makes her languish, so there is no evidence for its Existence, and therefore it ought to be rejected. And if it be rejected, the Hypotheses that Light consists in Pression or Motion, propagated through such a Medium, are rejected with it.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00679", "bookId": 33504, "start": 518261, "end": 520845, "sha256": "6aafdd89333850167f2eccf07f49a91396f73e232570ee27d0a88e9e0b854fb3", "text": "And for rejecting such a Medium, we have the Authority of those the oldest and most celebrated Philosophers of _Greece_ and _Phoenicia_, who made a _Vacuum_, and Atoms, and the Gravity of Atoms, the first Principles of their Philosophy; tacitly attributing Gravity to some other Cause than dense Matter. Later Philosophers banish the Consideration of such a Cause out of natural Philosophy, feigning Hypotheses for explaining all things mechanically, and referring other Causes to Metaphysicks: Whereas the main Business of natural Philosophy is to argue from Phaenomena without feigning Hypotheses, and to deduce Causes from Effects, till we come to the very first Cause, which certainly is not mechanical; and not only to unfold the Mechanism of the World, but chiefly to resolve these and such like Questions. What is there in places almost empty of Matter, and whence is it that the Sun and Planets gravitate towards one another, without dense Matter between them? Whence is it that Nature doth nothing in vain; and whence arises all that Order and Beauty which we see in the World? To what end are Comets, and whence is it that Planets move all one and the same way in Orbs concentrick, while Comets move all manner of ways in Orbs very excentrick; and what hinders the fix'd Stars from falling upon one another? How came the Bodies of Animals to be contrived with so much Art, and for what ends were their several Parts? Was the Eye contrived without Skill in Opticks, and the Ear without Knowledge of Sounds? How do the Motions of the Body follow from the Will, and whence is the Instinct in Animals? Is not the Sensory of Animals that place to which the sensitive Substance is present, and into which the sensible Species of Things are carried through the Nerves and Brain, that there they may be perceived by their immediate presence to that Substance? And these things being rightly dispatch'd, does it not appear from Phaenomena that there is a Being incorporeal, living, intelligent, omnipresent, who in infinite Space, as it were in his Sensory, sees the things themselves intimately, and throughly perceives them, and comprehends them wholly by their immediate presence to himself: Of which things the Images only carried through the Organs of Sense into our little Sensoriums, are there seen and beheld by that which in us perceives and thinks. And though every true Step made in this Philosophy brings us not immediately to the Knowledge of the first Cause, yet it brings us nearer to it, and on that account is to be highly valued.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00680", "bookId": 33504, "start": 520849, "end": 526594, "sha256": "d12b2a02bf419ac11b81c34a7484ed9d2be06b0d1c714d97773897bf1836f203", "text": "_Qu._ 29. Are not the Rays of Light very small Bodies emitted from shining Substances? For such Bodies will pass through uniform Mediums in right Lines without bending into the Shadow, which is the Nature of the Rays of Light. They will also be capable of several Properties, and be able to conserve their Properties unchanged in passing through several Mediums, which is another Condition of the Rays of Light. Pellucid Substances act upon the Rays of Light at a distance in refracting, reflecting, and inflecting them, and the Rays mutually agitate the Parts of those Substances at a distance for heating them; and this Action and Re-action at a distance very much resembles an attractive Force between Bodies. If Refraction be perform'd by Attraction of the Rays, the Sines of Incidence must be to the Sines of Refraction in a given Proportion, as we shew'd in our Principles of Philosophy: And this Rule is true by Experience. The Rays of Light in going out of Glass into a _Vacuum_, are bent towards the Glass; and if they fall too obliquely on the _Vacuum_, they are bent backwards into the Glass, and totally reflected; and this Reflexion cannot be ascribed to the Resistance of an absolute _Vacuum_, but must be caused by the Power of the Glass attracting the Rays at their going out of it into the _Vacuum_, and bringing them back. For if the farther Surface of the Glass be moisten'd with Water or clear Oil, or liquid and clear Honey, the Rays which would otherwise be reflected will go into the Water, Oil, or Honey; and therefore are not reflected before they arrive at the farther Surface of the Glass, and begin to go out of it. If they go out of it into the Water, Oil, or Honey, they go on, because the Attraction of the Glass is almost balanced and rendered ineffectual by the contrary Attraction of the Liquor. But if they go out of it into a _Vacuum_ which has no Attraction to balance that of the Glass, the Attraction of the Glass either bends and refracts them, or brings them back and reflects them. And this is still more evident by laying together two Prisms of Glass, or two Object-glasses of very long Telescopes, the one plane, the other a little convex, and so compressing them that they do not fully touch, nor are too far asunder. For the Light which falls upon the farther Surface of the first Glass where the Interval between the Glasses is not above the ten hundred thousandth Part of an Inch, will go through that Surface, and through the Air or _Vacuum_ between the Glasses, and enter into the second Glass, as was explain'd in the first, fourth, and eighth Observations of the first Part of the second Book. But, if the second Glass be taken away, the Light which goes out of the second Surface of the first Glass into the Air or _Vacuum_, will not go on forwards, but turns back into the first Glass, and is reflected; and therefore it is drawn back by the Power of the first Glass, there being nothing else to turn it back. Nothing more is requisite for producing all the variety of Colours, and degrees of Refrangibility, than that the Rays of Light be Bodies of different Sizes, the least of which may take violet the weakest and darkest of the Colours, and be more easily diverted by refracting Surfaces from the right Course; and the rest as they are bigger and bigger, may make the stronger and more lucid Colours, blue, green, yellow, and red, and be more and more difficultly diverted. Nothing more is requisite for putting the Rays of Light into Fits of easy Reflexion and easy Transmission, than that they be small Bodies which by their attractive Powers, or some other Force, stir up Vibrations in what they act upon, which Vibrations being swifter than the Rays, overtake them successively, and agitate them so as by turns to increase and decrease their Velocities, and thereby put them into those Fits. And lastly, the unusual Refraction of Island-Crystal looks very much as if it were perform'd by some kind of attractive virtue lodged in certain Sides both of the Rays, and of the Particles of the Crystal. For were it not for some kind of Disposition or Virtue lodged in some Sides of the Particles of the Crystal, and not in their other Sides, and which inclines and bends the Rays towards the Coast of unusual Refraction, the Rays which fall perpendicularly on the Crystal, would not be refracted towards that Coast rather than towards any other Coast, both at their Incidence and at their Emergence, so as to emerge perpendicularly by a contrary Situation of the Coast of unusual Refraction at the second Surface; the Crystal acting upon the Rays after they have pass'd through it, and are emerging into the Air; or, if you please, into a _Vacuum_. And since the Crystal by this Disposition or Virtue does not act upon the Rays, unless when one of their Sides of unusual Refraction looks towards that Coast, this argues a Virtue or Disposition in those Sides of the Rays, which answers to, and sympathizes with that Virtue or Disposition of the Crystal, as the Poles of two Magnets answer to one another. And as Magnetism may be intended and remitted, and is found only in the Magnet and in Iron: So this Virtue of refracting the perpendicular Rays is greater in Island-Crystal, less in Crystal of the Rock, and is not yet found in other Bodies. I do not say that this Virtue is magnetical: It seems to be of another kind. I only say, that whatever it be, it's difficult to conceive how the Rays of Light, unless they be Bodies, can have a permanent Virtue in two of their Sides which is not in their other Sides, and this without any regard to their Position to the Space or Medium through which they pass.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00681", "bookId": 33504, "start": 526598, "end": 526787, "sha256": "12ed30ef92a60cae7843abe6f5a20229bd0e8ee3035d5568568b77744306aa48", "text": "What I mean in this Question by a _Vacuum_, and by the Attractions of the Rays of Light towards Glass or Crystal, may be understood by what was said in the 18th, 19th, and 20th Questions.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00682", "bookId": 33504, "start": 526791, "end": 527404, "sha256": "ee1bd77e933a18c53ded3e47aea32a6806139526b0a836e647061cafd394f696", "text": "_Quest._ 30. Are not gross Bodies and Light convertible into one another, and may not Bodies receive much of their Activity from the Particles of Light which enter their Composition? For all fix'd Bodies being heated emit Light so long as they continue sufficiently hot, and Light mutually stops in Bodies as often as its Rays strike upon their Parts, as we shew'd above. I know no Body less apt to shine than Water; and yet Water by frequent Distillations changes into fix'd Earth, as Mr. _Boyle_ has try'd; and then this Earth being enabled to endure a sufficient Heat, shines by Heat like other Bodies.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00683", "bookId": 33504, "start": 527408, "end": 529249, "sha256": "11c51f3beecadfb74ed2d3a10fc2f9f707652edd9a607de1ac4125003bea32c9", "text": "The changing of Bodies into Light, and Light into Bodies, is very conformable to the Course of Nature, which seems delighted with Transmutations. Water, which is a very fluid tasteless Salt, she changes by Heat into Vapour, which is a sort of Air, and by Cold into Ice, which is a hard, pellucid, brittle, fusible Stone; and this Stone returns into Water by Heat, and Vapour returns into Water by Cold. Earth by Heat becomes Fire, and by Cold returns into Earth. Dense Bodies by Fermentation rarify into several sorts of Air, and this Air by Fermentation, and sometimes without it, returns into dense Bodies. Mercury appears sometimes in the form of a fluid Metal, sometimes in the form of a hard brittle Metal, sometimes in the form of a corrosive pellucid Salt call'd Sublimate, sometimes in the form of a tasteless, pellucid, volatile white Earth, call'd _Mercurius Dulcis_; or in that of a red opake volatile Earth, call'd Cinnaber; or in that of a red or white Precipitate, or in that of a fluid Salt; and in Distillation it turns into Vapour, and being agitated _in Vacuo_, it shines like Fire. And after all these Changes it returns again into its first form of Mercury. Eggs grow from insensible Magnitudes, and change into Animals; Tadpoles into Frogs; and Worms into Flies. All Birds, Beasts and Fishes, Insects, Trees, and other Vegetables, with their several Parts, grow out of Water and watry Tinctures and Salts, and by Putrefaction return again into watry Substances. And Water standing a few Days in the open Air, yields a Tincture, which (like that of Malt) by standing longer yields a Sediment and a Spirit, but before Putrefaction is fit Nourishment for Animals and Vegetables. And among such various and strange Transmutations, why may not Nature change Bodies into Light, and Light into Bodies?", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00684", "bookId": 33504, "start": 529253, "end": 530681, "sha256": "f8c18c370a0197355d6eb4ad7bd2c41efe44dddd1f59aea9846de517c4fea5e8", "text": "_Quest._ 31. Have not the small Particles of Bodies certain Powers, Virtues, or Forces, by which they act at a distance, not only upon the Rays of Light for reflecting, refracting, and inflecting them, but also upon one another for producing a great Part of the Phaenomena of Nature? For it's well known, that Bodies act one upon another by the Attractions of Gravity, Magnetism, and Electricity; and these Instances shew the Tenor and Course of Nature, and make it not improbable but that there may be more attractive Powers than these. For Nature is very consonant and conformable to her self. How these Attractions may be perform'd, I do not here consider. What I call Attraction may be perform'd by impulse, or by some other means unknown to me. I use that Word here to signify only in general any Force by which Bodies tend towards one another, whatsoever be the Cause. For we must learn from the Phaenomena of Nature what Bodies attract one another, and what are the Laws and Properties of the Attraction, before we enquire the Cause by which the Attraction is perform'd. The Attractions of Gravity, Magnetism, and Electricity, reach to very sensible distances, and so have been observed by vulgar Eyes, and there may be others which reach to so small distances as hitherto escape Observation; and perhaps electrical Attraction may reach to such small distances, even without being excited by Friction.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00685", "bookId": 33504, "start": 530685, "end": 532750, "sha256": "bb585e709dcf68cea071ba45a0ba616123aa610176caeb4ef8f4cd79c6b31c9d", "text": "For when Salt of Tartar runs _per Deliquium_, is not this done by an Attraction between the Particles of the Salt of Tartar, and the Particles of the Water which float in the Air in the form of Vapours? And why does not common Salt, or Salt-petre, or Vitriol, run _per Deliquium_, but for want of such an Attraction? Or why does not Salt of Tartar draw more Water out of the Air than in a certain Proportion to its quantity, but for want of an attractive Force after it is satiated with Water? And whence is it but from this attractive Power that Water which alone distils with a gentle luke-warm Heat, will not distil from Salt of Tartar without a great Heat? And is it not from the like attractive Power between the Particles of Oil of Vitriol and the Particles of Water, that Oil of Vitriol draws to it a good quantity of Water out of the Air, and after it is satiated draws no more, and in Distillation lets go the Water very difficultly? And when Water and Oil of Vitriol poured successively into the same Vessel grow very hot in the mixing, does not this Heat argue a great Motion in the Parts of the Liquors? And does not this Motion argue, that the Parts of the two Liquors in mixing coalesce with Violence, and by consequence rush towards one another with an accelerated Motion? And when _Aqua fortis_, or Spirit of Vitriol poured upon Filings of Iron dissolves the Filings with a great Heat and Ebullition, is not this Heat and Ebullition effected by a violent Motion of the Parts, and does not that Motion argue that the acid Parts of the Liquor rush towards the Parts of the Metal with violence, and run forcibly into its Pores till they get between its outmost Particles, and the main Mass of the Metal, and surrounding those Particles loosen them from the main Mass, and set them at liberty to float off into the Water? And when the acid Particles, which alone would distil with an easy Heat, will not separate from the Particles of the Metal without a very violent Heat, does not this confirm the Attraction between them?", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00686", "bookId": 33504, "start": 532754, "end": 536848, "sha256": "db6006b29f4ba310141f7036c96bc998026d3621971445459a6f867b6b3c9a06", "text": "When Spirit of Vitriol poured upon common Salt or Salt-petre makes an Ebullition with the Salt, and unites with it, and in Distillation the Spirit of the common Salt or Salt-petre comes over much easier than it would do before, and the acid part of the Spirit of Vitriol stays behind; does not this argue that the fix'd Alcaly of the Salt attracts the acid Spirit of the Vitriol more strongly than its own Spirit, and not being able to hold them both, lets go its own? And when Oil of Vitriol is drawn off from its weight of Nitre, and from both the Ingredients a compound Spirit of Nitre is distilled, and two parts of this Spirit are poured on one part of Oil of Cloves or Carraway Seeds, or of any ponderous Oil of vegetable or animal Substances, or Oil of Turpentine thicken'd with a little Balsam of Sulphur, and the Liquors grow so very hot in mixing, as presently to send up a burning Flame; does not this very great and sudden Heat argue that the two Liquors mix with violence, and that their Parts in mixing run towards one another with an accelerated Motion, and clash with the greatest Force? And is it not for the same reason that well rectified Spirit of Wine poured on the same compound Spirit flashes; and that the _Pulvis fulminans_, composed of Sulphur, Nitre, and Salt of Tartar, goes off with a more sudden and violent Explosion than Gun-powder, the acid Spirits of the Sulphur and Nitre rushing towards one another, and towards the Salt of Tartar, with so great a violence, as by the shock to turn the whole at once into Vapour and Flame? Where the Dissolution is slow, it makes a slow Ebullition and a gentle Heat; and where it is quicker, it makes a greater Ebullition with more heat; and where it is done at once, the Ebullition is contracted into a sudden Blast or violent Explosion, with a heat equal to that of Fire and Flame. So when a Drachm of the above-mention'd compound Spirit of Nitre was poured upon half a Drachm of Oil of Carraway Seeds _in vacuo_, the Mixture immediately made a flash like Gun-powder, and burst the exhausted Receiver, which was a Glass six Inches wide, and eight Inches deep. And even the gross Body of Sulphur powder'd, and with an equal weight of Iron Filings and a little Water made into Paste, acts upon the Iron, and in five or six hours grows too hot to be touch'd, and emits a Flame. And by these Experiments compared with the great quantity of Sulphur with which the Earth abounds, and the warmth of the interior Parts of the Earth, and hot Springs, and burning Mountains, and with Damps, mineral Coruscations, Earthquakes, hot suffocating Exhalations, Hurricanes, and Spouts; we may learn that sulphureous Steams abound in the Bowels of the Earth and ferment with Minerals, and sometimes take fire with a sudden Coruscation and Explosion; and if pent up in subterraneous Caverns, burst the Caverns with a great shaking of the Earth, as in springing of a Mine. And then the Vapour generated by the Explosion, expiring through the Pores of the Earth, feels hot and suffocates, and makes Tempests and Hurricanes, and sometimes causes the Land to slide, or the Sea to boil, and carries up the Water thereof in Drops, which by their weight fall down again in Spouts. Also some sulphureous Steams, at all times when the Earth is dry, ascending into the Air, ferment there with nitrous Acids, and sometimes taking fire cause Lightning and Thunder, and fiery Meteors. For the Air abounds with acid Vapours fit to promote Fermentations, as appears by the rusting of Iron and Copper in it, the kindling of Fire by blowing, and the beating of the Heart by means of Respiration. Now the above-mention'd Motions are so great and violent as to shew that in Fermentations the Particles of Bodies which almost rest, are put into new Motions by a very potent Principle, which acts upon them only when they approach one another, and causes them to meet and clash with great violence, and grow hot with the motion, and dash one another into pieces, and vanish into Air, and Vapour, and Flame.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00687", "bookId": 33504, "start": 536852, "end": 538146, "sha256": "2c2ab3f21ed8bec104c21730d2091c7df34cddc8b5d8b032cb59076bb937c23f", "text": "When Salt of Tartar _per deliquium_, being poured into the Solution of any Metal, precipitates the Metal and makes it fall down to the bottom of the Liquor in the form of Mud: Does not this argue that the acid Particles are attracted more strongly by the Salt of Tartar than by the Metal, and by the stronger Attraction go from the Metal to the Salt of Tartar? And so when a Solution of Iron in _Aqua fortis_ dissolves the _Lapis Calaminaris_, and lets go the Iron, or a Solution of Copper dissolves Iron immersed in it and lets go the Copper, or a Solution of Silver dissolves Copper and lets go the Silver, or a Solution of Mercury in _Aqua fortis_ being poured upon Iron, Copper, Tin, or Lead, dissolves the Metal and lets go the Mercury; does not this argue that the acid Particles of the _Aqua fortis_ are attracted more strongly by the _Lapis Calaminaris_ than by Iron, and more strongly by Iron than by Copper, and more strongly by Copper than by Silver, and more strongly by Iron, Copper, Tin, and Lead, than by Mercury? And is it not for the same reason that Iron requires more _Aqua fortis_ to dissolve it than Copper, and Copper more than the other Metals; and that of all Metals, Iron is dissolved most easily, and is most apt to rust; and next after Iron, Copper?", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00688", "bookId": 33504, "start": 538150, "end": 540383, "sha256": "10c8679c759adc561fccd0263dbab379ddcc85bc9924805aa2d7ecb3d0eab9b0", "text": "When Oil of Vitriol is mix'd with a little Water, or is run _per deliquium_, and in Distillation the Water ascends difficultly, and brings over with it some part of the Oil of Vitriol in the form of Spirit of Vitriol, and this Spirit being poured upon Iron, Copper, or Salt of Tartar, unites with the Body and lets go the Water; doth not this shew that the acid Spirit is attracted by the Water, and more attracted by the fix'd Body than by the Water, and therefore lets go the Water to close with the fix'd Body? And is it not for the same reason that the Water and acid Spirits which are mix'd together in Vinegar, _Aqua fortis_, and Spirit of Salt, cohere and rise together in Distillation; but if the _Menstruum_ be poured on Salt of Tartar, or on Lead, or Iron, or any fix'd Body which it can dissolve, the Acid by a stronger Attraction adheres to the Body, and lets go the Water? And is it not also from a mutual Attraction that the Spirits of Soot and Sea-Salt unite and compose the Particles of Sal-armoniac, which are less volatile than before, because grosser and freer from Water; and that the Particles of Sal-armoniac in Sublimation carry up the Particles of Antimony, which will not sublime alone; and that the Particles of Mercury uniting with the acid Particles of Spirit of Salt compose Mercury sublimate, and with the Particles of Sulphur, compose Cinnaber; and that the Particles of Spirit of Wine and Spirit of Urine well rectified unite, and letting go the Water which dissolved them, compose a consistent Body; and that in subliming Cinnaber from Salt of Tartar, or from quick Lime, the Sulphur by a stronger Attraction of the Salt or Lime lets go the Mercury, and stays with the fix'd Body; and that when Mercury sublimate is sublimed from Antimony, or from Regulus of Antimony, the Spirit of Salt lets go the Mercury, and unites with the antimonial metal which attracts it more strongly, and stays with it till the Heat be great enough to make them both ascend together, and then carries up the Metal with it in the form of a very fusible Salt, called Butter of Antimony, although the Spirit of Salt alone be almost as volatile as Water, and the Antimony alone as fix'd as Lead?", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00689", "bookId": 33504, "start": 540387, "end": 541927, "sha256": "6a2c87d6b269d179b8785bdf66c196fb5665add5d9a680fabb2f2334a6190ed8", "text": "When _Aqua fortis_ dissolves Silver and not Gold, and _Aqua regia_ dissolves Gold and not Silver, may it not be said that _Aqua fortis_ is subtil enough to penetrate Gold as well as Silver, but wants the attractive Force to give it Entrance; and that _Aqua regia_ is subtil enough to penetrate Silver as well as Gold, but wants the attractive Force to give it Entrance? For _Aqua regia_ is nothing else than _Aqua fortis_ mix'd with some Spirit of Salt, or with Sal-armoniac; and even common Salt dissolved in _Aqua fortis_, enables the _Menstruum_ to dissolve Gold, though the Salt be a gross Body. When therefore Spirit of Salt precipitates Silver out of _Aqua fortis_, is it not done by attracting and mixing with the _Aqua fortis_, and not attracting, or perhaps repelling Silver? And when Water precipitates Antimony out of the Sublimate of Antimony and Sal-armoniac, or out of Butter of Antimony, is it not done by its dissolving, mixing with, and weakening the Sal-armoniac or Spirit of Salt, and its not attracting, or perhaps repelling the Antimony? And is it not for want of an attractive virtue between the Parts of Water and Oil, of Quick-silver and Antimony, of Lead and Iron, that these Substances do not mix; and by a weak Attraction, that Quick-silver and Copper mix difficultly; and from a strong one, that Quick-silver and Tin, Antimony and Iron, Water and Salts, mix readily? And in general, is it not from the same Principle that Heat congregates homogeneal Bodies, and separates heterogeneal ones?", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00690", "bookId": 33504, "start": 541931, "end": 544507, "sha256": "5973f56b9ed1e651976b11c17f0866ddab757eabbb0be1c6ae586ff2dfd0a3ad", "text": "When Arsenick with Soap gives a Regulus, and with Mercury sublimate a volatile fusible Salt, like Butter of Antimony, doth not this shew that Arsenick, which is a Substance totally volatile, is compounded of fix'd and volatile Parts, strongly cohering by a mutual Attraction, so that the volatile will not ascend without carrying up the fixed? And so, when an equal weight of Spirit of Wine and Oil of Vitriol are digested together, and in Distillation yield two fragrant and volatile Spirits which will not mix with one another, and a fix'd black Earth remains behind; doth not this shew that Oil of Vitriol is composed of volatile and fix'd Parts strongly united by Attraction, so as to ascend together in form of a volatile, acid, fluid Salt, until the Spirit of Wine attracts and separates the volatile Parts from the fixed? And therefore, since Oil of Sulphur _per Campanam_ is of the same Nature with Oil of Vitriol, may it not be inferred, that Sulphur is also a mixture of volatile and fix'd Parts so strongly cohering by Attraction, as to ascend together in Sublimation. By dissolving Flowers of Sulphur in Oil of Turpentine, and distilling the Solution, it is found that Sulphur is composed of an inflamable thick Oil or fat Bitumen, an acid Salt, a very fix'd Earth, and a little Metal. The three first were found not much unequal to one another, the fourth in so small a quantity as scarce to be worth considering. The acid Salt dissolved in Water, is the same with Oil of Sulphur _per Campanam_, and abounding much in the Bowels of the Earth, and particularly in Markasites, unites it self to the other Ingredients of the Markasite, which are, Bitumen, Iron, Copper, and Earth, and with them compounds Allum, Vitriol, and Sulphur. With the Earth alone it compounds Allum; with the Metal alone, or Metal and Earth together, it compounds Vitriol; and with the Bitumen and Earth it compounds Sulphur. Whence it comes to pass that Markasites abound with those three Minerals. And is it not from the mutual Attraction of the Ingredients that they stick together for compounding these Minerals, and that the Bitumen carries up the other Ingredients of the Sulphur, which without it would not sublime? And the same Question may be put concerning all, or almost all the gross Bodies in Nature. For all the Parts of Animals and Vegetables are composed of Substances volatile and fix'd, fluid and solid, as appears by their Analysis; and so are Salts and Minerals, so far as Chymists have been hitherto able to examine their Composition.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00691", "bookId": 33504, "start": 544511, "end": 546003, "sha256": "173bea1b623289a67575d27297ecf52b414a08d4abf2c2d2877e80329ee731fc", "text": "When Mercury sublimate is re-sublimed with fresh Mercury, and becomes _Mercurius Dulcis_, which is a white tasteless Earth scarce dissolvable in Water, and _Mercurius Dulcis_ re-sublimed with Spirit of Salt returns into Mercury sublimate; and when Metals corroded with a little acid turn into rust, which is an Earth tasteless and indissolvable in Water, and this Earth imbibed with more acid becomes a metallick Salt; and when some Stones, as Spar of Lead, dissolved in proper _Menstruums_ become Salts; do not these things shew that Salts are dry Earth and watry Acid united by Attraction, and that the Earth will not become a Salt without so much acid as makes it dissolvable in Water? Do not the sharp and pungent Tastes of Acids arise from the strong Attraction whereby the acid Particles rush upon and agitate the Particles of the Tongue? And when Metals are dissolved in acid _Menstruums_, and the Acids in conjunction with the Metal act after a different manner, so that the Compound has a different Taste much milder than before, and sometimes a sweet one; is it not because the Acids adhere to the metallick Particles, and thereby lose much of their Activity? And if the Acid be in too small a Proportion to make the Compound dissolvable in Water, will it not by adhering strongly to the Metal become unactive and lose its Taste, and the Compound be a tasteless Earth? For such things as are not dissolvable by the Moisture of the Tongue, act not upon the Taste.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00692", "bookId": 33504, "start": 546007, "end": 547810, "sha256": "71078646e502d386cd5537e7b9ccb18401cc10a7a0299218372d6acf756ab455", "text": "As Gravity makes the Sea flow round the denser and weightier Parts of the Globe of the Earth, so the Attraction may make the watry Acid flow round the denser and compacter Particles of Earth for composing the Particles of Salt. For otherwise the Acid would not do the Office of a Medium between the Earth and common Water, for making Salts dissolvable in the Water; nor would Salt of Tartar readily draw off the Acid from dissolved Metals, nor Metals the Acid from Mercury. Now, as in the great Globe of the Earth and Sea, the densest Bodies by their Gravity sink down in Water, and always endeavour to go towards the Center of the Globe; so in Particles of Salt, the densest Matter may always endeavour to approach the Center of the Particle: So that a Particle of Salt may be compared to a Chaos; being dense, hard, dry, and earthy in the Center; and rare, soft, moist, and watry in the Circumference. And hence it seems to be that Salts are of a lasting Nature, being scarce destroy'd, unless by drawing away their watry Parts by violence, or by letting them soak into the Pores of the central Earth by a gentle Heat in Putrefaction, until the Earth be dissolved by the Water, and separated into smaller Particles, which by reason of their Smallness make the rotten Compound appear of a black Colour. Hence also it may be, that the Parts of Animals and Vegetables preserve their several Forms, and assimilate their Nourishment; the soft and moist Nourishment easily changing its Texture by a gentle Heat and Motion, till it becomes like the dense, hard, dry, and durable Earth in the Center of each Particle. But when the Nourishment grows unfit to be assimilated, or the central Earth grows too feeble to assimilate it, the Motion ends in Confusion, Putrefaction, and Death.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00693", "bookId": 33504, "start": 547814, "end": 548830, "sha256": "4fa86427d4b9832e13a1f0e89451447de22b6cdba95e61abe9a5a5aa70c40e2f", "text": "If a very small quantity of any Salt or Vitriol be dissolved in a great quantity of Water, the Particles of the Salt or Vitriol will not sink to the bottom, though they be heavier in Specie than the Water, but will evenly diffuse themselves into all the Water, so as to make it as saline at the top as at the bottom. And does not this imply that the Parts of the Salt or Vitriol recede from one another, and endeavour to expand themselves, and get as far asunder as the quantity of Water in which they float, will allow? And does not this Endeavour imply that they have a repulsive Force by which they fly from one another, or at least, that they attract the Water more strongly than they do one another? For as all things ascend in Water which are less attracted than Water, by the gravitating Power of the Earth; so all the Particles of Salt which float in Water, and are less attracted than Water by any one Particle of Salt, must recede from that Particle, and give way to the more attracted Water.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00694", "bookId": 33504, "start": 548834, "end": 549701, "sha256": "221a252ee1a0bfc4a5a445e64d85766bf0b67e818dcee9d219a7feb431e6f60a", "text": "When any saline Liquor is evaporated to a Cuticle and let cool, the Salt concretes in regular Figures; which argues, that the Particles of the Salt before they concreted, floated in the Liquor at equal distances in rank and file, and by consequence that they acted upon one another by some Power which at equal distances is equal, at unequal distances unequal. For by such a Power they will range themselves uniformly, and without it they will float irregularly, and come together as irregularly. And since the Particles of Island-Crystal act all the same way upon the Rays of Light for causing the unusual Refraction, may it not be supposed that in the Formation of this Crystal, the Particles not only ranged themselves in rank and file for concreting in regular Figures, but also by some kind of polar Virtue turned their homogeneal Sides the same way.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00695", "bookId": 33504, "start": 549705, "end": 550410, "sha256": "c8dbfd247ec97a3b23a8d6fe5cc74deffd8c6dcf7b2689e1d4f95f57080fd704", "text": "The Parts of all homogeneal hard Bodies which fully touch one another, stick together very strongly. And for explaining how this may be, some have invented hooked Atoms, which is begging the Question; and others tell us that Bodies are glued together by rest, that is, by an occult Quality, or rather by nothing; and others, that they stick together by conspiring Motions, that is, by relative rest amongst themselves. I had rather infer from their Cohesion, that their Particles attract one another by some Force, which in immediate Contact is exceeding strong, at small distances performs the chymical Operations above-mention'd, and reaches not far from the Particles with any sensible Effect.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00696", "bookId": 33504, "start": 550414, "end": 552188, "sha256": "3d20f08e6e021e2cd0a9fde2dcf241760b95bf917019041f24a001d7660b60db", "text": "All Bodies seem to be composed of hard Particles: For otherwise Fluids would not congeal; as Water, Oils, Vinegar, and Spirit or Oil of Vitriol do by freezing; Mercury by Fumes of Lead; Spirit of Nitre and Mercury, by dissolving the Mercury and evaporating the Flegm; Spirit of Wine and Spirit of Urine, by deflegming and mixing them; and Spirit of Urine and Spirit of Salt, by subliming them together to make Sal-armoniac. Even the Rays of Light seem to be hard Bodies; for otherwise they would not retain different Properties in their different Sides. And therefore Hardness may be reckon'd the Property of all uncompounded Matter. At least, this seems to be as evident as the universal Impenetrability of Matter. For all Bodies, so far as Experience reaches, are either hard, or may be harden'd; and we have no other Evidence of universal Impenetrability, besides a large Experience without an experimental Exception. Now if compound Bodies are so very hard as we find some of them to be, and yet are very porous, and consist of Parts which are only laid together; the simple Particles which are void of Pores, and were never yet divided, must be much harder. For such hard Particles being heaped up together, can scarce touch one another in more than a few Points, and therefore must be separable by much less Force than is requisite to break a solid Particle, whose Parts touch in all the Space between them, without any Pores or Interstices to weaken their Cohesion. And how such very hard Particles which are only laid together and touch only in a few Points, can stick together, and that so firmly as they do, without the assistance of something which causes them to be attracted or press'd towards one another, is very difficult to conceive.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00697", "bookId": 33504, "start": 552192, "end": 552920, "sha256": "e5b267fc30764f65b86392b7f354b6b950554afbe99f045e49c65ae2b2def564", "text": "The same thing I infer also from the cohering of two polish'd Marbles _in vacuo_, and from the standing of Quick-silver in the Barometer at the height of 50, 60 or 70 Inches, or above, when ever it is well-purged of Air and carefully poured in, so that its Parts be every where contiguous both to one another and to the Glass. The Atmosphere by its weight presses the Quick-silver into the Glass, to the height of 29 or 30 Inches. And some other Agent raises it higher, not by pressing it into the Glass, but by making its Parts stick to the Glass, and to one another. For upon any discontinuation of Parts, made either by Bubbles or by shaking the Glass, the whole Mercury falls down to the height of 29 or 30 Inches.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00698", "bookId": 33504, "start": 552924, "end": 554639, "sha256": "547533064443937e06b1fe19cf3b51c58386e24bb3ce8b0a186492bb7c87928d", "text": "And of the same kind with these Experiments are those that follow. If two plane polish'd Plates of Glass (suppose two pieces of a polish'd Looking-glass) be laid together, so that their sides be parallel and at a very small distance from one another, and then their lower edges be dipped into Water, the Water will rise up between them. And the less the distance of the Glasses is, the greater will be the height to which the Water will rise. If the distance be about the hundredth part of an Inch, the Water will rise to the height of about an Inch; and if the distance be greater or less in any Proportion, the height will be reciprocally proportional to the distance very nearly. For the attractive Force of the Glasses is the same, whether the distance between them be greater or less; and the weight of the Water drawn up is the same, if the height of it be reciprocally proportional to the distance of the Glasses. And in like manner, Water ascends between two Marbles polish'd plane, when their polish'd sides are parallel, and at a very little distance from one another, And if slender Pipes of Glass be dipped at one end into stagnating Water, the Water will rise up within the Pipe, and the height to which it rises will be reciprocally proportional to the Diameter of the Cavity of the Pipe, and will equal the height to which it rises between two Planes of Glass, if the Semi-diameter of the Cavity of the Pipe be equal to the distance between the Planes, or thereabouts. And these Experiments succeed after the same manner _in vacuo_ as in the open Air, (as hath been tried before the Royal Society,) and therefore are not influenced by the Weight or Pressure of the Atmosphere.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00699", "bookId": 33504, "start": 554643, "end": 555579, "sha256": "67b60fb047b57441d6b79deedbba2ce477312569b2c68b981555742f951787d3", "text": "And if a large Pipe of Glass be filled with sifted Ashes well pressed together in the Glass, and one end of the Pipe be dipped into stagnating Water, the Water will rise up slowly in the Ashes, so as in the space of a Week or Fortnight to reach up within the Glass, to the height of 30 or 40 Inches above the stagnating Water. And the Water rises up to this height by the Action only of those Particles of the Ashes which are upon the Surface of the elevated Water; the Particles which are within the Water, attracting or repelling it as much downwards as upwards. And therefore the Action of the Particles is very strong. But the Particles of the Ashes being not so dense and close together as those of Glass, their Action is not so strong as that of Glass, which keeps Quick-silver suspended to the height of 60 or 70 Inches, and therefore acts with a Force which would keep Water suspended to the height of above 60 Feet.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00700", "bookId": 33504, "start": 555583, "end": 555765, "sha256": "3b2998a345649f3227bed6a1c00942573305f52f252d803b0a674824cd056a3e", "text": "By the same Principle, a Sponge sucks in Water, and the Glands in the Bodies of Animals, according to their several Natures and Dispositions, suck in various Juices from the Blood.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00701", "bookId": 33504, "start": 555769, "end": 557238, "sha256": "669b2d4cc7407b8296240959404084bd8fc24c39dab3edc69ea3a7438dcfc4a3", "text": "If two plane polish'd Plates of Glass three or four Inches broad, and twenty or twenty five long, be laid one of them parallel to the Horizon, the other upon the first, so as at one of their ends to touch one another, and contain an Angle of about 10 or 15 Minutes, and the same be first moisten'd on their inward sides with a clean Cloth dipp'd into Oil of Oranges or Spirit of Turpentine, and a Drop or two of the Oil or Spirit be let fall upon the lower Glass at the other; so soon as the upper Glass is laid down upon the lower, so as to touch it at one end as above, and to touch the Drop at the other end, making with the lower Glass an Angle of about 10 or 15 Minutes; the Drop will begin to move towards the Concourse of the Glasses, and will continue to move with an accelerated Motion, till it arrives at that Concourse of the Glasses. For the two Glasses attract the Drop, and make it run that way towards which the Attractions incline. And if when the Drop is in motion you lift up that end of the Glasses where they meet, and towards which the Drop moves, the Drop will ascend between the Glasses, and therefore is attracted. And as you lift up the Glasses more and more, the Drop will ascend slower and slower, and at length rest, being then carried downward by its Weight, as much as upwards by the Attraction. And by this means you may know the Force by which the Drop is attracted at all distances from the Concourse of the Glasses.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00702", "bookId": 33504, "start": 557242, "end": 558921, "sha256": "d229f288126cd5fe422d997ddd0ee960abbf416c0c899410349c4de6bbed6187", "text": "Now by some Experiments of this kind, (made by Mr. _Hauksbee_) it has been found that the Attraction is almost reciprocally in a duplicate Proportion of the distance of the middle of the Drop from the Concourse of the Glasses, _viz._ reciprocally in a simple Proportion, by reason of the spreading of the Drop, and its touching each Glass in a larger Surface; and again reciprocally in a simple Proportion, by reason of the Attractions growing stronger within the same quantity of attracting Surface. The Attraction therefore within the same quantity of attracting Surface, is reciprocally as the distance between the Glasses. And therefore where the distance is exceeding small, the Attraction must be exceeding great. By the Table in the second Part of the second Book, wherein the thicknesses of colour'd Plates of Water between two Glasses are set down, the thickness of the Plate where it appears very black, is three eighths of the ten hundred thousandth part of an Inch. And where the Oil of Oranges between the Glasses is of this thickness, the Attraction collected by the foregoing Rule, seems to be so strong, as within a Circle of an Inch in diameter, to suffice to hold up a Weight equal to that of a Cylinder of Water of an Inch in diameter, and two or three Furlongs in length. And where it is of a less thickness the Attraction may be proportionally greater, and continue to increase, until the thickness do not exceed that of a single Particle of the Oil. There are therefore Agents in Nature able to make the Particles of Bodies stick together by very strong Attractions. And it is the Business of experimental Philosophy to find them out.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00703", "bookId": 33504, "start": 558925, "end": 560043, "sha256": "95b5e432afb24e1910c6e0403f37a1f491fe5ac9d6b4854d2ef64db3ec8791ac", "text": "Now the smallest Particles of Matter may cohere by the strongest Attractions, and compose bigger Particles of weaker Virtue; and many of these may cohere and compose bigger Particles whose Virtue is still weaker, and so on for divers Successions, until the Progression end in the biggest Particles on which the Operations in Chymistry, and the Colours of natural Bodies depend, and which by cohering compose Bodies of a sensible Magnitude. If the Body is compact, and bends or yields inward to Pression without any sliding of its Parts, it is hard and elastick, returning to its Figure with a Force rising from the mutual Attraction of its Parts. If the Parts slide upon one another, the Body is malleable or soft. If they slip easily, and are of a fit Size to be agitated by Heat, and the Heat is big enough to keep them in Agitation, the Body is fluid; and if it be apt to stick to things, it is humid; and the Drops of every fluid affect a round Figure by the mutual Attraction of their Parts, as the Globe of the Earth and Sea affects a round Figure by the mutual Attraction of its Parts by Gravity.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00704", "bookId": 33504, "start": 560047, "end": 563124, "sha256": "cab2eab7b731ac569e8b3fffc05abbb13ac8230e0768acdc3b47dcfb0e2e53af", "text": "Since Metals dissolved in Acids attract but a small quantity of the Acid, their attractive Force can reach but to a small distance from them. And as in Algebra, where affirmative Quantities vanish and cease, there negative ones begin; so in Mechanicks, where Attraction ceases, there a repulsive Virtue ought to succeed. And that there is such a Virtue, seems to follow from the Reflexions and Inflexions of the Rays of Light. For the Rays are repelled by Bodies in both these Cases, without the immediate Contact of the reflecting or inflecting Body. It seems also to follow from the Emission of Light; the Ray so soon as it is shaken off from a shining Body by the vibrating Motion of the Parts of the Body, and gets beyond the reach of Attraction, being driven away with exceeding great Velocity. For that Force which is sufficient to turn it back in Reflexion, may be sufficient to emit it. It seems also to follow from the Production of Air and Vapour. The Particles when they are shaken off from Bodies by Heat or Fermentation, so soon as they are beyond the reach of the Attraction of the Body, receding from it, and also from one another with great Strength, and keeping at a distance, so as sometimes to take up above a Million of Times more space than they did before in the form of a dense Body. Which vast Contraction and Expansion seems unintelligible, by feigning the Particles of Air to be springy and ramous, or rolled up like Hoops, or by any other means than a repulsive Power. The Particles of Fluids which do not cohere too strongly, and are of such a Smallness as renders them most susceptible of those Agitations which keep Liquors in a Fluor, are most easily separated and rarified into Vapour, and in the Language of the Chymists, they are volatile, rarifying with an easy Heat, and condensing with Cold. But those which are grosser, and so less susceptible of Agitation, or cohere by a stronger Attraction, are not separated without a stronger Heat, or perhaps not without Fermentation. And these last are the Bodies which Chymists call fix'd, and being rarified by Fermentation, become true permanent Air; those Particles receding from one another with the greatest Force, and being most difficultly brought together, which upon Contact cohere most strongly. And because the Particles of permanent Air are grosser, and arise from denser Substances than those of Vapours, thence it is that true Air is more ponderous than Vapour, and that a moist Atmosphere is lighter than a dry one, quantity for quantity. From the same repelling Power it seems to be that Flies walk upon the Water without wetting their Feet; and that the Object-glasses of long Telescopes lie upon one another without touching; and that dry Powders are difficultly made to touch one another so as to stick together, unless by melting them, or wetting them with Water, which by exhaling may bring them together; and that two polish'd Marbles, which by immediate Contact stick together, are difficultly brought so close together as to stick.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00705", "bookId": 33504, "start": 563128, "end": 567866, "sha256": "28aceca398fcecc3ffa459e57dd98b96190ddd2b8d12377e2e0dc20c2ae80f6f", "text": "And thus Nature will be very conformable to her self and very simple, performing all the great Motions of the heavenly Bodies by the Attraction of Gravity which intercedes those Bodies, and almost all the small ones of their Particles by some other attractive and repelling Powers which intercede the Particles. The _Vis inertiae_ is a passive Principle by which Bodies persist in their Motion or Rest, receive Motion in proportion to the Force impressing it, and resist as much as they are resisted. By this Principle alone there never could have been any Motion in the World. Some other Principle was necessary for putting Bodies into Motion; and now they are in Motion, some other Principle is necessary for conserving the Motion. For from the various Composition of two Motions, 'tis very certain that there is not always the same quantity of Motion in the World. For if two Globes joined by a slender Rod, revolve about their common Center of Gravity with an uniform Motion, while that Center moves on uniformly in a right Line drawn in the Plane of their circular Motion; the Sum of the Motions of the two Globes, as often as the Globes are in the right Line described by their common Center of Gravity, will be bigger than the Sum of their Motions, when they are in a Line perpendicular to that right Line. By this Instance it appears that Motion may be got or lost. But by reason of the Tenacity of Fluids, and Attrition of their Parts, and the Weakness of Elasticity in Solids, Motion is much more apt to be lost than got, and is always upon the Decay. For Bodies which are either absolutely hard, or so soft as to be void of Elasticity, will not rebound from one another. Impenetrability makes them only stop. If two equal Bodies meet directly _in vacuo_, they will by the Laws of Motion stop where they meet, and lose all their Motion, and remain in rest, unless they be elastick, and receive new Motion from their Spring. If they have so much Elasticity as suffices to make them re-bound with a quarter, or half, or three quarters of the Force with which they come together, they will lose three quarters, or half, or a quarter of their Motion. And this may be try'd, by letting two equal Pendulums fall against one another from equal heights. If the Pendulums be of Lead or soft Clay, they will lose all or almost all their Motions: If of elastick Bodies they will lose all but what they recover from their Elasticity. If it be said, that they can lose no Motion but what they communicate to other Bodies, the consequence is, that _in vacuo_ they can lose no Motion, but when they meet they must go on and penetrate one another's Dimensions. If three equal round Vessels be filled, the one with Water, the other with Oil, the third with molten Pitch, and the Liquors be stirred about alike to give them a vortical Motion; the Pitch by its Tenacity will lose its Motion quickly, the Oil being less tenacious will keep it longer, and the Water being less tenacious will keep it longest, but yet will lose it in a short time. Whence it is easy to understand, that if many contiguous Vortices of molten Pitch were each of them as large as those which some suppose to revolve about the Sun and fix'd Stars, yet these and all their Parts would, by their Tenacity and Stiffness, communicate their Motion to one another till they all rested among themselves. Vortices of Oil or Water, or some fluider Matter, might continue longer in Motion; but unless the Matter were void of all Tenacity and Attrition of Parts, and Communication of Motion, (which is not to be supposed,) the Motion would constantly decay. Seeing therefore the variety of Motion which we find in the World is always decreasing, there is a necessity of conserving and recruiting it by active Principles, such as are the cause of Gravity, by which Planets and Comets keep their Motions in their Orbs, and Bodies acquire great Motion in falling; and the cause of Fermentation, by which the Heart and Blood of Animals are kept in perpetual Motion and Heat; the inward Parts of the Earth are constantly warm'd, and in some places grow very hot; Bodies burn and shine, Mountains take fire, the Caverns of the Earth are blown up, and the Sun continues violently hot and lucid, and warms all things by his Light. For we meet with very little Motion in the World, besides what is owing to these active Principles. And if it were not for these Principles, the Bodies of the Earth, Planets, Comets, Sun, and all things in them, would grow cold and freeze, and become inactive Masses; and all Putrefaction, Generation, Vegetation and Life would cease, and the Planets and Comets would not remain in their Orbs.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00706", "bookId": 33504, "start": 567870, "end": 569198, "sha256": "75580986388a8e6c9289b74d94e7e4dfc261776bb0252ed77e804f75f24fbccf", "text": "All these things being consider'd, it seems probable to me, that God in the Beginning form'd Matter in solid, massy, hard, impenetrable, moveable Particles, of such Sizes and Figures, and with such other Properties, and in such Proportion to Space, as most conduced to the End for which he form'd them; and that these primitive Particles being Solids, are incomparably harder than any porous Bodies compounded of them; even so very hard, as never to wear or break in pieces; no ordinary Power being able to divide what God himself made one in the first Creation. While the Particles continue entire, they may compose Bodies of one and the same Nature and Texture in all Ages: But should they wear away, or break in pieces, the Nature of Things depending on them, would be changed. Water and Earth, composed of old worn Particles and Fragments of Particles, would not be of the same Nature and Texture now, with Water and Earth composed of entire Particles in the Beginning. And therefore, that Nature may be lasting, the Changes of corporeal Things are to be placed only in the various Separations and new Associations and Motions of these permanent Particles; compound Bodies being apt to break, not in the midst of solid Particles, but where those Particles are laid together, and only touch in a few Points.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00707", "bookId": 33504, "start": 569202, "end": 571053, "sha256": "540b1948742dcbad606101a6d9e7d43702a3aee17d092fd66507bdff1c049978", "text": "It seems to me farther, that these Particles have not only a _Vis inertiae_, accompanied with such passive Laws of Motion as naturally result from that Force, but also that they are moved by certain active Principles, such as is that of Gravity, and that which causes Fermentation, and the Cohesion of Bodies. These Principles I consider, not as occult Qualities, supposed to result from the specifick Forms of Things, but as general Laws of Nature, by which the Things themselves are form'd; their Truth appearing to us by Phaenomena, though their Causes be not yet discover'd. For these are manifest Qualities, and their Causes only are occult. And the _Aristotelians_ gave the Name of occult Qualities, not to manifest Qualities, but to such Qualities only as they supposed to lie hid in Bodies, and to be the unknown Causes of manifest Effects: Such as would be the Causes of Gravity, and of magnetick and electrick Attractions, and of Fermentations, if we should suppose that these Forces or Actions arose from Qualities unknown to us, and uncapable of being discovered and made manifest. Such occult Qualities put a stop to the Improvement of natural Philosophy, and therefore of late Years have been rejected. To tell us that every Species of Things is endow'd with an occult specifick Quality by which it acts and produces manifest Effects, is to tell us nothing: But to derive two or three general Principles of Motion from Phaenomena, and afterwards to tell us how the Properties and Actions of all corporeal Things follow from those manifest Principles, would be a very great step in Philosophy, though the Causes of those Principles were not yet discover'd: And therefore I scruple not to propose the Principles of Motion above-mention'd, they being of very general Extent, and leave their Causes to be found out.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00708", "bookId": 33504, "start": 571057, "end": 574243, "sha256": "b5d93000e2ec82de1189dd36f31dc5b417bd5b5fe0c8ce757a0f72ef74433cea", "text": "Now by the help of these Principles, all material Things seem to have been composed of the hard and solid Particles above-mention'd, variously associated in the first Creation by the Counsel of an intelligent Agent. For it became him who created them to set them in order. And if he did so, it's unphilosophical to seek for any other Origin of the World, or to pretend that it might arise out of a Chaos by the mere Laws of Nature; though being once form'd, it may continue by those Laws for many Ages. For while Comets move in very excentrick Orbs in all manner of Positions, blind Fate could never make all the Planets move one and the same way in Orbs concentrick, some inconsiderable Irregularities excepted, which may have risen from the mutual Actions of Comets and Planets upon one another, and which will be apt to increase, till this System wants a Reformation. Such a wonderful Uniformity in the Planetary System must be allowed the Effect of Choice. And so must the Uniformity in the Bodies of Animals, they having generally a right and a left side shaped alike, and on either side of their Bodies two Legs behind, and either two Arms, or two Legs, or two Wings before upon their Shoulders, and between their Shoulders a Neck running down into a Back-bone, and a Head upon it; and in the Head two Ears, two Eyes, a Nose, a Mouth, and a Tongue, alike situated. Also the first Contrivance of those very artificial Parts of Animals, the Eyes, Ears, Brain, Muscles, Heart, Lungs, Midriff, Glands, Larynx, Hands, Wings, swimming Bladders, natural Spectacles, and other Organs of Sense and Motion; and the Instinct of Brutes and Insects, can be the effect of nothing else than the Wisdom and Skill of a powerful ever-living Agent, who being in all Places, is more able by his Will to move the Bodies within his boundless uniform Sensorium, and thereby to form and reform the Parts of the Universe, than we are by our Will to move the Parts of our own Bodies. And yet we are not to consider the World as the Body of God, or the several Parts thereof, as the Parts of God. He is an uniform Being, void of Organs, Members or Parts, and they are his Creatures subordinate to him, and subservient to his Will; and he is no more the Soul of them, than the Soul of Man is the Soul of the Species of Things carried through the Organs of Sense into the place of its Sensation, where it perceives them by means of its immediate Presence, without the Intervention of any third thing. The Organs of Sense are not for enabling the Soul to perceive the Species of Things in its Sensorium, but only for conveying them thither; and God has no need of such Organs, he being every where present to the Things themselves. And since Space is divisible _in infinitum_, and Matter is not necessarily in all places, it may be also allow'd that God is able to create Particles of Matter of several Sizes and Figures, and in several Proportions to Space, and perhaps of different Densities and Forces, and thereby to vary the Laws of Nature, and make Worlds of several sorts in several Parts of the Universe. At least, I see nothing of Contradiction in all this.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00709", "bookId": 33504, "start": 574247, "end": 575711, "sha256": "e2404e0ca66cb593eb7a8c690db7a24ae77f0a2c122265e7b48939a126a4c8b2", "text": "As in Mathematicks, so in Natural Philosophy, the Investigation of difficult Things by the Method of Analysis, ought ever to precede the Method of Composition. This Analysis consists in making Experiments and Observations, and in drawing general Conclusions from them by Induction, and admitting of no Objections against the Conclusions, but such as are taken from Experiments, or other certain Truths. For Hypotheses are not to be regarded in experimental Philosophy. And although the arguing from Experiments and Observations by Induction be no Demonstration of general Conclusions; yet it is the best way of arguing which the Nature of Things admits of, and may be looked upon as so much the stronger, by how much the Induction is more general. And if no Exception occur from Phaenomena, the Conclusion may be pronounced generally. But if at any time afterwards any Exception shall occur from Experiments, it may then begin to be pronounced with such Exceptions as occur. By this way of Analysis we may proceed from Compounds to Ingredients, and from Motions to the Forces producing them; and in general, from Effects to their Causes, and from particular Causes to more general ones, till the Argument end in the most general. This is the Method of Analysis: And the Synthesis consists in assuming the Causes discover'd, and establish'd as Principles, and by them explaining the Phaenomena proceeding from them, and proving the Explanations.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00710", "bookId": 33504, "start": 575715, "end": 577413, "sha256": "a3873362f1fe727e4d07b8ff8be88c86f2b4fe4787f44824d07a21edc5e5ec3b", "text": "In the two first Books of these Opticks, I proceeded by this Analysis to discover and prove the original Differences of the Rays of Light in respect of Refrangibility, Reflexibility, and Colour, and their alternate Fits of easy Reflexion and easy Transmission, and the Properties of Bodies, both opake and pellucid, on which their Reflexions and Colours depend. And these Discoveries being proved, may be assumed in the Method of Composition for explaining the Phaenomena arising from them: An Instance of which Method I gave in the End of the first Book. In this third Book I have only begun the Analysis of what remains to be discover'd about Light and its Effects upon the Frame of Nature, hinting several things about it, and leaving the Hints to be examin'd and improv'd by the farther Experiments and Observations of such as are inquisitive. And if natural Philosophy in all its Parts, by pursuing this Method, shall at length be perfected, the Bounds of Moral Philosophy will be also enlarged. For so far as we can know by natural Philosophy what is the first Cause, what Power he has over us, and what Benefits we receive from him, so far our Duty towards him, as well as that towards one another, will appear to us by the Light of Nature. And no doubt, if the Worship of false Gods had not blinded the Heathen, their moral Philosophy would have gone farther than to the four Cardinal Virtues; and instead of teaching the Transmigration of Souls, and to worship the Sun and Moon, and dead Heroes, they would have taught us to worship our true Author and Benefactor, as their Ancestors did under the Government of _Noah_ and his Sons before they corrupted themselves.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00711", "bookId": 33504, "start": 577431, "end": 577481, "sha256": "8468f63c87a234e19db54a18407b936c3ccc24b2680195cb2024935da90ea719", "text": "*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK OPTICKS ***", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00712", "bookId": 33504, "start": 577495, "end": 577578, "sha256": "1d51416f58ccf2e0cbf9d6c33fc0c63852bee02e894080cc5737bee02089024e", "text": "Updated editions will replace the previous one—the old editions will be renamed.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG33504.B00713", "bookId": 33504, "start": 577582, "end": 578789, "sha256": "c0760ed3642c948c0431f2de78b6dd0234aacd2ed8de5c62d642c1a292d3b83d", "text": "Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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Please feel free to email me any errors or mistakes that you find. Citing the Chapter and paragraph. Haradda@aol.com and davidr@inconnect.com are my email addresses for now. David Reed", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00013", "bookId": 852, "start": 1405, "end": 1534, "sha256": "a7e0bd85bbb2c93785896bc7a7aa9c97b76d67a5dbce5650dc02a5e92bd71eb5", "text": "I would like to dedicate this etext to my mother who was a elementary school teacher for more years than I can remember. Thanks.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00014", "bookId": 852, "start": 1544, "end": 1553, "sha256": "8a4c4b615e47e8dcb4b4c1a8ebd729dca71a4eec6f797d8bb98c27b3fccd221c", "text": "Contents:", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG852.B00015", "bookId": 852, "start": 1562, "end": 2939, "sha256": "0b5ab55addd93a29f9e1638528fa3e0ca8bac2d2f7db80160f969fdd28df18c7", "text": "Chapter One: Education as a Necessity of Life Chapter Two: Education as a Social Function Chapter Three: Education as Direction Chapter Four: Education as Growth Chapter Five: Preparation, Unfolding, and Formal Discipline Chapter Six: Education as Conservative and Progressive Chapter Seven: The Democratic Conception in Education Chapter Eight: Aims in Education Chapter Nine: Natural Development and Social Efficiency as Aims Chapter Ten: Interest and Discipline Chapter Eleven: Experience and Thinking Chapter Twelve: Thinking in Education Chapter Thirteen: The Nature of Method Chapter Fourteen: The Nature of Subject Matter Chapter Fifteen: Play and Work in the Curriculum Chapter Sixteen: The Significance of Geography and History Chapter Seventeen: Science in the Course of Study Chapter Eighteen: Educational Values Chapter Nineteen: Labor and Leisure Chapter Twenty: Intellectual and Practical Studies Chapter Twenty-one: Physical and Social Studies: Naturalism and Humanism Chapter Twenty-two: The Individual and the World Chapter Twenty-Three: Vocational Aspects of Education Chapter Twenty-four: Philosophy of Education Chapter Twenty-five: Theories of Knowledge Chapter Twenty-six: Theories of Morals", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00016", "bookId": 852, "start": 2949, "end": 2994, "sha256": "ca167868ba121c6a7c73b7d37f4488cab5324815dae3a50a398d5215a2d3dc1c", "text": "Chapter One: Education as a Necessity of Life", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG852.B00017", "bookId": 852, "start": 2998, "end": 3827, "sha256": "57eeb1cdf81a06a559551e851251bee5f4546d0aa926207c5e2b9d92ee63e328", "text": "1. Renewal of Life by Transmission. The most notable distinction between living and inanimate things is that the former maintain themselves by renewal. A stone when struck resists. If its resistance is greater than the force of the blow struck, it remains outwardly unchanged. Otherwise, it is shattered into smaller bits. Never does the stone attempt to react in such a way that it may maintain itself against the blow, much less so as to render the blow a contributing factor to its own continued action. While the living thing may easily be crushed by superior force, it none the less tries to turn the energies which act upon it into means of its own further existence. If it cannot do so, it does not just split into smaller pieces (at least in the higher forms of life), but loses its identity as a living thing.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00018", "bookId": 852, "start": 3831, "end": 4485, "sha256": "3b37b2cf9f6f7a5fd3122d2ead701b5219b4ecf20ed16f51d078e841270de198", "text": "As long as it endures, it struggles to use surrounding energies in its own behalf. It uses light, air, moisture, and the material of soil. To say that it uses them is to say that it turns them into means of its own conservation. As long as it is growing, the energy it expends in thus turning the environment to account is more than compensated for by the return it gets: it grows. Understanding the word \"control\" in this sense, it may be said that a living being is one that subjugates and controls for its own continued activity the energies that would otherwise use it up. Life is a self-renewing process through action upon the environment.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00019", "bookId": 852, "start": 4489, "end": 5230, "sha256": "8c031816b332ef5fb3e0ec33f1c294f74facb13964197aec6537c63de24bbf48", "text": "In all the higher forms this process cannot be kept up indefinitely. After a while they succumb; they die. The creature is not equal to the task of indefinite self-renewal. But continuity of the life process is not dependent upon the prolongation of the existence of any one individual. Reproduction of other forms of life goes on in continuous sequence. And though, as the geological record shows, not merely individuals but also species die out, the life process continues in increasingly complex forms. As some species die out, forms better adapted to utilize the obstacles against which they struggled in vain come into being. Continuity of life means continual readaptation of the environment to the needs of living organisms.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00020", "bookId": 852, "start": 5234, "end": 6017, "sha256": "fbe97139c2509483c269127e049799a7c9aed1b3f46e2ec2d3cc27ac293b8420", "text": "We have been speaking of life in its lowest terms--as a physical thing. But we use the word \"Life\" to denote the whole range of experience, individual and racial. When we see a book called the Life of Lincoln we do not expect to find within its covers a treatise on physiology. We look for an account of social antecedents; a description of early surroundings, of the conditions and occupation of the family; of the chief episodes in the development of character; of signal struggles and achievements; of the individual's hopes, tastes, joys and sufferings. In precisely similar fashion we speak of the life of a savage tribe, of the Athenian people, of the American nation. \"Life\" covers customs, institutions, beliefs, victories and defeats, recreations and occupations.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00021", "bookId": 852, "start": 6021, "end": 6848, "sha256": "7982a2bbdaa65726ac6c2ff257c38b63f43c4c9d5956cefb0a91fc869600062e", "text": "We employ the word \"experience\" in the same pregnant sense. And to it, as well as to life in the bare physiological sense, the principle of continuity through renewal applies. With the renewal of physical existence goes, in the case of human beings, the recreation of beliefs, ideals, hopes, happiness, misery, and practices. The continuity of any experience, through renewing of the social group, is a literal fact. Education, in its broadest sense, is the means of this social continuity of life. Every one of the constituent elements of a social group, in a modern city as in a savage tribe, is born immature, helpless, without language, beliefs, ideas, or social standards. Each individual, each unit who is the carrier of the life-experience of his group, in time passes away. Yet the life of the group goes on.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00022", "bookId": 852, "start": 6852, "end": 8227, "sha256": "819354c834c1e26e26d96e4bceb591e644fefd1b37b506fd3039afa3d3bbf23f", "text": "The primary ineluctable facts of the birth and death of each one of the constituent members in a social group determine the necessity of education. On one hand, there is the contrast between the immaturity of the new-born members of the group--its future sole representatives--and the maturity of the adult members who possess the knowledge and customs of the group. On the other hand, there is the necessity that these immature members be not merely physically preserved in adequate numbers, but that they be initiated into the interests, purposes, information, skill, and practices of the mature members: otherwise the group will cease its characteristic life. Even in a savage tribe, the achievements of adults are far beyond what the immature members would be capable of if left to themselves. With the growth of civilization, the gap between the original capacities of the immature and the standards and customs of the elders increases. Mere physical growing up, mere mastery of the bare necessities of subsistence will not suffice to reproduce the life of the group. Deliberate effort and the taking of thoughtful pains are required. Beings who are born not only unaware of, but quite indifferent to, the aims and habits of the social group have to be rendered cognizant of them and actively interested. Education, and education alone, spans the gap.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00023", "bookId": 852, "start": 8231, "end": 8868, "sha256": "fa5c65da2aea8946018772c0568e38ce851661c6cba4aaade2b33305a0a5cf96", "text": "Society exists through a process of transmission quite as much as biological life. This transmission occurs by means of communication of habits of doing, thinking, and feeling from the older to the younger. Without this communication of ideals, hopes, expectations, standards, opinions, from those members of society who are passing out of the group life to those who are coming into it, social life could not survive. If the members who compose a society lived on continuously, they might educate the new-born members, but it would be a task directed by personal interest rather than social need. Now it is a work of necessity.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00024", "bookId": 852, "start": 8872, "end": 10026, "sha256": "d22673bd0cd85ef2cde66a4b6e93d7ad56caf94fbf9cdd76988cf1fa450a78c8", "text": "If a plague carried off the members of a society all at once, it is obvious that the group would be permanently done for. Yet the death of each of its constituent members is as certain as if an epidemic took them all at once. But the graded difference in age, the fact that some are born as some die, makes possible through transmission of ideas and practices the constant reweaving of the social fabric. Yet this renewal is not automatic. Unless pains are taken to see that genuine and thorough transmission takes place, the most civilized group will relapse into barbarism and then into savagery. In fact, the human young are so immature that if they were left to themselves without the guidance and succor of others, they could not acquire the rudimentary abilities necessary for physical existence. The young of human beings compare so poorly in original efficiency with the young of many of the lower animals, that even the powers needed for physical sustentation have to be acquired under tuition. How much more, then, is this the case with respect to all the technological, artistic, scientific, and moral achievements of humanity!", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00025", "bookId": 852, "start": 10030, "end": 10736, "sha256": "2cda5dc89cb413a2a247f2873cc626fe0cf3a86b46153bd548c47368720d2eeb", "text": "2. Education and Communication. So obvious, indeed, is the necessity of teaching and learning for the continued existence of a society that we may seem to be dwelling unduly on a truism. But justification is found in the fact that such emphasis is a means of getting us away from an unduly scholastic and formal notion of education. Schools are, indeed, one important method of the transmission which forms the dispositions of the immature; but it is only one means, and, compared with other agencies, a relatively superficial means. Only as we have grasped the necessity of more fundamental and persistent modes of tuition can we make sure of placing the scholastic methods in their true context.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00026", "bookId": 852, "start": 10740, "end": 11673, "sha256": "fd626aa5224b456d339b11760547b389a4c72fca84a3158dc191fb9e12215bf9", "text": "Society not only continues to exist by transmission, by communication, but it may fairly be said to exist in transmission, in communication. There is more than a verbal tie between the words common, community, and communication. Men live in a community in virtue of the things which they have in common; and communication is the way in which they come to possess things in common. What they must have in common in order to form a community or society are aims, beliefs, aspirations, knowledge--a common understanding--like-mindedness as the sociologists say. Such things cannot be passed physically from one to another, like bricks; they cannot be shared as persons would share a pie by dividing it into physical pieces. The communication which insures participation in a common understanding is one which secures similar emotional and intellectual dispositions--like ways of responding to expectations and requirements.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00027", "bookId": 852, "start": 11677, "end": 12634, "sha256": "94ee6334e98dde563f520d659e7b69f084a5ff522bca1eadffe36af31fe17cf7", "text": "Persons do not become a society by living in physical proximity, any more than a man ceases to be socially influenced by being so many feet or miles removed from others. A book or a letter may institute a more intimate association between human beings separated thousands of miles from each other than exists between dwellers under the same roof. Individuals do not even compose a social group because they all work for a common end. The parts of a machine work with a maximum of cooperativeness for a common result, but they do not form a community. If, however, they were all cognizant of the common end and all interested in it so that they regulated their specific activity in view of it, then they would form a community. But this would involve communication. Each would have to know what the other was about and would have to have some way of keeping the other informed as to his own purpose and progress. Consensus demands communication.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00028", "bookId": 852, "start": 12638, "end": 13536, "sha256": "6cb7923ebda12059b8deae677f9ef1462da524e23db6408ebe214f715ba79b36", "text": "We are thus compelled to recognize that within even the most social group there are many relations which are not as yet social. A large number of human relationships in any social group are still upon the machine-like plane. Individuals use one another so as to get desired results, without reference to the emotional and intellectual disposition and consent of those used. Such uses express physical superiority, or superiority of position, skill, technical ability, and command of tools, mechanical or fiscal. So far as the relations of parent and child, teacher and pupil, employer and employee, governor and governed, remain upon this level, they form no true social group, no matter how closely their respective activities touch one another. Giving and taking of orders modifies action and results, but does not of itself effect a sharing of purposes, a communication of interests.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00029", "bookId": 852, "start": 13540, "end": 14940, "sha256": "5ac8c6211851df0716fba819c289c37c3f4c203d5bab7eb640aae1765d84ca05", "text": "Not only is social life identical with communication, but all communication (and hence all genuine social life) is educative. To be a recipient of a communication is to have an enlarged and changed experience. One shares in what another has thought and felt and in so far, meagerly or amply, has his own attitude modified. Nor is the one who communicates left unaffected. Try the experiment of communicating, with fullness and accuracy, some experience to another, especially if it be somewhat complicated, and you will find your own attitude toward your experience changing; otherwise you resort to expletives and ejaculations. The experience has to be formulated in order to be communicated. To formulate requires getting outside of it, seeing it as another would see it, considering what points of contact it has with the life of another so that it may be got into such form that he can appreciate its meaning. Except in dealing with commonplaces and catch phrases one has to assimilate, imaginatively, something of another's experience in order to tell him intelligently of one's own experience. All communication is like art. It may fairly be said, therefore, that any social arrangement that remains vitally social, or vitally shared, is educative to those who participate in it. Only when it becomes cast in a mold and runs in a routine way does it lose its educative power.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00030", "bookId": 852, "start": 14944, "end": 15710, "sha256": "d0d8b2feb6037b44b1d101fb48faec071746f2a6f9b40e9360d1c1c6e3c77c7e", "text": "In final account, then, not only does social life demand teaching and learning for its own permanence, but the very process of living together educates. It enlarges and enlightens experience; it stimulates and enriches imagination; it creates responsibility for accuracy and vividness of statement and thought. A man really living alone (alone mentally as well as physically) would have little or no occasion to reflect upon his past experience to extract its net meaning. The inequality of achievement between the mature and the immature not only necessitates teaching the young, but the necessity of this teaching gives an immense stimulus to reducing experience to that order and form which will render it most easily communicable and hence most usable.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00031", "bookId": 852, "start": 15714, "end": 17211, "sha256": "0b7283977c291d23b49371bab040aee0fb919d96f139733d5c23a928a708a3bf", "text": "3. The Place of Formal Education. There is, accordingly, a marked difference between the education which every one gets from living with others, as long as he really lives instead of just continuing to subsist, and the deliberate educating of the young. In the former case the education is incidental; it is natural and important, but it is not the express reason of the association. While it may be said, without exaggeration, that the measure of the worth of any social institution, economic, domestic, political, legal, religious, is its effect in enlarging and improving experience; yet this effect is not a part of its original motive, which is limited and more immediately practical. Religious associations began, for example, in the desire to secure the favor of overruling powers and to ward off evil influences; family life in the desire to gratify appetites and secure family perpetuity; systematic labor, for the most part, because of enslavement to others, etc. Only gradually was the by-product of the institution, its effect upon the quality and extent of conscious life, noted, and only more gradually still was this effect considered as a directive factor in the conduct of the institution. Even today, in our industrial life, apart from certain values of industriousness and thrift, the intellectual and emotional reaction of the forms of human association under which the world's work is carried on receives little attention as compared with physical output.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00032", "bookId": 852, "start": 17215, "end": 18165, "sha256": "a5f96bf477a6a1409ee19a1a49fde52f55ade120cb3edffe3acca6d84df1bcdd", "text": "But in dealing with the young, the fact of association itself as an immediate human fact, gains in importance. While it is easy to ignore in our contact with them the effect of our acts upon their disposition, or to subordinate that educative effect to some external and tangible result, it is not so easy as in dealing with adults. The need of training is too evident; the pressure to accomplish a change in their attitude and habits is too urgent to leave these consequences wholly out of account. Since our chief business with them is to enable them to share in a common life we cannot help considering whether or no we are forming the powers which will secure this ability. If humanity has made some headway in realizing that the ultimate value of every institution is its distinctively human effect--its effect upon conscious experience--we may well believe that this lesson has been learned largely through dealings with the young.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00033", "bookId": 852, "start": 18169, "end": 19328, "sha256": "8872472ef4a519bb66d921ede8490e08952f4dcce3e6de42e2db7983d9c51704", "text": "We are thus led to distinguish, within the broad educational process which we have been so far considering, a more formal kind of education--that of direct tuition or schooling. In undeveloped social groups, we find very little formal teaching and training. Savage groups mainly rely for instilling needed dispositions into the young upon the same sort of association which keeps adults loyal to their group. They have no special devices, material, or institutions for teaching save in connection with initiation ceremonies by which the youth are inducted into full social membership. For the most part, they depend upon children learning the customs of the adults, acquiring their emotional set and stock of ideas, by sharing in what the elders are doing. In part, this sharing is direct, taking part in the occupations of adults and thus serving an apprenticeship; in part, it is indirect, through the dramatic plays in which children reproduce the actions of grown-ups and thus learn to know what they are like. To savages it would seem preposterous to seek out a place where nothing but learning was going on in order that one might learn.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00034", "bookId": 852, "start": 19332, "end": 19992, "sha256": "c6ad18149cf9d4996548c33b8ea97bd156da5be6dfe7bffb521691f8eb1df6d4", "text": "But as civilization advances, the gap between the capacities of the young and the concerns of adults widens. Learning by direct sharing in the pursuits of grown-ups becomes increasingly difficult except in the case of the less advanced occupations. Much of what adults do is so remote in space and in meaning that playful imitation is less and less adequate to reproduce its spirit. Ability to share effectively in adult activities thus depends upon a prior training given with this end in view. Intentional agencies--schools--and explicit material--studies--are devised. The task of teaching certain things is delegated to a special group of persons.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00035", "bookId": 852, "start": 19996, "end": 20342, "sha256": "3c3e88dbe8d03ad29d2651a77a1fb246236e760a2f818860ecff290c2a2b9c83", "text": "Without such formal education, it is not possible to transmit all the resources and achievements of a complex society. It also opens a way to a kind of experience which would not be accessible to the young, if they were left to pick up their training in informal association with others, since books and the symbols of knowledge are mastered.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00036", "bookId": 852, "start": 20346, "end": 20995, "sha256": "dedfbfdfa3af812c976c644c8b894345aa419af68225ddf409da3731ccff49fb", "text": "But there are conspicuous dangers attendant upon the transition from indirect to formal education. Sharing in actual pursuit, whether directly or vicariously in play, is at least personal and vital. These qualities compensate, in some measure, for the narrowness of available opportunities. Formal instruction, on the contrary, easily becomes remote and dead--abstract and bookish, to use the ordinary words of depreciation. What accumulated knowledge exists in low grade societies is at least put into practice; it is transmuted into character; it exists with the depth of meaning that attaches to its coming within urgent daily interests.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00037", "bookId": 852, "start": 20999, "end": 22181, "sha256": "06fe02ef30e218a1380c6c6dda6e260c0feb3f557fc594d0940f3b92b62afa4a", "text": "But in an advanced culture much which has to be learned is stored in symbols. It is far from translation into familiar acts and objects. Such material is relatively technical and superficial. Taking the ordinary standard of reality as a measure, it is artificial. For this measure is connection with practical concerns. Such material exists in a world by itself, unassimilated to ordinary customs of thought and expression. There is the standing danger that the material of formal instruction will be merely the subject matter of the schools, isolated from the subject matter of life-experience. The permanent social interests are likely to be lost from view. Those which have not been carried over into the structure of social life, but which remain largely matters of technical information expressed in symbols, are made conspicuous in schools. Thus we reach the ordinary notion of education: the notion which ignores its social necessity and its identity with all human association that affects conscious life, and which identifies it with imparting information about remote matters and the conveying of learning through verbal signs: the acquisition of literacy.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00038", "bookId": 852, "start": 22185, "end": 23028, "sha256": "e7573c1e773e3005f63fd1951aeddc129bba7b85733ebd9d03e9003cdc83e9f7", "text": "Hence one of the weightiest problems with which the philosophy of education has to cope is the method of keeping a proper balance between the informal and the formal, the incidental and the intentional, modes of education. When the acquiring of information and of technical intellectual skill do not influence the formation of a social disposition, ordinary vital experience fails to gain in meaning, while schooling, in so far, creates only \"sharps\" in learning--that is, egoistic specialists. To avoid a split between what men consciously know because they are aware of having learned it by a specific job of learning, and what they unconsciously know because they have absorbed it in the formation of their characters by intercourse with others, becomes an increasingly delicate task with every development of special schooling.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00039", "bookId": 852, "start": 23032, "end": 24449, "sha256": "7664bbc744261d1fa7fb1c55dd7344f9e5e75d7c5a5aca14f8a4d344797269f3", "text": "Summary. It is the very nature of life to strive to continue in being. Since this continuance can be secured only by constant renewals, life is a self-renewing process. What nutrition and reproduction are to physiological life, education is to social life. This education consists primarily in transmission through communication. Communication is a process of sharing experience till it becomes a common possession. It modifies the disposition of both the parties who partake in it. That the ulterior significance of every mode of human association lies in the contribution which it makes to the improvement of the quality of experience is a fact most easily recognized in dealing with the immature. That is to say, while every social arrangement is educative in effect, the educative effect first becomes an important part of the purpose of the association in connection with the association of the older with the younger. As societies become more complex in structure and resources, the need of formal or intentional teaching and learning increases. As formal teaching and training grow in extent, there is the danger of creating an undesirable split between the experience gained in more direct associations and what is acquired in school. This danger was never greater than at the present time, on account of the rapid growth in the last few centuries of knowledge and technical modes of skill.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00040", "bookId": 852, "start": 24453, "end": 24496, "sha256": "b5ab8df4a06e9a0a81ec9334a092da105f4ef8e7929276e3891f173c06b20fe2", "text": "Chapter Two: Education as a Social Function", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG852.B00041", "bookId": 852, "start": 24500, "end": 25597, "sha256": "a60e77b5314fe08bbbaac5377e9fb1c0e93b02b2bd9ad309713177c8544dad82", "text": "1. The Nature and Meaning of Environment. We have seen that a community or social group sustains itself through continuous self-renewal, and that this renewal takes place by means of the educational growth of the immature members of the group. By various agencies, unintentional and designed, a society transforms uninitiated and seemingly alien beings into robust trustees of its own resources and ideals. Education is thus a fostering, a nurturing, a cultivating, process. All of these words mean that it implies attention to the conditions of growth. We also speak of rearing, raising, bringing up--words which express the difference of level which education aims to cover. Etymologically, the word education means just a process of leading or bringing up. When we have the outcome of the process in mind, we speak of education as shaping, forming, molding activity--that is, a shaping into the standard form of social activity. In this chapter we are concerned with the general features of the way in which a social group brings up its immature members into its own social form.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00042", "bookId": 852, "start": 25601, "end": 27946, "sha256": "6e11a0d28c234a52a374e65f8fda54fddbbc6b9ecd25f9dd4a5442ef3b439dd9", "text": "Since what is required is a transformation of the quality of experience till it partakes in the interests, purposes, and ideas current in the social group, the problem is evidently not one of mere physical forming. Things can be physically transported in space; they may be bodily conveyed. Beliefs and aspirations cannot be physically extracted and inserted. How then are they communicated? Given the impossibility of direct contagion or literal inculcation, our problem is to discover the method by which the young assimilate the point of view of the old, or the older bring the young into like-mindedness with themselves. The answer, in general formulation, is: By means of the action of the environment in calling out certain responses. The required beliefs cannot be hammered in; the needed attitudes cannot be plastered on. But the particular medium in which an individual exists leads him to see and feel one thing rather than another; it leads him to have certain plans in order that he may act successfully with others; it strengthens some beliefs and weakens others as a condition of winning the approval of others. Thus it gradually produces in him a certain system of behavior, a certain disposition of action. The words \"environment,\" \"medium\" denote something more than surroundings which encompass an individual. They denote the specific continuity of the surroundings with his own active tendencies. An inanimate being is, of course, continuous with its surroundings; but the environing circumstances do not, save metaphorically, constitute an environment. For the inorganic being is not concerned in the influences which affect it. On the other hand, some things which are remote in space and time from a living creature, especially a human creature, may form his environment even more truly than some of the things close to him. The things with which a man varies are his genuine environment. Thus the activities of the astronomer vary with the stars at which he gazes or about which he calculates. Of his immediate surroundings, his telescope is most intimately his environment. The environment of an antiquarian, as an antiquarian, consists of the remote epoch of human life with which he is concerned, and the relics, inscriptions, etc., by which he establishes connections with that period.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00043", "bookId": 852, "start": 27950, "end": 28622, "sha256": "9023777faadc0622a969bb5d22d068fb2066f2d64e76c7be7dbb0b2925b0d673", "text": "In brief, the environment consists of those conditions that promote or hinder, stimulate or inhibit, the characteristic activities of a living being. Water is the environment of a fish because it is necessary to the fish's activities--to its life. The north pole is a significant element in the environment of an arctic explorer, whether he succeeds in reaching it or not, because it defines his activities, makes them what they distinctively are. Just because life signifies not bare passive existence (supposing there is such a thing), but a way of acting, environment or medium signifies what enters into this activity as a sustaining or frustrating condition.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00044", "bookId": 852, "start": 28626, "end": 29675, "sha256": "45e964758c25ebfb2197c235e1a12fdc2e9833bd36e96d3b5a3e0373aaa76660", "text": "2. The Social Environment. A being whose activities are associated with others has a social environment. What he does and what he can do depend upon the expectations, demands, approvals, and condemnations of others. A being connected with other beings cannot perform his own activities without taking the activities of others into account. For they are the indispensable conditions of the realization of his tendencies. When he moves he stirs them and reciprocally. We might as well try to imagine a business man doing business, buying and selling, all by himself, as to conceive it possible to define the activities of an individual in terms of his isolated actions. The manufacturer moreover is as truly socially guided in his activities when he is laying plans in the privacy of his own counting house as when he is buying his raw material or selling his finished goods. Thinking and feeling that have to do with action in association with others is as much a social mode of behavior as is the most overt cooperative or hostile act.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00045", "bookId": 852, "start": 29679, "end": 30648, "sha256": "2e7bb0c3ff3dd9c76bcbedc411859c0cc5a424127a5f5415d7efb00f24a63106", "text": "What we have more especially to indicate is how the social medium nurtures its immature members. There is no great difficulty in seeing how it shapes the external habits of action. Even dogs and horses have their actions modified by association with human beings; they form different habits because human beings are concerned with what they do. Human beings control animals by controlling the natural stimuli which influence them; by creating a certain environment in other words. Food, bits and bridles, noises, vehicles, are used to direct the ways in which the natural or instinctive responses of horses occur. By operating steadily to call out certain acts, habits are formed which function with the same uniformity as the original stimuli. If a rat is put in a maze and finds food only by making a given number of turns in a given sequence, his activity is gradually modified till he habitually takes that course rather than another when he is hungry.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00046", "bookId": 852, "start": 30652, "end": 31882, "sha256": "14dcc273c852796ebc22584c450bda72033ab183a5bc90e5f85c539b34018155", "text": "Human actions are modified in a like fashion. A burnt child dreads the fire; if a parent arranged conditions so that every time a child touched a certain toy he got burned, the child would learn to avoid that toy as automatically as he avoids touching fire. So far, however, we are dealing with what may be called training in distinction from educative teaching. The changes considered are in outer action rather than in mental and emotional dispositions of behavior. The distinction is not, however, a sharp one. The child might conceivably generate in time a violent antipathy, not only to that particular toy, but to the class of toys resembling it. The aversion might even persist after he had forgotten about the original burns; later on he might even invent some reason to account for his seemingly irrational antipathy. In some cases, altering the external habit of action by changing the environment to affect the stimuli to action will also alter the mental disposition concerned in the action. Yet this does not always happen; a person trained to dodge a threatening blow, dodges automatically with no corresponding thought or emotion. We have to find, then, some differentia of training from education.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00047", "bookId": 852, "start": 31886, "end": 32507, "sha256": "6f841420bb2a3d4700626785c197ac7ba714b7c5b26262b883cc5c3a06c86e9d", "text": "A clew may be found in the fact that the horse does not really share in the social use to which his action is put. Some one else uses the horse to secure a result which is advantageous by making it advantageous to the horse to perform the act--he gets food, etc. But the horse, presumably, does not get any new interest. He remains interested in food, not in the service he is rendering. He is not a partner in a shared activity. Were he to become a copartner, he would, in engaging in the conjoint activity, have the same interest in its accomplishment which others have. He would share their ideas and emotions.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00048", "bookId": 852, "start": 32511, "end": 33904, "sha256": "9a58369482085602bb5fdb8903cbc5d6a046c180d1811ff1bbcd584680c8a2fc", "text": "Now in many cases--too many cases--the activity of the immature human being is simply played upon to secure habits which are useful. He is trained like an animal rather than educated like a human being. His instincts remain attached to their original objects of pain or pleasure. But to get happiness or to avoid the pain of failure he has to act in a way agreeable to others. In other cases, he really shares or participates in the common activity. In this case, his original impulse is modified. He not merely acts in a way agreeing with the actions of others, but, in so acting, the same ideas and emotions are aroused in him that animate the others. A tribe, let us say, is warlike. The successes for which it strives, the achievements upon which it sets store, are connected with fighting and victory. The presence of this medium incites bellicose exhibitions in a boy, first in games, then in fact when he is strong enough. As he fights he wins approval and advancement; as he refrains, he is disliked, ridiculed, shut out from favorable recognition. It is not surprising that his original belligerent tendencies and emotions are strengthened at the expense of others, and that his ideas turn to things connected with war. Only in this way can he become fully a recognized member of his group. Thus his mental habitudes are gradually assimilated to those of his group.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00049", "bookId": 852, "start": 33908, "end": 34854, "sha256": "6229a78e4fe0e6d914a9b5a08c94511d01f1d3f5c3984a8fca3505f20cca4582", "text": "If we formulate the principle involved in this illustration, we shall perceive that the social medium neither implants certain desires and ideas directly, nor yet merely establishes certain purely muscular habits of action, like \"instinctively\" winking or dodging a blow. Setting up conditions which stimulate certain visible and tangible ways of acting is the first step. Making the individual a sharer or partner in the associated activity so that he feels its success as his success, its failure as his failure, is the completing step. As soon as he is possessed by the emotional attitude of the group, he will be alert to recognize the special ends at which it aims and the means employed to secure success. His beliefs and ideas, in other words, will take a form similar to those of others in the group. He will also achieve pretty much the same stock of knowledge since that knowledge is an ingredient of his habitual pursuits.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00050", "bookId": 852, "start": 34858, "end": 35815, "sha256": "421dddd82fa33615ede44be00cb6c3401f4328fc6a8b77f803d82ef3de613042", "text": "The importance of language in gaining knowledge is doubtless the chief cause of the common notion that knowledge may be passed directly from one to another. It almost seems as if all we have to do to convey an idea into the mind of another is to convey a sound into his ear. Thus imparting knowledge gets assimilated to a purely physical process. But learning from language will be found, when analyzed, to confirm the principle just laid down. It would probably be admitted with little hesitation that a child gets the idea of, say, a hat by using it as other persons do; by covering the head with it, giving it to others to wear, having it put on by others when going out, etc. But it may be asked how this principle of shared activity applies to getting through speech or reading the idea of, say, a Greek helmet, where no direct use of any kind enters in. What shared activity is there in learning from books about the discovery of America?", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00051", "bookId": 852, "start": 35819, "end": 37035, "sha256": "fc5657b04ea50edae01a7b2d1d5e7acff814fbf5732e160a557e78859745213b", "text": "Since language tends to become the chief instrument of learning about many things, let us see how it works. The baby begins of course with mere sounds, noises, and tones having no meaning, expressing, that is, no idea. Sounds are just one kind of stimulus to direct response, some having a soothing effect, others tending to make one jump, and so on. The sound h-a-t would remain as meaningless as a sound in Choctaw, a seemingly inarticulate grunt, if it were not uttered in connection with an action which is participated in by a number of people. When the mother is taking the infant out of doors, she says \"hat\" as she puts something on the baby's head. Being taken out becomes an interest to the child; mother and child not only go out with each other physically, but both are concerned in the going out; they enjoy it in common. By conjunction with the other factors in activity the sound \"hat\" soon gets the same meaning for the child that it has for the parent; it becomes a sign of the activity into which it enters. The bare fact that language consists of sounds which are mutually intelligible is enough of itself to show that its meaning depends upon connection with a shared experience.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00052", "bookId": 852, "start": 37039, "end": 38070, "sha256": "33042107041c02dfd5825e1a02255263d71fb21b3197dca686409070983595d1", "text": "In short, the sound h-a-t gains meaning in precisely the same way that the thing \"hat\" gains it, by being used in a given way. And they acquire the same meaning with the child which they have with the adult because they are used in a common experience by both. The guarantee for the same manner of use is found in the fact that the thing and the sound are first employed in a joint activity, as a means of setting up an active connection between the child and a grownup. Similar ideas or meanings spring up because both persons are engaged as partners in an action where what each does depends upon and influences what the other does. If two savages were engaged in a joint hunt for game, and a certain signal meant \"move to the right\" to the one who uttered it, and \"move to the left\" to the one who heard it, they obviously could not successfully carry on their hunt together. Understanding one another means that objects, including sounds, have the same value for both with respect to carrying on a common pursuit.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00053", "bookId": 852, "start": 38074, "end": 39796, "sha256": "e701ba2b5d280e534aa0a2aa0700eef89999e1ccd2f3657efa44f1bc28764be3", "text": "After sounds have got meaning through connection with other things employed in a joint undertaking, they can be used in connection with other like sounds to develop new meanings, precisely as the things for which they stand are combined. Thus the words in which a child learns about, say, the Greek helmet originally got a meaning (or were understood) by use in an action having a common interest and end. They now arouse a new meaning by inciting the one who hears or reads to rehearse imaginatively the activities in which the helmet has its use. For the time being, the one who understands the words \"Greek helmet\" becomes mentally a partner with those who used the helmet. He engages, through his imagination, in a shared activity. It is not easy to get the full meaning of words. Most persons probably stop with the idea that \"helmet\" denotes a queer kind of headgear a people called the Greeks once wore. We conclude, accordingly, that the use of language to convey and acquire ideas is an extension and refinement of the principle that things gain meaning by being used in a shared experience or joint action; in no sense does it contravene that principle. When words do not enter as factors into a shared situation, either overtly or imaginatively, they operate as pure physical stimuli, not as having a meaning or intellectual value. They set activity running in a given groove, but there is no accompanying conscious purpose or meaning. Thus, for example, the plus sign may be a stimulus to perform the act of writing one number under another and adding the numbers, but the person performing the act will operate much as an automaton would unless he realizes the meaning of what he does.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00054", "bookId": 852, "start": 39800, "end": 40728, "sha256": "e37c4b535e5bef121fe2fc214eaaf1f7a77513a8df6e21c06f5d069afd6cfbc1", "text": "3. The Social Medium as Educative. Our net result thus far is that social environment forms the mental and emotional disposition of behavior in individuals by engaging them in activities that arouse and strengthen certain impulses, that have certain purposes and entail certain consequences. A child growing up in a family of musicians will inevitably have whatever capacities he has in music stimulated, and, relatively, stimulated more than other impulses which might have been awakened in another environment. Save as he takes an interest in music and gains a certain competency in it, he is \"out of it\"; he is unable to share in the life of the group to which he belongs. Some kinds of participation in the life of those with whom the individual is connected are inevitable; with respect to them, the social environment exercises an educative or formative influence unconsciously and apart from any set purpose.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00055", "bookId": 852, "start": 40732, "end": 42617, "sha256": "feeb8901a726984aef48da0d872f6790715159f52b13b888dd71317915317145", "text": "In savage and barbarian communities, such direct participation (constituting the indirect or incidental education of which we have spoken) furnishes almost the sole influence for rearing the young into the practices and beliefs of the group. Even in present-day societies, it furnishes the basic nurture of even the most insistently schooled youth. In accord with the interests and occupations of the group, certain things become objects of high esteem; others of aversion. Association does not create impulses or affection and dislike, but it furnishes the objects to which they attach themselves. The way our group or class does things tends to determine the proper objects of attention, and thus to prescribe the directions and limits of observation and memory. What is strange or foreign (that is to say outside the activities of the groups) tends to be morally forbidden and intellectually suspect. It seems almost incredible to us, for example, that things which we know very well could have escaped recognition in past ages. We incline to account for it by attributing congenital stupidity to our forerunners and by assuming superior native intelligence on our own part. But the explanation is that their modes of life did not call for attention to such facts, but held their minds riveted to other things. Just as the senses require sensible objects to stimulate them, so our powers of observation, recollection, and imagination do not work spontaneously, but are set in motion by the demands set up by current social occupations. The main texture of disposition is formed, independently of schooling, by such influences. What conscious, deliberate teaching can do is at most to free the capacities thus formed for fuller exercise, to purge them of some of their grossness, and to furnish objects which make their activity more productive of meaning.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00056", "bookId": 852, "start": 42621, "end": 45396, "sha256": "96fea30cb3acf2a0201c494d6622bbb24b36e22b128cd80c7e5d44553e7e1fe8", "text": "While this \"unconscious influence of the environment\" is so subtle and pervasive that it affects every fiber of character and mind, it may be worth while to specify a few directions in which its effect is most marked. First, the habits of language. Fundamental modes of speech, the bulk of the vocabulary, are formed in the ordinary intercourse of life, carried on not as a set means of instruction but as a social necessity. The babe acquires, as we well say, the mother tongue. While speech habits thus contracted may be corrected or even displaced by conscious teaching, yet, in times of excitement, intentionally acquired modes of speech often fall away, and individuals relapse into their really native tongue. Secondly, manners. Example is notoriously more potent than precept. Good manners come, as we say, from good breeding or rather are good breeding; and breeding is acquired by habitual action, in response to habitual stimuli, not by conveying information. Despite the never ending play of conscious correction and instruction, the surrounding atmosphere and spirit is in the end the chief agent in forming manners. And manners are but minor morals. Moreover, in major morals, conscious instruction is likely to be efficacious only in the degree in which it falls in with the general \"walk and conversation\" of those who constitute the child's social environment. Thirdly, good taste and esthetic appreciation. If the eye is constantly greeted by harmonious objects, having elegance of form and color, a standard of taste naturally grows up. The effect of a tawdry, unarranged, and over-decorated environment works for the deterioration of taste, just as meager and barren surroundings starve out the desire for beauty. Against such odds, conscious teaching can hardly do more than convey second-hand information as to what others think. Such taste never becomes spontaneous and personally engrained, but remains a labored reminder of what those think to whom one has been taught to look up. To say that the deeper standards of judgments of value are framed by the situations into which a person habitually enters is not so much to mention a fourth point, as it is to point out a fusion of those already mentioned. We rarely recognize the extent in which our conscious estimates of what is worth while and what is not, are due to standards of which we are not conscious at all. But in general it may be said that the things which we take for granted without inquiry or reflection are just the things which determine our conscious thinking and decide our conclusions. And these habitudes which lie below the level of reflection are just those which have been formed in the constant give and take of relationship with others.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00057", "bookId": 852, "start": 45400, "end": 46510, "sha256": "99fda5c9e02dfba860311f09b68291548dc089e7b66e5fc7b7973475ad512e12", "text": "4. The School as a Special Environment. The chief importance of this foregoing statement of the educative process which goes on willy-nilly is to lead us to note that the only way in which adults consciously control the kind of education which the immature get is by controlling the environment in which they act, and hence think and feel. We never educate directly, but indirectly by means of the environment. Whether we permit chance environments to do the work, or whether we design environments for the purpose makes a great difference. And any environment is a chance environment so far as its educative influence is concerned unless it has been deliberately regulated with reference to its educative effect. An intelligent home differs from an unintelligent one chiefly in that the habits of life and intercourse which prevail are chosen, or at least colored, by the thought of their bearing upon the development of children. But schools remain, of course, the typical instance of environments framed with express reference to influencing the mental and moral disposition of their members.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00058", "bookId": 852, "start": 46514, "end": 48096, "sha256": "21116dc7850288a67e09f5bc983bdc8db2c32693b3edb840e83b088edfe17663", "text": "Roughly speaking, they come into existence when social traditions are so complex that a considerable part of the social store is committed to writing and transmitted through written symbols. Written symbols are even more artificial or conventional than spoken; they cannot be picked up in accidental intercourse with others. In addition, the written form tends to select and record matters which are comparatively foreign to everyday life. The achievements accumulated from generation to generation are deposited in it even though some of them have fallen temporarily out of use. Consequently as soon as a community depends to any considerable extent upon what lies beyond its own territory and its own immediate generation, it must rely upon the set agency of schools to insure adequate transmission of all its resources. To take an obvious illustration: The life of the ancient Greeks and Romans has profoundly influenced our own, and yet the ways in which they affect us do not present themselves on the surface of our ordinary experiences. In similar fashion, peoples still existing, but remote in space, British, Germans, Italians, directly concern our own social affairs, but the nature of the interaction cannot be understood without explicit statement and attention. In precisely similar fashion, our daily associations cannot be trusted to make clear to the young the part played in our activities by remote physical energies, and by invisible structures. Hence a special mode of social intercourse is instituted, the school, to care for such matters.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00059", "bookId": 852, "start": 48100, "end": 49250, "sha256": "8fd912635a41af09bf0fe2a8a734fc9782de45368c4fd7910075edd79c45e3ec", "text": "This mode of association has three functions sufficiently specific, as compared with ordinary associations of life, to be noted. First, a complex civilization is too complex to be assimilated in toto. It has to be broken up into portions, as it were, and assimilated piecemeal, in a gradual and graded way. The relationships of our present social life are so numerous and so interwoven that a child placed in the most favorable position could not readily share in many of the most important of them. Not sharing in them, their meaning would not be communicated to him, would not become a part of his own mental disposition. There would be no seeing the trees because of the forest. Business, politics, art, science, religion, would make all at once a clamor for attention; confusion would be the outcome. The first office of the social organ we call the school is to provide a simplified environment. It selects the features which are fairly fundamental and capable of being responded to by the young. Then it establishes a progressive order, using the factors first acquired as means of gaining insight into what is more complicated.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00060", "bookId": 852, "start": 49254, "end": 50236, "sha256": "279edfa758c2cbd0d529cbed5081022546ce7a30f3f451a669cfd9f575c73010", "text": "In the second place, it is the business of the school environment to eliminate, so far as possible, the unworthy features of the existing environment from influence upon mental habitudes. It establishes a purified medium of action. Selection aims not only at simplifying but at weeding out what is undesirable. Every society gets encumbered with what is trivial, with dead wood from the past, and with what is positively perverse. The school has the duty of omitting such things from the environment which it supplies, and thereby doing what it can to counteract their influence in the ordinary social environment. By selecting the best for its exclusive use, it strives to reinforce the power of this best. As a society becomes more enlightened, it realizes that it is responsible not to transmit and conserve the whole of its existing achievements, but only such as make for a better future society. The school is its chief agency for the accomplishment of this end.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00061", "bookId": 852, "start": 50240, "end": 51384, "sha256": "d0f6f68250c9b4095ee770895fecf1c3eefeb27169df5a4350b9128fd6df3e68", "text": "In the third place, it is the office of the school environment to balance the various elements in the social environment, and to see to it that each individual gets an opportunity to escape from the limitations of the social group in which he was born, and to come into living contact with a broader environment. Such words as \"society\" and \"community\" are likely to be misleading, for they have a tendency to make us think there is a single thing corresponding to the single word. As a matter of fact, a modern society is many societies more or less loosely connected. Each household with its immediate extension of friends makes a society; the village or street group of playmates is a community; each business group, each club, is another. Passing beyond these more intimate groups, there is in a country like our own a variety of races, religious affiliations, economic divisions. Inside the modern city, in spite of its nominal political unity, there are probably more communities, more differing customs, traditions, aspirations, and forms of government or control, than existed in an entire continent at an earlier epoch.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00062", "bookId": 852, "start": 51388, "end": 52208, "sha256": "3df0be3972295bb167b7b7ac6be42beb27171cedf7dabcb5a9b8f3a531c9d8c7", "text": "Each such group exercises a formative influence on the active dispositions of its members. A clique, a club, a gang, a Fagin's household of thieves, the prisoners in a jail, provide educative environments for those who enter into their collective or conjoint activities, as truly as a church, a labor union, a business partnership, or a political party. Each of them is a mode of associated or community life, quite as much as is a family, a town, or a state. There are also communities whose members have little or no direct contact with one another, like the guild of artists, the republic of letters, the members of the professional learned class scattered over the face of the earth. For they have aims in common, and the activity of each member is directly modified by knowledge of what others are doing.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00063", "bookId": 852, "start": 52212, "end": 53383, "sha256": "da10651a20c0fe9ba241ba83f7fb65155eb6c1d80cf8749ba8d8bc59e2bfcd44", "text": "In the olden times, the diversity of groups was largely a geographical matter. There were many societies, but each, within its own territory, was comparatively homogeneous. But with the development of commerce, transportation, intercommunication, and emigration, countries like the United States are composed of a combination of different groups with different traditional customs. It is this situation which has, perhaps more than any other one cause, forced the demand for an educational institution which shall provide something like a homogeneous and balanced environment for the young. Only in this way can the centrifugal forces set up by juxtaposition of different groups within one and the same political unit be counteracted. The intermingling in the school of youth of different races, differing religions, and unlike customs creates for all a new and broader environment. Common subject matter accustoms all to a unity of outlook upon a broader horizon than is visible to the members of any group while it is isolated. The assimilative force of the American public school is eloquent testimony to the efficacy of the common and balanced appeal.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00064", "bookId": 852, "start": 53387, "end": 53989, "sha256": "b2aedfb1ddb2526e9a503b7cc359fe602f731b1f5994c17106a46eb4f7cac945", "text": "The school has the function also of coordinating within the disposition of each individual the diverse influences of the various social environments into which he enters. One code prevails in the family; another, on the street; a third, in the workshop or store; a fourth, in the religious association. As a person passes from one of the environments to another, he is subjected to antagonistic pulls, and is in danger of being split into a being having different standards of judgment and emotion for different occasions. This danger imposes upon the school a steadying and integrating office.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00065", "bookId": 852, "start": 53995, "end": 54928, "sha256": "8b84fe12007eacf7a3d293622da81dd8fadac371cfb44409a6512f2a147e61bd", "text": "Summary. The development within the young of the attitudes and dispositions necessary to the continuous and progressive life of a society cannot take place by direct conveyance of beliefs, emotions, and knowledge. It takes place through the intermediary of the environment. The environment consists of the sum total of conditions which are concerned in the execution of the activity characteristic of a living being. The social environment consists of all the activities of fellow beings that are bound up in the carrying on of the activities of any one of its members. It is truly educative in its effect in the degree in which an individual shares or participates in some conjoint activity. By doing his share in the associated activity, the individual appropriates the purpose which actuates it, becomes familiar with its methods and subject matters, acquires needed skill, and is saturated with its emotional spirit.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00066", "bookId": 852, "start": 54932, "end": 55659, "sha256": "71cb2fb78e2450d64747a96d6ddba0177b839f86f661d94834072164495e6543", "text": "The deeper and more intimate educative formation of disposition comes, without conscious intent, as the young gradually partake of the activities of the various groups to which they may belong. As a society becomes more complex, however, it is found necessary to provide a special social environment which shall especially look after nurturing the capacities of the immature. Three of the more important functions of this special environment are: simplifying and ordering the factors of the disposition it is wished to develop; purifying and idealizing the existing social customs; creating a wider and better balanced environment than that by which the young would be likely, if left to themselves, to be influenced.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00067", "bookId": 852, "start": 55669, "end": 55706, "sha256": "31286eaa0366be0d8c1579ff0fc1af8784b6b4615484a498f237e6991fdd299e", "text": "Chapter Three: Education as Direction", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG852.B00068", "bookId": 852, "start": 55710, "end": 55742, "sha256": "0f4276cd09b080485128cdc07cdb8543df4cf1f096bf23d9ac9550613e4845af", "text": "1. The Environment as Directive.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG852.B00069", "bookId": 852, "start": 55746, "end": 57988, "sha256": "601623d6605d46ec78bcab9cb0f6cd5d269dd7c1bdc11e969dc64cc3339431b0", "text": "We now pass to one of the special forms which the general function of education assumes: namely, that of direction, control, or guidance. Of these three words, direction, control, and guidance, the last best conveys the idea of assisting through cooperation the natural capacities of the individuals guided; control conveys rather the notion of an energy brought to bear from without and meeting some resistance from the one controlled; direction is a more neutral term and suggests the fact that the active tendencies of those directed are led in a certain continuous course, instead of dispersing aimlessly. Direction expresses the basic function, which tends at one extreme to become a guiding assistance and at another, a regulation or ruling. But in any case, we must carefully avoid a meaning sometimes read into the term \"control.\" It is sometimes assumed, explicitly or unconsciously, that an individual's tendencies are naturally purely individualistic or egoistic, and thus antisocial. Control then denotes the process by which he is brought to subordinate his natural impulses to public or common ends. Since, by conception, his own nature is quite alien to this process and opposes it rather than helps it, control has in this view a flavor of coercion or compulsion about it. Systems of government and theories of the state have been built upon this notion, and it has seriously affected educational ideas and practices. But there is no ground for any such view. Individuals are certainly interested, at times, in having their own way, and their own way may go contrary to the ways of others. But they are also interested, and chiefly interested upon the whole, in entering into the activities of others and taking part in conjoint and cooperative doings. Otherwise, no such thing as a community would be possible. And there would not even be any one interested in furnishing the policeman to keep a semblance of harmony unless he thought that thereby he could gain some personal advantage. Control, in truth, means only an emphatic form of direction of powers, and covers the regulation gained by an individual through his own efforts quite as much as that brought about when others take the lead.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00070", "bookId": 852, "start": 57992, "end": 58820, "sha256": "d788a9fc82f5ce9b2071e0cda8d5338b7839279d47a65eb2d557af4c6f6dfd89", "text": "In general, every stimulus directs activity. It does not simply excite it or stir it up, but directs it toward an object. Put the other way around, a response is not just a re-action, a protest, as it were, against being disturbed; it is, as the word indicates, an answer. It meets the stimulus, and corresponds with it. There is an adaptation of the stimulus and response to each other. A light is the stimulus to the eye to see something, and the business of the eye is to see. If the eyes are open and there is light, seeing occurs; the stimulus is but a condition of the fulfillment of the proper function of the organ, not an outside interruption. To some extent, then, all direction or control is a guiding of activity to its own end; it is an assistance in doing fully what some organ is already tending to do.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00071", "bookId": 852, "start": 58824, "end": 60199, "sha256": "6c0c983dec8b19491c678f1670382cb845d2eb9b34656a08aa872c4359baa8e0", "text": "This general statement needs, however, to be qualified in two respects. In the first place, except in the case of a small number of instincts, the stimuli to which an immature human being is subject are not sufficiently definite to call out, in the beginning, specific responses. There is always a great deal of superfluous energy aroused. This energy may be wasted, going aside from the point; it may also go against the successful performance of an act. It does harm by getting in the way. Compare the behavior of a beginner in riding a bicycle with that of the expert. There is little axis of direction in the energies put forth; they are largely dispersive and centrifugal. Direction involves a focusing and fixating of action in order that it may be truly a response, and this requires an elimination of unnecessary and confusing movements. In the second place, although no activity can be produced in which the person does not cooperate to some extent, yet a response may be of a kind which does not fit into the sequence and continuity of action. A person boxing may dodge a particular blow successfully, but in such a way as to expose himself the next instant to a still harder blow. Adequate control means that the successive acts are brought into a continuous order; each act not only meets its immediate stimulus but helps the acts which follow.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00072", "bookId": 852, "start": 60203, "end": 61045, "sha256": "dc70d4f10d83ba8e130b30ef0acd39335498b1b95ad72bb5252a5f1f33b4fca6", "text": "In short, direction is both simultaneous and successive. At a given time, it requires that, from all the tendencies that are partially called out, those be selected which center energy upon the point of need. Successively, it requires that each act be balanced with those which precede and come after, so that order of activity is achieved. Focusing and ordering are thus the two aspects of direction, one spatial, the other temporal. The first insures hitting the mark; the second keeps the balance required for further action. Obviously, it is not possible to separate them in practice as we have distinguished them in idea. Activity must be centered at a given time in such a way as to prepare for what comes next. The problem of the immediate response is complicated by one's having to be on the lookout for future occurrences.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00073", "bookId": 852, "start": 61049, "end": 62348, "sha256": "bbbef6f3af43d50b8e8e075f2ef896d13bb8e0c7d1e8a6ab28e193df2f14defa", "text": "Two conclusions emerge from these general statements. On the one hand, purely external direction is impossible. The environment can at most only supply stimuli to call out responses. These responses proceed from tendencies already possessed by the individual. Even when a person is frightened by threats into doing something, the threats work only because the person has an instinct of fear. If he has not, or if, though having it, it is under his own control, the threat has no more influence upon him than light has in causing a person to see who has no eyes. While the customs and rules of adults furnish stimuli which direct as well as evoke the activities of the young, the young, after all, participate in the direction which their actions finally take. In the strict sense, nothing can be forced upon them or into them. To overlook this fact means to distort and pervert human nature. To take into account the contribution made by the existing instincts and habits of those directed is to direct them economically and wisely. Speaking accurately, all direction is but re-direction; it shifts the activities already going on into another channel. Unless one is cognizant of the energies which are already in operation, one's attempts at direction will almost surely go amiss.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00074", "bookId": 852, "start": 62352, "end": 63197, "sha256": "4e7011866596b03a23bcbc3340331992b076bb78d329dcef84869f9724924216", "text": "On the other hand, the control afforded by the customs and regulations of others may be short-sighted. It may accomplish its immediate effect, but at the expense of throwing the subsequent action of the person out of balance. A threat may, for example, prevent a person from doing something to which he is naturally inclined by arousing fear of disagreeable consequences if he persists. But he may be left in the position which exposes him later on to influences which will lead him to do even worse things. His instincts of cunning and slyness may be aroused, so that things henceforth appeal to him on the side of evasion and trickery more than would otherwise have been the case. Those engaged in directing the actions of others are always in danger of overlooking the importance of the sequential development of those they direct.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00075", "bookId": 852, "start": 63201, "end": 63651, "sha256": "5c2a1ef46a9f47a1e0e3455886515f4777ecbceaced4f652e38638f40628b2d5", "text": "2. Modes of Social Direction. Adults are naturally most conscious of directing the conduct of others when they are immediately aiming so to do. As a rule, they have such an aim consciously when they find themselves resisted; when others are doing things they do not wish them to do. But the more permanent and influential modes of control are those which operate from moment to moment continuously without such deliberate intention on our part.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00076", "bookId": 852, "start": 63655, "end": 65284, "sha256": "712e248d52a75542957671ea78dff8d25e2f6694d35d7de3dba6bb6e1fcfb7cb", "text": "1. When others are not doing what we would like them to or are threatening disobedience, we are most conscious of the need of controlling them and of the influences by which they are controlled. In such cases, our control becomes most direct, and at this point we are most likely to make the mistakes just spoken of. We are even likely to take the influence of superior force for control, forgetting that while we may lead a horse to water we cannot make him drink; and that while we can shut a man up in a penitentiary we cannot make him penitent. In all such cases of immediate action upon others, we need to discriminate between physical results and moral results. A person may be in such a condition that forcible feeding or enforced confinement is necessary for his own good. A child may have to be snatched with roughness away from a fire so that he shall not be burnt. But no improvement of disposition, no educative effect, need follow. A harsh and commanding tone may be effectual in keeping a child away from the fire, and the same desirable physical effect will follow as if he had been snatched away. But there may be no more obedience of a moral sort in one case than in the other. A man can be prevented from breaking into other persons' houses by shutting him up, but shutting him up may not alter his disposition to commit burglary. When we confuse a physical with an educative result, we always lose the chance of enlisting the person's own participating disposition in getting the result desired, and thereby of developing within him an intrinsic and persisting direction in the right way.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00077", "bookId": 852, "start": 65288, "end": 66457, "sha256": "c49617cfb8cfe191893638ddbc1bcd1a308bfb48255293fe0fb06bd415823aa3", "text": "In general, the occasion for the more conscious acts of control should be limited to acts which are so instinctive or impulsive that the one performing them has no means of foreseeing their outcome. If a person cannot foresee the consequences of his act, and is not capable of understanding what he is told about its outcome by those with more experience, it is impossible for him to guide his act intelligently. In such a state, every act is alike to him. Whatever moves him does move him, and that is all there is to it. In some cases, it is well to permit him to experiment, and to discover the consequences for himself in order that he may act intelligently next time under similar circumstances. But some courses of action are too discommoding and obnoxious to others to allow of this course being pursued. Direct disapproval is now resorted to. Shaming, ridicule, disfavor, rebuke, and punishment are used. Or contrary tendencies in the child are appealed to to divert him from his troublesome line of behavior. His sensitiveness to approbation, his hope of winning favor by an agreeable act, are made use of to induce action in another direction.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00078", "bookId": 852, "start": 66461, "end": 67055, "sha256": "e00c500625f01810117c603a9d69a8cd369a946128c131dc4c8019d25cf4942e", "text": "2. These methods of control are so obvious (because so intentionally employed) that it would hardly be worth while to mention them if it were not that notice may now be taken, by way of contrast, of the other more important and permanent mode of control. This other method resides in the ways in which persons, with whom the immature being is associated, use things; the instrumentalities with which they accomplish their own ends. The very existence of the social medium in which an individual lives, moves, and has his being is the standing effective agency of directing his activity.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00079", "bookId": 852, "start": 67059, "end": 68560, "sha256": "f67fe25e5e124da8ed6dc8b99ad6f0604bf19b051488183055d2796c8b55a5cc", "text": "This fact makes it necessary for us to examine in greater detail what is meant by the social environment. We are given to separating from each other the physical and social environments in which we live. The separation is responsible on one hand for an exaggeration of the moral importance of the more direct or personal modes of control of which we have been speaking; and on the other hand for an exaggeration, in current psychology and philosophy, of the intellectual possibilities of contact with a purely physical environment. There is not, in fact, any such thing as the direct influence of one human being on another apart from use of the physical environment as an intermediary. A smile, a frown, a rebuke, a word of warning or encouragement, all involve some physical change. Otherwise, the attitude of one would not get over to alter the attitude of another. Comparatively speaking, such modes of influence may be regarded as personal. The physical medium is reduced to a mere means of personal contact. In contrast with such direct modes of mutual influence, stand associations in common pursuits involving the use of things as means and as measures of results. Even if the mother never told her daughter to help her, or never rebuked her for not helping, the child would be subjected to direction in her activities by the mere fact that she was engaged, along with the parent, in the household life. Imitation, emulation, the need of working together, enforce control.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00080", "bookId": 852, "start": 68564, "end": 69254, "sha256": "0b21390aacb62c8d19f45ba25640c028747119fd3f086fe6ef4e94e725c433cd", "text": "If the mother hands the child something needed, the latter must reach the thing in order to get it. Where there is giving there must be taking. The way the child handles the thing after it is got, the use to which it is put, is surely influenced by the fact that the child has watched the mother. When the child sees the parent looking for something, it is as natural for it also to look for the object and to give it over when it finds it, as it was, under other circumstances, to receive it. Multiply such an instance by the thousand details of daily intercourse, and one has a picture of the most permanent and enduring method of giving direction to the activities of the young.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00081", "bookId": 852, "start": 69258, "end": 70554, "sha256": "7eeb0141300828a17b0d81d6c221e5a704d5026bc546170d26583993099aaede", "text": "In saying this, we are only repeating what was said previously about participating in a joint activity as the chief way of forming disposition. We have explicitly added, however, the recognition of the part played in the joint activity by the use of things. The philosophy of learning has been unduly dominated by a false psychology. It is frequently stated that a person learns by merely having the qualities of things impressed upon his mind through the gateway of the senses. Having received a store of sensory impressions, association or some power of mental synthesis is supposed to combine them into ideas--into things with a meaning. An object, stone, orange, tree, chair, is supposed to convey different impressions of color, shape, size, hardness, smell, taste, etc., which aggregated together constitute the characteristic meaning of each thing. But as matter of fact, it is the characteristic use to which the thing is put, because of its specific qualities, which supplies the meaning with which it is identified. A chair is a thing which is put to one use; a table, a thing which is employed for another purpose; an orange is a thing which costs so much, which is grown in warm climes, which is eaten, and when eaten has an agreeable odor and refreshing taste, etc.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00082", "bookId": 852, "start": 70558, "end": 71506, "sha256": "bf5e508b0017ff080bfc11ba1599533f9731cea2e707b16fc571b747e25541f2", "text": "The difference between an adjustment to a physical stimulus and a mental act is that the latter involves response to a thing in its meaning; the former does not. A noise may make me jump without my mind being implicated. When I hear a noise and run and get water and put out a blaze, I respond intelligently; the sound meant fire, and fire meant need of being extinguished. I bump into a stone, and kick it to one side purely physically. I put it to one side for fear some one will stumble upon it, intelligently; I respond to a meaning which the thing has. I am startled by a thunderclap whether I recognize it or not--more likely, if I do not recognize it. But if I say, either out loud or to myself, that is thunder, I respond to the disturbance as a meaning. My behavior has a mental quality. When things have a meaning for us, we mean (intend, propose) what we do: when they do not, we act blindly, unconsciously, unintelligently.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00083", "bookId": 852, "start": 71510, "end": 76106, "sha256": "a3e3b91f543373f81100b83ef02c982d815d1dee03ac9a4b37adc5830e715d8b", "text": "In both kinds of responsive adjustment, our activities are directed or controlled. But in the merely blind response, direction is also blind. There may be training, but there is no education. Repeated responses to recurrent stimuli may fix a habit of acting in a certain way. All of us have many habits of whose import we are quite unaware, since they were formed without our knowing what we were about. Consequently they possess us, rather than we them. They move us; they control us. Unless we become aware of what they accomplish, and pass judgment upon the worth of the result, we do not control them. A child might be made to bow every time he met a certain person by pressure on his neck muscles, and bowing would finally become automatic. It would not, however, be an act of recognition or deference on his part, till he did it with a certain end in view--as having a certain meaning. And not till he knew what he was about and performed the act for the sake of its meaning could he be said to be \"brought up\" or educated to act in a certain way. To have an idea of a thing is thus not just to get certain sensations from it. It is to be able to respond to the thing in view of its place in an inclusive scheme of action; it is to foresee the drift and probable consequence of the action of the thing upon us and of our action upon it. To have the same ideas about things which others have, to be like-minded with them, and thus to be really members of a social group, is therefore to attach the same meanings to things and to acts which others attach. Otherwise, there is no common understanding, and no community life. But in a shared activity, each person refers what he is doing to what the other is doing and vice-versa. That is, the activity of each is placed in the same inclusive situation. To pull at a rope at which others happen to be pulling is not a shared or conjoint activity, unless the pulling is done with knowledge that others are pulling and for the sake of either helping or hindering what they are doing. A pin may pass in the course of its manufacture through the hands of many persons. But each may do his part without knowledge of what others do or without any reference to what they do; each may operate simply for the sake of a separate result--his own pay. There is, in this case, no common consequence to which the several acts are referred, and hence no genuine intercourse or association, in spite of juxtaposition, and in spite of the fact that their respective doings contribute to a single outcome. But if each views the consequences of his own acts as having a bearing upon what others are doing and takes into account the consequences of their behavior upon himself, then there is a common mind; a common intent in behavior. There is an understanding set up between the different contributors; and this common understanding controls the action of each. Suppose that conditions were so arranged that one person automatically caught a ball and then threw it to another person who caught and automatically returned it; and that each so acted without knowing where the ball came from or went to. Clearly, such action would be without point or meaning. It might be physically controlled, but it would not be socially directed. But suppose that each becomes aware of what the other is doing, and becomes interested in the other's action and thereby interested in what he is doing himself as connected with the action of the other. The behavior of each would then be intelligent; and socially intelligent and guided. Take one more example of a less imaginary kind. An infant is hungry, and cries while food is prepared in his presence. If he does not connect his own state with what others are doing, nor what they are doing with his own satisfaction, he simply reacts with increasing impatience to his own increasing discomfort. He is physically controlled by his own organic state. But when he makes a back and forth reference, his whole attitude changes. He takes an interest, as we say; he takes note and watches what others are doing. He no longer reacts just to his own hunger, but behaves in the light of what others are doing for its prospective satisfaction. In that way, he also no longer just gives way to hunger without knowing it, but he notes, or recognizes, or identifies his own state. It becomes an object for him. His attitude toward it becomes in some degree intelligent. And in such noting of the meaning of the actions of others and of his own state, he is socially directed.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00084", "bookId": 852, "start": 76110, "end": 78316, "sha256": "2e1d282b49696a868b46dbf794967ea404bb1df21578e5ea75402065bc067925", "text": "It will be recalled that our main proposition had two sides. One of them has now been dealt with: namely, that physical things do not influence mind (or form ideas and beliefs) except as they are implicated in action for prospective consequences. The other point is persons modify one another's dispositions only through the special use they make of physical conditions. Consider first the case of so-called expressive movements to which others are sensitive; blushing, smiling, frowning, clinching of fists, natural gestures of all kinds. In themselves, these are not expressive. They are organic parts of a person's attitude. One does not blush to show modesty or embarrassment to others, but because the capillary circulation alters in response to stimuli. But others use the blush, or a slightly perceptible tightening of the muscles of a person with whom they are associated, as a sign of the state in which that person finds himself, and as an indication of what course to pursue. The frown signifies an imminent rebuke for which one must prepare, or an uncertainty and hesitation which one must, if possible, remove by saying or doing something to restore confidence. A man at some distance is waving his arms wildly. One has only to preserve an attitude of detached indifference, and the motions of the other person will be on the level of any remote physical change which we happen to note. If we have no concern or interest, the waving of the arms is as meaningless to us as the gyrations of the arms of a windmill. But if interest is aroused, we begin to participate. We refer his action to something we are doing ourselves or that we should do. We have to judge the meaning of his act in order to decide what to do. Is he beckoning for help? Is he warning us of an explosion to be set off, against which we should guard ourselves? In one case, his action means to run toward him; in the other case, to run away. In any case, it is the change he effects in the physical environment which is a sign to us of how we should conduct ourselves. Our action is socially controlled because we endeavor to refer what we are to do to the same situation in which he is acting.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00085", "bookId": 852, "start": 78320, "end": 80462, "sha256": "1266b60b53739db04d6788cfefcb949cac1df9ee413a230ce82323133d8ed8dc", "text": "Language is, as we have already seen (ante, p. 15) a case of this joint reference of our own action and that of another to a common situation. Hence its unrivaled significance as a means of social direction. But language would not be this efficacious instrument were it not that it takes place upon a background of coarser and more tangible use of physical means to accomplish results. A child sees persons with whom he lives using chairs, hats, tables, spades, saws, plows, horses, money in certain ways. If he has any share at all in what they are doing, he is led thereby to use things in the same way, or to use other things in a way which will fit in. If a chair is drawn up to a table, it is a sign that he is to sit in it; if a person extends his right hand, he is to extend his; and so on in a never ending stream of detail. The prevailing habits of using the products of human art and the raw materials of nature constitute by all odds the deepest and most pervasive mode of social control. When children go to school, they already have \"minds\"--they have knowledge and dispositions of judgment which may be appealed to through the use of language. But these \"minds\" are the organized habits of intelligent response which they have previously required by putting things to use in connection with the way other persons use things. The control is inescapable; it saturates disposition. The net outcome of the discussion is that the fundamental means of control is not personal but intellectual. It is not \"moral\" in the sense that a person is moved by direct personal appeal from others, important as is this method at critical junctures. It consists in the habits of understanding, which are set up in using objects in correspondence with others, whether by way of cooperation and assistance or rivalry and competition. Mind as a concrete thing is precisely the power to understand things in terms of the use made of them; a socialized mind is the power to understand them in terms of the use to which they are turned in joint or shared situations. And mind in this sense is the method of social control.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00086", "bookId": 852, "start": 80466, "end": 82083, "sha256": "3aa4e50c6024519ec8a5836d2dbf3cd91e993e1a77abc182722ffd8a42a3c7cc", "text": "3. Imitation and Social Psychology. We have already noted the defects of a psychology of learning which places the individual mind naked, as it were, in contact with physical objects, and which believes that knowledge, ideas, and beliefs accrue from their interaction. Only comparatively recently has the predominating influence of association with fellow beings in the formation of mental and moral disposition been perceived. Even now it is usually treated as a kind of adjunct to an alleged method of learning by direct contact with things, and as merely supplementing knowledge of the physical world with knowledge of persons. The purport of our discussion is that such a view makes an absurd and impossible separation between persons and things. Interaction with things may form habits of external adjustment. But it leads to activity having a meaning and conscious intent only when things are used to produce a result. And the only way one person can modify the mind of another is by using physical conditions, crude or artificial, so as to evoke some answering activity from him. Such are our two main conclusions. It is desirable to amplify and enforce them by placing them in contrast with the theory which uses a psychology of supposed direct relationships of human beings to one another as an adjunct to the psychology of the supposed direct relation of an individual to physical objects. In substance, this so-called social psychology has been built upon the notion of imitation. Consequently, we shall discuss the nature and role of imitation in the formation of mental disposition.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00087", "bookId": 852, "start": 82087, "end": 83401, "sha256": "40917e1905be994cb55d506fabaad95e04d6862cc6d0b4bfe4f6d829711f11ce", "text": "According to this theory, social control of individuals rests upon the instinctive tendency of individuals to imitate or copy the actions of others. The latter serve as models. The imitative instinct is so strong that the young devote themselves to conforming to the patterns set by others and reproducing them in their own scheme of behavior. According to our theory, what is here called imitation is a misleading name for partaking with others in a use of things which leads to consequences of common interest. The basic error in the current notion of imitation is that it puts the cart before the horse. It takes an effect for the cause of the effect. There can be no doubt that individuals in forming a social group are like-minded; they understand one another. They tend to act with the same controlling ideas, beliefs, and intentions, given similar circumstances. Looked at from without, they might be said to be engaged in \"imitating\" one another. In the sense that they are doing much the same sort of thing in much the same sort of way, this would be true enough. But \"imitation\" throws no light upon why they so act; it repeats the fact as an explanation of itself. It is an explanation of the same order as the famous saying that opium puts men to sleep because of its dormitive power.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00088", "bookId": 852, "start": 83405, "end": 85091, "sha256": "51c47c5fc4f46208fac0bce172b6093c967e204c88b3160102178c5d57b7e3d1", "text": "Objective likeness of acts and the mental satisfaction found in being in conformity with others are baptized by the name imitation. This social fact is then taken for a psychological force, which produced the likeness. A considerable portion of what is called imitation is simply the fact that persons being alike in structure respond in the same way to like stimuli. Quite independently of imitation, men on being insulted get angry and attack the insulter. This statement may be met by citing the undoubted fact that response to an insult takes place in different ways in groups having different customs. In one group, it may be met by recourse to fisticuffs, in another by a challenge to a duel, in a third by an exhibition of contemptuous disregard. This happens, so it is said, because the model set for imitation is different. But there is no need to appeal to imitation. The mere fact that customs are different means that the actual stimuli to behavior are different. Conscious instruction plays a part; prior approvals and disapprovals have a large influence. Still more effective is the fact that unless an individual acts in the way current in his group, he is literally out of it. He can associate with others on intimate and equal terms only by behaving in the way in which they behave. The pressure that comes from the fact that one is let into the group action by acting in one way and shut out by acting in another way is unremitting. What is called the effect of imitation is mainly the product of conscious instruction and of the selective influence exercised by the unconscious confirmations and ratifications of those with whom one associates.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00089", "bookId": 852, "start": 85095, "end": 87420, "sha256": "f51b57b61af27d216487f56467dd30d66f68784eb7fc43b66188747c8fdcb634", "text": "Suppose that some one rolls a ball to a child; he catches it and rolls it back, and the game goes on. Here the stimulus is not just the sight of the ball, or the sight of the other rolling it. It is the situation--the game which is playing. The response is not merely rolling the ball back; it is rolling it back so that the other one may catch and return it,--that the game may continue. The \"pattern\" or model is not the action of the other person. The whole situation requires that each should adapt his action in view of what the other person has done and is to do. Imitation may come in but its role is subordinate. The child has an interest on his own account; he wants to keep it going. He may then note how the other person catches and holds the ball in order to improve his own acts. He imitates the means of doing, not the end or thing to be done. And he imitates the means because he wishes, on his own behalf, as part of his own initiative, to take an effective part in the game. One has only to consider how completely the child is dependent from his earliest days for successful execution of his purposes upon fitting his acts into those of others to see what a premium is put upon behaving as others behave, and of developing an understanding of them in order that he may so behave. The pressure for likemindedness in action from this source is so great that it is quite superfluous to appeal to imitation. As matter of fact, imitation of ends, as distinct from imitation of means which help to reach ends, is a superficial and transitory affair which leaves little effect upon disposition. Idiots are especially apt at this kind of imitation; it affects outward acts but not the meaning of their performance. When we find children engaging in this sort of mimicry, instead of encouraging them (as we would do if it were an important means of social control) we are more likely to rebuke them as apes, monkeys, parrots, or copy cats. Imitation of means of accomplishment is, on the other hand, an intelligent act. It involves close observation, and judicious selection of what will enable one to do better something which he already is trying to do. Used for a purpose, the imitative instinct may, like any other instinct, become a factor in the development of effective action.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00090", "bookId": 852, "start": 87424, "end": 88094, "sha256": "4f4505b9e3baf164d7b4bd22f44ad7f034e153b2fd1f880ea728a2e06c41e20e", "text": "This excursus should, accordingly, have the effect of reinforcing the conclusion that genuine social control means the formation of a certain mental disposition; a way of understanding objects, events, and acts which enables one to participate effectively in associated activities. Only the friction engendered by meeting resistance from others leads to the view that it takes place by forcing a line of action contrary to natural inclinations. Only failure to take account of the situations in which persons are mutually concerned (or interested in acting responsively to one another) leads to treating imitation as the chief agent in promoting social control.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00091", "bookId": 852, "start": 88098, "end": 90313, "sha256": "7bb24e34407bc6f7c846fdfa8b7af18908e0b54982c568112ee433a2b512769e", "text": "4. Some Applications to Education. Why does a savage group perpetuate savagery, and a civilized group civilization? Doubtless the first answer to occur to mind is because savages are savages; being of low-grade intelligence and perhaps defective moral sense. But careful study has made it doubtful whether their native capacities are appreciably inferior to those of civilized man. It has made it certain that native differences are not sufficient to account for the difference in culture. In a sense the mind of savage peoples is an effect, rather than a cause, of their backward institutions. Their social activities are such as to restrict their objects of attention and interest, and hence to limit the stimuli to mental development. Even as regards the objects that come within the scope of attention, primitive social customs tend to arrest observation and imagination upon qualities which do not fructify in the mind. Lack of control of natural forces means that a scant number of natural objects enter into associated behavior. Only a small number of natural resources are utilized and they are not worked for what they are worth. The advance of civilization means that a larger number of natural forces and objects have been transformed into instrumentalities of action, into means for securing ends. We start not so much with superior capacities as with superior stimuli for evocation and direction of our capacities. The savage deals largely with crude stimuli; we have weighted stimuli. Prior human efforts have made over natural conditions. As they originally existed they were indifferent to human endeavors. Every domesticated plant and animal, every tool, every utensil, every appliance, every manufactured article, every esthetic decoration, every work of art means a transformation of conditions once hostile or indifferent to characteristic human activities into friendly and favoring conditions. Because the activities of children today are controlled by these selected and charged stimuli, children are able to traverse in a short lifetime what the race has needed slow, tortured ages to attain. The dice have been loaded by all the successes which have preceded.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00092", "bookId": 852, "start": 90317, "end": 92116, "sha256": "ba91547b059fb3403c34621e95620f48a82ccaf6337e9d7d8c2b7a3851b26224", "text": "Stimuli conducive to economical and effective response, such as our system of roads and means of transportation, our ready command of heat, light, and electricity, our ready-made machines and apparatus for every purpose, do not, by themselves or in their aggregate, constitute a civilization. But the uses to which they are put are civilization, and without the things the uses would be impossible. Time otherwise necessarily devoted to wresting a livelihood from a grudging environment and securing a precarious protection against its inclemencies is freed. A body of knowledge is transmitted, the legitimacy of which is guaranteed by the fact that the physical equipment in which it is incarnated leads to results that square with the other facts of nature. Thus these appliances of art supply a protection, perhaps our chief protection, against a recrudescence of these superstitious beliefs, those fanciful myths and infertile imaginings about nature in which so much of the best intellectual power of the past has been spent. If we add one other factor, namely, that such appliances be not only used, but used in the interests of a truly shared or associated life, then the appliances become the positive resources of civilization. If Greece, with a scant tithe of our material resources, achieved a worthy and noble intellectual and artistic career, it is because Greece operated for social ends such resources as it had. But whatever the situation, whether one of barbarism or civilization, whether one of stinted control of physical forces, or of partial enslavement to a mechanism not yet made tributary to a shared experience, things as they enter into action furnish the educative conditions of daily life and direct the formation of mental and moral disposition.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00093", "bookId": 852, "start": 92120, "end": 93084, "sha256": "d1fec9f0cbc8d96f2dba61e210cf86a67fe9bfd8000bdc10fb6bad3491ba8717", "text": "Intentional education signifies, as we have already seen, a specially selected environment, the selection being made on the basis of materials and method specifically promoting growth in the desired direction. Since language represents the physical conditions that have been subjected to the maximum transformation in the interests of social life--physical things which have lost their original quality in becoming social tools--it is appropriate that language should play a large part compared with other appliances. By it we are led to share vicariously in past human experience, thus widening and enriching the experience of the present. We are enabled, symbolically and imaginatively, to anticipate situations. In countless ways, language condenses meanings that record social outcomes and presage social outlooks. So significant is it of a liberal share in what is worth while in life that unlettered and uneducated have become almost synonymous.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00094", "bookId": 852, "start": 93088, "end": 94412, "sha256": "84083dbb4b03b70cd3acc1bf220bfae76343231d828f75201179cee31112b3f3", "text": "The emphasis in school upon this particular tool has, however, its dangers--dangers which are not theoretical but exhibited in practice. Why is it, in spite of the fact that teaching by pouring in, learning by a passive absorption, are universally condemned, that they are still so entrenched in practice? That education is not an affair of \"telling\" and being told, but an active and constructive process, is a principle almost as generally violated in practice as conceded in theory. Is not this deplorable situation due to the fact that the doctrine is itself merely told? It is preached; it is lectured; it is written about. But its enactment into practice requires that the school environment be equipped with agencies for doing, with tools and physical materials, to an extent rarely attained. It requires that methods of instruction and administration be modified to allow and to secure direct and continuous occupations with things. Not that the use of language as an educational resource should lessen; but that its use should be more vital and fruitful by having its normal connection with shared activities. \"These things ought ye to have done, and not to have left the others undone.\" And for the school \"these things\" mean equipment with the instrumentalities of cooperative or joint activity.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00095", "bookId": 852, "start": 94416, "end": 95565, "sha256": "e4d5ff8b4edaf013ef9f2300f6d139002ce17ff5e37314363a89723d4838ee24", "text": "For when the schools depart from the educational conditions effective in the out-of-school environment, they necessarily substitute a bookish, a pseudo-intellectual spirit for a social spirit. Children doubtless go to school to learn, but it has yet to be proved that learning occurs most adequately when it is made a separate conscious business. When treating it as a business of this sort tends to preclude the social sense which comes from sharing in an activity of common concern and value, the effort at isolated intellectual learning contradicts its own aim. We may secure motor activity and sensory excitation by keeping an individual by himself, but we cannot thereby get him to understand the meaning which things have in the life of which he is a part. We may secure technical specialized ability in algebra, Latin, or botany, but not the kind of intelligence which directs ability to useful ends. Only by engaging in a joint activity, where one person's use of material and tools is consciously referred to the use other persons are making of their capacities and appliances, is a social direction of disposition attained.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00096", "bookId": 852, "start": 95569, "end": 97478, "sha256": "2d2672c0960186dbf1adb684db29e90676946897b61bd47d9604eb0c9083f0bc", "text": "Summary. The natural or native impulses of the young do not agree with the life-customs of the group into which they are born. Consequently they have to be directed or guided. This control is not the same thing as physical compulsion; it consists in centering the impulses acting at any one time upon some specific end and in introducing an order of continuity into the sequence of acts. The action of others is always influenced by deciding what stimuli shall call out their actions. But in some cases as in commands, prohibitions, approvals, and disapprovals, the stimuli proceed from persons with a direct view to influencing action. Since in such cases we are most conscious of controlling the action of others, we are likely to exaggerate the importance of this sort of control at the expense of a more permanent and effective method. The basic control resides in the nature of the situations in which the young take part. In social situations the young have to refer their way of acting to what others are doing and make it fit in. This directs their action to a common result, and gives an understanding common to the participants. For all mean the same thing, even when performing different acts. This common understanding of the means and ends of action is the essence of social control. It is indirect, or emotional and intellectual, not direct or personal. Moreover it is intrinsic to the disposition of the person, not external and coercive. To achieve this internal control through identity of interest and understanding is the business of education. While books and conversation can do much, these agencies are usually relied upon too exclusively. Schools require for their full efficiency more opportunity for conjoint activities in which those instructed take part, so that they may acquire a social sense of their own powers and of the materials and appliances used.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00097", "bookId": 852, "start": 97488, "end": 97521, "sha256": "66d51ef8e0ef39584dcc30aceed87fc5047e54adf2f4345b0ed0d8cbfd1efdec", "text": "Chapter Four: Education as Growth", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG852.B00098", "bookId": 852, "start": 97525, "end": 97553, "sha256": "7650bfbaf23f5f5153185dc523ddd54c3ce45ca635cc8814824ac3ca4950084a", "text": "1. The Conditions of Growth.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG852.B00099", "bookId": 852, "start": 97557, "end": 97960, "sha256": "164c355d06969de3ac4c3dbe6f6ca7c48f580e547adfc0ee6014ec438f17b5cb", "text": "In directing the activities of the young, society determines its own future in determining that of the young. Since the young at a given time will at some later date compose the society of that period, the latter's nature will largely turn upon the direction children's activities were given at an earlier period. This cumulative movement of action toward a later result is what is meant by growth.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00100", "bookId": 852, "start": 97964, "end": 98859, "sha256": "d4ab6483e7dfdfa46d3cb6b05e69a2c367770ed4c6fd5fa4b50e38d0ab9f1d5e", "text": "The primary condition of growth is immaturity. This may seem to be a mere truism--saying that a being can develop only in some point in which he is undeveloped. But the prefix \"im\" of the word immaturity means something positive, not a mere void or lack. It is noteworthy that the terms \"capacity\" and \"potentiality\" have a double meaning, one sense being negative, the other positive. Capacity may denote mere receptivity, like the capacity of a quart measure. We may mean by potentiality a merely dormant or quiescent state--a capacity to become something different under external influences. But we also mean by capacity an ability, a power; and by potentiality potency, force. Now when we say that immaturity means the possibility of growth, we are not referring to absence of powers which may exist at a later time; we express a force positively present--the ability to develop.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00101", "bookId": 852, "start": 98863, "end": 100339, "sha256": "588c62c1aa0854eab65c3af4a37cd3e55950712c3f147fd0f75f886cd17b5693", "text": "Our tendency to take immaturity as mere lack, and growth as something which fills up the gap between the immature and the mature is due to regarding childhood comparatively, instead of intrinsically. We treat it simply as a privation because we are measuring it by adulthood as a fixed standard. This fixes attention upon what the child has not, and will not have till he becomes a man. This comparative standpoint is legitimate enough for some purposes, but if we make it final, the question arises whether we are not guilty of an overweening presumption. Children, if they could express themselves articulately and sincerely, would tell a different tale; and there is excellent adult authority for the conviction that for certain moral and intellectual purposes adults must become as little children. The seriousness of the assumption of the negative quality of the possibilities of immaturity is apparent when we reflect that it sets up as an ideal and standard a static end. The fulfillment of growing is taken to mean an accomplished growth: that is to say, an Ungrowth, something which is no longer growing. The futility of the assumption is seen in the fact that every adult resents the imputation of having no further possibilities of growth; and so far as he finds that they are closed to him mourns the fact as evidence of loss, instead of falling back on the achieved as adequate manifestation of power. Why an unequal measure for child and man?", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00102", "bookId": 852, "start": 100343, "end": 100861, "sha256": "fb175742136fd35355bfa85ff20318bb6d29c3ae83faf4dfcb5881484a00ba9c", "text": "Taken absolutely, instead of comparatively, immaturity designates a positive force or ability,--the power to grow. We do not have to draw out or educe positive activities from a child, as some educational doctrines would have it. Where there is life, there are already eager and impassioned activities. Growth is not something done to them; it is something they do. The positive and constructive aspect of possibility gives the key to understanding the two chief traits of immaturity, dependence and plasticity.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00103", "bookId": 852, "start": 100865, "end": 101355, "sha256": "dbb12cb403d9fedfdf7fbc5ac2d339f81edb27654ae55f33e214377476cd90f3", "text": "(1) It sounds absurd to hear dependence spoken of as something positive, still more absurd as a power. Yet if helplessness were all there were in dependence, no development could ever take place. A merely impotent being has to be carried, forever, by others. The fact that dependence is accompanied by growth in ability, not by an ever increasing lapse into parasitism, suggests that it is already something constructive. Being merely sheltered by others would not promote growth. For", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00104", "bookId": 852, "start": 101359, "end": 101870, "sha256": "57af8a6cf7ac8500f24c7910df7d3269429f80f233c58e5a342ed22263178c00", "text": "(2) it would only build a wall around impotence. With reference to the physical world, the child is helpless. He lacks at birth and for a long time thereafter power to make his way physically, to make his own living. If he had to do that by himself, he would hardly survive an hour. On this side his helplessness is almost complete. The young of the brutes are immeasurably his superiors. He is physically weak and not able to turn the strength which he possesses to coping with the physical environment.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00105", "bookId": 852, "start": 101874, "end": 104401, "sha256": "3004d8eceed984b37b80ae3ad843351b99fffea1f2ccc1ed3716aa8789b13026", "text": "1. The thoroughgoing character of this helplessness suggests, however, some compensating power. The relative ability of the young of brute animals to adapt themselves fairly well to physical conditions from an early period suggests the fact that their life is not intimately bound up with the life of those about them. They are compelled, so to speak, to have physical gifts because they are lacking in social gifts. Human infants, on the other hand, can get along with physical incapacity just because of their social capacity. We sometimes talk and think as if they simply happened to be physically in a social environment; as if social forces exclusively existed in the adults who take care of them, they being passive recipients. If it were said that children are themselves marvelously endowed with power to enlist the cooperative attention of others, this would be thought to be a backhanded way of saying that others are marvelously attentive to the needs of children. But observation shows that children are gifted with an equipment of the first order for social intercourse. Few grown-up persons retain all of the flexible and sensitive ability of children to vibrate sympathetically with the attitudes and doings of those about them. Inattention to physical things (going with incapacity to control them) is accompanied by a corresponding intensification of interest and attention as to the doings of people. The native mechanism of the child and his impulses all tend to facile social responsiveness. The statement that children, before adolescence, are egotistically self-centered, even if it were true, would not contradict the truth of this statement. It would simply indicate that their social responsiveness is employed on their own behalf, not that it does not exist. But the statement is not true as matter of fact. The facts which are cited in support of the alleged pure egoism of children really show the intensity and directness with which they go to their mark. If the ends which form the mark seem narrow and selfish to adults, it is only because adults (by means of a similar engrossment in their day) have mastered these ends, which have consequently ceased to interest them. Most of the remainder of children's alleged native egoism is simply an egoism which runs counter to an adult's egoism. To a grown-up person who is too absorbed in his own affairs to take an interest in children's affairs, children doubtless seem unreasonably engrossed in their own affairs.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00106", "bookId": 852, "start": 104405, "end": 104996, "sha256": "71a06fd43dcb4de548aeccc3bb96a20ee19c103fd0acea80b28a8a56c123c2f4", "text": "From a social standpoint, dependence denotes a power rather than a weakness; it involves interdependence. There is always a danger that increased personal independence will decrease the social capacity of an individual. In making him more self-reliant, it may make him more self-sufficient; it may lead to aloofness and indifference. It often makes an individual so insensitive in his relations to others as to develop an illusion of being really able to stand and act alone--an unnamed form of insanity which is responsible for a large part of the remediable suffering of the world.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00107", "bookId": 852, "start": 105000, "end": 105772, "sha256": "e7ff10df8b2a89307b94064fb885b6fc9dc9e60b2a2dd9fe079c248b022086ac", "text": "2. The specific adaptability of an immature creature for growth constitutes his plasticity. This is something quite different from the plasticity of putty or wax. It is not a capacity to take on change of form in accord with external pressure. It lies near the pliable elasticity by which some persons take on the color of their surroundings while retaining their own bent. But it is something deeper than this. It is essentially the ability to learn from experience; the power to retain from one experience something which is of avail in coping with the difficulties of a later situation. This means power to modify actions on the basis of the results of prior experiences, the power to develop dispositions. Without it, the acquisition of habits is impossible.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00108", "bookId": 852, "start": 105776, "end": 107755, "sha256": "2bf15070ddf345c889f60c4f5744ddca066b0d65685d554ab7076ef194e38126", "text": "It is a familiar fact that the young of the higher animals, and especially the human young, have to learn to utilize their instinctive reactions. The human being is born with a greater number of instinctive tendencies than other animals. But the instincts of the lower animals perfect themselves for appropriate action at an early period after birth, while most of those of the human infant are of little account just as they stand. An original specialized power of adjustment secures immediate efficiency, but, like a railway ticket, it is good for one route only. A being who, in order to use his eyes, ears, hands, and legs, has to experiment in making varied combinations of their reactions, achieves a control that is flexible and varied. A chick, for example, pecks accurately at a bit of food in a few hours after hatching. This means that definite coordinations of activities of the eyes in seeing and of the body and head in striking are perfected in a few trials. An infant requires about six months to be able to gauge with approximate accuracy the action in reaching which will coordinate with his visual activities; to be able, that is, to tell whether he can reach a seen object and just how to execute the reaching. As a result, the chick is limited by the relative perfection of its original endowment. The infant has the advantage of the multitude of instinctive tentative reactions and of the experiences that accompany them, even though he is at a temporary disadvantage because they cross one another. In learning an action, instead of having it given ready-made, one of necessity learns to vary its factors, to make varied combinations of them, according to change of circumstances. A possibility of continuing progress is opened up by the fact that in learning one act, methods are developed good for use in other situations. Still more important is the fact that the human being acquires a habit of learning. He learns to learn.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00109", "bookId": 852, "start": 107759, "end": 108940, "sha256": "ed9e039cde10804221ff9f398154503cb066171a6e222e5d58fa3ae76022eec9", "text": "The importance for human life of the two facts of dependence and variable control has been summed up in the doctrine of the significance of prolonged infancy. 1 This prolongation is significant from the standpoint of the adult members of the group as well as from that of the young. The presence of dependent and learning beings is a stimulus to nurture and affection. The need for constant continued care was probably a chief means in transforming temporary cohabitations into permanent unions. It certainly was a chief influence in forming habits of affectionate and sympathetic watchfulness; that constructive interest in the well-being of others which is essential to associated life. Intellectually, this moral development meant the introduction of many new objects of attention; it stimulated foresight and planning for the future. Thus there is a reciprocal influence. Increasing complexity of social life requires a longer period of infancy in which to acquire the needed powers; this prolongation of dependence means prolongation of plasticity, or power of acquiring variable and novel modes of control. Hence it provides a further push to social progress.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00110", "bookId": 852, "start": 108944, "end": 110093, "sha256": "f03469f1b070666ebd773cdd0c04cb63f53888d1f8987fb2c2a5c3787f570633", "text": "2. Habits as Expressions of Growth. We have already noted that plasticity is the capacity to retain and carry over from prior experience factors which modify subsequent activities. This signifies the capacity to acquire habits, or develop definite dispositions. We have now to consider the salient features of habits. In the first place, a habit is a form of executive skill, of efficiency in doing. A habit means an ability to use natural conditions as means to ends. It is an active control of the environment through control of the organs of action. We are perhaps apt to emphasize the control of the body at the expense of control of the environment. We think of walking, talking, playing the piano, the specialized skills characteristic of the etcher, the surgeon, the bridge-builder, as if they were simply ease, deftness, and accuracy on the part of the organism. They are that, of course; but the measure of the value of these qualities lies in the economical and effective control of the environment which they secure. To be able to walk is to have certain properties of nature at our disposal--and so with all other habits.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00111", "bookId": 852, "start": 110097, "end": 111643, "sha256": "15dc881238a058d10c39f76d5fd1023e30523f56c4f93155dc6be295bde3a12c", "text": "Education is not infrequently defined as consisting in the acquisition of those habits that effect an adjustment of an individual and his environment. The definition expresses an essential phase of growth. But it is essential that adjustment be understood in its active sense of control of means for achieving ends. If we think of a habit simply as a change wrought in the organism, ignoring the fact that this change consists in ability to effect subsequent changes in the environment, we shall be led to think of \"adjustment\" as a conformity to environment as wax conforms to the seal which impresses it. The environment is thought of as something fixed, providing in its fixity the end and standard of changes taking place in the organism; adjustment is just fitting ourselves to this fixity of external conditions. 2 Habit as habituation is indeed something relatively passive; we get used to our surroundings--to our clothing, our shoes, and gloves; to the atmosphere as long as it is fairly equable; to our daily associates, etc. Conformity to the environment, a change wrought in the organism without reference to ability to modify surroundings, is a marked trait of such habituations. Aside from the fact that we are not entitled to carry over the traits of such adjustments (which might well be called accommodations, to mark them off from active adjustments) into habits of active use of our surroundings, two features of habituations are worth notice. In the first place, we get used to things by first using them.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00112", "bookId": 852, "start": 111647, "end": 113368, "sha256": "5db1f6f719f52dde8663a1cdb95bb22222accbfe5f8229ed0716794f6e70515a", "text": "Consider getting used to a strange city. At first, there is excessive stimulation and excessive and ill-adapted response. Gradually certain stimuli are selected because of their relevancy, and others are degraded. We can say either that we do not respond to them any longer, or more truly that we have effected a persistent response to them--an equilibrium of adjustment. This means, in the second place, that this enduring adjustment supplies the background upon which are made specific adjustments, as occasion arises. We are never interested in changing the whole environment; there is much that we take for granted and accept just as it already is. Upon this background our activities focus at certain points in an endeavor to introduce needed changes. Habituation is thus our adjustment to an environment which at the time we are not concerned with modifying, and which supplies a leverage to our active habits. Adaptation, in fine, is quite as much adaptation of the environment to our own activities as of our activities to the environment. A savage tribe manages to live on a desert plain. It adapts itself. But its adaptation involves a maximum of accepting, tolerating, putting up with things as they are, a maximum of passive acquiescence, and a minimum of active control, of subjection to use. A civilized people enters upon the scene. It also adapts itself. It introduces irrigation; it searches the world for plants and animals that will flourish under such conditions; it improves, by careful selection, those which are growing there. As a consequence, the wilderness blossoms as a rose. The savage is merely habituated; the civilized man has habits which transform the environment.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00113", "bookId": 852, "start": 113372, "end": 115889, "sha256": "d7d42c977d984fb2b6af02c7dedfd7fcd54c5d41f91bc82183cbe140c83c09f0", "text": "The significance of habit is not exhausted, however, in its executive and motor phase. It means formation of intellectual and emotional disposition as well as an increase in ease, economy, and efficiency of action. Any habit marks an inclination--an active preference and choice for the conditions involved in its exercise. A habit does not wait, Micawber-like, for a stimulus to turn up so that it may get busy; it actively seeks for occasions to pass into full operation. If its expression is unduly blocked, inclination shows itself in uneasiness and intense craving. A habit also marks an intellectual disposition. Where there is a habit, there is acquaintance with the materials and equipment to which action is applied. There is a definite way of understanding the situations in which the habit operates. Modes of thought, of observation and reflection, enter as forms of skill and of desire into the habits that make a man an engineer, an architect, a physician, or a merchant. In unskilled forms of labor, the intellectual factors are at minimum precisely because the habits involved are not of a high grade. But there are habits of judging and reasoning as truly as of handling a tool, painting a picture, or conducting an experiment. Such statements are, however, understatements. The habits of mind involved in habits of the eye and hand supply the latter with their significance. Above all, the intellectual element in a habit fixes the relation of the habit to varied and elastic use, and hence to continued growth. We speak of fixed habits. Well, the phrase may mean powers so well established that their possessor always has them as resources when needed. But the phrase is also used to mean ruts, routine ways, with loss of freshness, open-mindedness, and originality. Fixity of habit may mean that something has a fixed hold upon us, instead of our having a free hold upon things. This fact explains two points in a common notion about habits: their identification with mechanical and external modes of action to the neglect of mental and moral attitudes, and the tendency to give them a bad meaning, an identification with \"bad habits.\" Many a person would feel surprised to have his aptitude in his chosen profession called a habit, and would naturally think of his use of tobacco, liquor, or profane language as typical of the meaning of habit. A habit is to him something which has a hold on him, something not easily thrown off even though judgment condemn it.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00114", "bookId": 852, "start": 115893, "end": 117550, "sha256": "d24391de3b325bb239d1a82ff21930260888d595b29361b19a2f7f778e3a5f87", "text": "Habits reduce themselves to routine ways of acting, or degenerate into ways of action to which we are enslaved just in the degree in which intelligence is disconnected from them. Routine habits are unthinking habits: \"bad\" habits are habits so severed from reason that they are opposed to the conclusions of conscious deliberation and decision. As we have seen, the acquiring of habits is due to an original plasticity of our natures: to our ability to vary responses till we find an appropriate and efficient way of acting. Routine habits, and habits that possess us instead of our possessing them, are habits which put an end to plasticity. They mark the close of power to vary. There can be no doubt of the tendency of organic plasticity, of the physiological basis, to lessen with growing years. The instinctively mobile and eagerly varying action of childhood, the love of new stimuli and new developments, too easily passes into a \"settling down,\" which means aversion to change and a resting on past achievements. Only an environment which secures the full use of intelligence in the process of forming habits can counteract this tendency. Of course, the same hardening of the organic conditions affects the physiological structures which are involved in thinking. But this fact only indicates the need of persistent care to see to it that the function of intelligence is invoked to its maximum possibility. The short-sighted method which falls back on mechanical routine and repetition to secure external efficiency of habit, motor skill without accompanying thought, marks a deliberate closing in of surroundings upon growth.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00115", "bookId": 852, "start": 117554, "end": 118289, "sha256": "55324d6e51e4401c05760fd03826627a94d71819f6f68042a24eb04021973267", "text": "3. The Educational Bearings of the Conception of Development. We have had so far but little to say in this chapter about education. We have been occupied with the conditions and implications of growth. If our conclusions are justified, they carry with them, however, definite educational consequences. When it is said that education is development, everything depends upon how development is conceived. Our net conclusion is that life is development, and that developing, growing, is life. Translated into its educational equivalents, that means (i) that the educational process has no end beyond itself; it is its own end; and that (ii) the educational process is one of continual reorganizing, reconstructing, transforming.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00116", "bookId": 852, "start": 118293, "end": 119555, "sha256": "14584a8ec88b0bb38f29f1ab10d8c2b1968e389ca7321ee5decb221226bbb0ad", "text": "1. Development when it is interpreted in comparative terms, that is, with respect to the special traits of child and adult life, means the direction of power into special channels: the formation of habits involving executive skill, definiteness of interest, and specific objects of observation and thought. But the comparative view is not final. The child has specific powers; to ignore that fact is to stunt or distort the organs upon which his growth depends. The adult uses his powers to transform his environment, thereby occasioning new stimuli which redirect his powers and keep them developing. Ignoring this fact means arrested development, a passive accommodation. Normal child and normal adult alike, in other words, are engaged in growing. The difference between them is not the difference between growth and no growth, but between the modes of growth appropriate to different conditions. With respect to the development of powers devoted to coping with specific scientific and economic problems we may say the child should be growing in manhood. With respect to sympathetic curiosity, unbiased responsiveness, and openness of mind, we may say that the adult should be growing in childlikeness. One statement is as true as the other.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00117", "bookId": 852, "start": 119559, "end": 120341, "sha256": "f4e64321dcffc3f6d36f595df5a5036deff27851fc6cfd9c0e7ccb9187671008", "text": "Three ideas which have been criticized, namely, the merely privative nature of immaturity, static adjustment to a fixed environment, and rigidity of habit, are all connected with a false idea of growth or development,--that it is a movement toward a fixed goal. Growth is regarded as having an end, instead of being an end. The educational counterparts of the three fallacious ideas are first, failure to take account of the instinctive or native powers of the young; secondly, failure to develop initiative in coping with novel situations; thirdly, an undue emphasis upon drill and other devices which secure automatic skill at the expense of personal perception. In all cases, the adult environment is accepted as a standard for the child. He is to be brought up to it.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00118", "bookId": 852, "start": 120345, "end": 121136, "sha256": "7e8ff115bfa8a90d38ee9ba76c955d82c42fe0fcc62fad77c4d17c4990bd0fb2", "text": "Natural instincts are either disregarded or treated as nuisances--as obnoxious traits to be suppressed, or at all events to be brought into conformity with external standards. Since conformity is the aim, what is distinctively individual in a young person is brushed aside, or regarded as a source of mischief or anarchy. Conformity is made equivalent to uniformity. Consequently, there are induced lack of interest in the novel, aversion to progress, and dread of the uncertain and the unknown. Since the end of growth is outside of and beyond the process of growing, external agents have to be resorted to to induce movement toward it. Whenever a method of education is stigmatized as mechanical, we may be sure that external pressure is brought to bear to reach an external end.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00119", "bookId": 852, "start": 121140, "end": 121704, "sha256": "7426678d5373c25657dc7644ce45c7297ea7e007e7cf534e9fabf48dfb818135", "text": "2. Since in reality there is nothing to which growth is relative save more growth, there is nothing to which education is subordinate save more education. It is a commonplace to say that education should not cease when one leaves school. The point of this commonplace is that the purpose of school education is to insure the continuance of education by organizing the powers that insure growth. The inclination to learn from life itself and to make the conditions of life such that all will learn in the process of living is the finest product of schooling.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00120", "bookId": 852, "start": 121708, "end": 124852, "sha256": "aa36aad905aa1fa4f619c1d71948917b5e78bda83e83df197a21fb8bd6525bc8", "text": "When we abandon the attempt to define immaturity by means of fixed comparison with adult accomplishments, we are compelled to give up thinking of it as denoting lack of desired traits. Abandoning this notion, we are also forced to surrender our habit of thinking of instruction as a method of supplying this lack by pouring knowledge into a mental and moral hole which awaits filling. Since life means growth, a living creature lives as truly and positively at one stage as at another, with the same intrinsic fullness and the same absolute claims. Hence education means the enterprise of supplying the conditions which insure growth, or adequacy of life, irrespective of age. We first look with impatience upon immaturity, regarding it as something to be got over as rapidly as possible. Then the adult formed by such educative methods looks back with impatient regret upon childhood and youth as a scene of lost opportunities and wasted powers. This ironical situation will endure till it is recognized that living has its own intrinsic quality and that the business of education is with that quality. Realization that life is growth protects us from that so-called idealizing of childhood which in effect is nothing but lazy indulgence. Life is not to be identified with every superficial act and interest. Even though it is not always easy to tell whether what appears to be mere surface fooling is a sign of some nascent as yet untrained power, we must remember that manifestations are not to be accepted as ends in themselves. They are signs of possible growth. They are to be turned into means of development, of carrying power forward, not indulged or cultivated for their own sake. Excessive attention to surface phenomena (even in the way of rebuke as well as of encouragement) may lead to their fixation and thus to arrested development. What impulses are moving toward, not what they have been, is the important thing for parent and teacher. The true principle of respect for immaturity cannot be better put than in the words of Emerson: \"Respect the child. Be not too much his parent. Trespass not on his solitude. But I hear the outcry which replies to this suggestion: Would you verily throw up the reins of public and private discipline; would you leave the young child to the mad career of his own passions and whimsies, and call this anarchy a respect for the child's nature? I answer,--Respect the child, respect him to the end, but also respect yourself.... The two points in a boy's training are, to keep his naturel and train off all but that; to keep his naturel, but stop off his uproar, fooling, and horseplay; keep his nature and arm it with knowledge in the very direction in which it points.\" And as Emerson goes on to show this reverence for childhood and youth instead of opening up an easy and easy-going path to the instructors, \"involves at once, immense claims on the time, the thought, on the life of the teacher. It requires time, use, insight, event, all the great lessons and assistances of God; and only to think of using it implies character and profoundness.\"", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00121", "bookId": 852, "start": 124856, "end": 125872, "sha256": "0d7e7b9a50f2dd3f8524a7b565e6b5f47466f9b37b5db2b03b6c91bc6bec2af6", "text": "Summary. Power to grow depends upon need for others and plasticity. Both of these conditions are at their height in childhood and youth. Plasticity or the power to learn from experience means the formation of habits. Habits give control over the environment, power to utilize it for human purposes. Habits take the form both of habituation, or a general and persistent balance of organic activities with the surroundings, and of active capacities to readjust activity to meet new conditions. The former furnishes the background of growth; the latter constitute growing. Active habits involve thought, invention, and initiative in applying capacities to new aims. They are opposed to routine which marks an arrest of growth. Since growth is the characteristic of life, education is all one with growing; it has no end beyond itself. The criterion of the value of school education is the extent in which it creates a desire for continued growth and supplies means for making the desire effective in fact.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00122", "bookId": 852, "start": 125876, "end": 126051, "sha256": "2500cf3dbeb5cce6270812e75982a79c456fab77a1fed301382eb0b623c65d14", "text": "1 Intimations of its significance are found in a number of writers, but John Fiske, in his Excursions of an Evolutionist, is accredited with its first systematic exposition.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00123", "bookId": 852, "start": 126055, "end": 126296, "sha256": "1ef013c630c7917f2d94e56ba04cd39eb5a172949f5b0e4b47da9f1d455af6d2", "text": "2 This conception is, of course, a logical correlate of the conceptions of the external relation of stimulus and response, considered in the last chapter, and of the negative conceptions of immaturity and plasticity noted in this chapter.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00124", "bookId": 852, "start": 126306, "end": 126365, "sha256": "6a89351de48a3e0d83a64163fb1e68b18bb68ff03cb449d046017bfb1f33c29a", "text": "Chapter Five: Preparation, Unfolding, and Formal Discipline", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG852.B00125", "bookId": 852, "start": 126369, "end": 129430, "sha256": "42da5e58bed405d3d676686212c3c2bb2b025144e778cb47e8190c1c849d4dd0", "text": "1. Education as Preparation. We have laid it down that the educative process is a continuous process of growth, having as its aim at every stage an added capacity of growth. This conception contrasts sharply with other ideas which have influenced practice. By making the contrast explicit, the meaning of the conception will be brought more clearly to light. The first contrast is with the idea that education is a process of preparation or getting ready. What is to be prepared for is, of course, the responsibilities and privileges of adult life. Children are not regarded as social members in full and regular standing. They are looked upon as candidates; they are placed on the waiting list. The conception is only carried a little farther when the life of adults is considered as not having meaning on its own account, but as a preparatory probation for \"another life.\" The idea is but another form of the notion of the negative and privative character of growth already criticized; hence we shall not repeat the criticisms, but pass on to the evil consequences which flow from putting education on this basis. In the first place, it involves loss of impetus. Motive power is not utilized. Children proverbially live in the present; that is not only a fact not to be evaded, but it is an excellence. The future just as future lacks urgency and body. To get ready for something, one knows not what nor why, is to throw away the leverage that exists, and to seek for motive power in a vague chance. Under such circumstances, there is, in the second place, a premium put on shilly-shallying and procrastination. The future prepared for is a long way off; plenty of time will intervene before it becomes a present. Why be in a hurry about getting ready for it? The temptation to postpone is much increased because the present offers so many wonderful opportunities and proffers such invitations to adventure. Naturally attention and energy go to them; education accrues naturally as an outcome, but a lesser education than if the full stress of effort had been put upon making conditions as educative as possible. A third undesirable result is the substitution of a conventional average standard of expectation and requirement for a standard which concerns the specific powers of the individual under instruction. For a severe and definite judgment based upon the strong and weak points of the individual is substituted a vague and wavering opinion concerning what youth may be expected, upon the average, to become in some more or less remote future; say, at the end of the year, when promotions are to take place, or by the time they are ready to go to college or to enter upon what, in contrast with the probationary stage, is regarded as the serious business of life. It is impossible to overestimate the loss which results from the deflection of attention from the strategic point to a comparatively unproductive point. It fails most just where it thinks it is succeeding--in getting a preparation for the future.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00126", "bookId": 852, "start": 129434, "end": 130634, "sha256": "57b6de347701c56c41dc4558c6fb36d95c25e8fb1ba550c0f7f983504c0533ea", "text": "Finally, the principle of preparation makes necessary recourse on a large scale to the use of adventitious motives of pleasure and pain. The future having no stimulating and directing power when severed from the possibilities of the present, something must be hitched on to it to make it work. Promises of reward and threats of pain are employed. Healthy work, done for present reasons and as a factor in living, is largely unconscious. The stimulus resides in the situation with which one is actually confronted. But when this situation is ignored, pupils have to be told that if they do not follow the prescribed course penalties will accrue; while if they do, they may expect, some time in the future, rewards for their present sacrifices. Everybody knows how largely systems of punishment have had to be resorted to by educational systems which neglect present possibilities in behalf of preparation for a future. Then, in disgust with the harshness and impotency of this method, the pendulum swings to the opposite extreme, and the dose of information required against some later day is sugar-coated, so that pupils may be fooled into taking something which they do not care for.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00127", "bookId": 852, "start": 130638, "end": 131581, "sha256": "93ea4be8c8f64f9d3c26124e48134ea34612e348bff23865188c2ad65dadef28", "text": "It is not of course a question whether education should prepare for the future. If education is growth, it must progressively realize present possibilities, and thus make individuals better fitted to cope with later requirements. Growing is not something which is completed in odd moments; it is a continuous leading into the future. If the environment, in school and out, supplies conditions which utilize adequately the present capacities of the immature, the future which grows out of the present is surely taken care of. The mistake is not in attaching importance to preparation for future need, but in making it the mainspring of present effort. Because the need of preparation for a continually developing life is great, it is imperative that every energy should be bent to making the present experience as rich and significant as possible. Then as the present merges insensibly into the future, the future is taken care of.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00128", "bookId": 852, "start": 131585, "end": 132355, "sha256": "fdf9154705121871291978aa2ff77a3dbb058950cf47beec934bed84389e7d6a", "text": "2. Education as Unfolding. There is a conception of education which professes to be based upon the idea of development. But it takes back with one hand what it proffers with the other. Development is conceived not as continuous growing, but as the unfolding of latent powers toward a definite goal. The goal is conceived of as completion,--perfection. Life at any stage short of attainment of this goal is merely an unfolding toward it. Logically the doctrine is only a variant of the preparation theory. Practically the two differ in that the adherents of the latter make much of the practical and professional duties for which one is preparing, while the developmental doctrine speaks of the ideal and spiritual qualities of the principle which is unfolding.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00129", "bookId": 852, "start": 132359, "end": 133087, "sha256": "eddf6ff28d22f91f5d8d35e578d8c3408aea7a7424028bcb1e0a41a2deb75c40", "text": "The conception that growth and progress are just approximations to a final unchanging goal is the last infirmity of the mind in its transition from a static to a dynamic understanding of life. It simulates the style of the latter. It pays the tribute of speaking much of development, process, progress. But all of these operations are conceived to be merely transitional; they lack meaning on their own account. They possess significance only as movements toward something away from what is now going on. Since growth is just a movement toward a completed being, the final ideal is immobile. An abstract and indefinite future is in control with all which that connotes in depreciation of present power and opportunity.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00130", "bookId": 852, "start": 133091, "end": 134553, "sha256": "b7925ecfa01a9b0e3e761ea0c2cd3e71af6c9af42f491ab2f171df736a9cb982", "text": "Since the goal of perfection, the standard of development, is very far away, it is so beyond us that, strictly speaking, it is unattainable. Consequently, in order to be available for present guidance it must be translated into something which stands for it. Otherwise we should be compelled to regard any and every manifestation of the child as an unfolding from within, and hence sacred. Unless we set up some definite criterion representing the ideal end by which to judge whether a given attitude or act is approximating or moving away, our sole alternative is to withdraw all influences of the environment lest they interfere with proper development. Since that is not practicable, a working substitute is set up. Usually, of course, this is some idea which an adult would like to have a child acquire. Consequently, by \"suggestive questioning\" or some other pedagogical device, the teacher proceeds to \"draw out\" from the pupil what is desired. If what is desired is obtained, that is evidence that the child is unfolding properly. But as the pupil generally has no initiative of his own in this direction, the result is a random groping after what is wanted, and the formation of habits of dependence upon the cues furnished by others. Just because such methods simulate a true principle and claim to have its sanction they may do more harm than would outright \"telling,\" where, at least, it remains with the child how much will stick.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00131", "bookId": 852, "start": 134557, "end": 136807, "sha256": "92e8e8666eadbd79c8ddb74431d35efa6637d468a66b60bf0e808d9a408354d7", "text": "Within the sphere of philosophic thought there have been two typical attempts to provide a working representative of the absolute goal. Both start from the conception of a whole--an absolute--which is \"immanent\" in human life. The perfect or complete ideal is not a mere ideal; it is operative here and now. But it is present only implicitly, \"potentially,\" or in an enfolded condition. What is termed development is the gradual making explicit and outward of what is thus wrapped up. Froebel and Hegel, the authors of the two philosophic schemes referred to, have different ideas of the path by which the progressive realization of manifestation of the complete principle is effected. According to Hegel, it is worked out through a series of historical institutions which embody the different factors in the Absolute. According to Froebel, the actuating force is the presentation of symbols, largely mathematical, corresponding to the essential traits of the Absolute. When these are presented to the child, the Whole, or perfection, sleeping within him, is awakened. A single example may indicate the method. Every one familiar with the kindergarten is acquainted with the circle in which the children gather. It is not enough that the circle is a convenient way of grouping the children. It must be used \"because it is a symbol of the collective life of mankind in general.\" Froebel's recognition of the significance of the native capacities of children, his loving attention to them, and his influence in inducing others to study them, represent perhaps the most effective single force in modern educational theory in effecting widespread acknowledgment of the idea of growth. But his formulation of the notion of development and his organization of devices for promoting it were badly hampered by the fact that he conceived development to be the unfolding of a ready-made latent principle. He failed to see that growing is growth, developing is development, and consequently placed the emphasis upon the completed product. Thus he set up a goal which meant the arrest of growth, and a criterion which is not applicable to immediate guidance of powers, save through translation into abstract and symbolic formulae.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00132", "bookId": 852, "start": 136811, "end": 138158, "sha256": "9b09fac341bdc8e1abc5fac6c4100d87d7983488b502fce52440ed529f7d7131", "text": "A remote goal of complete unfoldedness is, in technical philosophic language, transcendental. That is, it is something apart from direct experience and perception. So far as experience is concerned, it is empty; it represents a vague sentimental aspiration rather than anything which can be intelligently grasped and stated. This vagueness must be compensated for by some a priori formula. Froebel made the connection between the concrete facts of experience and the transcendental ideal of development by regarding the former as symbols of the latter. To regard known things as symbols, according to some arbitrary a priori formula--and every a priori conception must be arbitrary--is an invitation to romantic fancy to seize upon any analogies which appeal to it and treat them as laws. After the scheme of symbolism has been settled upon, some definite technique must be invented by which the inner meaning of the sensible symbols used may be brought home to children. Adults being the formulators of the symbolism are naturally the authors and controllers of the technique. The result was that Froebel's love of abstract symbolism often got the better of his sympathetic insight; and there was substituted for development as arbitrary and externally imposed a scheme of dictation as the history of instruction has ever seen.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00133", "bookId": 852, "start": 138162, "end": 140360, "sha256": "0dae3be054d87679842ddbd5ae37e91a387e521315e4b94f724ff5488f33552f", "text": "With Hegel the necessity of finding some working concrete counterpart of the inaccessible Absolute took an institutional, rather than symbolic, form. His philosophy, like Froebel's, marks in one direction an indispensable contribution to a valid conception of the process of life. The weaknesses of an abstract individualistic philosophy were evident to him; he saw the impossibility of making a clean sweep of historical institutions, of treating them as despotisms begot in artifice and nurtured in fraud. In his philosophy of history and society culminated the efforts of a whole series of German writers--Lessing, Herder, Kant, Schiller, Goethe--to appreciate the nurturing influence of the great collective institutional products of humanity. For those who learned the lesson of this movement, it was henceforth impossible to conceive of institutions or of culture as artificial. It destroyed completely--in idea, not in fact--the psychology that regarded \"mind\" as a ready-made possession of a naked individual by showing the significance of \"objective mind\"--language, government, art, religion--in the formation of individual minds. But since Hegel was haunted by the conception of an absolute goal, he was obliged to arrange institutions as they concretely exist, on a stepladder of ascending approximations. Each in its time and place is absolutely necessary, because a stage in the self-realizing process of the absolute mind. Taken as such a step or stage, its existence is proof of its complete rationality, for it is an integral element in the total, which is Reason. Against institutions as they are, individuals have no spiritual rights; personal development, and nurture, consist in obedient assimilation of the spirit of existing institutions. Conformity, not transformation, is the essence of education. Institutions change as history shows; but their change, the rise and fall of states, is the work of the \"world-spirit.\" Individuals, save the great \"heroes\" who are the chosen organs of the world-spirit, have no share or lot in it. In the later nineteenth century, this type of idealism was amalgamated with the doctrine of biological evolution.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00134", "bookId": 852, "start": 140364, "end": 140730, "sha256": "5fdf749bdf266eb45010e6d390d2307cc50721f1044dffb280026bb7dd5442f9", "text": "\"Evolution\" was a force working itself out to its own end. As against it, or as compared with it, the conscious ideas and preference of individuals are impotent. Or, rather, they are but the means by which it works itself out. Social progress is an \"organic growth,\" not an experimental selection. Reason is all powerful, but only Absolute Reason has any power.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00135", "bookId": 852, "start": 140734, "end": 142488, "sha256": "d35a909eebaa84942c935daabb37e907582efae04ab5e7519fae960c12302ebf", "text": "The recognition (or rediscovery, for the idea was familiar to the Greeks) that great historic institutions are active factors in the intellectual nurture of mind was a great contribution to educational philosophy. It indicated a genuine advance beyond Rousseau, who had marred his assertion that education must be a natural development and not something forced or grafted upon individuals from without, by the notion that social conditions are not natural. But in its notion of a complete and all-inclusive end of development, the Hegelian theory swallowed up concrete individualities, though magnifying The Individual in the abstract. Some of Hegel's followers sought to reconcile the claims of the Whole and of individuality by the conception of society as an organic whole, or organism. That social organization is presupposed in the adequate exercise of individual capacity is not to be doubted. But the social organism, interpreted after the relation of the organs of the body to each other and to the whole body, means that each individual has a certain limited place and function, requiring to be supplemented by the place and functions of the other organs. As one portion of the bodily tissue is differentiated so that it can be the hand and the hand only, another, the eye, and so on, all taken together making the organism, so one individual is supposed to be differentiated for the exercise of the mechanical operations of society, another for those of a statesman, another for those of a scholar, and so on. The notion of \"organism\" is thus used to give a philosophic sanction to class distinctions in social organization--a notion which in its educational application again means external dictation instead of growth.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00136", "bookId": 852, "start": 142492, "end": 144057, "sha256": "1af8296af81f067c31d0d4b5b5287d2c93334ffc7280fd08a48b76697e2c1858", "text": "3. Education as Training of Faculties. A theory which has had great vogue and which came into existence before the notion of growth had much influence is known as the theory of \"formal discipline.\" It has in view a correct ideal; one outcome of education should be the creation of specific powers of accomplishment. A trained person is one who can do the chief things which it is important for him to do better than he could without training: \"better\" signifying greater ease, efficiency, economy, promptness, etc. That this is an outcome of education was indicated in what was said about habits as the product of educative development. But the theory in question takes, as it were, a short cut; it regards some powers (to be presently named) as the direct and conscious aims of instruction, and not simply as the results of growth. There is a definite number of powers to be trained, as one might enumerate the kinds of strokes which a golfer has to master. Consequently education should get directly at the business of training them. But this implies that they are already there in some untrained form; otherwise their creation would have to be an indirect product of other activities and agencies. Being there already in some crude form, all that remains is to exercise them in constant and graded repetitions, and they will inevitably be refined and perfected. In the phrase \"formal discipline\" as applied to this conception, \"discipline\" refers both to the outcome of trained power and to the method of training through repeated exercise.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00137", "bookId": 852, "start": 144061, "end": 145237, "sha256": "a2d27ab6be414307d782991afd756e2d46133d7de38c82fe204efeef971fe97f", "text": "The forms of powers in question are such things as the faculties of perceiving, retaining, recalling, associating, attending, willing, feeling, imagining, thinking, etc., which are then shaped by exercise upon material presented. In its classic form, this theory was expressed by Locke. On the one hand, the outer world presents the material or content of knowledge through passively received sensations. On the other hand, the mind has certain ready powers, attention, observation, retention, comparison, abstraction, compounding, etc. Knowledge results if the mind discriminates and combines things as they are united and divided in nature itself. But the important thing for education is the exercise or practice of the faculties of the mind till they become thoroughly established habitudes. The analogy constantly employed is that of a billiard player or gymnast, who by repeated use of certain muscles in a uniform way at last secures automatic skill. Even the faculty of thinking was to be formed into a trained habit by repeated exercises in making and combining simple distinctions, for which, Locke thought, mathematics affords unrivaled opportunity.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00138", "bookId": 852, "start": 145241, "end": 149299, "sha256": "23ba88b86e20ec39a57f859b752d4539c7a92a966b60622801e9f3ccda9f8a7a", "text": "Locke's statements fitted well into the dualism of his day. It seemed to do justice to both mind and matter, the individual and the world. One of the two supplied the matter of knowledge and the object upon which mind should work. The other supplied definite mental powers, which were few in number and which might be trained by specific exercises. The scheme appeared to give due weight to the subject matter of knowledge, and yet it insisted that the end of education is not the bare reception and storage of information, but the formation of personal powers of attention, memory, observation, abstraction, and generalization. It was realistic in its emphatic assertion that all material whatever is received from without; it was idealistic in that final stress fell upon the formation of intellectual powers. It was objective and impersonal in its assertion that the individual cannot possess or generate any true ideas on his own account; it was individualistic in placing the end of education in the perfecting of certain faculties possessed at the outset by the individual. This kind of distribution of values expressed with nicety the state of opinion in the generations following upon Locke. It became, without explicit reference to Locke, a common-place of educational theory and of psychology. Practically, it seemed to provide the educator with definite, instead of vague, tasks. It made the elaboration of a technique of instruction relatively easy. All that was necessary was to provide for sufficient practice of each of the powers. This practice consists in repeated acts of attending, observing, memorizing, etc. By grading the difficulty of the acts, making each set of repetitions somewhat more difficult than the set which preceded it, a complete scheme of instruction is evolved. There are various ways, equally conclusive, of criticizing this conception, in both its alleged foundations and in its educational application. (1) Perhaps the most direct mode of attack consists in pointing out that the supposed original faculties of observation, recollection, willing, thinking, etc., are purely mythological. There are no such ready-made powers waiting to be exercised and thereby trained. There are, indeed, a great number of original native tendencies, instinctive modes of action, based on the original connections of neurones in the central nervous system. There are impulsive tendencies of the eyes to follow and fixate light; of the neck muscles to turn toward light and sound; of the hands to reach and grasp; and turn and twist and thump; of the vocal apparatus to make sounds; of the mouth to spew out unpleasant substances; to gag and to curl the lip, and so on in almost indefinite number. But these tendencies (a) instead of being a small number sharply marked off from one another, are of an indefinite variety, interweaving with one another in all kinds of subtle ways. (b) Instead of being latent intellectual powers, requiring only exercise for their perfecting, they are tendencies to respond in certain ways to changes in the environment so as to bring about other changes. Something in the throat makes one cough; the tendency is to eject the obnoxious particle and thus modify the subsequent stimulus. The hand touches a hot thing; it is impulsively, wholly unintellectually, snatched away. But the withdrawal alters the stimuli operating, and tends to make them more consonant with the needs of the organism. It is by such specific changes of organic activities in response to specific changes in the medium that that control of the environment of which we have spoken (see ante, p. 24) is effected. Now all of our first seeings and hearings and touchings and smellings and tastings are of this kind. In any legitimate sense of the words mental or intellectual or cognitive, they are lacking in these qualities, and no amount of repetitious exercise could bestow any intellectual properties of observation, judgment, or intentional action (volition) upon them.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00139", "bookId": 852, "start": 149303, "end": 151224, "sha256": "95092e7f660ed23fa6897a14342419c073d482f81e85f5142e575cb372afac65", "text": "(2) Consequently the training of our original impulsive activities is not a refinement and perfecting achieved by \"exercise\" as one might strengthen a muscle by practice. It consists rather (a) in selecting from the diffused responses which are evoked at a given time those which are especially adapted to the utilization of the stimulus. That is to say, among the reactions of the body in general occur upon stimulation of the eye by light, all except those which are specifically adapted to reaching, grasping, and manipulating the object effectively are gradually eliminated--or else no training occurs. As we have already noted, the primary reactions, with a very few exceptions are too diffused and general to be practically of much use in the case of the human infant. Hence the identity of training with selective response. (Compare p. 25.) (b) Equally important is the specific coordination of different factors of response which takes place. There is not merely a selection of the hand reactions which effect grasping, but of the particular visual stimuli which call out just these reactions and no others, and an establishment of connection between the two. But the coordinating does not stop here. Characteristic temperature reactions may take place when the object is grasped. These will also be brought in; later, the temperature reaction may be connected directly with the optical stimulus, the hand reaction being suppressed--as a bright flame, independent of close contact, may steer one away. Or the child in handling the object pounds with it, or crumples it, and a sound issues. The ear response is then brought into the system of response. If a certain sound (the conventional name) is made by others and accompanies the activity, response of both ear and the vocal apparatus connected with auditory stimulation will also become an associated factor in the complex response.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00140", "bookId": 852, "start": 151228, "end": 155627, "sha256": "ea7b95c6b6f5967a65643051d527ae0981e3d35fb9505c3ed4f907976ffd52dd", "text": "(3) The more specialized the adjustment of response and stimulus to each other (for, taking the sequence of activities into account, the stimuli are adapted to reactions as well as reactions to stimuli) the more rigid and the less generally available is the training secured. In equivalent language, less intellectual or educative quality attaches to the training. The usual way of stating this fact is that the more specialized the reaction, the less is the skill acquired in practicing and perfecting it transferable to other modes of behavior. According to the orthodox theory of formal discipline, a pupil in studying his spelling lesson acquires, besides ability to spell those particular words, an increase of power of observation, attention, and recollection which may be employed whenever these powers are needed. As matter of fact, the more he confines himself to noticing and fixating the forms of words, irrespective of connection with other things (such as the meaning of the words, the context in which they are habitually used, the derivation and classification of the verbal form, etc.) the less likely is he to acquire an ability which can be used for anything except the mere noting of verbal visual forms. He may not even be increasing his ability to make accurate distinctions among geometrical forms, to say nothing of ability to observe in general. He is merely selecting the stimuli supplied by the forms of the letters and the motor reactions of oral or written reproduction. The scope of coordination (to use our prior terminology) is extremely limited. The connections which are employed in other observations and recollections (or reproductions) are deliberately eliminated when the pupil is exercised merely upon forms of letters and words. Having been excluded, they cannot be restored when needed. The ability secured to observe and to recall verbal forms is not available for perceiving and recalling other things. In the ordinary phraseology, it is not transferable. But the wider the context--that is to say, the more varied the stimuli and responses coordinated--the more the ability acquired is available for the effective performance of other acts; not, strictly speaking, because there is any \"transfer,\" but because the wide range of factors employed in the specific act is equivalent to a broad range of activity, to a flexible, instead of to a narrow and rigid, coordination. (4) Going to the root of the matter, the fundamental fallacy of the theory is its dualism; that is to say, its separation of activities and capacities from subject matter. There is no such thing as an ability to see or hear or remember in general; there is only the ability to see or hear or remember something. To talk about training a power, mental or physical, in general, apart from the subject matter involved in its exercise, is nonsense. Exercise may react upon circulation, breathing, and nutrition so as to develop vigor or strength, but this reservoir is available for specific ends only by use in connection with the material means which accomplish them. Vigor will enable a man to play tennis or golf or to sail a boat better than he would if he were weak. But only by employing ball and racket, ball and club, sail and tiller, in definite ways does he become expert in any one of them; and expertness in one secures expertness in another only so far as it is either a sign of aptitude for fine muscular coordinations or as the same kind of coordination is involved in all of them. Moreover, the difference between the training of ability to spell which comes from taking visual forms in a narrow context and one which takes them in connection with the activities required to grasp meaning, such as context, affiliations of descent, etc., may be compared to the difference between exercises in the gymnasium with pulley weights to \"develop\" certain muscles, and a game or sport. The former is uniform and mechanical; it is rigidly specialized. The latter is varied from moment to moment; no two acts are quite alike; novel emergencies have to be met; the coordinations forming have to be kept flexible and elastic. Consequently, the training is much more \"general\"; that is to say, it covers a wider territory and includes more factors. Exactly the same thing holds of special and general education of the mind.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00141", "bookId": 852, "start": 155631, "end": 156725, "sha256": "588280566d4c011d51061006646fd6385bab6f333276463fb15077d1d09d33b2", "text": "A monotonously uniform exercise may by practice give great skill in one special act; but the skill is limited to that act, be it bookkeeping or calculations in logarithms or experiments in hydrocarbons. One may be an authority in a particular field and yet of more than usually poor judgment in matters not closely allied, unless the training in the special field has been of a kind to ramify into the subject matter of the other fields. (5) Consequently, such powers as observation, recollection, judgment, esthetic taste, represent organized results of the occupation of native active tendencies with certain subject matters. A man does not observe closely and fully by pressing a button for the observing faculty to get to work (in other words by \"willing\" to observe); but if he has something to do which can be accomplished successfully only through intensive and extensive use of eye and hand, he naturally observes. Observation is an outcome, a consequence, of the interaction of sense organ and subject matter. It will vary, accordingly, with the subject matter employed.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00142", "bookId": 852, "start": 156729, "end": 159693, "sha256": "c0b0b8571edd4f36d77f7a71347a01f0fef7d70317638ec6a25dac1ba9b5e971", "text": "It is consequently futile to set up even the ulterior development of faculties of observation, memory, etc., unless we have first determined what sort of subject matter we wish the pupil to become expert in observing and recalling and for what purpose. And it is only repeating in another form what has already been said, to declare that the criterion here must be social. We want the person to note and recall and judge those things which make him an effective competent member of the group in which he is associated with others. Otherwise we might as well set the pupil to observing carefully cracks on the wall and set him to memorizing meaningless lists of words in an unknown tongue--which is about what we do in fact when we give way to the doctrine of formal discipline. If the observing habits of a botanist or chemist or engineer are better habits than those which are thus formed, it is because they deal with subject matter which is more significant in life. In concluding this portion of the discussion, we note that the distinction between special and general education has nothing to do with the transferability of function or power. In the literal sense, any transfer is miraculous and impossible. But some activities are broad; they involve a coordination of many factors. Their development demands continuous alternation and readjustment. As conditions change, certain factors are subordinated, and others which had been of minor importance come to the front. There is constant redistribution of the focus of the action, as is seen in the illustration of a game as over against pulling a fixed weight by a series of uniform motions. Thus there is practice in prompt making of new combinations with the focus of activity shifted to meet change in subject matter. Wherever an activity is broad in scope (that is, involves the coordinating of a large variety of sub-activities), and is constantly and unexpectedly obliged to change direction in its progressive development, general education is bound to result. For this is what \"general\" means; broad and flexible. In practice, education meets these conditions, and hence is general, in the degree in which it takes account of social relationships. A person may become expert in technical philosophy, or philology, or mathematics or engineering or financiering, and be inept and ill-advised in his action and judgment outside of his specialty. If however his concern with these technical subject matters has been connected with human activities having social breadth, the range of active responses called into play and flexibly integrated is much wider. Isolation of subject matter from a social context is the chief obstruction in current practice to securing a general training of mind. Literature, art, religion, when thus dissociated, are just as narrowing as the technical things which the professional upholders of general education strenuously oppose.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00143", "bookId": 852, "start": 159697, "end": 162838, "sha256": "49b22294375bb665931e14e0a0d95bfd9431214d67611e710223925ab43d2a88", "text": "Summary. The conception that the result of the educative process is capacity for further education stands in contrast with some other ideas which have profoundly influenced practice. The first contrasting conception considered is that of preparing or getting ready for some future duty or privilege. Specific evil effects were pointed out which result from the fact that this aim diverts attention of both teacher and taught from the only point to which it may be fruitfully directed--namely, taking advantage of the needs and possibilities of the immediate present. Consequently it defeats its own professed purpose. The notion that education is an unfolding from within appears to have more likeness to the conception of growth which has been set forth. But as worked out in the theories of Froebel and Hegel, it involves ignoring the interaction of present organic tendencies with the present environment, just as much as the notion of preparation. Some implicit whole is regarded as given ready-made and the significance of growth is merely transitory; it is not an end in itself, but simply a means of making explicit what is already implicit. Since that which is not explicit cannot be made definite use of, something has to be found to represent it. According to Froebel, the mystic symbolic value of certain objects and acts (largely mathematical) stand for the Absolute Whole which is in process of unfolding. According to Hegel, existing institutions are its effective actual representatives. Emphasis upon symbols and institutions tends to divert perception from the direct growth of experience in richness of meaning. Another influential but defective theory is that which conceives that mind has, at birth, certain mental faculties or powers, such as perceiving, remembering, willing, judging, generalizing, attending, etc., and that education is the training of these faculties through repeated exercise. This theory treats subject matter as comparatively external and indifferent, its value residing simply in the fact that it may occasion exercise of the general powers. Criticism was directed upon this separation of the alleged powers from one another and from the material upon which they act. The outcome of the theory in practice was shown to be an undue emphasis upon the training of narrow specialized modes of skill at the expense of initiative, inventiveness, and readaptability--qualities which depend upon the broad and consecutive interaction of specific activities with one another. 1 As matter of fact, the interconnection is so great, there are so many paths of construction, that every stimulus brings about some change in all of the organs of response. We are accustomed however to ignore most of these modifications of the total organic activity, concentrating upon that one which is most specifically adapted to the most urgent stimulus of the moment. 2 This statement should be compared with what was said earlier about the sequential ordering of responses (p. 25). It is merely a more explicit statement of the way in which that consecutive arrangement occurs.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00144", "bookId": 852, "start": 162848, "end": 162902, "sha256": "c9b00ee4aea63b1e82e696e48d4cda55935d0de3160ea7209deb4697588cc220", "text": "Chapter Six: Education as Conservative and Progressive", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG852.B00145", "bookId": 852, "start": 162906, "end": 165009, "sha256": "a9b78717803124311118ceb1fee45d53db56afdfec2bb4982669fa265636c316", "text": "1. Education as Formation. We now come to a type of theory which denies the existence of faculties and emphasizes the unique role of subject matter in the development of mental and moral disposition. According to it, education is neither a process of unfolding from within nor is it a training of faculties resident in mind itself. It is rather the formation of mind by setting up certain associations or connections of content by means of a subject matter presented from without. Education proceeds by instruction taken in a strictly literal sense, a building into the mind from without. That education is formative of mind is not questioned; it is the conception already propounded. But formation here has a technical meaning dependent upon the idea of something operating from without. Herbart is the best historical representative of this type of theory. He denies absolutely the existence of innate faculties. The mind is simply endowed with the power of producing various qualities in reaction to the various realities which act upon it. These qualitatively different reactions are called presentations (Vorstellungen). Every presentation once called into being persists; it may be driven below the \"threshold\" of consciousness by new and stronger presentations, produced by the reaction of the soul to new material, but its activity continues by its own inherent momentum, below the surface of consciousness. What are termed faculties--attention, memory, thinking, perception, even the sentiments, are arrangements, associations, and complications, formed by the interaction of these submerged presentations with one another and with new presentations. Perception, for example, is the complication of presentations which result from the rise of old presentations to greet and combine with new ones; memory is the evoking of an old presentation above the threshold of consciousness by getting entangled with another presentation, etc. Pleasure is the result of reinforcement among the independent activities of presentations; pain of their pulling different ways, etc.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00146", "bookId": 852, "start": 165013, "end": 165305, "sha256": "e43bda87177dd8fe85792f12ea92578dcab75ba99ebaf3b704720883aa35fa2c", "text": "The concrete character of mind consists, then, wholly of the various arrangements formed by the various presentations in their different qualities. The \"furniture\" of the mind is the mind. Mind is wholly a matter of \"contents.\" The educational implications of this doctrine are threefold.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00147", "bookId": 852, "start": 165309, "end": 165588, "sha256": "f6b62cf60659d2b58cda5a7dd0d62598443eafc1612b7c84bed0c8860adcc0b5", "text": "(1) This or that kind of mind is formed by the use of objects which evoke this or that kind of reaction and which produce this or that arrangement among the reactions called out. The formation of mind is wholly a matter of the presentation of the proper educational materials.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00148", "bookId": 852, "start": 165592, "end": 166202, "sha256": "1fa34338659907dc82c6df373f9c320082e92a48dfdbb4104143977a419add02", "text": "(2) Since the earlier presentations constitute the \"apperceiving organs\" which control the assimilation of new presentations, their character is all important. The effect of new presentations is to reinforce groupings previously formed. The business of the educator is, first, to select the proper material in order to fix the nature of the original reactions, and, secondly, to arrange the sequence of subsequent presentations on the basis of the store of ideas secured by prior transactions. The control is from behind, from the past, instead of, as in the unfolding conception, in the ultimate goal.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00149", "bookId": 852, "start": 166206, "end": 166981, "sha256": "64baa63a15c1d6dffa9fd415cdd1fbca95271b1eca851160107c9cc87d805710", "text": "(3) Certain formal steps of all method in teaching may be laid down. Presentation of new subject matter is obviously the central thing, but since knowing consists in the way in which this interacts with the contents already submerged below consciousness, the first thing is the step of \"preparation,\"--that is, calling into special activity and getting above the floor of consciousness those older presentations which are to assimilate the new one. Then after the presentation, follow the processes of interaction of new and old; then comes the application of the newly formed content to the performance of some task. Everything must go through this course; consequently there is a perfectly uniform method in instruction in all subjects for all pupils of all ages.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00150", "bookId": 852, "start": 166985, "end": 168072, "sha256": "0a4991aa9efedc64132a392e66d857a6d3bab44acd18f538384a50323e98cb7e", "text": "Herbart's great service lay in taking the work of teaching out of the region of routine and accident. He brought it into the sphere of conscious method; it became a conscious business with a definite aim and procedure, instead of being a compound of casual inspiration and subservience to tradition. Moreover, everything in teaching and discipline could be specified, instead of our having to be content with vague and more or less mystic generalities about ultimate ideals and speculative spiritual symbols. He abolished the notion of ready-made faculties, which might be trained by exercise upon any sort of material, and made attention to concrete subject matter, to the content, all-important. Herbart undoubtedly has had a greater influence in bringing to the front questions connected with the material of study than any other educational philosopher. He stated problems of method from the standpoint of their connection with subject matter: method having to do with the manner and sequence of presenting new subject matter to insure its proper interaction with old.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00151", "bookId": 852, "start": 168076, "end": 169711, "sha256": "db196e70bb3a3fbe6b063eaa56cb9014e342a6d701bd9a29180029d96e89bb89", "text": "The fundamental theoretical defect of this view lies in ignoring the existence in a living being of active and specific functions which are developed in the redirection and combination which occur as they are occupied with their environment. The theory represents the Schoolmaster come to his own. This fact expresses at once its strength and its weakness. The conception that the mind consists of what has been taught, and that the importance of what has been taught consists in its availability for further teaching, reflects the pedagogue's view of life. The philosophy is eloquent about the duty of the teacher in instructing pupils; it is almost silent regarding his privilege of learning. It emphasizes the influence of intellectual environment upon the mind; it slurs over the fact that the environment involves a personal sharing in common experiences. It exaggerates beyond reason the possibilities of consciously formulated and used methods, and underestimates the role of vital, unconscious, attitudes. It insists upon the old, the past, and passes lightly over the operation of the genuinely novel and unforeseeable. It takes, in brief, everything educational into account save its essence,--vital energy seeking opportunity for effective exercise. All education forms character, mental and moral, but formation consists in the selection and coordination of native activities so that they may utilize the subject matter of the social environment. Moreover, the formation is not only a formation of native activities, but it takes place through them. It is a process of reconstruction, reorganization.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00152", "bookId": 852, "start": 169715, "end": 171235, "sha256": "268e4df6feae43ccfddc3bb79340bf970190a7ca2ee6ca428535be36177335b9", "text": "2. Education as Recapitulation and Retrospection. A peculiar combination of the ideas of development and formation from without has given rise to the recapitulation theory of education, biological and cultural. The individual develops, but his proper development consists in repeating in orderly stages the past evolution of animal life and human history. The former recapitulation occurs physiologically; the latter should be made to occur by means of education. The alleged biological truth that the individual in his growth from the simple embryo to maturity repeats the history of the evolution of animal life in the progress of forms from the simplest to the most complex (or expressed technically, that ontogenesis parallels phylogenesis) does not concern us, save as it is supposed to afford scientific foundation for cultural recapitulation of the past. Cultural recapitulation says, first, that children at a certain age are in the mental and moral condition of savagery; their instincts are vagrant and predatory because their ancestors at one time lived such a life. Consequently (so it is concluded) the proper subject matter of their education at this time is the material--especially the literary material of myths, folk-tale, and song--produced by humanity in the analogous stage. Then the child passes on to something corresponding, say, to the pastoral stage, and so on till at the time when he is ready to take part in contemporary life, he arrives at the present epoch of culture.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00153", "bookId": 852, "start": 171239, "end": 171818, "sha256": "6370adfdb4f735dd9ba05c166c8ae28d28efcdeed6f4e21b9c527489e20c25a8", "text": "In this detailed and consistent form, the theory, outside of a small school in Germany (followers of Herbart for the most part), has had little currency. But the idea which underlies it is that education is essentially retrospective; that it looks primarily to the past and especially to the literary products of the past, and that mind is adequately formed in the degree in which it is patterned upon the spiritual heritage of the past. This idea has had such immense influence upon higher instruction especially, that it is worth examination in its extreme formulation.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00154", "bookId": 852, "start": 171822, "end": 173463, "sha256": "018f2b78fc24799ef91a8150f292077ec55f53a1ed1dc94a08865a76fac70073", "text": "In the first place, its biological basis is fallacious. Embyronic growth of the human infant preserves, without doubt, some of the traits of lower forms of life. But in no respect is it a strict traversing of past stages. If there were any strict \"law\" of repetition, evolutionary development would clearly not have taken place. Each new generation would simply have repeated its predecessors' existence. Development, in short, has taken place by the entrance of shortcuts and alterations in the prior scheme of growth. And this suggests that the aim of education is to facilitate such short-circuited growth. The great advantage of immaturity, educationally speaking, is that it enables us to emancipate the young from the need of dwelling in an outgrown past. The business of education is rather to liberate the young from reviving and retraversing the past than to lead them to a recapitulation of it. The social environment of the young is constituted by the presence and action of the habits of thinking and feeling of civilized men. To ignore the directive influence of this present environment upon the young is simply to abdicate the educational function. A biologist has said: \"The history of development in different animals. . . offers to us. . . a series of ingenious, determined, varied but more or less unsuccessful efforts to escape from the necessity of recapitulating, and to substitute for the ancestral method a more direct method.\" Surely it would be foolish if education did not deliberately attempt to facilitate similar efforts in conscious experience so that they become increasingly successful.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00155", "bookId": 852, "start": 173467, "end": 174455, "sha256": "edce4800927dada493e600f8aed4da6cddc648e76fbaeebd86124bc746a28a56", "text": "The two factors of truth in the conception may easily be disentangled from association with the false context which perverts them. On the biological side we have simply the fact that any infant starts with precisely the assortment of impulsive activities with which he does start, they being blind, and many of them conflicting with one another, casual, sporadic, and unadapted to their immediate environment. The other point is that it is a part of wisdom to utilize the products of past history so far as they are of help for the future. Since they represent the results of prior experience, their value for future experience may, of course, be indefinitely great. Literatures produced in the past are, so far as men are now in possession and use of them, a part of the present environment of individuals; but there is an enormous difference between availing ourselves of them as present resources and taking them as standards and patterns in their retrospective character.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00156", "bookId": 852, "start": 174459, "end": 177828, "sha256": "85db8c0cb60c2872bf735d985e30fefcddf1eb692ddd8cf9d7fbb29c4995f883", "text": "(1) The distortion of the first point usually comes about through misuse of the idea of heredity. It is assumed that heredity means that past life has somehow predetermined the main traits of an individual, and that they are so fixed that little serious change can be introduced into them. Thus taken, the influence of heredity is opposed to that of the environment, and the efficacy of the latter belittled. But for educational purposes heredity means neither more nor less than the original endowment of an individual. Education must take the being as he is; that a particular individual has just such and such an equipment of native activities is a basic fact. That they were produced in such and such a way, or that they are derived from one's ancestry, is not especially important for the educator, however it may be with the biologist, as compared with the fact that they now exist. Suppose one had to advise or direct a person regarding his inheritance of property. The fallacy of assuming that the fact it is an inheritance, predetermines its future use, is obvious. The advisor is concerned with making the best use of what is there--putting it at work under the most favorable conditions. Obviously he cannot utilize what is not there; neither can the educator. In this sense, heredity is a limit of education. Recognition of this fact prevents the waste of energy and the irritation that ensue from the too prevalent habit of trying to make by instruction something out of an individual which he is not naturally fitted to become. But the doctrine does not determine what use shall be made of the capacities which exist. And, except in the case of the imbecile, these original capacities are much more varied and potential, even in the case of the more stupid, than we as yet know properly how to utilize. Consequently, while a careful study of the native aptitudes and deficiencies of an individual is always a preliminary necessity, the subsequent and important step is to furnish an environment which will adequately function whatever activities are present. The relation of heredity and environment is well expressed in the case of language. If a being had no vocal organs from which issue articulate sounds, if he had no auditory or other sense-receptors and no connections between the two sets of apparatus, it would be a sheer waste of time to try to teach him to converse. He is born short in that respect, and education must accept the limitation. But if he has this native equipment, its possession in no way guarantees that he will ever talk any language or what language he will talk. The environment in which his activities occur and by which they are carried into execution settles these things. If he lived in a dumb unsocial environment where men refused to talk to one another and used only that minimum of gestures without which they could not get along, vocal language would be as unachieved by him as if he had no vocal organs. If the sounds which he makes occur in a medium of persons speaking the Chinese language, the activities which make like sounds will be selected and coordinated. This illustration may be applied to the entire range of the educability of any individual. It places the heritage from the past in its right connection with the demands and opportunities of the present.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00157", "bookId": 852, "start": 177832, "end": 180540, "sha256": "ba9124fc6e0953db4c86d19d22cd265da327c96bf0c9ee0a0b4cbde8337ad17a", "text": "(2) The theory that the proper subject matter of instruction is found in the culture-products of past ages (either in general, or more specifically in the particular literatures which were produced in the culture epoch which is supposed to correspond with the stage of development of those taught) affords another instance of that divorce between the process and product of growth which has been criticized. To keep the process alive, to keep it alive in ways which make it easier to keep it alive in the future, is the function of educational subject matter. But an individual can live only in the present. The present is not just something which comes after the past; much less something produced by it. It is what life is in leaving the past behind it. The study of past products will not help us understand the present, because the present is not due to the products, but to the life of which they were the products. A knowledge of the past and its heritage is of great significance when it enters into the present, but not otherwise. And the mistake of making the records and remains of the past the main material of education is that it cuts the vital connection of present and past, and tends to make the past a rival of the present and the present a more or less futile imitation of the past. Under such circumstances, culture becomes an ornament and solace; a refuge and an asylum. Men escape from the crudities of the present to live in its imagined refinements, instead of using what the past offers as an agency for ripening these crudities. The present, in short, generates the problems which lead us to search the past for suggestion, and which supplies meaning to what we find when we search. The past is the past precisely because it does not include what is characteristic in the present. The moving present includes the past on condition that it uses the past to direct its own movement. The past is a great resource for the imagination; it adds a new dimension to life, but OD condition that it be seen as the past of the present, and not as another and disconnected world. The principle which makes little of the present act of living and operation of growing, the only thing always present, naturally looks to the past because the future goal which it sets up is remote and empty. But having turned its back upon the present, it has no way of returning to it laden with the spoils of the past. A mind that is adequately sensitive to the needs and occasions of the present actuality will have the liveliest of motives for interest in the background of the present, and will never have to hunt for a way back because it will never have lost connection.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00158", "bookId": 852, "start": 180544, "end": 181378, "sha256": "a2a905f4c572d9cb2593fdeef60c2ec143637a1e9d29dff2cd94432ff1767edb", "text": "3. Education as Reconstruction. In its contrast with the ideas both of unfolding of latent powers from within, and of the formation from without, whether by physical nature or by the cultural products of the past, the ideal of growth results in the conception that education is a constant reorganizing or reconstructing of experience. It has all the time an immediate end, and so far as activity is educative, it reaches that end--the direct transformation of the quality of experience. Infancy, youth, adult life,--all stand on the same educative level in the sense that what is really learned at any and every stage of experience constitutes the value of that experience, and in the sense that it is the chief business of life at every point to make living thus contribute to an enrichment of its own perceptible meaning.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00159", "bookId": 852, "start": 181382, "end": 182998, "sha256": "08a5fad3b35f335429a1e6c8001c3d2a0b0da97933b4d6d5d80d4d130e8b4ed5", "text": "We thus reach a technical definition of education: It is that reconstruction or reorganization of experience which adds to the meaning of experience, and which increases ability to direct the course of subsequent experience. (1) The increment of meaning corresponds to the increased perception of the connections and continuities of the activities in which we are engaged. The activity begins in an impulsive form; that is, it is blind. It does not know what it is about; that is to say, what are its interactions with other activities. An activity which brings education or instruction with it makes one aware of some of the connections which had been imperceptible. To recur to our simple example, a child who reaches for a bright light gets burned. Henceforth he knows that a certain act of touching in connection with a certain act of vision (and vice-versa) means heat and pain; or, a certain light means a source of heat. The acts by which a scientific man in his laboratory learns more about flame differ no whit in principle. By doing certain things, he makes perceptible certain connections of heat with other things, which had been previously ignored. Thus his acts in relation to these things get more meaning; he knows better what he is doing or \"is about\" when he has to do with them; he can intend consequences instead of just letting them happen--all synonymous ways of saying the same thing. At the same stroke, the flame has gained in meaning; all that is known about combustion, oxidation, about light and temperature, may become an intrinsic part of its intellectual content.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00160", "bookId": 852, "start": 183002, "end": 185597, "sha256": "9074c2e8a8559cc7cec2dcbb17fb49d414095892afd55a0caa0cfb7bfbcd26b1", "text": "(2) The other side of an educative experience is an added power of subsequent direction or control. To say that one knows what he is about, or can intend certain consequences, is to say, of course, that he can better anticipate what is going to happen; that he can, therefore, get ready or prepare in advance so as to secure beneficial consequences and avert undesirable ones. A genuinely educative experience, then, one in which instruction is conveyed and ability increased, is contradistinguished from a routine activity on one hand, and a capricious activity on the other. (a) In the latter one \"does not care what happens\"; one just lets himself go and avoids connecting the consequences of one's act (the evidences of its connections with other things) with the act. It is customary to frown upon such aimless random activity, treating it as willful mischief or carelessness or lawlessness. But there is a tendency to seek the cause of such aimless activities in the youth's own disposition, isolated from everything else. But in fact such activity is explosive, and due to maladjustment with surroundings. Individuals act capriciously whenever they act under external dictation, or from being told, without having a purpose of their own or perceiving the bearing of the deed upon other acts. One may learn by doing something which he does not understand; even in the most intelligent action, we do much which we do not mean, because the largest portion of the connections of the act we consciously intend are not perceived or anticipated. But we learn only because after the act is performed we note results which we had not noted before. But much work in school consists in setting up rules by which pupils are to act of such a sort that even after pupils have acted, they are not led to see the connection between the result--say the answer--and the method pursued. So far as they are concerned, the whole thing is a trick and a kind of miracle. Such action is essentially capricious, and leads to capricious habits. (b) Routine action, action which is automatic, may increase skill to do a particular thing. In so far, it might be said to have an educative effect. But it does not lead to new perceptions of bearings and connections; it limits rather than widens the meaning-horizon. And since the environment changes and our way of acting has to be modified in order successfully to keep a balanced connection with things, an isolated uniform way of acting becomes disastrous at some critical moment. The vaunted \"skill\" turns out gross ineptitude.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00161", "bookId": 852, "start": 185601, "end": 186366, "sha256": "2002f184e585f23921f0f4c40076c24afc73e17bb553eb412acc456671b4e04a", "text": "The essential contrast of the idea of education as continuous reconstruction with the other one-sided conceptions which have been criticized in this and the previous chapter is that it identifies the end (the result) and the process. This is verbally self-contradictory, but only verbally. It means that experience as an active process occupies time and that its later period completes its earlier portion; it brings to light connections involved, but hitherto unperceived. The later outcome thus reveals the meaning of the earlier, while the experience as a whole establishes a bent or disposition toward the things possessing this meaning. Every such continuous experience or activity is educative, and all education resides in having such experiences.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00162", "bookId": 852, "start": 186370, "end": 187774, "sha256": "4ba0b23a77eb02f815afaf83ad120d179ce60825bd1678472cdf59004ad2d36c", "text": "It remains only to point out (what will receive more ample attention later) that the reconstruction of experience may be social as well as personal. For purposes of simplification we have spoken in the earlier chapters somewhat as if the education of the immature which fills them with the spirit of the social group to which they belong, were a sort of catching up of the child with the aptitudes and resources of the adult group. In static societies, societies which make the maintenance of established custom their measure of value, this conception applies in the main. But not in progressive communities. They endeavor to shape the experiences of the young so that instead of reproducing current habits, better habits shall be formed, and thus the future adult society be an improvement on their own. Men have long had some intimation of the extent to which education may be consciously used to eliminate obvious social evils through starting the young on paths which shall not produce these ills, and some idea of the extent in which education may be made an instrument of realizing the better hopes of men. But we are doubtless far from realizing the potential efficacy of education as a constructive agency of improving society, from realizing that it represents not only a development of children and youth but also of the future society of which they will be the constituents.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00163", "bookId": 852, "start": 187778, "end": 189528, "sha256": "d13c440d7eab1627ec68309e586c0211cbf8af0165c71365c49d5350a66be5c5", "text": "Summary. Education may be conceived either retrospectively or prospectively. That is to say, it may be treated as process of accommodating the future to the past, or as an utilization of the past for a resource in a developing future. The former finds its standards and patterns in what has gone before. The mind may be regarded as a group of contents resulting from having certain things presented. In this case, the earlier presentations constitute the material to which the later are to be assimilated. Emphasis upon the value of the early experiences of immature beings is most important, especially because of the tendency to regard them as of little account. But these experiences do not consist of externally presented material, but of interaction of native activities with the environment which progressively modifies both the activities and the environment. The defect of the Herbartian theory of formation through presentations consists in slighting this constant interaction and change. The same principle of criticism applies to theories which find the primary subject matter of study in the cultural products--especially the literary products--of man's history. Isolated from their connection with the present environment in which individuals have to act, they become a kind of rival and distracting environment. Their value lies in their use to increase the meaning of the things with which we have actively to do at the present time. The idea of education advanced in these chapters is formally summed up in the idea of continuous reconstruction of experience, an idea which is marked off from education as preparation for a remote future, as unfolding, as external formation, and as recapitulation of the past.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00164", "bookId": 852, "start": 189538, "end": 189591, "sha256": "15aca7ec9cbf66612750333a6bb6c9fcae1aa11f868c68e2851bb2a389084660", "text": "Chapter Seven: The Democratic Conception in Education", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG852.B00165", "bookId": 852, "start": 189595, "end": 190561, "sha256": "a926181d461bcd00235c5065c05705157a7362c50037e72fdb0161606c8516eb", "text": "For the most part, save incidentally, we have hitherto been concerned with education as it may exist in any social group. We have now to make explicit the differences in the spirit, material, and method of education as it operates in different types of community life. To say that education is a social function, securing direction and development in the immature through their participation in the life of the group to which they belong, is to say in effect that education will vary with the quality of life which prevails in a group. Particularly is it true that a society which not only changes but-which has the ideal of such change as will improve it, will have different standards and methods of education from one which aims simply at the perpetuation of its own customs. To make the general ideas set forth applicable to our own educational practice, it is, therefore, necessary to come to closer quarters with the nature of present social life.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00166", "bookId": 852, "start": 190565, "end": 191650, "sha256": "293db3d5eeb1da40c9697106a95b40db53108919c45f2bee5e421d7780709740", "text": "1. The Implications of Human Association. Society is one word, but many things. Men associate together in all kinds of ways and for all kinds of purposes. One man is concerned in a multitude of diverse groups, in which his associates may be quite different. It often seems as if they had nothing in common except that they are modes of associated life. Within every larger social organization there are numerous minor groups: not only political subdivisions, but industrial, scientific, religious, associations. There are political parties with differing aims, social sets, cliques, gangs, corporations, partnerships, groups bound closely together by ties of blood, and so on in endless variety. In many modern states and in some ancient, there is great diversity of populations, of varying languages, religions, moral codes, and traditions. From this standpoint, many a minor political unit, one of our large cities, for example, is a congeries of loosely associated societies, rather than an inclusive and permeating community of action and thought. (See ante, p. 20.)", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00167", "bookId": 852, "start": 191654, "end": 195575, "sha256": "975582eb063ee481f6b317fbaf294758f62736b14c85838726298450c80c8e47", "text": "The terms society, community, are thus ambiguous. They have both a eulogistic or normative sense, and a descriptive sense; a meaning de jure and a meaning de facto. In social philosophy, the former connotation is almost always uppermost. Society is conceived as one by its very nature. The qualities which accompany this unity, praiseworthy community of purpose and welfare, loyalty to public ends, mutuality of sympathy, are emphasized. But when we look at the facts which the term denotes instead of confining our attention to its intrinsic connotation, we find not unity, but a plurality of societies, good and bad. Men banded together in a criminal conspiracy, business aggregations that prey upon the public while serving it, political machines held together by the interest of plunder, are included. If it is said that such organizations are not societies because they do not meet the ideal requirements of the notion of society, the answer, in part, is that the conception of society is then made so \"ideal\" as to be of no use, having no reference to facts; and in part, that each of these organizations, no matter how opposed to the interests of other groups, has something of the praiseworthy qualities of \"Society\" which hold it together. There is honor among thieves, and a band of robbers has a common interest as respects its members. Gangs are marked by fraternal feeling, and narrow cliques by intense loyalty to their own codes. Family life may be marked by exclusiveness, suspicion, and jealousy as to those without, and yet be a model of amity and mutual aid within. Any education given by a group tends to socialize its members, but the quality and value of the socialization depends upon the habits and aims of the group. Hence, once more, the need of a measure for the worth of any given mode of social life. In seeking this measure, we have to avoid two extremes. We cannot set up, out of our heads, something we regard as an ideal society. We must base our conception upon societies which actually exist, in order to have any assurance that our ideal is a practicable one. But, as we have just seen, the ideal cannot simply repeat the traits which are actually found. The problem is to extract the desirable traits of forms of community life which actually exist, and employ them to criticize undesirable features and suggest improvement. Now in any social group whatever, even in a gang of thieves, we find some interest held in common, and we find a certain amount of interaction and cooperative intercourse with other groups. From these two traits we derive our standard. How numerous and varied are the interests which are consciously shared? How full and free is the interplay with other forms of association? If we apply these considerations to, say, a criminal band, we find that the ties which consciously hold the members together are few in number, reducible almost to a common interest in plunder; and that they are of such a nature as to isolate the group from other groups with respect to give and take of the values of life. Hence, the education such a society gives is partial and distorted. If we take, on the other hand, the kind of family life which illustrates the standard, we find that there are material, intellectual, aesthetic interests in which all participate and that the progress of one member has worth for the experience of other members--it is readily communicable--and that the family is not an isolated whole, but enters intimately into relationships with business groups, with schools, with all the agencies of culture, as well as with other similar groups, and that it plays a due part in the political organization and in return receives support from it. In short, there are many interests consciously communicated and shared; and there are varied and free points of contact with other modes of association.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00168", "bookId": 852, "start": 195579, "end": 196998, "sha256": "1d59d024a30d60f4ff31f8746dec8c33ffedd910af7c6ef78ad9d846dc0ce7b0", "text": "I. Let us apply the first element in this criterion to a despotically governed state. It is not true there is no common interest in such an organization between governed and governors. The authorities in command must make some appeal to the native activities of the subjects, must call some of their powers into play. Talleyrand said that a government could do everything with bayonets except sit on them. This cynical declaration is at least a recognition that the bond of union is not merely one of coercive force. It may be said, however, that the activities appealed to are themselves unworthy and degrading--that such a government calls into functioning activity simply capacity for fear. In a way, this statement is true. But it overlooks the fact that fear need not be an undesirable factor in experience. Caution, circumspection, prudence, desire to foresee future events so as to avert what is harmful, these desirable traits are as much a product of calling the impulse of fear into play as is cowardice and abject submission. The real difficulty is that the appeal to fear is isolated. In evoking dread and hope of specific tangible reward--say comfort and ease--many other capacities are left untouched. Or rather, they are affected, but in such a way as to pervert them. Instead of operating on their own account they are reduced to mere servants of attaining pleasure and avoiding pain.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00169", "bookId": 852, "start": 197002, "end": 198069, "sha256": "0c9a79130e1ce7b2ce51005511b4d4ff120689dfbd785d2b1bc27acea012b23c", "text": "This is equivalent to saying that there is no extensive number of common interests; there is no free play back and forth among the members of the social group. Stimulation and response are exceedingly one-sided. In order to have a large number of values in common, all the members of the group must have an equable opportunity to receive and to take from others. There must be a large variety of shared undertakings and experiences. Otherwise, the influences which educate some into masters, educate others into slaves. And the experience of each party loses in meaning, when the free interchange of varying modes of life-experience is arrested. A separation into a privileged and a subject-class prevents social endosmosis. The evils thereby affecting the superior class are less material and less perceptible, but equally real. Their culture tends to be sterile, to be turned back to feed on itself; their art becomes a showy display and artificial; their wealth luxurious; their knowledge overspecialized; their manners fastidious rather than humane.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00170", "bookId": 852, "start": 198073, "end": 202695, "sha256": "f38db19d05ce8e45e335dd82eb1fd906210dd37d7a83e06cbd64f93f41072d7c", "text": "Lack of the free and equitable intercourse which springs from a variety of shared interests makes intellectual stimulation unbalanced. Diversity of stimulation means novelty, and novelty means challenge to thought. The more activity is restricted to a few definite lines--as it is when there are rigid class lines preventing adequate interplay of experiences--the more action tends to become routine on the part of the class at a disadvantage, and capricious, aimless, and explosive on the part of the class having the materially fortunate position. Plato defined a slave as one who accepts from another the purposes which control his conduct. This condition obtains even where there is no slavery in the legal sense. It is found wherever men are engaged in activity which is socially serviceable, but whose service they do not understand and have no personal interest in. Much is said about scientific management of work. It is a narrow view which restricts the science which secures efficiency of operation to movements of the muscles. The chief opportunity for science is the discovery of the relations of a man to his work--including his relations to others who take part--which will enlist his intelligent interest in what he is doing. Efficiency in production often demands division of labor. But it is reduced to a mechanical routine unless workers see the technical, intellectual, and social relationships involved in what they do, and engage in their work because of the motivation furnished by such perceptions. The tendency to reduce such things as efficiency of activity and scientific management to purely technical externals is evidence of the one-sided stimulation of thought given to those in control of industry--those who supply its aims. Because of their lack of all-round and well-balanced social interest, there is not sufficient stimulus for attention to the human factors and relationships in industry. Intelligence is narrowed to the factors concerned with technical production and marketing of goods. No doubt, a very acute and intense intelligence in these narrow lines can be developed, but the failure to take into account the significant social factors means none the less an absence of mind, and a corresponding distortion of emotional life. II. This illustration (whose point is to be extended to all associations lacking reciprocity of interest) brings us to our second point. The isolation and exclusiveness of a gang or clique brings its antisocial spirit into relief. But this same spirit is found wherever one group has interests \"of its own\" which shut it out from full interaction with other groups, so that its prevailing purpose is the protection of what it has got, instead of reorganization and progress through wider relationships. It marks nations in their isolation from one another; families which seclude their domestic concerns as if they had no connection with a larger life; schools when separated from the interest of home and community; the divisions of rich and poor; learned and unlearned. The essential point is that isolation makes for rigidity and formal institutionalizing of life, for static and selfish ideals within the group. That savage tribes regard aliens and enemies as synonymous is not accidental. It springs from the fact that they have identified their experience with rigid adherence to their past customs. On such a basis it is wholly logical to fear intercourse with others, for such contact might dissolve custom. It would certainly occasion reconstruction. It is a commonplace that an alert and expanding mental life depends upon an enlarging range of contact with the physical environment. But the principle applies even more significantly to the field where we are apt to ignore it--the sphere of social contacts. Every expansive era in the history of mankind has coincided with the operation of factors which have tended to eliminate distance between peoples and classes previously hemmed off from one another. Even the alleged benefits of war, so far as more than alleged, spring from the fact that conflict of peoples at least enforces intercourse between them and thus accidentally enables them to learn from one another, and thereby to expand their horizons. Travel, economic and commercial tendencies, have at present gone far to break down external barriers; to bring peoples and classes into closer and more perceptible connection with one another. It remains for the most part to secure the intellectual and emotional significance of this physical annihilation of space.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00171", "bookId": 852, "start": 202699, "end": 203321, "sha256": "395ec7833b57185c4c6d30b648111174fa9d6a4e1d5a742fec850ee783c1a2aa", "text": "2. The Democratic Ideal. The two elements in our criterion both point to democracy. The first signifies not only more numerous and more varied points of shared common interest, but greater reliance upon the recognition of mutual interests as a factor in social control. The second means not only freer interaction between social groups (once isolated so far as intention could keep up a separation) but change in social habit--its continuous readjustment through meeting the new situations produced by varied intercourse. And these two traits are precisely what characterize the democratically constituted society.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00172", "bookId": 852, "start": 203325, "end": 205004, "sha256": "471d30b6380ad13b324e83311ab0644bb1e120aa9332ea6d9140f51590fa3b70", "text": "Upon the educational side, we note first that the realization of a form of social life in which interests are mutually interpenetrating, and where progress, or readjustment, is an important consideration, makes a democratic community more interested than other communities have cause to be in deliberate and systematic education. The devotion of democracy to education is a familiar fact. The superficial explanation is that a government resting upon popular suffrage cannot be successful unless those who elect and who obey their governors are educated. Since a democratic society repudiates the principle of external authority, it must find a substitute in voluntary disposition and interest; these can be created only by education. But there is a deeper explanation. A democracy is more than a form of government; it is primarily a mode of associated living, of conjoint communicated experience. The extension in space of the number of individuals who participate in an interest so that each has to refer his own action to that of others, and to consider the action of others to give point and direction to his own, is equivalent to the breaking down of those barriers of class, race, and national territory which kept men from perceiving the full import of their activity. These more numerous and more varied points of contact denote a greater diversity of stimuli to which an individual has to respond; they consequently put a premium on variation in his action. They secure a liberation of powers which remain suppressed as long as the incitations to action are partial, as they must be in a group which in its exclusiveness shuts out many interests.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00173", "bookId": 852, "start": 205008, "end": 206381, "sha256": "9166bf015bcdc544f99b35dfcfb447a8a66ae5f120718e4d5aa612f12b8b01db", "text": "The widening of the area of shared concerns, and the liberation of a greater diversity of personal capacities which characterize a democracy, are not of course the product of deliberation and conscious effort. On the contrary, they were caused by the development of modes of manufacture and commerce, travel, migration, and intercommunication which flowed from the command of science over natural energy. But after greater individualization on one hand, and a broader community of interest on the other have come into existence, it is a matter of deliberate effort to sustain and extend them. Obviously a society to which stratification into separate classes would be fatal, must see to it that intellectual opportunities are accessible to all on equable and easy terms. A society marked off into classes need he specially attentive only to the education of its ruling elements. A society which is mobile, which is full of channels for the distribution of a change occurring anywhere, must see to it that its members are educated to personal initiative and adaptability. Otherwise, they will be overwhelmed by the changes in which they are caught and whose significance or connections they do not perceive. The result will be a confusion in which a few will appropriate to themselves the results of the blind and externally directed activities of others.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00174", "bookId": 852, "start": 206385, "end": 209885, "sha256": "92cd48057fa4ee7ed972ef1ed16a5654e89d0d20ce21a794231397343be224bc", "text": "3. The Platonic Educational Philosophy. Subsequent chapters will be devoted to making explicit the implications of the democratic ideas in education. In the remaining portions of this chapter, we shall consider the educational theories which have been evolved in three epochs when the social import of education was especially conspicuous. The first one to be considered is that of Plato. No one could better express than did he the fact that a society is stably organized when each individual is doing that for which he has aptitude by nature in such a way as to be useful to others (or to contribute to the whole to which he belongs); and that it is the business of education to discover these aptitudes and progressively to train them for social use. Much which has been said so far is borrowed from what Plato first consciously taught the world. But conditions which he could not intellectually control led him to restrict these ideas in their application. He never got any conception of the indefinite plurality of activities which may characterize an individual and a social group, and consequently limited his view to a limited number of classes of capacities and of social arrangements. Plato's starting point is that the organization of society depends ultimately upon knowledge of the end of existence. If we do not know its end, we shall be at the mercy of accident and caprice. Unless we know the end, the good, we shall have no criterion for rationally deciding what the possibilities are which should be promoted, nor how social arrangements are to be ordered. We shall have no conception of the proper limits and distribution of activities--what he called justice--as a trait of both individual and social organization. But how is the knowledge of the final and permanent good to be achieved? In dealing with this question we come upon the seemingly insuperable obstacle that such knowledge is not possible save in a just and harmonious social order. Everywhere else the mind is distracted and misled by false valuations and false perspectives. A disorganized and factional society sets up a number of different models and standards. Under such conditions it is impossible for the individual to attain consistency of mind. Only a complete whole is fully self-consistent. A society which rests upon the supremacy of some factor over another irrespective of its rational or proportionate claims, inevitably leads thought astray. It puts a premium on certain things and slurs over others, and creates a mind whose seeming unity is forced and distorted. Education proceeds ultimately from the patterns furnished by institutions, customs, and laws. Only in a just state will these be such as to give the right education; and only those who have rightly trained minds will be able to recognize the end, and ordering principle of things. We seem to be caught in a hopeless circle. However, Plato suggested a way out. A few men, philosophers or lovers of wisdom--or truth--may by study learn at least in outline the proper patterns of true existence. If a powerful ruler should form a state after these patterns, then its regulations could be preserved. An education could be given which would sift individuals, discovering what they were good for, and supplying a method of assigning each to the work in life for which his nature fits him. Each doing his own part, and never transgressing, the order and unity of the whole would be maintained.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00175", "bookId": 852, "start": 209889, "end": 210518, "sha256": "d2a51c79bafb622dabec86bdd71941b0e063ff4b380f3d68a68b0e9539cc57f2", "text": "It would be impossible to find in any scheme of philosophic thought a more adequate recognition on one hand of the educational significance of social arrangements and, on the other, of the dependence of those arrangements upon the means used to educate the young. It would be impossible to find a deeper sense of the function of education in discovering and developing personal capacities, and training them so that they would connect with the activities of others. Yet the society in which the theory was propounded was so undemocratic that Plato could not work out a solution for the problem whose terms he clearly saw.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00176", "bookId": 852, "start": 210522, "end": 211427, "sha256": "259ab10c9012796367f0f63fe3c3281f1ea20cbeaa6fd59992871e9e69bde3a8", "text": "While he affirmed with emphasis that the place of the individual in society should not be determined by birth or wealth or any conventional status, but by his own nature as discovered in the process of education, he had no perception of the uniqueness of individuals. For him they fall by nature into classes, and into a very small number of classes at that. Consequently the testing and sifting function of education only shows to which one of three classes an individual belongs. There being no recognition that each individual constitutes his own class, there could be no recognition of the infinite diversity of active tendencies and combinations of tendencies of which an individual is capable. There were only three types of faculties or powers in the individual's constitution. Hence education would soon reach a static limit in each class, for only diversity makes change and progress.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00177", "bookId": 852, "start": 211431, "end": 214513, "sha256": "3e160356166bc2be0ea54863b279c2296335f0a3f9099f83677e1682de746199", "text": "In some individuals, appetites naturally dominate; they are assigned to the laboring and trading class, which expresses and supplies human wants. Others reveal, upon education, that over and above appetites, they have a generous, outgoing, assertively courageous disposition. They become the citizen-subjects of the state; its defenders in war; its internal guardians in peace. But their limit is fixed by their lack of reason, which is a capacity to grasp the universal. Those who possess this are capable of the highest kind of education, and become in time the legislators of the state--for laws are the universals which control the particulars of experience. Thus it is not true that in intent, Plato subordinated the individual to the social whole. But it is true that lacking the perception of the uniqueness of every individual, his incommensurability with others, and consequently not recognizing that a society might change and yet be stable, his doctrine of limited powers and classes came in net effect to the idea of the subordination of individuality. We cannot better Plato's conviction that an individual is happy and society well organized when each individual engages in those activities for which he has a natural equipment, nor his conviction that it is the primary office of education to discover this equipment to its possessor and train him for its effective use. But progress in knowledge has made us aware of the superficiality of Plato's lumping of individuals and their original powers into a few sharply marked-off classes; it has taught us that original capacities are indefinitely numerous and variable. It is but the other side of this fact to say that in the degree in which society has become democratic, social organization means utilization of the specific and variable qualities of individuals, not stratification by classes. Although his educational philosophy was revolutionary, it was none the less in bondage to static ideals. He thought that change or alteration was evidence of lawless flux; that true reality was unchangeable. Hence while he would radically change the existing state of society, his aim was to construct a state in which change would subsequently have no place. The final end of life is fixed; given a state framed with this end in view, not even minor details are to be altered. Though they might not be inherently important, yet if permitted they would inure the minds of men to the idea of change, and hence be dissolving and anarchic. The breakdown of his philosophy is made apparent in the fact that he could not trust to gradual improvements in education to bring about a better society which should then improve education, and so on indefinitely. Correct education could not come into existence until an ideal state existed, and after that education would be devoted simply to its conservation. For the existence of this state he was obliged to trust to some happy accident by which philosophic wisdom should happen to coincide with possession of ruling power in the state.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00178", "bookId": 852, "start": 214517, "end": 216229, "sha256": "e357b90d2335ebbf00961204224dd1cc4dce9cfc4b7491d737b4e9ac7b9b5e93", "text": "4. The \"Individualistic\" Ideal of the Eighteenth Century. In the eighteenth-century philosophy we find ourselves in a very different circle of ideas. \"Nature\" still means something antithetical to existing social organization; Plato exercised a great influence upon Rousseau. But the voice of nature now speaks for the diversity of individual talent and for the need of free development of individuality in all its variety. Education in accord with nature furnishes the goal and the method of instruction and discipline. Moreover, the native or original endowment was conceived, in extreme cases, as nonsocial or even as antisocial. Social arrangements were thought of as mere external expedients by which these nonsocial individuals might secure a greater amount of private happiness for themselves. Nevertheless, these statements convey only an inadequate idea of the true significance of the movement. In reality its chief interest was in progress and in social progress. The seeming antisocial philosophy was a somewhat transparent mask for an impetus toward a wider and freer society--toward cosmopolitanism. The positive ideal was humanity. In membership in humanity, as distinct from a state, man's capacities would be liberated; while in existing political organizations his powers were hampered and distorted to meet the requirements and selfish interests of the rulers of the state. The doctrine of extreme individualism was but the counterpart, the obverse, of ideals of the indefinite perfectibility of man and of a social organization having a scope as wide as humanity. The emancipated individual was to become the organ and agent of a comprehensive and progressive society.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00179", "bookId": 852, "start": 216233, "end": 217404, "sha256": "06082a1a1f2cb25935f7da70ab009b45d0ab46517e1a91db7695354f23e1e726", "text": "The heralds of this gospel were acutely conscious of the evils of the social estate in which they found themselves. They attributed these evils to the limitations imposed upon the free powers of man. Such limitation was both distorting and corrupting. Their impassioned devotion to emancipation of life from external restrictions which operated to the exclusive advantage of the class to whom a past feudal system consigned power, found intellectual formulation in a worship of nature. To give \"nature\" full swing was to replace an artificial, corrupt, and inequitable social order by a new and better kingdom of humanity. Unrestrained faith in Nature as both a model and a working power was strengthened by the advances of natural science. Inquiry freed from prejudice and artificial restraints of church and state had revealed that the world is a scene of law. The Newtonian solar system, which expressed the reign of natural law, was a scene of wonderful harmony, where every force balanced with every other. Natural law would accomplish the same result in human relations, if men would only get rid of the artificial man-imposed coercive restrictions.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00180", "bookId": 852, "start": 217408, "end": 218564, "sha256": "71e26c44674569923c06e25b15d4a8e1e8475c404ca2c731b76d74e104dee7c6", "text": "Education in accord with nature was thought to be the first step in insuring this more social society. It was plainly seen that economic and political limitations were ultimately dependent upon limitations of thought and feeling. The first step in freeing men from external chains was to emancipate them from the internal chains of false beliefs and ideals. What was called social life, existing institutions, were too false and corrupt to be intrusted with this work. How could it be expected to undertake it when the undertaking meant its own destruction? \"Nature\" must then be the power to which the enterprise was to be left. Even the extreme sensationalistic theory of knowledge which was current derived itself from this conception. To insist that mind is originally passive and empty was one way of glorifying the possibilities of education. If the mind was a wax tablet to be written upon by objects, there were no limits to the possibility of education by means of the natural environment. And since the natural world of objects is a scene of harmonious \"truth,\" this education would infallibly produce minds filled with the truth.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00181", "bookId": 852, "start": 218568, "end": 219798, "sha256": "f1fa3a161de73feb9a175ad35a2f321e92322fe39f36b2c0c8a7720d31d5a492", "text": "5. Education as National and as Social. As soon as the first enthusiasm for freedom waned, the weakness of the theory upon the constructive side became obvious. Merely to leave everything to nature was, after all, but to negate the very idea of education; it was to trust to the accidents of circumstance. Not only was some method required but also some positive organ, some administrative agency for carrying on the process of instruction. The \"complete and harmonious development of all powers,\" having as its social counterpart an enlightened and progressive humanity, required definite organization for its realization. Private individuals here and there could proclaim the gospel; they could not execute the work. A Pestalozzi could try experiments and exhort philanthropically inclined persons having wealth and power to follow his example. But even Pestalozzi saw that any effective pursuit of the new educational ideal required the support of the state. The realization of the new education destined to produce a new society was, after all, dependent upon the activities of existing states. The movement for the democratic idea inevitably became a movement for publicly conducted and administered schools.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00182", "bookId": 852, "start": 219802, "end": 220914, "sha256": "ebfd05b0d388deb1c4e0e57a2523282528be9c8690f612f5f2999bdfb7b1e27f", "text": "So far as Europe was concerned, the historic situation identified the movement for a state-supported education with the nationalistic movement in political life--a fact of incalculable significance for subsequent movements. Under the influence of German thought in particular, education became a civic function and the civic function was identified with the realization of the ideal of the national state. The \"state\" was substituted for humanity; cosmopolitanism gave way to nationalism. To form the citizen, not the \"man,\" became the aim of education. 1 The historic situation to which reference is made is the after-effects of the Napoleonic conquests, especially in Germany. The German states felt (and subsequent events demonstrate the correctness of the belief) that systematic attention to education was the best means of recovering and maintaining their political integrity and power. Externally they were weak and divided. Under the leadership of Prussian statesmen they made this condition a stimulus to the development of an extensive and thoroughly grounded system of public education.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00183", "bookId": 852, "start": 220918, "end": 224595, "sha256": "e0a107bc419185f6f92f3a5b043f3c32a5735580432815fe6eb240d4408589f3", "text": "This change in practice necessarily brought about a change in theory. The individualistic theory receded into the background. The state furnished not only the instrumentalities of public education but also its goal. When the actual practice was such that the school system, from the elementary grades through the university faculties, supplied the patriotic citizen and soldier and the future state official and administrator and furnished the means for military, industrial, and political defense and expansion, it was impossible for theory not to emphasize the aim of social efficiency. And with the immense importance attached to the nationalistic state, surrounded by other competing and more or less hostile states, it was equally impossible to interpret social efficiency in terms of a vague cosmopolitan humanitarianism. Since the maintenance of a particular national sovereignty required subordination of individuals to the superior interests of the state both in military defense and in struggles for international supremacy in commerce, social efficiency was understood to imply a like subordination. The educational process was taken to be one of disciplinary training rather than of personal development. Since, however, the ideal of culture as complete development of personality persisted, educational philosophy attempted a reconciliation of the two ideas. The reconciliation took the form of the conception of the \"organic\" character of the state. The individual in his isolation is nothing; only in and through an absorption of the aims and meaning of organized institutions does he attain true personality. What appears to be his subordination to political authority and the demand for sacrifice of himself to the commands of his superiors is in reality but making his own the objective reason manifested in the state--the only way in which he can become truly rational. The notion of development which we have seen to be characteristic of institutional idealism (as in the Hegelian philosophy) was just such a deliberate effort to combine the two ideas of complete realization of personality and thoroughgoing \"disciplinary\" subordination to existing institutions. The extent of the transformation of educational philosophy which occurred in Germany in the generation occupied by the struggle against Napoleon for national independence, may be gathered from Kant, who well expresses the earlier individual-cosmopolitan ideal. In his treatise on Pedagogics, consisting of lectures given in the later years of the eighteenth century, he defines education as the process by which man becomes man. Mankind begins its history submerged in nature--not as Man who is a creature of reason, while nature furnishes only instinct and appetite. Nature offers simply the germs which education is to develop and perfect. The peculiarity of truly human life is that man has to create himself by his own voluntary efforts; he has to make himself a truly moral, rational, and free being. This creative effort is carried on by the educational activities of slow generations. Its acceleration depends upon men consciously striving to educate their successors not for the existing state of affairs but so as to make possible a future better humanity. But there is the great difficulty. Each generation is inclined to educate its young so as to get along in the present world instead of with a view to the proper end of education: the promotion of the best possible realization of humanity as humanity. Parents educate their children so that they may get on; princes educate their subjects as instruments of their own purposes.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00184", "bookId": 852, "start": 224599, "end": 228880, "sha256": "b16e88bdd6f1cedc6f8dfc845eb3ba74abe6a3dc8146938736f44dba6bdde28b", "text": "Who, then, shall conduct education so that humanity may improve? We must depend upon the efforts of enlightened men in their private capacity. \"All culture begins with private men and spreads outward from them. Simply through the efforts of persons of enlarged inclinations, who are capable of grasping the ideal of a future better condition, is the gradual approximation of human nature to its end possible. Rulers are simply interested in such training as will make their subjects better tools for their own intentions.\" Even the subsidy by rulers of privately conducted schools must be carefully safeguarded. For the rulers' interest in the welfare of their own nation instead of in what is best for humanity, will make them, if they give money for the schools, wish to draw their plans. We have in this view an express statement of the points characteristic of the eighteenth century individualistic cosmopolitanism. The full development of private personality is identified with the aims of humanity as a whole and with the idea of progress. In addition we have an explicit fear of the hampering influence of a state-conducted and state-regulated education upon the attainment of these ideas. But in less than two decades after this time, Kant's philosophic successors, Fichte and Hegel, elaborated the idea that the chief function of the state is educational; that in particular the regeneration of Germany is to be accomplished by an education carried on in the interests of the state, and that the private individual is of necessity an egoistic, irrational being, enslaved to his appetites and to circumstances unless he submits voluntarily to the educative discipline of state institutions and laws. In this spirit, Germany was the first country to undertake a public, universal, and compulsory system of education extending from the primary school through the university, and to submit to jealous state regulation and supervision all private educational enterprises. Two results should stand out from this brief historical survey. The first is that such terms as the individual and the social conceptions of education are quite meaningless taken at large, or apart from their context. Plato had the ideal of an education which should equate individual realization and social coherency and stability. His situation forced his ideal into the notion of a society organized in stratified classes, losing the individual in the class. The eighteenth century educational philosophy was highly individualistic in form, but this form was inspired by a noble and generous social ideal: that of a society organized to include humanity, and providing for the indefinite perfectibility of mankind. The idealistic philosophy of Germany in the early nineteenth century endeavored again to equate the ideals of a free and complete development of cultured personality with social discipline and political subordination. It made the national state an intermediary between the realization of private personality on one side and of humanity on the other. Consequently, it is equally possible to state its animating principle with equal truth either in the classic terms of \"harmonious development of all the powers of personality\" or in the more recent terminology of \"social efficiency.\" All this reinforces the statement which opens this chapter: The conception of education as a social process and function has no definite meaning until we define the kind of society we have in mind. These considerations pave the way for our second conclusion. One of the fundamental problems of education in and for a democratic society is set by the conflict of a nationalistic and a wider social aim. The earlier cosmopolitan and \"humanitarian\" conception suffered both from vagueness and from lack of definite organs of execution and agencies of administration. In Europe, in the Continental states particularly, the new idea of the importance of education for human welfare and progress was captured by national interests and harnessed to do a work whose social aim was definitely narrow and exclusive. The social aim of education and its national aim were identified, and the result was a marked obscuring of the meaning of a social aim.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00185", "bookId": 852, "start": 228884, "end": 232864, "sha256": "184ad4f965c834ff1c838117208ab6cd807d2d646daa2035ab7832e03c8f05cd", "text": "This confusion corresponds to the existing situation of human intercourse. On the one hand, science, commerce, and art transcend national boundaries. They are largely international in quality and method. They involve interdependencies and cooperation among the peoples inhabiting different countries. At the same time, the idea of national sovereignty has never been as accentuated in politics as it is at the present time. Each nation lives in a state of suppressed hostility and incipient war with its neighbors. Each is supposed to be the supreme judge of its own interests, and it is assumed as matter of course that each has interests which are exclusively its own. To question this is to question the very idea of national sovereignty which is assumed to be basic to political practice and political science. This contradiction (for it is nothing less) between the wider sphere of associated and mutually helpful social life and the narrower sphere of exclusive and hence potentially hostile pursuits and purposes, exacts of educational theory a clearer conception of the meaning of \"social\" as a function and test of education than has yet been attained. Is it possible for an educational system to be conducted by a national state and yet the full social ends of the educative process not be restricted, constrained, and corrupted? Internally, the question has to face the tendencies, due to present economic conditions, which split society into classes some of which are made merely tools for the higher culture of others. Externally, the question is concerned with the reconciliation of national loyalty, of patriotism, with superior devotion to the things which unite men in common ends, irrespective of national political boundaries. Neither phase of the problem can be worked out by merely negative means. It is not enough to see to it that education is not actively used as an instrument to make easier the exploitation of one class by another. School facilities must be secured of such amplitude and efficiency as will in fact and not simply in name discount the effects of economic inequalities, and secure to all the wards of the nation equality of equipment for their future careers. Accomplishment of this end demands not only adequate administrative provision of school facilities, and such supplementation of family resources as will enable youth to take advantage of them, but also such modification of traditional ideals of culture, traditional subjects of study and traditional methods of teaching and discipline as will retain all the youth under educational influences until they are equipped to be masters of their own economic and social careers. The ideal may seem remote of execution, but the democratic ideal of education is a farcical yet tragic delusion except as the ideal more and more dominates our public system of education. The same principle has application on the side of the considerations which concern the relations of one nation to another. It is not enough to teach the horrors of war and to avoid everything which would stimulate international jealousy and animosity. The emphasis must be put upon whatever binds people together in cooperative human pursuits and results, apart from geographical limitations. The secondary and provisional character of national sovereignty in respect to the fuller, freer, and more fruitful association and intercourse of all human beings with one another must be instilled as a working disposition of mind. If these applications seem to be remote from a consideration of the philosophy of education, the impression shows that the meaning of the idea of education previously developed has not been adequately grasped. This conclusion is bound up with the very idea of education as a freeing of individual capacity in a progressive growth directed to social aims. Otherwise a democratic criterion of education can only be inconsistently applied.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00186", "bookId": 852, "start": 232868, "end": 235347, "sha256": "bf7102c0b27a995cb7ae80353dbcf6fa98cef2a1c47b5b32488e9fc953a7f605", "text": "Summary. Since education is a social process, and there are many kinds of societies, a criterion for educational criticism and construction implies a particular social ideal. The two points selected by which to measure the worth of a form of social life are the extent in which the interests of a group are shared by all its members, and the fullness and freedom with which it interacts with other groups. An undesirable society, in other words, is one which internally and externally sets up barriers to free intercourse and communication of experience. A society which makes provision for participation in its good of all its members on equal terms and which secures flexible readjustment of its institutions through interaction of the different forms of associated life is in so far democratic. Such a society must have a type of education which gives individuals a personal interest in social relationships and control, and the habits of mind which secure social changes without introducing disorder. Three typical historic philosophies of education were considered from this point of view. The Platonic was found to have an ideal formally quite similar to that stated, but which was compromised in its working out by making a class rather than an individual the social unit. The so-called individualism of the eighteenth-century enlightenment was found to involve the notion of a society as broad as humanity, of whose progress the individual was to be the organ. But it lacked any agency for securing the development of its ideal as was evidenced in its falling back upon Nature. The institutional idealistic philosophies of the nineteenth century supplied this lack by making the national state the agency, but in so doing narrowed the conception of the social aim to those who were members of the same political unit, and reintroduced the idea of the subordination of the individual to the institution. 1 There is a much neglected strain in Rousseau tending intellectually in this direction. He opposed the existing state of affairs on the ground that it formed neither the citizen nor the man. Under existing conditions, he preferred to try for the latter rather than for the former. But there are many sayings of his which point to the formation of the citizen as ideally the higher, and which indicate that his own endeavor, as embodied in the Emile, was simply the best makeshift the corruption of the times permitted him to sketch.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00187", "bookId": 852, "start": 235357, "end": 235389, "sha256": "624ac9831102f7fa227894b00d17afe3c1b7e9037856299a13d157c25f73fb98", "text": "Chapter Eight: Aims in Education", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG852.B00188", "bookId": 852, "start": 235393, "end": 235417, "sha256": "8242d77e28bc79af512a69166bc6d85cd5a80fafb014a63ac47b4d47178ce417", "text": "1. The Nature of an Aim.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG852.B00189", "bookId": 852, "start": 235421, "end": 236833, "sha256": "8839934d90217d793c74c2b990fbbf7b67c317cb3c3a052ad9c94f13cd1d1ab9", "text": "The account of education given in our earlier chapters virtually anticipated the results reached in a discussion of the purport of education in a democratic community. For it assumed that the aim of education is to enable individuals to continue their education--or that the object and reward of learning is continued capacity for growth. Now this idea cannot be applied to all the members of a society except where intercourse of man with man is mutual, and except where there is adequate provision for the reconstruction of social habits and institutions by means of wide stimulation arising from equitably distributed interests. And this means a democratic society. In our search for aims in education, we are not concerned, therefore, with finding an end outside of the educative process to which education is subordinate. Our whole conception forbids. We are rather concerned with the contrast which exists when aims belong within the process in which they operate and when they are set up from without. And the latter state of affairs must obtain when social relationships are not equitably balanced. For in that case, some portions of the whole social group will find their aims determined by an external dictation; their aims will not arise from the free growth of their own experience, and their nominal aims will be means to more ulterior ends of others rather than truly their own.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00190", "bookId": 852, "start": 236837, "end": 237584, "sha256": "9aba71ea013db0973e0b6e09b937a9f02a8ed2963a7a07ffac56e3867cf8ea1b", "text": "Our first question is to define the nature of an aim so far as it falls within an activity, instead of being furnished from without. We approach the definition by a contrast of mere results with ends. Any exhibition of energy has results. The wind blows about the sands of the desert; the position of the grains is changed. Here is a result, an effect, but not an end. For there is nothing in the outcome which completes or fulfills what went before it. There is mere spatial redistribution. One state of affairs is just as good as any other. Consequently there is no basis upon which to select an earlier state of affairs as a beginning, a later as an end, and to consider what intervenes as a process of transformation and realization.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00191", "bookId": 852, "start": 237588, "end": 241226, "sha256": "9edcdfaa8bcc2cedf0ceb25fb9fd7f2bac3ba51af260a5435e07ca821bb72f50", "text": "Consider for example the activities of bees in contrast with the changes in the sands when the wind blows them about. The results of the bees' actions may be called ends not because they are designed or consciously intended, but because they are true terminations or completions of what has preceded. When the bees gather pollen and make wax and build cells, each step prepares the way for the next. When cells are built, the queen lays eggs in them; when eggs are laid, they are sealed and bees brood them and keep them at a temperature required to hatch them. When they are hatched, bees feed the young till they can take care of themselves. Now we are so familiar with such facts, that we are apt to dismiss them on the ground that life and instinct are a kind of miraculous thing anyway. Thus we fail to note what the essential characteristic of the event is; namely, the significance of the temporal place and order of each element; the way each prior event leads into its successor while the successor takes up what is furnished and utilizes it for some other stage, until we arrive at the end, which, as it were, summarizes and finishes off the process. Since aims relate always to results, the first thing to look to when it is a question of aims, is whether the work assigned possesses intrinsic continuity. Or is it a mere serial aggregate of acts, first doing one thing and then another? To talk about an educational aim when approximately each act of a pupil is dictated by the teacher, when the only order in the sequence of his acts is that which comes from the assignment of lessons and the giving of directions by another, is to talk nonsense. It is equally fatal to an aim to permit capricious or discontinuous action in the name of spontaneous self-expression. An aim implies an orderly and ordered activity, one in which the order consists in the progressive completing of a process. Given an activity having a time span and cumulative growth within the time succession, an aim means foresight in advance of the end or possible termination. If bees anticipated the consequences of their activity, if they perceived their end in imaginative foresight, they would have the primary element in an aim. Hence it is nonsense to talk about the aim of education--or any other undertaking--where conditions do not permit of foresight of results, and do not stimulate a person to look ahead to see what the outcome of a given activity is to be. In the next place the aim as a foreseen end gives direction to the activity; it is not an idle view of a mere spectator, but influences the steps taken to reach the end. The foresight functions in three ways. In the first place, it involves careful observation of the given conditions to see what are the means available for reaching the end, and to discover the hindrances in the way. In the second place, it suggests the proper order or sequence in the use of means. It facilitates an economical selection and arrangement. In the third place, it makes choice of alternatives possible. If we can predict the outcome of acting this way or that, we can then compare the value of the two courses of action; we can pass judgment upon their relative desirability. If we know that stagnant water breeds mosquitoes and that they are likely to carry disease, we can, disliking that anticipated result, take steps to avert it. Since we do not anticipate results as mere intellectual onlookers, but as persons concerned in the outcome, we are partakers in the process which produces the result. We intervene to bring about this result or that.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00192", "bookId": 852, "start": 241230, "end": 242322, "sha256": "e2d4b842f0ff99dc3e9819e469915b630e705c20a798bcf352cac8f6425d7fdf", "text": "Of course these three points are closely connected with one another. We can definitely foresee results only as we make careful scrutiny of present conditions, and the importance of the outcome supplies the motive for observations. The more adequate our observations, the more varied is the scene of conditions and obstructions that presents itself, and the more numerous are the alternatives between which choice may be made. In turn, the more numerous the recognized possibilities of the situation, or alternatives of action, the more meaning does the chosen activity possess, and the more flexibly controllable is it. Where only a single outcome has been thought of, the mind has nothing else to think of; the meaning attaching to the act is limited. One only steams ahead toward the mark. Sometimes such a narrow course may be effective. But if unexpected difficulties offer themselves, one has not as many resources at command as if he had chosen the same line of action after a broader survey of the possibilities of the field. He cannot make needed readjustments readily.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00193", "bookId": 852, "start": 242326, "end": 243867, "sha256": "cbe8616dafbff68328c2ccf508e43373e68b932222486a920d15d6e41d88812d", "text": "The net conclusion is that acting with an aim is all one with acting intelligently. To foresee a terminus of an act is to have a basis upon which to observe, to select, and to order objects and our own capacities. To do these things means to have a mind--for mind is precisely intentional purposeful activity controlled by perception of facts and their relationships to one another. To have a mind to do a thing is to foresee a future possibility; it is to have a plan for its accomplishment; it is to note the means which make the plan capable of execution and the obstructions in the way,--or, if it is really a mind to do the thing and not a vague aspiration--it is to have a plan which takes account of resources and difficulties. Mind is capacity to refer present conditions to future results, and future consequences to present conditions. And these traits are just what is meant by having an aim or a purpose. A man is stupid or blind or unintelligent--lacking in mind--just in the degree in which in any activity he does not know what he is about, namely, the probable consequences of his acts. A man is imperfectly intelligent when he contents himself with looser guesses about the outcome than is needful, just taking a chance with his luck, or when he forms plans apart from study of the actual conditions, including his own capacities. Such relative absence of mind means to make our feelings the measure of what is to happen. To be intelligent we must \"stop, look, listen\" in making the plan of an activity.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00194", "bookId": 852, "start": 243871, "end": 244693, "sha256": "872a0ad9ffd827173b7bf78778410cc5d4a7a683a2652fadc5f10d0c948a6e09", "text": "To identify acting with an aim and intelligent activity is enough to show its value--its function in experience. We are only too given to making an entity out of the abstract noun \"consciousness.\" We forget that it comes from the adjective \"conscious.\" To be conscious is to be aware of what we are about; conscious signifies the deliberate, observant, planning traits of activity. Consciousness is nothing which we have which gazes idly on the scene around one or which has impressions made upon it by physical things; it is a name for the purposeful quality of an activity, for the fact that it is directed by an aim. Put the other way about, to have an aim is to act with meaning, not like an automatic machine; it is to mean to do something and to perceive the meaning of things in the light of that intent.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00195", "bookId": 852, "start": 244697, "end": 245802, "sha256": "65fe6c30f54402f741ef254562b5a7bee19768ed6f996c0e92add1e975fcd258", "text": "2. The Criteria of Good Aims. We may apply the results of our discussion to a consideration of the criteria involved in a correct establishing of aims. (1) The aim set up must be an outgrowth of existing conditions. It must be based upon a consideration of what is already going on; upon the resources and difficulties of the situation. Theories about the proper end of our activities--educational and moral theories--often violate this principle. They assume ends lying outside our activities; ends foreign to the concrete makeup of the situation; ends which issue from some outside source. Then the problem is to bring our activities to bear upon the realization of these externally supplied ends. They are something for which we ought to act. In any case such \"aims\" limit intelligence; they are not the expression of mind in foresight, observation, and choice of the better among alternative possibilities. They limit intelligence because, given ready-made, they must be imposed by some authority external to intelligence, leaving to the latter nothing but a mechanical choice of means.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00196", "bookId": 852, "start": 245806, "end": 247877, "sha256": "0a19296cdcc417aab7ab557b63e7159ccfdc2c256107837fba694c8eb740b657", "text": "(2) We have spoken as if aims could be completely formed prior to the attempt to realize them. This impression must now be qualified. The aim as it first emerges is a mere tentative sketch. The act of striving to realize it tests its worth. If it suffices to direct activity successfully, nothing more is required, since its whole function is to set a mark in advance; and at times a mere hint may suffice. But usually--at least in complicated situations--acting upon it brings to light conditions which had been overlooked. This calls for revision of the original aim; it has to be added to and subtracted from. An aim must, then, be flexible; it must be capable of alteration to meet circumstances. An end established externally to the process of action is always rigid. Being inserted or imposed from without, it is not supposed to have a working relationship to the concrete conditions of the situation. What happens in the course of action neither confirms, refutes, nor alters it. Such an end can only be insisted upon. The failure that results from its lack of adaptation is attributed simply to the perverseness of conditions, not to the fact that the end is not reasonable under the circumstances. The value of a legitimate aim, on the contrary, lies in the fact that we can use it to change conditions. It is a method for dealing with conditions so as to effect desirable alterations in them. A farmer who should passively accept things just as he finds them would make as great a mistake as he who framed his plans in complete disregard of what soil, climate, etc., permit. One of the evils of an abstract or remote external aim in education is that its very inapplicability in practice is likely to react into a haphazard snatching at immediate conditions. A good aim surveys the present state of experience of pupils, and forming a tentative plan of treatment, keeps the plan constantly in view and yet modifies it as conditions develop. The aim, in short, is experimental, and hence constantly growing as it is tested in action.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00197", "bookId": 852, "start": 247881, "end": 249108, "sha256": "32091ce88fd70fee9b8eb02ad43adfb27533babfd46b2ed201232493476d56e7", "text": "(3) The aim must always represent a freeing of activities. The term end in view is suggestive, for it puts before the mind the termination or conclusion of some process. The only way in which we can define an activity is by putting before ourselves the objects in which it terminates--as one's aim in shooting is the target. But we must remember that the object is only a mark or sign by which the mind specifies the activity one desires to carry out. Strictly speaking, not the target but hitting the target is the end in view; one takes aim by means of the target, but also by the sight on the gun. The different objects which are thought of are means of directing the activity. Thus one aims at, say, a rabbit; what he wants is to shoot straight: a certain kind of activity. Or, if it is the rabbit he wants, it is not rabbit apart from his activity, but as a factor in activity; he wants to eat the rabbit, or to show it as evidence of his marksmanship--he wants to do something with it. The doing with the thing, not the thing in isolation, is his end. The object is but a phase of the active end,--continuing the activity successfully. This is what is meant by the phrase, used above, \"freeing activity.\"", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00198", "bookId": 852, "start": 249112, "end": 251060, "sha256": "0b1144974e5e70c981900599e173f1d26b3dcacfcc7f6a8020108179f5392c99", "text": "In contrast with fulfilling some process in order that activity may go on, stands the static character of an end which is imposed from without the activity. It is always conceived of as fixed; it is something to be attained and possessed. When one has such a notion, activity is a mere unavoidable means to something else; it is not significant or important on its own account. As compared with the end it is but a necessary evil; something which must be gone through before one can reach the object which is alone worth while. In other words, the external idea of the aim leads to a separation of means from end, while an end which grows up within an activity as plan for its direction is always both ends and means, the distinction being only one of convenience. Every means is a temporary end until we have attained it. Every end becomes a means of carrying activity further as soon as it is achieved. We call it end when it marks off the future direction of the activity in which we are engaged; means when it marks off the present direction. Every divorce of end from means diminishes by that much the significance of the activity and tends to reduce it to a drudgery from which one would escape if he could. A farmer has to use plants and animals to carry on his farming activities. It certainly makes a great difference to his life whether he is fond of them, or whether he regards them merely as means which he has to employ to get something else in which alone he is interested. In the former case, his entire course of activity is significant; each phase of it has its own value. He has the experience of realizing his end at every stage; the postponed aim, or end in view, being merely a sight ahead by which to keep his activity going fully and freely. For if he does not look ahead, he is more likely to find himself blocked. The aim is as definitely a means of action as is any other portion of an activity.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00199", "bookId": 852, "start": 251064, "end": 252304, "sha256": "fc24108502938e90ea7782c42be6feb76c5cac8cfec2b75f57e58c9d0bcebad7", "text": "3. Applications in Education. There is nothing peculiar about educational aims. They are just like aims in any directed occupation. The educator, like the farmer, has certain things to do, certain resources with which to do, and certain obstacles with which to contend. The conditions with which the farmer deals, whether as obstacles or resources, have their own structure and operation independently of any purpose of his. Seeds sprout, rain falls, the sun shines, insects devour, blight comes, the seasons change. His aim is simply to utilize these various conditions; to make his activities and their energies work together, instead of against one another. It would be absurd if the farmer set up a purpose of farming, without any reference to these conditions of soil, climate, characteristic of plant growth, etc. His purpose is simply a foresight of the consequences of his energies connected with those of the things about him, a foresight used to direct his movements from day to day. Foresight of possible consequences leads to more careful and extensive observation of the nature and performances of the things he had to do with, and to laying out a plan--that is, of a certain order in the acts to be performed.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00200", "bookId": 852, "start": 252308, "end": 253016, "sha256": "8a4c93583a8594c5d7d23e6b51fb6ae2f4ffd59906bfbb1f1a39f70ec62bcbfc", "text": "It is the same with the educator, whether parent or teacher. It is as absurd for the latter to set up his \"own\" aims as the proper objects of the growth of the children as it would be for the farmer to set up an ideal of farming irrespective of conditions. Aims mean acceptance of responsibility for the observations, anticipations, and arrangements required in carrying on a function--whether farming or educating. Any aim is of value so far as it assists observation, choice, and planning in carrying on activity from moment to moment and hour to hour; if it gets in the way of the individual's own common sense (as it will surely do if imposed from without or accepted on authority) it does harm.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00201", "bookId": 852, "start": 253020, "end": 255707, "sha256": "3b2d798a637cba9c0f91c6d298e2af0090c8238626b159fed726b034fd6a64a1", "text": "And it is well to remind ourselves that education as such has no aims. Only persons, parents, and teachers, etc., have aims, not an abstract idea like education. And consequently their purposes are indefinitely varied, differing with different children, changing as children grow and with the growth of experience on the part of the one who teaches. Even the most valid aims which can be put in words will, as words, do more harm than good unless one recognizes that they are not aims, but rather suggestions to educators as to how to observe, how to look ahead, and how to choose in liberating and directing the energies of the concrete situations in which they find themselves. As a recent writer has said: \"To lead this boy to read Scott's novels instead of old Sleuth's stories; to teach this girl to sew; to root out the habit of bullying from John's make-up; to prepare this class to study medicine,--these are samples of the millions of aims we have actually before us in the concrete work of education.\" Bearing these qualifications in mind, we shall proceed to state some of the characteristics found in all good educational aims. (1) An educational aim must be founded upon the intrinsic activities and needs (including original instincts and acquired habits) of the given individual to be educated. The tendency of such an aim as preparation is, as we have seen, to omit existing powers, and find the aim in some remote accomplishment or responsibility. In general, there is a disposition to take considerations which are dear to the hearts of adults and set them up as ends irrespective of the capacities of those educated. There is also an inclination to propound aims which are so uniform as to neglect the specific powers and requirements of an individual, forgetting that all learning is something which happens to an individual at a given time and place. The larger range of perception of the adult is of great value in observing the abilities and weaknesses of the young, in deciding what they may amount to. Thus the artistic capacities of the adult exhibit what certain tendencies of the child are capable of; if we did not have the adult achievements we should be without assurance as to the significance of the drawing, reproducing, modeling, coloring activities of childhood. So if it were not for adult language, we should not be able to see the import of the babbling impulses of infancy. But it is one thing to use adult accomplishments as a context in which to place and survey the doings of childhood and youth; it is quite another to set them up as a fixed aim without regard to the concrete activities of those educated.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00202", "bookId": 852, "start": 255711, "end": 256539, "sha256": "a2350a8ff21766fa449fd4677b7f921307f1f8d210ec4f03630329f40c1ccd91", "text": "(2) An aim must be capable of translation into a method of cooperating with the activities of those undergoing instruction. It must suggest the kind of environment needed to liberate and to organize their capacities. Unless it lends itself to the construction of specific procedures, and unless these procedures test, correct, and amplify the aim, the latter is worthless. Instead of helping the specific task of teaching, it prevents the use of ordinary judgment in observing and sizing up the situation. It operates to exclude recognition of everything except what squares up with the fixed end in view. Every rigid aim just because it is rigidly given seems to render it unnecessary to give careful attention to concrete conditions. Since it must apply anyhow, what is the use of noting details which do not count?", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00203", "bookId": 852, "start": 256543, "end": 257676, "sha256": "aca55356ccaa3b387f6f8927b501bd20182ebf2ea89e72ecc3aa3fb5e901df4e", "text": "The vice of externally imposed ends has deep roots. Teachers receive them from superior authorities; these authorities accept them from what is current in the community. The teachers impose them upon children. As a first consequence, the intelligence of the teacher is not free; it is confined to receiving the aims laid down from above. Too rarely is the individual teacher so free from the dictation of authoritative supervisor, textbook on methods, prescribed course of study, etc., that he can let his mind come to close quarters with the pupil's mind and the subject matter. This distrust of the teacher's experience is then reflected in lack of confidence in the responses of pupils. The latter receive their aims through a double or treble external imposition, and are constantly confused by the conflict between the aims which are natural to their own experience at the time and those in which they are taught to acquiesce. Until the democratic criterion of the intrinsic significance of every growing experience is recognized, we shall be intellectually confused by the demand for adaptation to external aims.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00204", "bookId": 852, "start": 257680, "end": 259103, "sha256": "25fca3a132e6ac2362a4b7bf6c79f14d9e9e243a41f43a03bdac98ec98d721e7", "text": "(3) Educators have to be on their guard against ends that are alleged to be general and ultimate. Every activity, however specific, is, of course, general in its ramified connections, for it leads out indefinitely into other things. So far as a general idea makes us more alive to these connections, it cannot be too general. But \"general\" also means \"abstract,\" or detached from all specific context. And such abstractness means remoteness, and throws us back, once more, upon teaching and learning as mere means of getting ready for an end disconnected from the means. That education is literally and all the time its own reward means that no alleged study or discipline is educative unless it is worth while in its own immediate having. A truly general aim broadens the outlook; it stimulates one to take more consequences (connections) into account. This means a wider and more flexible observation of means. The more interacting forces, for example, the farmer takes into account, the more varied will be his immediate resources. He will see a greater number of possible starting places, and a greater number of ways of getting at what he wants to do. The fuller one's conception of possible future achievements, the less his present activity is tied down to a small number of alternatives. If one knew enough, one could start almost anywhere and sustain his activities continuously and fruitfully.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00205", "bookId": 852, "start": 259107, "end": 260506, "sha256": "651ea559767b172ae105ae24ce0c43d0cf1fe9b855217005fb48dd53e97ffa73", "text": "Understanding then the term general or comprehensive aim simply in the sense of a broad survey of the field of present activities, we shall take up some of the larger ends which have currency in the educational theories of the day, and consider what light they throw upon the immediate concrete and diversified aims which are always the educator's real concern. We premise (as indeed immediately follows from what has been said) that there is no need of making a choice among them or regarding them as competitors. When we come to act in a tangible way we have to select or choose a particular act at a particular time, but any number of comprehensive ends may exist without competition, since they mean simply different ways of looking at the same scene. One cannot climb a number of different mountains simultaneously, but the views had when different mountains are ascended supplement one another: they do not set up incompatible, competing worlds. Or, putting the matter in a slightly different way, one statement of an end may suggest certain questions and observations, and another statement another set of questions, calling for other observations. Then the more general ends we have, the better. One statement will emphasize what another slurs over. What a plurality of hypotheses does for the scientific investigator, a plurality of stated aims may do for the instructor.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00206", "bookId": 852, "start": 260510, "end": 261647, "sha256": "88a760fae2d138027b8d84c4d3e83409b24f785ff002b5f7ff51089bb373f32b", "text": "Summary. An aim denotes the result of any natural process brought to consciousness and made a factor in determining present observation and choice of ways of acting. It signifies that an activity has become intelligent. Specifically it means foresight of the alternative consequences attendant upon acting in a given situation in different ways, and the use of what is anticipated to direct observation and experiment. A true aim is thus opposed at every point to an aim which is imposed upon a process of action from without. The latter is fixed and rigid; it is not a stimulus to intelligence in the given situation, but is an externally dictated order to do such and such things. Instead of connecting directly with present activities, it is remote, divorced from the means by which it is to be reached. Instead of suggesting a freer and better balanced activity, it is a limit set to activity. In education, the currency of these externally imposed aims is responsible for the emphasis put upon the notion of preparation for a remote future and for rendering the work of both teacher and pupil mechanical and slavish.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00207", "bookId": 852, "start": 261657, "end": 261720, "sha256": "5e3ca37a41b8b5e20a1718ad5ee0c1cbd1deaafaed83b100086e79be7cc8ac40", "text": "Chapter Nine: Natural Development and Social Efficiency as Aims", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG852.B00208", "bookId": 852, "start": 261724, "end": 263111, "sha256": "a84af880f4d22179c9243384afc88e4c8dea2be7198adad4e6dd3207610628b0", "text": "1. Nature as Supplying the Aim. We have just pointed out the futility of trying to establish the aim of education--some one final aim which subordinates all others to itself. We have indicated that since general aims are but prospective points of view from which to survey the existing conditions and estimate their possibilities, we might have any number of them, all consistent with one another. As matter of fact, a large number have been stated at different times, all having great local value. For the statement of aim is a matter of emphasis at a given time. And we do not emphasize things which do not require emphasis--that is, such things as are taking care of themselves fairly well. We tend rather to frame our statement on the basis of the defects and needs of the contemporary situation; we take for granted, without explicit statement which would be of no use, whatever is right or approximately so. We frame our explicit aims in terms of some alteration to be brought about. It is, then, DO paradox requiring explanation that a given epoch or generation tends to emphasize in its conscious projections just the things which it has least of in actual fact. A time of domination by authority will call out as response the desirability of great individual freedom; one of disorganized individual activities the need of social control as an educational aim.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00209", "bookId": 852, "start": 263115, "end": 264046, "sha256": "8dbc61347a3a1b52cfeb8e31c2a6331e25a47cb661857e7feb082917538b41e0", "text": "The actual and implicit practice and the conscious or stated aim thus balance each other. At different times such aims as complete living, better methods of language study, substitution of things for words, social efficiency, personal culture, social service, complete development of personality, encyclopedic knowledge, discipline, a esthetic contemplation, utility, etc., have served. The following discussion takes up three statements of recent influence; certain others have been incidentally discussed in the previous chapters, and others will be considered later in a discussion of knowledge and of the values of studies. We begin with a consideration that education is a process of development in accordance with nature, taking Rousseau's statement, which opposed natural to social (See ante, p. 91); and then pass over to the antithetical conception of social efficiency, which often opposes social to natural.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00210", "bookId": 852, "start": 264050, "end": 264891, "sha256": "115674faaf617e08db55e134bcb667ebff4a4ae330b94dfa3f73269d40c774bc", "text": "(1) Educational reformers disgusted with the conventionality and artificiality of the scholastic methods they find about them are prone to resort to nature as a standard. Nature is supposed to furnish the law and the end of development; ours it is to follow and conform to her ways. The positive value of this conception lies in the forcible way in which it calls attention to the wrongness of aims which do not have regard to the natural endowment of those educated. Its weakness is the ease with which natural in the sense of normal is confused with the physical. The constructive use of intelligence in foresight, and contriving, is then discounted; we are just to get out of the way and allow nature to do the work. Since no one has stated in the doctrine both its truth and falsity better than Rousseau, we shall turn to him.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00211", "bookId": 852, "start": 264895, "end": 265858, "sha256": "3168b5b661be025cfd604e41e34ae4923991b0ca15f5f5e220ec3d5d0f734f84", "text": "\"Education,\" he says, \"we receive from three sources--Nature, men, and things. The spontaneous development of our organs and capacities constitutes the education of Nature. The use to which we are taught to put this development constitutes that education given us by Men. The acquirement of personal experience from surrounding objects constitutes that of things. Only when these three kinds of education are consonant and make for the same end, does a man tend towards his true goal. If we are asked what is this end, the answer is that of Nature. For since the concurrence of the three kinds of education is necessary to their completeness, the kind which is entirely independent of our control must necessarily regulate us in determining the other two.\" Then he defines Nature to mean the capacities and dispositions which are inborn, \"as they exist prior to the modification due to constraining habits and the influence of the opinion of others.\"", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00212", "bookId": 852, "start": 265862, "end": 268325, "sha256": "79d8e97108ec4d6e65ba72b0c5d485cd47505197cfed763fdc8497c1fa208366", "text": "The wording of Rousseau will repay careful study. It contains as fundamental truths as have been uttered about education in conjunction with a curious twist. It would be impossible to say better what is said in the first sentences. The three factors of educative development are (a) the native structure of our bodily organs and their functional activities; (b) the uses to which the activities of these organs are put under the influence of other persons; (c) their direct interaction with the environment. This statement certainly covers the ground. His other two propositions are equally sound; namely, (a) that only when the three factors of education are consonant and cooperative does adequate development of the individual occur, and (b) that the native activities of the organs, being original, are basic in conceiving consonance. But it requires but little reading between the lines, supplemented by other statements of Rousseau, to perceive that instead of regarding these three things as factors which must work together to some extent in order that any one of them may proceed educatively, he regards them as separate and independent operations. Especially does he believe that there is an independent and, as he says, \"spontaneous\" development of the native organs and faculties. He thinks that this development can go on irrespective of the use to which they are put. And it is to this separate development that education coming from social contact is to be subordinated. Now there is an immense difference between a use of native activities in accord with those activities themselves--as distinct from forcing them and perverting them--and supposing that they have a normal development apart from any use, which development furnishes the standard and norm of all learning by use. To recur to our previous illustration, the process of acquiring language is a practically perfect model of proper educative growth. The start is from native activities of the vocal apparatus, organs of hearing, etc. But it is absurd to suppose that these have an independent growth of their own, which left to itself would evolve a perfect speech. Taken literally, Rousseau's principle would mean that adults should accept and repeat the babblings and noises of children not merely as the beginnings of the development of articulate speech--which they are--but as furnishing language itself--the standard for all teaching of language.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00213", "bookId": 852, "start": 268329, "end": 270296, "sha256": "16a89b1f9853326cff24a33274e9ba18a313f99be8144dcaec9d8dbd7aa1e083", "text": "The point may be summarized by saying that Rousseau was right, introducing a much-needed reform into education, in holding that the structure and activities of the organs furnish the conditions of all teaching of the use of the organs; but profoundly wrong in intimating that they supply not only the conditions but also the ends of their development. As matter of fact, the native activities develop, in contrast with random and capricious exercise, through the uses to which they are put. And the office of the social medium is, as we have seen, to direct growth through putting powers to the best possible use. The instinctive activities may be called, metaphorically, spontaneous, in the sense that the organs give a strong bias for a certain sort of operation,--a bias so strong that we cannot go contrary to it, though by trying to go contrary we may pervert, stunt, and corrupt them. But the notion of a spontaneous normal development of these activities is pure mythology. The natural, or native, powers furnish the initiating and limiting forces in all education; they do not furnish its ends or aims. There is no learning except from a beginning in unlearned powers, but learning is not a matter of the spontaneous overflow of the unlearned powers. Rousseau's contrary opinion is doubtless due to the fact that he identified God with Nature; to him the original powers are wholly good, coming directly from a wise and good creator. To paraphrase the old saying about the country and the town, God made the original human organs and faculties, man makes the uses to which they are put. Consequently the development of the former furnishes the standard to which the latter must be subordinated. When men attempt to determine the uses to which the original activities shall be put, they interfere with a divine plan. The interference by social arrangements with Nature, God's work, is the primary source of corruption in individuals.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00214", "bookId": 852, "start": 270300, "end": 271056, "sha256": "7fe330223a54fb4a5a137011b76e28e869c030e332d2860d1cae03da3b60da0c", "text": "Rousseau's passionate assertion of the intrinsic goodness of all natural tendencies was a reaction against the prevalent notion of the total depravity of innate human nature, and has had a powerful influence in modifying the attitude towards children's interests. But it is hardly necessary to say that primitive impulses are of themselves neither good nor evil, but become one or the other according to the objects for which they are employed. That neglect, suppression, and premature forcing of some instincts at the expense of others, are responsible for many avoidable ills, there can be no doubt. But the moral is not to leave them alone to follow their own \"spontaneous development,\" but to provide an environment which shall organize them.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00215", "bookId": 852, "start": 271060, "end": 272108, "sha256": "f998dcf96931e484005a1fcff7fcd86001aa8f8fd56d199aaefd8a6d16ba3eeb", "text": "Returning to the elements of truth contained in Rousseau's statements, we find that natural development, as an aim, enables him to point the means of correcting many evils in current practices, and to indicate a number of desirable specific aims. (1) Natural development as an aim fixes attention upon the bodily organs and the need of health and vigor. The aim of natural development says to parents and teachers: Make health an aim; normal development cannot be had without regard to the vigor of the body--an obvious enough fact and yet one whose due recognition in practice would almost automatically revolutionize many of our educational practices. \"Nature\" is indeed a vague and metaphorical term, but one thing that \"Nature\" may be said to utter is that there are conditions of educational efficiency, and that till we have learned what these conditions are and have learned to make our practices accord with them, the noblest and most ideal of our aims are doomed to suffer--are verbal and sentimental rather than efficacious.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00216", "bookId": 852, "start": 272112, "end": 273625, "sha256": "805cf6fd23d916521057d4833e843e0ac58fea5c080ad1f85e77f4f7476dd4a7", "text": "(2) The aim of natural development translates into the aim of respect for physical mobility. In Rousseau's words: \"Children are always in motion; a sedentary life is injurious.\" When he says that \"Nature's intention is to strengthen the body before exercising the mind\" he hardly states the fact fairly. But if he had said that nature's \"intention\" (to adopt his poetical form of speech) is to develop the mind especially by exercise of the muscles of the body he would have stated a positive fact. In other words, the aim of following nature means, in the concrete, regard for the actual part played by use of the bodily organs in explorations, in handling of materials, in plays and games. (3) The general aim translates into the aim of regard for individual differences among children. Nobody can take the principle of consideration of native powers into account without being struck by the fact that these powers differ in different individuals. The difference applies not merely to their intensity, but even more to their quality and arrangement. As Rouseau said: \"Each individual is born with a distinctive temperament. We indiscriminately employ children of different bents on the same exercises; their education destroys the special bent and leaves a dull uniformity. Therefore after we have wasted our efforts in stunting the true gifts of nature we see the short-lived and illusory brilliance we have substituted die away, while the natural abilities we have crushed do not revive.\"", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00217", "bookId": 852, "start": 273629, "end": 276149, "sha256": "d38d61f26424b6abba742c69374be4f66ff05bf84eccb4b8f5e2838e8be591c3", "text": "Lastly, the aim of following nature means to note the origin, the waxing, and waning, of preferences and interests. Capacities bud and bloom irregularly; there is no even four-abreast development. We must strike while the iron is hot. Especially precious are the first dawnings of power. More than we imagine, the ways in which the tendencies of early childhood are treated fix fundamental dispositions and condition the turn taken by powers that show themselves later. Educational concern with the early years of life--as distinct from inculcation of useful arts--dates almost entirely from the time of the emphasis by Pestalozzi and Froebel, following Rousseau, of natural principles of growth. The irregularity of growth and its significance is indicated in the following passage of a student of the growth of the nervous system. \"While growth continues, things bodily and mental are lopsided, for growth is never general, but is accentuated now at one spot, now at another. The methods which shall recognize in the presence of these enormous differences of endowment the dynamic values of natural inequalities of growth, and utilize them, preferring irregularity to the rounding out gained by pruning will most closely follow that which takes place in the body and thus prove most effective.\" 1 Observation of natural tendencies is difficult under conditions of restraint. They show themselves most readily in a child's spontaneous sayings and doings,--that is, in those he engages in when not put at set tasks and when not aware of being under observation. It does not follow that these tendencies are all desirable because they are natural; but it does follow that since they are there, they are operative and must be taken account of. We must see to it that the desirable ones have an environment which keeps them active, and that their activity shall control the direction the others take and thereby induce the disuse of the latter because they lead to nothing. Many tendencies that trouble parents when they appear are likely to be transitory, and sometimes too much direct attention to them only fixes a child's attention upon them. At all events, adults too easily assume their own habits and wishes as standards, and regard all deviations of children's impulses as evils to be eliminated. That artificiality against which the conception of following nature is so largely a protest, is the outcome of attempts to force children directly into the mold of grown-up standards.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00218", "bookId": 852, "start": 276153, "end": 278960, "sha256": "5c028b260384d7902a22e1718978fb260db9226f8132d5ae15e4675ba037ced0", "text": "In conclusion, we note that the early history of the idea of following nature combined two factors which had no inherent connection with one another. Before the time of Rousseau educational reformers had been inclined to urge the importance of education by ascribing practically unlimited power to it. All the differences between peoples and between classes and persons among the same people were said to be due to differences of training, of exercise, and practice. Originally, mind, reason, understanding is, for all practical purposes, the same in all. This essential identity of mind means the essential equality of all and the possibility of bringing them all to the same level. As a protest against this view, the doctrine of accord with nature meant a much less formal and abstract view of mind and its powers. It substituted specific instincts and impulses and physiological capacities, differing from individual to individual (just as they differ, as Rousseau pointed out, even in dogs of the same litter), for abstract faculties of discernment, memory, and generalization. Upon this side, the doctrine of educative accord with nature has been reinforced by the development of modern biology, physiology, and psychology. It means, in effect, that great as is the significance of nurture, of modification, and transformation through direct educational effort, nature, or unlearned capacities, affords the foundation and ultimate resources for such nurture. On the other hand, the doctrine of following nature was a political dogma. It meant a rebellion against existing social institutions, customs, and ideals (See ante, p. 91). Rousseau's statement that everything is good as it comes from the hands of the Creator has its signification only in its contrast with the concluding part of the same sentence: \"Everything degenerates in the hands of man.\" And again he says: \"Natural man has an absolute value; he is a numerical unit, a complete integer and has no relation save to himself and to his fellow man. Civilized man is only a relative unit, the numerator of a fraction whose value depends upon its dominator, its relation to the integral body of society. Good political institutions are those which make a man unnatural.\" It is upon this conception of the artificial and harmful character of organized social life as it now exists 2 that he rested the notion that nature not merely furnishes prime forces which initiate growth but also its plan and goal. That evil institutions and customs work almost automatically to give a wrong education which the most careful schooling cannot offset is true enough; but the conclusion is not to education apart from the environment, but to provide an environment in which native powers will be put to better uses.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00219", "bookId": 852, "start": 278964, "end": 281414, "sha256": "b81bb448885ae9f585ff0df62f9e3093277e2551a6f3a06318348b2a821564bb", "text": "2. Social Efficiency as Aim. A conception which made nature supply the end of a true education and society the end of an evil one, could hardly fail to call out a protest. The opposing emphasis took the form of a doctrine that the business of education is to supply precisely what nature fails to secure; namely, habituation of an individual to social control; subordination of natural powers to social rules. It is not surprising to find that the value in the idea of social efficiency resides largely in its protest against the points at which the doctrine of natural development went astray; while its misuse comes when it is employed to slur over the truth in that conception. It is a fact that we must look to the activities and achievements of associated life to find what the development of power--that is to say, efficiency--means. The error is in implying that we must adopt measures of subordination rather than of utilization to secure efficiency. The doctrine is rendered adequate when we recognize that social efficiency is attained not by negative constraint but by positive use of native individual capacities in occupations having a social meaning. (1) Translated into specific aims, social efficiency indicates the importance of industrial competency. Persons cannot live without means of subsistence; the ways in which these means are employed and consumed have a profound influence upon all the relationships of persons to one another. If an individual is not able to earn his own living and that of the children dependent upon him, he is a drag or parasite upon the activities of others. He misses for himself one of the most educative experiences of life. If he is not trained in the right use of the products of industry, there is grave danger that he may deprave himself and injure others in his possession of wealth. No scheme of education can afford to neglect such basic considerations. Yet in the name of higher and more spiritual ideals, the arrangements for higher education have often not only neglected them, but looked at them with scorn as beneath the level of educative concern. With the change from an oligarchical to a democratic society, it is natural that the significance of an education which should have as a result ability to make one's way economically in the world, and to manage economic resources usefully instead of for mere display and luxury, should receive emphasis.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00220", "bookId": 852, "start": 281418, "end": 283038, "sha256": "b11d8eedb51db028844acf40a6b9f6e7f8745d172857f514d48d42efbab55711", "text": "There is, however, grave danger that in insisting upon this end, existing economic conditions and standards will be accepted as final. A democratic criterion requires us to develop capacity to the point of competency to choose and make its own career. This principle is violated when the attempt is made to fit individuals in advance for definite industrial callings, selected not on the basis of trained original capacities, but on that of the wealth or social status of parents. As a matter of fact, industry at the present time undergoes rapid and abrupt changes through the evolution of new inventions. New industries spring up, and old ones are revolutionized. Consequently an attempt to train for too specific a mode of efficiency defeats its own purpose. When the occupation changes its methods, such individuals are left behind with even less ability to readjust themselves than if they had a less definite training. But, most of all, the present industrial constitution of society is, like every society which has ever existed, full of inequities. It is the aim of progressive education to take part in correcting unfair privilege and unfair deprivation, not to perpetuate them. Wherever social control means subordination of individual activities to class authority, there is danger that industrial education will be dominated by acceptance of the status quo. Differences of economic opportunity then dictate what the future callings of individuals are to be. We have an unconscious revival of the defects of the Platonic scheme (ante, p. 89) without its enlightened method of selection.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00221", "bookId": 852, "start": 283042, "end": 283859, "sha256": "133f4280d716ac20ffb544cb8813f735b36fe929ba62dc8c998792e8d98834e3", "text": "(2) Civic efficiency, or good citizenship. It is, of course, arbitrary to separate industrial competency from capacity in good citizenship. But the latter term may be used to indicate a number of qualifications which are vaguer than vocational ability. These traits run from whatever make an individual a more agreeable companion to citizenship in the political sense: it denotes ability to judge men and measures wisely and to take a determining part in making as well as obeying laws. The aim of civic efficiency has at least the merit of protecting us from the notion of a training of mental power at large. It calls attention to the fact that power must be relative to doing something, and to the fact that the things which most need to be done are things which involve one's relationships with others.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00222", "bookId": 852, "start": 283863, "end": 285954, "sha256": "eb8802c0bda36d5415bb0543c259e48328f023a302131f769dfba6fc7e18c68a", "text": "Here again we have to be on guard against understanding the aim too narrowly. An over-definite interpretation would at certain periods have excluded scientific discoveries, in spite of the fact that in the last analysis security of social progress depends upon them. For scientific men would have been thought to be mere theoretical dreamers, totally lacking in social efficiency. It must be borne in mind that ultimately social efficiency means neither more nor less than capacity to share in a give and take of experience. It covers all that makes one's own experience more worth while to others, and all that enables one to participate more richly in the worthwhile experiences of others. Ability to produce and to enjoy art, capacity for recreation, the significant utilization of leisure, are more important elements in it than elements conventionally associated oftentimes with citizenship. In the broadest sense, social efficiency is nothing less than that socialization of mind which is actively concerned in making experiences more communicable; in breaking down the barriers of social stratification which make individuals impervious to the interests of others. When social efficiency is confined to the service rendered by overt acts, its chief constituent (because its only guarantee) is omitted,--intelligent sympathy or good will. For sympathy as a desirable quality is something more than mere feeling; it is a cultivated imagination for what men have in common and a rebellion at whatever unnecessarily divides them. What is sometimes called a benevolent interest in others may be but an unwitting mask for an attempt to dictate to them what their good shall be, instead of an endeavor to free them so that they may seek and find the good of their own choice. Social efficiency, even social service, are hard and metallic things when severed from an active acknowledgment of the diversity of goods which life may afford to different persons, and from faith in the social utility of encouraging every individual to make his own choice intelligent.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00223", "bookId": 852, "start": 285958, "end": 287232, "sha256": "f43aa7ef2da78da19c97f1f039d345d1c450151edcdb6317f8fdb18ed4b19ff6", "text": "3. Culture as Aim. Whether or not social efficiency is an aim which is consistent with culture turns upon these considerations. Culture means at least something cultivated, something ripened; it is opposed to the raw and crude. When the \"natural\" is identified with this rawness, culture is opposed to what is called natural development. Culture is also something personal; it is cultivation with respect to appreciation of ideas and art and broad human interests. When efficiency is identified with a narrow range of acts, instead of with the spirit and meaning of activity, culture is opposed to efficiency. Whether called culture or complete development of personality, the outcome is identical with the true meaning of social efficiency whenever attention is given to what is unique in an individual--and he would not be an individual if there were not something incommensurable about him. Its opposite is the mediocre, the average. Whenever distinctive quality is developed, distinction of personality results, and with it greater promise for a social service which goes beyond the supply in quantity of material commodities. For how can there be a society really worth serving unless it is constituted of individuals of significant personal qualities?", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00224", "bookId": 852, "start": 287236, "end": 288150, "sha256": "5c0dc90d99ce4b0aa4529d3e0a275395275d50a34b8f524bb80e6933094f8709", "text": "The fact is that the opposition of high worth of personality to social efficiency is a product of a feudally organized society with its rigid division of inferior and superior. The latter are supposed to have time and opportunity to develop themselves as human beings; the former are confined to providing external products. When social efficiency as measured by product or output is urged as an ideal in a would-be democratic society, it means that the depreciatory estimate of the masses characteristic of an aristocratic community is accepted and carried over. But if democracy has a moral and ideal meaning, it is that a social return be demanded from all and that opportunity for development of distinctive capacities be afforded all. The separation of the two aims in education is fatal to democracy; the adoption of the narrower meaning of efficiency deprives it of its essential justification.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00225", "bookId": 852, "start": 288154, "end": 289427, "sha256": "9af6303735800a3243971765bce338e8365ddcbb3747d1ad348f3ec840fce478", "text": "The aim of efficiency (like any educational aim) must be included within the process of experience. When it is measured by tangible external products, and not by the achieving of a distinctively valuable experience, it becomes materialistic. Results in the way of commodities which may be the outgrowth of an efficient personality are, in the strictest sense, by-products of education: by-products which are inevitable and important, but nevertheless by-products. To set up an external aim strengthens by reaction the false conception of culture which identifies it with something purely \"inner.\" And the idea of perfecting an \"inner\" personality is a sure sign of social divisions. What is called inner is simply that which does not connect with others--which is not capable of free and full communication. What is termed spiritual culture has usually been futile, with something rotten about it, just because it has been conceived as a thing which a man might have internally--and therefore exclusively. What one is as a person is what one is as associated with others, in a free give and take of intercourse. This transcends both the efficiency which consists in supplying products to others and the culture which is an exclusive refinement and polish.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00226", "bookId": 852, "start": 289431, "end": 290596, "sha256": "4a12ee1afbfd2a89b948df4b091ca66c7aedf018e40976da40c5afd48cbbc0e9", "text": "Any individual has missed his calling, farmer, physician, teacher, student, who does not find that the accomplishments of results of value to others is an accompaniment of a process of experience inherently worth while. Why then should it be thought that one must take his choice between sacrificing himself to doing useful things for others, or sacrificing them to pursuit of his own exclusive ends, whether the saving of his own soul or the building of an inner spiritual life and personality? What happens is that since neither of these things is persistently possible, we get a compromise and an alternation. One tries each course by turns. There is no greater tragedy than that so much of the professedly spiritual and religious thought of the world has emphasized the two ideals of self-sacrifice and spiritual self-perfecting instead of throwing its weight against this dualism of life. The dualism is too deeply established to be easily overthrown; for that reason, it is the particular task of education at the present time to struggle in behalf of an aim in which social efficiency and personal culture are synonyms instead of antagonists.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00227", "bookId": 852, "start": 290600, "end": 292460, "sha256": "c78bf203c89ef92766f6c5376de7712bc8d0b2a2794618b23a5be6e9f8be8c79", "text": "Summary. General or comprehensive aims are points of view for surveying the specific problems of education. Consequently it is a test of the value of the manner in which any large end is stated to see if it will translate readily and consistently into the procedures which are suggested by another. We have applied this test to three general aims: Development according to nature, social efficiency, and culture or personal mental enrichment. In each case we have seen that the aims when partially stated come into conflict with each other. The partial statement of natural development takes the primitive powers in an alleged spontaneous development as the end-all. From this point of view training which renders them useful to others is an abnormal constraint; one which profoundly modifies them through deliberate nurture is corrupting. But when we recognize that natural activities mean native activities which develop only through the uses in which they are nurtured, the conflict disappears. Similarly a social efficiency which is defined in terms of rendering external service to others is of necessity opposed to the aim of enriching the meaning of experience, while a culture which is taken to consist in an internal refinement of a mind is opposed to a socialized disposition. But social efficiency as an educational purpose should mean cultivation of power to join freely and fully in shared or common activities. This is impossible without culture, while it brings a reward in culture, because one cannot share in intercourse with others without learning--without getting a broader point of view and perceiving things of which one would otherwise be ignorant. And there is perhaps no better definition of culture than that it is the capacity for constantly expanding the range and accuracy of one's perception of meanings.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00228", "bookId": 852, "start": 292464, "end": 292501, "sha256": "93e4dfca0bbcbe45d045bb1df3b4dd87badbce3bf78c021f332242fc13e2b56a", "text": "1 Donaldson, Growth of Brain, p. 356.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG852.B00229", "bookId": 852, "start": 292505, "end": 292785, "sha256": "342ecdf99a833acc33f16f7e140e5110f903c122c0f847d5c2bb9709e619fbb2", "text": "2 We must not forget that Rousseau had the idea of a radically different sort of society, a fraternal society whose end should be identical with the good of all its members, which he thought to be as much better than existing states as these are worse than the state of nature.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00230", "bookId": 852, "start": 292795, "end": 292831, "sha256": "7e56bb71743a5e8067346dd4b75480c8f433209e63ae9b23692aa83d1e52d728", "text": "Chapter Ten: Interest and Discipline", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG852.B00231", "bookId": 852, "start": 292835, "end": 295841, "sha256": "a94f896d7f1e2be42f4d28ddc1941e9549b2df046f12460899825d44dad9d378", "text": "1. The Meaning of the Terms. We have already noticed the difference in the attitude of a spectator and of an agent or participant. The former is indifferent to what is going on; one result is just as good as another, since each is just something to look at. The latter is bound up with what is going on; its outcome makes a difference to him. His fortunes are more or less at stake in the issue of events. Consequently he does whatever he can to influence the direction present occurrences take. One is like a man in a prison cell watching the rain out of the window; it is all the same to him. The other is like a man who has planned an outing for the next day which continuing rain will frustrate. He cannot, to be sure, by his present reactions affect to-morrow's weather, but he may take some steps which will influence future happenings, if only to postpone the proposed picnic. If a man sees a carriage coming which may run over him, if he cannot stop its movement, he can at least get out of the way if he foresees the consequence in time. In many instances, he can intervene even more directly. The attitude of a participant in the course of affairs is thus a double one: there is solicitude, anxiety concerning future consequences, and a tendency to act to assure better, and avert worse, consequences. There are words which denote this attitude: concern, interest. These words suggest that a person is bound up with the possibilities inhering in objects; that he is accordingly on the lookout for what they are likely to do to him; and that, on the basis of his expectation or foresight, he is eager to act so as to give things one turn rather than another. Interest and aims, concern and purpose, are necessarily connected. Such words as aim, intent, end, emphasize the results which are wanted and striven for; they take for granted the personal attitude of solicitude and attentive eagerness. Such words as interest, affection, concern, motivation, emphasize the bearing of what is foreseen upon the individual's fortunes, and his active desire to act to secure a possible result. They take for granted the objective changes. But the difference is but one of emphasis; the meaning that is shaded in one set of words is illuminated in the other. What is anticipated is objective and impersonal; to-morrow's rain; the possibility of being run over. But for an active being, a being who partakes of the consequences instead of standing aloof from them, there is at the same time a personal response. The difference imaginatively foreseen makes a present difference, which finds expression in solicitude and effort. While such words as affection, concern, and motive indicate an attitude of personal preference, they are always attitudes toward objects--toward what is foreseen. We may call the phase of objective foresight intellectual, and the phase of personal concern emotional and volitional, but there is no separation in the facts of the situation.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00232", "bookId": 852, "start": 295845, "end": 296883, "sha256": "b0e54c7ed60c7147fccd1a6cc7f501819fe4ab103872532baaeeb220da37ba9f", "text": "Such a separation could exist only if the personal attitudes ran their course in a world by themselves. But they are always responses to what is going on in the situation of which they are a part, and their successful or unsuccessful expression depends upon their interaction with other changes. Life activities flourish and fail only in connection with changes of the environment. They are literally bound up with these changes; our desires, emotions, and affections are but various ways in which our doings are tied up with the doings of things and persons about us. Instead of marking a purely personal or subjective realm, separated from the objective and impersonal, they indicate the non-existence of such a separate world. They afford convincing evidence that changes in things are not alien to the activities of a self, and that the career and welfare of the self are bound up with the movement of persons and things. Interest, concern, mean that self and world are engaged with each other in a developing situation.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00233", "bookId": 852, "start": 296887, "end": 297086, "sha256": "ae65d435f2b619fad12ef4c0a88b87c5c88ed03cca72c4aa3fbcfc73baf7ce7b", "text": "The word interest, in its ordinary usage, expresses (i) the whole state of active development, (ii) the objective results that are foreseen and wanted, and (iii) the personal emotional inclination.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00234", "bookId": 852, "start": 297090, "end": 297316, "sha256": "57a32f572476284acad645bddcb53d16a756e0189aaee20045a19059fbdc9961", "text": "(I) An occupation, employment, pursuit, business is often referred to as an interest. Thus we say that a man's interest is politics, or journalism, or philanthropy, or archaeology, or collecting Japanese prints, or banking.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00235", "bookId": 852, "start": 297320, "end": 297771, "sha256": "b2a2400b3a6313f98d98bf2350a9a2d1e42da999fe1b82efc55e1a05abdbb8d7", "text": "(ii) By an interest we also mean the point at which an object touches or engages a man; the point where it influences him. In some legal transactions a man has to prove \"interest\" in order to have a standing at court. He has to show that some proposed step concerns his affairs. A silent partner has an interest in a business, although he takes no active part in its conduct because its prosperity or decline affects his profits and liabilities.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00236", "bookId": 852, "start": 297775, "end": 298228, "sha256": "137b353d155d68dfcb1b46448e77c5e7a66977a375c955e0b5d328ded7c17d2d", "text": "(iii) When we speak of a man as interested in this or that the emphasis falls directly upon his personal attitude. To be interested is to be absorbed in, wrapped up in, carried away by, some object. To take an interest is to be on the alert, to care about, to be attentive. We say of an interested person both that he has lost himself in some affair and that he has found himself in it. Both terms express the engrossment of the self in an object.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00237", "bookId": 852, "start": 298232, "end": 298964, "sha256": "09109a37484827ec6509bb4231bc3279e1f76cc2fd57326784b0d369673d3d92", "text": "When the place of interest in education is spoken of in a depreciatory way, it will be found that the second of the meanings mentioned is first exaggerated and then isolated. Interest is taken to mean merely the effect of an object upon personal advantage or disadvantage, success or failure. Separated from any objective development of affairs, these are reduced to mere personal states of pleasure or pain. Educationally, it then follows that to attach importance to interest means to attach some feature of seductiveness to material otherwise indifferent; to secure attention and effort by offering a bribe of pleasure. This procedure is properly stigmatized as \"soft\" pedagogy; as a \"soup-kitchen\" theory of education.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00238", "bookId": 852, "start": 298968, "end": 299774, "sha256": "db591c2f7ac6a481bc3b57b8958ce485049b0be981c46fd54fbcfb578419a7a1", "text": "But the objection is based upon the fact--or assumption--that the forms of skill to be acquired and the subject matter to be appropriated have no interest on their own account: in other words, they are supposed to be irrelevant to the normal activities of the pupils. The remedy is not in finding fault with the doctrine of interest, any more than it is to search for some pleasant bait that may be hitched to the alien material. It is to discover objects and modes of action, which are connected with present powers. The function of this material in engaging activity and carrying it on consistently and continuously is its interest. If the material operates in this way, there is no call either to hunt for devices which will make it interesting or to appeal to arbitrary, semi-coerced effort.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00239", "bookId": 852, "start": 299778, "end": 300588, "sha256": "2e8c0247e240c2edbc5439cfa2177ac99fcef8e960d6c2a13b9c6174d9fb1ce6", "text": "The word interest suggests, etymologically, what is between,--that which connects two things otherwise distant. In education, the distance covered may be looked at as temporal. The fact that a process takes time to mature is so obvious a fact that we rarely make it explicit. We overlook the fact that in growth there is ground to be covered between an initial stage of process and the completing period; that there is something intervening. In learning, the present powers of the pupil are the initial stage; the aim of the teacher represents the remote limit. Between the two lie means--that is middle conditions:--acts to be performed; difficulties to be overcome; appliances to be used. Only through them, in the literal time sense, will the initial activities reach a satisfactory consummation.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00240", "bookId": 852, "start": 300592, "end": 301347, "sha256": "149d1473d07df92910ac64e3c5ab5ec7e6b24b4a30ece95eb4520d16c08ac20f", "text": "These intermediate conditions are of interest precisely because the development of existing activities into the foreseen and desired end depends upon them. To be means for the achieving of present tendencies, to be \"between\" the agent and his end, to be of interest, are different names for the same thing. When material has to be made interesting, it signifies that as presented, it lacks connection with purposes and present power: or that if the connection be there, it is not perceived. To make it interesting by leading one to realize the connection that exists is simply good sense; to make it interesting by extraneous and artificial inducements deserves all the bad names which have been applied to the doctrine of interest in education.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00241", "bookId": 852, "start": 301351, "end": 302084, "sha256": "f9a6e8c39b7b79fa8d32ac750b807c3fa72cf9e146266062b841092f846a6278", "text": "So much for the meaning of the term interest. Now for that of discipline. Where an activity takes time, where many means and obstacles lie between its initiation and completion, deliberation and persistence are required. It is obvious that a very large part of the everyday meaning of will is precisely the deliberate or conscious disposition to persist and endure in a planned course of action in spite of difficulties and contrary solicitations. A man of strong will, in the popular usage of the words, is a man who is neither fickle nor half-hearted in achieving chosen ends. His ability is executive; that is, he persistently and energetically strives to execute or carry out his aims. A weak will is unstable as water.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00242", "bookId": 852, "start": 302088, "end": 302248, "sha256": "555e2c463d0782c32f977d4ea4c17f13a0e619ec68be0619f25b0f609bb64081", "text": "Clearly there are two factors in will. One has to do with the foresight of results, the other with the depth of hold the foreseen outcome has upon the person.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00243", "bookId": 852, "start": 302252, "end": 303696, "sha256": "697e6fe312120e8a3f3f7efa23739dd20822203559a2e9d45841fb1ee44e4cff", "text": "(I) Obstinacy is persistence but it is not strength of volition. Obstinacy may be mere animal inertia and insensitiveness. A man keeps on doing a thing just because he has got started, not because of any clearly thought-out purpose. In fact, the obstinate man generally declines (although he may not be quite aware of his refusal) to make clear to himself what his proposed end is; he has a feeling that if he allowed himself to get a clear and full idea of it, it might not be worth while. Stubbornness shows itself even more in reluctance to criticize ends which present themselves than it does in persistence and energy in use of means to achieve the end. The really executive man is a man who ponders his ends, who makes his ideas of the results of his actions as clear and full as possible. The people we called weak-willed or self-indulgent always deceive themselves as to the consequences of their acts. They pick out some feature which is agreeable and neglect all attendant circumstances. When they begin to act, the disagreeable results they ignored begin to show themselves. They are discouraged, or complain of being thwarted in their good purpose by a hard fate, and shift to some other line of action. That the primary difference between strong and feeble volition is intellectual, consisting in the degree of persistent firmness and fullness with which consequences are thought out, cannot be over-emphasized.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00244", "bookId": 852, "start": 303700, "end": 304448, "sha256": "f17ceb55a632489eb4239538734b875c029704ab007ad49352e7343c00996cdf", "text": "(ii) There is, of course, such a thing as a speculative tracing out of results. Ends are then foreseen, but they do not lay deep hold of a person. They are something to look at and for curiosity to play with rather than something to achieve. There is no such thing as over-intellectuality, but there is such a thing as a one-sided intellectuality. A person \"takes it out\" as we say in considering the consequences of proposed lines of action. A certain flabbiness of fiber prevents the contemplated object from gripping him and engaging him in action. And most persons are naturally diverted from a proposed course of action by unusual, unforeseen obstacles, or by presentation of inducements to an action that is directly more agreeable.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00245", "bookId": 852, "start": 304452, "end": 305345, "sha256": "7d1508d80c276ab961731b3d898e69ac02bfeebd5b59e5a5452c8a011b11782e", "text": "A person who is trained to consider his actions, to undertake them deliberately, is in so far forth disciplined. Add to this ability a power to endure in an intelligently chosen course in face of distraction, confusion, and difficulty, and you have the essence of discipline. Discipline means power at command; mastery of the resources available for carrying through the action undertaken. To know what one is to do and to move to do it promptly and by use of the requisite means is to be disciplined, whether we are thinking of an army or a mind. Discipline is positive. To cow the spirit, to subdue inclination, to compel obedience, to mortify the flesh, to make a subordinate perform an uncongenial task--these things are or are not disciplinary according as they do or do not tend to the development of power to recognize what one is about and to persistence in accomplishment.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00246", "bookId": 852, "start": 305349, "end": 305448, "sha256": "7b809ce0e62eff4a6b8fd2bd8357050df08446c6ae34b5f7cda0466e8f89833b", "text": "It is hardly necessary to press the point that interest and discipline are connected, not opposed.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG852.B00247", "bookId": 852, "start": 305452, "end": 306520, "sha256": "2d5398ab0c3912882753f1ea4dd6b0ac660850490574960c747f48385e2ecf02", "text": "(i) Even the more purely intellectual phase of trained power--apprehension of what one is doing as exhibited in consequences--is not possible without interest. Deliberation will be perfunctory and superficial where there is no interest. Parents and teachers often complain--and correctly--that children \"do not want to hear, or want to understand.\" Their minds are not upon the subject precisely because it does not touch them; it does not enter into their concerns. This is a state of things that needs to be remedied, but the remedy is not in the use of methods which increase indifference and aversion. Even punishing a child for inattention is one way of trying to make him realize that the matter is not a thing of complete unconcern; it is one way of arousing \"interest,\" or bringing about a sense of connection. In the long run, its value is measured by whether it supplies a mere physical excitation to act in the way desired by the adult or whether it leads the child \"to think\"--that is, to reflect upon his acts and impregnate them with aims.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00248", "bookId": 852, "start": 306524, "end": 307059, "sha256": "de1183348e97bcc176b4308f63139334ddf9a04c9832befe8bd70e5ced2758b4", "text": "(ii) That interest is requisite for executive persistence is even more obvious. Employers do not advertise for workmen who are not interested in what they are doing. If one were engaging a lawyer or a doctor, it would never occur to one to reason that the person engaged would stick to his work more conscientiously if it was so uncongenial to him that he did it merely from a sense of obligation. Interest measures--or rather is--the depth of the grip which the foreseen end has upon one, moving one to act for its realization.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00249", "bookId": 852, "start": 307063, "end": 308838, "sha256": "d5f54d8a5cf15d8377efa81fe6bda4ccafd741f6b9a59bd8a2dcbc763feba860", "text": "2. The Importance of the Idea of Interest in Education. Interest represents the moving force of objects--whether perceived or presented in imagination--in any experience having a purpose. In the concrete, the value of recognizing the dynamic place of interest in an educative development is that it leads to considering individual children in their specific capabilities, needs, and preferences. One who recognizes the importance of interest will not assume that all minds work in the same way because they happen to have the same teacher and textbook. Attitudes and methods of approach and response vary with the specific appeal the same material makes, this appeal itself varying with difference of natural aptitude, of past experience, of plan of life, and so on. But the facts of interest also supply considerations of general value to the philosophy of education. Rightly understood, they put us on our guard against certain conceptions of mind and of subject matter which have had great vogue in philosophic thought in the past, and which exercise a serious hampering influence upon the conduct of instruction and discipline. Too frequently mind is set over the world of things and facts to be known; it is regarded as something existing in isolation, with mental states and operations that exist independently. Knowledge is then regarded as an external application of purely mental existences to the things to be known, or else as a result of the impressions which this outside subject matter makes on mind, or as a combination of the two. Subject matter is then regarded as something complete in itself; it is just something to be learned or known, either by the voluntary application of mind to it or through the impressions it makes on mind.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00250", "bookId": 852, "start": 308842, "end": 310925, "sha256": "10ea499ed7fac7cc282d5e831a892815d69038ead8b76f31e1363690127638a0", "text": "The facts of interest show that these conceptions are mythical. Mind appears in experience as ability to respond to present stimuli on the basis of anticipation of future possible consequences, and with a view to controlling the kind of consequences that are to take place. The things, the subject matter known, consist of whatever is recognized as having a bearing upon the anticipated course of events, whether assisting or retarding it. These statements are too formal to be very intelligible. An illustration may clear up their significance. You are engaged in a certain occupation, say writing with a typewriter. If you are an expert, your formed habits take care of the physical movements and leave your thoughts free to consider your topic. Suppose, however, you are not skilled, or that, even if you are, the machine does not work well. You then have to use intelligence. You do not wish to strike the keys at random and let the consequences be what they may; you wish to record certain words in a given order so as to make sense. You attend to the keys, to what you have written, to your movements, to the ribbon or the mechanism of the machine. Your attention is not distributed indifferently and miscellaneously to any and every detail. It is centered upon whatever has a bearing upon the effective pursuit of your occupation. Your look is ahead, and you are concerned to note the existing facts because and in so far as they are factors in the achievement of the result intended. You have to find out what your resources are, what conditions are at command, and what the difficulties and obstacles are. This foresight and this survey with reference to what is foreseen constitute mind. Action that does not involve such a forecast of results and such an examination of means and hindrances is either a matter of habit or else it is blind. In neither case is it intelligent. To be vague and uncertain as to what is intended and careless in observation of conditions of its realization is to be, in that degree, stupid or partially intelligent.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00251", "bookId": 852, "start": 310929, "end": 311945, "sha256": "9a3dc230a6eaed3351b2785f3b11bbaab7fbae95ed4a23216dec42daf3a7ea17", "text": "If we recur to the case where mind is not concerned with the physical manipulation of the instruments but with what one intends to write, the case is the same. There is an activity in process; one is taken up with the development of a theme. Unless one writes as a phonograph talks, this means intelligence; namely, alertness in foreseeing the various conclusions to which present data and considerations are tending, together with continually renewed observation and recollection to get hold of the subject matter which bears upon the conclusions to be reached. The whole attitude is one of concern with what is to be, and with what is so far as the latter enters into the movement toward the end. Leave out the direction which depends upon foresight of possible future results, and there is no intelligence in present behavior. Let there be imaginative forecast but no attention to the conditions upon which its attainment depends, and there is self-deception or idle dreaming--abortive intelligence.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00252", "bookId": 852, "start": 311949, "end": 312968, "sha256": "70babf5eab0cb09d047502fa2db34f5a462e75fbeaf00ddb7301b6f3dd10b51c", "text": "If this illustration is typical, mind is not a name for something complete by itself; it is a name for a course of action in so far as that is intelligently directed; in so far, that is to say, as aims, ends, enter into it, with selection of means to further the attainment of aims. Intelligence is not a peculiar possession which a person owns; but a person is intelligent in so far as the activities in which he plays a part have the qualities mentioned. Nor are the activities in which a person engages, whether intelligently or not, exclusive properties of himself; they are something in which he engages and partakes. Other things, the independent changes of other things and persons, cooperate and hinder. The individual's act may be initial in a course of events, but the outcome depends upon the interaction of his response with energies supplied by other agencies. Conceive mind as anything but one factor partaking along with others in the production of consequences, and it becomes meaningless.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00253", "bookId": 852, "start": 312972, "end": 314160, "sha256": "0c15db4013dc2d8fcac006871b4b3b2fb9741e14f7d754fae4a1a558fba1509f", "text": "The problem of instruction is thus that of finding material which will engage a person in specific activities having an aim or purpose of moment or interest to him, and dealing with things not as gymnastic appliances but as conditions for the attainment of ends. The remedy for the evils attending the doctrine of formal discipline previously spoken of, is not to be found by substituting a doctrine of specialized disciplines, but by reforming the notion of mind and its training. Discovery of typical modes of activity, whether play or useful occupations, in which individuals are concerned, in whose outcome they recognize they have something at stake, and which cannot be carried through without reflection and use of judgment to select material of observation and recollection, is the remedy. In short, the root of the error long prevalent in the conception of training of mind consists in leaving out of account movements of things to future results in which an individual shares, and in the direction of which observation, imagination, and memory are enlisted. It consists in regarding mind as complete in itself, ready to be directly applied to a present material.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00254", "bookId": 852, "start": 314164, "end": 317031, "sha256": "c90642fa2e7261f4edf70fc3fb8ed3eed8d82a543981e5779c4af9eb54dca531", "text": "In historic practice the error has cut two ways. On one hand, it has screened and protected traditional studies and methods of teaching from intelligent criticism and needed revisions. To say that they are \"disciplinary\" has safeguarded them from all inquiry. It has not been enough to show that they were of no use in life or that they did not really contribute to the cultivation of the self. That they were \"disciplinary\" stifled every question, subdued every doubt, and removed the subject from the realm of rational discussion. By its nature, the allegation could not be checked up. Even when discipline did not accrue as matter of fact, when the pupil even grew in laxity of application and lost power of intelligent self-direction, the fault lay with him, not with the study or the methods of teaching. His failure was but proof that he needed more discipline, and thus afforded a reason for retaining the old methods. The responsibility was transferred from the educator to the pupil because the material did not have to meet specific tests; it did not have to be shown that it fulfilled any particular need or served any specific end. It was designed to discipline in general, and if it failed, it was because the individual was unwilling to be disciplined. In the other direction, the tendency was towards a negative conception of discipline, instead of an identification of it with growth in constructive power of achievement. As we have already seen, will means an attitude toward the future, toward the production of possible consequences, an attitude involving effort to foresee clearly and comprehensively the probable results of ways of acting, and an active identification with some anticipated consequences. Identification of will, or effort, with mere strain, results when a mind is set up, endowed with powers that are only to be applied to existing material. A person just either will or will not apply himself to the matter in hand. The more indifferent the subject matter, the less concern it has for the habits and preferences of the individual, the more demand there is for an effort to bring the mind to bear upon it--and hence the more discipline of will. To attend to material because there is something to be done in which the person is concerned is not disciplinary in this view; not even if it results in a desirable increase of constructive power. Application just for the sake of application, for the sake of training, is alone disciplinary. This is more likely to occur if the subject matter presented is uncongenial, for then there is no motive (so it is supposed) except the acknowledgment of duty or the value of discipline. The logical result is expressed with literal truth in the words of an American humorist: \"It makes no difference what you teach a boy so long as he doesn't like it.\"", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00255", "bookId": 852, "start": 317035, "end": 317937, "sha256": "2fc5389471754dc645a6aac0d0d011589fbe227566c47371d9bedab252c39f3b", "text": "The counterpart of the isolation of mind from activities dealing with objects to accomplish ends is isolation of the subject matter to be learned. In the traditional schemes of education, subject matter means so much material to be studied. Various branches of study represent so many independent branches, each having its principles of arrangement complete within itself. History is one such group of facts; algebra another; geography another, and so on till we have run through the entire curriculum. Having a ready-made existence on their own account, their relation to mind is exhausted in what they furnish it to acquire. This idea corresponds to the conventional practice in which the program of school work, for the day, month, and successive years, consists of \"studies\" all marked off from one another, and each supposed to be complete by itself--for educational purposes at least.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00256", "bookId": 852, "start": 317941, "end": 319513, "sha256": "30a8316de2a31333e343b0d511446b8dd1292c56a57925ce931e0d2b3535dff4", "text": "Later on a chapter is devoted to the special consideration of the meaning of the subject matter of instruction. At this point, we need only to say that, in contrast with the traditional theory, anything which intelligence studies represents things in the part which they play in the carrying forward of active lines of interest. Just as one \"studies\" his typewriter as part of the operation of putting it to use to effect results, so with any fact or truth. It becomes an object of study--that is, of inquiry and reflection--when it figures as a factor to be reckoned with in the completion of a course of events in which one is engaged and by whose outcome one is affected. Numbers are not objects of study just because they are numbers already constituting a branch of learning called mathematics, but because they represent qualities and relations of the world in which our action goes on, because they are factors upon which the accomplishment of our purposes depends. Stated thus broadly, the formula may appear abstract. Translated into details, it means that the act of learning or studying is artificial and ineffective in the degree in which pupils are merely presented with a lesson to be learned. Study is effectual in the degree in which the pupil realizes the place of the numerical truth he is dealing with in carrying to fruition activities in which he is concerned. This connection of an object and a topic with the promotion of an activity having a purpose is the first and the last word of a genuine theory of interest in education.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00257", "bookId": 852, "start": 319517, "end": 322073, "sha256": "389c10152c454a1b98ea7649a81bce7fe9164026b9e2b1322fab241772c69c6a", "text": "3. Some Social Aspects of the Question. While the theoretical errors of which we have been speaking have their expressions in the conduct of schools, they are themselves the outcome of conditions of social life. A change confined to the theoretical conviction of educators will not remove the difficulties, though it should render more effective efforts to modify social conditions. Men's fundamental attitudes toward the world are fixed by the scope and qualities of the activities in which they partake. The ideal of interest is exemplified in the artistic attitude. Art is neither merely internal nor merely external; merely mental nor merely physical. Like every mode of action, it brings about changes in the world. The changes made by some actions (those which by contrast may be called mechanical) are external; they are shifting things about. No ideal reward, no enrichment of emotion and intellect, accompanies them. Others contribute to the maintenance of life, and to its external adornment and display. Many of our existing social activities, industrial and political, fall in these two classes. Neither the people who engage in them, nor those who are directly affected by them, are capable of full and free interest in their work. Because of the lack of any purpose in the work for the one doing it, or because of the restricted character of its aim, intelligence is not adequately engaged. The same conditions force many people back upon themselves. They take refuge in an inner play of sentiment and fancies. They are aesthetic but not artistic, since their feelings and ideas are turned upon themselves, instead of being methods in acts which modify conditions. Their mental life is sentimental; an enjoyment of an inner landscape. Even the pursuit of science may become an asylum of refuge from the hard conditions of life--not a temporary retreat for the sake of recuperation and clarification in future dealings with the world. The very word art may become associated not with specific transformation of things, making them more significant for mind, but with stimulations of eccentric fancy and with emotional indulgences. The separation and mutual contempt of the \"practical\" man and the man of theory or culture, the divorce of fine and industrial arts, are indications of this situation. Thus interest and mind are either narrowed, or else made perverse. Compare what was said in an earlier chapter about the one-sided meanings which have come to attach to the ideas of efficiency and of culture.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00258", "bookId": 852, "start": 322077, "end": 323007, "sha256": "d23f4d60f5bc5eb435f8c3412b21cfabe8423036826fbd2283ac0025953dff23", "text": "This state of affairs must exist so far as society is organized on a basis of division between laboring classes and leisure classes. The intelligence of those who do things becomes hard in the unremitting struggle with things; that of those freed from the discipline of occupation becomes luxurious and effeminate. Moreover, the majority of human beings still lack economic freedom. Their pursuits are fixed by accident and necessity of circumstance; they are not the normal expression of their own powers interacting with the needs and resources of the environment. Our economic conditions still relegate many men to a servile status. As a consequence, the intelligence of those in control of the practical situation is not liberal. Instead of playing freely upon the subjugation of the world for human ends, it is devoted to the manipulation of other men for ends that are non-human in so far as they are exclusive.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00259", "bookId": 852, "start": 323011, "end": 325405, "sha256": "d965814545ba049401a7e383f69775866b3df72323d651344b87d4f6760d27cf", "text": "This state of affairs explains many things in our historic educational traditions. It throws light upon the clash of aims manifested in different portions of the school system; the narrowly utilitarian character of most elementary education, and the narrowly disciplinary or cultural character of most higher education. It accounts for the tendency to isolate intellectual matters till knowledge is scholastic, academic, and professionally technical, and for the widespread conviction that liberal education is opposed to the requirements of an education which shall count in the vocations of life. But it also helps define the peculiar problem of present education. The school cannot immediately escape from the ideals set by prior social conditions. But it should contribute through the type of intellectual and emotional disposition which it forms to the improvement of those conditions. And just here the true conceptions of interest and discipline are full of significance. Persons whose interests have been enlarged and intelligence trained by dealing with things and facts in active occupations having a purpose (whether in play or work) will be those most likely to escape the alternatives of an academic and aloof knowledge and a hard, narrow, and merely \"practical\" practice. To organize education so that natural active tendencies shall be fully enlisted in doing something, while seeing to it that the doing requires observation, the acquisition of information, and the use of a constructive imagination, is what most needs to be done to improve social conditions. To oscillate between drill exercises that strive to attain efficiency in outward doing without the use of intelligence, and an accumulation of knowledge that is supposed to be an ultimate end in itself, means that education accepts the present social conditions as final, and thereby takes upon itself the responsibility for perpetuating them. A reorganization of education so that learning takes place in connection with the intelligent carrying forward of purposeful activities is a slow work. It can only be accomplished piecemeal, a step at a time. But this is not a reason for nominally accepting one educational philosophy and accommodating ourselves in practice to another. It is a challenge to undertake the task of reorganization courageously and to keep at it persistently.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00260", "bookId": 852, "start": 325409, "end": 327286, "sha256": "1e08ee3ac42ae186bc907bf99e8c2ba261c5c1a9170a656ef5d1e7d18b2cb362", "text": "Summary. Interest and discipline are correlative aspects of activity having an aim. Interest means that one is identified with the objects which define the activity and which furnish the means and obstacles to its realization. Any activity with an aim implies a distinction between an earlier incomplete phase and later completing phase; it implies also intermediate steps. To have an interest is to take things as entering into such a continuously developing situation, instead of taking them in isolation. The time difference between the given incomplete state of affairs and the desired fulfillment exacts effort in transformation, it demands continuity of attention and endurance. This attitude is what is practically meant by will. Discipline or development of power of continuous attention is its fruit. The significance of this doctrine for the theory of education is twofold. On the one hand it protects us from the notion that mind and mental states are something complete in themselves, which then happen to be applied to some ready-made objects and topics so that knowledge results. It shows that mind and intelligent or purposeful engagement in a course of action into which things enter are identical. Hence to develop and train mind is to provide an environment which induces such activity. On the other side, it protects us from the notion that subject matter on its side is something isolated and independent. It shows that subject matter of learning is identical with all the objects, ideas, and principles which enter as resources or obstacles into the continuous intentional pursuit of a course of action. The developing course of action, whose end and conditions are perceived, is the unity which holds together what are often divided into an independent mind on one side and an independent world of objects and facts on the other.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00261", "bookId": 852, "start": 327296, "end": 327335, "sha256": "9525ac22f55f673cc3930e086d5c5dd3cd5e84918a8ab4f37b42c9b9851d0f78", "text": "Chapter Eleven: Experience and Thinking", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG852.B00262", "bookId": 852, "start": 327339, "end": 329918, "sha256": "2e24f9f6af113ac62cc599d36d78312c731f49f650d7bae2094a39d3aaccd2a6", "text": "1. The Nature of Experience. The nature of experience can be understood only by noting that it includes an active and a passive element peculiarly combined. On the active hand, experience is trying--a meaning which is made explicit in the connected term experiment. On the passive, it is undergoing. When we experience something we act upon it, we do something with it; then we suffer or undergo the consequences. We do something to the thing and then it does something to us in return: such is the peculiar combination. The connection of these two phases of experience measures the fruitfulness or value of the experience. Mere activity does not constitute experience. It is dispersive, centrifugal, dissipating. Experience as trying involves change, but change is meaningless transition unless it is consciously connected with the return wave of consequences which flow from it. When an activity is continued into the undergoing of consequences, when the change made by action is reflected back into a change made in us, the mere flux is loaded with significance. We learn something. It is not experience when a child merely sticks his finger into a flame; it is experience when the movement is connected with the pain which he undergoes in consequence. Henceforth the sticking of the finger into flame means a burn. Being burned is a mere physical change, like the burning of a stick of wood, if it is not perceived as a consequence of some other action. Blind and capricious impulses hurry us on heedlessly from one thing to another. So far as this happens, everything is writ in water. There is none of that cumulative growth which makes an experience in any vital sense of that term. On the other hand, many things happen to us in the way of pleasure and pain which we do not connect with any prior activity of our own. They are mere accidents so far as we are concerned. There is no before or after to such experience; no retrospect nor outlook, and consequently no meaning. We get nothing which may be carried over to foresee what is likely to happen next, and no gain in ability to adjust ourselves to what is coming--no added control. Only by courtesy can such an experience be called experience. To \"learn from experience\" is to make a backward and forward connection between what we do to things and what we enjoy or suffer from things in consequence. Under such conditions, doing becomes a trying; an experiment with the world to find out what it is like; the undergoing becomes instruction--discovery of the connection of things.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00263", "bookId": 852, "start": 329922, "end": 331088, "sha256": "82db73c134d1af7f5009068f7d5924763a0c73d322befcc586e37938242cb728", "text": "Two conclusions important for education follow. (1) Experience is primarily an active-passive affair; it is not primarily cognitive. But (2) the measure of the value of an experience lies in the perception of relationships or continuities to which it leads up. It includes cognition in the degree in which it is cumulative or amounts to something, or has meaning. In schools, those under instruction are too customarily looked upon as acquiring knowledge as theoretical spectators, minds which appropriate knowledge by direct energy of intellect. The very word pupil has almost come to mean one who is engaged not in having fruitful experiences but in absorbing knowledge directly. Something which is called mind or consciousness is severed from the physical organs of activity. The former is then thought to be purely intellectual and cognitive; the latter to be an irrelevant and intruding physical factor. The intimate union of activity and undergoing its consequences which leads to recognition of meaning is broken; instead we have two fragments: mere bodily action on one side, and meaning directly grasped by \"spiritual\" activity on the other.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00264", "bookId": 852, "start": 331092, "end": 332370, "sha256": "ccd1023306a18f91406b53142df4b55a8521bfe30b98e0e073a5c2188624fa68", "text": "It would be impossible to state adequately the evil results which have flowed from this dualism of mind and body, much less to exaggerate them. Some of the more striking effects, may, however, be enumerated. (a) In part bodily activity becomes an intruder. Having nothing, so it is thought, to do with mental activity, it becomes a distraction, an evil to be contended with. For the pupil has a body, and brings it to school along with his mind. And the body is, of necessity, a wellspring of energy; it has to do something. But its activities, not being utilized in occupation with things which yield significant results, have to be frowned upon. They lead the pupil away from the lesson with which his \"mind\" ought to be occupied; they are sources of mischief. The chief source of the \"problem of discipline\" in schools is that the teacher has often to spend the larger part of the time in suppressing the bodily activities which take the mind away from its material. A premium is put on physical quietude; on silence, on rigid uniformity of posture and movement; upon a machine-like simulation of the attitudes of intelligent interest. The teachers' business is to hold the pupils up to these requirements and to punish the inevitable deviations which occur.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00265", "bookId": 852, "start": 332374, "end": 333529, "sha256": "9ba9b370bd2cab4cb70f92342b5e4f8f27466d36c2843e95065ddb5ea2ed286e", "text": "The nervous strain and fatigue which result with both teacher and pupil are a necessary consequence of the abnormality of the situation in which bodily activity is divorced from the perception of meaning. Callous indifference and explosions from strain alternate. The neglected body, having no organized fruitful channels of activity, breaks forth, without knowing why or how, into meaningless boisterousness, or settles into equally meaningless fooling--both very different from the normal play of children. Physically active children become restless and unruly; the more quiescent, so-called conscientious ones spend what energy they have in the negative task of keeping their instincts and active tendencies suppressed, instead of in a positive one of constructive planning and execution; they are thus educated not into responsibility for the significant and graceful use of bodily powers, but into an enforced duty not to give them free play. It may be seriously asserted that a chief cause for the remarkable achievements of Greek education was that it was never misled by false notions into an attempted separation of mind and body.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00266", "bookId": 852, "start": 333533, "end": 334621, "sha256": "ac8f9b5e7c6529e8792234fd3ce3c1a1b720f27a38ee88c49677c0764c7e60c9", "text": "(b) Even, however, with respect to the lessons which have to be learned by the application of \"mind,\" some bodily activities have to be used. The senses--especially the eye and ear--have to be employed to take in what the book, the map, the blackboard, and the teacher say. The lips and vocal organs, and the hands, have to be used to reproduce in speech and writing what has been stowed away. The senses are then regarded as a kind of mysterious conduit through which information is conducted from the external world into the mind; they are spoken of as gateways and avenues of knowledge. To keep the eyes on the book and the ears open to the teacher's words is a mysterious source of intellectual grace. Moreover, reading, writing, and figuring--important school arts--demand muscular or motor training. The muscles of eye, hand, and vocal organs accordingly have to be trained to act as pipes for carrying knowledge back out of the mind into external action. For it happens that using the muscles repeatedly in the same way fixes in them an automatic tendency to repeat.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00267", "bookId": 852, "start": 334625, "end": 336820, "sha256": "4c545451a08705bab5a4a59299b00b3966c9e379e983fe0bfe7bd555fe55df6f", "text": "The obvious result is a mechanical use of the bodily activities which (in spite of the generally obtrusive and interfering character of the body in mental action) have to be employed more or less. For the senses and muscles are used not as organic participants in having an instructive experience, but as external inlets and outlets of mind. Before the child goes to school, he learns with his hand, eye, and ear, because they are organs of the process of doing something from which meaning results. The boy flying a kite has to keep his eye on the kite, and has to note the various pressures of the string on his hand. His senses are avenues of knowledge not because external facts are somehow \"conveyed\" to the brain, but because they are used in doing something with a purpose. The qualities of seen and touched things have a bearing on what is done, and are alertly perceived; they have a meaning. But when pupils are expected to use their eyes to note the form of words, irrespective of their meaning, in order to reproduce them in spelling or reading, the resulting training is simply of isolated sense organs and muscles. It is such isolation of an act from a purpose which makes it mechanical. It is customary for teachers to urge children to read with expression, so as to bring out the meaning. But if they originally learned the sensory-motor technique of reading--the ability to identify forms and to reproduce the sounds they stand for--by methods which did not call for attention to meaning, a mechanical habit was established which makes it difficult to read subsequently with intelligence. The vocal organs have been trained to go their own way automatically in isolation; and meaning cannot be tied on at will. Drawing, singing, and writing may be taught in the same mechanical way; for, we repeat, any way is mechanical which narrows down the bodily activity so that a separation of body from mind--that is, from recognition of meaning--is set up. Mathematics, even in its higher branches, when undue emphasis is put upon the technique of calculation, and science, when laboratory exercises are given for their own sake, suffer from the same evil.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00268", "bookId": 852, "start": 336824, "end": 338434, "sha256": "ecdf0ad0448a93ef5d6c98ba192b1f237b0f84832db904a36ceb163f7bb56b93", "text": "(c) On the intellectual side, the separation of \"mind\" from direct occupation with things throws emphasis on things at the expense of relations or connections. It is altogether too common to separate perceptions and even ideas from judgments. The latter are thought to come after the former in order to compare them. It is alleged that the mind perceives things apart from relations; that it forms ideas of them in isolation from their connections--with what goes before and comes after. Then judgment or thought is called upon to combine the separated items of \"knowledge\" so that their resemblance or causal connection shall be brought out. As matter of fact, every perception and every idea is a sense of the bearings, use, and cause, of a thing. We do not really know a chair or have an idea of it by inventorying and enumerating its various isolated qualities, but only by bringing these qualities into connection with something else--the purpose which makes it a chair and not a table; or its difference from the kind of chair we are accustomed to, or the \"period\" which it represents, and so on. A wagon is not perceived when all its parts are summed up; it is the characteristic connection of the parts which makes it a wagon. And these connections are not those of mere physical juxtaposition; they involve connection with the animals that draw it, the things that are carried on it, and so on. Judgment is employed in the perception; otherwise the perception is mere sensory excitation or else a recognition of the result of a prior judgment, as in the case of familiar objects.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00269", "bookId": 852, "start": 338438, "end": 340671, "sha256": "6d4eb91c2456ebe9175b755ef824323f3129a1f4ce23b4efee2c10bf0cd13bf8", "text": "Words, the counters for ideals, are, however, easily taken for ideas. And in just the degree in which mental activity is separated from active concern with the world, from doing something and connecting the doing with what is undergone, words, symbols, come to take the place of ideas. The substitution is the more subtle because some meaning is recognized. But we are very easily trained to be content with a minimum of meaning, and to fail to note how restricted is our perception of the relations which confer significance. We get so thoroughly used to a kind of pseudo-idea, a half perception, that we are not aware how half-dead our mental action is, and how much keener and more extensive our observations and ideas would be if we formed them under conditions of a vital experience which required us to use judgment: to hunt for the connections of the thing dealt with. There is no difference of opinion as to the theory of the matter. All authorities agree that that discernment of relationships is the genuinely intellectual matter; hence, the educative matter. The failure arises in supposing that relationships can become perceptible without experience--without that conjoint trying and undergoing of which we have spoken. It is assumed that \"mind\" can grasp them if it will only give attention, and that this attention may be given at will irrespective of the situation. Hence the deluge of half-observations, of verbal ideas, and unassimilated \"knowledge\" which afflicts the world. An ounce of experience is better than a ton of theory simply because it is only in experience that any theory has vital and verifiable significance. An experience, a very humble experience, is capable of generating and carrying any amount of theory (or intellectual content), but a theory apart from an experience cannot be definitely grasped even as theory. It tends to become a mere verbal formula, a set of catchwords used to render thinking, or genuine theorizing, unnecessary and impossible. Because of our education we use words, thinking they are ideas, to dispose of questions, the disposal being in reality simply such an obscuring of perception as prevents us from seeing any longer the difficulty.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00270", "bookId": 852, "start": 340675, "end": 342545, "sha256": "e1ddf04ad2035d1f008c0d4e523ab80361caf54a5328463e2ebdaaf364138beb", "text": "2. Reflection in Experience. Thought or reflection, as we have already seen virtually if not explicitly, is the discernment of the relation between what we try to do and what happens in consequence. No experience having a meaning is possible without some element of thought. But we may contrast two types of experience according to the proportion of reflection found in them. All our experiences have a phase of \"cut and try\" in them--what psychologists call the method of trial and error. We simply do something, and when it fails, we do something else, and keep on trying till we hit upon something which works, and then we adopt that method as a rule of thumb measure in subsequent procedure. Some experiences have very little else in them than this hit and miss or succeed process. We see that a certain way of acting and a certain consequence are connected, but we do not see how they are. We do not see the details of the connection; the links are missing. Our discernment is very gross. In other cases we push our observation farther. We analyze to see just what lies between so as to bind together cause and effect, activity and consequence. This extension of our insight makes foresight more accurate and comprehensive. The action which rests simply upon the trial and error method is at the mercy of circumstances; they may change so that the act performed does not operate in the way it was expected to. But if we know in detail upon what the result depends, we can look to see whether the required conditions are there. The method extends our practical control. For if some of the conditions are missing, we may, if we know what the needed antecedents for an effect are, set to work to supply them; or, if they are such as to produce undesirable effects as well, we may eliminate some of the superfluous causes and economize effort.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00271", "bookId": 852, "start": 342549, "end": 343498, "sha256": "aafa73ef54f455e9755d0eef8d3e238d818f89ab364396e7e8779ecb27677a29", "text": "In discovery of the detailed connections of our activities and what happens in consequence, the thought implied in cut and try experience is made explicit. Its quantity increases so that its proportionate value is very different. Hence the quality of the experience changes; the change is so significant that we may call this type of experience reflective--that is, reflective par excellence. The deliberate cultivation of this phase of thought constitutes thinking as a distinctive experience. Thinking, in other words, is the intentional endeavor to discover specific connections between something which we do and the consequences which result, so that the two become continuous. Their isolation, and consequently their purely arbitrary going together, is canceled; a unified developing situation takes its place. The occurrence is now understood; it is explained; it is reasonable, as we say, that the thing should happen as it does.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00272", "bookId": 852, "start": 343502, "end": 344993, "sha256": "c00fea804eb564a1e7222a19e71f85a1154846a18f8d2704dc4857709ccc4247", "text": "Thinking is thus equivalent to an explicit rendering of the intelligent element in our experience. It makes it possible to act with an end in view. It is the condition of our having aims. As soon as an infant begins to expect he begins to use something which is now going on as a sign of something to follow; he is, in however simple a fashion, judging. For he takes one thing as evidence of something else, and so recognizes a relationship. Any future development, however elaborate it may be, is only an extending and a refining of this simple act of inference. All that the wisest man can do is to observe what is going on more widely and more minutely and then select more carefully from what is noted just those factors which point to something to happen. The opposites, once more, to thoughtful action are routine and capricious behavior. The former accepts what has been customary as a full measure of possibility and omits to take into account the connections of the particular things done. The latter makes the momentary act a measure of value, and ignores the connections of our personal action with the energies of the environment. It says, virtually, \"things are to be just as I happen to like them at this instant,\" as routine says in effect \"let things continue just as I have found them in the past.\" Both refuse to acknowledge responsibility for the future consequences which flow from present action. Reflection is the acceptance of such responsibility.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00273", "bookId": 852, "start": 344997, "end": 348825, "sha256": "3bfc62fc6fc9f3efd8fe7e940b0b53329ae4e35e504f935cac9ea349d034b21c", "text": "The starting point of any process of thinking is something going on, something which just as it stands is incomplete or unfulfilled. Its point, its meaning lies literally in what it is going to be, in how it is going to turn out. As this is written, the world is filled with the clang of contending armies. For an active participant in the war, it is clear that the momentous thing is the issue, the future consequences, of this and that happening. He is identified, for the time at least, with the issue; his fate hangs upon the course things are taking. But even for an onlooker in a neutral country, the significance of every move made, of every advance here and retreat there, lies in what it portends. To think upon the news as it comes to us is to attempt to see what is indicated as probable or possible regarding an outcome. To fill our heads, like a scrapbook, with this and that item as a finished and done-for thing, is not to think. It is to turn ourselves into a piece of registering apparatus. To consider the bearing of the occurrence upon what may be, but is not yet, is to think. Nor will the reflective experience be different in kind if we substitute distance in time for separation in space. Imagine the war done with, and a future historian giving an account of it. The episode is, by assumption, past. But he cannot give a thoughtful account of the war save as he preserves the time sequence; the meaning of each occurrence, as he deals with it, lies in what was future for it, though not for the historian. To take it by itself as a complete existence is to take it unreflectively. Reflection also implies concern with the issue--a certain sympathetic identification of our own destiny, if only dramatic, with the outcome of the course of events. For the general in the war, or a common soldier, or a citizen of one of the contending nations, the stimulus to thinking is direct and urgent. For neutrals, it is indirect and dependent upon imagination. But the flagrant partisanship of human nature is evidence of the intensity of the tendency to identify ourselves with one possible course of events, and to reject the other as foreign. If we cannot take sides in overt action, and throw in our little weight to help determine the final balance, we take sides emotionally and imaginatively. We desire this or that outcome. One wholly indifferent to the outcome does not follow or think about what is happening at all. From this dependence of the act of thinking upon a sense of sharing in the consequences of what goes on, flows one of the chief paradoxes of thought. Born in partiality, in order to accomplish its tasks it must achieve a certain detached impartiality. The general who allows his hopes and desires to affect his observations and interpretations of the existing situation will surely make a mistake in calculation. While hopes and fears may be the chief motive for a thoughtful following of the war on the part of an onlooker in a neutral country, he too will think ineffectively in the degree in which his preferences modify the stuff of his observations and reasonings. There is, however, no incompatibility between the fact that the occasion of reflection lies in a personal sharing in what is going on and the fact that the value of the reflection lies upon keeping one's self out of the data. The almost insurmountable difficulty of achieving this detachment is evidence that thinking originates in situations where the course of thinking is an actual part of the course of events and is designed to influence the result. Only gradually and with a widening of the area of vision through a growth of social sympathies does thinking develop to include what lies beyond our direct interests: a fact of great significance for education.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00274", "bookId": 852, "start": 348829, "end": 349883, "sha256": "8d47dfb461f88219d92c484f9788afa7d549a49ddbff69aefe1c431451b9306b", "text": "To say that thinking occurs with reference to situations which are still going on, and incomplete, is to say that thinking occurs when things are uncertain or doubtful or problematic. Only what is finished, completed, is wholly assured. Where there is reflection there is suspense. The object of thinking is to help reach a conclusion, to project a possible termination on the basis of what is already given. Certain other facts about thinking accompany this feature. Since the situation in which thinking occurs is a doubtful one, thinking is a process of inquiry, of looking into things, of investigating. Acquiring is always secondary, and instrumental to the act of inquiring. It is seeking, a quest, for something that is not at hand. We sometimes talk as if \"original research\" were a peculiar prerogative of scientists or at least of advanced students. But all thinking is research, and all research is native, original, with him who carries it on, even if everybody else in the world already is sure of what he is still looking for.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00275", "bookId": 852, "start": 349887, "end": 354580, "sha256": "58d82bf03bf95a4b923b2e8e8948a7227443b98306c07154a58fe6a9be5535e9", "text": "It also follows that all thinking involves a risk. Certainty cannot be guaranteed in advance. The invasion of the unknown is of the nature of an adventure; we cannot be sure in advance. The conclusions of thinking, till confirmed by the event, are, accordingly, more or less tentative or hypothetical. Their dogmatic assertion as final is unwarranted, short of the issue, in fact. The Greeks acutely raised the question: How can we learn? For either we know already what we are after, or else we do not know. In neither case is learning possible; on the first alternative because we know already; on the second, because we do not know what to look for, nor if, by chance, we find it can we tell that it is what we were after. The dilemma makes no provision for coming to know, for learning; it assumes either complete knowledge or complete ignorance. Nevertheless the twilight zone of inquiry, of thinking, exists. The possibility of hypothetical conclusions, of tentative results, is the fact which the Greek dilemma overlooked. The perplexities of the situation suggest certain ways out. We try these ways, and either push our way out, in which case we know we have found what we were looking for, or the situation gets darker and more confused--in which case, we know we are still ignorant. Tentative means trying out, feeling one's way along provisionally. Taken by itself, the Greek argument is a nice piece of formal logic. But it is also true that as long as men kept a sharp disjunction between knowledge and ignorance, science made only slow and accidental advance. Systematic advance in invention and discovery began when men recognized that they could utilize doubt for purposes of inquiry by forming conjectures to guide action in tentative explorations, whose development would confirm, refute, or modify the guiding conjecture. While the Greeks made knowledge more than learning, modern science makes conserved knowledge only a means to learning, to discovery. To recur to our illustration. A commanding general cannot base his actions upon either absolute certainty or absolute ignorance. He has a certain amount of information at hand which is, we will assume, reasonably trustworthy. He then infers certain prospective movements, thus assigning meaning to the bare facts of the given situation. His inference is more or less dubious and hypothetical. But he acts upon it. He develops a plan of procedure, a method of dealing with the situation. The consequences which directly follow from his acting this way rather than that test and reveal the worth of his reflections. What he already knows functions and has value in what he learns. But will this account apply in the case of the one in a neutral country who is thoughtfully following as best he can the progress of events? In form, yes, though not of course in content. It is self-evident that his guesses about the future indicated by present facts, guesses by which he attempts to supply meaning to a multitude of disconnected data, cannot be the basis of a method which shall take effect in the campaign. That is not his problem. But in the degree in which he is actively thinking, and not merely passively following the course of events, his tentative inferences will take effect in a method of procedure appropriate to his situation. He will anticipate certain future moves, and will be on the alert to see whether they happen or not. In the degree in which he is intellectually concerned, or thoughtful, he will be actively on the lookout; he will take steps which although they do not affect the campaign, modify in some degree his subsequent actions. Otherwise his later \"I told you so\" has no intellectual quality at all; it does not mark any testing or verification of prior thinking, but only a coincidence that yields emotional satisfaction--and includes a large factor of self-deception. The case is comparable to that of an astronomer who from given data has been led to foresee (infer) a future eclipse. No matter how great the mathematical probability, the inference is hypothetical--a matter of probability. 1 The hypothesis as to the date and position of the anticipated eclipse becomes the material of forming a method of future conduct. Apparatus is arranged; possibly an expedition is made to some far part of the globe. In any case, some active steps are taken which actually change some physical conditions. And apart from such steps and the consequent modification of the situation, there is no completion of the act of thinking. It remains suspended. Knowledge, already attained knowledge, controls thinking and makes it fruitful.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00276", "bookId": 852, "start": 354584, "end": 356187, "sha256": "e16a89a277b9bf49219d5ae01ef0d06b37b7d8d6a4e7f272667140227aa2fa4a", "text": "So much for the general features of a reflective experience. They are (i) perplexity, confusion, doubt, due to the fact that one is implicated in an incomplete situation whose full character is not yet determined; (ii) a conjectural anticipation--a tentative interpretation of the given elements, attributing to them a tendency to effect certain consequences; (iii) a careful survey (examination, inspection, exploration, analysis) of all attainable consideration which will define and clarify the problem in hand; (iv) a consequent elaboration of the tentative hypothesis to make it more precise and more consistent, because squaring with a wider range of facts; (v) taking one stand upon the projected hypothesis as a plan of action which is applied to the existing state of affairs: doing something overtly to bring about the anticipated result, and thereby testing the hypothesis. It is the extent and accuracy of steps three and four which mark off a distinctive reflective experience from one on the trial and error plane. They make thinking itself into an experience. Nevertheless, we never get wholly beyond the trial and error situation. Our most elaborate and rationally consistent thought has to be tried in the world and thereby tried out. And since it can never take into account all the connections, it can never cover with perfect accuracy all the consequences. Yet a thoughtful survey of conditions is so careful, and the guessing at results so controlled, that we have a right to mark off the reflective experience from the grosser trial and error forms of action.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00277", "bookId": 852, "start": 356191, "end": 358113, "sha256": "0fd9f1cf25c7f1ee261c5f4fc3c94154253727801aa0a6f5d4a22af1b113e364", "text": "Summary. In determining the place of thinking in experience we first noted that experience involves a connection of doing or trying with something which is undergone in consequence. A separation of the active doing phase from the passive undergoing phase destroys the vital meaning of an experience. Thinking is the accurate and deliberate instituting of connections between what is done and its consequences. It notes not only that they are connected, but the details of the connection. It makes connecting links explicit in the form of relationships. The stimulus to thinking is found when we wish to determine the significance of some act, performed or to be performed. Then we anticipate consequences. This implies that the situation as it stands is, either in fact or to us, incomplete and hence indeterminate. The projection of consequences means a proposed or tentative solution. To perfect this hypothesis, existing conditions have to be carefully scrutinized and the implications of the hypothesis developed--an operation called reasoning. Then the suggested solution--the idea or theory--has to be tested by acting upon it. If it brings about certain consequences, certain determinate changes, in the world, it is accepted as valid. Otherwise it is modified, and another trial made. Thinking includes all of these steps,--the sense of a problem, the observation of conditions, the formation and rational elaboration of a suggested conclusion, and the active experimental testing. While all thinking results in knowledge, ultimately the value of knowledge is subordinate to its use in thinking. For we live not in a settled and finished world, but in one which is going on, and where our main task is prospective, and where retrospect--and all knowledge as distinct from thought is retrospect--is of value in the solidity, security, and fertility it affords our dealings with the future.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00278", "bookId": 852, "start": 358117, "end": 358357, "sha256": "1f29e69845ec255945068ecfee308512cbe7c8cfe60a0d5b5fbef40e497273a0", "text": "1 It is most important for the practice of science that men in many cases can calculate the degree of probability and the amount of probable error involved, but that does alter the features of the situation as described. It refines them.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00279", "bookId": 852, "start": 358367, "end": 358404, "sha256": "45c6859b865862390dfbb0a46e743454f4fbf5de3f82cabcd7c59832fe69fcfd", "text": "Chapter Twelve: Thinking in Education", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG852.B00280", "bookId": 852, "start": 358408, "end": 360397, "sha256": "5a2c3738793abe774d9634b21a00c6c9500418a4569bc3ca943911e5e64e95fe", "text": "1. The Essentials of Method. No one doubts, theoretically, the importance of fostering in school good habits of thinking. But apart from the fact that the acknowledgment is not so great in practice as in theory, there is not adequate theoretical recognition that all which the school can or need do for pupils, so far as their minds are concerned (that is, leaving out certain specialized muscular abilities), is to develop their ability to think. The parceling out of instruction among various ends such as acquisition of skill (in reading, spelling, writing, drawing, reciting); acquiring information (in history and geography), and training of thinking is a measure of the ineffective way in which we accomplish all three. Thinking which is not connected with increase of efficiency in action, and with learning more about ourselves and the world in which we live, has something the matter with it just as thought (See ante, p. 147). And skill obtained apart from thinking is not connected with any sense of the purposes for which it is to be used. It consequently leaves a man at the mercy of his routine habits and of the authoritative control of others, who know what they are about and who are not especially scrupulous as to their means of achievement. And information severed from thoughtful action is dead, a mind-crushing load. Since it simulates knowledge and thereby develops the poison of conceit, it is a most powerful obstacle to further growth in the grace of intelligence. The sole direct path to enduring improvement in the methods of instruction and learning consists in centering upon the conditions which exact, promote, and test thinking. Thinking is the method of intelligent learning, of learning that employs and rewards mind. We speak, legitimately enough, about the method of thinking, but the important thing to bear in mind about method is that thinking is method, the method of intelligent experience in the course which it takes.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00281", "bookId": 852, "start": 360401, "end": 361349, "sha256": "e5b8c6a4c982e9719f0e5886f49c767ef8526019118acd93cee0267836ac59ca", "text": "I. The initial stage of that developing experience which is called thinking is experience. This remark may sound like a silly truism. It ought to be one; but unfortunately it is not. On the contrary, thinking is often regarded both in philosophic theory and in educational practice as something cut off from experience, and capable of being cultivated in isolation. In fact, the inherent limitations of experience are often urged as the sufficient ground for attention to thinking. Experience is then thought to be confined to the senses and appetites; to a mere material world, while thinking proceeds from a higher faculty (of reason), and is occupied with spiritual or at least literary things. So, oftentimes, a sharp distinction is made between pure mathematics as a peculiarly fit subject matter of thought (since it has nothing to do with physical existences) and applied mathematics, which has utilitarian but not mental value.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00282", "bookId": 852, "start": 361353, "end": 362819, "sha256": "e1e4c02795a7713726746bf086b379af3c0bad1f457f08749028d52d26fed966", "text": "Speaking generally, the fundamental fallacy in methods of instruction lies in supposing that experience on the part of pupils may be assumed. What is here insisted upon is the necessity of an actual empirical situation as the initiating phase of thought. Experience is here taken as previously defined: trying to do something and having the thing perceptibly do something to one in return. The fallacy consists in supposing that we can begin with ready-made subject matter of arithmetic, or geography, or whatever, irrespective of some direct personal experience of a situation. Even the kindergarten and Montessori techniques are so anxious to get at intellectual distinctions, without \"waste of time,\" that they tend to ignore--or reduce--the immediate crude handling of the familiar material of experience, and to introduce pupils at once to material which expresses the intellectual distinctions which adults have made. But the first stage of contact with any new material, at whatever age of maturity, must inevitably be of the trial and error sort. An individual must actually try, in play or work, to do something with material in carrying out his own impulsive activity, and then note the interaction of his energy and that of the material employed. This is what happens when a child at first begins to build with blocks, and it is equally what happens when a scientific man in his laboratory begins to experiment with unfamiliar objects.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00283", "bookId": 852, "start": 362823, "end": 363754, "sha256": "ff0b6b629cb8fb9aba8b8692562493f9ab57bd0b36f3e1bb5ee211e69221e5f4", "text": "Hence the first approach to any subject in school, if thought is to be aroused and not words acquired, should be as unscholastic as possible. To realize what an experience, or empirical situation, means, we have to call to mind the sort of situation that presents itself outside of school; the sort of occupations that interest and engage activity in ordinary life. And careful inspection of methods which are permanently successful in formal education, whether in arithmetic or learning to read, or studying geography, or learning physics or a foreign language, will reveal that they depend for their efficiency upon the fact that they go back to the type of the situation which causes reflection out of school in ordinary life. They give the pupils something to do, not something to learn; and the doing is of such a nature as to demand thinking, or the intentional noting of connections; learning naturally results.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00284", "bookId": 852, "start": 363758, "end": 364465, "sha256": "8ae5e45caf428d7d70545d8054838d51d033938fc7a3715ceb50ec401a257ce5", "text": "That the situation should be of such a nature as to arouse thinking means of course that it should suggest something to do which is not either routine or capricious--something, in other words, presenting what is new (and hence uncertain or problematic) and yet sufficiently connected with existing habits to call out an effective response. An effective response means one which accomplishes a perceptible result, in distinction from a purely haphazard activity, where the consequences cannot be mentally connected with what is done. The most significant question which can be asked, accordingly, about any situation or experience proposed to induce learning is what quality of problem it involves.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00285", "bookId": 852, "start": 364469, "end": 367667, "sha256": "8deb9e55c32f985b2e880293af9e91d92f62a44d253c8f12fd6b74263a0bdae7", "text": "At first thought, it might seem as if usual school methods measured well up to the standard here set. The giving of problems, the putting of questions, the assigning of tasks, the magnifying of difficulties, is a large part of school work. But it is indispensable to discriminate between genuine and simulated or mock problems. The following questions may aid in making such discrimination. (a) Is there anything but a problem? Does the question naturally suggest itself within some situation or personal experience? Or is it an aloof thing, a problem only for the purposes of conveying instruction in some school topic? Is it the sort of trying that would arouse observation and engage experimentation outside of school? (b) Is it the pupil's own problem, or is it the teacher's or textbook's problem, made a problem for the pupil only because he cannot get the required mark or be promoted or win the teacher's approval, unless he deals with it? Obviously, these two questions overlap. They are two ways of getting at the same point: Is the experience a personal thing of such a nature as inherently to stimulate and direct observation of the connections involved, and to lead to inference and its testing? Or is it imposed from without, and is the pupil's problem simply to meet the external requirement? Such questions may give us pause in deciding upon the extent to which current practices are adapted to develop reflective habits. The physical equipment and arrangements of the average schoolroom are hostile to the existence of real situations of experience. What is there similar to the conditions of everyday life which will generate difficulties? Almost everything testifies to the great premium put upon listening, reading, and the reproduction of what is told and read. It is hardly possible to overstate the contrast between such conditions and the situations of active contact with things and persons in the home, on the playground, in fulfilling of ordinary responsibilities of life. Much of it is not even comparable with the questions which may arise in the mind of a boy or girl in conversing with others or in reading books outside of the school. No one has ever explained why children are so full of questions outside of the school (so that they pester grown-up persons if they get any encouragement), and the conspicuous absence of display of curiosity about the subject matter of school lessons. Reflection on this striking contrast will throw light upon the question of how far customary school conditions supply a context of experience in which problems naturally suggest themselves. No amount of improvement in the personal technique of the instructor will wholly remedy this state of things. There must be more actual material, more stuff, more appliances, and more opportunities for doing things, before the gap can be overcome. And where children are engaged in doing things and in discussing what arises in the course of their doing, it is found, even with comparatively indifferent modes of instruction, that children's inquiries are spontaneous and numerous, and the proposals of solution advanced, varied, and ingenious.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00286", "bookId": 852, "start": 367671, "end": 369372, "sha256": "c50638c1a37b6132e489372b558a1c0307817304262bd8e40e0d6c9f166856b1", "text": "As a consequence of the absence of the materials and occupations which generate real problems, the pupil's problems are not his; or, rather, they are his only as a pupil, not as a human being. Hence the lamentable waste in carrying over such expertness as is achieved in dealing with them to the affairs of life beyond the schoolroom. A pupil has a problem, but it is the problem of meeting the peculiar requirements set by the teacher. His problem becomes that of finding out what the teacher wants, what will satisfy the teacher in recitation and examination and outward deportment. Relationship to subject matter is no longer direct. The occasions and material of thought are not found in the arithmetic or the history or geography itself, but in skillfully adapting that material to the teacher's requirements. The pupil studies, but unconsciously to himself the objects of his study are the conventions and standards of the school system and school authority, not the nominal \"studies.\" The thinking thus evoked is artificially one-sided at the best. At its worst, the problem of the pupil is not how to meet the requirements of school life, but how to seem to meet them--or, how to come near enough to meeting them to slide along without an undue amount of friction. The type of judgment formed by these devices is not a desirable addition to character. If these statements give too highly colored a picture of usual school methods, the exaggeration may at least serve to illustrate the point: the need of active pursuits, involving the use of material to accomplish purposes, if there are to be situations which normally generate problems occasioning thoughtful inquiry.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00287", "bookId": 852, "start": 369376, "end": 370552, "sha256": "a76a79c5a08fca1a0930689e449311649b0c55b6e6895989b867d9f87fb9c188", "text": "II. There must be data at command to supply the considerations required in dealing with the specific difficulty which has presented itself. Teachers following a \"developing\" method sometimes tell children to think things out for themselves as if they could spin them out of their own heads. The material of thinking is not thoughts, but actions, facts, events, and the relations of things. In other words, to think effectively one must have had, or now have, experiences which will furnish him resources for coping with the difficulty at hand. A difficulty is an indispensable stimulus to thinking, but not all difficulties call out thinking. Sometimes they overwhelm and submerge and discourage. The perplexing situation must be sufficiently like situations which have already been dealt with so that pupils will have some control of the meanings of handling it. A large part of the art of instruction lies in making the difficulty of new problems large enough to challenge thought, and small enough so that, in addition to the confusion naturally attending the novel elements, there shall be luminous familiar spots from which helpful suggestions may spring.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00288", "bookId": 852, "start": 370556, "end": 372381, "sha256": "95098c30a9f7af33af9258fa578b66fd8c26acb05e9376fc366892b3ee050e6b", "text": "In one sense, it is a matter of indifference by what psychological means the subject matter for reflection is provided. Memory, observation, reading, communication, are all avenues for supplying data. The relative proportion to be obtained from each is a matter of the specific features of the particular problem in hand. It is foolish to insist upon observation of objects presented to the senses if the student is so familiar with the objects that he could just as well recall the facts independently. It is possible to induce undue and crippling dependence upon sense-presentations. No one can carry around with him a museum of all the things whose properties will assist the conduct of thought. A well-trained mind is one that has a maximum of resources behind it, so to speak, and that is accustomed to go over its past experiences to see what they yield. On the other hand, a quality or relation of even a familiar object may previously have been passed over, and be just the fact that is helpful in dealing with the question. In this case direct observation is called for. The same principle applies to the use to be made of observation on one hand and of reading and \"telling\" on the other. Direct observation is naturally more vivid and vital. But it has its limitations; and in any case it is a necessary part of education that one should acquire the ability to supplement the narrowness of his immediately personal experiences by utilizing the experiences of others. Excessive reliance upon others for data (whether got from reading or listening) is to be depreciated. Most objectionable of all is the probability that others, the book or the teacher, will supply solutions ready-made, instead of giving material that the student has to adapt and apply to the question in hand for himself.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00289", "bookId": 852, "start": 372385, "end": 373729, "sha256": "34027385b4b0b90bf437c2481f2bec9e0f78a8e83fca759fad96903a884b717d", "text": "There is no inconsistency in saying that in schools there is usually both too much and too little information supplied by others. The accumulation and acquisition of information for purposes of reproduction in recitation and examination is made too much of. \"Knowledge,\" in the sense of information, means the working capital, the indispensable resources, of further inquiry; of finding out, or learning, more things. Frequently it is treated as an end itself, and then the goal becomes to heap it up and display it when called for. This static, cold-storage ideal of knowledge is inimical to educative development. It not only lets occasions for thinking go unused, but it swamps thinking. No one could construct a house on ground cluttered with miscellaneous junk. Pupils who have stored their \"minds\" with all kinds of material which they have never put to intellectual uses are sure to be hampered when they try to think. They have no practice in selecting what is appropriate, and no criterion to go by; everything is on the same dead static level. On the other hand, it is quite open to question whether, if information actually functioned in experience through use in application to the student's own purposes, there would not be need of more varied resources in books, pictures, and talks than are usually at command.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00290", "bookId": 852, "start": 373733, "end": 374569, "sha256": "61455a317179194d51d8ab3fbe0f4601996187bc15b77851b6b540ab9920cee3", "text": "III. The correlate in thinking of facts, data, knowledge already acquired, is suggestions, inferences, conjectured meanings, suppositions, tentative explanations:--ideas, in short. Careful observation and recollection determine what is given, what is already there, and hence assured. They cannot furnish what is lacking. They define, clarify, and locate the question; they cannot supply its answer. Projection, invention, ingenuity, devising come in for that purpose. The data arouse suggestions, and only by reference to the specific data can we pass upon the appropriateness of the suggestions. But the suggestions run beyond what is, as yet, actually given in experience. They forecast possible results, things to do, not facts (things already done). Inference is always an invasion of the unknown, a leap from the known.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00291", "bookId": 852, "start": 374573, "end": 375714, "sha256": "c6b0482a5f5c25683d5c58994ea3fef61ff7c5835b76665aec4b6a35478aff0d", "text": "In this sense, a thought (what a thing suggests but is not as it is presented) is creative,--an incursion into the novel. It involves some inventiveness. What is suggested must, indeed, be familiar in some context; the novelty, the inventive devising, clings to the new light in which it is seen, the different use to which it is put. When Newton thought of his theory of gravitation, the creative aspect of his thought was not found in its materials. They were familiar; many of them commonplaces--sun, moon, planets, weight, distance, mass, square of numbers. These were not original ideas; they were established facts. His originality lay in the use to which these familiar acquaintances were put by introduction into an unfamiliar context. The same is true of every striking scientific discovery, every great invention, every admirable artistic production. Only silly folk identify creative originality with the extraordinary and fanciful; others recognize that its measure lies in putting everyday things to uses which had not occurred to others. The operation is novel, not the materials out of which it is constructed.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00292", "bookId": 852, "start": 375718, "end": 379889, "sha256": "0536bfb2fd65439b13b29f51035fb179c6df5770aaa28b4eab7ae923f1c052f9", "text": "The educational conclusion which follows is that all thinking is original in a projection of considerations which have not been previously apprehended. The child of three who discovers what can be done with blocks, or of six who finds out what he can make by putting five cents and five cents together, is really a discoverer, even though everybody else in the world knows it. There is a genuine increment of experience; not another item mechanically added on, but enrichment by a new quality. The charm which the spontaneity of little children has for sympathetic observers is due to perception of this intellectual originality. The joy which children themselves experience is the joy of intellectual constructiveness--of creativeness, if the word may be used without misunderstanding. The educational moral I am chiefly concerned to draw is not, however, that teachers would find their own work less of a grind and strain if school conditions favored learning in the sense of discovery and not in that of storing away what others pour into them; nor that it would be possible to give even children and youth the delights of personal intellectual productiveness--true and important as are these things. It is that no thought, no idea, can possibly be conveyed as an idea from one person to another. When it is told, it is, to the one to whom it is told, another given fact, not an idea. The communication may stimulate the other person to realize the question for himself and to think out a like idea, or it may smother his intellectual interest and suppress his dawning effort at thought. But what he directly gets cannot be an idea. Only by wrestling with the conditions of the problem at first hand, seeking and finding his own way out, does he think. When the parent or teacher has provided the conditions which stimulate thinking and has taken a sympathetic attitude toward the activities of the learner by entering into a common or conjoint experience, all has been done which a second party can do to instigate learning. The rest lies with the one directly concerned. If he cannot devise his own solution (not of course in isolation, but in correspondence with the teacher and other pupils) and find his own way out he will not learn, not even if he can recite some correct answer with one hundred per cent accuracy. We can and do supply ready-made \"ideas\" by the thousand; we do not usually take much pains to see that the one learning engages in significant situations where his own activities generate, support, and clinch ideas--that is, perceived meanings or connections. This does not mean that the teacher is to stand off and look on; the alternative to furnishing ready-made subject matter and listening to the accuracy with which it is reproduced is not quiescence, but participation, sharing, in an activity. In such shared activity, the teacher is a learner, and the learner is, without knowing it, a teacher--and upon the whole, the less consciousness there is, on either side, of either giving or receiving instruction, the better. IV. Ideas, as we have seen, whether they be humble guesses or dignified theories, are anticipations of possible solutions. They are anticipations of some continuity or connection of an activity and a consequence which has not as yet shown itself. They are therefore tested by the operation of acting upon them. They are to guide and organize further observations, recollections, and experiments. They are intermediate in learning, not final. All educational reformers, as we have had occasion to remark, are given to attacking the passivity of traditional education. They have opposed pouring in from without, and absorbing like a sponge; they have attacked drilling in material as into hard and resisting rock. But it is not easy to secure conditions which will make the getting of an idea identical with having an experience which widens and makes more precise our contact with the environment. Activity, even self-activity, is too easily thought of as something merely mental, cooped up within the head, or finding expression only through the vocal organs.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00293", "bookId": 852, "start": 379893, "end": 381252, "sha256": "dd7e0352760a31d72316320dd0da158774abc1d69eb57ee1db0faa60050ab9e3", "text": "While the need of application of ideas gained in study is acknowledged by all the more successful methods of instruction, the exercises in application are sometimes treated as devices for fixing what has already been learned and for getting greater practical skill in its manipulation. These results are genuine and not to be despised. But practice in applying what has been gained in study ought primarily to have an intellectual quality. As we have already seen, thoughts just as thoughts are incomplete. At best they are tentative; they are suggestions, indications. They are standpoints and methods for dealing with situations of experience. Till they are applied in these situations they lack full point and reality. Only application tests them, and only testing confers full meaning and a sense of their reality. Short of use made of them, they tend to segregate into a peculiar world of their own. It may be seriously questioned whether the philosophies (to which reference has been made in section 2 of chapter X) which isolate mind and set it over against the world did not have their origin in the fact that the reflective or theoretical class of men elaborated a large stock of ideas which social conditions did not allow them to act upon and test. Consequently men were thrown back into their own thoughts as ends in themselves.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00294", "bookId": 852, "start": 381256, "end": 382160, "sha256": "e419b5e705dabae0baf7d2fc59b57a2472704d529e027c13ff08a06b9aa41441", "text": "However this may be, there can be no doubt that a peculiar artificiality attaches to much of what is learned in schools. It can hardly be said that many students consciously think of the subject matter as unreal; but it assuredly does not possess for them the kind of reality which the subject matter of their vital experiences possesses. They learn not to expect that sort of reality of it; they become habituated to treating it as having reality for the purposes of recitations, lessons, and examinations. That it should remain inert for the experiences of daily life is more or less a matter of course. The bad effects are twofold. Ordinary experience does not receive the enrichment which it should; it is not fertilized by school learning. And the attitudes which spring from getting used to and accepting half-understood and ill-digested material weaken vigor and efficiency of thought.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00295", "bookId": 852, "start": 382164, "end": 386087, "sha256": "f23d20fca0e5ca0775049e4b9d0b2a18f5c0b4498ae6f7e6fe1c4d356f09aa58", "text": "If we have dwelt especially on the negative side, it is for the sake of suggesting positive measures adapted to the effectual development of thought. Where schools are equipped with laboratories, shops, and gardens, where dramatizations, plays, and games are freely used, opportunities exist for reproducing situations of life, and for acquiring and applying information and ideas in the carrying forward of progressive experiences. Ideas are not segregated, they do not form an isolated island. They animate and enrich the ordinary course of life. Information is vitalized by its function; by the place it occupies in direction of action. The phrase \"opportunities exist\" is used purposely. They may not be taken advantage of; it is possible to employ manual and constructive activities in a physical way, as means of getting just bodily skill; or they may be used almost exclusively for \"utilitarian,\" i.e., pecuniary, ends. But the disposition on the part of upholders of \"cultural\" education to assume that such activities are merely physical or professional in quality, is itself a product of the philosophies which isolate mind from direction of the course of experience and hence from action upon and with things. When the \"mental\" is regarded as a self-contained separate realm, a counterpart fate befalls bodily activity and movements. They are regarded as at the best mere external annexes to mind. They may be necessary for the satisfaction of bodily needs and the attainment of external decency and comfort, but they do not occupy a necessary place in mind nor enact an indispensable role in the completion of thought. Hence they have no place in a liberal education--i.e., one which is concerned with the interests of intelligence. If they come in at all, it is as a concession to the material needs of the masses. That they should be allowed to invade the education of the elite is unspeakable. This conclusion follows irresistibly from the isolated conception of mind, but by the same logic it disappears when we perceive what mind really is--namely, the purposive and directive factor in the development of experience. While it is desirable that all educational institutions should be equipped so as to give students an opportunity for acquiring and testing ideas and information in active pursuits typifying important social situations, it will, doubtless, be a long time before all of them are thus furnished. But this state of affairs does not afford instructors an excuse for folding their hands and persisting in methods which segregate school knowledge. Every recitation in every subject gives an opportunity for establishing cross connections between the subject matter of the lesson and the wider and more direct experiences of everyday life. Classroom instruction falls into three kinds. The least desirable treats each lesson as an independent whole. It does not put upon the student the responsibility of finding points of contact between it and other lessons in the same subject, or other subjects of study. Wiser teachers see to it that the student is systematically led to utilize his earlier lessons to help understand the present one, and also to use the present to throw additional light upon what has already been acquired. Results are better, but school subject matter is still isolated. Save by accident, out-of-school experience is left in its crude and comparatively irreflective state. It is not subject to the refining and expanding influences of the more accurate and comprehensive material of direct instruction. The latter is not motivated and impregnated with a sense of reality by being intermingled with the realities of everyday life. The best type of teaching bears in mind the desirability of affecting this interconnection. It puts the student in the habitual attitude of finding points of contact and mutual bearings.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00296", "bookId": 852, "start": 386091, "end": 387043, "sha256": "278b3a4f32d5de930b0418056025ecfe6d99c47a151a70682965b802cd26f7da", "text": "Summary. Processes of instruction are unified in the degree in which they center in the production of good habits of thinking. While we may speak, without error, of the method of thought, the important thing is that thinking is the method of an educative experience. The essentials of method are therefore identical with the essentials of reflection. They are first that the pupil have a genuine situation of experience--that there be a continuous activity in which he is interested for its own sake; secondly, that a genuine problem develop within this situation as a stimulus to thought; third, that he possess the information and make the observations needed to deal with it; fourth, that suggested solutions occur to him which he shall be responsible for developing in an orderly way; fifth, that he have opportunity and occasion to test his ideas by application, to make their meaning clear and to discover for himself their validity.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00297", "bookId": 852, "start": 387053, "end": 387091, "sha256": "b5ce14793b19abd9f23317c9089be95dcbfc125cc879856fc816f5c6beac1492", "text": "Chapter Thirteen: The Nature of Method", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG852.B00298", "bookId": 852, "start": 387095, "end": 387137, "sha256": "210d21469fb0eafb5895e3c9e537053e5bf5a2407de8fb6036fb4449f84d24b8", "text": "1. The Unity of Subject Matter and Method.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG852.B00299", "bookId": 852, "start": 387141, "end": 388999, "sha256": "fbcdbc538ef56e4209cf727e87c399a43391760c10d7aaae4cce7d485649d958", "text": "The trinity of school topics is subject matter, methods, and administration or government. We have been concerned with the two former in recent chapters. It remains to disentangle them from the context in which they have been referred to, and discuss explicitly their nature. We shall begin with the topic of method, since that lies closest to the considerations of the last chapter. Before taking it up, it may be well, however, to call express attention to one implication of our theory; the connection of subject matter and method with each other. The idea that mind and the world of things and persons are two separate and independent realms--a theory which philosophically is known as dualism--carries with it the conclusion that method and subject matter of instruction are separate affairs. Subject matter then becomes a ready-made systematized classification of the facts and principles of the world of nature and man. Method then has for its province a consideration of the ways in which this antecedent subject matter may be best presented to and impressed upon the mind; or, a consideration of the ways in which the mind may be externally brought to bear upon the matter so as to facilitate its acquisition and possession. In theory, at least, one might deduce from a science of the mind as something existing by itself a complete theory of methods of learning, with no knowledge of the subjects to which the methods are to be applied. Since many who are actually most proficient in various branches of subject matter are wholly innocent of these methods, this state of affairs gives opportunity for the retort that pedagogy, as an alleged science of methods of the mind in learning, is futile;--a mere screen for concealing the necessity a teacher is under of profound and accurate acquaintance with the subject in hand.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00300", "bookId": 852, "start": 389003, "end": 389894, "sha256": "63aa89b7a818be32d9902052a21bd17aaca2f31dcf21e3eebc7bad489c53da7e", "text": "But since thinking is a directed movement of subject matter to a completing issue, and since mind is the deliberate and intentional phase of the process, the notion of any such split is radically false. The fact that the material of a science is organized is evidence that it has already been subjected to intelligence; it has been methodized, so to say. Zoology as a systematic branch of knowledge represents crude, scattered facts of our ordinary acquaintance with animals after they have been subjected to careful examination, to deliberate supplementation, and to arrangement to bring out connections which assist observation, memory, and further inquiry. Instead of furnishing a starting point for learning, they mark out a consummation. Method means that arrangement of subject matter which makes it most effective in use. Never is method something outside of the material.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00301", "bookId": 852, "start": 389898, "end": 390536, "sha256": "ea701f6d9fbeb840d2f2e5f48db43514c9d9809d21e3df01d9052b3a3520f155", "text": "How about method from the standpoint of an individual who is dealing with subject matter? Again, it is not something external. It is simply an effective treatment of material--efficiency meaning such treatment as utilizes the material (puts it to a purpose) with a minimum of waste of time and energy. We can distinguish a way of acting, and discuss it by itself; but the way exists only as way-of-dealing-with-material. Method is not antithetical to subject matter; it is the effective direction of subject matter to desired results. It is antithetical to random and ill-considered action,--ill-considered signifying ill-adapted.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00302", "bookId": 852, "start": 390540, "end": 391688, "sha256": "edec95a7caf0d05dc67a5119baf12cad63b3a5533f8b8a36927427d9c0f7ce0b", "text": "The statement that method means directed movement of subject matter towards ends is formal. An illustration may give it content. Every artist must have a method, a technique, in doing his work. Piano playing is not hitting the keys at random. It is an orderly way of using them, and the order is not something which exists ready-made in the musician's hands or brain prior to an activity dealing with the piano. Order is found in the disposition of acts which use the piano and the hands and brain so as to achieve the result intended. It is the action of the piano directed to accomplish the purpose of the piano as a musical instrument. It is the same with \"pedagogical\" method. The only difference is that the piano is a mechanism constructed in advance for a single end; while the material of study is capable of indefinite uses. But even in this regard the illustration may apply if we consider the infinite variety of kinds of music which a piano may produce, and the variations in technique required in the different musical results secured. Method in any case is but an effective way of employing some material for some end.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00303", "bookId": 852, "start": 391692, "end": 392549, "sha256": "75775a7bb6829a090677bd92e19c98b45ccb5c16559241e0eb5ae32bdc117191", "text": "These considerations may be generalized by going back to the conception of experience. Experience as the perception of the connection between something tried and something undergone in consequence is a process. Apart from effort to control the course which the process takes, there is no distinction of subject matter and method. There is simply an activity which includes both what an individual does and what the environment does. A piano player who had perfect mastery of his instrument would have no occasion to distinguish between his contribution and that of the piano. In well-formed, smooth-running functions of any sort,--skating, conversing, hearing music, enjoying a landscape,--there is no consciousness of separation of the method of the person and of the subject matter. In whole-hearted play and work there is the same phenomenon.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00304", "bookId": 852, "start": 392553, "end": 393435, "sha256": "c7056591def419d8cff08c275c090bce7cf30d16852559c26065cbdfa13f256e", "text": "When we reflect upon an experience instead of just having it, we inevitably distinguish between our own attitude and the objects toward which we sustain the attitude. When a man is eating, he is eating food. He does not divide his act into eating and food. But if he makes a scientific investigation of the act, such a discrimination is the first thing he would effect. He would examine on the one hand the properties of the nutritive material, and on the other hand the acts of the organism in appropriating and digesting. Such reflection upon experience gives rise to a distinction of what we experience (the experienced) and the experiencing--the how. When we give names to this distinction we have subject matter and method as our terms. There is the thing seen, heard, loved, hated, imagined, and there is the act of seeing, hearing, loving, hating, imagining, etc.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00305", "bookId": 852, "start": 393439, "end": 395043, "sha256": "0921a31c1e6d8d2aa2e7775989d268647f309a96e262c296b484e6d761ba1173", "text": "This distinction is so natural and so important for certain purposes, that we are only too apt to regard it as a separation in existence and not as a distinction in thought. Then we make a division between a self and the environment or world. This separation is the root of the dualism of method and subject matter. That is, we assume that knowing, feeling, willing, etc., are things which belong to the self or mind in its isolation, and which then may be brought to bear upon an independent subject matter. We assume that the things which belong in isolation to the self or mind have their own laws of operation irrespective of the modes of active energy of the object. These laws are supposed to furnish method. It would be no less absurd to suppose that men can eat without eating something, or that the structure and movements of the jaws, throat muscles, the digestive activities of stomach, etc., are not what they are because of the material with which their activity is engaged. Just as the organs of the organism are a continuous part of the very world in which food materials exist, so the capacities of seeing, hearing, loving, imagining are intrinsically connected with the subject matter of the world. They are more truly ways in which the environment enters into experience and functions there than they are independent acts brought to bear upon things. Experience, in short, is not a combination of mind and world, subject and object, method and subject matter, but is a single continuous interaction of a great diversity (literally countless in number) of energies.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00306", "bookId": 852, "start": 395047, "end": 396524, "sha256": "b912ceb3b2dd9208ba46d9082c79fcad404ffa4d1213b0ca224d63eda6ac53c5", "text": "For the purpose of controlling the course or direction which the moving unity of experience takes we draw a mental distinction between the how and the what. While there is no way of walking or of eating or of learning over and above the actual walking, eating, and studying, there are certain elements in the act which give the key to its more effective control. Special attention to these elements makes them more obvious to perception (letting other factors recede for the time being from conspicuous recognition). Getting an idea of how the experience proceeds indicates to us what factors must be secured or modified in order that it may go on more successfully. This is only a somewhat elaborate way of saying that if a man watches carefully the growth of several plants, some of which do well and some of which amount to little or nothing, he may be able to detect the special conditions upon which the prosperous development of a plant depends. These conditions, stated in an orderly sequence, would constitute the method or way or manner of its growth. There is no difference between the growth of a plant and the prosperous development of an experience. It is not easy, in either case, to seize upon just the factors which make for its best movement. But study of cases of success and failure and minute and extensive comparison, helps to seize upon causes. When we have arranged these causes in order, we have a method of procedure or a technique.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00307", "bookId": 852, "start": 396528, "end": 396665, "sha256": "6449e18cec21b59e81ab650ca6209a1611ed3ca1201218c0432e59472246addb", "text": "A consideration of some evils in education that flow from the isolation of method from subject matter will make the point more definite.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00308", "bookId": 852, "start": 396669, "end": 397861, "sha256": "bab3eda5f283812027ba247a443171c282d28cdb7f3e848de34979aa6591990e", "text": "(I) In the first place, there is the neglect (of which we have spoken) of concrete situations of experience. There can be no discovery of a method without cases to be studied. The method is derived from observation of what actually happens, with a view to seeing that it happen better next time. But in instruction and discipline, there is rarely sufficient opportunity for children and youth to have the direct normal experiences from which educators might derive an idea of method or order of best development. Experiences are had under conditions of such constraint that they throw little or no light upon the normal course of an experience to its fruition. \"Methods\" have then to be authoritatively recommended to teachers, instead of being an expression of their own intelligent observations. Under such circumstances, they have a mechanical uniformity, assumed to be alike for all minds. Where flexible personal experiences are promoted by providing an environment which calls out directed occupations in work and play, the methods ascertained will vary with individuals--for it is certain that each individual has something characteristic in his way of going at things.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00309", "bookId": 852, "start": 397865, "end": 400168, "sha256": "906ff1e432b631a080e8bac97e3d1e4dd10531f6ec3fe035f22bd67c8e45ab9d", "text": "(ii) In the second place, the notion of methods isolated from subject matter is responsible for the false conceptions of discipline and interest already noted. When the effective way of managing material is treated as something ready-made apart from material, there are just three possible ways in which to establish a relationship lacking by assumption. One is to utilize excitement, shock of pleasure, tickling the palate. Another is to make the consequences of not attending painful; we may use the menace of harm to motivate concern with the alien subject matter. Or a direct appeal may be made to the person to put forth effort without any reason. We may rely upon immediate strain of \"will.\" In practice, however, the latter method is effectual only when instigated by fear of unpleasant results. (iii) In the third place, the act of learning is made a direct and conscious end in itself. Under normal conditions, learning is a product and reward of occupation with subject matter. Children do not set out, consciously, to learn walking or talking. One sets out to give his impulses for communication and for fuller intercourse with others a show. He learns in consequence of his direct activities. The better methods of teaching a child, say, to read, follow the same road. They do not fix his attention upon the fact that he has to learn something and so make his attitude self-conscious and constrained. They engage his activities, and in the process of engagement he learns: the same is true of the more successful methods in dealing with number or whatever. But when the subject matter is not used in carrying forward impulses and habits to significant results, it is just something to be learned. The pupil's attitude to it is just that of having to learn it. Conditions more unfavorable to an alert and concentrated response would be hard to devise. Frontal attacks are even more wasteful in learning than in war. This does not mean, however, that students are to be seduced unaware into preoccupation with lessons. It means that they shall be occupied with them for real reasons or ends, and not just as something to be learned. This is accomplished whenever the pupil perceives the place occupied by the subject matter in the fulfilling of some experience.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00310", "bookId": 852, "start": 400172, "end": 401433, "sha256": "59ed6db3684088e8c51c06c41026fc15cdc62b572963ddb735b0ad7b9a9c43be", "text": "(iv) In the fourth place, under the influence of the conception of the separation of mind and material, method tends to be reduced to a cut and dried routine, to following mechanically prescribed steps. No one can tell in how many schoolrooms children reciting in arithmetic or grammar are compelled to go through, under the alleged sanction of method, certain preordained verbal formulae. Instead of being encouraged to attack their topics directly, experimenting with methods that seem promising and learning to discriminate by the consequences that accrue, it is assumed that there is one fixed method to be followed. It is also naively assumed that if the pupils make their statements and explanations in a certain form of \"analysis,\" their mental habits will in time conform. Nothing has brought pedagogical theory into greater disrepute than the belief that it is identified with handing out to teachers recipes and models to be followed in teaching. Flexibility and initiative in dealing with problems are characteristic of any conception to which method is a way of managing material to develop a conclusion. Mechanical rigid woodenness is an inevitable corollary of any theory which separates mind from activity motivated by a purpose.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00311", "bookId": 852, "start": 401437, "end": 402501, "sha256": "41390e82271932fe70bc089df724bad344f4ec570f316d112bf2f60d89c87289", "text": "2. Method as General and as Individual. In brief, the method of teaching is the method of an art, of action intelligently directed by ends. But the practice of a fine art is far from being a matter of extemporized inspirations. Study of the operations and results of those in the past who have greatly succeeded is essential. There is always a tradition, or schools of art, definite enough to impress beginners, and often to take them captive. Methods of artists in every branch depend upon thorough acquaintance with materials and tools; the painter must know canvas, pigments, brushes, and the technique of manipulation of all his appliances. Attainment of this knowledge requires persistent and concentrated attention to objective materials. The artist studies the progress of his own attempts to see what succeeds and what fails. The assumption that there are no alternatives between following ready-made rules and trusting to native gifts, the inspiration of the moment and undirected \"hard work,\" is contradicted by the procedures of every art.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00312", "bookId": 852, "start": 402505, "end": 403365, "sha256": "b86934973e338e291bcf551f0ebc02e1c6ddd355f88fd8da7c15631716dc40e0", "text": "Such matters as knowledge of the past, of current technique, of materials, of the ways in which one's own best results are assured, supply the material for what may be called general method. There exists a cumulative body of fairly stable methods for reaching results, a body authorized by past experience and by intellectual analysis, which an individual ignores at his peril. As was pointed out in the discussion of habit-forming (ante, p. 49), there is always a danger that these methods will become mechanized and rigid, mastering an agent instead of being powers at command for his own ends. But it is also true that the innovator who achieves anything enduring, whose work is more than a passing sensation, utilizes classic methods more than may appear to himself or to his critics. He devotes them to new uses, and in so far transforms them.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00313", "bookId": 852, "start": 403371, "end": 404409, "sha256": "159a7038293c6842e9ea29a23ee3f0866a840978ba4fe54d0d72c3614f53a100", "text": "Education also has its general methods. And if the application of this remark is more obvious in the case of the teacher than of the pupil, it is equally real in the case of the latter. Part of his learning, a very important part, consists in becoming master of the methods which the experience of others has shown to be more efficient in like cases of getting knowledge. 1 These general methods are in no way opposed to individual initiative and originality--to personal ways of doing things. On the contrary they are reinforcements of them. For there is radical difference between even the most general method and a prescribed rule. The latter is a direct guide to action; the former operates indirectly through the enlightenment it supplies as to ends and means. It operates, that is to say, through intelligence, and not through conformity to orders externally imposed. Ability to use even in a masterly way an established technique gives no warranty of artistic work, for the latter also depends upon an animating idea.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00314", "bookId": 852, "start": 404413, "end": 408485, "sha256": "eb27a76701c5500ed8019bf87d74db7d37c5cb1aad37d2ea89f78ca5178c3d79", "text": "If knowledge of methods used by others does not directly tell us what to do, or furnish ready-made models, how does it operate? What is meant by calling a method intellectual? Take the case of a physician. No mode of behavior more imperiously demands knowledge of established modes of diagnosis and treatment than does his. But after all, cases are like, not identical. To be used intelligently, existing practices, however authorized they may be, have to be adapted to the exigencies of particular cases. Accordingly, recognized procedures indicate to the physician what inquiries to set on foot for himself, what measures to try. They are standpoints from which to carry on investigations; they economize a survey of the features of the particular case by suggesting the things to be especially looked into. The physician's own personal attitudes, his own ways (individual methods) of dealing with the situation in which he is concerned, are not subordinated to the general principles of procedure, but are facilitated and directed by the latter. The instance may serve to point out the value to the teacher of a knowledge of the psychological methods and the empirical devices found useful in the past. When they get in the way of his own common sense, when they come between him and the situation in which he has to act, they are worse than useless. But if he has acquired them as intellectual aids in sizing up the needs, resources, and difficulties of the unique experiences in which he engages, they are of constructive value. In the last resort, just because everything depends upon his own methods of response, much depends upon how far he can utilize, in making his own response, the knowledge which has accrued in the experience of others. As already intimated, every word of this account is directly applicable also to the method of the pupil, the way of learning. To suppose that students, whether in the primary school or in the university, can be supplied with models of method to be followed in acquiring and expounding a subject is to fall into a self-deception that has lamentable consequences. (See ante, p. 169.) One must make his own reaction in any case. Indications of the standardized or general methods used in like cases by others--particularly by those who are already experts--are of worth or of harm according as they make his personal reaction more intelligent or as they induce a person to dispense with exercise of his own judgment. If what was said earlier (See p. 159) about originality of thought seemed overstrained, demanding more of education than the capacities of average human nature permit, the difficulty is that we lie under the incubus of a superstition. We have set up the notion of mind at large, of intellectual method that is the same for all. Then we regard individuals as differing in the quantity of mind with which they are charged. Ordinary persons are then expected to be ordinary. Only the exceptional are allowed to have originality. The measure of difference between the average student and the genius is a measure of the absence of originality in the former. But this notion of mind in general is a fiction. How one person's abilities compare in quantity with those of another is none of the teacher's business. It is irrelevant to his work. What is required is that every individual shall have opportunities to employ his own powers in activities that have meaning. Mind, individual method, originality (these are convertible terms) signify the quality of purposive or directed action. If we act upon this conviction, we shall secure more originality even by the conventional standard than now develops. Imposing an alleged uniform general method upon everybody breeds mediocrity in all but the very exceptional. And measuring originality by deviation from the mass breeds eccentricity in them. Thus we stifle the distinctive quality of the many, and save in rare instances (like, say, that of Darwin) infect the rare geniuses with an unwholesome quality.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00315", "bookId": 852, "start": 408489, "end": 409677, "sha256": "7370e4d041173b8b2ff641a5ff22fd641f4e30bc0302d1b104f509c5f014e687", "text": "3. The Traits of Individual Method. The most general features of the method of knowing have been given in our chapter on thinking. They are the features of the reflective situation: Problem, collection and analysis of data, projection and elaboration of suggestions or ideas, experimental application and testing; the resulting conclusion or judgment. The specific elements of an individual's method or way of attack upon a problem are found ultimately in his native tendencies and his acquired habits and interests. The method of one will vary from that of another (and properly vary) as his original instinctive capacities vary, as his past experiences and his preferences vary. Those who have already studied these matters are in possession of information which will help teachers in understanding the responses different pupils make, and help them in guiding these responses to greater efficiency. Child-study, psychology, and a knowledge of social environment supplement the personal acquaintance gained by the teacher. But methods remain the personal concern, approach, and attack of an individual, and no catalogue can ever exhaust their diversity of form and tint.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00316", "bookId": 852, "start": 409681, "end": 409922, "sha256": "982b7d461d38d0e58dde6f55536ca7582420168f7705ac9ca75b354b2c94a622", "text": "Some attitudes may be named, however,-which are central in effective intellectual ways of dealing with subject matter. Among the most important are directness, open-mindedness, single-mindedness (or whole-heartedness), and responsibility.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00317", "bookId": 852, "start": 409926, "end": 411513, "sha256": "e43e0805b993c5c84484c36f22aa6cc33380cd4eec6134d0b136bd35a62e6b20", "text": "1. It is easier to indicate what is meant by directness through negative terms than in positive ones. Self-consciousness, embarrassment, and constraint are its menacing foes. They indicate that a person is not immediately concerned with subject matter. Something has come between which deflects concern to side issues. A self-conscious person is partly thinking about his problem and partly about what others think of his performances. Diverted energy means loss of power and confusion of ideas. Taking an attitude is by no means identical with being conscious of one's attitude. The former is spontaneous, naive, and simple. It is a sign of whole-souled relationship between a person and what he is dealing with. The latter is not of necessity abnormal. It is sometimes the easiest way of correcting a false method of approach, and of improving the effectiveness of the means one is employing,--as golf players, piano players, public speakers, etc., have occasionally to give especial attention to their position and movements. But this need is occasional and temporary. When it is effectual a person thinks of himself in terms of what is to be done, as one means among others of the realization of an end--as in the case of a tennis player practicing to get the \"feel\" of a stroke. In abnormal cases, one thinks of himself not as part of the agencies of execution, but as a separate object--as when the player strikes an attitude thinking of the impression it will make upon spectators, or is worried because of the impression he fears his movements give rise to.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00318", "bookId": 852, "start": 411517, "end": 412960, "sha256": "b97f435e063259a2f3ebd7459638e7204d9ea5460bc25f9b7811e25039a19fb5", "text": "Confidence is a good name for what is intended by the term directness. It should not be confused, however, with self-confidence which may be a form of self-consciousness--or of \"cheek.\" Confidence is not a name for what one thinks or feels about his attitude it is not reflex. It denotes the straightforwardness with which one goes at what he has to do. It denotes not conscious trust in the efficacy of one's powers but unconscious faith in the possibilities of the situation. It signifies rising to the needs of the situation. We have already pointed out (See p. 169) the objections to making students emphatically aware of the fact that they are studying or learning. Just in the degree in which they are induced by the conditions to be so aware, they are not studying and learning. They are in a divided and complicated attitude. Whatever methods of a teacher call a pupil's attention off from what he has to do and transfer it to his own attitude towards what he is doing impair directness of concern and action. Persisted in, the pupil acquires a permanent tendency to fumble, to gaze about aimlessly, to look for some clew of action beside that which the subject matter supplies. Dependence upon extraneous suggestions and directions, a state of foggy confusion, take the place of that sureness with which children (and grown-up people who have not been sophisticated by \"education\") confront the situations of life.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00319", "bookId": 852, "start": 412964, "end": 414762, "sha256": "4cefb49cf81292993a1201e89004432a16d49c8dd120a9722aa183a451357bb7", "text": "2. Open-mindedness. Partiality is, as we have seen, an accompaniment of the existence of interest, since this means sharing, partaking, taking sides in some movement. All the more reason, therefore, for an attitude of mind which actively welcomes suggestions and relevant information from all sides. In the chapter on Aims it was shown that foreseen ends are factors in the development of a changing situation. They are the means by which the direction of action is controlled. They are subordinate to the situation, therefore, not the situation to them. They are not ends in the sense of finalities to which everything must be bent and sacrificed. They are, as foreseen, means of guiding the development of a situation. A target is not the future goal of shooting; it is the centering factor in a present shooting. Openness of mind means accessibility of mind to any and every consideration that will throw light upon the situation that needs to be cleared up, and that will help determine the consequences of acting this way or that. Efficiency in accomplishing ends which have been settled upon as unalterable can coexist with a narrowly opened mind. But intellectual growth means constant expansion of horizons and consequent formation of new purposes and new responses. These are impossible without an active disposition to welcome points of view hitherto alien; an active desire to entertain considerations which modify existing purposes. Retention of capacity to grow is the reward of such intellectual hospitality. The worst thing about stubbornness of mind, about prejudices, is that they arrest development; they shut the mind off from new stimuli. Open-mindedness means retention of the childlike attitude; closed-mindedness means premature intellectual old age.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00320", "bookId": 852, "start": 414766, "end": 415495, "sha256": "d94412da7e587bbe028b7cbe51108106f3d6d188d92152dd16b17eafa378c7f2", "text": "Exorbitant desire for uniformity of procedure and for prompt external results are the chief foes which the open-minded attitude meets in school. The teacher who does not permit and encourage diversity of operation in dealing with questions is imposing intellectual blinders upon pupils--restricting their vision to the one path the teacher's mind happens to approve. Probably the chief cause of devotion to rigidity of method is, however, that it seems to promise speedy, accurately measurable, correct results. The zeal for \"answers\" is the explanation of much of the zeal for rigid and mechanical methods. Forcing and overpressure have the same origin, and the same result upon alert and varied intellectual interest.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00321", "bookId": 852, "start": 415499, "end": 416133, "sha256": "aadcbdd4b40cb77f83c9f3a80bfdeed02b82bd1a1822215c08ec99224d0e10ae", "text": "Open-mindedness is not the same as empty-mindedness. To hang out a sign saying \"Come right in; there is no one at home\" is not the equivalent of hospitality. But there is a kind of passivity, willingness to let experiences accumulate and sink in and ripen, which is an essential of development. Results (external answers or solutions) may be hurried; processes may not be forced. They take their own time to mature. Were all instructors to realize that the quality of mental process, not the production of correct answers, is the measure of educative growth something hardly less than a revolution in teaching would be worked.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00322", "bookId": 852, "start": 416137, "end": 416618, "sha256": "00859a03067e6e7e5b7a71fe9868c464fe8063462fedf1377583e7edda5e72f0", "text": "3. Single-mindedness. So far as the word is concerned, much that was said under the head of \"directness\" is applicable. But what the word is here intended to convey is completeness of interest, unity of purpose; the absence of suppressed but effectual ulterior aims for which the professed aim is but a mask. It is equivalent to mental integrity. Absorption, engrossment, full concern with subject matter for its own sake, nurture it. Divided interest and evasion destroy it.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00323", "bookId": 852, "start": 416622, "end": 420048, "sha256": "ad2411f8e0b8e4a2e1cfa955ffa013d973a5b4e5db7cce13cb84413d67710984", "text": "Intellectual integrity, honesty, and sincerity are at bottom not matters of conscious purpose but of quality of active response. Their acquisition is fostered of course by conscious intent, but self-deception is very easy. Desires are urgent. When the demands and wishes of others forbid their direct expression they are easily driven into subterranean and deep channels. Entire surrender, and wholehearted adoption of the course of action demanded by others are almost impossible. Deliberate revolt or deliberate attempts to deceive others may result. But the more frequent outcome is a confused and divided state of interest in which one is fooled as to one's own real intent. One tries to serve two masters at once. Social instincts, the strong desire to please others and get their approval, social training, the general sense of duty and of authority, apprehension of penalty, all lead to a half-hearted effort to conform, to \"pay attention to the lesson,\" or whatever the requirement is. Amiable individuals want to do what they are expected to do. Consciously the pupil thinks he is doing this. But his own desires are not abolished. Only their evident exhibition is suppressed. Strain of attention to what is hostile to desire is irksome; in spite of one's conscious wish, the underlying desires determine the main course of thought, the deeper emotional responses. The mind wanders from the nominal subject and devotes itself to what is intrinsically more desirable. A systematized divided attention expressing the duplicity of the state of desire is the result. One has only to recall his own experiences in school or at the present time when outwardly employed in actions which do not engage one's desires and purposes, to realize how prevalent is this attitude of divided attention--double-mindedness. We are so used to it that we take it for granted that a considerable amount of it is necessary. It may be; if so, it is the more important to face its bad intellectual effects. Obvious is the loss of energy of thought immediately available when one is consciously trying (or trying to seem to try) to attend to one matter, while unconsciously one's imagination is spontaneously going out to more congenial affairs. More subtle and more permanently crippling to efficiency of intellectual activity is a fostering of habitual self-deception, with the confused sense of reality which accompanies it. A double standard of reality, one for our own private and more or less concealed interests, and another for public and acknowledged concerns, hampers, in most of us, integrity and completeness of mental action. Equally serious is the fact that a split is set up between conscious thought and attention and impulsive blind affection and desire. Reflective dealings with the material of instruction is constrained and half-hearted; attention wanders. The topics to which it wanders are unavowed and hence intellectually illicit; transactions with them are furtive. The discipline that comes from regulating response by deliberate inquiry having a purpose fails; worse than that, the deepest concern and most congenial enterprises of the imagination (since they center about the things dearest to desire) are casual, concealed. They enter into action in ways which are unacknowledged. Not subject to rectification by consideration of consequences, they are demoralizing.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00324", "bookId": 852, "start": 420052, "end": 421621, "sha256": "df714da836070f9dd86e3f3f9a8e1dec548313251f7d058643d1e04ce0673995", "text": "School conditions favorable to this division of mind between avowed, public, and socially responsible undertakings, and private, ill-regulated, and suppressed indulgences of thought are not hard to find. What is sometimes called \"stern discipline,\" i.e., external coercive pressure, has this tendency. Motivation through rewards extraneous to the thing to be done has a like effect. Everything that makes schooling merely preparatory (See ante, p. 55) works in this direction. Ends being beyond the pupil's present grasp, other agencies have to be found to procure immediate attention to assigned tasks. Some responses are secured, but desires and affections not enlisted must find other outlets. Not less serious is exaggerated emphasis upon drill exercises designed to produce skill in action, independent of any engagement of thought--exercises have no purpose but the production of automatic skill. Nature abhors a mental vacuum. What do teachers imagine is happening to thought and emotion when the latter get no outlet in the things of immediate activity? Were they merely kept in temporary abeyance, or even only calloused, it would not be a matter of so much moment. But they are not abolished; they are not suspended; they are not suppressed--save with reference to the task in question. They follow their own chaotic and undisciplined course. What is native, spontaneous, and vital in mental reaction goes unused and untested, and the habits formed are such that these qualities become less and less available for public and avowed ends.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00325", "bookId": 852, "start": 421625, "end": 422499, "sha256": "769a01307e3e541baa7ce6e0eb828af2ff40602a8b3c12900657af59f33cdd00", "text": "4. Responsibility. By responsibility as an element in intellectual attitude is meant the disposition to consider in advance the probable consequences of any projected step and deliberately to accept them: to accept them in the sense of taking them into account, acknowledging them in action, not yielding a mere verbal assent. Ideas, as we have seen, are intrinsically standpoints and methods for bringing about a solution of a perplexing situation; forecasts calculated to influence responses. It is only too easy to think that one accepts a statement or believes a suggested truth when one has not considered its implications; when one has made but a cursory and superficial survey of what further things one is committed to by acceptance. Observation and recognition, belief and assent, then become names for lazy acquiescence in what is externally presented.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00326", "bookId": 852, "start": 422503, "end": 423341, "sha256": "349c71e6d28dd58c82dc8e9a8f4ec35058320373293cf4f326cdddef4d3382da", "text": "It would be much better to have fewer facts and truths in instruction--that is, fewer things supposedly accepted,--if a smaller number of situations could be intellectually worked out to the point where conviction meant something real--some identification of the self with the type of conduct demanded by facts and foresight of results. The most permanent bad results of undue complication of school subjects and congestion of school studies and lessons are not the worry, nervous strain, and superficial acquaintance that follow (serious as these are), but the failure to make clear what is involved in really knowing and believing a thing. Intellectual responsibility means severe standards in this regard. These standards can be built up only through practice in following up and acting upon the meaning of what is acquired.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00327", "bookId": 852, "start": 423345, "end": 423971, "sha256": "8d1fe7e4b3377cde186388bc3aeeae13852b9fddcda982d96ee0323067d029a7", "text": "Intellectual thoroughness is thus another name for the attitude we are considering. There is a kind of thoroughness which is almost purely physical: the kind that signifies mechanical and exhausting drill upon all the details of a subject. Intellectual thoroughness is seeing a thing through. It depends upon a unity of purpose to which details are subordinated, not upon presenting a multitude of disconnected details. It is manifested in the firmness with which the full meaning of the purpose is developed, not in attention, however \"conscientious\" it may be, to the steps of action externally imposed and directed.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00328", "bookId": 852, "start": 423975, "end": 425034, "sha256": "612dd7f840a4cf70d309649d6a0a71b1708bb29eb2a340abeb3a404e7dac1afb", "text": "Summary. Method is a statement of the way the subject matter of an experience develops most effectively and fruitfully. It is derived, accordingly, from observation of the course of experiences where there is no conscious distinction of personal attitude and manner from material dealt with. The assumption that method is something separate is connected with the notion of the isolation of mind and self from the world of things. It makes instruction and learning formal, mechanical, constrained. While methods are individualized, certain features of the normal course of an experience to its fruition may be discriminated, because of the fund of wisdom derived from prior experiences and because of general similarities in the materials dealt with from time to time. Expressed in terms of the attitude of the individual the traits of good method are straightforwardness, flexible intellectual interest or open-minded will to learn, integrity of purpose, and acceptance of responsibility for the consequences of one's activity including thought.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00329", "bookId": 852, "start": 425040, "end": 425167, "sha256": "bff7f70c9e9166131b4c06962e3a4b96ea2ccc5e385d60ae772cc81dd0445f92", "text": "1 This point is developed below in a discussion of what are termed psychological and logical methods respectively. See p. 219.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00330", "bookId": 852, "start": 425177, "end": 425223, "sha256": "4c36362c94bf75872e1303fd01d99f3cf55d84c630e4cddde9e173fc03cf14f8", "text": "Chapter Fourteen: The Nature of Subject Matter", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG852.B00331", "bookId": 852, "start": 425227, "end": 427738, "sha256": "e3c9ce57f08dec331175b1d5ede9b1fa10313c72492215024a787dbe4b1151b7", "text": "1. Subject Matter of Educator and of Learner. So far as the nature of subject matter in principle is concerned, there is nothing to add to what has been said (See ante, p. 134). It consists of the facts observed, recalled, read, and talked about, and the ideas suggested, in course of a development of a situation having a purpose. This statement needs to be rendered more specific by connecting it with the materials of school instruction, the studies which make up the curriculum. What is the significance of our definition in application to reading, writing, mathematics, history, nature study, drawing, singing, physics, chemistry, modern and foreign languages, and so on? Let us recur to two of the points made earlier in our discussion. The educator's part in the enterprise of education is to furnish the environment which stimulates responses and directs the learner's course. In last analysis, all that the educator can do is modify stimuli so that response will as surely as is possible result in the formation of desirable intellectual and emotional dispositions. Obviously studies or the subject matter of the curriculum have intimately to do with this business of supplying an environment. The other point is the necessity of a social environment to give meaning to habits formed. In what we have termed informal education, subject matter is carried directly in the matrix of social intercourse. It is what the persons with whom an individual associates do and say. This fact gives a clew to the understanding of the subject matter of formal or deliberate instruction. A connecting link is found in the stories, traditions, songs, and liturgies which accompany the doings and rites of a primitive social group. They represent the stock of meanings which have been precipitated out of previous experience, which are so prized by the group as to be identified with their conception of their own collective life. Not being obviously a part of the skill exhibited in the daily occupations of eating, hunting, making war and peace, constructing rugs, pottery, and baskets, etc., they are consciously impressed upon the young; often, as in the initiation ceremonies, with intense emotional fervor. Even more pains are consciously taken to perpetuate the myths, legends, and sacred verbal formulae of the group than to transmit the directly useful customs of the group just because they cannot be picked up, as the latter can be in the ordinary processes of association.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00332", "bookId": 852, "start": 427742, "end": 429242, "sha256": "5d02ad4bcd06f1eeac43f78a259aad95deff7f8a888036cb529d78ec51c867ee", "text": "As the social group grows more complex, involving a greater number of acquired skills which are dependent, either in fact or in the belief of the group, upon standard ideas deposited from past experience, the content of social life gets more definitely formulated for purposes of instruction. As we have previously noted, probably the chief motive for consciously dwelling upon the group life, extracting the meanings which are regarded as most important and systematizing them in a coherent arrangement, is just the need of instructing the young so as to perpetuate group life. Once started on this road of selection, formulation, and organization, no definite limit exists. The invention of writing and of printing gives the operation an immense impetus. Finally, the bonds which connect the subject matter of school study with the habits and ideals of the social group are disguised and covered up. The ties are so loosened that it often appears as if there were none; as if subject matter existed simply as knowledge on its own independent behoof, and as if study were the mere act of mastering it for its own sake, irrespective of any social values. Since it is highly important for practical reasons to counter-act this tendency (See ante, p. 8) the chief purposes of our theoretical discussion are to make clear the connection which is so readily lost from sight, and to show in some detail the social content and function of the chief constituents of the course of study.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00333", "bookId": 852, "start": 429246, "end": 430782, "sha256": "26b3b9709b5fb48b41dccdb6acc125a65acb3371a6ad3ad6505b9c4acd540850", "text": "The points need to be considered from the standpoint of instructor and of student. To the former, the significance of a knowledge of subject matter, going far beyond the present knowledge of pupils, is to supply definite standards and to reveal to him the possibilities of the crude activities of the immature. (i) The material of school studies translates into concrete and detailed terms the meanings of current social life which it is desirable to transmit. It puts clearly before the instructor the essential ingredients of the culture to be perpetuated, in such an organized form as to protect him from the haphazard efforts he would be likely to indulge in if the meanings had not been standardized. (ii) A knowledge of the ideas which have been achieved in the past as the outcome of activity places the educator in a position to perceive the meaning of the seeming impulsive and aimless reactions of the young, and to provide the stimuli needed to direct them so that they will amount to something. The more the educator knows of music the more he can perceive the possibilities of the inchoate musical impulses of a child. Organized subject matter represents the ripe fruitage of experiences like theirs, experiences involving the same world, and powers and needs similar to theirs. It does not represent perfection or infallible wisdom; but it is the best at command to further new experiences which may, in some respects at least, surpass the achievements embodied in existing knowledge and works of art.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00334", "bookId": 852, "start": 430786, "end": 431643, "sha256": "79d48134d260829391feb182fa81b4d86466c1c417f72afb9777b847d801c928", "text": "From the standpoint of the educator, in other words, the various studies represent working resources, available capital. Their remoteness from the experience of the young is not, however, seeming; it is real. The subject matter of the learner is not, therefore, it cannot be, identical with the formulated, the crystallized, and systematized subject matter of the adult; the material as found in books and in works of art, etc. The latter represents the possibilities of the former; not its existing state. It enters directly into the activities of the expert and the educator, not into that of the beginner, the learner. Failure to bear in mind the difference in subject matter from the respective standpoints of teacher and student is responsible for most of the mistakes made in the use of texts and other expressions of preexistent knowledge.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00335", "bookId": 852, "start": 431647, "end": 434562, "sha256": "186f9eac84b3dbcf062b1a5df7b5c1ddc5092cc390ad8df673d22b3188c212b4", "text": "The need for a knowledge of the constitution and functions, in the concrete, of human nature is great just because the teacher's attitude to subject matter is so different from that of the pupil. The teacher presents in actuality what the pupil represents only in posse. That is, the teacher already knows the things which the student is only learning. Hence the problem of the two is radically unlike. When engaged in the direct act of teaching, the instructor needs to have subject matter at his fingers' ends; his attention should be upon the attitude and response of the pupil. To understand the latter in its interplay with subject matter is his task, while the pupil's mind, naturally, should be not on itself but on the topic in hand. Or to state the same point in a somewhat different manner: the teacher should be occupied not with subject matter in itself but in its interaction with the pupils' present needs and capacities. Hence simple scholarship is not enough. In fact, there are certain features of scholarship or mastered subject matter--taken by itself--which get in the way of effective teaching unless the instructor's habitual attitude is one of concern with its interplay in the pupil's own experience. In the first place, his knowledge extends indefinitely beyond the range of the pupil's acquaintance. It involves principles which are beyond the immature pupil's understanding and interest. In and of itself, it may no more represent the living world of the pupil's experience than the astronomer's knowledge of Mars represents a baby's acquaintance with the room in which he stays. In the second place, the method of organization of the material of achieved scholarship differs from that of the beginner. It is not true that the experience of the young is unorganized--that it consists of isolated scraps. But it is organized in connection with direct practical centers of interest. The child's home is, for example, the organizing center of his geographical knowledge. His own movements about the locality, his journeys abroad, the tales of his friends, give the ties which hold his items of information together. But the geography of the geographer, of the one who has already developed the implications of these smaller experiences, is organized on the basis of the relationship which the various facts bear to one another--not the relations which they bear to his house, bodily movements, and friends. To the one who is learned, subject matter is extensive, accurately defined, and logically interrelated. To the one who is learning, it is fluid, partial, and connected through his personal occupations. 1 The problem of teaching is to keep the experience of the student moving in the direction of what the expert already knows. Hence the need that the teacher know both subject matter and the characteristic needs and capacities of the student.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00336", "bookId": 852, "start": 434568, "end": 435243, "sha256": "08745d13a1add548bb1186cb0926554204040fca14a5bb62a22ca6339ab53bc3", "text": "2. The Development of Subject Matter in the Learner. It is possible, without doing violence to the facts, to mark off three fairly typical stages in the growth of subject matter in the experience of the learner. In its first estate, knowledge exists as the content of intelligent ability--power to do. This kind of subject matter, or known material, is expressed in familiarity or acquaintance with things. Then this material gradually is surcharged and deepened through communicated knowledge or information. Finally, it is enlarged and worked over into rationally or logically organized material--that of the one who, relatively speaking, is expert in the subject.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00337", "bookId": 852, "start": 435247, "end": 438531, "sha256": "87d7bfe60f752cb44779dde4fe4e6974ded3942adf8afd78b48926ed2a567308", "text": "I. The knowledge which comes first to persons, and that remains most deeply ingrained, is knowledge of how to do; how to walk, talk, read, write, skate, ride a bicycle, manage a machine, calculate, drive a horse, sell goods, manage people, and so on indefinitely. The popular tendency to regard instinctive acts which are adapted to an end as a sort of miraculous knowledge, while unjustifiable, is evidence of the strong tendency to identify intelligent control of the means of action with knowledge. When education, under the influence of a scholastic conception of knowledge which ignores everything but scientifically formulated facts and truths, fails to recognize that primary or initial subject matter always exists as matter of an active doing, involving the use of the body and the handling of material, the subject matter of instruction is isolated from the needs and purposes of the learner, and so becomes just a something to be memorized and reproduced upon demand. Recognition of the natural course of development, on the contrary, always sets out with situations which involve learning by doing. Arts and occupations form the initial stage of the curriculum, corresponding as they do to knowing how to go about the accomplishment of ends. Popular terms denoting knowledge have always retained the connection with ability in action lost by academic philosophies. Ken and can are allied words. Attention means caring for a thing, in the sense of both affection and of looking out for its welfare. Mind means carrying out instructions in action--as a child minds his mother--and taking care of something--as a nurse minds the baby. To be thoughtful, considerate, means to heed the claims of others. Apprehension means dread of undesirable consequences, as well as intellectual grasp. To have good sense or judgment is to know the conduct a situation calls for; discernment is not making distinctions for the sake of making them, an exercise reprobated as hair splitting, but is insight into an affair with reference to acting. Wisdom has never lost its association with the proper direction of life. Only in education, never in the life of farmer, sailor, merchant, physician, or laboratory experimenter, does knowledge mean primarily a store of information aloof from doing. Having to do with things in an intelligent way issues in acquaintance or familiarity. The things we are best acquainted with are the things we put to frequent use--such things as chairs, tables, pen, paper, clothes, food, knives and forks on the commonplace level, differentiating into more special objects according to a person's occupations in life. Knowledge of things in that intimate and emotional sense suggested by the word acquaintance is a precipitate from our employing them with a purpose. We have acted with or upon the thing so frequently that we can anticipate how it will act and react--such is the meaning of familiar acquaintance. We are ready for a familiar thing; it does not catch us napping, or play unexpected tricks with us. This attitude carries with it a sense of congeniality or friendliness, of ease and illumination; while the things with which we are not accustomed to deal are strange, foreign, cold, remote, \"abstract.\"", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00338", "bookId": 852, "start": 438535, "end": 440134, "sha256": "d37f28d93fddd59a07683b3a657fd259b8dee98d26bdc8db69ea6c4f6ed33af1", "text": "II. But it is likely that elaborate statements regarding this primary stage of knowledge will darken understanding. It includes practically all of our knowledge which is not the result of deliberate technical study. Modes of purposeful doing include dealings with persons as well as things. Impulses of communication and habits of intercourse have to be adapted to maintaining successful connections with others; a large fund of social knowledge accrues. As a part of this intercommunication one learns much from others. They tell of their experiences and of the experiences which, in turn, have been told them. In so far as one is interested or concerned in these communications, their matter becomes a part of one's own experience. Active connections with others are such an intimate and vital part of our own concerns that it is impossible to draw sharp lines, such as would enable us to say, \"Here my experience ends; there yours begins.\" In so far as we are partners in common undertakings, the things which others communicate to us as the consequences of their particular share in the enterprise blend at once into the experience resulting from our own special doings. The ear is as much an organ of experience as the eye or hand; the eye is available for reading reports of what happens beyond its horizon. Things remote in space and time affect the issue of our actions quite as much as things which we can smell and handle. They really concern us, and, consequently, any account of them which assists us in dealing with things at hand falls within personal experience.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00339", "bookId": 852, "start": 440138, "end": 440739, "sha256": "2dad24017f4e6c057c129146222b838c2cae3ff25ffb3b14f8c6ed0fae3550aa", "text": "Information is the name usually given to this kind of subject matter. The place of communication in personal doing supplies us with a criterion for estimating the value of informational material in school. Does it grow naturally out of some question with which the student is concerned? Does it fit into his more direct acquaintance so as to increase its efficacy and deepen its meaning? If it meets these two requirements, it is educative. The amount heard or read is of no importance--the more the better, provided the student has a need for it and can apply it in some situation of his own.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00340", "bookId": 852, "start": 440743, "end": 441871, "sha256": "ba2c0e119f8fada3bb5c282ca8574ce13f91f951ae84171f8b17afa132699d57", "text": "But it is not so easy to fulfill these requirements in actual practice as it is to lay them down in theory. The extension in modern times of the area of intercommunication; the invention of appliances for securing acquaintance with remote parts of the heavens and bygone events of history; the cheapening of devices, like printing, for recording and distributing information--genuine and alleged--have created an immense bulk of communicated subject matter. It is much easier to swamp a pupil with this than to work it into his direct experiences. All too frequently it forms another strange world which just overlies the world of personal acquaintance. The sole problem of the student is to learn, for school purposes, for purposes of recitations and promotions, the constituent parts of this strange world. Probably the most conspicuous connotation of the word knowledge for most persons to-day is just the body of facts and truths ascertained by others; the material found in the rows and rows of atlases, cyclopedias, histories, biographies, books of travel, scientific treatises, on the shelves of libraries.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00341", "bookId": 852, "start": 441875, "end": 442508, "sha256": "8340ba5169d75ae777392b3645f2f2400ceb59efd63018f685a4c7ec21faace0", "text": "The imposing stupendous bulk of this material has unconsciously influenced men's notions of the nature of knowledge itself. The statements, the propositions, in which knowledge, the issue of active concern with problems, is deposited, are taken to be themselves knowledge. The record of knowledge, independent of its place as an outcome of inquiry and a resource in further inquiry, is taken to be knowledge. The mind of man is taken captive by the spoils of its prior victories; the spoils, not the weapons and the acts of waging the battle against the unknown, are used to fix the meaning of knowledge, of fact, and truth.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00342", "bookId": 852, "start": 442512, "end": 444368, "sha256": "21a37bd585a0d49aea427562ed125eaa6dd7e2c3fefe715679591093ffc3a380", "text": "If this identification of knowledge with propositions stating information has fastened itself upon logicians and philosophers, it is not surprising that the same ideal has almost dominated instruction. The \"course of study\" consists largely of information distributed into various branches of study, each study being subdivided into lessons presenting in serial cutoff portions of the total store. In the seventeenth century, the store was still small enough so that men set up the ideal of a complete encyclopedic mastery of it. It is now so bulky that the impossibility of any one man's coming into possession of it all is obvious. But the educational ideal has not been much affected. Acquisition of a modicum of information in each branch of learning, or at least in a selected group, remains the principle by which the curriculum, from elementary school through college, is formed; the easier portions being assigned to the earlier years, the more difficult to the later. The complaints of educators that learning does not enter into character and affect conduct; the protests against memoriter work, against cramming, against gradgrind preoccupation with \"facts,\" against devotion to wire-drawn distinctions and ill-understood rules and principles, all follow from this state of affairs. Knowledge which is mainly second-hand, other men's knowledge, tends to become merely verbal. It is no objection to information that it is clothed in words; communication necessarily takes place through words. But in the degree in which what is communicated cannot be organized into the existing experience of the learner, it becomes mere words: that is, pure sense-stimuli, lacking in meaning. Then it operates to call out mechanical reactions, ability to use the vocal organs to repeat statements, or the hand to write or to do \"sums.\"", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00343", "bookId": 852, "start": 444372, "end": 445392, "sha256": "f715e9d58421aaee86787b846e9b20447d8b6df925d967e64d0af420b86f12e8", "text": "To be informed is to be posted; it is to have at command the subject matter needed for an effective dealing with a problem, and for giving added significance to the search for solution and to the solution itself. Informational knowledge is the material which can be fallen back upon as given, settled, established, assured in a doubtful situation. It is a kind of bridge for mind in its passage from doubt to discovery. It has the office of an intellectual middleman. It condenses and records in available form the net results of the prior experiences of mankind, as an agency of enhancing the meaning of new experiences. When one is told that Brutus assassinated Caesar, or that the length of the year is three hundred sixty-five and one fourth days, or that the ratio of the diameter of the circle to its circumference is 3.1415. . . one receives what is indeed knowledge for others, but for him it is a stimulus to knowing. His acquisition of knowledge depends upon his response to what is communicated.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00344", "bookId": 852, "start": 445396, "end": 446666, "sha256": "6b9615d285a60916f63e560e21a3ad5b835efeec89271ab6693e339258e56def", "text": "3. Science or Rationalized Knowledge. Science is a name for knowledge in its most characteristic form. It represents in its degree, the perfected outcome of learning,--its consummation. What is known, in a given case, is what is sure, certain, settled, disposed of; that which we think with rather than that which we think about. In its honorable sense, knowledge is distinguished from opinion, guesswork, speculation, and mere tradition. In knowledge, things are ascertained; they are so and not dubiously otherwise. But experience makes us aware that there is difference between intellectual certainty of subject matter and our certainty. We are made, so to speak, for belief; credulity is natural. The undisciplined mind is averse to suspense and intellectual hesitation; it is prone to assertion. It likes things undisturbed, settled, and treats them as such without due warrant. Familiarity, common repute, and congeniality to desire are readily made measuring rods of truth. Ignorance gives way to opinionated and current error,--a greater foe to learning than ignorance itself. A Socrates is thus led to declare that consciousness of ignorance is the beginning of effective love of wisdom, and a Descartes to say that science is born of doubting.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00345", "bookId": 852, "start": 446670, "end": 447740, "sha256": "6c58c6d2c2812b9ae1a27236e4b5315404bd91e18dcfd00eeea3021e9fd19965", "text": "We have already dwelt upon the fact that subject matter, or data, and ideas have to have their worth tested experimentally: that in themselves they are tentative and provisional. Our predilection for premature acceptance and assertion, our aversion to suspended judgment, are signs that we tend naturally to cut short the process of testing. We are satisfied with superficial and immediate short-visioned applications. If these work out with moderate satisfactoriness, we are content to suppose that our assumptions have been confirmed. Even in the case of failure, we are inclined to put the blame not on the inadequacy and incorrectness of our data and thoughts, but upon our hard luck and the hostility of circumstance. We charge the evil consequence not to the error of our schemes and our incomplete inquiry into conditions (thereby getting material for revising the former and stimulus for extending the latter) but to untoward fate. We even plume ourselves upon our firmness in clinging to our conceptions in spite of the way in which they work out.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00346", "bookId": 852, "start": 447744, "end": 449149, "sha256": "e328301a45d2d06279238fa5394b1ce5ca3c0d3fdedd4b80b0e6130fb796d688", "text": "Science represents the safeguard of the race against these natural propensities and the evils which flow from them. It consists of the special appliances and methods which the race has slowly worked out in order to conduct reflection under conditions whereby its procedures and results are tested. It is artificial (an acquired art), not spontaneous; learned, not native. To this fact is due the unique, the invaluable place of science in education, and also the dangers which threaten its right use. Without initiation into the scientific spirit one is not in possession of the best tools which humanity has so far devised for effectively directed reflection. One in that case not merely conducts inquiry and learning without the use of the best instruments, but fails to understand the full meaning of knowledge. For he does not become acquainted with the traits that mark off opinion and assent from authorized conviction. On the other hand, the fact that science marks the perfecting of knowing in highly specialized conditions of technique renders its results, taken by themselves, remote from ordinary experience--a quality of aloofness that is popularly designated by the term abstract. When this isolation appears in instruction, scientific information is even more exposed to the dangers attendant upon presenting ready-made subject matter than are other forms of information.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00347", "bookId": 852, "start": 449153, "end": 451763, "sha256": "c5c2fd6166b63a6fefe88615e4d59b882a98a63add9f922a2bdf60ce223f382a", "text": "Science has been defined in terms of method of inquiry and testing. At first sight, this definition may seem opposed to the current conception that science is organized or systematized knowledge. The opposition, however, is only seeming, and disappears when the ordinary definition is completed. Not organization but the kind of organization effected by adequate methods of tested discovery marks off science. The knowledge of a farmer is systematized in the degree in which he is competent. It is organized on the basis of relation of means to ends--practically organized. Its organization as knowledge (that is, in the eulogistic sense of adequately tested and confirmed) is incidental to its organization with reference to securing crops, live-stock, etc. But scientific subject matter is organized with specific reference to the successful conduct of the enterprise of discovery, to knowing as a specialized undertaking. Reference to the kind of assurance attending science will shed light upon this statement. It is rational assurance,--logical warranty. The ideal of scientific organization is, therefore, that every conception and statement shall be of such a kind as to follow from others and to lead to others. Conceptions and propositions mutually imply and support one another. This double relation of \"leading to and confirming\" is what is meant by the terms logical and rational. The everyday conception of water is more available for ordinary uses of drinking, washing, irrigation, etc., than the chemist's notion of it. The latter's description of it as H20 is superior from the standpoint of place and use in inquiry. It states the nature of water in a way which connects it with knowledge of other things, indicating to one who understands it how the knowledge is arrived at and its bearings upon other portions of knowledge of the structure of things. Strictly speaking, it does not indicate the objective relations of water any more than does a statement that water is transparent, fluid, without taste or odor, satisfying to thirst, etc. It is just as true that water has these relations as that it is constituted by two molecules of hydrogen in combination with one of oxygen. But for the particular purpose of conducting discovery with a view to ascertainment of fact, the latter relations are fundamental. The more one emphasizes organization as a mark of science, then, the more he is committed to a recognition of the primacy of method in the definition of science. For method defines the kind of organization in virtue of which science is science.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00348", "bookId": 852, "start": 451767, "end": 455662, "sha256": "7d31b7c738db25706c02d9223ea666bd8dbc04d052acb4df7a2ac5225974ebe9", "text": "4. Subject Matter as Social. Our next chapters will take up various school activities and studies and discuss them as successive stages in that evolution of knowledge which we have just been discussing. It remains to say a few words upon subject matter as social, since our prior remarks have been mainly concerned with its intellectual aspect. A difference in breadth and depth exists even in vital knowledge; even in the data and ideas which are relevant to real problems and which are motivated by purposes. For there is a difference in the social scope of purposes and the social importance of problems. With the wide range of possible material to select from, it is important that education (especially in all its phases short of the most specialized) should use a criterion of social worth. All information and systematized scientific subject matter have been worked out under the conditions of social life and have been transmitted by social means. But this does not prove that all is of equal value for the purposes of forming the disposition and supplying the equipment of members of present society. The scheme of a curriculum must take account of the adaptation of studies to the needs of the existing community life; it must select with the intention of improving the life we live in common so that the future shall be better than the past. Moreover, the curriculum must be planned with reference to placing essentials first, and refinements second. The things which are socially most fundamental, that is, which have to do with the experiences in which the widest groups share, are the essentials. The things which represent the needs of specialized groups and technical pursuits are secondary. There is truth in the saying that education must first be human and only after that professional. But those who utter the saying frequently have in mind in the term human only a highly specialized class: the class of learned men who preserve the classic traditions of the past. They forget that material is humanized in the degree in which it connects with the common interests of men as men. Democratic society is peculiarly dependent for its maintenance upon the use in forming a course of study of criteria which are broadly human. Democracy cannot flourish where the chief influences in selecting subject matter of instruction are utilitarian ends narrowly conceived for the masses, and, for the higher education of the few, the traditions of a specialized cultivated class. The notion that the \"essentials\" of elementary education are the three R's mechanically treated, is based upon ignorance of the essentials needed for realization of democratic ideals. Unconsciously it assumes that these ideals are unrealizable; it assumes that in the future, as in the past, getting a livelihood, \"making a living,\" must signify for most men and women doing things which are not significant, freely chosen, and ennobling to those who do them; doing things which serve ends unrecognized by those engaged in them, carried on under the direction of others for the sake of pecuniary reward. For preparation of large numbers for a life of this sort, and only for this purpose, are mechanical efficiency in reading, writing, spelling and figuring, together with attainment of a certain amount of muscular dexterity, \"essentials.\" Such conditions also infect the education called liberal, with illiberality. They imply a somewhat parasitic cultivation bought at the expense of not having the enlightenment and discipline which come from concern with the deepest problems of common humanity. A curriculum which acknowledges the social responsibilities of education must present situations where problems are relevant to the problems of living together, and where observation and information are calculated to develop social insight and interest.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00349", "bookId": 852, "start": 455666, "end": 457152, "sha256": "7b760a450ca91cc475ad74d3eeb93f416ad8621fea4d5c5e84dbbb74c6afd26f", "text": "Summary. The subject matter of education consists primarily of the meanings which supply content to existing social life. The continuity of social life means that many of these meanings are contributed to present activity by past collective experience. As social life grows more complex, these factors increase in number and import. There is need of special selection, formulation, and organization in order that they may be adequately transmitted to the new generation. But this very process tends to set up subject matter as something of value just by itself, apart from its function in promoting the realization of the meanings implied in the present experience of the immature. Especially is the educator exposed to the temptation to conceive his task in terms of the pupil's ability to appropriate and reproduce the subject matter in set statements, irrespective of its organization into his activities as a developing social member. The positive principle is maintained when the young begin with active occupations having a social origin and use, and proceed to a scientific insight in the materials and laws involved, through assimilating into their more direct experience the ideas and facts communicated by others who have had a larger experience. 1 Since the learned man should also still be a learner, it will be understood that these contrasts are relative, not absolute. But in the earlier stages of learning at least they are practically all-important.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00350", "bookId": 852, "start": 457162, "end": 457210, "sha256": "2b8fa3fc4a707236a86f92e827cac28a5a83515ce6e59c11789a7ade35cfcc9d", "text": "Chapter Fifteen: Play and Work in the Curriculum", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG852.B00351", "bookId": 852, "start": 457214, "end": 460188, "sha256": "ccff14aedda5494e3dc63c14e58e5bbefb8a5e9e76c4496c90a2c6e4b36c7faa", "text": "1. The Place of Active Occupations in Education. In consequence partly of the efforts of educational reformers, partly of increased interest in child-psychology, and partly of the direct experience of the schoolroom, the course of study has in the past generation undergone considerable modification. The desirability of starting from and with the experience and capacities of learners, a lesson enforced from all three quarters, has led to the introduction of forms of activity, in play and work, similar to those in which children and youth engage outside of school. Modern psychology has substituted for the general, ready-made faculties of older theory a complex group of instinctive and impulsive tendencies. Experience has shown that when children have a chance at physical activities which bring their natural impulses into play, going to school is a joy, management is less of a burden, and learning is easier. Sometimes, perhaps, plays, games, and constructive occupations are resorted to only for these reasons, with emphasis upon relief from the tedium and strain of \"regular\" school work. There is no reason, however, for using them merely as agreeable diversions. Study of mental life has made evident the fundamental worth of native tendencies to explore, to manipulate tools and materials, to construct, to give expression to joyous emotion, etc. When exercises which are prompted by these instincts are a part of the regular school program, the whole pupil is engaged, the artificial gap between life in school and out is reduced, motives are afforded for attention to a large variety of materials and processes distinctly educative in effect, and cooperative associations which give information in a social setting are provided. In short, the grounds for assigning to play and active work a definite place in the curriculum are intellectual and social, not matters of temporary expediency and momentary agreeableness. Without something of the kind, it is not possible to secure the normal estate of effective learning; namely, that knowledge-getting be an outgrowth of activities having their own end, instead of a school task. More specifically, play and work correspond, point for point, with the traits of the initial stage of knowing, which consists, as we saw in the last chapter, in learning how to do things and in acquaintance with things and processes gained in the doing. It is suggestive that among the Greeks, till the rise of conscious philosophy, the same word, techne, was used for art and science. Plato gave his account of knowledge on the basis of an analysis of the knowledge of cobblers, carpenters, players of musical instruments, etc., pointing out that their art (so far as it was not mere routine) involved an end, mastery of material or stuff worked upon, control of appliances, and a definite order of procedure--all of which had to be known in order that there be intelligent skill or art.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00352", "bookId": 852, "start": 460192, "end": 461437, "sha256": "fbc6f8f7decea4e82cdc7a1bb6956f24dfd3087d3cdc87124bd8521673b3c49f", "text": "Doubtless the fact that children normally engage in play and work out of school has seemed to many educators a reason why they should concern themselves in school with things radically different. School time seemed too precious to spend in doing over again what children were sure to do any way. In some social conditions, this reason has weight. In pioneer times, for example, outside occupations gave a definite and valuable intellectual and moral training. Books and everything concerned with them were, on the other hand, rare and difficult of access; they were the only means of outlet from a narrow and crude environment. Wherever such conditions obtain, much may be said in favor of concentrating school activity upon books. The situation is very different, however, in most communities to-day. The kinds of work in which the young can engage, especially in cities, are largely anti-educational. That prevention of child labor is a social duty is evidence on this point. On the other hand, printed matter has been so cheapened and is in such universal circulation, and all the opportunities of intellectual culture have been so multiplied, that the older type of book work is far from having the force it used to possess.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00353", "bookId": 852, "start": 461441, "end": 462198, "sha256": "0095917e9fdd83a674046c89b5648758390e51230f379444d39037815d0a439b", "text": "But it must not be forgotten that an educational result is a by-product of play and work in most out-of-school conditions. It is incidental, not primary. Consequently the educative growth secured is more or less accidental. Much work shares in the defects of existing industrial society--defects next to fatal to right development. Play tends to reproduce and affirm the crudities, as well as the excellencies, of surrounding adult life. It is the business of the school to set up an environment in which play and work shall be conducted with reference to facilitating desirable mental and moral growth. It is not enough just to introduce plays and games, hand work and manual exercises. Everything depends upon the way in which they are employed.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00354", "bookId": 852, "start": 462202, "end": 463040, "sha256": "36ed20d46562cd11bd16aa51749722544ea5233540216668d8ef826d74d01d25", "text": "2. Available Occupations. A bare catalogue of the list of activities which have already found their way into schools indicates what a rich field is at hand. There is work with paper, cardboard, wood, leather, cloth, yarns, clay and sand, and the metals, with and without tools. Processes employed are folding, cutting, pricking, measuring, molding, modeling, pattern-making, heating and cooling, and the operations characteristic of such tools as the hammer, saw, file, etc. Outdoor excursions, gardening, cooking, sewing, printing, book-binding, weaving, painting, drawing, singing, dramatization, story-telling, reading and writing as active pursuits with social aims (not as mere exercises for acquiring skill for future use), in addition to a countless variety of plays and games, designate some of the modes of occupation.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00355", "bookId": 852, "start": 463044, "end": 465385, "sha256": "6f75231c90374c29eeeb4768c2b2bd1aeead1a480f827ece79c1126ec523eb61", "text": "The problem of the educator is to engage pupils in these activities in such ways that while manual skill and technical efficiency are gained and immediate satisfaction found in the work, together with preparation for later usefulness, these things shall be subordinated to education--that is, to intellectual results and the forming of a socialized disposition. What does this principle signify? In the first place, the principle rules out certain practices. Activities which follow definite prescription and dictation or which reproduce without modification ready-made models, may give muscular dexterity, but they do not require the perception and elaboration of ends, nor (what is the same thing in other words) do they permit the use of judgment in selecting and adapting means. Not merely manual training specifically so called but many traditional kindergarten exercises have erred here. Moreover, opportunity for making mistakes is an incidental requirement. Not because mistakes are ever desirable, but because overzeal to select material and appliances which forbid a chance for mistakes to occur, restricts initiative, reduces judgment to a minimum, and compels the use of methods which are so remote from the complex situations of life that the power gained is of little availability. It is quite true that children tend to exaggerate their powers of execution and to select projects that are beyond them. But limitation of capacity is one of the things which has to be learned; like other things, it is learned through the experience of consequences. The danger that children undertaking too complex projects will simply muddle and mess, and produce not merely crude results (which is a minor matter) but acquire crude standards (which is an important matter) is great. But it is the fault of the teacher if the pupil does not perceive in due season the inadequacy of his performances, and thereby receive a stimulus to attempt exercises which will perfect his powers. Meantime it is more important to keep alive a creative and constructive attitude than to secure an external perfection by engaging the pupil's action in too minute and too closely regulated pieces of work. Accuracy and finish of detail can be insisted upon in such portions of a complex work as are within the pupil's capacity.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00356", "bookId": 852, "start": 465389, "end": 466896, "sha256": "f91cff5b866553eaf8fbd84fa144c621ad5fabd4f8816c0d645b516a22b53d30", "text": "Unconscious suspicion of native experience and consequent overdoing of external control are shown quite as much in the material supplied as in the matter of the teacher's orders. The fear of raw material is shown in laboratory, manual training shop, Froebelian kindergarten, and Montessori house of childhood. The demand is for materials which have already been subjected to the perfecting work of mind: a demand which shows itself in the subject matter of active occupations quite as well as in academic book learning. That such material will control the pupil's operations so as to prevent errors is true. The notion that a pupil operating with such material will somehow absorb the intelligence that went originally to its shaping is fallacious. Only by starting with crude material and subjecting it to purposeful handling will he gain the intelligence embodied in finished material. In practice, overemphasis upon formed material leads to an exaggeration of mathematical qualities, since intellect finds its profit in physical things from matters of size, form, and proportion and the relations that flow from them. But these are known only when their perception is a fruit of acting upon purposes which require attention to them. The more human the purpose, or the more it approximates the ends which appeal in daily experience, the more real the knowledge. When the purpose of the activity is restricted to ascertaining these qualities, the resulting knowledge is only technical.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00357", "bookId": 852, "start": 466900, "end": 469397, "sha256": "fb0421222f025b439c9da43abec98ee33592b5a29845c1ebc93ba3ee1c459bef", "text": "To say that active occupations should be concerned primarily with wholes is another statement of the same principle. Wholes for purposes of education are not, however, physical affairs. Intellectually the existence of a whole depends upon a concern or interest; it is qualitative, the completeness of appeal made by a situation. Exaggerated devotion to formation of efficient skill irrespective of present purpose always shows itself in devising exercises isolated from a purpose. Laboratory work is made to consist of tasks of accurate measurement with a view to acquiring knowledge of the fundamental units of physics, irrespective of contact with the problems which make these units important; or of operations designed to afford facility in the manipulation of experimental apparatus. The technique is acquired independently of the purposes of discovery and testing which alone give it meaning. Kindergarten employments are calculated to give information regarding cubes, spheres, etc., and to form certain habits of manipulation of material (for everything must always be done \"just so\"), the absence of more vital purposes being supposedly compensated for by the alleged symbolism of the material used. Manual training is reduced to a series of ordered assignments calculated to secure the mastery of one tool after another and technical ability in the various elements of construction--like the different joints. It is argued that pupils must know how to use tools before they attack actual making,--assuming that pupils cannot learn how in the process of making. Pestalozzi's just insistence upon the active use of the senses, as a substitute for memorizing words, left behind it in practice schemes for \"object lessons\" intended to acquaint pupils with all the qualities of selected objects. The error is the same: in all these cases it is assumed that before objects can be intelligently used, their properties must be known. In fact, the senses are normally used in the course of intelligent (that is, purposeful) use of things, since the qualities perceived are factors to be reckoned with in accomplishment. Witness the different attitude of a boy in making, say, a kite, with respect to the grain and other properties of wood, the matter of size, angles, and proportion of parts, to the attitude of a pupil who has an object-lesson on a piece of wood, where the sole function of wood and its properties is to serve as subject matter for the lesson.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00358", "bookId": 852, "start": 469401, "end": 470842, "sha256": "90355140cb750fb259d22cbc155bfa9417826671278efa5e18dd2368591ba54a", "text": "The failure to realize that the functional development of a situation alone constitutes a \"whole\" for the purpose of mind is the cause of the false notions which have prevailed in instruction concerning the simple and the complex. For the person approaching a subject, the simple thing is his purpose--the use he desires to make of material, tool, or technical process, no matter how complicated the process of execution may be. The unity of the purpose, with the concentration upon details which it entails, confers simplicity upon the elements which have to be reckoned with in the course of action. It furnishes each with a single meaning according to its service in carrying on the whole enterprise. After one has gone through the process, the constituent qualities and relations are elements, each possessed with a definite meaning of its own. The false notion referred to takes the standpoint of the expert, the one for whom elements exist; isolates them from purposeful action, and presents them to beginners as the \"simple\" things. But it is time for a positive statement. Aside from the fact that active occupations represent things to do, not studies, their educational significance consists in the fact that they may typify social situations. Men's fundamental common concerns center about food, shelter, clothing, household furnishings, and the appliances connected with production, exchange, and consumption.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00359", "bookId": 852, "start": 470846, "end": 471060, "sha256": "e6db0425fee3ca30b2e858b67fd3c748b6966b4aed2f7a0282f0462c19d55b56", "text": "Representing both the necessities of life and the adornments with which the necessities have been clothed, they tap instincts at a deep level; they are saturated with facts and principles having a social quality.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00360", "bookId": 852, "start": 471064, "end": 472031, "sha256": "20592e521a541956129b93c88298b755de87995b98f0481f2cb4ab09ef6b8004", "text": "To charge that the various activities of gardening, weaving, construction in wood, manipulation of metals, cooking, etc., which carry over these fundamental human concerns into school resources, have a merely bread and butter value is to miss their point. If the mass of mankind has usually found in its industrial occupations nothing but evils which had to be endured for the sake of maintaining existence, the fault is not in the occupations, but in the conditions under which they are carried on. The continually increasing importance of economic factors in contemporary life makes it the more needed that education should reveal their scientific content and their social value. For in schools, occupations are not carried on for pecuniary gain but for their own content. Freed from extraneous associations and from the pressure of wage-earning, they supply modes of experience which are intrinsically valuable; they are truly liberalizing in quality.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00361", "bookId": 852, "start": 472035, "end": 473267, "sha256": "5bb1d8dca4a12bdaaf6714030921538da0c987dafc77d101bbcc1ca36c07ff43", "text": "Gardening, for example, need not be taught either for the sake of preparing future gardeners, or as an agreeable way of passing time. It affords an avenue of approach to knowledge of the place farming and horticulture have had in the history of the race and which they occupy in present social organization. Carried on in an environment educationally controlled, they are means for making a study of the facts of growth, the chemistry of soil, the role of light, air, and moisture, injurious and helpful animal life, etc. There is nothing in the elementary study of botany which cannot be introduced in a vital way in connection with caring for the growth of seeds. Instead of the subject matter belonging to a peculiar study called botany, it will then belong to life, and will find, moreover, its natural correlations with the facts of soil, animal life, and human relations. As students grow mature, they will perceive problems of interest which may be pursued for the sake of discovery, independent of the original direct interest in gardening--problems connected with the germination and nutrition of plants, the reproduction of fruits, etc., thus making a transition to deliberate intellectual investigations.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00362", "bookId": 852, "start": 473271, "end": 474719, "sha256": "62836dc24f8fec6d3a881f4d9e6b3707ddbcb68eaaffe12f47579464b34ff8a6", "text": "The illustration is intended to apply, of course, to other school occupations,--wood-working, cooking, and on through the list. It is pertinent to note that in the history of the race the sciences grew gradually out from useful social occupations. Physics developed slowly out of the use of tools and machines; the important branch of physics known as mechanics testifies in its name to its original associations. The lever, wheel, inclined plane, etc., were among the first great intellectual discoveries of mankind, and they are none the less intellectual because they occurred in the course of seeking for means of accomplishing practical ends. The great advance of electrical science in the last generation was closely associated, as effect and as cause, with application of electric agencies to means of communication, transportation, lighting of cities and houses, and more economical production of goods. These are social ends, moreover, and if they are too closely associated with notions of private profit, it is not because of anything in them, but because they have been deflected to private uses:--a fact which puts upon the school the responsibility of restoring their connection, in the mind of the coming generation, with public scientific and social interests. In like ways, chemistry grew out of processes of dying, bleaching, metal working, etc., and in recent times has found innumerable new uses in industry.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00363", "bookId": 852, "start": 474723, "end": 475929, "sha256": "e372b017aaef6caff2d4358872c2e849eef2a2f0f99ed7a685d7c3e5eef8be32", "text": "Mathematics is now a highly abstract science; geometry, however, means literally earth-measuring: the practical use of number in counting to keep track of things and in measuring is even more important to-day than in the times when it was invented for these purposes. Such considerations (which could be duplicated in the history of any science) are not arguments for a recapitulation of the history of the race or for dwelling long in the early rule of thumb stage. But they indicate the possibilities--greater to-day than ever before--of using active occupations as opportunities for scientific study. The opportunities are just as great on the social side, whether we look at the life of collective humanity in its past or in its future. The most direct road for elementary students into civics and economics is found in consideration of the place and office of industrial occupations in social life. Even for older students, the social sciences would be less abstract and formal if they were dealt with less as sciences (less as formulated bodies of knowledge) and more in their direct subject-matter as that is found in the daily life of the social groups in which the student shares.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00364", "bookId": 852, "start": 475933, "end": 477156, "sha256": "0c3ff58474f76ea0bf204aa995a46e2ceef194447dee21707dd46304aa79696a", "text": "Connection of occupations with the method of science is at least as close as with its subject matter. The ages when scientific progress was slow were the ages when learned men had contempt for the material and processes of everyday life, especially for those concerned with manual pursuits. Consequently they strove to develop knowledge out of general principles--almost out of their heads--by logical reasons. It seems as absurd that learning should come from action on and with physical things, like dropping acid on a stone to see what would happen, as that it should come from sticking an awl with waxed thread through a piece of leather. But the rise of experimental methods proved that, given control of conditions, the latter operation is more typical of the right way of knowledge than isolated logical reasonings. Experiment developed in the seventeenth and succeeding centuries and became the authorized way of knowing when men's interests were centered in the question of control of nature for human uses. The active occupations in which appliances are brought to bear upon physical things with the intention of effecting useful changes is the most vital introduction to the experimental method.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00365", "bookId": 852, "start": 477160, "end": 478834, "sha256": "f4c4ccc9c0df6a09e7e508747e24a035fad7b37b005977e6a6a5a2ddb7a96171", "text": "3. Work and Play. What has been termed active occupation includes both play and work. In their intrinsic meaning, play and industry are by no means so antithetical to one another as is often assumed, any sharp contrast being due to undesirable social conditions. Both involve ends consciously entertained and the selection and adaptations of materials and processes designed to effect the desired ends. The difference between them is largely one of time-span, influencing the directness of the connection of means and ends. In play, the interest is more direct--a fact frequently indicated by saying that in play the activity is its own end, instead of its having an ulterior result. The statement is correct, but it is falsely taken, if supposed to mean that play activity is momentary, having no element of looking ahead and none of pursuit. Hunting, for example, is one of the commonest forms of adult play, but the existence of foresight and the direction of present activity by what one is watching for are obvious. When an activity is its own end in the sense that the action of the moment is complete in itself, it is purely physical; it has no meaning (See p. 77). The person is either going through motions quite blindly, perhaps purely imitatively, or else is in a state of excitement which is exhausting to mind and nerves. Both results may be seen in some types of kindergarten games where the idea of play is so highly symbolic that only the adult is conscious of it. Unless the children succeed in reading in some quite different idea of their own, they move about either as if in a hypnotic daze, or they respond to a direct excitation.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00366", "bookId": 852, "start": 478838, "end": 480073, "sha256": "c2666fbd39e7c5244fc28a838d87d293d40e624c21675e5cda7d40fb28d18efe", "text": "The point of these remarks is that play has an end in the sense of a directing idea which gives point to the successive acts. Persons who play are not just doing something (pure physical movement); they are trying to do or effect something, an attitude that involves anticipatory forecasts which stimulate their present responses. The anticipated result, however, is rather a subsequent action than the production of a specific change in things. Consequently play is free, plastic. Where some definite external outcome is wanted, the end has to be held to with some persistence, which increases as the contemplated result is complex and requires a fairly long series of intermediate adaptations. When the intended act is another activity, it is not necessary to look far ahead and it is possible to alter it easily and frequently. If a child is making a toy boat, he must hold on to a single end and direct a considerable number of acts by that one idea. If he is just \"playing boat\" he may change the material that serves as a boat almost at will, and introduce new factors as fancy suggests. The imagination makes what it will of chairs, blocks, leaves, chips, if they serve the purpose of carrying activity forward.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00367", "bookId": 852, "start": 480077, "end": 481307, "sha256": "ffe19fcf164f0fbc331d8335371a2e32234c52a8c5e787d67e3c04168769b016", "text": "From a very early age, however, there is no distinction of exclusive periods of play activity and work activity, but only one of emphasis. There are definite results which even young children desire, and try to bring to pass. Their eager interest in sharing the occupations of others, if nothing else, accomplishes this. Children want to \"help\"; they are anxious to engage in the pursuits of adults which effect external changes: setting the table, washing dishes, helping care for animals, etc. In their plays, they like to construct their own toys and appliances. With increasing maturity, activity which does not give back results of tangible and visible achievement loses its interest. Play then changes to fooling and if habitually indulged in is demoralizing. Observable results are necessary to enable persons to get a sense and a measure of their own powers. When make-believe is recognized to be make-believe, the device of making objects in fancy alone is too easy to stimulate intense action. One has only to observe the countenance of children really playing to note that their attitude is one of serious absorption; this attitude cannot be maintained when things cease to afford adequate stimulation.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00368", "bookId": 852, "start": 481311, "end": 484799, "sha256": "c20e0c4fc349bc13a33c7d62d1f76c7aca011ee912b776146d59298533d562c0", "text": "When fairly remote results of a definite character are foreseen and enlist persistent effort for their accomplishment, play passes into work. Like play, it signifies purposeful activity and differs not in that activity is subordinated to an external result, but in the fact that a longer course of activity is occasioned by the idea of a result. The demand for continuous attention is greater, and more intelligence must be shown in selecting and shaping means. To extend this account would be to repeat what has been said under the caption of aim, interest, and thinking. It is pertinent, however, to inquire why the idea is so current that work involves subordination of an activity to an ulterior material result. The extreme form of this subordination, namely drudgery, offers a clew. Activity carried on under conditions of external pressure or coercion is not carried on for any significance attached to the doing. The course of action is not intrinsically satisfying; it is a mere means for avoiding some penalty, or for gaining some reward at its conclusion. What is inherently repulsive is endured for the sake of averting something still more repulsive or of securing a gain hitched on by others. Under unfree economic conditions, this state of affairs is bound to exist. Work or industry offers little to engage the emotions and the imagination; it is a more or less mechanical series of strains. Only the hold which the completion of the work has upon a person will keep him going. But the end should be intrinsic to the action; it should be its end--a part of its own course. Then it affords a stimulus to effort very different from that arising from the thought of results which have nothing to do with the intervening action. As already mentioned, the absence of economic pressure in schools supplies an opportunity for reproducing industrial situations of mature life under conditions where the occupation can be carried on for its own sake. If in some cases, pecuniary recognition is also a result of an action, though not the chief motive for it, that fact may well increase the significance of the occupation. Where something approaching drudgery or the need of fulfilling externally imposed tasks exists, the demand for play persists, but tends to be perverted. The ordinary course of action fails to give adequate stimulus to emotion and imagination. So in leisure time, there is an imperious demand for their stimulation by any kind of means; gambling, drink, etc., may be resorted to. Or, in less extreme cases, there is recourse to idle amusement; to anything which passes time with immediate agreeableness. Recreation, as the word indicates, is recuperation of energy. No demand of human nature is more urgent or less to be escaped. The idea that the need can be suppressed is absolutely fallacious, and the Puritanic tradition which disallows the need has entailed an enormous crop of evils. If education does not afford opportunity for wholesome recreation and train capacity for seeking and finding it, the suppressed instincts find all sorts of illicit outlets, sometimes overt, sometimes confined to indulgence of the imagination. Education has no more serious responsibility than making adequate provision for enjoyment of recreative leisure; not only for the sake of immediate health, but still more if possible for the sake of its lasting effect upon habits of mind. Art is again the answer to this demand.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00369", "bookId": 852, "start": 484803, "end": 486488, "sha256": "24508d236ca91b181b4928729d102bae2e21204bcb8d5bb0bf4fbee6f5977b64", "text": "Summary. In the previous chapter we found that the primary subject matter of knowing is that contained in learning how to do things of a fairly direct sort. The educational equivalent of this principle is the consistent use of simple occupations which appeal to the powers of youth and which typify general modes of social activity. Skill and information about materials, tools, and laws of energy are acquired while activities are carried on for their own sake. The fact that they are socially representative gives a quality to the skill and knowledge gained which makes them transferable to out-of-school situations. It is important not to confuse the psychological distinction between play and work with the economic distinction. Psychologically, the defining characteristic of play is not amusement nor aimlessness. It is the fact that the aim is thought of as more activity in the same line, without defining continuity of action in reference to results produced. Activities as they grow more complicated gain added meaning by greater attention to specific results achieved. Thus they pass gradually into work. Both are equally free and intrinsically motivated, apart from false economic conditions which tend to make play into idle excitement for the well to do, and work into uncongenial labor for the poor. Work is psychologically simply an activity which consciously includes regard for consequences as a part of itself; it becomes constrained labor when the consequences are outside of the activity as an end to which activity is merely a means. Work which remains permeated with the play attitude is art--in quality if not in conventional designation.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00370", "bookId": 852, "start": 486498, "end": 486556, "sha256": "ee370ef836803f68850f53d061ee7d251d1ea560a573f73ea825afa663ff86d7", "text": "Chapter Sixteen: The Significance of Geography and History", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG852.B00371", "bookId": 852, "start": 486560, "end": 489376, "sha256": "50241478ac61ea6c41e510829735b8809a0a0a90cd253acb9c99540e725dd143", "text": "1. Extension of Meaning of Primary Activities. Nothing is more striking than the difference between an activity as merely physical and the wealth of meanings which the same activity may assume. From the outside, an astronomer gazing through a telescope is like a small boy looking through the same tube. In each case, there is an arrangement of glass and metal, an eye, and a little speck of light in the distance. Yet at a critical moment, the activity of an astronomer might be concerned with the birth of a world, and have whatever is known about the starry heavens as its significant content. Physically speaking, what man has effected on this globe in his progress from savagery is a mere scratch on its surface, not perceptible at a distance which is slight in comparison with the reaches even of the solar system. Yet in meaning what has been accomplished measures just the difference of civilization from savagery. Although the activities, physically viewed, have changed somewhat, this change is slight in comparison with the development of the meanings attaching to the activities. There is no limit to the meaning which an action may come to possess. It all depends upon the context of perceived connections in which it is placed; the reach of imagination in realizing connections is inexhaustible. The advantage which the activity of man has in appropriating and finding meanings makes his education something else than the manufacture of a tool or the training of an animal. The latter increase efficiency; they do not develop significance. The final educational importance of such occupations in play and work as were considered in the last chapter is that they afford the most direct instrumentalities for such extension of meaning. Set going under adequate conditions they are magnets for gathering and retaining an indefinitely wide scope of intellectual considerations. They provide vital centers for the reception and assimilation of information. When information is purveyed in chunks simply as information to be retained for its own sake, it tends to stratify over vital experience. Entering as a factor into an activity pursued for its own sake--whether as a means or as a widening of the content of the aim--it is informing. The insight directly gained fuses with what is told. Individual experience is then capable of taking up and holding in solution the net results of the experience of the group to which he belongs--including the results of sufferings and trials over long stretches of time. And such media have no fixed saturation point where further absorption is impossible. The more that is taken in, the greater capacity there is for further assimilation. New receptiveness follows upon new curiosity, and new curiosity upon information gained.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00372", "bookId": 852, "start": 489380, "end": 491189, "sha256": "9c7d934e44b84f7738cfc36dc867227484b6bf3782b1806fc1313292e9049b4c", "text": "The meanings with which activities become charged, concern nature and man. This is an obvious truism, which however gains meaning when translated into educational equivalents. So translated, it signifies that geography and history supply subject matter which gives background and outlook, intellectual perspective, to what might otherwise be narrow personal actions or mere forms of technical skill. With every increase of ability to place our own doings in their time and space connections, our doings gain in significant content. We realize that we are citizens of no mean city in discovering the scene in space of which we are denizens, and the continuous manifestation of endeavor in time of which we are heirs and continuers. Thus our ordinary daily experiences cease to be things of the moment and gain enduring substance. Of course if geography and history are taught as ready-made studies which a person studies simply because he is sent to school, it easily happens that a large number of statements about things remote and alien to everyday experience are learned. Activity is divided, and two separate worlds are built up, occupying activity at divided periods. No transmutation takes place; ordinary experience is not enlarged in meaning by getting its connections; what is studied is not animated and made real by entering into immediate activity. Ordinary experience is not even left as it was, narrow but vital. Rather, it loses something of its mobility and sensitiveness to suggestions. It is weighed down and pushed into a corner by a load of unassimilated information. It parts with its flexible responsiveness and alert eagerness for additional meaning. Mere amassing of information apart from the direct interests of life makes mind wooden; elasticity disappears.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00373", "bookId": 852, "start": 491193, "end": 493684, "sha256": "af758c1ff5b46ab972dc03e409c6af82aeec25dd97442b659fad648ea330be10", "text": "Normally every activity engaged in for its own sake reaches out beyond its immediate self. It does not passively wait for information to be bestowed which will increase its meaning; it seeks it out. Curiosity is not an accidental isolated possession; it is a necessary consequence of the fact that an experience is a moving, changing thing, involving all kinds of connections with other things. Curiosity is but the tendency to make these conditions perceptible. It is the business of educators to supply an environment so that this reaching out of an experience may be fruitfully rewarded and kept continuously active. Within a certain kind of environment, an activity may be checked so that the only meaning which accrues is of its direct and tangible isolated outcome. One may cook, or hammer, or walk, and the resulting consequences may not take the mind any farther than the consequences of cooking, hammering, and walking in the literal--or physical--sense. But nevertheless the consequences of the act remain far-reaching. To walk involves a displacement and reaction of the resisting earth, whose thrill is felt wherever there is matter. It involves the structure of the limbs and the nervous system; the principles of mechanics. To cook is to utilize heat and moisture to change the chemical relations of food materials; it has a bearing upon the assimilation of food and the growth of the body. The utmost that the most learned men of science know in physics, chemistry, physiology is not enough to make all these consequences and connections perceptible. The task of education, once more, is to see to it that such activities are performed in such ways and under such conditions as render these conditions as perceptible as possible. To \"learn geography\" is to gain in power to perceive the spatial, the natural, connections of an ordinary act; to \"learn history\" is essentially to gain in power to recognize its human connections. For what is called geography as a formulated study is simply the body of facts and principles which have been discovered in other men's experience about the natural medium in which we live, and in connection with which the particular acts of our life have an explanation. So history as a formulated study is but the body of known facts about the activities and sufferings of the social groups with which our own lives are continuous, and through reference to which our own customs and institutions are illuminated.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00374", "bookId": 852, "start": 493688, "end": 495368, "sha256": "d3d42c8c9643cc3979471f25fc6e68c3bb77cf05cd064c9930bbb206ae560dd7", "text": "2. The Complementary Nature of History and Geography. History and geography--including in the latter, for reasons about to be mentioned, nature study--are the information studies par excellence of the schools. Examination of the materials and the method of their use will make clear that the difference between penetration of this information into living experience and its mere piling up in isolated heaps depends upon whether these studies are faithful to the interdependence of man and nature which affords these studies their justification. Nowhere, however, is there greater danger that subject matter will be accepted as appropriate educational material simply because it has become customary to teach and learn it. The idea of a philosophic reason for it, because of the function of the material in a worthy transformation of experience, is looked upon as a vain fancy, or as supplying a high-sounding phraseology in support of what is already done. The words \"history\" and \"geography\" suggest simply the matter which has been traditionally sanctioned in the schools. The mass and variety of this matter discourage an attempt to see what it really stands for, and how it can be so taught as to fulfill its mission in the experience of pupils. But unless the idea that there is a unifying and social direction in education is a farcical pretense, subjects that bulk as large in the curriculum as history and geography, must represent a general function in the development of a truly socialized and intellectualized experience. The discovery of this function must be employed as a criterion for trying and sifting the facts taught and the methods used.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00375", "bookId": 852, "start": 495372, "end": 496689, "sha256": "48fe3d265d08ee255ec9afa54e5e391a9a66a24171560cfc6e6b6bdcc2c03f49", "text": "The function of historical and geographical subject matter has been stated; it is to enrich and liberate the more direct and personal contacts of life by furnishing their context, their background and outlook. While geography emphasizes the physical side and history the social, these are only emphases in a common topic, namely, the associated life of men. For this associated life, with its experiments, its ways and means, its achievements and failures, does not go on in the sky nor yet in a vacuum. It takes place on the earth. This setting of nature does not bear to social activities the relation that the scenery of a theatrical performance bears to a dramatic representation; it enters into the very make-up of the social happenings that form history. Nature is the medium of social occurrences. It furnishes original stimuli; it supplies obstacles and resources. Civilization is the progressive mastery of its varied energies. When this interdependence of the study of history, representing the human emphasis, with the study of geography, representing the natural, is ignored, history sinks to a listing of dates with an appended inventory of events, labeled \"important\"; or else it becomes a literary phantasy--for in purely literary history the natural environment is but stage scenery.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00376", "bookId": 852, "start": 496693, "end": 499681, "sha256": "4b0bb42039e517764e3d9df88ecbbd68175f1101ad7745689e6b99d62875ad6d", "text": "Geography, of course, has its educative influence in a counterpart connection of natural facts with social events and their consequences. The classic definition of geography as an account of the earth as the home of man expresses the educational reality. But it is easier to give this definition than it is to present specific geographical subject matter in its vital human bearings. The residence, pursuits, successes, and failures of men are the things that give the geographic data their reason for inclusion in the material of instruction. But to hold the two together requires an informed and cultivated imagination. When the ties are broken, geography presents itself as that hodge-podge of unrelated fragments too often found. It appears as a veritable rag-bag of intellectual odds and ends: the height of a mountain here, the course of a river there, the quantity of shingles produced in this town, the tonnage of the shipping in that, the boundary of a county, the capital of a state. The earth as the home of man is humanizing and unified; the earth viewed as a miscellany of facts is scattering and imaginatively inert. Geography is a topic that originally appeals to imagination--even to the romantic imagination. It shares in the wonder and glory that attach to adventure, travel, and exploration. The variety of peoples and environments, their contrast with familiar scenes, furnishes infinite stimulation. The mind is moved from the monotony of the customary. And while local or home geography is the natural starting point in the reconstructive development of the natural environment, it is an intellectual starting point for moving out into the unknown, not an end in itself. When not treated as a basis for getting at the large world beyond, the study of the home geography becomes as deadly as do object lessons which simply summarize the properties of familiar objects. The reason is the same. The imagination is not fed, but is held down to recapitulating, cataloguing, and refining what is already known. But when the familiar fences that mark the limits of the village proprietors are signs that introduce an understanding of the boundaries of great nations, even fences are lighted with meaning. Sunlight, air, running water, inequality of earth's surface, varied industries, civil officers and their duties--all these things are found in the local environment. Treated as if their meaning began and ended in those confines, they are curious facts to be laboriously learned. As instruments for extending the limits of experience, bringing within its scope peoples and things otherwise strange and unknown, they are transfigured by the use to which they are put. Sunlight, wind, stream, commerce, political relations come from afar and lead the thoughts afar. To follow their course is to enlarge the mind not by stuffing it with additional information, but by remaking the meaning of what was previously a matter of course.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00377", "bookId": 852, "start": 499685, "end": 500833, "sha256": "c5613c6e7f6f7e583c12116eb82ded8cccbe4052917447866868e9b01cdb208b", "text": "The same principle coordinates branches, or phases, of geographical study which tend to become specialized and separate. Mathematical or astronomical, physiographic, topographic, political, commercial, geography, all make their claims. How are they to be adjusted? By an external compromise that crowds in so much of each? No other method is to be found unless it be constantly borne in mind that the educational center of gravity is in the cultural or humane aspects of the subject. From this center, any material becomes relevant in so far as it is needed to help appreciate the significance of human activities and relations. The differences of civilization in cold and tropical regions, the special inventions, industrial and political, of peoples in the temperate regions, cannot be understood without appeal to the earth as a member of the solar system. Economic activities deeply influence social intercourse and political organization on one side, and reflect physical conditions on the other. The specializations of these topics are for the specialists; their interaction concerns man as a being whose experience is social.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00378", "bookId": 852, "start": 500837, "end": 502647, "sha256": "c1fcea63f97cb6015bd2c6e81552d5a5d1d88d8390b596f0dae175ab40b5f29d", "text": "To include nature study within geography doubtless seems forced; verbally, it is. But in educational idea there is but one reality, and it is pity that in practice we have two names: for the diversity of names tends to conceal the identity of meaning. Nature and the earth should be equivalent terms, and so should earth study and nature study. Everybody knows that nature study has suffered in schools from scrappiness of subject matter, due to dealing with a large number of isolated points. The parts of a flower have been studied, for example, apart from the flower as an organ; the flower apart from the plant; the plant apart from the soil, air, and light in which and through which it lives. The result is an inevitable deadness of topics to which attention is invited, but which are so isolated that they do not feed imagination. The lack of interest is so great that it was seriously proposed to revive animism, to clothe natural facts and events with myths in order that they might attract and hold the mind. In numberless cases, more or less silly personifications were resorted to. The method was silly, but it expressed a real need for a human atmosphere. The facts had been torn to pieces by being taken out of their context. They no longer belonged to the earth; they had no abiding place anywhere. To compensate, recourse was had to artificial and sentimental associations. The real remedy is to make nature study a study of nature, not of fragments made meaningless through complete removal from the situations in which they are produced and in which they operate. When nature is treated as a whole, like the earth in its relations, its phenomena fall into their natural relations of sympathy and association with human life, and artificial substitutes are not needed.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00379", "bookId": 852, "start": 502651, "end": 504062, "sha256": "64b80c3d81fdbc0262a4f5c43d2d2bf0bb24e33d01cf602d7bc84a77d06eee48", "text": "3. History and Present Social Life. The segregation which kills the vitality of history is divorce from present modes and concerns of social life. The past just as past is no longer our affair. If it were wholly gone and done with, there would be only one reasonable attitude toward it. Let the dead bury their dead. But knowledge of the past is the key to understanding the present. History deals with the past, but this past is the history of the present. An intelligent study of the discovery, explorations, colonization of America, of the pioneer movement westward, of immigration, etc., should be a study of the United States as it is to-day: of the country we now live in. Studying it in process of formation makes much that is too complex to be directly grasped open to comprehension. Genetic method was perhaps the chief scientific achievement of the latter half of the nineteenth century. Its principle is that the way to get insight into any complex product is to trace the process of its making,--to follow it through the successive stages of its growth. To apply this method to history as if it meant only the truism that the present social state cannot be separated from its past, is one-sided. It means equally that past events cannot be separated from the living present and retain meaning. The true starting point of history is always some present situation with its problems.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00380", "bookId": 852, "start": 504066, "end": 507784, "sha256": "102163487ad2aa38c59f5f8fa373db2aad96015e028c7cbc9f04495fd25b582d", "text": "This general principle may be briefly applied to a consideration of its bearing upon a number of points. The biographical method is generally recommended as the natural mode of approach to historical study. The lives of great men, of heroes and leaders, make concrete and vital historic episodes otherwise abstract and incomprehensible. They condense into vivid pictures complicated and tangled series of events spread over so much space and time that only a highly trained mind can follow and unravel them. There can be no doubt of the psychological soundness of this principle. But it is misused when employed to throw into exaggerated relief the doings of a few individuals without reference to the social situations which they represent. When a biography is related just as an account of the doings of a man isolated from the conditions that aroused him and to which his activities were a response, we do not have a study of history, for we have no study of social life, which is an affair of individuals in association. We get only a sugar coating which makes it easier to swallow certain fragments of information. Much attention has been given of late to primitive life as an introduction to learning history. Here also there is a right and a wrong way of conceiving its value. The seemingly ready-made character and the complexity of present conditions, their apparently hard and fast character, is an almost insuperable obstacle to gaining insight into their nature. Recourse to the primitive may furnish the fundamental elements of the present situation in immensely simplified form. It is like unraveling a cloth so complex and so close to the eyes that its scheme cannot be seen, until the larger coarser features of the pattern appear. We cannot simplify the present situations by deliberate experiment, but resort to primitive life presents us with the sort of results we should desire from an experiment. Social relationships and modes of organized action are reduced to their lowest terms. When this social aim is overlooked, however, the study of primitive life becomes simply a rehearsing of sensational and exciting features of savagery. Primitive history suggests industrial history. For one of the chief reasons for going to more primitive conditions to resolve the present into more easily perceived factors is that we may realize how the fundamental problems of procuring subsistence, shelter, and protection have been met; and by seeing how these were solved in the earlier days of the human race, form some conception of the long road which has had to be traveled, and of the successive inventions by which the race has been brought forward in culture. We do not need to go into disputes regarding the economic interpretation of history to realize that the industrial history of mankind gives insight into two important phases of social life in a way which no other phase of history can possibly do. It presents us with knowledge of the successive inventions by which theoretical science has been applied to the control of nature in the interests of security and prosperity of social life. It thus reveals the successive causes of social progress. Its other service is to put before us the things that fundamentally concern all men in common--the occupations and values connected with getting a living. Economic history deals with the activities, the career, and fortunes of the common man as does no other branch of history. The one thing every individual must do is to live; the one thing that society must do is to secure from each individual his fair contribution to the general well being and see to it that a just return is made to him.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00381", "bookId": 852, "start": 507788, "end": 508093, "sha256": "0251e3d976d1478403ba7a0381c03b2abb13ca83f90373ce55926a48f733ee15", "text": "Economic history is more human, more democratic, and hence more liberalizing than political history. It deals not with the rise and fall of principalities and powers, but with the growth of the effective liberties, through command of nature, of the common man for whom powers and principalities exist.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00382", "bookId": 852, "start": 508097, "end": 509100, "sha256": "296561ba15d68b1fa77237d27d6a0cc8dde003c01371a34c7c78c2be4b2392b5", "text": "Industrial history also offers a more direct avenue of approach to the realization of the intimate connection of man's struggles, successes, and failures with nature than does political history--to say nothing of the military history into which political history so easily runs when reduced to the level of youthful comprehension. For industrial history is essentially an account of the way in which man has learned to utilize natural energy from the time when men mostly exploited the muscular energies of other men to the time when, in promise if not in actuality, the resources of nature are so under command as to enable men to extend a common dominion over her. When the history of work, when the conditions of using the soil, forest, mine, of domesticating and cultivating grains and animals, of manufacture and distribution, are left out of account, history tends to become merely literary--a systematized romance of a mythical humanity living upon itself instead of upon the earth.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00383", "bookId": 852, "start": 509104, "end": 510796, "sha256": "bf15af7e018555152d5fb983c096382366b15522ff243033b3dd96ee40f7542b", "text": "Perhaps the most neglected branch of history in general education is intellectual history. We are only just beginning to realize that the great heroes who have advanced human destiny are not its politicians, generals, and diplomatists, but the scientific discoverers and inventors who have put into man's hands the instrumentalities of an expanding and controlled experience, and the artists and poets who have celebrated his struggles, triumphs, and defeats in such language, pictorial, plastic, or written, that their meaning is rendered universally accessible to others. One of the advantages of industrial history as a history of man's progressive adaptation of natural forces to social uses is the opportunity which it affords for consideration of advance in the methods and results of knowledge. At present men are accustomed to eulogize intelligence and reason in general terms; their fundamental importance is urged. But pupils often come away from the conventional study of history, and think either that the human intellect is a static quantity which has not progressed by the invention of better methods, or else that intelligence, save as a display of personal shrewdness, is a negligible historic factor. Surely no better way could be devised of instilling a genuine sense of the part which mind has to play in life than a study of history which makes plain how the entire advance of humanity from savagery to civilization has been dependent upon intellectual discoveries and inventions, and the extent to which the things which ordinarily figure most largely in historical writings have been side issues, or even obstructions for intelligence to overcome.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00384", "bookId": 852, "start": 510800, "end": 511917, "sha256": "ed1799fa86cda3816919f630631917d5983d5a26c59b501b35e056a670250cb4", "text": "Pursued in this fashion, history would most naturally become of ethical value in teaching. Intelligent insight into present forms of associated life is necessary for a character whose morality is more than colorless innocence. Historical knowledge helps provide such insight. It is an organ for analysis of the warp and woof of the present social fabric, of making known the forces which have woven the pattern. The use of history for cultivating a socialized intelligence constitutes its moral significance. It is possible to employ it as a kind of reservoir of anecdotes to be drawn on to inculcate special moral lessons on this virtue or that vice. But such teaching is not so much an ethical use of history as it is an effort to create moral impressions by means of more or less authentic material. At best, it produces a temporary emotional glow; at worst, callous indifference to moralizing. The assistance which may be given by history to a more intelligent sympathetic understanding of the social situations of the present in which individuals share is a permanent and constructive moral asset.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00385", "bookId": 852, "start": 511921, "end": 512871, "sha256": "edd7d128991bc97a677779116a15e1674734200eabe5707f8481764c92664fee", "text": "Summary. It is the nature of an experience to have implications which go far beyond what is at first consciously noted in it. Bringing these connections or implications to consciousness enhances the meaning of the experience. Any experience, however trivial in its first appearance, is capable of assuming an indefinite richness of significance by extending its range of perceived connections. Normal communication with others is the readiest way of effecting this development, for it links up the net results of the experience of the group and even the race with the immediate experience of an individual. By normal communication is meant that in which there is a joint interest, a common interest, so that one is eager to give and the other to take. It contrasts with telling or stating things simply for the sake of impressing them upon another, merely in order to test him to see how much he has retained and can literally reproduce.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00386", "bookId": 852, "start": 512875, "end": 513654, "sha256": "1d58965751a3467cc0b4a32ff1131ba05a0bdda6eb5a3da4bf95f6316ff388ee", "text": "Geography and history are the two great school resources for bringing about the enlargement of the significance of a direct personal experience. The active occupations described in the previous chapter reach out in space and time with respect to both nature and man. Unless they are taught for external reasons or as mere modes of skill their chief educational value is that they provide the most direct and interesting roads out into the larger world of meanings stated in history and geography. While history makes human implications explicit and geography natural connections, these subjects are two phases of the same living whole, since the life of men in association goes on in nature, not as an accidental setting, but as the material and medium of development.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00387", "bookId": 852, "start": 513664, "end": 513713, "sha256": "0cdb9ccb620b53f0206e401f3e0076540a8f6c66ec9fb2a1f76a1d04e40fa0fd", "text": "Chapter Seventeen: Science in the Course of Study", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG852.B00388", "bookId": 852, "start": 513717, "end": 514547, "sha256": "5bd1b379719858b9a52ab4a5c35ed67a6587bd77a88a5a6057da0372982c029d", "text": "1. The Logical and the Psychological. By science is meant, as already stated, that knowledge which is the outcome of methods of observation, reflection, and testing which are deliberately adopted to secure a settled, assured subject matter. It involves an intelligent and persistent endeavor to revise current beliefs so as to weed out what is erroneous, to add to their accuracy, and, above all, to give them such shape that the dependencies of the various facts upon one another may be as obvious as possible. It is, like all knowledge, an outcome of activity bringing about certain changes in the environment. But in its case, the quality of the resulting knowledge is the controlling factor and not an incident of the activity. Both logically and educationally, science is the perfecting of knowing, its last stage.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00389", "bookId": 852, "start": 514551, "end": 515172, "sha256": "6cda7f5891d2c8d70c186e8b6b4d214cf6c71ca6cd213b09528a550b84decb41", "text": "Science, in short, signifies a realization of the logical implications of any knowledge. Logical order is not a form imposed upon what is known; it is the proper form of knowledge as perfected. For it means that the statement of subject matter is of a nature to exhibit to one who understands it the premises from which it follows and the conclusions to which it points (See ante, p. 190). As from a few bones the competent zoologist reconstructs an animal; so from the form of a statement in mathematics or physics the specialist in the subject can form an idea of the system of truths in which it has its place.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00390", "bookId": 852, "start": 515176, "end": 517187, "sha256": "4196001d1d0b357c70969293cb8ed063bff73a99a1e86dc4b9c32813b0ec36d1", "text": "To the non-expert, however, this perfected form is a stumbling block. Just because the material is stated with reference to the furtherance of knowledge as an end in itself, its connections with the material of everyday life are hidden. To the layman the bones are a mere curiosity. Until he had mastered the principles of zoology, his efforts to make anything out of them would be random and blind. From the standpoint of the learner scientific form is an ideal to be achieved, not a starting point from which to set out. It is, nevertheless, a frequent practice to start in instruction with the rudiments of science somewhat simplified. The necessary consequence is an isolation of science from significant experience. The pupil learns symbols without the key to their meaning. He acquires a technical body of information without ability to trace its connections with the objects and operations with which he is familiar--often he acquires simply a peculiar vocabulary. There is a strong temptation to assume that presenting subject matter in its perfected form provides a royal road to learning. What more natural than to suppose that the immature can be saved time and energy, and be protected from needless error by commencing where competent inquirers have left off? The outcome is written large in the history of education. Pupils begin their study of science with texts in which the subject is organized into topics according to the order of the specialist. Technical concepts, with their definitions, are introduced at the outset. Laws are introduced at a very early stage, with at best a few indications of the way in which they were arrived at. The pupils learn a \"science\" instead of learning the scientific way of treating the familiar material of ordinary experience. The method of the advanced student dominates college teaching; the approach of the college is transferred into the high school, and so down the line, with such omissions as may make the subject easier.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00391", "bookId": 852, "start": 517191, "end": 518762, "sha256": "0824c936384e7d8f84d423827352a4ce91de4b14ad73964b70fd818548b62a24", "text": "The chronological method which begins with the experience of the learner and develops from that the proper modes of scientific treatment is often called the \"psychological\" method in distinction from the logical method of the expert or specialist. The apparent loss of time involved is more than made up for by the superior understanding and vital interest secured. What the pupil learns he at least understands. Moreover by following, in connection with problems selected from the material of ordinary acquaintance, the methods by which scientific men have reached their perfected knowledge, he gains independent power to deal with material within his range, and avoids the mental confusion and intellectual distaste attendant upon studying matter whose meaning is only symbolic. Since the mass of pupils are never going to become scientific specialists, it is much more important that they should get some insight into what scientific method means than that they should copy at long range and second hand the results which scientific men have reached. Students will not go so far, perhaps, in the \"ground covered,\" but they will be sure and intelligent as far as they do go. And it is safe to say that the few who go on to be scientific experts will have a better preparation than if they had been swamped with a large mass of purely technical and symbolically stated information. In fact, those who do become successful men of science are those who by their own power manage to avoid the pitfalls of a traditional scholastic introduction into it.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00392", "bookId": 852, "start": 518766, "end": 519918, "sha256": "f789959c0f0becd36f83409e412fe8594d0617e86f0f787edd5467192b4598b4", "text": "The contrast between the expectations of the men who a generation or two ago strove, against great odds, to secure a place for science in education, and the result generally achieved is painful. Herbert Spencer, inquiring what knowledge is of most worth, concluded that from all points of view scientific knowledge is most valuable. But his argument unconsciously assumed that scientific knowledge could be communicated in a ready-made form. Passing over the methods by which the subject matter of our ordinary activities is transmuted into scientific form, it ignored the method by which alone science is science. Instruction has too often proceeded upon an analogous plan. But there is no magic attached to material stated in technically correct scientific form. When learned in this condition it remains a body of inert information. Moreover its form of statement removes it further from fruitful contact with everyday experiences than does the mode of statement proper to literature. Nevertheless that the claims made for instruction in science were unjustifiable does not follow. For material so taught is not science to the pupil.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00393", "bookId": 852, "start": 519922, "end": 523952, "sha256": "43480a5a5d65b1e2d374b2bb3bc2d57f74a04c01b4e6186ff0bcb8c57a778746", "text": "Contact with things and laboratory exercises, while a great improvement upon textbooks arranged upon the deductive plan, do not of themselves suffice to meet the need. While they are an indispensable portion of scientific method, they do not as a matter of course constitute scientific method. Physical materials may be manipulated with scientific apparatus, but the materials may be disassociated in themselves and in the ways in which they are handled, from the materials and processes used out of school. The problems dealt with may be only problems of science: problems, that is, which would occur to one already initiated in the science of the subject. Our attention may be devoted to getting skill in technical manipulation without reference to the connection of laboratory exercises with a problem belonging to subject matter. There is sometimes a ritual of laboratory instruction as well as of heathen religion. 1 It has been mentioned, incidentally, that scientific statements, or logical form, implies the use of signs or symbols. The statement applies, of course, to all use of language. But in the vernacular, the mind proceeds directly from the symbol to the thing signified. Association with familiar material is so close that the mind does not pause upon the sign. The signs are intended only to stand for things and acts. But scientific terminology has an additional use. It is designed, as we have seen, not to stand for the things directly in their practical use in experience, but for the things placed in a cognitive system. Ultimately, of course, they denote the things of our common sense acquaintance. But immediately they do not designate them in their common context, but translated into terms of scientific inquiry. Atoms, molecules, chemical formulae, the mathematical propositions in the study of physics--all these have primarily an intellectual value and only indirectly an empirical value. They represent instruments for the carrying on of science. As in the case of other tools, their significance can be learned only by use. We cannot procure understanding of their meaning by pointing to things, but only by pointing to their work when they are employed as part of the technique of knowledge. Even the circle, square, etc., of geometry exhibit a difference from the squares and circles of familiar acquaintance, and the further one proceeds in mathematical science the greater the remoteness from the everyday empirical thing. Qualities which do not count for the pursuit of knowledge about spatial relations are left out; those which are important for this purpose are accentuated. If one carries his study far enough, he will find even the properties which are significant for spatial knowledge giving way to those which facilitate knowledge of other things--perhaps a knowledge of the general relations of number. There will be nothing in the conceptual definitions even to suggest spatial form, size, or direction. This does not mean that they are unreal mental inventions, but it indicates that direct physical qualities have been transmuted into tools for a special end--the end of intellectual organization. In every machine the primary state of material has been modified by subordinating it to use for a purpose. Not the stuff in its original form but in its adaptation to an end is important. No one would have a knowledge of a machine who could enumerate all the materials entering into its structure, but only he who knew their uses and could tell why they are employed as they are. In like fashion one has a knowledge of mathematical conceptions only when he sees the problems in which they function and their specific utility in dealing with these problems. \"Knowing\" the definitions, rules, formulae, etc., is like knowing the names of parts of a machine without knowing what they do. In one case, as in the other, the meaning, or intellectual content, is what the element accomplishes in the system of which it is a member.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00394", "bookId": 852, "start": 523956, "end": 525154, "sha256": "5842a8ffed3f2770f3ac97671baa733a2ff7fbe4c33f85405244e944858c149d", "text": "2. Science and Social Progress. Assuming that the development of the direct knowledge gained in occupations of social interest is carried to a perfected logical form, the question arises as to its place in experience. In general, the reply is that science marks the emancipation of mind from devotion to customary purposes and makes possible the systematic pursuit of new ends. It is the agency of progress in action. Progress is sometimes thought of as consisting in getting nearer to ends already sought. But this is a minor form of progress, for it requires only improvement of the means of action or technical advance. More important modes of progress consist in enriching prior purposes and in forming new ones. Desires are not a fixed quantity, nor does progress mean only an increased amount of satisfaction. With increased culture and new mastery of nature, new desires, demands for new qualities of satisfaction, show themselves, for intelligence perceives new possibilities of action. This projection of new possibilities leads to search for new means of execution, and progress takes place; while the discovery of objects not already used leads to suggestion of new ends.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00395", "bookId": 852, "start": 525158, "end": 525826, "sha256": "a1a2e4653347e82279dab291fa3db31f1c87961fdcbdb847157db6a00267de35", "text": "That science is the chief means of perfecting control of means of action is witnessed by the great crop of inventions which followed intellectual command of the secrets of nature. The wonderful transformation of production and distribution known as the industrial revolution is the fruit of experimental science. Railways, steamboats, electric motors, telephone and telegraph, automobiles, aeroplanes and dirigibles are conspicuous evidences of the application of science in life. But none of them would be of much importance without the thousands of less sensational inventions by means of which natural science has been rendered tributary to our daily life.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00396", "bookId": 852, "start": 525830, "end": 526610, "sha256": "5f170087d1420316f0731d868195307042b9842bd22fadc9f7e63e4b46798232", "text": "It must be admitted that to a considerable extent the progress thus procured has been only technical: it has provided more efficient means for satisfying preexistent desires, rather than modified the quality of human purposes. There is, for example, no modern civilization which is the equal of Greek culture in all respects. Science is still too recent to have been absorbed into imaginative and emotional disposition. Men move more swiftly and surely to the realization of their ends, but their ends too largely remain what they were prior to scientific enlightenment. This fact places upon education the responsibility of using science in a way to modify the habitual attitude of imagination and feeling, not leave it just an extension of our physical arms and legs.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00397", "bookId": 852, "start": 526614, "end": 527783, "sha256": "32e1df8044f4f8c6effd44ed2514cedd62056b496cd3d8f132db5b816a4c279e", "text": "The advance of science has already modified men's thoughts of the purposes and goods of life to a sufficient extent to give some idea of the nature of this responsibility and the ways of meeting it. Science taking effect in human activity has broken down physical barriers which formerly separated men; it has immensely widened the area of intercourse. It has brought about interdependence of interests on an enormous scale. It has brought with it an established conviction of the possibility of control of nature in the interests of mankind and thus has led men to look to the future, instead of the past. The coincidence of the ideal of progress with the advance of science is not a mere coincidence. Before this advance men placed the golden age in remote antiquity. Now they face the future with a firm belief that intelligence properly used can do away with evils once thought inevitable. To subjugate devastating disease is no longer a dream; the hope of abolishing poverty is not utopian. Science has familiarized men with the idea of development, taking effect practically in persistent gradual amelioration of the estate of our common humanity.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00398", "bookId": 852, "start": 527789, "end": 529810, "sha256": "e82a3be484dbc417d9fc712d54e16a1094331066430161be0f9ab8bf74a1cfb5", "text": "The problem of an educational use of science is then to create an intelligence pregnant with belief in the possibility of the direction of human affairs by itself. The method of science engrained through education in habit means emancipation from rule of thumb and from the routine generated by rule of thumb procedure. The word empirical in its ordinary use does not mean \"connected with experiment,\" but rather crude and unrational. Under the influence of conditions created by the non-existence of experimental science, experience was opposed in all the ruling philosophies of the past to reason and the truly rational. Empirical knowledge meant the knowledge accumulated by a multitude of past instances without intelligent insight into the principles of any of them. To say that medicine was empirical meant that it was not scientific, but a mode of practice based upon accumulated observations of diseases and of remedies used more or less at random. Such a mode of practice is of necessity happy-go-lucky; success depends upon chance. It lends itself to deception and quackery. Industry that is \"empirically\" controlled forbids constructive applications of intelligence; it depends upon following in an imitative slavish manner the models set in the past. Experimental science means the possibility of using past experiences as the servant, not the master, of mind. It means that reason operates within experience, not beyond it, to give it an intelligent or reasonable quality. Science is experience becoming rational. The effect of science is thus to change men's idea of the nature and inherent possibilities of experience. By the same token, it changes the idea and the operation of reason. Instead of being something beyond experience, remote, aloof, concerned with a sublime region that has nothing to do with the experienced facts of life, it is found indigenous in experience:--the factor by which past experiences are purified and rendered into tools for discovery and advance.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00399", "bookId": 852, "start": 529814, "end": 530788, "sha256": "b95bffcf583706332b5596d305b540dcbf7478d5f9e1969474103e95899990c9", "text": "The term \"abstract\" has a rather bad name in popular speech, being used to signify not only that which is abstruse and hard to understand, but also that which is far away from life. But abstraction is an indispensable trait in reflective direction of activity. Situations do not literally repeat themselves. Habit treats new occurrences as if they were identical with old ones; it suffices, accordingly, when the different or novel element is negligible for present purposes. But when the new element requires especial attention, random reaction is the sole recourse unless abstraction is brought into play. For abstraction deliberately selects from the subject matter of former experiences that which is thought helpful in dealing with the new. It signifies conscious transfer of a meaning embedded in past experience for use in a new one. It is the very artery of intelligence, of the intentional rendering of one experience available for guidance of another.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00400", "bookId": 852, "start": 530792, "end": 532232, "sha256": "08c091e902b4906abee3d1f3af37aa8d533a2e12a41043485a0de5e8df979acd", "text": "Science carries on this working over of prior subject matter on a large scale. It aims to free an experience from all which is purely personal and strictly immediate; it aims to detach whatever it has in common with the subject matter of other experiences, and which, being common, may be saved for further use. It is, thus, an indispensable factor in social progress. In any experience just as it occurs there is much which, while it may be of precious import to the individual implicated in the experience, is peculiar and unreduplicable. From the standpoint of science, this material is accidental, while the features which are widely shared are essential. Whatever is unique in the situation, since dependent upon the peculiarities of the individual and the coincidence of circumstance, is not available for others; so that unless what is shared is abstracted and fixed by a suitable symbol, practically all the value of the experience may perish in its passing. But abstraction and the use of terms to record what is abstracted put the net value of individual experience at the permanent disposal of mankind. No one can foresee in detail when or how it may be of further use. The man of science in developing his abstractions is like a manufacturer of tools who does not know who will use them nor when. But intellectual tools are indefinitely more flexible in their range of adaptation than other mechanical tools.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00401", "bookId": 852, "start": 532236, "end": 534832, "sha256": "bcec0ea52dd44ffe43fee4d66ec82d85736a6e2df494f0e838493d7b9783d72b", "text": "Generalization is the counterpart of abstraction. It is the functioning of an abstraction in its application to a new concrete experience,--its extension to clarify and direct new situations. Reference to these possible applications is necessary in order that the abstraction may be fruitful, instead of a barren formalism ending in itself. Generalization is essentially a social device. When men identified their interests exclusively with the concerns of a narrow group, their generalizations were correspondingly restricted. The viewpoint did not permit a wide and free survey. Men's thoughts were tied down to a contracted space and a short time,--limited to their own established customs as a measure of all possible values. Scientific abstraction and generalization are equivalent to taking the point of view of any man, whatever his location in time and space. While this emancipation from the conditions and episodes of concrete experiences accounts for the remoteness, the \"abstractness,\" of science, it also accounts for its wide and free range of fruitful novel applications in practice. Terms and propositions record, fix, and convey what is abstracted. A meaning detached from a given experience cannot remain hanging in the air. It must acquire a local habitation. Names give abstract meanings a physical locus and body. Formulation is thus not an after-thought or by-product; it is essential to the completion of the work of thought. Persons know many things which they cannot express, but such knowledge remains practical, direct, and personal. An individual can use it for himself; he may be able to act upon it with efficiency. Artists and executives often have their knowledge in this state. But it is personal, untransferable, and, as it were, instinctive. To formulate the significance of an experience a man must take into conscious account the experiences of others. He must try to find a standpoint which includes the experience of others as well as his own. Otherwise his communication cannot be understood. He talks a language which no one else knows. While literary art furnishes the supreme successes in stating of experiences so that they are vitally significant to others, the vocabulary of science is designed, in another fashion, to express the meaning of experienced things in symbols which any one will know who studies the science. Aesthetic formulation reveals and enhances the meaning of experiences one already has; scientific formulation supplies one with tools for constructing new experiences with transformed meanings.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00402", "bookId": 852, "start": 534836, "end": 535681, "sha256": "f512cfb9ca21a5690d0c6e954a8a0516babbcc56f7e132835a00133a2b8da551", "text": "To sum up: Science represents the office of intelligence, in projection and control of new experiences, pursued systematically, intentionally, and on a scale due to freedom from limitations of habit. It is the sole instrumentality of conscious, as distinct from accidental, progress. And if its generality, its remoteness from individual conditions, confer upon it a certain technicality and aloofness, these qualities are very different from those of merely speculative theorizing. The latter are in permanent dislocation from practice; the former are temporarily detached for the sake of wider and freer application in later concrete action. There is a kind of idle theory which is antithetical to practice; but genuinely scientific theory falls within practice as the agency of its expansion and its direction to new possibilities.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00403", "bookId": 852, "start": 535685, "end": 540688, "sha256": "71acdd3ae281c2fbf9bf576b03d143bb5eac8d177d8e3517152d8b542cfc9c61", "text": "3. Naturalism and Humanism in Education. There exists an educational tradition which opposes science to literature and history in the curriculum. The quarrel between the representatives of the two interests is easily explicable historically. Literature and language and a literary philosophy were entrenched in all higher institutions of learning before experimental science came into being. The latter had naturally to win its way. No fortified and protected interest readily surrenders any monopoly it may possess. But the assumption, from whichever side, that language and literary products are exclusively humanistic in quality, and that science is purely physical in import, is a false notion which tends to cripple the educational use of both studies. Human life does not occur in a vacuum, nor is nature a mere stage setting for the enactment of its drama (ante, p. 211). Man's life is bound up in the processes of nature; his career, for success or defeat, depends upon the way in which nature enters it. Man's power of deliberate control of his own affairs depends upon ability to direct natural energies to use: an ability which is in turn dependent upon insight into nature's processes. Whatever natural science may be for the specialist, for educational purposes it is knowledge of the conditions of human action. To be aware of the medium in which social intercourse goes on, and of the means and obstacles to its progressive development is to be in command of a knowledge which is thoroughly humanistic in quality. One who is ignorant of the history of science is ignorant of the struggles by which mankind has passed from routine and caprice, from superstitious subjection to nature, from efforts to use it magically, to intellectual self-possession. That science may be taught as a set of formal and technical exercises is only too true. This happens whenever information about the world is made an end in itself. The failure of such instruction to procure culture is not, however, evidence of the antithesis of natural knowledge to humanistic concern, but evidence of a wrong educational attitude. Dislike to employ scientific knowledge as it functions in men's occupations is itself a survival of an aristocratic culture. The notion that \"applied\" knowledge is somehow less worthy than \"pure\" knowledge, was natural to a society in which all useful work was performed by slaves and serfs, and in which industry was controlled by the models set by custom rather than by intelligence. Science, or the highest knowing, was then identified with pure theorizing, apart from all application in the uses of life; and knowledge relating to useful arts suffered the stigma attaching to the classes who engaged in them (See below, Ch. XIX). The idea of science thus generated persisted after science had itself adopted the appliances of the arts, using them for the production of knowledge, and after the rise of democracy. Taking theory just as theory, however, that which concerns humanity is of more significance for man than that which concerns a merely physical world. In adopting the criterion of knowledge laid down by a literary culture, aloof from the practical needs of the mass of men, the educational advocates of scientific education put themselves at a strategic disadvantage. So far as they adopt the idea of science appropriate to its experimental method and to the movements of a democratic and industrial society, they have no difficulty in showing that natural science is more humanistic than an alleged humanism which bases its educational schemes upon the specialized interests of a leisure class. For, as we have already stated, humanistic studies when set in opposition to study of nature are hampered. They tend to reduce themselves to exclusively literary and linguistic studies, which in turn tend to shrink to \"the classics,\" to languages no longer spoken. For modern languages may evidently be put to use, and hence fall under the ban. It would be hard to find anything in history more ironical than the educational practices which have identified the \"humanities\" exclusively with a knowledge of Greek and Latin. Greek and Roman art and institutions made such important contributions to our civilization that there should always be the amplest opportunities for making their acquaintance. But to regard them as par excellence the humane studies involves a deliberate neglect of the possibilities of the subject matter which is accessible in education to the masses, and tends to cultivate a narrow snobbery: that of a learned class whose insignia are the accidents of exclusive opportunity. Knowledge is humanistic in quality not because it is about human products in the past, but because of what it does in liberating human intelligence and human sympathy. Any subject matter which accomplishes this result is humane, and any subject matter which does not accomplish it is not even educational.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00404", "bookId": 852, "start": 540692, "end": 542522, "sha256": "b95a4cf7e170cb068e52bc9227cc9066994ff83a86886de439d585c7a1eaf910", "text": "Summary. Science represents the fruition of the cognitive factors in experience. Instead of contenting itself with a mere statement of what commends itself to personal or customary experience, it aims at a statement which will reveal the sources, grounds, and consequences of a belief. The achievement of this aim gives logical character to the statements. Educationally, it has to be noted that logical characteristics of method, since they belong to subject matter which has reached a high degree of intellectual elaboration, are different from the method of the learner--the chronological order of passing from a cruder to a more refined intellectual quality of experience. When this fact is ignored, science is treated as so much bare information, which however is less interesting and more remote than ordinary information, being stated in an unusual and technical vocabulary. The function which science has to perform in the curriculum is that which it has performed for the race: emancipation from local and temporary incidents of experience, and the opening of intellectual vistas unobscured by the accidents of personal habit and predilection. The logical traits of abstraction, generalization, and definite formulation are all associated with this function. In emancipating an idea from the particular context in which it originated and giving it a wider reference the results of the experience of any individual are put at the disposal of all men. Thus ultimately and philosophically science is the organ of general social progress. 1 Upon the positive side, the value of problems arising in work in the garden, the shop, etc., may be referred to (See p. 200). The laboratory may be treated as an additional resource to supply conditions and appliances for the better pursuit of these problems.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00405", "bookId": 852, "start": 542532, "end": 542568, "sha256": "d692b98b6eb64d17717b0d4e99a76f9346f952822ebba3f68e260f19313ef61a", "text": "Chapter Eighteen: Educational Values", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG852.B00406", "bookId": 852, "start": 542572, "end": 542709, "sha256": "53df28b3d0edc7f0aa649b9f4ce6e1eae7435f76d0b1c88ca0a24d644310a2a5", "text": "The considerations involved in a discussion of educational values have already been brought out in the discussion of aims and interests.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00407", "bookId": 852, "start": 542713, "end": 543727, "sha256": "668dc43099d991ca84b7619c7b32b169f85a39744847bb31c7ff3c1a2e2a773b", "text": "The specific values usually discussed in educational theories coincide with aims which are usually urged. They are such things as utility, culture, information, preparation for social efficiency, mental discipline or power, and so on. The aspect of these aims in virtue of which they are valuable has been treated in our analysis of the nature of interest, and there is no difference between speaking of art as an interest or concern and referring to it as a value. It happens, however, that discussion of values has usually been centered about a consideration of the various ends subserved by specific subjects of the curriculum. It has been a part of the attempt to justify those subjects by pointing out the significant contributions to life accruing from their study. An explicit discussion of educational values thus affords an opportunity for reviewing the prior discussion of aims and interests on one hand and of the curriculum on the other, by bringing them into connection with one another.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00408", "bookId": 852, "start": 543731, "end": 545134, "sha256": "93915d00f8368f454cfa64257c5a1af556b71c7b2a2ee4eff5a3922838b7e459", "text": "1. The Nature of Realization or Appreciation. Much of our experience is indirect; it is dependent upon signs which intervene between the things and ourselves, signs which stand for or represent the former. It is one thing to have been engaged in war, to have shared its dangers and hardships; it is another thing to hear or read about it. All language, all symbols, are implements of an indirect experience; in technical language the experience which is procured by their means is \"mediated.\" It stands in contrast with an immediate, direct experience, something in which we take part vitally and at first hand, instead of through the intervention of representative media. As we have seen, the scope of personal, vitally direct experience is very limited. If it were not for the intervention of agencies for representing absent and distant affairs, our experience would remain almost on the level of that of the brutes. Every step from savagery to civilization is dependent upon the invention of media which enlarge the range of purely immediate experience and give it deepened as well as wider meaning by connecting it with things which can only be signified or symbolized. It is doubtless this fact which is the cause of the disposition to identify an uncultivated person with an illiterate person--so dependent are we on letters for effective representative or indirect experience.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00409", "bookId": 852, "start": 545138, "end": 547673, "sha256": "ba9d6cbdbbaab64c0d62416814bc152fd5ba95588a450aca956563c713d1ecf7", "text": "At the same time (as we have also had repeated occasion to see) there is always a danger that symbols will not be truly representative; danger that instead of really calling up the absent and remote in a way to make it enter a present experience, the linguistic media of representation will become an end in themselves. Formal education is peculiarly exposed to this danger, with the result that when literacy supervenes, mere bookishness, what is popularly termed the academic, too often comes with it. In colloquial speech, the phrase a \"realizing sense\" is used to express the urgency, warmth, and intimacy of a direct experience in contrast with the remote, pallid, and coldly detached quality of a representative experience. The terms \"mental realization\" and \"appreciation\" (or genuine appreciation) are more elaborate names for the realizing sense of a thing. It is not possible to define these ideas except by synonyms, like \"coming home to one\" \"really taking it in,\" etc., for the only way to appreciate what is meant by a direct experience of a thing is by having it. But it is the difference between reading a technical description of a picture, and seeing it; or between just seeing it and being moved by it; between learning mathematical equations about light and being carried away by some peculiarly glorious illumination of a misty landscape. We are thus met by the danger of the tendency of technique and other purely representative forms to encroach upon the sphere of direct appreciations; in other words, the tendency to assume that pupils have a foundation of direct realization of situations sufficient for the superstructure of representative experience erected by formulated school studies. This is not simply a matter of quantity or bulk. Sufficient direct experience is even more a matter of quality; it must be of a sort to connect readily and fruitfully with the symbolic material of instruction. Before teaching can safely enter upon conveying facts and ideas through the media of signs, schooling must provide genuine situations in which personal participation brings home the import of the material and the problems which it conveys. From the standpoint of the pupil, the resulting experiences are worth while on their own account; from the standpoint of the teacher they are also means of supplying subject matter required for understanding instruction involving signs, and of evoking attitudes of open-mindedness and concern as to the material symbolically conveyed.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00410", "bookId": 852, "start": 547677, "end": 548953, "sha256": "cc5f07be7fbf6805dafb2b7b9aaae168df4e780548ce8391af437a4a98ebb764", "text": "In the outline given of the theory of educative subject matter, the demand for this background of realization or appreciation is met by the provision made for play and active occupations embodying typical situations. Nothing need be added to what has already been said except to point out that while the discussion dealt explicitly with the subject matter of primary education, where the demand for the available background of direct experience is most obvious, the principle applies to the primary or elementary phase of every subject. The first and basic function of laboratory work, for example, in a high school or college in a new field, is to familiarize the student at first hand with a certain range of facts and problems--to give him a \"feeling\" for them. Getting command of technique and of methods of reaching and testing generalizations is at first secondary to getting appreciation. As regards the primary school activities, it is to be borne in mind that the fundamental intent is not to amuse nor to convey information with a minimum of vexation nor yet to acquire skill,--though these results may accrue as by-products,--but to enlarge and enrich the scope of experience, and to keep alert and effective the interest in intellectual progress.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00411", "bookId": 852, "start": 548957, "end": 549252, "sha256": "acd529664936016fa53b0c13188547037058da5e4dbbefa239398355cbd1c57b", "text": "The rubric of appreciation supplies an appropriate head for bringing out three further principles: the nature of effective or real (as distinct from nominal) standards of value; the place of the imagination in appreciative realizations; and the place of the fine arts in the course of study.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00412", "bookId": 852, "start": 549256, "end": 551035, "sha256": "a2a832692c993004ad835e1eccc1add7c4217cb9c3498cca555ae68cd1ab49b0", "text": "1. The nature of standards of valuation. Every adult has acquired, in the course of his prior experience and education, certain measures of the worth of various sorts of experience. He has learned to look upon qualities like honesty, amiability, perseverance, loyalty, as moral goods; upon certain classics of literature, painting, music, as aesthetic values, and so on. Not only this, but he has learned certain rules for these values--the golden rule in morals; harmony, balance, etc., proportionate distribution in aesthetic goods; definition, clarity, system in intellectual accomplishments. These principles are so important as standards of judging the worth of new experiences that parents and instructors are always tending to teach them directly to the young. They overlook the danger that standards so taught will be merely symbolic; that is, largely conventional and verbal. In reality, working as distinct from professed standards depend upon what an individual has himself specifically appreciated to be deeply significant in concrete situations. An individual may have learned that certain characteristics are conventionally esteemed in music; he may be able to converse with some correctness about classic music; he may even honestly believe that these traits constitute his own musical standards. But if in his own past experience, what he has been most accustomed to and has most enjoyed is ragtime, his active or working measures of valuation are fixed on the ragtime level. The appeal actually made to him in his own personal realization fixes his attitude much more deeply than what he has been taught as the proper thing to say; his habitual disposition thus fixed forms his real \"norm\" of valuation in subsequent musical experiences.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00413", "bookId": 852, "start": 551039, "end": 552929, "sha256": "41190b53462740d311bfcb235bc5763284406a38fe2cc4a1e871286d2b6c4fc3", "text": "Probably few would deny this statement as to musical taste. But it applies equally well in judgments of moral and intellectual worth. A youth who has had repeated experience of the full meaning of the value of kindliness toward others built into his disposition has a measure of the worth of generous treatment of others. Without this vital appreciation, the duty and virtue of unselfishness impressed upon him by others as a standard remains purely a matter of symbols which he cannot adequately translate into realities. His \"knowledge\" is second-handed; it is only a knowledge that others prize unselfishness as an excellence, and esteem him in the degree in which he exhibits it. Thus there grows up a split between a person's professed standards and his actual ones. A person may be aware of the results of this struggle between his inclinations and his theoretical opinions; he suffers from the conflict between doing what is really dear to him and what he has learned will win the approval of others. But of the split itself he is unaware; the result is a kind of unconscious hypocrisy, an instability of disposition. In similar fashion, a pupil who has worked through some confused intellectual situation and fought his way to clearing up obscurities in a definite outcome, appreciates the value of clarity and definition. He has a standard which can be depended upon. He may be trained externally to go through certain motions of analysis and division of subject matter and may acquire information about the value of these processes as standard logical functions, but unless it somehow comes home to him at some point as an appreciation of his own, the significance of the logical norms--so-called--remains as much an external piece of information as, say, the names of rivers in China. He may be able to recite, but the recital is a mechanical rehearsal.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00414", "bookId": 852, "start": 552933, "end": 553618, "sha256": "24b79265bed22c784076cb707b96ab98deb21e3d632a11408a0bda15eec84b1d", "text": "It is, then, a serious mistake to regard appreciation as if it were confined to such things as literature and pictures and music. Its scope is as comprehensive as the work of education itself. The formation of habits is a purely mechanical thing unless habits are also tastes--habitual modes of preference and esteem, an effective sense of excellence. There are adequate grounds for asserting that the premium so often put in schools upon external \"discipline,\" and upon marks and rewards, upon promotion and keeping back, are the obverse of the lack of attention given to life situations in which the meaning of facts, ideas, principles, and problems is vitally brought home.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00415", "bookId": 852, "start": 553622, "end": 555656, "sha256": "03abd4666b7b763c57d21d052f5750086cbd35fa30886cec9aac6ccee28b1378", "text": "2. Appreciative realizations are to be distinguished from symbolic or representative experiences. They are not to be distinguished from the work of the intellect or understanding. Only a personal response involving imagination can possibly procure realization even of pure \"facts.\" The imagination is the medium of appreciation in every field. The engagement of the imagination is the only thing that makes any activity more than mechanical. Unfortunately, it is too customary to identify the imaginative with the imaginary, rather than with a warm and intimate taking in of the full scope of a situation. This leads to an exaggerated estimate of fairy tales, myths, fanciful symbols, verse, and something labeled \"Fine Art,\" as agencies for developing imagination and appreciation; and, by neglecting imaginative vision in other matters, leads to methods which reduce much instruction to an unimaginative acquiring of specialized skill and amassing of a load of information. Theory, and--to some extent--practice, have advanced far enough to recognize that play-activity is an imaginative enterprise. But it is still usual to regard this activity as a specially marked-off stage of childish growth, and to overlook the fact that the difference between play and what is regarded as serious employment should be not a difference between the presence and absence of imagination, but a difference in the materials with which imagination is occupied. The result is an unwholesome exaggeration of the phantastic and \"unreal\" phases of childish play and a deadly reduction of serious occupation to a routine efficiency prized simply for its external tangible results. Achievement comes to denote the sort of thing that a well-planned machine can do better than a human being can, and the main effect of education, the achieving of a life of rich significance, drops by the wayside. Meantime mind-wandering and wayward fancy are nothing but the unsuppressible imagination cut loose from concern with what is done.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00416", "bookId": 852, "start": 555660, "end": 556999, "sha256": "6510db23b032424f6a39f459b238f7c5394bf85f1c59207f138ead9198970131", "text": "An adequate recognition of the play of imagination as the medium of realization of every kind of thing which lies beyond the scope of direct physical response is the sole way of escape from mechanical methods in teaching. The emphasis put in this book, in accord with many tendencies in contemporary education, upon activity, will be misleading if it is not recognized that the imagination is as much a normal and integral part of human activity as is muscular movement. The educative value of manual activities and of laboratory exercises, as well as of play, depends upon the extent in which they aid in bringing about a sensing of the meaning of what is going on. In effect, if not in name, they are dramatizations. Their utilitarian value in forming habits of skill to be used for tangible results is important, but not when isolated from the appreciative side. Were it not for the accompanying play of imagination, there would be no road from a direct activity to representative knowledge; for it is by imagination that symbols are translated over into a direct meaning and integrated with a narrower activity so as to expand and enrich it. When the representative creative imagination is made merely literary and mythological, symbols are rendered mere means of directing physical reactions of the organs of speech.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00417", "bookId": 852, "start": 557003, "end": 558277, "sha256": "c7a552e37fc627c4510de2bfa89c403c90d12acfc74503cac4a3ff44ca4bc8a3", "text": "3. In the account previously given nothing was explicitly said about the place of literature and the fine arts in the course of study. The omission at that point was intentional. At the outset, there is no sharp demarcation of useful, or industrial, arts and fine arts. The activities mentioned in Chapter XV contain within themselves the factors later discriminated into fine and useful arts. As engaging the emotions and the imagination, they have the qualities which give the fine arts their quality. As demanding method or skill, the adaptation of tools to materials with constantly increasing perfection, they involve the element of technique indispensable to artistic production. From the standpoint of product, or the work of art, they are naturally defective, though even in this respect when they comprise genuine appreciation they often have a rudimentary charm. As experiences they have both an artistic and an esthetic quality. When they emerge into activities which are tested by their product and when the socially serviceable value of the product is emphasized, they pass into useful or industrial arts. When they develop in the direction of an enhanced appreciation of the immediate qualities which appeal to taste, they grow into fine arts.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00418", "bookId": 852, "start": 558281, "end": 559775, "sha256": "274b9b7a62e2df029a9e7657a9330a547cdb31d0d995543c2f1baa5e2b6c80d8", "text": "In one of its meanings, appreciation is opposed to depreciation. It denotes an enlarged, an intensified prizing, not merely a prizing, much less--like depreciation--a lowered and degraded prizing. This enhancement of the qualities which make any ordinary experience appealing, appropriable--capable of full assimilation--and enjoyable, constitutes the prime function of literature, music, drawing, painting, etc., in education. They are not the exclusive agencies of appreciation in the most general sense of that word; but they are the chief agencies of an intensified, enhanced appreciation. As such, they are not only intrinsically and directly enjoyable, but they serve a purpose beyond themselves. They have the office, in increased degree, of all appreciation in fixing taste, in forming standards for the worth of later experiences. They arouse discontent with conditions which fall below their measure; they create a demand for surroundings coming up to their own level. They reveal a depth and range of meaning in experiences which otherwise might be mediocre and trivial. They supply, that is, organs of vision. Moreover, in their fullness they represent the concentration and consummation of elements of good which are otherwise scattered and incomplete. They select and focus the elements of enjoyable worth which make any experience directly enjoyable. They are not luxuries of education, but emphatic expressions of that which makes any education worth while.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00419", "bookId": 852, "start": 559779, "end": 561073, "sha256": "d46345bbd08da8d4dd16d59299ea2af2094c1f1db29dfe471ef682a1a64981f5", "text": "2. The Valuation of Studies. The theory of educational values involves not only an account of the nature of appreciation as fixing the measure of subsequent valuations, but an account of the specific directions in which these valuations occur. To value means primarily to prize, to esteem; but secondarily it means to apprise, to estimate. It means, that is, the act of cherishing something, holding it dear, and also the act of passing judgment upon the nature and amount of its value as compared with something else. To value in the latter sense is to valuate or evaluate. The distinction coincides with that sometimes made between intrinsic and instrumental values. Intrinsic values are not objects of judgment, they cannot (as intrinsic) be compared, or regarded as greater and less, better or worse. They are invaluable; and if a thing is invaluable, it is neither more nor less so than any other invaluable. But occasions present themselves when it is necessary to choose, when we must let one thing go in order to take another. This establishes an order of preference, a greater and less, better and worse. Things judged or passed upon have to be estimated in relation to some third thing, some further end. With respect to that, they are means, or instrumental values.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00420", "bookId": 852, "start": 561077, "end": 564210, "sha256": "12d2e91502929907f1583026fb3ab28815900ffafa49388d6c2c76806dac400f", "text": "We may imagine a man who at one time thoroughly enjoys converse with his friends, at another the hearing of a symphony; at another the eating of his meals; at another the reading of a book; at another the earning of money, and so on. As an appreciative realization, each of these is an intrinsic value. It occupies a particular place in life; it serves its own end, which cannot be supplied by a substitute. There is no question of comparative value, and hence none of valuation. Each is the specific good which it is, and that is all that can be said. In its own place, none is a means to anything beyond itself. But there may arise a situation in which they compete or conflict, in which a choice has to be made. Now comparison comes in. Since a choice has to be made, we want to know the respective claims of each competitor. What is to be said for it? What does it offer in comparison with, as balanced over against, some other possibility? Raising these questions means that a particular good is no longer an end in itself, an intrinsic good. For if it were, its claims would be incomparable, imperative. The question is now as to its status as a means of realizing something else, which is then the invaluable of that situation. If a man has just eaten, or if he is well fed generally and the opportunity to hear music is a rarity, he will probably prefer the music to eating. In the given situation that will render the greater contribution. If he is starving, or if he is satiated with music for the time being, he will naturally judge food to have the greater worth. In the abstract or at large, apart from the needs of a particular situation in which choice has to be made, there is no such thing as degrees or order of value. Certain conclusions follow with respect to educational values. We cannot establish a hierarchy of values among studies. It is futile to attempt to arrange them in an order, beginning with one having least worth and going on to that of maximum value. In so far as any study has a unique or irreplaceable function in experience, in so far as it marks a characteristic enrichment of life, its worth is intrinsic or incomparable. Since education is not a means to living, but is identical with the operation of living a life which is fruitful and inherently significant, the only ultimate value which can be set up is just the process of living itself. And this is not an end to which studies and activities are subordinate means; it is the whole of which they are ingredients. And what has been said about appreciation means that every study in one of its aspects ought to have just such ultimate significance. It is true of arithmetic as it is of poetry that in some place and at some time it ought to be a good to be appreciated on its own account--just as an enjoyable experience, in short. If it is not, then when the time and place come for it to be used as a means or instrumentality, it will be in just that much handicapped. Never having been realized or appreciated for itself, one will miss something of its capacity as a resource for other ends.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00421", "bookId": 852, "start": 564214, "end": 564741, "sha256": "68c8491bef470c67f3dd8af68506153be0af26a2459ce36f43de34f54d2ed49f", "text": "It equally follows that when we compare studies as to their values, that is, treat them as means to something beyond themselves, that which controls their proper valuation is found in the specific situation in which they are to be used. The way to enable a student to apprehend the instrumental value of arithmetic is not to lecture him upon the benefit it will be to him in some remote and uncertain future, but to let him discover that success in something he is interested in doing depends upon ability to use number.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00422", "bookId": 852, "start": 564745, "end": 566723, "sha256": "39503de017b86168cd5d2be21c51f2340900ac2b494602a41b7a00cefb38abce", "text": "It also follows that the attempt to distribute distinct sorts of value among different studies is a misguided one, in spite of the amount of time recently devoted to the undertaking. Science for example may have any kind of value, depending upon the situation into which it enters as a means. To some the value of science may be military; it may be an instrument in strengthening means of offense or defense; it may be technological, a tool for engineering; or it may be commercial--an aid in the successful conduct of business; under other conditions, its worth may be philanthropic--the service it renders in relieving human suffering; or again it may be quite conventional--of value in establishing one's social status as an \"educated\" person. As matter of fact, science serves all these purposes, and it would be an arbitrary task to try to fix upon one of them as its \"real\" end. All that we can be sure of educationally is that science should be taught so as to be an end in itself in the lives of students--something worth while on account of its own unique intrinsic contribution to the experience of life. Primarily it must have \"appreciation value.\" If we take something which seems to be at the opposite pole, like poetry, the same sort of statement applies. It may be that, at the present time, its chief value is the contribution it makes to the enjoyment of leisure. But that may represent a degenerate condition rather than anything necessary. Poetry has historically been allied with religion and morals; it has served the purpose of penetrating the mysterious depths of things. It has had an enormous patriotic value. Homer to the Greeks was a Bible, a textbook of morals, a history, and a national inspiration. In any case, it may be said that an education which does not succeed in making poetry a resource in the business of life as well as in its leisure, has something the matter with it--or else the poetry is artificial poetry.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00423", "bookId": 852, "start": 566727, "end": 567959, "sha256": "1a290a80a15c3433d173e6da48e6a3ffaf125e7e0ea137ee5cfade6bdf7bba87", "text": "The same considerations apply to the value of a study or a topic of a study with reference to its motivating force. Those responsible for planning and teaching the course of study should have grounds for thinking that the studies and topics included furnish both direct increments to the enriching of lives of the pupils and also materials which they can put to use in other concerns of direct interest. Since the curriculum is always getting loaded down with purely inherited traditional matter and with subjects which represent mainly the energy of some influential person or group of persons in behalf of something dear to them, it requires constant inspection, criticism, and revision to make sure it is accomplishing its purpose. Then there is always the probability that it represents the values of adults rather than those of children and youth, or those of pupils a generation ago rather than those of the present day. Hence a further need for a critical outlook and survey. But these considerations do not mean that for a subject to have motivating value to a pupil (whether intrinsic or instrumental) is the same thing as for him to be aware of the value, or to be able to tell what the study is good for.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00424", "bookId": 852, "start": 567963, "end": 569777, "sha256": "839f925ee0e1b42182d37aec7db42f4251d7e72ffb057279e7c36a7c63527c73", "text": "In the first place, as long as any topic makes an immediate appeal, it is not necessary to ask what it is good for. This is a question which can be asked only about instrumental values. Some goods are not good for anything; they are just goods. Any other notion leads to an absurdity. For we cannot stop asking the question about an instrumental good, one whose value lies in its being good for something, unless there is at some point something intrinsically good, good for itself. To a hungry, healthy child, food is a good of the situation; we do not have to bring him to consciousness of the ends subserved by food in order to supply a motive to eat. The food in connection with his appetite is a motive. The same thing holds of mentally eager pupils with respect to many topics. Neither they nor the teacher could possibly foretell with any exactness the purposes learning is to accomplish in the future; nor as long as the eagerness continues is it advisable to try to specify particular goods which are to come of it. The proof of a good is found in the fact that the pupil responds; his response is use. His response to the material shows that the subject functions in his life. It is unsound to urge that, say, Latin has a value per se in the abstract, just as a study, as a sufficient justification for teaching it. But it is equally absurd to argue that unless teacher or pupil can point out some definite assignable future use to which it is to be put, it lacks justifying value. When pupils are genuinely concerned in learning Latin, that is of itself proof that it possesses value. The most which one is entitled to ask in such cases is whether in view of the shortness of time, there are not other things of intrinsic value which in addition have greater instrumental value.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00425", "bookId": 852, "start": 569781, "end": 573722, "sha256": "e0bdd80f549581e9c958fb6f9013b555f0f21bfe16aecad4bb5c63466eece7dc", "text": "This brings us to the matter of instrumental values--topics studied because of some end beyond themselves. If a child is ill and his appetite does not lead him to eat when food is presented, or if his appetite is perverted so that he prefers candy to meat and vegetables, conscious reference to results is indicated. He needs to be made conscious of consequences as a justification of the positive or negative value of certain objects. Or the state of things may be normal enough, and yet an individual not be moved by some matter because he does not grasp how his attainment of some intrinsic good depends upon active concern with what is presented. In such cases, it is obviously the part of wisdom to establish consciousness of connection. In general what is desirable is that a topic be presented in such a way that it either have an immediate value, and require no justification, or else be perceived to be a means of achieving something of intrinsic value. An instrumental value then has the intrinsic value of being a means to an end. It may be questioned whether some of the present pedagogical interest in the matter of values of studies is not either excessive or else too narrow. Sometimes it appears to be a labored effort to furnish an apologetic for topics which no longer operate to any purpose, direct or indirect, in the lives of pupils. At other times, the reaction against useless lumber seems to have gone to the extent of supposing that no subject or topic should be taught unless some quite definite future utility can be pointed out by those making the course of study or by the pupil himself, unmindful of the fact that life is its own excuse for being; and that definite utilities which can be pointed out are themselves justified only because they increase the experienced content of life itself. 3. The Segregation and Organization of Values. It is of course possible to classify in a general way the various valuable phases of life. In order to get a survey of aims sufficiently wide (See ante, p. 110) to give breadth and flexibility to the enterprise of education, there is some advantage in such a classification. But it is a great mistake to regard these values as ultimate ends to which the concrete satisfactions of experience are subordinate. They are nothing but generalizations, more or less adequate, of concrete goods. Health, wealth, efficiency, sociability, utility, culture, happiness itself are only abstract terms which sum up a multitude of particulars. To regard such things as standards for the valuation of concrete topics and process of education is to subordinate to an abstraction the concrete facts from which the abstraction is derived. They are not in any true sense standards of valuation; these are found, as we have previously seen, in the specific realizations which form tastes and habits of preference. They are, however, of significance as points of view elevated above the details of life whence to survey the field and see how its constituent details are distributed, and whether they are well proportioned. No classification can have other than a provisional validity. The following may prove of some help. We may say that the kind of experience to which the work of the schools should contribute is one marked by executive competency in the management of resources and obstacles encountered (efficiency); by sociability, or interest in the direct companionship of others; by aesthetic taste or capacity to appreciate artistic excellence in at least some of its classic forms; by trained intellectual method, or interest in some mode of scientific achievement; and by sensitiveness to the rights and claims of others--conscientiousness. And while these considerations are not standards of value, they are useful criteria for survey, criticism, and better organization of existing methods and subject matter of instruction.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00426", "bookId": 852, "start": 573726, "end": 576509, "sha256": "42544cf0a256f67ba7fd596a019e81277112a7dc3629549c4fba560eb3252c35", "text": "The need of such general points of view is the greater because of a tendency to segregate educational values due to the isolation from one another of the various pursuits of life. The idea is prevalent that different studies represent separate kinds of values, and that the curriculum should, therefore, be constituted by gathering together various studies till a sufficient variety of independent values have been cared for. The following quotation does not use the word value, but it contains the notion of a curriculum constructed on the idea that there are a number of separate ends to be reached, and that various studies may be evaluated by referring each study to its respective end. \"Memory is trained by most studies, but best by languages and history; taste is trained by the more advanced study of languages, and still better by English literature; imagination by all higher language teaching, but chiefly by Greek and Latin poetry; observation by science work in the laboratory, though some training is to be got from the earlier stages of Latin and Greek; for expression, Greek and Latin composition comes first and English composition next; for abstract reasoning, mathematics stands almost alone; for concrete reasoning, science comes first, then geometry; for social reasoning, the Greek and Roman historians and orators come first, and general history next. Hence the narrowest education which can claim to be at all complete includes Latin, one modern language, some history, some English literature, and one science.\" There is much in the wording of this passage which is irrelevant to our point and which must be discounted to make it clear. The phraseology betrays the particular provincial tradition within which the author is writing. There is the unquestioned assumption of \"faculties\" to be trained, and a dominant interest in the ancient languages; there is comparative disregard of the earth on which men happen to live and the bodies they happen to carry around with them. But with allowances made for these matters (even with their complete abandonment) we find much in contemporary educational philosophy which parallels the fundamental notion of parceling out special values to segregated studies. Even when some one end is set up as a standard of value, like social efficiency or culture, it will often be found to be but a verbal heading under which a variety of disconnected factors are comprised. And although the general tendency is to allow a greater variety of values to a given study than does the passage quoted, yet the attempt to inventory a number of values attaching to each study and to state the amount of each value which the given study possesses emphasizes an implied educational disintegration.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00427", "bookId": 852, "start": 576513, "end": 577881, "sha256": "a6a8351f74210bbdc6636d55411b1a46b284e5345520b8aeb111504a7c8ae614", "text": "As matter of fact, such schemes of values of studies are largely but unconscious justifications of the curriculum with which one is familiar. One accepts, for the most part, the studies of the existing course and then assigns values to them as a sufficient reason for their being taught. Mathematics is said to have, for example, disciplinary value in habituating the pupil to accuracy of statement and closeness of reasoning; it has utilitarian value in giving command of the arts of calculation involved in trade and the arts; culture value in its enlargement of the imagination in dealing with the most general relations of things; even religious value in its concept of the infinite and allied ideas. But clearly mathematics does not accomplish such results, because it is endowed with miraculous potencies called values; it has these values if and when it accomplishes these results, and not otherwise. The statements may help a teacher to a larger vision of the possible results to be effected by instruction in mathematical topics. But unfortunately, the tendency is to treat the statement as indicating powers inherently residing in the subject, whether they operate or not, and thus to give it a rigid justification. If they do not operate, the blame is put not on the subject as taught, but on the indifference and recalcitrancy of pupils.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00428", "bookId": 852, "start": 577885, "end": 580176, "sha256": "f962b85070403d01c99f960ac8db6efa0452ac2f8df284ade4fe1792cc249365", "text": "This attitude toward subjects is the obverse side of the conception of experience or life as a patchwork of independent interests which exist side by side and limit one another. Students of politics are familiar with a check and balance theory of the powers of government. There are supposed to be independent separate functions, like the legislative, executive, judicial, administrative, and all goes well if each of these checks all the others and thus creates an ideal balance. There is a philosophy which might well be called the check and balance theory of experience. Life presents a diversity of interests. Left to themselves, they tend to encroach on one another. The ideal is to prescribe a special territory for each till the whole ground of experience is covered, and then see to it each remains within its own boundaries. Politics, business, recreation, art, science, the learned professions, polite intercourse, leisure, represent such interests. Each of these ramifies into many branches: business into manual occupations, executive positions, bookkeeping, railroading, banking, agriculture, trade and commerce, etc., and so with each of the others. An ideal education would then supply the means of meeting these separate and pigeon-holed interests. And when we look at the schools, it is easy to get the impression that they accept this view of the nature of adult life, and set for themselves the task of meeting its demands. Each interest is acknowledged as a kind of fixed institution to which something in the course of study must correspond. The course of study must then have some civics and history politically and patriotically viewed: some utilitarian studies; some science; some art (mainly literature of course); some provision for recreation; some moral education; and so on. And it will be found that a large part of current agitation about schools is concerned with clamor and controversy about the due meed of recognition to be given to each of these interests, and with struggles to secure for each its due share in the course of study; or, if this does not seem feasible in the existing school system, then to secure a new and separate kind of schooling to meet the need. In the multitude of educations education is forgotten.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00429", "bookId": 852, "start": 580180, "end": 581256, "sha256": "8cdd253a07eb63c1d6e94fb97e8a3e145068443cd4e568de46da1699905b880f", "text": "The obvious outcome is congestion of the course of study, overpressure and distraction of pupils, and a narrow specialization fatal to the very idea of education. But these bad results usually lead to more of the same sort of thing as a remedy. When it is perceived that after all the requirements of a full life experience are not met, the deficiency is not laid to the isolation and narrowness of the teaching of the existing subjects, and this recognition made the basis of reorganization of the system. No, the lack is something to be made up for by the introduction of still another study, or, if necessary, another kind of school. And as a rule those who object to the resulting overcrowding and consequent superficiality and distraction usually also have recourse to a merely quantitative criterion: the remedy is to cut off a great many studies as fads and frills, and return to the good old curriculum of the three R's in elementary education and the equally good and equally old-fashioned curriculum of the classics and mathematics in higher education.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00430", "bookId": 852, "start": 581260, "end": 582367, "sha256": "60a2b03af7317852c768c6443296c842162f11db06aa6413f9bc8b433d612a2c", "text": "The situation has, of course, its historic explanation. Various epochs of the past have had their own characteristic struggles and interests. Each of these great epochs has left behind itself a kind of cultural deposit, like a geologic stratum. These deposits have found their way into educational institutions in the form of studies, distinct courses of study, distinct types of schools. With the rapid change of political, scientific, and economic interests in the last century, provision had to be made for new values. Though the older courses resisted, they have had at least in this country to retire their pretensions to a monopoly. They have not, however, been reorganized in content and aim; they have only been reduced in amount. The new studies, representing the new interests, have not been used to transform the method and aim of all instruction; they have been injected and added on. The result is a conglomerate, the cement of which consists in the mechanics of the school program or time table. Thence arises the scheme of values and standards of value which we have mentioned.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00431", "bookId": 852, "start": 582371, "end": 585290, "sha256": "6fe1c8125ac785578136349f4e2da3ee138bf12dca1e0f71400ed916e908ddb1", "text": "This situation in education represents the divisions and separations which obtain in social life. The variety of interests which should mark any rich and balanced experience have been torn asunder and deposited in separate institutions with diverse and independent purposes and methods. Business is business, science is science, art is art, politics is politics, social intercourse is social intercourse, morals is morals, recreation is recreation, and so on. Each possesses a separate and independent province with its own peculiar aims and ways of proceeding. Each contributes to the others only externally and accidentally. All of them together make up the whole of life by just apposition and addition. What does one expect from business save that it should furnish money, to be used in turn for making more money and for support of self and family, for buying books and pictures, tickets to concerts which may afford culture, and for paying taxes, charitable gifts and other things of social and ethical value? How unreasonable to expect that the pursuit of business should be itself a culture of the imagination, in breadth and refinement; that it should directly, and not through the money which it supplies, have social service for its animating principle and be conducted as an enterprise in behalf of social organization! The same thing is to be said, mutatis mutandis, of the pursuit of art or science or politics or religion. Each has become specialized not merely in its appliances and its demands upon time, but in its aim and animating spirit. Unconsciously, our course of studies and our theories of the educational values of studies reflect this division of interests. The point at issue in a theory of educational value is then the unity or integrity of experience. How shall it be full and varied without losing unity of spirit? How shall it be one and yet not narrow and monotonous in its unity? Ultimately, the question of values and a standard of values is the moral question of the organization of the interests of life. Educationally, the question concerns that organization of schools, materials, and methods which will operate to achieve breadth and richness of experience. How shall we secure breadth of outlook without sacrificing efficiency of execution? How shall we secure the diversity of interests, without paying the price of isolation? How shall the individual be rendered executive in his intelligence instead of at the cost of his intelligence? How shall art, science, and politics reinforce one another in an enriched temper of mind instead of constituting ends pursued at one another's expense? How can the interests of life and the studies which enforce them enrich the common experience of men instead of dividing men from one another? With the questions of reorganization thus suggested, we shall be concerned in the concluding chapters.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00432", "bookId": 852, "start": 585294, "end": 586239, "sha256": "bc6aeb6516fc4bba61f119f0884e28f3898de95414471cb8e0c65b403f720a82", "text": "Summary. Fundamentally, the elements involved in a discussion of value have been covered in the prior discussion of aims and interests. But since educational values are generally discussed in connection with the claims of the various studies of the curriculum, the consideration of aim and interest is here resumed from the point of view of special studies. The term \"value\" has two quite different meanings. On the one hand, it denotes the attitude of prizing a thing finding it worth while, for its own sake, or intrinsically. This is a name for a full or complete experience. To value in this sense is to appreciate. But to value also means a distinctively intellectual act--an operation of comparing and judging--to valuate. This occurs when direct full experience is lacking, and the question arises which of the various possibilities of a situation is to be preferred in order to reach a full realization, or vital experience.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00433", "bookId": 852, "start": 586243, "end": 586953, "sha256": "456d623d23600c07e8649067beaaf73c6c5e774a991b5f80fd894dfcd5a5ac04", "text": "We must not, however, divide the studies of the curriculum into the appreciative, those concerned with intrinsic value, and the instrumental, concerned with those which are of value or ends beyond themselves. The formation of proper standards in any subject depends upon a realization of the contribution which it makes to the immediate significance of experience, upon a direct appreciation. Literature and the fine arts are of peculiar value because they represent appreciation at its best--a heightened realization of meaning through selection and concentration. But every subject at some phase of its development should possess, what is for the individual concerned with it, an aesthetic quality.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00434", "bookId": 852, "start": 586957, "end": 587541, "sha256": "885805ad35ba81e43f43fee9a2e04f8f990e7c1e15ef27c74656dd4c4469c7c2", "text": "Contribution to immediate intrinsic values in all their variety in experience is the only criterion for determining the worth of instrumental and derived values in studies. The tendency to assign separate values to each study and to regard the curriculum in its entirety as a kind of composite made by the aggregation of segregated values is a result of the isolation of social groups and classes. Hence it is the business of education in a democratic social group to struggle against this isolation in order that the various interests may reinforce and play into one another.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00435", "bookId": 852, "start": 587551, "end": 587586, "sha256": "b4b10b8b630cf7f84591e9f06224888b99e0998d95fc837adb0f8baa5d987f13", "text": "Chapter Nineteen: Labor and Leisure", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG852.B00436", "bookId": 852, "start": 587590, "end": 587622, "sha256": "25a6923d1f853e1ac93b6a466010b3d4d926d2130c8188ce209f3f6ce87b2bdf", "text": "1. The Origin of the Opposition.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG852.B00437", "bookId": 852, "start": 587626, "end": 589889, "sha256": "77149eb94f693111895b0c307b0f387b00db00c7c6e5405c78f3c817a9ed7113", "text": "The isolation of aims and values which we have been considering leads to opposition between them. Probably the most deep-seated antithesis which has shown itself in educational history is that between education in preparation for useful labor and education for a life of leisure. The bare terms \"useful labor\" and \"leisure\" confirm the statement already made that the segregation and conflict of values are not self-inclosed, but reflect a division within social life. Were the two functions of gaining a livelihood by work and enjoying in a cultivated way the opportunities of leisure, distributed equally among the different members of a community, it would not occur to any one that there was any conflict of educational agencies and aims involved. It would be self-evident that the question was how education could contribute most effectively to both. And while it might be found that some materials of instruction chiefly accomplished one result and other subject matter the other, it would be evident that care must be taken to secure as much overlapping as conditions permit; that is, the education which had leisure more directly in view should indirectly reinforce as much as possible the efficiency and the enjoyment of work, while that aiming at the latter should produce habits of emotion and intellect which would procure a worthy cultivation of leisure. These general considerations are amply borne out by the historical development of educational philosophy. The separation of liberal education from professional and industrial education goes back to the time of the Greeks, and was formulated expressly on the basis of a division of classes into those who had to labor for a living and those who were relieved from this necessity. The conception that liberal education, adapted to men in the latter class, is intrinsically higher than the servile training given to the latter class reflected the fact that one class was free and the other servile in its social status. The latter class labored not only for its own subsistence, but also for the means which enabled the superior class to live without personally engaging in occupations taking almost all the time and not of a nature to engage or reward intelligence.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00438", "bookId": 852, "start": 589893, "end": 592360, "sha256": "ef312f248686a439fc1e562fca44c5c6d2e10dd53241737cd318377f1ff2b93c", "text": "That a certain amount of labor must be engaged in goes without saying. Human beings have to live and it requires work to supply the resources of life. Even if we insist that the interests connected with getting a living are only material and hence intrinsically lower than those connected with enjoyment of time released from labor, and even if it were admitted that there is something engrossing and insubordinate in material interests which leads them to strive to usurp the place belonging to the higher ideal interests, this would not--barring the fact of socially divided classes--lead to neglect of the kind of education which trains men for the useful pursuits. It would rather lead to scrupulous care for them, so that men were trained to be efficient in them and yet to keep them in their place; education would see to it that we avoided the evil results which flow from their being allowed to flourish in obscure purlieus of neglect. Only when a division of these interests coincides with a division of an inferior and a superior social class will preparation for useful work be looked down upon with contempt as an unworthy thing: a fact which prepares one for the conclusion that the rigid identification of work with material interests, and leisure with ideal interests is itself a social product. The educational formulations of the social situation made over two thousand years ago have been so influential and give such a clear and logical recognition of the implications of the division into laboring and leisure classes, that they deserve especial note. According to them, man occupies the highest place in the scheme of animate existence. In part, he shares the constitution and functions of plants and animals--nutritive, reproductive, motor or practical. The distinctively human function is reason existing for the sake of beholding the spectacle of the universe. Hence the truly human end is the fullest possible of this distinctive human prerogative. The life of observation, meditation, cogitation, and speculation pursued as an end in itself is the proper life of man. From reason moreover proceeds the proper control of the lower elements of human nature--the appetites and the active, motor, impulses. In themselves greedy, insubordinate, lovers of excess, aiming only at their own satiety, they observe moderation--the law of the mean--and serve desirable ends as they are subjected to the rule of reason.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00439", "bookId": 852, "start": 592364, "end": 593853, "sha256": "5241cdf283854fb6c336ea4f81b5220a596e54beac0f2d76db5f21a818478143", "text": "Such is the situation as an affair of theoretical psychology and as most adequately stated by Aristotle. But this state of things is reflected in the constitution of classes of men and hence in the organization of society. Only in a comparatively small number is the function of reason capable of operating as a law of life. In the mass of people, vegetative and animal functions dominate. Their energy of intelligence is so feeble and inconstant that it is constantly overpowered by bodily appetite and passion. Such persons are not truly ends in themselves, for only reason constitutes a final end. Like plants, animals and physical tools, they are means, appliances, for the attaining of ends beyond themselves, although unlike them they have enough intelligence to exercise a certain discretion in the execution of the tasks committed to them. Thus by nature, and not merely by social convention, there are those who are slaves--that is, means for the ends of others. 1 The great body of artisans are in one important respect worse off than even slaves. Like the latter they are given up to the service of ends external to themselves; but since they do not enjoy the intimate association with the free superior class experienced by domestic slaves they remain on a lower plane of excellence. Moreover, women are classed with slaves and craftsmen as factors among the animate instrumentalities of production and reproduction of the means for a free or rational life.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00440", "bookId": 852, "start": 593857, "end": 594636, "sha256": "c002b532dc7ef0c456ae06122c9629879a283547d769adf0b35160cc1419ee6d", "text": "Individually and collectively there is a gulf between merely living and living worthily. In order that one may live worthily he must first live, and so with collective society. The time and energy spent upon mere life, upon the gaining of subsistence, detracts from that available for activities that have an inherent rational meaning; they also unfit for the latter. Means are menial, the serviceable is servile. The true life is possible only in the degree in which the physical necessities are had without effort and without attention. Hence slaves, artisans, and women are employed in furnishing the means of subsistence in order that others, those adequately equipped with intelligence, may live the life of leisurely concern with things intrinsically worth while.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00441", "bookId": 852, "start": 594640, "end": 596639, "sha256": "ff35b658a618df91057b0d7bfce52b3b3f653bbae88c962f48a17f45ed6142c0", "text": "To these two modes of occupation, with their distinction of servile and free activities (or \"arts\") correspond two types of education: the base or mechanical and the liberal or intellectual. Some persons are trained by suitable practical exercises for capacity in doing things, for ability to use the mechanical tools involved in turning out physical commodities and rendering personal service. This training is a mere matter of habituation and technical skill; it operates through repetition and assiduity in application, not through awakening and nurturing thought. Liberal education aims to train intelligence for its proper office: to know. The less this knowledge has to do with practical affairs, with making or producing, the more adequately it engages intelligence. So consistently does Aristotle draw the line between menial and liberal education that he puts what are now called the \"fine\" arts, music, painting, sculpture, in the same class with menial arts so far as their practice is concerned. They involve physical agencies, assiduity of practice, and external results. In discussing, for example, education in music he raises the question how far the young should be practiced in the playing of instruments. His answer is that such practice and proficiency may be tolerated as conduce to appreciation; that is, to understanding and enjoyment of music when played by slaves or professionals. When professional power is aimed at, music sinks from the liberal to the professional level. One might then as well teach cooking, says Aristotle. Even a liberal concern with the works of fine art depends upon the existence of a hireling class of practitioners who have subordinated the development of their own personality to attaining skill in mechanical execution. The higher the activity the more purely mental is it; the less does it have to do with physical things or with the body. The more purely mental it is, the more independent or self-sufficing is it.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00442", "bookId": 852, "start": 596643, "end": 599713, "sha256": "6d0e6ab237e87834b936233f51891e5367d139e0def742fb026bb6d4aea2fa95", "text": "These last words remind us that Aristotle again makes a distinction of superior and inferior even within those living the life of reason. For there is a distinction in ends and in free action, according as one's life is merely accompanied by reason or as it makes reason its own medium. That is to say, the free citizen who devotes himself to the public life of his community, sharing in the management of its affairs and winning personal honor and distinction, lives a life accompanied by reason. But the thinker, the man who devotes himself to scientific inquiry and philosophic speculation, works, so to speak, in reason, not simply by *. Even the activity of the citizen in his civic relations, in other words, retains some of the taint of practice, of external or merely instrumental doing. This infection is shown by the fact that civic activity and civic excellence need the help of others; one cannot engage in public life all by himself. But all needs, all desires imply, in the philosophy of Aristotle, a material factor; they involve lack, privation; they are dependent upon something beyond themselves for completion. A purely intellectual life, however, one carries on by himself, in himself; such assistance as he may derive from others is accidental, rather than intrinsic. In knowing, in the life of theory, reason finds its own full manifestation; knowing for the sake of knowing irrespective of any application is alone independent, or self-sufficing. Hence only the education that makes for power to know as an end in itself, without reference to the practice of even civic duties, is truly liberal or free. 2. The Present Situation. If the Aristotelian conception represented just Aristotle's personal view, it would be a more or less interesting historical curiosity. It could be dismissed as an illustration of the lack of sympathy or the amount of academic pedantry which may coexist with extraordinary intellectual gifts. But Aristotle simply described without confusion and without that insincerity always attendant upon mental confusion, the life that was before him. That the actual social situation has greatly changed since his day there is no need to say. But in spite of these changes, in spite of the abolition of legal serfdom, and the spread of democracy, with the extension of science and of general education (in books, newspapers, travel, and general intercourse as well as in schools), there remains enough of a cleavage of society into a learned and an unlearned class, a leisure and a laboring class, to make his point of view a most enlightening one from which to criticize the separation between culture and utility in present education. Behind the intellectual and abstract distinction as it figures in pedagogical discussion, there looms a social distinction between those whose pursuits involve a minimum of self-directive thought and aesthetic appreciation, and those who are concerned more directly with things of the intelligence and with the control of the activities of others.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00443", "bookId": 852, "start": 599717, "end": 605485, "sha256": "82c48027da82a6a1f7c53b8a53df517039db3f4b93722d876fc2f326684e3a80", "text": "Aristotle was certainly permanently right when he said that \"any occupation or art or study deserves to be called mechanical if it renders the body or soul or intellect of free persons unfit for the exercise and practice of excellence.\" The force of the statement is almost infinitely increased when we hold, as we nominally do at present, that all persons, instead of a comparatively few, are free. For when the mass of men and all women were regarded as unfree by the very nature of their bodies and minds, there was neither intellectual confusion nor moral hypocrisy in giving them only the training which fitted them for mechanical skill, irrespective of its ulterior effect upon their capacity to share in a worthy life. He was permanently right also when he went on to say that \"all mercenary employments as well as those which degrade the condition of the body are mechanical, since they deprive the intellect of leisure and dignity,\"--permanently right, that is, if gainful pursuits as matter of fact deprive the intellect of the conditions of its exercise and so of its dignity. If his statements are false, it is because they identify a phase of social custom with a natural necessity. But a different view of the relations of mind and matter, mind and body, intelligence and social service, is better than Aristotle's conception only if it helps render the old idea obsolete in fact--in the actual conduct of life and education. Aristotle was permanently right in assuming the inferiority and subordination of mere skill in performance and mere accumulation of external products to understanding, sympathy of appreciation, and the free play of ideas. If there was an error, it lay in assuming the necessary separation of the two: in supposing that there is a natural divorce between efficiency in producing commodities and rendering service, and self-directive thought; between significant knowledge and practical achievement. We hardly better matters if we just correct his theoretical misapprehension, and tolerate the social state of affairs which generated and sanctioned his conception. We lose rather than gain in change from serfdom to free citizenship if the most prized result of the change is simply an increase in the mechanical efficiency of the human tools of production. So we lose rather than gain in coming to think of intelligence as an organ of control of nature through action, if we are content that an unintelligent, unfree state persists in those who engage directly in turning nature to use, and leave the intelligence which controls to be the exclusive possession of remote scientists and captains of industry. We are in a position honestly to criticize the division of life into separate functions and of society into separate classes only so far as we are free from responsibility for perpetuating the educational practices which train the many for pursuits involving mere skill in production, and the few for a knowledge that is an ornament and a cultural embellishment. In short, ability to transcend the Greek philosophy of life and education is not secured by a mere shifting about of the theoretical symbols meaning free, rational, and worthy. It is not secured by a change of sentiment regarding the dignity of labor, and the superiority of a life of service to that of an aloof self-sufficing independence. Important as these theoretical and emotional changes are, their importance consists in their being turned to account in the development of a truly democratic society, a society in which all share in useful service and all enjoy a worthy leisure. It is not a mere change in the concepts of culture--or a liberal mind--and social service which requires an educational reorganization; but the educational transformation is needed to give full and explicit effect to the changes implied in social life. The increased political and economic emancipation of the \"masses\" has shown itself in education; it has effected the development of a common school system of education, public and free. It has destroyed the idea that learning is properly a monopoly of the few who are predestined by nature to govern social affairs. But the revolution is still incomplete. The idea still prevails that a truly cultural or liberal education cannot have anything in common, directly at least, with industrial affairs, and that the education which is fit for the masses must be a useful or practical education in a sense which opposes useful and practical to nurture of appreciation and liberation of thought. As a consequence, our actual system is an inconsistent mixture. Certain studies and methods are retained on the supposition that they have the sanction of peculiar liberality, the chief content of the term liberal being uselessness for practical ends. This aspect is chiefly visible in what is termed the higher education--that of the college and of preparation for it. But it has filtered through into elementary education and largely controls its processes and aims. But, on the other hand, certain concessions have been made to the masses who must engage in getting a livelihood and to the increased role of economic activities in modern life. These concessions are exhibited in special schools and courses for the professions, for engineering, for manual training and commerce, in vocational and prevocational courses; and in the spirit in which certain elementary subjects, like the three R's, are taught. The result is a system in which both \"cultural\" and \"utilitarian\" subjects exist in an inorganic composite where the former are not by dominant purpose socially serviceable and the latter not liberative of imagination or thinking power.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00444", "bookId": 852, "start": 605489, "end": 607683, "sha256": "e5eb2eca843532d92a3b29a04d252c0848748e0edbb887fc183810fb2f6f45d5", "text": "In the inherited situation, there is a curious intermingling, in even the same study, of concession to usefulness and a survival of traits once exclusively attributed to preparation for leisure. The \"utility\" element is found in the motives assigned for the study, the \"liberal\" element in methods of teaching. The outcome of the mixture is perhaps less satisfactory than if either principle were adhered to in its purity. The motive popularly assigned for making the studies of the first four or five years consist almost entirely of reading, spelling, writing, and arithmetic, is, for example, that ability to read, write, and figure accurately is indispensable to getting ahead. These studies are treated as mere instruments for entering upon a gainful employment or of later progress in the pursuit of learning, according as pupils do not or do remain in school. This attitude is reflected in the emphasis put upon drill and practice for the sake of gaining automatic skill. If we turn to Greek schooling, we find that from the earliest years the acquisition of skill was subordinated as much as possible to acquisition of literary content possessed of aesthetic and moral significance. Not getting a tool for subsequent use but present subject matter was the emphasized thing. Nevertheless the isolation of these studies from practical application, their reduction to purely symbolic devices, represents a survival of the idea of a liberal training divorced from utility. A thorough adoption of the idea of utility would have led to instruction which tied up the studies to situations in which they were directly needed and where they were rendered immediately and not remotely helpful. It would be hard to find a subject in the curriculum within which there are not found evil results of a compromise between the two opposed ideals. Natural science is recommended on the ground of its practical utility, but is taught as a special accomplishment in removal from application. On the other hand, music and literature are theoretically justified on the ground of their culture value and are then taught with chief emphasis upon forming technical modes of skill.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00445", "bookId": 852, "start": 607687, "end": 610217, "sha256": "df79447a86b35652e5e4b11b0a8fd5a3fedca47fa4a4a4cd0fa2c38f4c8311f3", "text": "If we had less compromise and resulting confusion, if we analyzed more carefully the respective meanings of culture and utility, we might find it easier to construct a course of study which should be useful and liberal at the same time. Only superstition makes us believe that the two are necessarily hostile so that a subject is illiberal because it is useful and cultural because it is useless. It will generally be found that instruction which, in aiming at utilitarian results, sacrifices the development of imagination, the refining of taste and the deepening of intellectual insight--surely cultural values--also in the same degree renders what is learned limited in its use. Not that it makes it wholly unavailable but that its applicability is restricted to routine activities carried on under the supervision of others. Narrow modes of skill cannot be made useful beyond themselves; any mode of skill which is achieved with deepening of knowledge and perfecting of judgment is readily put to use in new situations and is under personal control. It was not the bare fact of social and economic utility which made certain activities seem servile to the Greeks but the fact that the activities directly connected with getting a livelihood were not, in their days, the expression of a trained intelligence nor carried on because of a personal appreciation of their meaning. So far as farming and the trades were rule-of-thumb occupations and so far as they were engaged in for results external to the minds of agricultural laborers and mechanics, they were illiberal--but only so far. The intellectual and social context has now changed. The elements in industry due to mere custom and routine have become subordinate in most economic callings to elements derived from scientific inquiry. The most important occupations of today represent and depend upon applied mathematics, physics, and chemistry. The area of the human world influenced by economic production and influencing consumption has been so indefinitely widened that geographical and political considerations of an almost infinitely wide scope enter in. It was natural for Plato to deprecate the learning of geometry and arithmetic for practical ends, because as matter of fact the practical uses to which they were put were few, lacking in content and mostly mercenary in quality. But as their social uses have increased and enlarged, their liberalizing or \"intellectual\" value and their practical value approach the same limit.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00446", "bookId": 852, "start": 610221, "end": 611674, "sha256": "13166a6bb28ff140779c60d5b8667978871207393d060581ab16d5c38ed6a37b", "text": "Doubtless the factor which chiefly prevents our full recognition and employment of this identification is the conditions under which so much work is still carried on. The invention of machines has extended the amount of leisure which is possible even while one is at work. It is a commonplace that the mastery of skill in the form of established habits frees the mind for a higher order of thinking. Something of the same kind is true of the introduction of mechanically automatic operations in industry. They may release the mind for thought upon other topics. But when we confine the education of those who work with their hands to a few years of schooling devoted for the most part to acquiring the use of rudimentary symbols at the expense of training in science, literature, and history, we fail to prepare the minds of workers to take advantage of this opportunity. More fundamental is the fact that the great majority of workers have no insight into the social aims of their pursuits and no direct personal interest in them. The results actually achieved are not the ends of their actions, but only of their employers. They do what they do, not freely and intelligently, but for the sake of the wage earned. It is this fact which makes the action illiberal, and which will make any education designed simply to give skill in such undertakings illiberal and immoral. The activity is not free because not freely participated in.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00447", "bookId": 852, "start": 611678, "end": 612771, "sha256": "a403ee3d774a77c83b89b553e84cc7747e249f3a5700f12203e92f7ae7493ae8", "text": "Nevertheless, there is already an opportunity for an education which, keeping in mind the larger features of work, will reconcile liberal nurture with training in social serviceableness, with ability to share efficiently and happily in occupations which are productive. And such an education will of itself tend to do away with the evils of the existing economic situation. In the degree in which men have an active concern in the ends that control their activity, their activity becomes free or voluntary and loses its externally enforced and servile quality, even though the physical aspect of behavior remain the same. In what is termed politics, democratic social organization makes provision for this direct participation in control: in the economic region, control remains external and autocratic. Hence the split between inner mental action and outer physical action of which the traditional distinction between the liberal and the utilitarian is the reflex. An education which should unify the disposition of the members of society would do much to unify society itself.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00448", "bookId": 852, "start": 612775, "end": 614511, "sha256": "015bc6bdcc8365ce8c230404c9e43f7e287ff815f5764b1cd7ac3ae99c2af201", "text": "Summary. Of the segregations of educational values discussed in the last chapter, that between culture and utility is probably the most fundamental. While the distinction is often thought to be intrinsic and absolute, it is really historical and social. It originated, so far as conscious formulation is concerned, in Greece, and was based upon the fact that the truly human life was lived only by a few who subsisted upon the results of the labor of others. This fact affected the psychological doctrine of the relation of intelligence and desire, theory and practice. It was embodied in a political theory of a permanent division of human beings into those capable of a life of reason and hence having their own ends, and those capable only of desire and work, and needing to have their ends provided by others. The two distinctions, psychological and political, translated into educational terms, effected a division between a liberal education, having to do with the self-sufficing life of leisure devoted to knowing for its own sake, and a useful, practical training for mechanical occupations, devoid of intellectual and aesthetic content. While the present situation is radically diverse in theory and much changed in fact, the factors of the older historic situation still persist sufficiently to maintain the educational distinction, along with compromises which often reduce the efficacy of the educational measures. The problem of education in a democratic society is to do away with the dualism and to construct a course of studies which makes thought a guide of free practice for all and which makes leisure a reward of accepting responsibility for service, rather than a state of exemption from it.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00449", "bookId": 852, "start": 614515, "end": 614617, "sha256": "e10af9dc008181d4cbf0f9ae05f78129dadc2d51ca8e058ee052910fd412f91f", "text": "1 Aristotle does not hold that the class of actual slaves and of natural slaves necessarily coincide.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG852.B00450", "bookId": 852, "start": 614627, "end": 614677, "sha256": "ee380aaaea636ae6487135bbb8cbe3b0fe57261b299ca4cb484dde83f408daea", "text": "Chapter Twenty: Intellectual and Practical Studies", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG852.B00451", "bookId": 852, "start": 614681, "end": 615151, "sha256": "74b876d47a50b891096129ff374ac014a7660192e05c32418390aaab78f171f8", "text": "1. The Opposition of Experience and True Knowledge. As livelihood and leisure are opposed, so are theory and practice, intelligence and execution, knowledge and activity. The latter set of oppositions doubtless springs from the same social conditions which produce the former conflict; but certain definite problems of education connected with them make it desirable to discuss explicitly the matter of the relationship and alleged separation of knowing and doing.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00452", "bookId": 852, "start": 615155, "end": 616157, "sha256": "ec8dbad3ad9b3b4d70737b2b5c4a8036272596fdeb1dba20da71f37f99c8006c", "text": "The notion that knowledge is derived from a higher source than is practical activity, and possesses a higher and more spiritual worth, has a long history. The history so far as conscious statement is concerned takes us back to the conceptions of experience and of reason formulated by Plato and Aristotle. Much as these thinkers differed in many respects, they agreed in identifying experience with purely practical concerns; and hence with material interests as to its purpose and with the body as to its organ. Knowledge, on the other hand, existed for its own sake free from practical reference, and found its source and organ in a purely immaterial mind; it had to do with spiritual or ideal interests. Again, experience always involved lack, need, desire; it was never self-sufficing. Rational knowing on the other hand, was complete and comprehensive within itself. Hence the practical life was in a condition of perpetual flux, while intellectual knowledge concerned eternal truth.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00453", "bookId": 852, "start": 616161, "end": 617250, "sha256": "054dc6d3451383d5f13b544b1d35882f04b39522d73601fa7a437fd749d7987c", "text": "This sharp antithesis is connected with the fact that Athenian philosophy began as a criticism of custom and tradition as standards of knowledge and conduct. In a search for something to replace them, it hit upon reason as the only adequate guide of belief and activity. Since custom and tradition were identified with experience, it followed at once that reason was superior to experience. Moreover, experience, not content with its proper position of subordination, was the great foe to the acknowledgment of the authority of reason. Since custom and traditionary beliefs held men in bondage, the struggle of reason for its legitimate supremacy could be won only by showing the inherently unstable and inadequate nature of experience. The statement of Plato that philosophers should be kings may best be understood as a statement that rational intelligence and not habit, appetite, impulse, and emotion should regulate human affairs. The former secures unity, order, and law; the latter signify multiplicity and discord, irrational fluctuations from one estate to another.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00454", "bookId": 852, "start": 617254, "end": 618402, "sha256": "68f0fbdfdee8786e6a550d46edb3145631cfc35f8d9013f8bcc965edb9ab959d", "text": "The grounds for the identification of experience with the unsatisfactory condition of things, the state of affairs represented by rule of mere custom, are not far to seek. Increasing trade and travel, colonizations, migrations and wars, had broadened the intellectual horizon. The customs and beliefs of different communities were found to diverge sharply from one another. Civil disturbance had become a custom in Athens; the fortunes of the city seemed given over to strife of factions. The increase of leisure coinciding with the broadening of the horizon had brought into ken many new facts of nature and had stimulated curiosity and speculation. The situation tended to raise the question as to the existence of anything constant and universal in the realm of nature and society. Reason was the faculty by which the universal principle and essence is apprehended; while the senses were the organs of perceiving change,--the unstable and the diverse as against the permanent and uniform. The results of the work of the senses, preserved in memory and imagination, and applied in the skill given by habit, constituted experience.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00455", "bookId": 852, "start": 618406, "end": 620527, "sha256": "86e85cf6d671d2c8a9e3b0fa2b91030cffc19a8d4d956d4e7ac29db8971d0f54", "text": "Experience at its best is thus represented in the various handicrafts--the arts of peace and war. The cobbler, the flute player, the soldier, have undergone the discipline of experience to acquire the skill they have. This means that the bodily organs, particularly the senses, have had repeated contact with things and that the result of these contacts has been preserved and consolidated till ability in foresight and in practice had been secured. Such was the essential meaning of the term \"empirical.\" It suggested a knowledge and an ability not based upon insight into principles, but expressing the result of a large number of separate trials. It expressed the idea now conveyed by \"method of trial and error,\" with especial emphasis upon the more or less accidental character of the trials. So far as ability of control, of management, was concerned, it amounted to rule-of-thumb procedure, to routine. If new circumstances resembled the past, it might work well enough; in the degree in which they deviated, failure was likely. Even to-day to speak of a physician as an empiricist is to imply that he lacks scientific training, and that he is proceeding simply on the basis of what he happens to have got out of the chance medley of his past practice. Just because of the lack of science or reason in \"experience\" it is hard to keep it at its poor best. The empiric easily degenerates into the quack. He does not know where his knowledge begins or leaves off, and so when he gets beyond routine conditions he begins to pretend--to make claims for which there is no justification, and to trust to luck and to ability to impose upon others--to \"bluff.\" Moreover, he assumes that because he has learned one thing, he knows others--as the history of Athens showed that the common craftsmen thought they could manage household affairs, education, and politics, because they had learned to do the specific things of their trades. Experience is always hovering, then, on the edge of pretense, of sham, of seeming, and appearance, in distinction from the reality upon which reason lays hold.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00456", "bookId": 852, "start": 620531, "end": 621879, "sha256": "31e9573b50d631cf749d5ff2e436c67b829ed83816d4a94f89078fd483e5f52e", "text": "The philosophers soon reached certain generalizations from this state of affairs. The senses are connected with the appetites, with wants and desires. They lay hold not on the reality of things but on the relation which things have to our pleasures and pains, to the satisfaction of wants and the welfare of the body. They are important only for the life of the body, which is but a fixed substratum for a higher life. Experience thus has a definitely material character; it has to do with physical things in relation to the body. In contrast, reason, or science, lays hold of the immaterial, the ideal, the spiritual. There is something morally dangerous about experience, as such words as sensual, carnal, material, worldly, interests suggest; while pure reason and spirit connote something morally praiseworthy. Moreover, ineradicable connection with the changing, the inexplicably shifting, and with the manifold, the diverse, clings to experience. Its material is inherently variable and untrustworthy. It is anarchic, because unstable. The man who trusts to experience does not know what he depends upon, since it changes from person to person, from day to day, to say nothing of from country to country. Its connection with the \"many,\" with various particulars, has the same effect, and also carries conflict in its train.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00457", "bookId": 852, "start": 621883, "end": 623101, "sha256": "6c7bb6fc4df99529838efc07981608578b11b058911bb461a381db231acb0eec", "text": "Only the single, the uniform, assures coherence and harmony. Out of experience come warrings, the conflict of opinions and acts within the individual and between individuals. From experience no standard of belief can issue, because it is the very nature of experience to instigate all kinds of contrary beliefs, as varieties of local custom proved. Its logical outcome is that anything is good and true to the particular individual which his experience leads him to believe true and good at a particular time and place. Finally practice falls of necessity within experience. Doing proceeds from needs and aims at change. To produce or to make is to alter something; to consume is to alter. All the obnoxious characters of change and diversity thus attach themselves to doing while knowing is as permanent as its object. To know, to grasp a thing intellectually or theoretically, is to be out of the region of vicissitude, chance, and diversity. Truth has no lack; it is untouched by the perturbations of the world of sense. It deals with the eternal and the universal. And the world of experience can be brought under control, can be steadied and ordered, only through subjection to its law of reason.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00458", "bookId": 852, "start": 623105, "end": 626638, "sha256": "3cc13002ffdf766dae760359c3a12db5680a66e546248d58c46ea8798834eb3b", "text": "It would not do, of course, to say that all these distinctions persisted in full technical definiteness. But they all of them profoundly influenced men's subsequent thinking and their ideas about education. The contempt for physical as compared with mathematical and logical science, for the senses and sense observation; the feeling that knowledge is high and worthy in the degree in which it deals with ideal symbols instead of with the concrete; the scorn of particulars except as they are deductively brought under a universal; the disregard for the body; the depreciation of arts and crafts as intellectual instrumentalities, all sought shelter and found sanction under this estimate of the respective values of experience and reason--or, what came to the same thing, of the practical and the intellectual. Medieval philosophy continued and reinforced the tradition. To know reality meant to be in relation to the supreme reality, or God, and to enjoy the eternal bliss of that relation. Contemplation of supreme reality was the ultimate end of man to which action is subordinate. Experience had to do with mundane, profane, and secular affairs, practically necessary indeed, but of little import in comparison with supernatural objects of knowledge. When we add to this motive the force derived from the literary character of the Roman education and the Greek philosophic tradition, and conjoin to them the preference for studies which obviously demarcated the aristocratic class from the lower classes, we can readily understand the tremendous power exercised by the persistent preference of the \"intellectual\" over the \"practical\" not simply in educational philosophies but in the higher schools. 2. The Modern Theory of Experience and Knowledge. As we shall see later, the development of experimentation as a method of knowledge makes possible and necessitates a radical transformation of the view just set forth. But before coming to that, we have to note the theory of experience and knowledge developed in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. In general, it presents us with an almost complete reversal of the classic doctrine of the relations of experience and reason. To Plato experience meant habituation, or the conservation of the net product of a lot of past chance trials. Reason meant the principle of reform, of progress, of increase of control. Devotion to the cause of reason meant breaking through the limitations of custom and getting at things as they really were. To the modern reformers, the situation was the other way around. Reason, universal principles, a priori notions, meant either blank forms which had to be filled in by experience, by sense observations, in order to get significance and validity; or else were mere indurated prejudices, dogmas imposed by authority, which masqueraded and found protection under august names. The great need was to break way from captivity to conceptions which, as Bacon put it, \"anticipated nature\" and imposed merely human opinions upon her, and to resort to experience to find out what nature was like. Appeal to experience marked the breach with authority. It meant openness to new impressions; eagerness in discovery and invention instead of absorption in tabulating and systematizing received ideas and \"proving\" them by means of the relations they sustained to one another. It was the irruption into the mind of the things as they really were, free from the veil cast over them by preconceived ideas.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00459", "bookId": 852, "start": 626642, "end": 629344, "sha256": "025639c3176fb2738e7a9d0bf8a2ef6d8bf349447bc69a5a30eb59c2ad8ffee6", "text": "The change was twofold. Experience lost the practical meaning which it had borne from the time of Plato. It ceased to mean ways of doing and being done to, and became a name for something intellectual and cognitive. It meant the apprehension of material which should ballast and check the exercise of reasoning. By the modern philosophic empiricist and by his opponent, experience has been looked upon just as a way of knowing. The only question was how good a way it is. The result was an even greater \"intellectualism\" than is found in ancient philosophy, if that word be used to designate an emphatic and almost exclusive interest in knowledge in its isolation. Practice was not so much subordinated to knowledge as treated as a kind of tag-end or aftermath of knowledge. The educational result was only to confirm the exclusion of active pursuits from the school, save as they might be brought in for purely utilitarian ends--the acquisition by drill of certain habits. In the second place, the interest in experience as a means of basing truth upon objects, upon nature, led to looking at the mind as purely receptive. The more passive the mind is, the more truly objects will impress themselves upon it. For the mind to take a hand, so to speak, would be for it in the very process of knowing to vitiate true knowledge--to defeat its own purpose. The ideal was a maximum of receptivity. Since the impressions made upon the mind by objects were generally termed sensations, empiricism thus became a doctrine of sensationalism--that is to say, a doctrine which identified knowledge with the reception and association of sensory impressions. In John Locke, the most influential of the empiricists, we find this sensationalism mitigated by a recognition of certain mental faculties, like discernment or discrimination, comparison, abstraction, and generalization which work up the material of sense into definite and organized forms and which even evolve new ideas on their own account, such as the fundamental conceptions of morals and mathematics. (See ante, p. 61.) But some of his successors, especially in France in the latter part of the eighteenth century, carried his doctrine to the limit; they regarded discernment and judgment as peculiar sensations made in us by the conjoint presence of other sensations. Locke had held that the mind is a blank piece of paper, or a wax tablet with nothing engraved on it at birth (a tabula rasa) so far as any contents of ideas were concerned, but had endowed it with activities to be exercised upon the material received. His French successors razed away the powers and derived them also from impressions received.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00460", "bookId": 852, "start": 629348, "end": 630917, "sha256": "35d106e6a37507c405a0f698c057432c99700df1d5a445b873b654644eeb54fe", "text": "As we have earlier noted, this notion was fostered by the new interest in education as method of social reform. (See ante, p. 93.) The emptier the mind to begin with, the more it may be made anything we wish by bringing the right influences to bear upon it. Thus Helvetius, perhaps the most extreme and consistent sensationalist, proclaimed that education could do anything--that it was omnipotent. Within the sphere of school instruction, empiricism found its directly beneficial office in protesting against mere book learning. If knowledge comes from the impressions made upon us by natural objects, it is impossible to procure knowledge without the use of objects which impress the mind. Words, all kinds of linguistic symbols, in the lack of prior presentations of objects with which they may be associated, convey nothing but sensations of their own shape and color--certainly not a very instructive kind of knowledge. Sensationalism was an extremely handy weapon with which to combat doctrines and opinions resting wholly upon tradition and authority. With respect to all of them, it set up a test: Where are the real objects from which these ideas and beliefs are received? If such objects could not be produced, ideas were explained as the result of false associations and combinations. Empiricism also insisted upon a first-hand element. The impression must be made upon me, upon my mind. The further we get away from this direct, first-hand source of knowledge, the more numerous the sources of error, and the vaguer the resulting idea.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00461", "bookId": 852, "start": 630923, "end": 632254, "sha256": "a9722db32ae0159c29bb811c5135c0f8cfdba18111fb2e4a7f1c7cbc9e144441", "text": "As might be expected, however, the philosophy was weak upon the positive side. Of course, the value of natural objects and firsthand acquaintance was not dependent upon the truth of the theory. Introduced into the schools they would do their work, even if the sensational theory about the way in which they did it was quite wrong. So far, there is nothing to complain of. But the emphasis upon sensationalism also operated to influence the way in which natural objects were employed, and to prevent full good being got from them. \"Object lessons\" tended to isolate the mere sense-activity and make it an end in itself. The more isolated the object, the more isolated the sensory quality, the more distinct the sense-impression as a unit of knowledge. The theory worked not only in the direction of this mechanical isolation, which tended to reduce instruction to a kind of physical gymnastic of the sense-organs (good like any gymnastic of bodily organs, but not more so), but also to the neglect of thinking. According to the theory there was no need of thinking in connection with sense-observation; in fact, in strict theory such thinking would be impossible till afterwards, for thinking consisted simply in combining and separating sensory units which had been received without any participation of judgment.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00462", "bookId": 852, "start": 632258, "end": 633780, "sha256": "40b7370a98db92d73eb7491bd71d59070f489028ba9c2389274ec4107cc69891", "text": "As a matter of fact, accordingly, practically no scheme of education upon a purely sensory basis has ever been systematically tried, at least after the early years of infancy. Its obvious deficiencies have caused it to be resorted to simply for filling in \"rationalistic\" knowledge (that is to say, knowledge of definitions, rules, classifications, and modes of application conveyed through symbols), and as a device for lending greater \"interest\" to barren symbols. There are at least three serious defects of sensationalistic empiricism as an educational philosophy of knowledge. (a) the historical value of the theory was critical; it was a dissolvent of current beliefs about the world and political institutions. It was a destructive organ of criticism of hard and fast dogmas. But the work of education is constructive, not critical. It assumes not old beliefs to be eliminated and revised, but the need of building up new experience into intellectual habitudes as correct as possible from the start. Sensationalism is highly unfitted for this constructive task. Mind, understanding, denotes responsiveness to meanings (ante, p. 29), not response to direct physical stimuli. And meaning exists only with reference to a context, which is excluded by any scheme which identifies knowledge with a combination of sense-impressions. The theory, so far as educationally applied, led either to a magnification of mere physical excitations or else to a mere heaping up of isolated objects and qualities.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00463", "bookId": 852, "start": 633784, "end": 636059, "sha256": "c3509785a30c26ac09a9b214d6fffac6514a9ce50100936e63bd1c20d2f5ed09", "text": "(b) While direct impression has the advantage of being first hand, it also has the disadvantage of being limited in range. Direct acquaintance with the natural surroundings of the home environment so as to give reality to ideas about portions of the earth beyond the reach of the senses, and as a means of arousing intellectual curiosity, is one thing. As an end-all and be-all of geographical knowledge it is fatally restricted. In precisely analogous fashion, beans, shoe pegs, and counters may be helpful aids to a realization of numerical relations, but when employed except as aids to thought--the apprehension of meaning--they become an obstacle to the growth of arithmetical understanding. They arrest growth on a low plane, the plane of specific physical symbols. Just as the race developed especial symbols as tools of calculation and mathematical reasonings, because the use of the fingers as numerical symbols got in the way, so the individual must progress from concrete to abstract symbols--that is, symbols whose meaning is realized only through conceptual thinking. And undue absorption at the outset in the physical object of sense hampers this growth. (c) A thoroughly false psychology of mental development underlay sensationalistic empiricism. Experience is in truth a matter of activities, instinctive and impulsive, in their interactions with things. What even an infant \"experiences\" is not a passively received quality impressed by an object, but the effect which some activity of handling, throwing, pounding, tearing, etc., has upon an object, and the consequent effect of the object upon the direction of activities. (See ante, p. 140.) Fundamentally (as we shall see in more detail), the ancient notion of experience as a practical matter is truer to fact that the modern notion of it as a mode of knowing by means of sensations. The neglect of the deep-seated active and motor factors of experience is a fatal defect of the traditional empirical philosophy. Nothing is more uninteresting and mechanical than a scheme of object lessons which ignores and as far as may be excludes the natural tendency to learn about the qualities of objects by the uses to which they are put through trying to do something with them.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00464", "bookId": 852, "start": 636063, "end": 636946, "sha256": "db9f7237dc171e19ba00f1bf41380da4d622f1cc325b4832ed14aa8444e0bdf7", "text": "It is obvious, accordingly, that even if the philosophy of experience represented by modern empiricism had received more general theoretical assent than has been accorded to it, it could not have furnished a satisfactory philosophy of the learning process. Its educational influence was confined to injecting a new factor into the older curriculum, with incidental modifications of the older studies and methods. It introduced greater regard for observation of things directly and through pictures and graphic descriptions, and it reduced the importance attached to verbal symbolization. But its own scope was so meager that it required supplementation by information concerning matters outside of sense-perception and by matters which appealed more directly to thought. Consequently it left unimpaired the scope of informational and abstract, or \"rationalistic\" studies.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00465", "bookId": 852, "start": 636950, "end": 640922, "sha256": "ad96ae654da37b28b160a8e1c1d0d63955bf5cc5ffd0e7495461829593ca1f12", "text": "3. Experience as Experimentation. It has already been intimated that sensational empiricism represents neither the idea of experience justified by modern psychology nor the idea of knowledge suggested by modern scientific procedure. With respect to the former, it omits the primary position of active response which puts things to use and which learns about them through discovering the consequences that result from use. It would seem as if five minutes' unprejudiced observation of the way an infant gains knowledge would have sufficed to overthrow the notion that he is passively engaged in receiving impressions of isolated ready-made qualities of sound, color, hardness, etc. For it would be seen that the infant reacts to stimuli by activities of handling, reaching, etc., in order to see what results follow upon motor response to a sensory stimulation; it would be seen that what is learned are not isolated qualities, but the behavior which may be expected from a thing, and the changes in things and persons which an activity may be expected to produce. In other words, what he learns are connections. Even such qualities as red color, sound of a high pitch, have to be discriminated and identified on the basis of the activities they call forth and the consequences these activities effect. We learn what things are hard and what are soft by finding out through active experimentation what they respectively will do and what can be done and what cannot be done with them. In like fashion, children learn about persons by finding out what responsive activities these persons exact and what these persons will do in reply to the children's activities. And the combination of what things do to us (not in impressing qualities on a passive mind) in modifying our actions, furthering some of them and resisting and checking others, and what we can do to them in producing new changes constitutes experience. The methods of science by which the revolution in our knowledge of the world dating from the seventeenth century, was brought about, teach the same lesson. For these methods are nothing but experimentation carried out under conditions of deliberate control. To the Greek, it seemed absurd that such an activity as, say, the cobbler punching holes in leather, or using wax and needle and thread, could give an adequate knowledge of the world. It seemed almost axiomatic that for true knowledge we must have recourse to concepts coming from a reason above experience. But the introduction of the experimental method signified precisely that such operations, carried on under conditions of control, are just the ways in which fruitful ideas about nature are obtained and tested. In other words, it is only needed to conduct such an operation as the pouring of an acid on a metal for the purpose of getting knowledge instead of for the purpose of getting a trade result, in order to lay hold of the principle upon which the science of nature was henceforth to depend. Sense perceptions were indeed indispensable, but there was less reliance upon sense perceptions in their natural or customary form than in the older science. They were no longer regarded as containing within themselves some \"form\" or \"species\" of universal kind in a disguised mask of sense which could be stripped off by rational thought. On the contrary, the first thing was to alter and extend the data of sense perception: to act upon the given objects of sense by the lens of the telescope and microscope, and by all sorts of experimental devices. To accomplish this in a way which would arouse new ideas (hypotheses, theories) required even more general ideas (like those of mathematics) than were at the command of ancient science. But these general conceptions were no longer taken to give knowledge in themselves. They were implements for instituting, conducting, interpreting experimental inquiries and formulating their results.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00466", "bookId": 852, "start": 640926, "end": 642017, "sha256": "f13d73b34819aa6e61aba72eb301280bb2df6ac9cca730fa2e237b566cfa83e6", "text": "The logical outcome is a new philosophy of experience and knowledge, a philosophy which no longer puts experience in opposition to rational knowledge and explanation. Experience is no longer a mere summarizing of what has been done in a more or less chance way in the past; it is a deliberate control of what is done with reference to making what happens to us and what we do to things as fertile as possible of suggestions (of suggested meanings) and a means for trying out the validity of the suggestions. When trying, or experimenting, ceases to be blinded by impulse or custom, when it is guided by an aim and conducted by measure and method, it becomes reasonable--rational. When what we suffer from things, what we undergo at their hands, ceases to be a matter of chance circumstance, when it is transformed into a consequence of our own prior purposive endeavors, it becomes rationally significant--enlightening and instructive. The antithesis of empiricism and rationalism loses the support of the human situation which once gave it meaning and relative justification.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00467", "bookId": 852, "start": 642021, "end": 642893, "sha256": "c3bfdb5fa6b7d1b28e8de8a8f4465c16e0aeb25ef00096253363fea9eb8319a9", "text": "The bearing of this change upon the opposition of purely practical and purely intellectual studies is self-evident. The distinction is not intrinsic but is dependent upon conditions, and upon conditions which can be regulated. Practical activities may be intellectually narrow and trivial; they will be so in so far as they are routine, carried on under the dictates of authority, and having in view merely some external result. But childhood and youth, the period of schooling, is just the time when it is possible to carry them on in a different spirit. It is inexpedient to repeat the discussions of our previous chapters on thinking and on the evolution of educative subject matter from childlike work and play to logically organized subject matter. The discussions of this chapter and the prior one should, however, give an added meaning to those results.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00468", "bookId": 852, "start": 642897, "end": 645310, "sha256": "9a1b641f4373a39af59a943d43849cfdecb3e4ef4df14eafc43630f6bb4a6790", "text": "(i) Experience itself primarily consists of the active relations subsisting between a human being and his natural and social surroundings. In some cases, the initiative in activity is on the side of the environment; the human being undergoes or suffers certain checkings and deflections of endeavors. In other cases, the behavior of surrounding things and persons carries to a successful issue the active tendencies of the individual, so that in the end what the individual undergoes are consequences which he has himself tried to produce. In just the degree in which connections are established between what happens to a person and what he does in response, and between what he does to his environment and what it does in response to him, his acts and the things about him acquire meaning. He learns to understand both himself and the world of men and things. Purposive education or schooling should present such an environment that this interaction will effect acquisition of those meanings which are so important that they become, in turn, instruments of further learnings. (ante, Ch. XI.) As has been repeatedly pointed out, activity out of school is carried on under conditions which have not been deliberately adapted to promoting the function of understanding and formation of effective intellectual dispositions. The results are vital and genuine as far as they go, but they are limited by all kinds of circumstances. Some powers are left quite undeveloped and undirected; others get only occasional and whimsical stimulations; others are formed into habits of a routine skill at the expense of aims and resourceful initiative and inventiveness. It is not the business of the school to transport youth from an environment of activity into one of cramped study of the records of other men's learning; but to transport them from an environment of relatively chance activities (accidental in the relation they bear to insight and thought) into one of activities selected with reference to guidance of learning. A slight inspection of the improved methods which have already shown themselves effective in education will reveal that they have laid hold, more or less consciously, upon the fact that \"intellectual\" studies instead of being opposed to active pursuits represent an intellectualizing of practical pursuits. It remains to grasp the principle with greater firmness.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00469", "bookId": 852, "start": 645314, "end": 647730, "sha256": "d1013bb7c844f1268e39c5d61cbed67eaf2503b6967ba51a94cad4bf29bd6f2c", "text": "(ii) The changes which are taking place in the content of social life tremendously facilitate selection of the sort of activities which will intellectualize the play and work of the school. When one bears in mind the social environment of the Greeks and the people of the Middle Ages, where such practical activities as could be successfully carried on were mostly of a routine and external sort and even servile in nature, one is not surprised that educators turned their backs upon them as unfitted to cultivate intelligence. But now that even the occupations of the household, agriculture, and manufacturing as well as transportation and intercourse are instinct with applied science, the case stands otherwise. It is true that many of those who now engage in them are not aware of the intellectual content upon which their personal actions depend. But this fact only gives an added reason why schooling should use these pursuits so as to enable the coming generation to acquire a comprehension now too generally lacking, and thus enable persons to carry on their pursuits intelligently instead of blindly. (iii) The most direct blow at the traditional separation of doing and knowing and at the traditional prestige of purely \"intellectual\" studies, however, has been given by the progress of experimental science. If this progress has demonstrated anything, it is that there is no such thing as genuine knowledge and fruitful understanding except as the offspring of doing. The analysis and rearrangement of facts which is indispensable to the growth of knowledge and power of explanation and right classification cannot be attained purely mentally--just inside the head. Men have to do something to the things when they wish to find out something; they have to alter conditions. This is the lesson of the laboratory method, and the lesson which all education has to learn. The laboratory is a discovery of the condition under which labor may become intellectually fruitful and not merely externally productive. If, in too many cases at present, it results only in the acquisition of an additional mode of technical skill, that is because it still remains too largely but an isolated resource, not resorted to until pupils are mostly too old to get the full advantage of it, and even then is surrounded by other studies where traditional methods isolate intellect from activity.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00470", "bookId": 852, "start": 647734, "end": 649371, "sha256": "1c44820bd63a39be6de916adf2eff58bfc618f1f71ba4dac675f0197c0037162", "text": "Summary. The Greeks were induced to philosophize by the increasing failure of their traditional customs and beliefs to regulate life. Thus they were led to criticize custom adversely and to look for some other source of authority in life and belief. Since they desired a rational standard for the latter, and had identified with experience the customs which had proved unsatisfactory supports, they were led to a flat opposition of reason and experience. The more the former was exalted, the more the latter was depreciated. Since experience was identified with what men do and suffer in particular and changing situations of life, doing shared in the philosophic depreciation. This influence fell in with many others to magnify, in higher education, all the methods and topics which involved the least use of sense-observation and bodily activity. The modern age began with a revolt against this point of view, with an appeal to experience, and an attack upon so-called purely rational concepts on the ground that they either needed to be ballasted by the results of concrete experiences, or else were mere expressions of prejudice and institutionalized class interest, calling themselves rational for protection. But various circumstances led to considering experience as pure cognition, leaving out of account its intrinsic active and emotional phases, and to identifying it with a passive reception of isolated \"sensations.\" Hence the education reform effected by the new theory was confined mainly to doing away with some of the bookishness of prior methods; it did not accomplish a consistent reorganization.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00471", "bookId": 852, "start": 649375, "end": 650250, "sha256": "36815df2a393921ec18a852fada9bafc1bbbcdf3786fd3207af13fee341acf88", "text": "Meantime, the advance of psychology, of industrial methods, and of the experimental method in science makes another conception of experience explicitly desirable and possible. This theory reinstates the idea of the ancients that experience is primarily practical, not cognitive--a matter of doing and undergoing the consequences of doing. But the ancient theory is transformed by realizing that doing may be directed so as to take up into its own content all which thought suggests, and so as to result in securely tested knowledge. \"Experience\" then ceases to be empirical and becomes experimental. Reason ceases to be a remote and ideal faculty, and signifies all the resources by which activity is made fruitful in meaning. Educationally, this change denotes such a plan for the studies and method of instruction as has been developed in the previous chapters.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00472", "bookId": 852, "start": 650260, "end": 650332, "sha256": "8191aa1a7b9099813c86d1e907516bcc21aae11a9c0f6828f5eeb0777e2cf904", "text": "Chapter Twenty-one: Physical and Social Studies: Naturalism and Humanism", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG852.B00473", "bookId": 852, "start": 650336, "end": 651561, "sha256": "31062af90bb12c9faac3cc221cd989054348e4e659e1a5dec61595570aec144d", "text": "ALLUSION has already been made to the conflict of natural science with literary studies for a place in the curriculum. The solution thus far reached consists essentially in a somewhat mechanical compromise whereby the field is divided between studies having nature and studies having man as their theme. The situation thus presents us with another instance of the external adjustment of educational values, and focuses attention upon the philosophy of the connection of nature with human affairs. In general, it may be said that the educational division finds a reflection in the dualistic philosophies. Mind and the world are regarded as two independent realms of existence having certain points of contact with each other. From this point of view it is natural that each sphere of existence should have its own separate group of studies connected with it; it is even natural that the growth of scientific studies should be viewed with suspicion as marking a tendency of materialistic philosophy to encroach upon the domain of spirit. Any theory of education which contemplates a more unified scheme of education than now exists is under the necessity of facing the question of the relation of man to nature.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00474", "bookId": 852, "start": 651565, "end": 653379, "sha256": "45e3f22e3f77dd8756b6b7094e4e17d9a9fb7413dc17e24004006b1bf50c9c63", "text": "1. The Historic Background of Humanistic Study. It is noteworthy that classic Greek philosophy does not present the problem in its modern form. Socrates indeed appears to have thought that science of nature was not attainable and not very important. The chief thing to know is the nature and end of man. Upon that knowledge hangs all that is of deep significance--all moral and social achievement. Plato, however, makes right knowledge of man and society depend upon knowledge of the essential features of nature. His chief treatise, entitled the Republic, is at once a treatise on morals, on social organization, and on the metaphysics and science of nature. Since he accepts the Socratic doctrine that right achievement in the former depends upon rational knowledge, he is compelled to discuss the nature of knowledge. Since he accepts the idea that the ultimate object of knowledge is the discovery of the good or end of man, and is discontented with the Socratic conviction that all we know is our own ignorance, he connects the discussion of the good of man with consideration of the essential good or end of nature itself. To attempt to determine the end of man apart from a knowledge of the ruling end which gives law and unity to nature is impossible. It is thus quite consistent with his philosophy that he subordinates literary studies (under the name of music) to mathematics and to physics as well as to logic and metaphysics. But on the other hand, knowledge of nature is not an end in itself; it is a necessary stage in bringing the mind to a realization of the supreme purpose of existence as the law of human action, corporate and individual. To use the modern phraseology, naturalistic studies are indispensable, but they are in the interests of humanistic and ideal ends.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00475", "bookId": 852, "start": 653383, "end": 654485, "sha256": "fb18fa95e35402bf0fe0b06a6499771f9a8955668a36650fc34bb839685a389a", "text": "Aristotle goes even farther, if anything, in the direction of naturalistic studies. He subordinates (ante, p. 254) civic relations to the purely cognitive life. The highest end of man is not human but divine--participation in pure knowing which constitutes the divine life. Such knowing deals with what is universal and necessary, and finds, therefore, a more adequate subject matter in nature at its best than in the transient things of man. If we take what the philosophers stood for in Greek life, rather than the details of what they say, we might summarize by saying that the Greeks were too much interested in free inquiry into natural fact and in the aesthetic enjoyment of nature, and were too deeply conscious of the extent in which society is rooted in nature and subject to its laws, to think of bringing man and nature into conflict. Two factors conspire in the later period of ancient life, however, to exalt literary and humanistic studies. One is the increasingly reminiscent and borrowed character of culture; the other is the political and rhetorical bent of Roman life.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00476", "bookId": 852, "start": 654489, "end": 655718, "sha256": "dff89a3acf691021909d797a1fe7b79880df4ac3d72b17524a5f9290789ac097", "text": "Greek achievement in civilization was native; the civilization of the Alexandrians and Romans was inherited from alien sources. Consequently it looked back to the records upon which it drew, instead of looking out directly upon nature and society, for material and inspiration. We cannot do better than quote the words of Hatch to indicate the consequences for educational theory and practice. \"Greece on one hand had lost political power, and on the other possessed in her splendid literature an inalienable heritage. It was natural that she should turn to letters. It was natural also that the study of letters should be reflected upon speech. The mass of men in the Greek world tended to lay stress on that acquaintance with the literature of bygone generations, and that habit of cultivated speech, which has ever since been commonly spoken of as education. Our own comes by direct tradition from it. It set a fashion which until recently has uniformly prevailed over the entire civilized world. We study literature rather than nature because the Greeks did so, and because when the Romans and the Roman provincials resolved to educate their sons, they employed Greek teachers and followed in Greek paths.\" 1", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00477", "bookId": 852, "start": 655722, "end": 656143, "sha256": "ca5e88d9a8bc25361ac7f6663c628ba18d27016829c0d6f624675039cd66ecb2", "text": "The so-called practical bent of the Romans worked in the same direction. In falling back upon the recorded ideas of the Greeks, they not only took the short path to attaining a cultural development, but they procured just the kind of material and method suited to their administrative talents. For their practical genius was not directed to the conquest and control of nature but to the conquest and control of men.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00478", "bookId": 852, "start": 656147, "end": 657124, "sha256": "2a1d74b7faf1730c63fb4a789e0e381a7c110a40df74ed75063ef96acb4fd679", "text": "Mr. Hatch, in the passage quoted, takes a good deal of history for granted in saying that we have studied literature rather than nature because the Greeks, and the Romans whom they taught, did so. What is the link that spans the intervening centuries? The question suggests that barbarian Europe but repeated on a larger scale and with increased intensity the Roman situation. It had to go to school to Greco-Roman civilization; it also borrowed rather than evolved its culture. Not merely for its general ideas and their artistic presentation but for its models of law it went to the records of alien peoples. And its dependence upon tradition was increased by the dominant theological interests of the period. For the authorities to which the Church appealed were literatures composed in foreign tongues. Everything converged to identify learning with linguistic training and to make the language of the learned a literary language instead of the mother speech.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00479", "bookId": 852, "start": 657128, "end": 658592, "sha256": "b7f8c9f0746786ec8c681f9d4f7469d1676d250cffb2c86566980ce21cdecc5c", "text": "The full scope of this fact escapes us, moreover, until we recognize that this subject matter compelled recourse to a dialectical method. Scholasticism frequently has been used since the time of the revival of learning as a term of reproach. But all that it means is the method of The Schools, or of the School Men. In its essence, it is nothing but a highly effective systematization of the methods of teaching and learning which are appropriate to transmit an authoritative body of truths. Where literature rather than contemporary nature and society furnishes material of study, methods must be adapted to defining, expounding, and interpreting the received material, rather than to inquiry, discovery, and invention. And at bottom what is called Scholasticism is the whole-hearted and consistent formulation and application of the methods which are suited to instruction when the material of instruction is taken ready-made, rather than as something which students are to find out for themselves. So far as schools still teach from textbooks and rely upon the principle of authority and acquisition rather than upon that of discovery and inquiry, their methods are Scholastic--minus the logical accuracy and system of Scholasticism at its best. Aside from laxity of method and statement, the only difference is that geographies and histories and botanies and astronomies are now part of the authoritative literature which is to be mastered.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00480", "bookId": 852, "start": 658596, "end": 659445, "sha256": "8d99a7b46b81cea6d519e6513a19ab8c76bb23e0d0131865a1e658a5389f18de", "text": "As a consequence, the Greek tradition was lost in which a humanistic interest was used as a basis of interest in nature, and a knowledge of nature used to support the distinctively human aims of man. Life found its support in authority, not in nature. The latter was moreover an object of considerable suspicion. Contemplation of it was dangerous, for it tended to draw man away from reliance upon the documents in which the rules of living were already contained. Moreover nature could be known only through observation; it appealed to the senses--which were merely material as opposed to a purely immaterial mind. Furthermore, the utilities of a knowledge of nature were purely physical and secular; they connected with the bodily and temporal welfare of man, while the literary tradition concerned his spiritual and eternal well-being.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00481", "bookId": 852, "start": 659449, "end": 660883, "sha256": "bbb7ed36136a511bc5bf39fd2d3b8343d5b8be32edb189a6097b6cfb7233db77", "text": "2. The Modern Scientific Interest in Nature. The movement of the fifteenth century which is variously termed the revival of learning and the renascence was characterized by a new interest in man's present life, and accordingly by a new interest in his relationships with nature. It was naturalistic, in the sense that it turned against the dominant supernaturalistic interest. It is possible that the influence of a return to classic Greek pagan literature in bringing about this changed mind has been overestimated. Undoubtedly the change was mainly a product of contemporary conditions. But there can be no doubt that educated men, filled with the new point of view, turned eagerly to Greek literature for congenial sustenance and reinforcement. And to a considerable extent, this interest in Greek thought was not in literature for its own sake, but in the spirit it expressed. The mental freedom, the sense of the order and beauty of nature, which animated Greek expression, aroused men to think and observe in a similar untrammeled fashion. The history of science in the sixteenth century shows that the dawning sciences of physical nature largely borrowed their points of departure from the new interest in Greek literature. As Windelband has said, the new science of nature was the daughter of humanism. The favorite notion of the time was that man was in microcosm that which the universe was in macrocosm.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00482", "bookId": 852, "start": 660887, "end": 662228, "sha256": "2cea6756f575c2f233a8dcd53d98a9e044db2d31d9574cc81e1979c861f93b69", "text": "This fact raises anew the question of how it was that nature and man were later separated and a sharp division made between language and literature and the physical sciences. Four reasons may be suggested. (a) The old tradition was firmly entrenched in institutions. Politics, law, and diplomacy remained of necessity branches of authoritative literature, for the social sciences did not develop until the methods of the sciences of physics and chemistry, to say nothing of biology, were much further advanced. The same is largely true of history. Moreover, the methods used for effective teaching of the languages were well developed; the inertia of academic custom was on their side. Just as the new interest in literature, especially Greek, had not been allowed at first to find lodgment in the scholastically organized universities, so when it found its way into them it joined hands with the older learning to minimize the influence of experimental science. The men who taught were rarely trained in science; the men who were scientifically competent worked in private laboratories and through the medium of academies which promoted research, but which were not organized as teaching bodies. Finally, the aristocratic tradition which looked down upon material things and upon the senses and the hands was still mighty.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00483", "bookId": 852, "start": 662232, "end": 663118, "sha256": "a43dd692b3f38ccce36f7824ff694840501f33265dd1f326db9c34bf0ed8e05f", "text": "(b) The Protestant revolt brought with it an immense increase of interest in theological discussion and controversies. The appeal on both sides was to literary documents. Each side had to train men in ability to study and expound the records which were relied upon. The demand for training men who could defend the chosen faith against the other side, who were able to propagandize and to prevent the encroachments of the other side, was such that it is not too much to say that by the middle of the seventeenth century the linguistic training of gymnasia and universities had been captured by the revived theological interest, and used as a tool of religious education and ecclesiastical controversy. Thus the educational descent of the languages as they are found in education to-day is not direct from the revival of learning, but from its adaptation to theological ends.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00484", "bookId": 852, "start": 663122, "end": 664275, "sha256": "c42d14ed440164f4afb6daffd5ae2fdf9e90dcc8dc3684998cb48bf5fecd71e2", "text": "(c) The natural sciences were themselves conceived in a way which sharpened the opposition of man and nature. Francis Bacon presents an almost perfect example of the union of naturalistic and humanistic interest. Science, adopting the methods of observation and experimentation, was to give up the attempt to \"anticipate\" nature--to impose preconceived notions upon her--and was to become her humble interpreter. In obeying nature intellectually, man would learn to command her practically. \"Knowledge is power.\" This aphorism meant that through science man is to control nature and turn her energies to the execution of his own ends. Bacon attacked the old learning and logic as purely controversial, having to do with victory in argument, not with discovery of the unknown. Through the new method of thought which was set forth in his new logic an era of expansive discoveries was to emerge, and these discoveries were to bear fruit in inventions for the service of man. Men were to give up their futile, never-finished effort to dominate one another to engage in the cooperative task of dominating nature in the interests of humanity.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00485", "bookId": 852, "start": 664279, "end": 665659, "sha256": "35cac30a4826baf6fa1212279b16550290122a301c7ee36312fbc01282962f34", "text": "In the main, Bacon prophesied the direction of subsequent progress. But he \"anticipated\" the advance. He did not see that the new science was for a long time to be worked in the interest of old ends of human exploitation. He thought that it would rapidly give man new ends. Instead, it put at the disposal of a class the means to secure their old ends of aggrandizement at the expense of another class. The industrial revolution followed, as he foresaw, upon a revolution in scientific method. But it is taking the revolution many centuries to produce a new mind. Feudalism was doomed by the applications of the new science, for they transferred power from the landed nobility to the manufacturing centers. But capitalism rather than a social humanism took its place. Production and commerce were carried on as if the new science had no moral lesson, but only technical lessons as to economies in production and utilization of saving in self-interest. Naturally, this application of physical science (which was the most conspicuously perceptible one) strengthened the claims of professed humanists that science was materialistic in its tendencies. It left a void as to man's distinctively human interests which go beyond making, saving, and expending money; and languages and literature put in their claim to represent the moral and ideal interests of humanity.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00486", "bookId": 852, "start": 665663, "end": 666505, "sha256": "a6e03eab81712943c1d7e7a3f8bf75d4efe7154dc711a0a32621f1daa089a7b6", "text": "(d) Moreover, the philosophy which professed itself based upon science, which gave itself out as the accredited representative of the net significance of science, was either dualistic in character, marked by a sharp division between mind (characterizing man) and matter, constituting nature; or else it was openly mechanical, reducing the signal features of human life to illusion. In the former case, it allowed the claims of certain studies to be peculiar consignees of mental values, and indirectly strengthened their claim to superiority, since human beings would incline to regard human affairs as of chief importance at least to themselves. In the latter case, it called out a reaction which threw doubt and suspicion upon the value of physical science, giving occasion for treating it as an enemy to man's higher interests.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00487", "bookId": 852, "start": 666509, "end": 667528, "sha256": "c113092a4d8652ea5b58761123e2954f4d4fa2a182107d945c3f94a96f9c0c59", "text": "Greek and medieval knowledge accepted the world in its qualitative variety, and regarded nature's processes as having ends, or in technical phrase as teleological. New science was expounded so as to deny the reality of all qualities in real, or objective, existence. Sounds, colors, ends, as well as goods and bads, were regarded as purely subjective--as mere impressions in the mind. Objective existence was then treated as having only quantitative aspects--as so much mass in motion, its only differences being that at one point in space there was a larger aggregate mass than at another, and that in some spots there were greater rates of motion than at others. Lacking qualitative distinctions, nature lacked significant variety. Uniformities were emphasized, not diversities; the ideal was supposed to be the discovery of a single mathematical formula applying to the whole universe at once from which all the seeming variety of phenomena could be derived. This is what a mechanical philosophy means.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00488", "bookId": 852, "start": 667532, "end": 668908, "sha256": "ce87a8e23787aa45bc28ca0ca59efa168a20dc85500d690e4148632176bea178", "text": "Such a philosophy does not represent the genuine purport of science. It takes the technique for the thing itself; the apparatus and the terminology for reality, the method for its subject matter. Science does confine its statements to conditions which enable us to predict and control the happening of events, ignoring the qualities of the events. Hence its mechanical and quantitative character. But in leaving them out of account, it does not exclude them from reality, nor relegate them to a purely mental region; it only furnishes means utilizable for ends. Thus while in fact the progress of science was increasing man's power over nature, enabling him to place his cherished ends on a firmer basis than ever before, and also to diversify his activities almost at will, the philosophy which professed to formulate its accomplishments reduced the world to a barren and monotonous redistribution of matter in space. Thus the immediate effect of modern science was to accentuate the dualism of matter and mind, and thereby to establish the physical and the humanistic studies as two disconnected groups. Since the difference between better and worse is bound up with the qualities of experience, any philosophy of science which excludes them from the genuine content of reality is bound to leave out what is most interesting and most important to mankind.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00489", "bookId": 852, "start": 668912, "end": 670835, "sha256": "47a7738867fe526d2cb6e1d50c5ea684d32844502e4830d18f677ed9a73ea1a8", "text": "3. The Present Educational Problem. In truth, experience knows no division between human concerns and a purely mechanical physical world. Man's home is nature; his purposes and aims are dependent for execution upon natural conditions. Separated from such conditions they become empty dreams and idle indulgences of fancy. From the standpoint of human experience, and hence of educational endeavor, any distinction which can be justly made between nature and man is a distinction between the conditions which have to be reckoned with in the formation and execution of our practical aims, and the aims themselves. This philosophy is vouched for by the doctrine of biological development which shows that man is continuous with nature, not an alien entering her processes from without. It is reinforced by the experimental method of science which shows that knowledge accrues in virtue of an attempt to direct physical energies in accord with ideas suggested in dealing with natural objects in behalf of social uses. Every step forward in the social sciences--the studies termed history, economics, politics, sociology--shows that social questions are capable of being intelligently coped with only in the degree in which we employ the method of collected data, forming hypotheses, and testing them in action which is characteristic of natural science, and in the degree in which we utilize in behalf of the promotion of social welfare the technical knowledge ascertained by physics and chemistry. Advanced methods of dealing with such perplexing problems as insanity, intemperance, poverty, public sanitation, city planning, the conservation of natural resources, the constructive use of governmental agencies for furthering the public good without weakening personal initiative, all illustrate the direct dependence of our important social concerns upon the methods and results of natural science.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00490", "bookId": 852, "start": 670839, "end": 672061, "sha256": "87479bf6d89b30b3e200a414fdb5b622b3b96652733a028ced3fad2b209a42fe", "text": "With respect then to both humanistic and naturalistic studies, education should take its departure from this close interdependence. It should aim not at keeping science as a study of nature apart from literature as a record of human interests, but at cross-fertilizing both the natural sciences and the various human disciplines such as history, literature, economics, and politics. Pedagogically, the problem is simpler than the attempt to teach the sciences as mere technical bodies of information and technical forms of physical manipulation, on one side; and to teach humanistic studies as isolated subjects, on the other. For the latter procedure institutes an artificial separation in the pupils' experience. Outside of school pupils meet with natural facts and principles in connection with various modes of human action. (See ante, p. 30.) In all the social activities in which they have shared they have had to understand the material and processes involved. To start them in school with a rupture of this intimate association breaks the continuity of mental development, makes the student feel an indescribable unreality in his studies, and deprives him of the normal motive for interest in them.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00491", "bookId": 852, "start": 672065, "end": 674177, "sha256": "f740b9cd7623d80e1927e720236756c444f697b3909f8bec3678fdabb5cc52bf", "text": "There is no doubt, of course, that the opportunities of education should be such that all should have a chance who have the disposition to advance to specialized ability in science, and thus devote themselves to its pursuit as their particular occupation in life. But at present, the pupil too often has a choice only between beginning with a study of the results of prior specialization where the material is isolated from his daily experiences, or with miscellaneous nature study, where material is presented at haphazard and does not lead anywhere in particular. The habit of introducing college pupils into segregated scientific subject matter, such as is appropriate to the man who wishes to become an expert in a given field, is carried back into the high schools. Pupils in the latter simply get a more elementary treatment of the same thing, with difficulties smoothed over and topics reduced to the level of their supposed ability. The cause of this procedure lies in following tradition, rather than in conscious adherence to a dualistic philosophy. But the effect is the same as if the purpose were to inculcate an idea that the sciences which deal with nature have nothing to do with man, and vice versa. A large part of the comparative ineffectiveness of the teaching of the sciences, for those who never become scientific specialists, is the result of a separation which is unavoidable when one begins with technically organized subject matter. Even if all students were embryonic scientific specialists, it is questionable whether this is the most effective procedure. Considering that the great majority are concerned with the study of sciences only for its effect upon their mental habits--in making them more alert, more open-minded, more inclined to tentative acceptance and to testing of ideas propounded or suggested,--and for achieving a better understanding of their daily environment, it is certainly ill-advised. Too often the pupil comes out with a smattering which is too superficial to be scientific and too technical to be applicable to ordinary affairs.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00492", "bookId": 852, "start": 674181, "end": 675424, "sha256": "c14623f82e673cde0f2276387e5dcd0757c325e2af5fdcdb9f2b90a3b9a0e92a", "text": "The utilization of ordinary experience to secure an advance into scientific material and method, while keeping the latter connected with familiar human interests, is easier to-day than it ever was before. The usual experience of all persons in civilized communities to-day is intimately associated with industrial processes and results. These in turn are so many cases of science in action. The stationary and traction steam engine, gasoline engine, automobile, telegraph and telephone, the electric motor enter directly into the lives of most individuals. Pupils at an early age are practically acquainted with these things. Not only does the business occupation of their parents depend upon scientific applications, but household pursuits, the maintenance of health, the sights seen upon the streets, embody scientific achievements and stimulate interest in the connected scientific principles. The obvious pedagogical starting point of scientific instruction is not to teach things labeled science, but to utilize the familiar occupations and appliances to direct observation and experiment, until pupils have arrived at a knowledge of some fundamental principles by understanding them in their familiar practical workings.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00493", "bookId": 852, "start": 675428, "end": 676246, "sha256": "1fc08d137a53203cd9fc69275f060833dee0fb52843cb74e932e24265004ac81", "text": "The opinion sometimes advanced that it is a derogation from the \"purity\" of science to study it in its active incarnation, instead of in theoretical abstraction, rests upon a misunderstanding. AS matter of fact, any subject is cultural in the degree in which it is apprehended in its widest possible range of meanings. Perception of meanings depends upon perception of connections, of context. To see a scientific fact or law in its human as well as in its physical and technical context is to enlarge its significance and give it increased cultural value. Its direct economic application, if by economic is meant something having money worth, is incidental and secondary, but a part of its actual connections. The important thing is that the fact be grasped in its social connections--its function in life.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00494", "bookId": 852, "start": 676250, "end": 678887, "sha256": "63f94aea9d4e3efc82251d875e1960d78f8cfb4efc4afc87a914091d505f0f7e", "text": "On the other hand, \"humanism\" means at bottom being imbued with an intelligent sense of human interests. The social interest, identical in its deepest meaning with a moral interest, is necessarily supreme with man. Knowledge about man, information as to his past, familiarity with his documented records of literature, may be as technical a possession as the accumulation of physical details. Men may keep busy in a variety of ways, making money, acquiring facility in laboratory manipulation, or in amassing a store of facts about linguistic matters, or the chronology of literary productions. Unless such activity reacts to enlarge the imaginative vision of life, it is on a level with the busy work of children. It has the letter without the spirit of activity. It readily degenerates itself into a miser's accumulation, and a man prides himself on what he has, and not on the meaning he finds in the affairs of life. Any study so pursued that it increases concern for the values of life, any study producing greater sensitiveness to social well-being and greater ability to promote that well-being is humane study. The humanistic spirit of the Greeks was native and intense but it was narrow in scope. Everybody outside the Hellenic circle was a barbarian, and negligible save as a possible enemy. Acute as were the social observations and speculations of Greek thinkers, there is not a word in their writings to indicate that Greek civilization was not self-inclosed and self-sufficient. There was, apparently, no suspicion that its future was at the mercy of the despised outsider. Within the Greek community, the intense social spirit was limited by the fact that higher culture was based on a substratum of slavery and economic serfdom--classes necessary to the existence of the state, as Aristotle declared, and yet not genuine parts of it. The development of science has produced an industrial revolution which has brought different peoples in such close contact with one another through colonization and commerce that no matter how some nations may still look down upon others, no country can harbor the illusion that its career is decided wholly within itself. The same revolution has abolished agricultural serfdom, and created a class of more or less organized factory laborers with recognized political rights, and who make claims for a responsible role in the control of industry--claims which receive sympathetic attention from many among the well-to-do, since they have been brought into closer connections with the less fortunate classes through the breaking down of class barriers.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00495", "bookId": 852, "start": 678891, "end": 679513, "sha256": "4f340838811500db03163e9720e48127ff67f806d84adebb94a8f3e28ce1fba5", "text": "This state of affairs may be formulated by saying that the older humanism omitted economic and industrial conditions from its purview. Consequently, it was one sided. Culture, under such circumstances, inevitably represented the intellectual and moral outlook of the class which was in direct social control. Such a tradition as to culture is, as we have seen (ante, p. 260), aristocratic; it emphasizes what marks off one class from another, rather than fundamental common interests. Its standards are in the past; for the aim is to preserve what has been gained rather than widely to extend the range of culture.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00496", "bookId": 852, "start": 679517, "end": 680363, "sha256": "2344debd45b7b9fda994dbe59e2d71bcee9829cfba1ba93b0dd8db2e0dbc84be", "text": "The modifications which spring from taking greater account of industry and of whatever has to do with making a living are frequently condemned as attacks upon the culture derived from the past. But a wider educational outlook would conceive industrial activities as agencies for making intellectual resources more accessible to the masses, and giving greater solidity to the culture of those having superior resources. In short, when we consider the close connection between science and industrial development on the one hand, and between literary and aesthetic cultivation and an aristocratic social organization on the other, we get light on the opposition between technical scientific studies and refining literary studies. We have before us the need of overcoming this separation in education if society is to be truly democratic.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00497", "bookId": 852, "start": 680367, "end": 681008, "sha256": "d12473826c9d2d5069286901a9e94c0cb4ac10c23c4bc641e039114ef5cb9095", "text": "Summary. The philosophic dualism between man and nature is reflected in the division of studies between the naturalistic and the humanistic with a tendency to reduce the latter to the literary records of the past. This dualism is not characteristic (as were the others which we have noted) of Greek thought. It arose partly because of the fact that the culture of Rome and of barbarian Europe was not a native product, being borrowed directly or indirectly from Greece, and partly because political and ecclesiastic conditions emphasized dependence upon the authority of past knowledge as that was transmitted in literary documents.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00498", "bookId": 852, "start": 681012, "end": 682046, "sha256": "7e2a37c708fc713469fae980b1b6c3d79d8aac09bcd582d3d87478e831947c42", "text": "At the outset, the rise of modern science prophesied a restoration of the intimate connection of nature and humanity, for it viewed knowledge of nature as the means of securing human progress and well-being. But the more immediate applications of science were in the interests of a class rather than of men in common; and the received philosophic formulations of scientific doctrine tended either to mark it off as merely material from man as spiritual and immaterial, or else to reduce mind to a subjective illusion. In education, accordingly, the tendency was to treat the sciences as a separate body of studies, consisting of technical information regarding the physical world, and to reserve the older literary studies as distinctively humanistic. The account previously given of the evolution of knowledge, and of the educational scheme of studies based upon it, are designed to overcome the separation, and to secure recognition of the place occupied by the subject matter of the natural sciences in human affairs.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00499", "bookId": 852, "start": 682050, "end": 682130, "sha256": "9bd23ed8026a4274ee8b98e52437ccf720fe2ba980aa212e1f1bd8a0211702bb", "text": "1 The Influence of Greek Ideas and Usages upon the Christian Church. pp. 43-44.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG852.B00500", "bookId": 852, "start": 682140, "end": 682188, "sha256": "34755ccd1edc8c40d550b25b33d82de4269b332268927c36343d420b1a5ccc86", "text": "Chapter Twenty-two: The Individual and the World", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG852.B00501", "bookId": 852, "start": 682192, "end": 685232, "sha256": "9aaa27769d29ec7dd11a096fe2af1d6589ba33b43d91b40940d509fb417c13ad", "text": "1. Mind as Purely Individual. We have been concerned with the influences which have effected a division between work and leisure, knowing and doing, man and nature. These influences have resulted in splitting up the subject matter of education into separate studies. They have also found formulation in various philosophies which have opposed to each other body and mind, theoretical knowledge and practice, physical mechanism and ideal purpose. Upon the philosophical side, these various dualisms culminate in a sharp demarcation of individual minds from the world, and hence from one another. While the connection of this philosophical position with educational procedure is not so obvious as is that of the points considered in the last three chapters, there are certain educational considerations which correspond to it; such as the antithesis supposed to exist between subject matter (the counterpart of the world) and method (the counterpart of mind); such as the tendency to treat interest as something purely private, without intrinsic connection with the material studied. Aside from incidental educational bearings, it will be shown in this chapter that the dualistic philosophy of mind and the world implies an erroneous conception of the relationship between knowledge and social interests, and between individuality or freedom, and social control and authority. The identification of the mind with the individual self and of the latter with a private psychic consciousness is comparatively modern. In both the Greek and medieval periods, the rule was to regard the individual as a channel through which a universal and divine intelligence operated. The individual was in no true sense the knower; the knower was the \"Reason\" which operated through him. The individual interfered at his peril, and only to the detriment of the truth. In the degree in which the individual rather than reason \"knew,\" conceit, error, and opinion were substituted for true knowledge. In Greek life, observation was acute and alert; and thinking was free almost to the point of irresponsible speculations. Accordingly the consequences of the theory were only such as were consequent upon the lack of an experimental method. Without such a method individuals could not engage in knowing, and be checked up by the results of the inquiries of others. Without such liability to test by others, the minds of men could not be intellectually responsible; results were to be accepted because of their aesthetic consistency, agreeable quality, or the prestige of their authors. In the barbarian period, individuals were in a still more humble attitude to truth; important knowledge was supposed to be divinely revealed, and nothing remained for the minds of individuals except to work it over after it had been received on authority. Aside from the more consciously philosophic aspects of these movements, it never occurs to any one to identify mind and the personal self wherever beliefs are transmitted by custom.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00502", "bookId": 852, "start": 685236, "end": 686666, "sha256": "4980ee3c5882ebfbdec980ff671815662e239477cd5e445a38d4b4361cacf84b", "text": "In the medieval period there was a religious individualism. The deepest concern of life was the salvation of the individual soul. In the later Middle Ages, this latent individualism found conscious formulation in the nominalistic philosophies, which treated the structure of knowledge as something built up within the individual through his own acts, and mental states. With the rise of economic and political individualism after the sixteenth century, and with the development of Protestantism, the times were ripe for an emphasis upon the rights and duties of the individual in achieving knowledge for himself. This led to the view that knowledge is won wholly through personal and private experiences. As a consequence, mind, the source and possessor of knowledge, was thought of as wholly individual. Thus upon the educational side, we find educational reformers, like Montaigne, Bacon, Locke, henceforth vehemently denouncing all learning which is acquired on hearsay, and asserting that even if beliefs happen to be true, they do not constitute knowledge unless they have grown up in and been tested by personal experience. The reaction against authority in all spheres of life, and the intensity of the struggle, against great odds, for freedom of action and inquiry, led to such an emphasis upon personal observations and ideas as in effect to isolate mind, and set it apart from the world to be known.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00503", "bookId": 852, "start": 686670, "end": 687465, "sha256": "b507e17438894751cdec513ff68e041010b14615b00e0f6288235ea2b8b3fbab", "text": "This isolation is reflected in the great development of that branch of philosophy known as epistemology--the theory of knowledge. The identification of mind with the self, and the setting up of the self as something independent and self-sufficient, created such a gulf between the knowing mind and the world that it became a question how knowledge was possible at all. Given a subject--the knower--and an object--the thing to be known--wholly separate from one another, it is necessary to frame a theory to explain how they get into connection with each other so that valid knowledge may result. This problem, with the allied one of the possibility of the world acting upon the mind and the mind acting upon the world, became almost the exclusive preoccupation of philosophic thought.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00504", "bookId": 852, "start": 687469, "end": 688388, "sha256": "9e07d85a076ad3f98a32508a8d07ec4d2289f41bffdcb53c92bec1d4f968c281", "text": "The theories that we cannot know the world as it really is but only the impressions made upon the mind, or that there is no world beyond the individual mind, or that knowledge is only a certain association of the mind's own states, were products of this preoccupation. We are not directly concerned with their truth; but the fact that such desperate solutions were widely accepted is evidence of the extent to which mind had been set over the world of realities. The increasing use of the term \"consciousness\" as an equivalent for mind, in the supposition that there is an inner world of conscious states and processes, independent of any relationship to nature and society, an inner world more truly and immediately known than anything else, is evidence of the same fact. In short, practical individualism, or struggle for greater freedom of thought in action, was translated into philosophic subjectivism.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00505", "bookId": 852, "start": 688392, "end": 689321, "sha256": "a8651a5c1a373df8d9bf1e9566f94667622f18698a3f716ad15985c74990fae7", "text": "2. Individual Mind as the Agent of Reorganization. It should be obvious that this philosophic movement misconceived the significance of the practical movement. Instead of being its transcript, it was a perversion. Men were not actually engaged in the absurdity of striving to be free from connection with nature and one another. They were striving for greater freedom in nature and society. They wanted greater power to initiate changes in the world of things and fellow beings; greater scope of movement and consequently greater freedom in observations and ideas implied in movement. They wanted not isolation from the world, but a more intimate connection with it. They wanted to form their beliefs about it at first hand, instead of through tradition. They wanted closer union with their fellows so that they might influence one another more effectively and might combine their respective actions for mutual aims.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00506", "bookId": 852, "start": 689325, "end": 690989, "sha256": "7be2e77f02a59e0339b0517186e54b45509e19ae527f4b789679ce0f3619c9d8", "text": "So far as their beliefs were concerned, they felt that a great deal which passed for knowledge was merely the accumulated opinions of the past, much of it absurd and its correct portions not understood when accepted on authority. Men must observe for themselves, and form their own theories and personally test them. Such a method was the only alternative to the imposition of dogma as truth, a procedure which reduced mind to the formal act of acquiescing in truth. Such is the meaning of what is sometimes called the substitution of inductive experimental methods of knowing for deductive. In some sense, men had always used an inductive method in dealing with their immediate practical concerns. Architecture, agriculture, manufacture, etc., had to be based upon observation of the activities of natural objects, and ideas about such affairs had to be checked, to some extent, by results. But even in such things there was an undue reliance upon mere custom, followed blindly rather than understandingly. And this observational-experimental method was restricted to these \"practical\" matters, and a sharp distinction maintained between practice and theoretical knowledge or truth. (See Ch. XX.) The rise of free cities, the development of travel, exploration, and commerce, the evolution of new methods of producing commodities and doing business, threw men definitely upon their own resources. The reformers of science like Galileo, Descartes, and their successors, carried analogous methods into ascertaining the facts about nature. An interest in discovery took the place of an interest in systematizing and \"proving\" received beliefs.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00507", "bookId": 852, "start": 690993, "end": 692169, "sha256": "2ce26b16da31e88d73d4691dd1fe23672b6b126d963b873be79800e12d0a4627", "text": "A just philosophic interpretation of these movements would, indeed, have emphasized the rights and responsibilities of the individual in gaining knowledge and personally testing beliefs, no matter by what authorities they were vouched for. But it would not have isolated the individual from the world, and consequently isolated individuals--in theory--from one another. It would have perceived that such disconnection, such rupture of continuity, denied in advance the possibility of success in their endeavors. As matter of fact every individual has grown up, and always must grow up, in a social medium. His responses grow intelligent, or gain meaning, simply because he lives and acts in a medium of accepted meanings and values. (See ante, p. 30.) Through social intercourse, through sharing in the activities embodying beliefs, he gradually acquires a mind of his own. The conception of mind as a purely isolated possession of the self is at the very antipodes of the truth. The self achieves mind in the degree in which knowledge of things is incarnate in the life about him; the self is not a separate mind building up knowledge anew on its own account.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00508", "bookId": 852, "start": 692173, "end": 694397, "sha256": "c47a80858d7a40fc11676723abda3f95688ce84696428165e2c6d52eec2541b1", "text": "Yet there is a valid distinction between knowledge which is objective and impersonal, and thinking which is subjective and personal. In one sense, knowledge is that which we take for granted. It is that which is settled, disposed of, established, under control. What we fully know, we do not need to think about. In common phrase, it is certain, assured. And this does not mean a mere feeling of certainty. It denotes not a sentiment, but a practical attitude, a readiness to act without reserve or quibble. Of course we may be mistaken. What is taken for knowledge--for fact and truth--at a given time may not be such. But everything which is assumed without question, which is taken for granted in our intercourse with one another and nature is what, at the given time, is called knowledge. Thinking on the contrary, starts, as we have seen, from doubt or uncertainty. It marks an inquiring, hunting, searching attitude, instead of one of mastery and possession. Through its critical process true knowledge is revised and extended, and our convictions as to the state of things reorganized. Clearly the last few centuries have been typically a period of revision and reorganization of beliefs. Men did not really throw away all transmitted beliefs concerning the realities of existence, and start afresh upon the basis of their private, exclusive sensations and ideas. They could not have done so if they had wished to, and if it had been possible general imbecility would have been the only outcome. Men set out from what had passed as knowledge, and critically investigated the grounds upon which it rested; they noted exceptions; they used new mechanical appliances to bring to light data inconsistent with what had been believed; they used their imaginations to conceive a world different from that in which their forefathers had put their trust. The work was a piecemeal, a retail, business. One problem was tackled at a time. The net results of all the revisions amounted, however, to a revolution of prior conceptions of the world. What occurred was a reorganization of prior intellectual habitudes, infinitely more efficient than a cutting loose from all connections would have been.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00509", "bookId": 852, "start": 694401, "end": 697136, "sha256": "679fcb03af35b989b941742b2742e6f7393175d3f3c1d23a7bdb1f641f3c2eb9", "text": "This state of affairs suggests a definition of the role of the individual, or the self, in knowledge; namely, the redirection, or reconstruction of accepted beliefs. Every new idea, every conception of things differing from that authorized by current belief, must have its origin in an individual. New ideas are doubtless always sprouting, but a society governed by custom does not encourage their development. On the contrary, it tends to suppress them, just because they are deviations from what is current. The man who looks at things differently from others is in such a community a suspect character; for him to persist is generally fatal. Even when social censorship of beliefs is not so strict, social conditions may fail to provide the appliances which are requisite if new ideas are to be adequately elaborated; or they may fail to provide any material support and reward to those who entertain them. Hence they remain mere fancies, romantic castles in the air, or aimless speculations. The freedom of observation and imagination involved in the modern scientific revolution were not easily secured; they had to be fought for; many suffered for their intellectual independence. But, upon the whole, modern European society first permitted, and then, in some fields at least, deliberately encouraged the individual reactions which deviate from what custom prescribes. Discovery, research, inquiry in new lines, inventions, finally came to be either the social fashion, or in some degree tolerable. However, as we have already noted, philosophic theories of knowledge were not content to conceive mind in the individual as the pivot upon which reconstruction of beliefs turned, thus maintaining the continuity of the individual with the world of nature and fellow men. They regarded the individual mind as a separate entity, complete in each person, and isolated from nature and hence from other minds. Thus a legitimate intellectual individualism, the attitude of critical revision of former beliefs which is indispensable to progress, was explicitly formulated as a moral and social individualism. When the activities of mind set out from customary beliefs and strive to effect transformations of them which will in turn win general conviction, there is no opposition between the individual and the social. The intellectual variations of the individual in observation, imagination, judgment, and invention are simply the agencies of social progress, just as conformity to habit is the agency of social conservation. But when knowledge is regarded as originating and developing within an individual, the ties which bind the mental life of one to that of his fellows are ignored and denied.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00510", "bookId": 852, "start": 697140, "end": 697988, "sha256": "d16c938ece495d0ca9ae5f9bf99eb029c52c887f4df3a0ca3d6b9aa960c81ab5", "text": "When the social quality of individualized mental operations is denied, it becomes a problem to find connections which will unite an individual with his fellows. Moral individualism is set up by the conscious separation of different centers of life. It has its roots in the notion that the consciousness of each person is wholly private, a self-inclosed continent, intrinsically independent of the ideas, wishes, purposes of everybody else. But when men act, they act in a common and public world. This is the problem to which the theory of isolated and independent conscious minds gave rise: Given feelings, ideas, desires, which have nothing to do with one another, how can actions proceeding from them be controlled in a social or public interest? Given an egoistic consciousness, how can action which has regard for others take place?", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00511", "bookId": 852, "start": 697992, "end": 699850, "sha256": "ac2fc2308751f0686c9658b2d5a67fba2b855976736c4f0a61e031a6a9f54a78", "text": "Moral philosophies which have started from such premises have developed four typical ways of dealing with the question. (i) One method represents the survival of the older authoritative position, with such concessions and compromises as the progress of events has made absolutely inevitable. The deviations and departures characterizing an individual are still looked upon with suspicion; in principle they are evidences of the disturbances, revolts, and corruptions inhering in an individual apart from external authoritative guidance. In fact, as distinct from principle, intellectual individualism is tolerated in certain technical regions--in subjects like mathematics and physics and astronomy, and in the technical inventions resulting therefrom. But the applicability of a similar method to morals, social, legal, and political matters, is denied. In such matters, dogma is still to be supreme; certain eternal truths made known by revelation, intuition, or the wisdom of our forefathers set unpassable limits to individual observation and speculation. The evils from which society suffers are set down to the efforts of misguided individuals to transgress these boundaries. Between the physical and the moral sciences, lie intermediate sciences of life, where the territory is only grudgingly yielded to freedom of inquiry under the pressure of accomplished fact. Although past history has demonstrated that the possibilities of human good are widened and made more secure by trusting to a responsibility built up within the very process of inquiry, the \"authority\" theory sets apart a sacred domain of truth which must be protected from the inroads of variation of beliefs. Educationally, emphasis may not be put on eternal truth, but it is put on the authority of book and teacher, and individual variation is discouraged.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00512", "bookId": 852, "start": 699854, "end": 701593, "sha256": "8839d370d2afa766c928e8484e8c444c4f309b0d1762438c86655a08600ad65c", "text": "(ii) Another method is sometimes termed rationalism or abstract intellectualism. A formal logical faculty is set up in distinction from tradition and history and all concrete subject matter. This faculty of reason is endowed with power to influence conduct directly. Since it deals wholly with general and impersonal forms, when different persons act in accord with logical findings, their activities will be externally consistent. There is no doubt of the services rendered by this philosophy. It was a powerful factor in the negative and dissolving criticism of doctrines having nothing but tradition and class interest behind them; it accustomed men to freedom of discussion and to the notion that beliefs had to be submitted to criteria of reasonableness. It undermined the power of prejudice, superstition, and brute force, by habituating men to reliance upon argument, discussion, and persuasion. It made for clarity and order of exposition. But its influence was greater in destruction of old falsities than in the construction of new ties and associations among men. Its formal and empty nature, due to conceiving reason as something complete in itself apart from subject matter, its hostile attitude toward historical institutions, its disregard of the influence of habit, instinct, and emotion, as operative factors in life, left it impotent in the suggestion of specific aims and methods. Bare logic, however important in arranging and criticizing existing subject matter, cannot spin new subject matter out of itself. In education, the correlative is trust in general ready-made rules and principles to secure agreement, irrespective of seeing to it that the pupil's ideas really agree with one another.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00513", "bookId": 852, "start": 701597, "end": 706576, "sha256": "001aca91c654b26b501f3baafea3a6c2e738d4757c2bc9f7fff56579f89bd958", "text": "(iii) While this rationalistic philosophy was developing in France, English thought appealed to the intelligent self-interest of individuals in order to secure outer unity in the acts which issued from isolated streams of consciousness. Legal arrangements, especially penal administration, and governmental regulations, were to be such as to prevent the acts which proceeded from regard for one's own private sensations from interfering with the feelings of others. Education was to instill in individuals a sense that non-interference with others and some degree of positive regard for their welfare were necessary for security in the pursuit of one's own happiness. Chief emphasis was put, however, upon trade as a means of bringing the conduct of one into harmony with that of others. In commerce, each aims at the satisfaction of his own wants, but can gain his own profit only by furnishing some commodity or service to another. Thus in aiming at the increase of his own private pleasurable states of consciousness, he contributes to the consciousness of others. Again there is no doubt that this view expressed and furthered a heightened perception of the values of conscious life, and a recognition that institutional arrangements are ultimately to be judged by the contributions which they make to intensifying and enlarging the scope of conscious experience. It also did much to rescue work, industry, and mechanical devices from the contempt in which they had been held in communities founded upon the control of a leisure class. In both ways, this philosophy promoted a wider and more democratic social concern. But it was tainted by the narrowness of its fundamental premise: the doctrine that every individual acts only from regard for his own pleasures and pains, and that so-called generous and sympathetic acts are only indirect ways of procuring and assuring one's own comfort. In other words, it made explicit the consequences inhering in any doctrine which makes mental life a self-inclosed thing, instead of an attempt to redirect and readapt common concerns. It made union among men a matter of calculation of externals. It lent itself to the contemptuous assertions of Carlyle that it was a doctrine of anarchy plus a constable, and recognized only a \"cash nexus\" among men. The educational equivalents of this doctrine in the uses made of pleasurable rewards and painful penalties are only too obvious. (iv) Typical German philosophy followed another path. It started from what was essentially the rationalistic philosophy of Descartes and his French successors. But while French thought upon the whole developed the idea of reason in opposition to the religious conception of a divine mind residing in individuals, German thought (as in Hegel) made a synthesis of the two. Reason is absolute. Nature is incarnate reason. History is reason in its progressive unfolding in man. An individual becomes rational only as he absorbs into himself the content of rationality in nature and in social institutions. For an absolute reason is not, like the reason of rationalism, purely formal and empty; as absolute it must include all content within itself. Thus the real problem is not that of controlling individual freedom so that some measure of social order and concord may result, but of achieving individual freedom through developing individual convictions in accord with the universal law found in the organization of the state as objective Reason. While this philosophy is usually termed absolute or objective idealism, it might better be termed, for educational purposes at least, institutional idealism. (See ante, p. 59.) It idealized historical institutions by conceiving them as incarnations of an immanent absolute mind. There can be no doubt that this philosophy was a powerful influence in rescuing philosophy in the beginning of the nineteenth century from the isolated individualism into which it had fallen in France and England. It served also to make the organization of the state more constructively interested in matters of public concern. It left less to chance, less to mere individual logical conviction, less to the workings of private self-interest. It brought intelligence to bear upon the conduct of affairs; it accentuated the need of nationally organized education in the interests of the corporate state. It sanctioned and promoted freedom of inquiry in all technical details of natural and historical phenomena. But in all ultimate moral matters, it tended to reinstate the principle of authority. It made for efficiency of organization more than did any of the types of philosophy previously mentioned, but it made no provision for free experimental modification of this organization. Political democracy, with its belief in the right of individual desire and purpose to take part in readapting even the fundamental constitution of society, was foreign to it.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00514", "bookId": 852, "start": 706580, "end": 708741, "sha256": "e626340ffa11e8fa3e63a5c8d842f1db4f24784d86762bcacc5248dbc05e2760", "text": "3. Educational Equivalents. It is not necessary to consider in detail the educational counterparts of the various defects found in these various types of philosophy. It suffices to say that in general the school has been the institution which exhibited with greatest clearness the assumed antithesis between purely individualistic methods of learning and social action, and between freedom and social control. The antithesis is reflected in the absence of a social atmosphere and motive for learning, and the consequent separation, in the conduct of the school, between method of instruction and methods of government; and in the slight opportunity afforded individual variations. When learning is a phase of active undertakings which involve mutual exchange, social control enters into the very process of learning. When the social factor is absent, learning becomes a carrying over of some presented material into a purely individual consciousness, and there is no inherent reason why it should give a more socialized direction to mental and emotional disposition. There is tendency on the part of both the upholders and the opponents of freedom in school to identify it with absence of social direction, or, sometimes, with merely physical unconstraint of movement. But the essence of the demand for freedom is the need of conditions which will enable an individual to make his own special contribution to a group interest, and to partake of its activities in such ways that social guidance shall be a matter of his own mental attitude, and not a mere authoritative dictation of his acts. Because what is often called discipline and \"government\" has to do with the external side of conduct alone, a similar meaning is attached, by reaction, to freedom. But when it is perceived that each idea signifies the quality of mind expressed in action, the supposed opposition between them falls away. Freedom means essentially the part played by thinking--which is personal--in learning:--it means intellectual initiative, independence in observation, judicious invention, foresight of consequences, and ingenuity of adaptation to them.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00515", "bookId": 852, "start": 708745, "end": 710664, "sha256": "21bffd023e8c85b8403b83002d30823f3f6e3e3ef5c67831a94cfa4413bd3a84", "text": "But because these are the mental phase of behavior, the needed play of individuality--or freedom--cannot be separated from opportunity for free play of physical movements. Enforced physical quietude may be unfavorable to realization of a problem, to undertaking the observations needed to define it, and to performance of the experiments which test the ideas suggested. Much has been said about the importance of \"self-activity\" in education, but the conception has too frequently been restricted to something merely internal--something excluding the free use of sensory and motor organs. Those who are at the stage of learning from symbols, or who are engaged in elaborating the implications of a problem or idea preliminary to more carefully thought-out activity, may need little perceptible overt activity. But the whole cycle of self-activity demands an opportunity for investigation and experimentation, for trying out one's ideas upon things, discovering what can be done with materials and appliances. And this is incompatible with closely restricted physical activity. Individual activity has sometimes been taken as meaning leaving a pupil to work by himself or alone. Relief from need of attending to what any one else is doing is truly required to secure calm and concentration. Children, like grown persons, require a judicious amount of being let alone. But the time, place, and amount of such separate work is a matter of detail, not of principle. There is no inherent opposition between working with others and working as an individual. On the contrary, certain capacities of an individual are not brought out except under the stimulus of associating with others. That a child must work alone and not engage in group activities in order to be free and let his individuality develop, is a notion which measures individuality by spatial distance and makes a physical thing of it.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00516", "bookId": 852, "start": 710668, "end": 713987, "sha256": "07da757ab0c02a1b4924edde849013d86fd7e24b1cb4a5a50c43d1ab4b2ceea5", "text": "Individuality as a factor to be respected in education has a double meaning. In the first place, one is mentally an individual only as he has his own purpose and problem, and does his own thinking. The phrase \"think for one's self\" is a pleonasm. Unless one does it for one's self, it isn't thinking. Only by a pupil's own observations, reflections, framing and testing of suggestions can what he already knows be amplified and rectified. Thinking is as much an individual matter as is the digestion of food. In the second place, there are variations of point of view, of appeal of objects, and of mode of attack, from person to person. When these variations are suppressed in the alleged interests of uniformity, and an attempt is made to have a single mold of method of study and recitation, mental confusion and artificiality inevitably result. Originality is gradually destroyed, confidence in one's own quality of mental operation is undermined, and a docile subjection to the opinion of others is inculcated, or else ideas run wild. The harm is greater now than when the whole community was governed by customary beliefs, because the contrast between methods of learning in school and those relied upon outside the school is greater. That systematic advance in scientific discovery began when individuals were allowed, and then encouraged, to utilize their own peculiarities of response to subject matter, no one will deny. If it is said in objection, that pupils in school are not capable of any such originality, and hence must be confined to appropriating and reproducing things already known by the better informed, the reply is twofold. (i) We are concerned with originality of attitude which is equivalent to the unforced response of one's own individuality, not with originality as measured by product. No one expects the young to make original discoveries of just the same facts and principles as are embodied in the sciences of nature and man. But it is not unreasonable to expect that learning may take place under such conditions that from the standpoint of the learner there is genuine discovery. While immature students will not make discoveries from the standpoint of advanced students, they make them from their own standpoint, whenever there is genuine learning. (ii) In the normal process of becoming acquainted with subject matter already known to others, even young pupils react in unexpected ways. There is something fresh, something not capable of being fully anticipated by even the most experienced teacher, in the ways they go at the topic, and in the particular ways in which things strike them. Too often all this is brushed aside as irrelevant; pupils are deliberately held to rehearsing material in the exact form in which the older person conceives it. The result is that what is instinctively original in individuality, that which marks off one from another, goes unused and undirected. Teaching then ceases to be an educative process for the teacher. At most he learns simply to improve his existing technique; he does not get new points of view; he fails to experience any intellectual companionship. Hence both teaching and learning tend to become conventional and mechanical with all the nervous strain on both sides therein implied.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00517", "bookId": 852, "start": 713991, "end": 715004, "sha256": "bac897201285d4bfe80df39821ec52e5d9dce0ed03b5e7282e027c035afff56e", "text": "As maturity increases and as the student has a greater background of familiarity upon which a new topic is projected, the scope of more or less random physical experimentation is reduced. Activity is defined or specialized in certain channels. To the eyes of others, the student may be in a position of complete physical quietude, because his energies are confined to nerve channels and to the connected apparatus of the eyes and vocal organs. But because this attitude is evidence of intense mental concentration on the part of the trained person, it does not follow that it should be set up as a model for students who still have to find their intellectual way about. And even with the adult, it does not cover the whole circuit of mental energy. It marks an intermediate period, capable of being lengthened with increased mastery of a subject, but always coming between an earlier period of more general and conspicuous organic action and a later time of putting to use what has been apprehended.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00518", "bookId": 852, "start": 715008, "end": 716374, "sha256": "8ccf581ecf1535e0b3e614d7e9127c34f9a83235676cf9e5bf8fab3a1865ebcf", "text": "When, however, education takes cognizance of the union of mind and body in acquiring knowledge, we are not obliged to insist upon the need of obvious, or external, freedom. It is enough to identify the freedom which is involved in teaching and studying with the thinking by which what a person already knows and believes is enlarged and refined. If attention is centered upon the conditions which have to be met in order to secure a situation favorable to effective thinking, freedom will take care of itself. The individual who has a question which being really a question to him instigates his curiosity, which feeds his eagerness for information that will help him cope with it, and who has at command an equipment which will permit these interests to take effect, is intellectually free. Whatever initiative and imaginative vision he possesses will be called into play and control his impulses and habits. His own purposes will direct his actions. Otherwise, his seeming attention, his docility, his memorizings and reproductions, will partake of intellectual servility. Such a condition of intellectual subjection is needed for fitting the masses into a society where the many are not expected to have aims or ideas of their own, but to take orders from the few set in authority. It is not adapted to a society which intends to be democratic.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00519", "bookId": 852, "start": 716378, "end": 718484, "sha256": "c836f9a1a1d56baffa2f53012dce7faf8182fcf2dad300062728af4f1d8bd97d", "text": "Summary. True individualism is a product of the relaxation of the grip of the authority of custom and traditions as standards of belief. Aside from sporadic instances, like the height of Greek thought, it is a comparatively modern manifestation. Not but that there have always been individual diversities, but that a society dominated by conservative custom represses them or at least does not utilize them and promote them. For various reasons, however, the new individualism was interpreted philosophically not as meaning development of agencies for revising and transforming previously accepted beliefs, but as an assertion that each individual's mind was complete in isolation from everything else. In the theoretical phase of philosophy, this produced the epistemological problem: the question as to the possibility of any cognitive relationship of the individual to the world. In its practical phase, it generated the problem of the possibility of a purely individual consciousness acting on behalf of general or social interests,--the problem of social direction. While the philosophies which have been elaborated to deal with these questions have not affected education directly, the assumptions underlying them have found expression in the separation frequently made between study and government and between freedom of individuality and control by others. Regarding freedom, the important thing to bear in mind is that it designates a mental attitude rather than external unconstraint of movements, but that this quality of mind cannot develop without a fair leeway of movements in exploration, experimentation, application, etc. A society based on custom will utilize individual variations only up to a limit of conformity with usage; uniformity is the chief ideal within each class. A progressive society counts individual variations as precious since it finds in them the means of its own growth. Hence a democratic society must, in consistency with its ideal, allow for intellectual freedom and the play of diverse gifts and interests in its educational measures.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00520", "bookId": 852, "start": 718494, "end": 718547, "sha256": "3188a040d1236cc8c9f1080f4f5aed399029659aa8cb1f7c75425bbbc7c8e033", "text": "Chapter Twenty-Three: Vocational Aspects of Education", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG852.B00521", "bookId": 852, "start": 718551, "end": 719817, "sha256": "31fd8abc05921b6d113df5b72cb9e49d926ac64da3c7fdb46f68eb378364b572", "text": "1. The Meaning of Vocation. At the present time the conflict of philosophic theories focuses in discussion of the proper place and function of vocational factors in education. The bald statement that significant differences in fundamental philosophical conceptions find their chief issue in connection with this point may arouse incredulity: there seems to be too great a gap between the remote and general terms in which philosophic ideas are formulated and the practical and concrete details of vocational education. But a mental review of the intellectual presuppositions underlying the oppositions in education of labor and leisure, theory and practice, body and mind, mental states and the world, will show that they culminate in the antithesis of vocational and cultural education. Traditionally, liberal culture has been linked to the notions of leisure, purely contemplative knowledge and a spiritual activity not involving the active use of bodily organs. Culture has also tended, latterly, to be associated with a purely private refinement, a cultivation of certain states and attitudes of consciousness, separate from either social direction or service. It has been an escape from the former, and a solace for the necessity of the latter.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00522", "bookId": 852, "start": 719821, "end": 720853, "sha256": "fbdfaa415b1ff25629b2d17c5ee742e7f2ba1b37def4a8d0565ef8633869468d", "text": "So deeply entangled are these philosophic dualisms with the whole subject of vocational education, that it is necessary to define the meaning of vocation with some fullness in order to avoid the impression that an education which centers about it is narrowly practical, if not merely pecuniary. A vocation means nothing but such a direction of life activities as renders them perceptibly significant to a person, because of the consequences they accomplish, and also useful to his associates. The opposite of a career is neither leisure nor culture, but aimlessness, capriciousness, the absence of cumulative achievement in experience, on the personal side, and idle display, parasitic dependence upon the others, on the social side. Occupation is a concrete term for continuity. It includes the development of artistic capacity of any kind, of special scientific ability, of effective citizenship, as well as professional and business occupations, to say nothing of mechanical labor or engagement in gainful pursuits.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00523", "bookId": 852, "start": 720857, "end": 722317, "sha256": "d945d782b5d33042e4117d1b9184f023c76178e4feb48d07b88a008fea4ccabb", "text": "We must avoid not only limitation of conception of vocation to the occupations where immediately tangible commodities are produced, but also the notion that vocations are distributed in an exclusive way, one and only one to each person. Such restricted specialism is impossible; nothing could be more absurd than to try to educate individuals with an eye to only one line of activity. In the first place, each individual has of necessity a variety of callings, in each of which he should be intelligently effective; and in the second place any one occupation loses its meaning and becomes a routine keeping busy at something in the degree in which it is isolated from other interests. (i) No one is just an artist and nothing else, and in so far as one approximates that condition, he is so much the less developed human being; he is a kind of monstrosity. He must, at some period of his life, be a member of a family; he must have friends and companions; he must either support himself or be supported by others, and thus he has a business career. He is a member of some organized political unit, and so on. We naturally name his vocation from that one of the callings which distinguishes him, rather than from those which he has in common with all others. But we should not allow ourselves to be so subject to words as to ignore and virtually deny his other callings when it comes to a consideration of the vocational phases of education.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00524", "bookId": 852, "start": 722321, "end": 723516, "sha256": "7c8dd71d77d68fdf4c28faec252ae6379fa9645ee98d403502c8d78d8f33f671", "text": "(ii) As a man's vocation as artist is but the emphatically specialized phase of his diverse and variegated vocational activities, so his efficiency in it, in the humane sense of efficiency, is determined by its association with other callings. A person must have experience, he must live, if his artistry is to be more than a technical accomplishment. He cannot find the subject matter of his artistic activity within his art; this must be an expression of what he suffers and enjoys in other relationships--a thing which depends in turn upon the alertness and sympathy of his interests. What is true of an artist is true of any other special calling. There is doubtless--in general accord with the principle of habit--a tendency for every distinctive vocation to become too dominant, too exclusive and absorbing in its specialized aspect. This means emphasis upon skill or technical method at the expense of meaning. Hence it is not the business of education to foster this tendency, but rather to safeguard against it, so that the scientific inquirer shall not be merely the scientist, the teacher merely the pedagogue, the clergyman merely one who wears the cloth, and so on.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00525", "bookId": 852, "start": 723520, "end": 723789, "sha256": "c4f98baeb7e91e7b5be6fcaf50863470ad9173b8142b021efd93c88b355db611", "text": "2. The Place of Vocational Aims in Education. Bearing in mind the varied and connected content of the vocation, and the broad background upon which a particular calling is projected, we shall now consider education for the more distinctive activity of an individual.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00526", "bookId": 852, "start": 723793, "end": 725814, "sha256": "ecf8e52e90cb6affa64af82812aba71e043dd81ea111d37b3b61149b269e3fbe", "text": "1. An occupation is the only thing which balances the distinctive capacity of an individual with his social service. To find out what one is fitted to do and to secure an opportunity to do it is the key to happiness. Nothing is more tragic than failure to discover one's true business in life, or to find that one has drifted or been forced by circumstance into an uncongenial calling. A right occupation means simply that the aptitudes of a person are in adequate play, working with the minimum of friction and the maximum of satisfaction. With reference to other members of a community, this adequacy of action signifies, of course, that they are getting the best service the person can render. It is generally believed, for example, that slave labor was ultimately wasteful even from the purely economic point of view--that there was not sufficient stimulus to direct the energies of slaves, and that there was consequent wastage. Moreover, since slaves were confined to certain prescribed callings, much talent must have remained unavailable to the community, and hence there was a dead loss. Slavery only illustrates on an obvious scale what happens in some degree whenever an individual does not find himself in his work. And he cannot completely find himself when vocations are looked upon with contempt, and a conventional ideal of a culture which is essentially the same for all is maintained. Plato (ante, p. 88) laid down the fundamental principle of a philosophy of education when he asserted that it was the business of education to discover what each person is good for, and to train him to mastery of that mode of excellence, because such development would also secure the fulfillment of social needs in the most harmonious way. His error was not in qualitative principle, but in his limited conception of the scope of vocations socially needed; a limitation of vision which reacted to obscure his perception of the infinite variety of capacities found in different individuals.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00527", "bookId": 852, "start": 725818, "end": 726798, "sha256": "22e0719bf8e68a9a244bd3167dd9b4e6360c6c72422175482d79dbda64f4bdaf", "text": "2. An occupation is a continuous activity having a purpose. Education through occupations consequently combines within itself more of the factors conducive to learning than any other method. It calls instincts and habits into play; it is a foe to passive receptivity. It has an end in view; results are to be accomplished. Hence it appeals to thought; it demands that an idea of an end be steadily maintained, so that activity cannot be either routine or capricious. Since the movement of activity must be progressive, leading from one stage to another, observation and ingenuity are required at each stage to overcome obstacles and to discover and readapt means of execution. In short, an occupation, pursued under conditions where the realization of the activity rather than merely the external product is the aim, fulfills the requirements which were laid down earlier in connection with the discussion of aims, interest, and thinking. (See Chapters VIII, X, XII.)", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00528", "bookId": 852, "start": 726802, "end": 727944, "sha256": "efa6c8315f2fdc1cd63b97245d08bbc806070b8abd2691e8001ddb56fa0f0156", "text": "A calling is also of necessity an organizing principle for information and ideas; for knowledge and intellectual growth. It provides an axis which runs through an immense diversity of detail; it causes different experiences, facts, items of information to fall into order with one another. The lawyer, the physician, the laboratory investigator in some branch of chemistry, the parent, the citizen interested in his own locality, has a constant working stimulus to note and relate whatever has to do with his concern. He unconsciously, from the motivation of his occupation, reaches out for all relevant information, and holds to it. The vocation acts as both magnet to attract and as glue to hold. Such organization of knowledge is vital, because it has reference to needs; it is so expressed and readjusted in action that it never becomes stagnant. No classification, no selection and arrangement of facts, which is consciously worked out for purely abstract ends, can ever compare in solidity or effectiveness with that knit under the stress of an occupation; in comparison the former sort is formal, superficial, and cold.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00529", "bookId": 852, "start": 727948, "end": 729736, "sha256": "f8a9fdfb2fdef51a30799331330d9659556000f0a47bc21e9ebc3ef4d090be70", "text": "3. The only adequate training for occupations is training through occupations. The principle stated early in this book (see Chapter VI) that the educative process is its own end, and that the only sufficient preparation for later responsibilities comes by making the most of immediately present life, applies in full force to the vocational phases of education. The dominant vocation of all human beings at all times is living--intellectual and moral growth. In childhood and youth, with their relative freedom from economic stress, this fact is naked and unconcealed. To predetermine some future occupation for which education is to be a strict preparation is to injure the possibilities of present development and thereby to reduce the adequacy of preparation for a future right employment. To repeat the principle we have had occasion to appeal to so often, such training may develop a machine-like skill in routine lines (it is far from being sure to do so, since it may develop distaste, aversion, and carelessness), but it will be at the expense of those qualities of alert observation and coherent and ingenious planning which make an occupation intellectually rewarding. In an autocratically managed society, it is often a conscious object to prevent the development of freedom and responsibility, a few do the planning and ordering, the others follow directions and are deliberately confined to narrow and prescribed channels of endeavor. However much such a scheme may inure to the prestige and profit of a class, it is evident that it limits the development of the subject class; hardens and confines the opportunities for learning through experience of the master class, and in both ways hampers the life of the society as a whole. (See ante, p. 260.)", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00530", "bookId": 852, "start": 729740, "end": 731864, "sha256": "51b1d889dc77fe89dcc3f1f13cc284961b5b292a56370f9bf8066acef73aa087", "text": "The only alternative is that all the earlier preparation for vocations be indirect rather than direct; namely, through engaging in those active occupations which are indicated by the needs and interests of the pupil at the time. Only in this way can there be on the part of the educator and of the one educated a genuine discovery of personal aptitudes so that the proper choice of a specialized pursuit in later life may be indicated. Moreover, the discovery of capacity and aptitude will be a constant process as long as growth continues. It is a conventional and arbitrary view which assumes that discovery of the work to be chosen for adult life is made once for all at some particular date. One has discovered in himself, say, an interest, intellectual and social, in the things which have to do with engineering and has decided to make that his calling. At most, this only blocks out in outline the field in which further growth is to be directed. It is a sort of rough sketch for use in direction of further activities. It is the discovery of a profession in the sense in which Columbus discovered America when he touched its shores. Future explorations of an indefinitely more detailed and extensive sort remain to be made. When educators conceive vocational guidance as something which leads up to a definitive, irretrievable, and complete choice, both education and the chosen vocation are likely to be rigid, hampering further growth. In so far, the calling chosen will be such as to leave the person concerned in a permanently subordinate position, executing the intelligence of others who have a calling which permits more flexible play and readjustment. And while ordinary usages of language may not justify terming a flexible attitude of readjustment a choice of a new and further calling, it is such in effect. If even adults have to be on the lookout to see that their calling does not shut down on them and fossilize them, educators must certainly be careful that the vocational preparation of youth is such as to engage them in a continuous reorganization of aims and methods.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00531", "bookId": 852, "start": 731868, "end": 732606, "sha256": "5f275e798920d1eb0d12bf07a7c455550e9b844ca6e487509bcda66154e578ab", "text": "3. Present Opportunities and Dangers. In the past, education has been much more vocational in fact than in name. (i) The education of the masses was distinctly utilitarian. It was called apprenticeship rather than education, or else just learning from experience. The schools devoted themselves to the three R's in the degree in which ability to go through the forms of reading, writing, and figuring were common elements in all kinds of labor. Taking part in some special line of work, under the direction of others, was the out-of-school phase of this education. The two supplemented each other; the school work in its narrow and formal character was as much a part of apprenticeship to a calling as that explicitly so termed.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00532", "bookId": 852, "start": 732610, "end": 734118, "sha256": "2bbff4f91b210f2c8530f0e04c060ad27927c1c2c137699d59607c9f4b80fd4d", "text": "(ii) To a considerable extent, the education of the dominant classes was essentially vocational--it only happened that their pursuits of ruling and of enjoying were not called professions. For only those things were named vocations or employments which involved manual labor, laboring for a reward in keep, or its commuted money equivalent, or the rendering of personal services to specific persons. For a long time, for example, the profession of the surgeon and physician ranked almost with that of the valet or barber--partly because it had so much to do with the body, and partly because it involved rendering direct service for pay to some definite person. But if we go behind words, the business of directing social concerns, whether politically or economically, whether in war or peace, is as much a calling as anything else; and where education has not been completely under the thumb of tradition, higher schools in the past have been upon the whole calculated to give preparation for this business. Moreover, display, the adornment of person, the kind of social companionship and entertainment which give prestige, and the spending of money, have been made into definite callings. Unconsciously to themselves the higher institutions of learning have been made to contribute to preparation for these employments. Even at present, what is called higher education is for a certain class (much smaller than it once was) mainly preparation for engaging effectively in these pursuits.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00533", "bookId": 852, "start": 734122, "end": 735349, "sha256": "25a8b0b1c33d39562f9dcc191fcb44fc5484cca7a860c70c520f12a3ab958c1f", "text": "In other respects, it is largely, especially in the most advanced work, training for the calling of teaching and special research. By a peculiar superstition, education which has to do chiefly with preparation for the pursuit of conspicuous idleness, for teaching, and for literary callings, and for leadership, has been regarded as non-vocational and even as peculiarly cultural. The literary training which indirectly fits for authorship, whether of books, newspaper editorials, or magazine articles, is especially subject to this superstition: many a teacher and author writes and argues in behalf of a cultural and humane education against the encroachments of a specialized practical education, without recognizing that his own education, which he calls liberal, has been mainly training for his own particular calling. He has simply got into the habit of regarding his own business as essentially cultural and of overlooking the cultural possibilities of other employments. At the bottom of these distinctions is undoubtedly the tradition which recognizes as employment only those pursuits where one is responsible for his work to a specific employer, rather than to the ultimate employer, the community.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00534", "bookId": 852, "start": 735353, "end": 736196, "sha256": "2ab946aa6a2c580753346e8c62a21ce117cc48c993fd850f19bc4832a1621a9e", "text": "There are, however, obvious causes for the present conscious emphasis upon vocational education--for the disposition to make explicit and deliberate vocational implications previously tacit. (i) In the first place, there is an increased esteem, in democratic communities, of whatever has to do with manual labor, commercial occupations, and the rendering of tangible services to society. In theory, men and women are now expected to do something in return for their support--intellectual and economic--by society. Labor is extolled; service is a much-lauded moral ideal. While there is still much admiration and envy of those who can pursue lives of idle conspicuous display, better moral sentiment condemns such lives. Social responsibility for the use of time and personal capacity is more generally recognized than it used to be.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00535", "bookId": 852, "start": 736200, "end": 737196, "sha256": "e24099b3a1c57440fd95fcb789e104b121e4f71d4a4207d623ca3dcfb2908c1b", "text": "(ii) In the second place, those vocations which are specifically industrial have gained tremendously in importance in the last century and a half. Manufacturing and commerce are no longer domestic and local, and consequently more or less incidental, but are world-wide. They engage the best energies of an increasingly large number of persons. The manufacturer, banker, and captain of industry have practically displaced a hereditary landed gentry as the immediate directors of social affairs. The problem of social readjustment is openly industrial, having to do with the relations of capital and labor. The great increase in the social importance of conspicuous industrial processes has inevitably brought to the front questions having to do with the relationship of schooling to industrial life. No such vast social readjustment could occur without offering a challenge to an education inherited from different social conditions, and without putting up to education new problems.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00536", "bookId": 852, "start": 737200, "end": 738856, "sha256": "21733eeeea5fa74e1255deda2bea9c982b7877a37a01bec765d6b6e01faf7807", "text": "(iii) In the third place, there is the fact already repeatedly mentioned: Industry has ceased to be essentially an empirical, rule-of-thumb procedure, handed down by custom. Its technique is now technological: that is to say, based upon machinery resulting from discoveries in mathematics, physics, chemistry, bacteriology, etc. The economic revolution has stimulated science by setting problems for solution, by producing greater intellectual respect for mechanical appliances. And industry received back payment from science with compound interest. As a consequence, industrial occupations have infinitely greater intellectual content and infinitely larger cultural possibilities than they used to possess. The demand for such education as will acquaint workers with the scientific and social bases and bearings of their pursuits becomes imperative, since those who are without it inevitably sink to the role of appendages to the machines they operate. Under the old regime all workers in a craft were approximately equals in their knowledge and outlook. Personal knowledge and ingenuity were developed within at least a narrow range, because work was done with tools under the direct command of the worker. Now the operator has to adjust himself to his machine, instead of his tool to his own purposes. While the intellectual possibilities of industry have multiplied, industrial conditions tend to make industry, for great masses, less of an educative resource than it was in the days of hand production for local markets. The burden of realizing the intellectual possibilities inhering in work is thus thrown back on the school.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00537", "bookId": 852, "start": 738860, "end": 739993, "sha256": "e9bb6ece34a4fedee9e7b1d434a1b2e4a9c6a1be10f8d29689b5b5a8a3ee2fd9", "text": "(iv) In the fourth place, the pursuit of knowledge has become, in science, more experimental, less dependent upon literary tradition, and less associated with dialectical methods of reasoning, and with symbols. As a result, the subject matter of industrial occupation presents not only more of the content of science than it used to, but greater opportunity for familiarity with the method by which knowledge is made. The ordinary worker in the factory is of course under too immediate economic pressure to have a chance to produce a knowledge like that of the worker in the laboratory. But in schools, association with machines and industrial processes may be had under conditions where the chief conscious concern of the students is insight. The separation of shop and laboratory, where these conditions are fulfilled, is largely conventional, the laboratory having the advantage of permitting the following up of any intellectual interest a problem may suggest; the shop the advantage of emphasizing the social bearings of the scientific principle, as well as, with many pupils, of stimulating a livelier interest.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00538", "bookId": 852, "start": 739997, "end": 741489, "sha256": "e6835887a5d604de257dc7e4b7d38a2fff37002ce0249eed293b03b7efb5b480", "text": "(v) Finally, the advances which have been made in the psychology of learning in general and of childhood in particular fall into line with the increased importance of industry in life. For modern psychology emphasizes the radical importance of primitive unlearned instincts of exploring, experimentation, and \"trying on.\" It reveals that learning is not the work of something ready-made called mind, but that mind itself is an organization of original capacities into activities having significance. As we have already seen (ante, p. 204), in older pupils work is to educative development of raw native activities what play is for younger pupils. Moreover, the passage from play to work should be gradual, not involving a radical change of attitude but carrying into work the elements of play, plus continuous reorganization in behalf of greater control. The reader will remark that these five points practically resume the main contentions of the previous part of the work. Both practically and philosophically, the key to the present educational situation lies in a gradual reconstruction of school materials and methods so as to utilize various forms of occupation typifying social callings, and to bring out their intellectual and moral content. This reconstruction must relegate purely literary methods--including textbooks--and dialectical methods to the position of necessary auxiliary tools in the intelligent development of consecutive and cumulative activities.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00539", "bookId": 852, "start": 741493, "end": 743639, "sha256": "dc52b57ec5230c49114a7787ec4a6580f6b071acbdce547e937acf3ce073bb1d", "text": "But our discussion has emphasized the fact that this educational reorganization cannot be accomplished by merely trying to give a technical preparation for industries and professions as they now operate, much less by merely reproducing existing industrial conditions in the school. The problem is not that of making the schools an adjunct to manufacture and commerce, but of utilizing the factors of industry to make school life more active, more full of immediate meaning, more connected with out-of-school experience. The problem is not easy of solution. There is a standing danger that education will perpetuate the older traditions for a select few, and effect its adjustment to the newer economic conditions more or less on the basis of acquiescence in the untransformed, unrationalized, and unsocialized phases of our defective industrial regime. Put in concrete terms, there is danger that vocational education will be interpreted in theory and practice as trade education: as a means of securing technical efficiency in specialized future pursuits. Education would then become an instrument of perpetuating unchanged the existing industrial order of society, instead of operating as a means of its transformation. The desired transformation is not difficult to define in a formal way. It signifies a society in which every person shall be occupied in something which makes the lives of others better worth living, and which accordingly makes the ties which bind persons together more perceptible--which breaks down the barriers of distance between them. It denotes a state of affairs in which the interest of each in his work is uncoerced and intelligent: based upon its congeniality to his own aptitudes. It goes without saying that we are far from such a social state; in a literal and quantitative sense, we may never arrive at it. But in principle, the quality of social changes already accomplished lies in this direction. There are more ample resources for its achievement now than ever there have been before. No insuperable obstacles, given the intelligent will for its realization, stand in the way.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00540", "bookId": 852, "start": 743643, "end": 745319, "sha256": "8192db229dbd1c665b207eec7d5501b099d56971559e195b4f083a3091f46b8c", "text": "Success or failure in its realization depends more upon the adoption of educational methods calculated to effect the change than upon anything else. For the change is essentially a change in the quality of mental disposition--an educative change. This does not mean that we can change character and mind by direct instruction and exhortation, apart from a change in industrial and political conditions. Such a conception contradicts our basic idea that character and mind are attitudes of participative response in social affairs. But it does mean that we may produce in schools a projection in type of the society we should like to realize, and by forming minds in accord with it gradually modify the larger and more recalcitrant features of adult society. Sentimentally, it may seem harsh to say that the greatest evil of the present regime is not found in poverty and in the suffering which it entails, but in the fact that so many persons have callings which make no appeal to them, which are pursued simply for the money reward that accrues. For such callings constantly provoke one to aversion, ill will, and a desire to slight and evade. Neither men's hearts nor their minds are in their work. On the other hand, those who are not only much better off in worldly goods, but who are in excessive, if not monopolistic, control of the activities of the many are shut off from equality and generality of social intercourse. They are stimulated to pursuits of indulgence and display; they try to make up for the distance which separates them from others by the impression of force and superior possession and enjoyment which they can make upon others.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00541", "bookId": 852, "start": 745323, "end": 747250, "sha256": "99b53afc12d5f0d8c2eca79e5ac0e6ee18f1f7b0cbc2af7f7fe52e90c1ab49e8", "text": "It would be quite possible for a narrowly conceived scheme of vocational education to perpetuate this division in a hardened form. Taking its stand upon a dogma of social predestination, it would assume that some are to continue to be wage earners under economic conditions like the present, and would aim simply to give them what is termed a trade education--that is, greater technical efficiency. Technical proficiency is often sadly lacking, and is surely desirable on all accounts--not merely for the sake of the production of better goods at less cost, but for the greater happiness found in work. For no one cares for what one cannot half do. But there is a great difference between a proficiency limited to immediate work, and a competency extended to insight into its social bearings; between efficiency in carrying out the plans of others and in one forming one's own. At present, intellectual and emotional limitation characterizes both the employing and the employed class. While the latter often have no concern with their occupation beyond the money return it brings, the former's outlook may be confined to profit and power. The latter interest generally involves much greater intellectual initiation and larger survey of conditions. For it involves the direction and combination of a large number of diverse factors, while the interest in wages is restricted to certain direct muscular movements. But none the less there is a limitation of intelligence to technical and non-humane, non-liberal channels, so far as the work does not take in its social bearings. And when the animating motive is desire for private profit or personal power, this limitation is inevitable. In fact, the advantage in immediate social sympathy and humane disposition often lies with the economically unfortunate, who have not experienced the hardening effects of a one-sided control of the affairs of others.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00542", "bookId": 852, "start": 747254, "end": 750063, "sha256": "717e3f114bd0bd9b61b156857ce9f0c52d823f1d8f87c2ad8c12e3a0d3875f6f", "text": "Any scheme for vocational education which takes its point of departure from the industrial regime that now exists, is likely to assume and to perpetuate its divisions and weaknesses, and thus to become an instrument in accomplishing the feudal dogma of social predestination. Those who are in a position to make their wishes good, will demand a liberal, a cultural occupation, and one which fits for directive power the youth in whom they are directly interested. To split the system, and give to others, less fortunately situated, an education conceived mainly as specific trade preparation, is to treat the schools as an agency for transferring the older division of labor and leisure, culture and service, mind and body, directed and directive class, into a society nominally democratic. Such a vocational education inevitably discounts the scientific and historic human connections of the materials and processes dealt with. To include such things in narrow trade education would be to waste time; concern for them would not be \"practical.\" They are reserved for those who have leisure at command--the leisure due to superior economic resources. Such things might even be dangerous to the interests of the controlling class, arousing discontent or ambitions \"beyond the station\" of those working under the direction of others. But an education which acknowledges the full intellectual and social meaning of a vocation would include instruction in the historic background of present conditions; training in science to give intelligence and initiative in dealing with material and agencies of production; and study of economics, civics, and politics, to bring the future worker into touch with the problems of the day and the various methods proposed for its improvement. Above all, it would train power of readaptation to changing conditions so that future workers would not become blindly subject to a fate imposed upon them. This ideal has to contend not only with the inertia of existing educational traditions, but also with the opposition of those who are entrenched in command of the industrial machinery, and who realize that such an educational system if made general would threaten their ability to use others for their own ends. But this very fact is the presage of a more equitable and enlightened social order, for it gives evidence of the dependence of social reorganization upon educational reconstruction. It is accordingly an encouragement to those believing in a better order to undertake the promotion of a vocational education which does not subject youth to the demands and standards of the present system, but which utilizes its scientific and social factors to develop a courageous intelligence, and to make intelligence practical and executive.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00543", "bookId": 852, "start": 750067, "end": 752102, "sha256": "99162b36d0f5ce5270ce491d1c7a6c8c0a89311d25a83efe578241d67dec8b7e", "text": "Summary. A vocation signifies any form of continuous activity which renders service to others and engages personal powers in behalf of the accomplishment of results. The question of the relation of vocation to education brings to a focus the various problems previously discussed regarding the connection of thought with bodily activity; of individual conscious development with associated life; of theoretical culture with practical behavior having definite results; of making a livelihood with the worthy enjoyment of leisure. In general, the opposition to recognition of the vocational phases of life in education (except for the utilitarian three R's in elementary schooling) accompanies the conservation of aristocratic ideals of the past. But, at the present juncture, there is a movement in behalf of something called vocational training which, if carried into effect, would harden these ideas into a form adapted to the existing industrial regime. This movement would continue the traditional liberal or cultural education for the few economically able to enjoy it, and would give to the masses a narrow technical trade education for specialized callings, carried on under the control of others. This scheme denotes, of course, simply a perpetuation of the older social division, with its counterpart intellectual and moral dualisms. But it means its continuation under conditions where it has much less justification for existence. For industrial life is now so dependent upon science and so intimately affects all forms of social intercourse, that there is an opportunity to utilize it for development of mind and character. Moreover, a right educational use of it would react upon intelligence and interest so as to modify, in connection with legislation and administration, the socially obnoxious features of the present industrial and commercial order. It would turn the increasing fund of social sympathy to constructive account, instead of leaving it a somewhat blind philanthropic sentiment.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00544", "bookId": 852, "start": 752106, "end": 753283, "sha256": "fef13f7d54505f7c5c6d40f38e245cf10ce04bd2f8216f71bd50b2849bed2240", "text": "It would give those who engage in industrial callings desire and ability to share in social control, and ability to become masters of their industrial fate. It would enable them to saturate with meaning the technical and mechanical features which are so marked a feature of our machine system of production and distribution. So much for those who now have the poorer economic opportunities. With the representatives of the more privileged portion of the community, it would increase sympathy for labor, create a disposition of mind which can discover the culturing elements in useful activity, and increase a sense of social responsibility. The crucial position of the question of vocational education at present is due, in other words, to the fact that it concentrates in a specific issue two fundamental questions:--Whether intelligence is best exercised apart from or within activity which puts nature to human use, and whether individual culture is best secured under egoistic or social conditions. No discussion of details is undertaken in this chapter, because this conclusion but summarizes the discussion of the previous chapters, XV to XXII, inclusive.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00545", "bookId": 852, "start": 753293, "end": 753337, "sha256": "5fe20eaec675388184b08cc4aab15bf88b76b14ee21d294b943c20cc8cfd5b4f", "text": "Chapter Twenty-four: Philosophy of Education", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG852.B00546", "bookId": 852, "start": 753341, "end": 753995, "sha256": "6438d6659249812e1140303fe8be3df13ab35700818c05a42b60604caed61733", "text": "1. A Critical Review. Although we are dealing with the philosophy of education, DO definition of philosophy has yet been given; nor has there been an explicit consideration of the nature of a philosophy of education. This topic is now introduced by a summary account of the logical order implied in the previous discussions, for the purpose of bringing out the philosophic issues involved. Afterwards we shall undertake a brief discussion, in more specifically philosophical terms, of the theories of knowledge and of morals implied in different educational ideals as they operate in practice. The prior chapters fall logically into three parts.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00547", "bookId": 852, "start": 753999, "end": 754589, "sha256": "deea6f7ddcb2f35b673db51c10cf575e10933f29662755ce9111a727638dbe5e", "text": "I. The first chapters deal with education as a social need and function. Their purpose is to outline the general features of education as the process by which social groups maintain their continuous existence. Education was shown to be a process of renewal of the meanings of experience through a process of transmission, partly incidental to the ordinary companionship or intercourse of adults and youth, partly deliberately instituted to effect social continuity. This process was seen to involve control and growth of both the immature individual and the group in which he lives.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00548", "bookId": 852, "start": 754593, "end": 755528, "sha256": "2b7d7eee73b23a51071d841230cd2b5a945eebbe5a4fe07dfc0b9a912549ec6e", "text": "This consideration was formal in that it took no specific account of the quality of the social group concerned--the kind of society aiming at its own perpetuation through education. The general discussion was then specified by application to social groups which are intentionally progressive, and which aim at a greater variety of mutually shared interests in distinction from those which aim simply at the preservation of established customs. Such societies were found to be democratic in quality, because of the greater freedom allowed the constituent members, and the conscious need of securing in individuals a consciously socialized interest, instead of trusting mainly to the force of customs operating under the control of a superior class. The sort of education appropriate to the development of a democratic community was then explicitly taken as the criterion of the further, more detailed analysis of education.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00549", "bookId": 852, "start": 755532, "end": 756281, "sha256": "91f579d99ee989bf136457f5dfa1a9ee896873b89e107cfada313aa56ef9846c", "text": "II. This analysis, based upon the democratic criterion, was seen to imply the ideal of a continuous reconstruction or reorganizing of experience, of such a nature as to increase its recognized meaning or social content, and as to increase the capacity of individuals to act as directive guardians of this reorganization. (See Chapters VI-VII.) This distinction was then used to outline the respective characters of subject matter and method. It also defined their unity, since method in study and learning upon this basis is just the consciously directed movement of reorganization of the subject matter of experience. From this point of view the main principles of method and subject matter of learning were developed (Chapters XIII-XIV.)", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00550", "bookId": 852, "start": 756285, "end": 759140, "sha256": "8874e1b1d25738edfa686b3dfdfc416a46e28a71369ffba8808ad4fbc9449af5", "text": "III. Save for incidental criticisms designed to illustrate principles by force of contrast, this phase of the discussion took for granted the democratic criterion and its application in present social life. In the subsequent chapters (XVIII-XXII) we considered the present limitation of its actual realization. They were found to spring from the notion that experience consists of a variety of segregated domains, or interests, each having its own independent value, material, and method, each checking every other, and, when each is kept properly bounded by the others, forming a kind of \"balance of powers\" in education. We then proceeded to an analysis of the various assumptions underlying this segregation. On the practical side, they were found to have their cause in the divisions of society into more or less rigidly marked-off classes and groups--in other words, in obstruction to full and flexible social interaction and intercourse. These social ruptures of continuity were seen to have their intellectual formulation in various dualisms or antitheses--such as that of labor and leisure, practical and intellectual activity, man and nature, individuality and association, culture and vocation. In this discussion, we found that these different issues have their counterparts in formulations which have been made in classic philosophic systems; and that they involve the chief problems of philosophy--such as mind (or spirit) and matter, body and mind, the mind and the world, the individual and his relationships to others, etc. Underlying these various separations we found the fundamental assumption to be an isolation of mind from activity involving physical conditions, bodily organs, material appliances, and natural objects. Consequently, there was indicated a philosophy which recognizes the origin, place, and function of mind in an activity which controls the environment. Thus we have completed the circuit and returned to the conceptions of the first portion of this book: such as the biological continuity of human impulses and instincts with natural energies; the dependence of the growth of mind upon participation in conjoint activities having a common purpose; the influence of the physical environment through the uses made of it in the social medium; the necessity of utilization of individual variations in desire and thinking for a progressively developing society; the essential unity of method and subject matter; the intrinsic continuity of ends and means; the recognition of mind as thinking which perceives and tests the meanings of behavior. These conceptions are consistent with the philosophy which sees intelligence to be the purposive reorganization, through action, of the material of experience; and they are inconsistent with each of the dualistic philosophies mentioned.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00551", "bookId": 852, "start": 759144, "end": 760034, "sha256": "1712a8b61ab6badcb6ff06a188a7e3ec145f0b9585210ef763b10dac2cb6e756", "text": "2. The Nature of Philosophy. Our further task is to extract and make explicit the idea of philosophy implicit in these considerations. We have already virtually described, though not defined, philosophy in terms of the problems with which it deals; and we have pointed out that these problems originate in the conflicts and difficulties of social life. The problems are such things as the relations of mind and matter; body and soul; humanity and physical nature; the individual and the social; theory--or knowing, and practice--or doing. The philosophical systems which formulate these problems record the main lineaments and difficulties of contemporary social practice. They bring to explicit consciousness what men have come to think, in virtue of the quality of their current experience, about nature, themselves, and the reality they conceive to include or to govern both.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00552", "bookId": 852, "start": 760038, "end": 761368, "sha256": "268d71a6a4b20017712dba087157802e37174aa277e58ece59839ddff251e53e", "text": "As we might expect, then, philosophy has generally been defined in ways which imply a certain totality, generality, and ultimateness of both subject matter and method. With respect to subject matter, philosophy is an attempt to _comprehend_--that is, to gather together the varied details of the world and of life into a single inclusive whole, which shall either be a unity, or, as in the dualistic systems, shall reduce the plural details to a small number of ultimate principles. On the side of the attitude of the philosopher and of those who accept his conclusions, there is the endeavor to attain as unified, consistent, and complete an outlook upon experience as is possible. This aspect is expressed in the word 'philosophy'--love of wisdom. Whenever philosophy has been taken seriously, it has always been assumed that it signified achieving a wisdom which would influence the conduct of life. Witness the fact that almost all ancient schools of philosophy were also organized ways of living, those who accepted their tenets being committed to certain distinctive modes of conduct; witness the intimate connection of philosophy with the theology of the Roman church in the middle ages, its frequent association with religious interests, and, at national crises, its association with political struggles.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00553", "bookId": 852, "start": 761372, "end": 762007, "sha256": "4d2474729be2ac9cf059cb9a5c534010b356d4c622e809e08590ba3b914411bd", "text": "This direct and intimate connection of philosophy with an outlook upon life obviously differentiates philosophy from science. Particular facts and laws of science evidently influence conduct. They suggest things to do and not do, and provide means of execution. When science denotes not simply a report of the particular facts discovered about the world but a _general attitude_ toward it--as distinct from special things to do --it merges into philosophy. For an underlying disposition represents an attitude not to this and that thing nor even to the aggregate of known things, but to the considerations which govern conduct.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00554", "bookId": 852, "start": 762011, "end": 763017, "sha256": "1c3b54f0f31ac0c89d95dcd86eb42d1b7b4c287b66db25de8c855c2cc5fbcfba", "text": "Hence philosophy cannot be defined simply from the side of subject matter. For this reason, the definition of such conceptions as generality, totality, and ultimateness is most readily reached from the side of the disposition toward the world which they connote. In any literal and quantitative sense, these terms do not apply to the subject matter of knowledge, for completeness and finality are out of the question. The very nature of experience as an ongoing, changing process forbids. In a less rigid sense, they apply to science rather than to philosophy. For obviously it is to mathematics, physics, chemistry, biology, anthropology, history, etc. that we must go, not to philosophy, to find out the facts of the world. It is for the sciences to say what generalizations are tenable about the world and what they specifically are. But when we ask what sort of permanent disposition of action toward the world the scientific disclosures exact of us we are raising a philosophic question.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00555", "bookId": 852, "start": 763023, "end": 765979, "sha256": "aa185e48e9382c599aacb7ff77292b90b8c5cbb1b7d6424f6574f9927482c100", "text": "From this point of view, \"totality\" does not mean the hopeless task of a quantitative summation. It means rather consistency of mode of response in reference to the plurality of events which occur. Consistency does not mean literal identity; for since the same thing does not happen twice, an exact repetition of a reaction involves some maladjustment. Totality means continuity--the carrying on of a former habit of action with the readaptation necessary to keep it alive and growing. Instead of signifying a ready-made complete scheme of action, it means keeping the balance in a multitude of diverse actions, so that each borrows and gives significance to every other. Any person who is open-minded and sensitive to new perceptions, and who has concentration and responsibility in connecting them has, in so far, a philosophic disposition. One of the popular senses of philosophy is calm and endurance in the face of difficulty and loss; it is even supposed to be a power to bear pain without complaint. This meaning is a tribute to the influence of the Stoic philosophy rather than an attribute of philosophy in general. But in so far as it suggests that the wholeness characteristic of philosophy is a power to learn, or to extract meaning, from even the unpleasant vicissitudes of experience and to embody what is learned in an ability to go on learning, it is justified in any scheme. An analogous interpretation applies to the generality and ultimateness of philosophy. Taken literally, they are absurd pretensions; they indicate insanity. Finality does not mean, however, that experience is ended and exhausted, but means the disposition to penetrate to deeper levels of meaning--to go below the surface and find out the connections of any event or object, and to keep at it. In like manner the philosophic attitude is general in the sense that it is averse to taking anything as isolated; it tries to place an act in its context--which constitutes its significance. It is of assistance to connect philosophy with thinking in its distinction from knowledge. Knowledge, grounded knowledge, is science; it represents objects which have been settled, ordered, disposed of rationally. Thinking, on the other hand, is prospective in reference. It is occasioned by an unsettlement and it aims at overcoming a disturbance. Philosophy is thinking what the known demands of us--what responsive attitude it exacts. It is an idea of what is possible, not a record of accomplished fact. Hence it is hypothetical, like all thinking. It presents an assignment of something to be done--something to be tried. Its value lies not in furnishing solutions (which can be achieved only in action) but in defining difficulties and suggesting methods for dealing with them. Philosophy might almost be described as thinking which has become conscious of itself--which has generalized its place, function, and value in experience.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00556", "bookId": 852, "start": 765983, "end": 769745, "sha256": "997514c75d3ac298bcc44f0f4ecd75cbdbb6b0ab9c7822c0b309db2f713b6da7", "text": "More specifically, the demand for a \"total\" attitude arises because there is the need of integration in action of the conflicting various interests in life. Where interests are so superficial that they glide readily into one another, or where they are not sufficiently organized to come into conflict with one another, the need for philosophy is not perceptible. But when the scientific interest conflicts with, say, the religious, or the economic with the scientific or aesthetic, or when the conservative concern for order is at odds with the progressive interest in freedom, or when institutionalism clashes with individuality, there is a stimulus to discover some more comprehensive point of view from which the divergencies may be brought together, and consistency or continuity of experience recovered. Often these clashes may be settled by an individual for himself; the area of the struggle of aims is limited and a person works out his own rough accommodations. Such homespun philosophies are genuine and often adequate. But they do not result in systems of philosophy. These arise when the discrepant claims of different ideals of conduct affect the community as a whole, and the need for readjustment is general. These traits explain some things which are often brought as objections against philosophies, such as the part played in them by individual speculation, and their controversial diversity, as well as the fact that philosophy seems to be repeatedly occupied with much the same questions differently stated. Without doubt, all these things characterize historic philosophies more or less. But they are not objections to philosophy so much as they are to human nature, and even to the world in which human nature is set. If there are genuine uncertainties in life, philosophies must reflect that uncertainty. If there are different diagnoses of the cause of a difficulty, and different proposals for dealing with it; if, that is, the conflict of interests is more or less embodied in different sets of persons, there must be divergent competing philosophies. With respect to what has happened, sufficient evidence is all that is needed to bring agreement and certainty. The thing itself is sure. But with reference to what it is wise to do in a complicated situation, discussion is inevitable precisely because the thing itself is still indeterminate. One would not expect a ruling class living at ease to have the same philosophy of life as those who were having a hard struggle for existence. If the possessing and the dispossessed had the same fundamental disposition toward the world, it would argue either insincerity or lack of seriousness. A community devoted to industrial pursuits, active in business and commerce, is not likely to see the needs and possibilities of life in the same way as a country with high aesthetic culture and little enterprise in turning the energies of nature to mechanical account. A social group with a fairly continuous history will respond mentally to a crisis in a very different way from one which has felt the shock of abrupt breaks. Even if the same data were present, they would be evaluated differently. But the different sorts of experience attending different types of life prevent just the same data from presenting themselves, as well as lead to a different scheme of values. As for the similarity of problems, this is often more a matter of appearance than of fact, due to old discussions being translated into the terms of contemporary perplexities. But in certain fundamental respects the same predicaments of life recur from time to time with only such changes as are due to change of social context, including the growth of the sciences.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00557", "bookId": 852, "start": 769749, "end": 773796, "sha256": "249216e8458395a20e90ce24505dd70ae820972081f8650ed4a60aaaffb4c74c", "text": "The fact that philosophic problems arise because of widespread and widely felt difficulties in social practice is disguised because philosophers become a specialized class which uses a technical language, unlike the vocabulary in which the direct difficulties are stated. But where a system becomes influential, its connection with a conflict of interests calling for some program of social adjustment may always be discovered. At this point, the intimate connection between philosophy and education appears. In fact, education offers a vantage ground from which to penetrate to the human, as distinct from the technical, significance of philosophic discussions. The student of philosophy \"in itself\" is always in danger of taking it as so much nimble or severe intellectual exercise--as something said by philosophers and concerning them alone. But when philosophic issues are approached from the side of the kind of mental disposition to which they correspond, or the differences in educational practice they make when acted upon, the life-situations which they formulate can never be far from view. If a theory makes no difference in educational endeavor, it must be artificial. The educational point of view enables one to envisage the philosophic problems where they arise and thrive, where they are at home, and where acceptance or rejection makes a difference in practice. If we are willing to conceive education as the process of forming fundamental dispositions, intellectual and emotional, toward nature and fellow men, philosophy may even be defined as the general theory of education. Unless a philosophy is to remain symbolic--or verbal--or a sentimental indulgence for a few, or else mere arbitrary dogma, its auditing of past experience and its program of values must take effect in conduct. Public agitation, propaganda, legislative and administrative action are effective in producing the change of disposition which a philosophy indicates as desirable, but only in the degree in which they are educative--that is to say, in the degree in which they modify mental and moral attitudes. And at the best, such methods are compromised by the fact they are used with those whose habits are already largely set, while education of youth has a fairer and freer field of operation. On the other side, the business of schooling tends to become a routine empirical affair unless its aims and methods are animated by such a broad and sympathetic survey of its place in contemporary life as it is the business of philosophy to provide. Positive science always implies practically the ends which the community is concerned to achieve. Isolated from such ends, it is matter of indifference whether its disclosures are used to cure disease or to spread it; to increase the means of sustenance of life or to manufacture war material to wipe life out. If society is interested in one of these things rather than another, science shows the way of attainment. Philosophy thus has a double task: that of criticizing existing aims with respect to the existing state of science, pointing out values which have become obsolete with the command of new resources, showing what values are merely sentimental because there are no means for their realization; and also that of interpreting the results of specialized science in their bearing on future social endeavor. It is impossible that it should have any success in these tasks without educational equivalents as to what to do and what not to do. For philosophic theory has no Aladdin's lamp to summon into immediate existence the values which it intellectually constructs. In the mechanical arts, the sciences become methods of managing things so as to utilize their energies for recognized aims. By the educative arts philosophy may generate methods of utilizing the energies of human beings in accord with serious and thoughtful conceptions of life. Education is the laboratory in which philosophic distinctions become concrete and are tested.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00558", "bookId": 852, "start": 773800, "end": 774396, "sha256": "cbdf359aea52990b8ea9aa47ddf25ba59c6962d9de6c74506bad3c185c1fb113", "text": "It is suggestive that European philosophy originated (among the Athenians) under the direct pressure of educational questions. The earlier history of philosophy, developed by the Greeks in Asia Minor and Italy, so far as its range of topics is concerned, is mainly a chapter in the history of science rather than of philosophy as that word is understood to-day. It had nature for its subject, and speculated as to how things are made and changed. Later the traveling teachers, known as the Sophists, began to apply the results and the methods of the natural philosophers to human conduct.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00559", "bookId": 852, "start": 774400, "end": 776369, "sha256": "96c154f938e7e5eeafe97d22ae59652492be65ce380199838fa237a5e2124c22", "text": "When the Sophists, the first body of professional educators in Europe, instructed the youth in virtue, the political arts, and the management of city and household, philosophy began to deal with the relation of the individual to the universal, to some comprehensive class, or to some group; the relation of man and nature, of tradition and reflection, of knowledge and action. Can virtue, approved excellence in any line, be learned, they asked? What is learning? It has to do with knowledge. What, then, is knowledge? How is it achieved? Through the senses, or by apprenticeship in some form of doing, or by reason that has undergone a preliminary logical discipline? Since learning is coming to know, it involves a passage from ignorance to wisdom, from privation to fullness from defect to perfection, from non-being to being, in the Greek way of putting it. How is such a transition possible? Is change, becoming, development really possible and if so, how? And supposing such questions answered, what is the relation of instruction, of knowledge, to virtue? This last question led to opening the problem of the relation of reason to action, of theory to practice, since virtue clearly dwelt in action. Was not knowing, the activity of reason, the noblest attribute of man? And consequently was not purely intellectual activity itself the highest of all excellences, compared with which the virtues of neighborliness and the citizen's life were secondary? Or, on the other hand, was the vaunted intellectual knowledge more than empty and vain pretense, demoralizing to character and destructive of the social ties that bound men together in their community life? Was not the only true, because the only moral, life gained through obedient habituation to the customary practices of the community? And was not the new education an enemy to good citizenship, because it set up a rival standard to the established traditions of the community?", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00560", "bookId": 852, "start": 776373, "end": 777263, "sha256": "dc24b7fb12af3a56163abdcd2a2bd34c91d5a75657670b9e77b7b4d60881d490", "text": "In the course of two or three generations such questions were cut loose from their original practical bearing upon education and were discussed on their own account; that is, as matters of philosophy as an independent branch of inquiry. But the fact that the stream of European philosophical thought arose as a theory of educational procedure remains an eloquent witness to the intimate connection of philosophy and education. \"Philosophy of education\" is not an external application of ready-made ideas to a system of practice having a radically different origin and purpose: it is only an explicit formulation of the problems of the formation of right mental and moral habitudes in respect to the difficulties of contemporary social life. The most penetrating definition of philosophy which can be given is, then, that it is the theory of education in its most general phases.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00561", "bookId": 852, "start": 777267, "end": 778412, "sha256": "e834189b8d2bbae09bb7f8f2dd66e54981a07aa43f885f2d40d8519d73583379", "text": "The reconstruction of philosophy, of education, and of social ideals and methods thus go hand in hand. If there is especial need of educational reconstruction at the present time, if this need makes urgent a reconsideration of the basic ideas of traditional philosophic systems, it is because of the thoroughgoing change in social life accompanying the advance of science, the industrial revolution, and the development of democracy. Such practical changes cannot take place without demanding an educational reformation to meet them, and without leading men to ask what ideas and ideals are implicit in these social changes, and what revisions they require of the ideas and ideals which are inherited from older and unlike cultures. Incidentally throughout the whole book, explicitly in the last few chapters, we have been dealing with just these questions as they affect the relationship of mind and body, theory and practice, man and nature, the individual and social, etc. In our concluding chapters we shall sum up the prior discussions with respect first to the philosophy of knowledge, and then to the philosophy of morals.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00562", "bookId": 852, "start": 778416, "end": 779711, "sha256": "9731adc8b3bb23f9847797b8bea769004d37c9eed9bf474db0d8f5c250b65205", "text": "Summary. After a review designed to bring out the philosophic issues implicit in the previous discussions, philosophy was defined as the generalized theory of education. Philosophy was stated to be a form of thinking, which, like all thinking, finds its origin in what is uncertain in the subject matter of experience, which aims to locate the nature of the perplexity and to frame hypotheses for its clearing up to be tested in action. Philosophic thinking has for its differentia the fact that the uncertainties with which it deals are found in widespread social conditions and aims, consisting in a conflict of organized interests and institutional claims. Since the only way of bringing about a harmonious readjustment of the opposed tendencies is through a modification of emotional and intellectual disposition, philosophy is at once an explicit formulation of the various interests of life and a propounding of points of view and methods through which a better balance of interests may be effected. Since education is the process through which the needed transformation may be accomplished and not remain a mere hypothesis as to what is desirable, we reach a justification of the statement that philosophy is the theory of education as a deliberately conducted practice.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00563", "bookId": 852, "start": 779721, "end": 779763, "sha256": "fa6c7222ad5767a766ee87f3ffff6d1789f60c5549c9091c6fd5fbf2e61d0ba8", "text": "Chapter Twenty-five: Theories of Knowledge", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG852.B00564", "bookId": 852, "start": 779767, "end": 781104, "sha256": "4b6cba73afb4bfdba87a02a51df06f32b5dfd8873d5e3fb749535e8880b2ac7c", "text": "1. Continuity versus Dualism. A number of theories of knowing have been criticized in the previous pages. In spite of their differences from one another, they all agree in one fundamental respect which contrasts with the theory which has been positively advanced. The latter assumes continuity; the former state or imply certain basic divisions, separations, or antitheses, technically called dualisms. The origin of these divisions we have found in the hard and fast walls which mark off social groups and classes within a group: like those between rich and poor, men and women, noble and baseborn, ruler and ruled. These barriers mean absence of fluent and free intercourse. This absence is equivalent to the setting up of different types of life-experience, each with isolated subject matter, aim, and standard of values. Every such social condition must be formulated in a dualistic philosophy, if philosophy is to be a sincere account of experience. When it gets beyond dualism--as many philosophies do in form--it can only be by appeal to something higher than anything found in experience, by a flight to some transcendental realm. And in denying duality in name such theories restore it in fact, for they end in a division between things of this world as mere appearances and an inaccessible essence of reality.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00565", "bookId": 852, "start": 781108, "end": 781823, "sha256": "6e4337aabf7deb0cf7bbcfe0effe8585f0a20a11b4d8b36459b9b09f9c054092", "text": "So far as these divisions persist and others are added to them, each leaves its mark upon the educational system, until the scheme of education, taken as a whole, is a deposit of various purposes and procedures. The outcome is that kind of check and balance of segregated factors and values which has been described. (See Chapter XVIII.) The present discussion is simply a formulation, in the terminology of philosophy, of various antithetical conceptions involved in the theory of knowing. In the first place, there is the opposition of empirical and higher rational knowing. The first is connected with everyday affairs, serves the purposes of the ordinary individual who has no specialized intellectual", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00566", "bookId": 852, "start": 781827, "end": 783210, "sha256": "952500d32a3be1a6861ab72dc2400d0eee195f01c29f9c55c140b63079eea193", "text": "pursuit, and brings his wants into some kind of working connection with the immediate environment. Such knowing is depreciated, if not despised, as purely utilitarian, lacking in cultural significance. Rational knowledge is supposed to be something which touches reality in ultimate, intellectual fashion; to be pursued for its own sake and properly to terminate in purely theoretical insight, not debased by application in behavior. Socially, the distinction corresponds to that of the intelligence used by the working classes and that used by a learned class remote from concern with the means of living. Philosophically, the difference turns about the distinction of the particular and universal. Experience is an aggregate of more or less isolated particulars, acquaintance with each of which must be separately made. Reason deals with universals, with general principles, with laws, which lie above the welter of concrete details. In the educational precipitate, the pupil is supposed to have to learn, on one hand, a lot of items of specific information, each standing by itself, and upon the other hand, to become familiar with a certain number of laws and general relationships. Geography, as often taught, illustrates the former; mathematics, beyond the rudiments of figuring, the latter. For all practical purposes, they represent two independent worlds.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00567", "bookId": 852, "start": 783214, "end": 785327, "sha256": "6049aa7cf0db35d5e8ac3ffc7b447a98a90384a138fba2ebce49a9e5e15b9a66", "text": "Another antithesis is suggested by the two senses of the word \"learning.\" On the one hand, learning is the sum total of what is known, as that is handed down by books and learned men. It is something external, an accumulation of cognitions as one might store material commodities in a warehouse. Truth exists ready-made somewhere. Study is then the process by which an individual draws on what is in storage. On the other hand, learning means something which the individual does when he studies. It is an active, personally conducted affair. The dualism here is between knowledge as something external, or, as it is often called, objective, and knowing as something purely internal, subjective, psychical. There is, on one side, a body of truth, ready-made, and, on the other, a ready-made mind equipped with a faculty of knowing--if it only wills to exercise it, which it is often strangely loath to do. The separation, often touched upon, between subject matter and method is the educational equivalent of this dualism. Socially the distinction has to do with the part of life which is dependent upon authority and that where individuals are free to advance. Another dualism is that of activity and passivity in knowing. Purely empirical and physical things are often supposed to be known by receiving impressions. Physical things somehow stamp themselves upon the mind or convey themselves into consciousness by means of the sense organs. Rational knowledge and knowledge of spiritual things is supposed, on the contrary, to spring from activity initiated within the mind, an activity carried on better if it is kept remote from all sullying touch of the senses and external objects. The distinction between sense training and object lessons and laboratory exercises, and pure ideas contained in books, and appropriated--so it is thought--by some miraculous output of mental energy, is a fair expression in education of this distinction. Socially, it reflects a division between those who are controlled by direct concern with things and those who are free to cultivate themselves.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00568", "bookId": 852, "start": 785331, "end": 786536, "sha256": "47e581665f45958515fb7e1e559f25368bf3af3197cd9126c29413b6aa5e4db6", "text": "Another current opposition is that said to exist between the intellect and the emotions. The emotions are conceived to be purely private and personal, having nothing to do with the work of pure intelligence in apprehending facts and truths,--except perhaps the single emotion of intellectual curiosity. The intellect is a pure light; the emotions are a disturbing heat. The mind turns outward to truth; the emotions turn inward to considerations of personal advantage and loss. Thus in education we have that systematic depreciation of interest which has been noted, plus the necessity in practice, with most pupils, of recourse to extraneous and irrelevant rewards and penalties in order to induce the person who has a mind (much as his clothes have a pocket) to apply that mind to the truths to be known. Thus we have the spectacle of professional educators decrying appeal to interest while they uphold with great dignity the need of reliance upon examinations, marks, promotions and emotions, prizes, and the time-honored paraphernalia of rewards and punishments. The effect of this situation in crippling the teacher's sense of humor has not received the attention which it deserves.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00569", "bookId": 852, "start": 786540, "end": 789569, "sha256": "c874967380772db0882cbc0d62526a0177fba34e857a22ee2dfdbe7797b9e4a7", "text": "All of these separations culminate in one between knowing and doing, theory and practice, between mind as the end and spirit of action and the body as its organ and means. We shall not repeat what has been said about the source of this dualism in the division of society into a class laboring with their muscles for material sustenance and a class which, relieved from economic pressure, devotes itself to the arts of expression and social direction. Nor is it necessary to speak again of the educational evils which spring from the separation. We shall be content to summarize the forces which tend to make the untenability of this conception obvious and to replace it by the idea of continuity. (i) The advance of physiology and the psychology associated with it have shown the connection of mental activity with that of the nervous system. Too often recognition of connection has stopped short at this point; the older dualism of soul and body has been replaced by that of the brain and the rest of the body. But in fact the nervous system is only a specialized mechanism for keeping all bodily activities working together. Instead of being isolated from them, as an organ of knowing from organs of motor response, it is the organ by which they interact responsively with one another. The brain is essentially an organ for effecting the reciprocal adjustment to each other of the stimuli received from the environment and responses directed upon it. Note that the adjusting is reciprocal; the brain not only enables organic activity to be brought to bear upon any object of the environment in response to a sensory stimulation, but this response also determines what the next stimulus will be. See what happens, for example, when a carpenter is at work upon a board, or an etcher upon his plate--or in any case of a consecutive activity. While each motor response is adjusted to the state of affairs indicated through the sense organs, that motor response shapes the next sensory stimulus. Generalizing this illustration, the brain is the machinery for a constant reorganizing of activity so as to maintain its continuity; that is to say, to make such modifications in future action as are required because of what has already been done. The continuity of the work of the carpenter distinguishes it from a routine repetition of identically the same motion, and from a random activity where there is nothing cumulative. What makes it continuous, consecutive, or concentrated is that each earlier act prepares the way for later acts, while these take account of or reckon with the results already attained--the basis of all responsibility. No one who has realized the full force of the facts of the connection of knowing with the nervous system and of the nervous system with the readjusting of activity continuously to meet new conditions, will doubt that knowing has to do with reorganizing activity, instead of being something isolated from all activity, complete on its own account.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00570", "bookId": 852, "start": 789573, "end": 791069, "sha256": "9ecb3f53c2aad03ef33b722c21c4f8955be7e53c8572abf59944f01051af1229", "text": "(ii) The development of biology clinches this lesson, with its discovery of evolution. For the philosophic significance of the doctrine of evolution lies precisely in its emphasis upon continuity of simpler and more complex organic forms until we reach man. The development of organic forms begins with structures where the adjustment of environment and organism is obvious, and where anything which can be called mind is at a minimum. As activity becomes more complex, coordinating a greater number of factors in space and time, intelligence plays a more and more marked role, for it has a larger span of the future to forecast and plan for. The effect upon the theory of knowing is to displace the notion that it is the activity of a mere onlooker or spectator of the world, the notion which goes with the idea of knowing as something complete in itself. For the doctrine of organic development means that the living creature is a part of the world, sharing its vicissitudes and fortunes, and making itself secure in its precarious dependence only as it intellectually identifies itself with the things about it, and, forecasting the future consequences of what is going on, shapes its own activities accordingly. If the living, experiencing being is an intimate participant in the activities of the world to which it belongs, then knowledge is a mode of participation, valuable in the degree in which it is effective. It cannot be the idle view of an unconcerned spectator.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00571", "bookId": 852, "start": 791073, "end": 793027, "sha256": "d5a76682b662231aca5f88a96dd44cf4ce7c49b6375f97568758a626a4374c29", "text": "(iii) The development of the experimental method as the method of getting knowledge and of making sure it is knowledge, and not mere opinion--the method of both discovery and proof--is the remaining great force in bringing about a transformation in the theory of knowledge. The experimental method has two sides. (i) On one hand, it means that we have no right to call anything knowledge except where our activity has actually produced certain physical changes in things, which agree with and confirm the conception entertained. Short of such specific changes, our beliefs are only hypotheses, theories, suggestions, guesses, and are to be entertained tentatively and to be utilized as indications of experiments to be tried. (ii) On the other hand, the experimental method of thinking signifies that thinking is of avail; that it is of avail in just the degree in which the anticipation of future consequences is made on the basis of thorough observation of present conditions. Experimentation, in other words, is not equivalent to blind reacting. Such surplus activity--a surplus with reference to what has been observed and is now anticipated--is indeed an unescapable factor in all our behavior, but it is not experiment save as consequences are noted and are used to make predictions and plans in similar situations in the future. The more the meaning of the experimental method is perceived, the more our trying out of a certain way of treating the material resources and obstacles which confront us embodies a prior use of intelligence. What we call magic was with respect to many things the experimental method of the savage; but for him to try was to try his luck, not his ideas. The scientific experimental method is, on the contrary, a trial of ideas; hence even when practically--or immediately--unsuccessful, it is intellectual, fruitful; for we learn from our failures when our endeavors are seriously thoughtful.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00572", "bookId": 852, "start": 793031, "end": 794526, "sha256": "0d4a81f6798a3acdd7389a4d714f3198522a73eccb0f97a50a73cff308d70df3", "text": "The experimental method is new as a scientific resource--as a systematized means of making knowledge, though as old as life as a practical device. Hence it is not surprising that men have not recognized its full scope. For the most part, its significance is regarded as belonging to certain technical and merely physical matters. It will doubtless take a long time to secure the perception that it holds equally as to the forming and testing of ideas in social and moral matters. Men still want the crutch of dogma, of beliefs fixed by authority, to relieve them of the trouble of thinking and the responsibility of directing their activity by thought. They tend to confine their own thinking to a consideration of which one among the rival systems of dogma they will accept. Hence the schools are better adapted, as John Stuart Mill said, to make disciples than inquirers. But every advance in the influence of the experimental method is sure to aid in outlawing the literary, dialectic, and authoritative methods of forming beliefs which have governed the schools of the past, and to transfer their prestige to methods which will procure an active concern with things and persons, directed by aims of increasing temporal reach and deploying greater range of things in space. In time the theory of knowing must be derived from the practice which is most successful in making knowledge; and then that theory will be employed to improve the methods which are less successful.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00573", "bookId": 852, "start": 794530, "end": 796372, "sha256": "045a09664aad2f2341d348279271a7b175dcc86220e6c272cc8b8a3be7dcf041", "text": "2. Schools of Method. There are various systems of philosophy with characteristically different conceptions of the method of knowing. Some of them are named scholasticism, sensationalism, rationalism, idealism, realism, empiricism, transcendentalism, pragmatism, etc. Many of them have been criticized in connection with the discussion of some educational problem. We are here concerned with them as involving deviations from that method which has proved most effective in achieving knowledge, for a consideration of the deviations may render clearer the true place of knowledge in experience. In brief, the function of knowledge is to make one experience freely available in other experiences. The word \"freely\" marks the difference between the principle of knowledge and that of habit. Habit means that an individual undergoes a modification through an experience, which modification forms a predisposition to easier and more effective action in a like direction in the future. Thus it also has the function of making one experience available in subsequent experiences. Within certain limits, it performs this function successfully. But habit, apart from knowledge, does not make allowance for change of conditions, for novelty. Prevision of change is not part of its scope, for habit assumes the essential likeness of the new situation with the old. Consequently it often leads astray, or comes between a person and the successful performance of his task, just as the skill, based on habit alone, of the mechanic will desert him when something unexpected occurs in the running of the machine. But a man who understands the machine is the man who knows what he is about. He knows the conditions under which a given habit works, and is in a position to introduce the changes which will readapt it to new conditions.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00574", "bookId": 852, "start": 796376, "end": 798034, "sha256": "32519e07904145d062eaf9b1b3feb0934bf8a7fd29320f6ddefe1a5889cdbba3", "text": "In other words, knowledge is a perception of those connections of an object which determine its applicability in a given situation. To take an extreme example; savages react to a flaming comet as they are accustomed to react to other events which threaten the security of their life. Since they try to frighten wild animals or their enemies by shrieks, beating of gongs, brandishing of weapons, etc., they use the same methods to scare away the comet. To us, the method is plainly absurd--so absurd that we fail to note that savages are simply falling back upon habit in a way which exhibits its limitations. The only reason we do not act in some analogous fashion is because we do not take the comet as an isolated, disconnected event, but apprehend it in its connections with other events. We place it, as we say, in the astronomical system. We respond to its connections and not simply to the immediate occurrence. Thus our attitude to it is much freer. We may approach it, so to speak, from any one of the angles provided by its connections. We can bring into play, as we deem wise, any one of the habits appropriate to any one of the connected objects. Thus we get at a new event indirectly instead of immediately--by invention, ingenuity, resourcefulness. An ideally perfect knowledge would represent such a network of interconnections that any past experience would offer a point of advantage from which to get at the problem presented in a new experience. In fine, while a habit apart from knowledge supplies us with a single fixed method of attack, knowledge means that selection may be made from a much wider range of habits.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00575", "bookId": 852, "start": 798038, "end": 798994, "sha256": "ba24dded3f5ab1c56a38f9c6d98961c1fa0a443fc54af342e8666b424646e8e1", "text": "Two aspects of this more general and freer availability of former experiences for subsequent ones may be distinguished. (See ante, p. 77.) (i) One, the more tangible, is increased power of control. What cannot be managed directly may be handled indirectly; or we can interpose barriers between us and undesirable consequences; or we may evade them if we cannot overcome them. Genuine knowledge has all the practical value attaching to efficient habits in any case. (ii) But it also increases the meaning, the experienced significance, attaching to an experience. A situation to which we respond capriciously or by routine has only a minimum of conscious significance; we get nothing mentally from it. But wherever knowledge comes into play in determining a new experience there is mental reward; even if we fail practically in getting the needed control we have the satisfaction of experiencing a meaning instead of merely reacting physically.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00576", "bookId": 852, "start": 798998, "end": 801058, "sha256": "0de3a6c724e0cf79f4fb5341abbab95a7d90fc39eadfe561cc5c0a0de66a3922", "text": "While the content of knowledge is what has happened, what is taken as finished and hence settled and sure, the reference of knowledge is future or prospective. For knowledge furnishes the means of understanding or giving meaning to what is still going on and what is to be done. The knowledge of a physician is what he has found out by personal acquaintance and by study of what others have ascertained and recorded. But it is knowledge to him because it supplies the resources by which he interprets the unknown things which confront him, fills out the partial obvious facts with connected suggested phenomena, foresees their probable future, and makes plans accordingly. When knowledge is cut off from use in giving meaning to what is blind and baffling, it drops out of consciousness entirely or else becomes an object of aesthetic contemplation. There is much emotional satisfaction to be had from a survey of the symmetry and order of possessed knowledge, and the satisfaction is a legitimate one. But this contemplative attitude is aesthetic, not intellectual. It is the same sort of joy that comes from viewing a finished picture or a well composed landscape. It would make no difference if the subject matter were totally different, provided it had the same harmonious organization. Indeed, it would make no difference if it were wholly invented, a play of fancy. Applicability to the world means not applicability to what is past and gone--that is out of the question by the nature of the case; it means applicability to what is still going on, what is still unsettled, in the moving scene in which we are implicated. The very fact that we so easily overlook this trait, and regard statements of what is past and out of reach as knowledge is because we assume the continuity of past and future. We cannot entertain the conception of a world in which knowledge of its past would not be helpful in forecasting and giving meaning to its future. We ignore the prospective reference just because it is so irretrievably implied.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00577", "bookId": 852, "start": 801062, "end": 802094, "sha256": "12f9e1ebef9f2694378bef59831bdaeeacdfc4bc8be48541e8fc95969cc08e18", "text": "Yet many of the philosophic schools of method which have been mentioned transform the ignoring into a virtual denial. They regard knowledge as something complete in itself irrespective of its availability in dealing with what is yet to be. And it is this omission which vitiates them and which makes them stand as sponsors for educational methods which an adequate conception of knowledge condemns. For one has only to call to mind what is sometimes treated in schools as acquisition of knowledge to realize how lacking it is in any fruitful connection with the ongoing experience of the students--how largely it seems to be believed that the mere appropriation of subject matter which happens to be stored in books constitutes knowledge. No matter how true what is learned to those who found it out and in whose experience it functioned, there is nothing which makes it knowledge to the pupils. It might as well be something about Mars or about some fanciful country unless it fructifies in the individual's own life.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00578", "bookId": 852, "start": 802098, "end": 803061, "sha256": "08835f327bfc07ea562db6507024b8549e64339fb0a7d836492074fdc95ad886", "text": "At the time when scholastic method developed, it had relevancy to social conditions. It was a method for systematizing and lending rational sanction to material accepted on authority. This subject matter meant so much that it vitalized the defining and systematizing brought to bear upon it. Under present conditions the scholastic method, for most persons, means a form of knowing which has no especial connection with any particular subject matter. It includes making distinctions, definitions, divisions, and classifications for the mere sake of making them--with no objective in experience. The view of thought as a purely physical activity having its own forms, which are applied to any material as a seal may be stamped on any plastic stuff, the view which underlies what is termed formal logic is essentially the scholastic method generalized. The doctrine of formal discipline in education is the natural counterpart of the scholastic method.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00579", "bookId": 852, "start": 803065, "end": 804798, "sha256": "39422086e93b3c472cb69fbf5d0077c91b0e2902a759f1f4f3b4ade74ba710d1", "text": "The contrasting theories of the method of knowledge which go by the name of sensationalism and rationalism correspond to an exclusive emphasis upon the particular and the general respectively--or upon bare facts on one side and bare relations on the other. In real knowledge, there is a particularizing and a generalizing function working together. So far as a situation is confused, it has to be cleared up; it has to be resolved into details, as sharply defined as possible. Specified facts and qualities constitute the elements of the problem to be dealt with, and it is through our sense organs that they are specified. As setting forth the problem, they may well be termed particulars, for they are fragmentary. Since our task is to discover their connections and to recombine them, for us at the time they are partial. They are to be given meaning; hence, just as they stand, they lack it. Anything which is to be known, whose meaning has still to be made out, offers itself as particular. But what is already known, if it has been worked over with a view to making it applicable to intellectually mastering new particulars, is general in function. Its function of introducing connection into what is otherwise unconnected constitutes its generality. Any fact is general if we use it to give meaning to the elements of a new experience. \"Reason\" is just the ability to bring the subject matter of prior experience to bear to perceive the significance of the subject matter of a new experience. A person is reasonable in the degree in which he is habitually open to seeing an event which immediately strikes his senses not as an isolated thing but in its connection with the common experience of mankind.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00580", "bookId": 852, "start": 804802, "end": 806383, "sha256": "db78dc9567cb73b50f788dcabde685b137913ea03cade3d3c7463c80d7522b0a", "text": "Without the particulars as they are discriminated by the active responses of sense organs, there is no material for knowing and no intellectual growth. Without placing these particulars in the context of the meanings wrought out in the larger experience of the past--without the use of reason or thought--particulars are mere excitations or irritations. The mistake alike of the sensational and the rationalistic schools is that each fails to see that the function of sensory stimulation and thought is relative to reorganizing experience in applying the old to the new, thereby maintaining the continuity or consistency of life. The theory of the method of knowing which is advanced in these pages may be termed pragmatic. Its essential feature is to maintain the continuity of knowing with an activity which purposely modifies the environment. It holds that knowledge in its strict sense of something possessed consists of our intellectual resources--of all the habits that render our action intelligent. Only that which has been organized into our disposition so as to enable us to adapt the environment to our needs and to adapt our aims and desires to the situation in which we live is really knowledge. Knowledge is not just something which we are now conscious of, but consists of the dispositions we consciously use in understanding what now happens. Knowledge as an act is bringing some of our dispositions to consciousness with a view to straightening out a perplexity, by conceiving the connection between ourselves and the world in which we live.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00581", "bookId": 852, "start": 806387, "end": 807679, "sha256": "7f298ee8d9b29bde53233bd46e47a47d208f5d67ad6d659b0eb86b984ee1d24c", "text": "Summary. Such social divisions as interfere with free and full intercourse react to make the intelligence and knowing of members of the separated classes one-sided. Those whose experience has to do with utilities cut off from the larger end they subserve are practical empiricists; those who enjoy the contemplation of a realm of meanings in whose active production they have had no share are practical rationalists. Those who come in direct contact with things and have to adapt their activities to them immediately are, in effect, realists; those who isolate the meanings of these things and put them in a religious or so-called spiritual world aloof from things are, in effect, idealists. Those concerned with progress, who are striving to change received beliefs, emphasize the individual factor in knowing; those whose chief business it is to withstand change and conserve received truth emphasize the universal and the fixed--and so on. Philosophic systems in their opposed theories of knowledge present an explicit formulation of the traits characteristic of these cut-off and one-sided segments of experience--one-sided because barriers to intercourse prevent the experience of one from being enriched and supplemented by that of others who are differently situated.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00582", "bookId": 852, "start": 807683, "end": 808309, "sha256": "971b14321d7531573188c76b69c24c212a31e8b0e4842129a339117d4f0d3d88", "text": "In an analogous way, since democracy stands in principle for free interchange, for social continuity, it must develop a theory of knowledge which sees in knowledge the method by which one experience is made available in giving direction and meaning to another. The recent advances in physiology, biology, and the logic of the experimental sciences supply the specific intellectual instrumentalities demanded to work out and formulate such a theory. Their educational equivalent is the connection of the acquisition of knowledge in the schools with activities, or occupations, carried on in a medium of associated life.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00583", "bookId": 852, "start": 808319, "end": 808357, "sha256": "32c043abf8a33c6d2194acc8dfd62625f4ee6fd03dd0a9533d8927d627cd3fee", "text": "Chapter Twenty-six: Theories of Morals", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG852.B00584", "bookId": 852, "start": 808361, "end": 808388, "sha256": "212bd34bffc490ecd44f751a72f3d0da1aed8011872270d9e97bec3ee34e247f", "text": "1. The Inner and the Outer.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG852.B00585", "bookId": 852, "start": 808392, "end": 811303, "sha256": "86bb40b63c1059595fcbe79b6120d0c595eb1622e488ea906aeb5e9c3f69f815", "text": "Since morality is concerned with conduct, any dualisms which are set up between mind and activity must reflect themselves in the theory of morals. Since the formulations of the separation in the philosophic theory of morals are used to justify and idealize the practices employed in moral training, a brief critical discussion is in place. It is a commonplace of educational theory that the establishing of character is a comprehensive aim of school instruction and discipline. Hence it is important that we should be on our guard against a conception of the relations of intelligence to character which hampers the realization of the aim, and on the look-out for the conditions which have to be provided in order that the aim may be successfully acted upon. The first obstruction which meets us is the currency of moral ideas which split the course of activity into two opposed factors, often named respectively the inner and outer, or the spiritual and the physical. This division is a culmination of the dualism of mind and the world, soul and body, end and means, which we have so frequently noted. In morals it takes the form of a sharp demarcation of the motive of action from its consequences, and of character from conduct. Motive and character are regarded as something purely \"inner,\" existing exclusively in consciousness, while consequences and conduct are regarded as outside of mind, conduct having to do simply with the movements which carry out motives; consequences with what happens as a result. Different schools identify morality with either the inner state of mind or the outer act and results, each in separation from the other. Action with a purpose is deliberate; it involves a consciously foreseen end and a mental weighing of considerations pro and eon. It also involves a conscious state of longing or desire for the end. The deliberate choice of an aim and of a settled disposition of desire takes time. During this time complete overt action is suspended. A person who does not have his mind made up, does not know what to do. Consequently he postpones definite action so far as possible. His position may be compared to that of a man considering jumping across a ditch. If he were sure he could or could not make it, definite activity in some direction would occur. But if he considers, he is in doubt; he hesitates. During the time in which a single overt line of action is in suspense, his activities are confined to such redistributions of energy within the organism as will prepare a determinate course of action. He measures the ditch with his eyes; he brings himself taut to get a feel of the energy at his disposal; he looks about for other ways across, he reflects upon the importance of getting across. All this means an accentuation of consciousness; it means a turning in upon the individual's own attitudes, powers, wishes, etc.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00586", "bookId": 852, "start": 811307, "end": 812230, "sha256": "7f2cf35046ae259bd479429bac64e7cfe07197287888b3a5229d87164a88e9d8", "text": "Obviously, however, this surging up of personal factors into conscious recognition is a part of the whole activity in its temporal development. There is not first a purely psychical process, followed abruptly by a radically different physical one. There is one continuous behavior, proceeding from a more uncertain, divided, hesitating state to a more overt, determinate, or complete state. The activity at first consists mainly of certain tensions and adjustments within the organism; as these are coordinated into a unified attitude, the organism as a whole acts--some definite act is undertaken. We may distinguish, of course, the more explicitly conscious phase of the continuous activity as mental or psychical. But that only identifies the mental or psychical to mean the indeterminate, formative state of an activity which in its fullness involves putting forth of overt energy to modify the environment.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00587", "bookId": 852, "start": 812234, "end": 814488, "sha256": "6669393e51cf8891f8b27028b07d6812d1e32fdb77cdcb97c62929049cfdf927", "text": "Our conscious thoughts, observations, wishes, aversions are important, because they represent inchoate, nascent activities. They fulfill their destiny in issuing, later on, into specific and perceptible acts. And these inchoate, budding organic readjustments are important because they are our sole escape from the dominion of routine habits and blind impulse. They are activities having a new meaning in process of development. Hence, normally, there is an accentuation of personal consciousness whenever our instincts and ready formed habits find themselves blocked by novel conditions. Then we are thrown back upon ourselves to reorganize our own attitude before proceeding to a definite and irretrievable course of action. Unless we try to drive our way through by sheer brute force, we must modify our organic resources to adapt them to the specific features of the situation in which we find ourselves. The conscious deliberating and desiring which precede overt action are, then, the methodic personal readjustment implied in activity in uncertain situations. This role of mind in continuous activity is not always maintained, however. Desires for something different, aversion to the given state of things caused by the blocking of successful activity, stimulates the imagination. The picture of a different state of things does not always function to aid ingenious observation and recollection to find a way out and on. Except where there is a disciplined disposition, the tendency is for the imagination to run loose. Instead of its objects being checked up by conditions with reference to their practicability in execution, they are allowed to develop because of the immediate emotional satisfaction which they yield. When we find the successful display of our energies checked by uncongenial surroundings, natural and social, the easiest way out is to build castles in the air and let them be a substitute for an actual achievement which involves the pains of thought. So in overt action we acquiesce, and build up an imaginary world in, mind. This break between thought and conduct is reflected in those theories which make a sharp separation between mind as inner and conduct and consequences as merely outer.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00588", "bookId": 852, "start": 814492, "end": 816222, "sha256": "c386a85c2176bbda07dcc2f09fabd1c3dc7c436c6dcbc68f9b081ff161caca56", "text": "For the split may be more than an incident of a particular individual's experience. The social situation may be such as to throw the class given to articulate reflection back into their own thoughts and desires without providing the means by which these ideas and aspirations can be used to reorganize the environment. Under such conditions, men take revenge, as it were, upon the alien and hostile environment by cultivating contempt for it, by giving it a bad name. They seek refuge and consolation within their own states of mind, their own imaginings and wishes, which they compliment by calling both more real and more ideal than the despised outer world. Such periods have recurred in history. In the early centuries of the Christian era, the influential moral systems of Stoicism, of monastic and popular Christianity and other religious movements of the day, took shape under the influence of such conditions. The more action which might express prevailing ideals was checked, the more the inner possession and cultivation of ideals was regarded as self-sufficient--as the essence of morality. The external world in which activity belongs was thought of as morally indifferent. Everything lay in having the right motive, even though that motive was not a moving force in the world. Much the same sort of situation recurred in Germany in the later eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries; it led to the Kantian insistence upon the good will as the sole moral good, the will being regarded as something complete in itself, apart from action and from the changes or consequences effected in the world. Later it led to any idealization of existing institutions as themselves the embodiment of reason.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00589", "bookId": 852, "start": 816226, "end": 818010, "sha256": "b53940ed44f8eff5d5c2685bc41bd793379c8524c3735823f0016cf3a82dc7e7", "text": "The purely internal morality of \"meaning well,\" of having a good disposition regardless of what comes of it, naturally led to a reaction. This is generally known as either hedonism or utilitarianism. It was said in effect that the important thing morally is not what a man is inside of his own consciousness, but what he does--the consequences which issue, the charges he actually effects. Inner morality was attacked as sentimental, arbitrary, dogmatic, subjective--as giving men leave to dignify and shield any dogma congenial to their self-interest or any caprice occurring to imagination by calling it an intuition or an ideal of conscience. Results, conduct, are what counts; they afford the sole measure of morality. Ordinary morality, and hence that of the schoolroom, is likely to be an inconsistent compromise of both views. On one hand, certain states of feeling are made much of; the individual must \"mean well,\" and if his intentions are good, if he had the right sort of emotional consciousness, he may be relieved of responsibility for full results in conduct. But since, on the other hand, certain things have to be done to meet the convenience and the requirements of others, and of social order in general, there is great insistence upon the doing of certain things, irrespective of whether the individual has any concern or intelligence in their doing. He must toe the mark; he must have his nose held to the grindstone; he must obey; he must form useful habits; he must learn self-control,--all of these precepts being understood in a way which emphasizes simply the immediate thing tangibly done, irrespective of the spirit of thought and desire in which it is done, and irrespective therefore of its effect upon other less obvious doings.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00590", "bookId": 852, "start": 818014, "end": 818972, "sha256": "2246637a61997d5babf3a8d4e1d430824943220f75dd266f631daa246b608d6e", "text": "It is hoped that the prior discussion has sufficiently elaborated the method by which both of these evils are avoided. One or both of these evils must result wherever individuals, whether young or old, cannot engage in a progressively cumulative undertaking under conditions which engage their interest and require their reflection. For only in such cases is it possible that the disposition of desire and thinking should be an organic factor in overt and obvious conduct. Given a consecutive activity embodying the student's own interest, where a definite result is to be obtained, and where neither routine habit nor the following of dictated directions nor capricious improvising will suffice, and there the rise of conscious purpose, conscious desire, and deliberate reflection are inevitable. They are inevitable as the spirit and quality of an activity having specific consequences, not as forming an isolated realm of inner consciousness.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00591", "bookId": 852, "start": 818976, "end": 820446, "sha256": "91e5997fa24357ceccef735aab38ade58d93a32be2e4da8d12c7901cd6c8779f", "text": "2. The Opposition of Duty and Interest. Probably there is no antithesis more often set up in moral discussion than that between acting from \"principle\" and from \"interest.\" To act on principle is to act disinterestedly, according to a general law, which is above all personal considerations. To act according to interest is, so the allegation runs, to act selfishly, with one's own personal profit in view. It substitutes the changing expediency of the moment for devotion to unswerving moral law. The false idea of interest underlying this opposition has already been criticized (See Chapter X), but some moral aspects of the question will now be considered. A clew to the matter may be found in the fact that the supporters of the \"interest\" side of the controversy habitually use the term \"self-interest.\" Starting from the premises that unless there is interest in an object or idea, there is no motive force, they end with the conclusion that even when a person claims to be acting from principle or from a sense of duty, he really acts as he does because there \"is something in it\" for himself. The premise is sound; the conclusion false. In reply the other school argues that since man is capable of generous self-forgetting and even self-sacrificing action, he is capable of acting without interest. Again the premise is sound, and the conclusion false. The error on both sides lies in a false notion of the relation of interest and the self.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00592", "bookId": 852, "start": 820450, "end": 822547, "sha256": "b018d21b8c6f00a52b8b87ba0143dd81f61f1ff30ae9510759af9c867639d9b2", "text": "Both sides assume that the self is a fixed and hence isolated quantity. As a consequence, there is a rigid dilemma between acting for an interest of the self and without interest. If the self is something fixed antecedent to action, then acting from interest means trying to get more in the way of possessions for the self--whether in the way of fame, approval of others, power over others, pecuniary profit, or pleasure. Then the reaction from this view as a cynical depreciation of human nature leads to the view that men who act nobly act with no interest at all. Yet to an unbiased judgment it would appear plain that a man must be interested in what he is doing or he would not do it. A physician who continues to serve the sick in a plague at almost certain danger to his own life must be interested in the efficient performance of his profession--more interested in that than in the safety of his own bodily life. But it is distorting facts to say that this interest is merely a mask for an interest in something else which he gets by continuing his customary services--such as money or good repute or virtue; that it is only a means to an ulterior selfish end. The moment we recognize that the self is not something ready-made, but something in continuous formation through choice of action, the whole situation clears up. A man's interest in keeping at his work in spite of danger to life means that his self is found in that work; if he finally gave up, and preferred his personal safety or comfort, it would mean that he preferred to be that kind of a self. The mistake lies in making a separation between interest and self, and supposing that the latter is the end to which interest in objects and acts and others is a mere means. In fact, self and interest are two names for the same fact; the kind and amount of interest actively taken in a thing reveals and measures the quality of selfhood which exists. Bear in mind that interest means the active or moving identity of the self with a certain object, and the whole alleged dilemma falls to the ground.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00593", "bookId": 852, "start": 822551, "end": 823926, "sha256": "c6624746cd864fc04a62f28c929743d6835590db022c1e1e2d179b263e287778", "text": "Unselfishness, for example, signifies neither lack of interest in what is done (that would mean only machine-like indifference) nor selflessness--which would mean absence of virility and character. As employed everywhere outside of this particular theoretical controversy, the term \"unselfishness\" refers to the kind of aims and objects which habitually interest a man. And if we make a mental survey of the kind of interests which evoke the use of this epithet, we shall see that they have two intimately associated features. (i) The generous self consciously identifies itself with the full range of relationships implied in its activity, instead of drawing a sharp line between itself and considerations which are excluded as alien or indifferent; (ii) it readjusts and expands its past ideas of itself to take in new consequences as they become perceptible. When the physician began his career he may not have thought of a pestilence; he may not have consciously identified himself with service under such conditions. But, if he has a normally growing or active self, when he finds that his vocation involves such risks, he willingly adopts them as integral portions of his activity. The wider or larger self which means inclusion instead of denial of relationships is identical with a self which enlarges in order to assume previously unforeseen ties.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00594", "bookId": 852, "start": 823930, "end": 825782, "sha256": "71047f4255907b7bf62d7e0b078faa6b547457685f877bdf11a94f97db8a8b9e", "text": "In such crises of readjustment--and the crisis may be slight as well as great--there may be a transitional conflict of \"principle\" with \"interest.\" It is the nature of a habit to involve ease in the accustomed line of activity. It is the nature of a readjusting of habit to involve an effort which is disagreeable--something to which a man has deliberately to hold himself. In other words, there is a tendency to identify the self--or take interest--in what one has got used to, and to turn away the mind with aversion or irritation when an unexpected thing which involves an unpleasant modification of habit comes up. Since in the past one has done one's duty without having to face such a disagreeable circumstance, why not go on as one has been? To yield to this temptation means to narrow and isolate the thought of the self--to treat it as complete. Any habit, no matter how efficient in the past, which has become set, may at any time bring this temptation with it. To act from principle in such an emergency is not to act on some abstract principle, or duty at large; it is to act upon the principle of a course of action, instead of upon the circumstances which have attended it. The principle of a physician's conduct is its animating aim and spirit--the care for the diseased. The principle is not what justifies an activity, for the principle is but another name for the continuity of the activity. If the activity as manifested in its consequences is undesirable, to act upon principle is to accentuate its evil. And a man who prides himself upon acting upon principle is likely to be a man who insists upon having his own way without learning from experience what is the better way. He fancies that some abstract principle justifies his course of action without recognizing that his principle needs justification.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00595", "bookId": 852, "start": 825786, "end": 826903, "sha256": "eff5a944e4531961ebdf5ca7f9d8207cab98990b2ce7337dae7b609554c0b74a", "text": "Assuming, however, that school conditions are such as to provide desirable occupations, it is interest in the occupation as a whole--that is, in its continuous development--which keeps a pupil at his work in spite of temporary diversions and unpleasant obstacles. Where there is no activity having a growing significance, appeal to principle is either purely verbal, or a form of obstinate pride or an appeal to extraneous considerations clothed with a dignified title. Undoubtedly there are junctures where momentary interest ceases and attention flags, and where reinforcement is needed. But what carries a person over these hard stretches is not loyalty to duty in the abstract, but interest in his occupation. Duties are \"offices\"--they are the specific acts needed for the fulfilling of a function--or, in homely language--doing one's job. And the man who is genuinely interested in his job is the man who is able to stand temporary discouragement, to persist in the face of obstacles, to take the lean with the fat: he makes an interest out of meeting and overcoming difficulties and distraction.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00596", "bookId": 852, "start": 826907, "end": 829020, "sha256": "b890b82ba805954237797e02695a53d23e92faf3d0ec0e1613ce0bb374240bba", "text": "3. Intelligence and Character. A noteworthy paradox often accompanies discussions of morals. On the one hand, there is an identification of the moral with the rational. Reason is set up as a faculty from which proceed ultimate moral intuitions, and sometimes, as in the Kantian theory, it is said to supply the only proper moral motive. On the other hand, the value of concrete, everyday intelligence is constantly underestimated, and even deliberately depreciated. Morals is often thought to be an affair with which ordinary knowledge has nothing to do. Moral knowledge is thought to be a thing apart, and conscience is thought of as something radically different from consciousness. This separation, if valid, is of especial significance for education. Moral education in school is practically hopeless when we set up the development of character as a supreme end, and at the same time treat the acquiring of knowledge and the development of understanding, which of necessity occupy the chief part of school time, as having nothing to do with character. On such a basis, moral education is inevitably reduced to some kind of catechetical instruction, or lessons about morals. Lessons \"about morals\" signify as matter of course lessons in what other people think about virtues and duties. It amounts to something only in the degree in which pupils happen to be already animated by a sympathetic and dignified regard for the sentiments of others. Without such a regard, it has no more influence on character than information about the mountains of Asia; with a servile regard, it increases dependence upon others, and throws upon those in authority the responsibility for conduct. As a matter of fact, direct instruction in morals has been effective only in social groups where it was a part of the authoritative control of the many by the few. Not the teaching as such but the reinforcement of it by the whole regime of which it was an incident made it effective. To attempt to get similar results from lessons about morals in a democratic society is to rely upon sentimental magic.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00597", "bookId": 852, "start": 829024, "end": 831639, "sha256": "5fe3af788dd7cb2e72bf260579e946160d4a437d3a94c0fa87b95dac0e38f395", "text": "At the other end of the scale stands the Socratic-Platonic teaching which identifies knowledge and virtue--which holds that no man does evil knowingly but only because of ignorance of the good. This doctrine is commonly attacked on the ground that nothing is more common than for a man to know the good and yet do the bad: not knowledge, but habituation or practice, and motive are what is required. Aristotle, in fact, at once attacked the Platonic teaching on the ground that moral virtue is like an art, such as medicine; the experienced practitioner is better than a man who has theoretical knowledge but no practical experience of disease and remedies. The issue turns, however, upon what is meant by knowledge. Aristotle's objection ignored the gist of Plato's teaching to the effect that man could not attain a theoretical insight into the good except as he had passed through years of practical habituation and strenuous discipline. Knowledge of the good was not a thing to be got either from books or from others, but was achieved through a prolonged education. It was the final and culminating grace of a mature experience of life. Irrespective of Plato's position, it is easy to perceive that the term knowledge is used to denote things as far apart as intimate and vital personal realization,--a conviction gained and tested in experience,--and a second-handed, largely symbolic, recognition that persons in general believe so and so--a devitalized remote information. That the latter does not guarantee conduct, that it does not profoundly affect character, goes without saying. But if knowledge means something of the same sort as our conviction gained by trying and testing that sugar is sweet and quinine bitter, the case stands otherwise. Every time a man sits on a chair rather than on a stove, carries an umbrella when it rains, consults a doctor when ill--or in short performs any of the thousand acts which make up his daily life, he proves that knowledge of a certain kind finds direct issue in conduct. There is every reason to suppose that the same sort of knowledge of good has a like expression; in fact \"good\" is an empty term unless it includes the satisfactions experienced in such situations as those mentioned. Knowledge that other persons are supposed to know something might lead one to act so as to win the approbation others attach to certain actions, or at least so as to give others the impression that one agrees with them; there is no reason why it should lead to personal initiative and loyalty in behalf of the beliefs attributed to them.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00598", "bookId": 852, "start": 831643, "end": 833099, "sha256": "6feac99aefbdd234b43fba4f4f22c7ab404a95d4ce05dce8c0c581fe59ab0e17", "text": "It is not necessary, accordingly, to dispute about the proper meaning of the term knowledge. It is enough for educational purposes to note the different qualities covered by the one name, to realize that it is knowledge gained at first hand through the exigencies of experience which affects conduct in significant ways. If a pupil learns things from books simply in connection with school lessons and for the sake of reciting what he has learned when called upon, then knowledge will have effect upon some conduct--namely upon that of reproducing statements at the demand of others. There is nothing surprising that such \"knowledge\" should not have much influence in the life out of school. But this is not a reason for making a divorce between knowledge and conduct, but for holding in low esteem this kind of knowledge. The same thing may be said of knowledge which relates merely to an isolated and technical specialty; it modifies action but only in its own narrow line. In truth, the problem of moral education in the schools is one with the problem of securing knowledge--the knowledge connected with the system of impulses and habits. For the use to which any known fact is put depends upon its connections. The knowledge of dynamite of a safecracker may be identical in verbal form with that of a chemist; in fact, it is different, for it is knit into connection with different aims and habits, and thus has a different import.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00599", "bookId": 852, "start": 833103, "end": 834771, "sha256": "45ccf43e9f57aeb431d3459b6c9377c315c4adcfbbd2d18e286f50c45a3b3537", "text": "Our prior discussion of subject-matter as proceeding from direct activity having an immediate aim, to the enlargement of meaning found in geography and history, and then to scientifically organized knowledge, was based upon the idea of maintaining a vital connection between knowledge and activity. What is learned and employed in an occupation having an aim and involving cooperation with others is moral knowledge, whether consciously so regarded or not. For it builds up a social interest and confers the intelligence needed to make that interest effective in practice. Just because the studies of the curriculum represent standard factors in social life, they are organs of initiation into social values. As mere school studies, their acquisition has only a technical worth. Acquired under conditions where their social significance is realized, they feed moral interest and develop moral insight. Moreover, the qualities of mind discussed under the topic of method of learning are all of them intrinsically moral qualities. Open-mindedness, single-mindedness, sincerity, breadth of outlook, thoroughness, assumption of responsibility for developing the consequences of ideas which are accepted, are moral traits. The habit of identifying moral characteristics with external conformity to authoritative prescriptions may lead us to ignore the ethical value of these intellectual attitudes, but the same habit tends to reduce morals to a dead and machinelike routine. Consequently while such an attitude has moral results, the results are morally undesirable--above all in a democratic society where so much depends upon personal disposition.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00600", "bookId": 852, "start": 834775, "end": 837041, "sha256": "42f3c9a5b62da5faa8dee6c548e00cce3764cea6f6ecd8c28de05009ea58fe2c", "text": "4. The Social and the Moral. All of the separations which we have been criticizing--and which the idea of education set forth in the previous chapters is designed to avoid--spring from taking morals too narrowly,--giving them, on one side, a sentimental goody-goody turn without reference to effective ability to do what is socially needed, and, on the other side, overemphasizing convention and tradition so as to limit morals to a list of definitely stated acts. As a matter of fact, morals are as broad as acts which concern our relationships with others. And potentially this includes all our acts, even though their social bearing may not be thought of at the time of performance. For every act, by the principle of habit, modifies disposition--it sets up a certain kind of inclination and desire. And it is impossible to tell when the habit thus strengthened may have a direct and perceptible influence on our association with others. Certain traits of character have such an obvious connection with our social relationships that we call them \"moral\" in an emphatic sense--truthfulness, honesty, chastity, amiability, etc. But this only means that they are, as compared with some other attitudes, central:--that they carry other attitudes with them. They are moral in an emphatic sense not because they are isolated and exclusive, but because they are so intimately connected with thousands of other attitudes which we do not explicitly recognize--which perhaps we have not even names for. To call them virtues in their isolation is like taking the skeleton for the living body. The bones are certainly important, but their importance lies in the fact that they support other organs of the body in such a way as to make them capable of integrated effective activity. And the same is true of the qualities of character which we specifically designate virtues. Morals concern nothing less than the whole character, and the whole character is identical with the man in all his concrete make-up and manifestations. To possess virtue does not signify to have cultivated a few namable and exclusive traits; it means to be fully and adequately what one is capable of becoming through association with others in all the offices of life.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00601", "bookId": 852, "start": 837045, "end": 837697, "sha256": "2f7757101eed3d41abb4c63f0f52c033d27f7a446b07c1349fa6d7246174e34f", "text": "The moral and the social quality of conduct are, in the last analysis, identical with each other. It is then but to restate explicitly the import of our earlier chapters regarding the social function of education to say that the measure of the worth of the administration, curriculum, and methods of instruction of the school is the extent to which they are animated by a social spirit. And the great danger which threatens school work is the absence of conditions which make possible a permeating social spirit; this is the great enemy of effective moral training. For this spirit can be actively present only when certain conditions are met.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00602", "bookId": 852, "start": 837701, "end": 838842, "sha256": "a405e4b75b2bec664c14c8b62450880676ded71eb8cccd49357175afd020f01e", "text": "(i) In the first place, the school must itself be a community life in all which that implies. Social perceptions and interests can be developed only in a genuinely social medium--one where there is give and take in the building up of a common experience. Informational statements about things can be acquired in relative isolation by any one who previously has had enough intercourse with others to have learned language. But realization of the meaning of the linguistic signs is quite another matter. That involves a context of work and play in association with others. The plea which has been made for education through continued constructive activities in this book rests upon the fact they afford an opportunity for a social atmosphere. In place of a school set apart from life as a place for learning lessons, we have a miniature social group in which study and growth are incidents of present shared experience. Playgrounds, shops, workrooms, laboratories not only direct the natural active tendencies of youth, but they involve intercourse, communication, and cooperation,--all extending the perception of connections.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00603", "bookId": 852, "start": 838846, "end": 840204, "sha256": "c0776f4a7e0b46f12fb053ffa23d563fbdcb3f913794b7f2e84350cf14889044", "text": "(ii) The learning in school should be continuous with that out of school. There should be a free interplay between the two. This is possible only when there are numerous points of contact between the social interests of the one and of the other. A school is conceivable in which there should be a spirit of companionship and shared activity, but where its social life would no more represent or typify that of the world beyond the school walls than that of a monastery. Social concern and understanding would be developed, but they would not be available outside; they would not carry over. The proverbial separation of town and gown, the cultivation of academic seclusion, operate in this direction. So does such adherence to the culture of the past as generates a reminiscent social spirit, for this makes an individual feel more at home in the life of other days than in his own. A professedly cultural education is peculiarly exposed to this danger. An idealized past becomes the refuge and solace of the spirit; present-day concerns are found sordid, and unworthy of attention. But as a rule, the absence of a social environment in connection with which learning is a need and a reward is the chief reason for the isolation of the school; and this isolation renders school knowledge inapplicable to life and so infertile in character.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00604", "bookId": 852, "start": 840210, "end": 841714, "sha256": "9b95f50b530e09d4ba19b99f778c3e6ed920e27d0718603870c097948b35defa", "text": "A narrow and moralistic view of morals is responsible for the failure to recognize that all the aims and values which are desirable in education are themselves moral. Discipline, natural development, culture, social efficiency, are moral traits--marks of a person who is a worthy member of that society which it is the business of education to further. There is an old saying to the effect that it is not enough for a man to be good; he must be good for something. The something for which a man must be good is capacity to live as a social member so that what he gets from living with others balances with what he contributes. What he gets and gives as a human being, a being with desires, emotions, and ideas, is not external possessions, but a widening and deepening of conscious life--a more intense, disciplined, and expanding realization of meanings. What he materially receives and gives is at most opportunities and means for the evolution of conscious life. Otherwise, it is neither giving nor taking, but a shifting about of the position of things in space, like the stirring of water and sand with a stick. Discipline, culture, social efficiency, personal refinement, improvement of character are but phases of the growth of capacity nobly to share in such a balanced experience. And education is not a mere means to such a life. Education is such a life. To maintain capacity for such education is the essence of morals. For conscious life is a continual beginning afresh.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00605", "bookId": 852, "start": 841718, "end": 842348, "sha256": "702d416e1f0943bc389e051b9023413736443af50628875b87c26e460592654f", "text": "Summary. The most important problem of moral education in the school concerns the relationship of knowledge and conduct. For unless the learning which accrues in the regular course of study affects character, it is futile to conceive the moral end as the unifying and culminating end of education. When there is no intimate organic connection between the methods and materials of knowledge and moral growth, particular lessons and modes of discipline have to be resorted to: knowledge is not integrated into the usual springs of action and the outlook on life, while morals become moralistic--a scheme of separate virtues.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00606", "bookId": 852, "start": 842352, "end": 843415, "sha256": "e8ee6e3efeb91300838885da1ee1fb611f28368afe3c86c97f44d7eadbc8e60d", "text": "The two theories chiefly associated with the separation of learning from activity, and hence from morals, are those which cut off inner disposition and motive--the conscious personal factor--and deeds as purely physical and outer; and which set action from interest in opposition to that from principle. Both of these separations are overcome in an educational scheme where learning is the accompaniment of continuous activities or occupations which have a social aim and utilize the materials of typical social situations. For under such conditions, the school becomes itself a form of social life, a miniature community and one in close interaction with other modes of associated experience beyond school walls. All education which develops power to share effectively in social life is moral. It forms a character which not only does the particular deed socially necessary but one which is interested in that continuous readjustment which is essential to growth. Interest in learning from all the contacts of life is the essential moral interest.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00607", "bookId": 852, "start": 843425, "end": 843539, "sha256": "cc4f19a2d1c567032d94ce94f64f755800bc1bb6ae71dc051646f738c2f84464", "text": "*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK DEMOCRACY AND EDUCATION: AN INTRODUCTION TO THE PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION ***", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00608", "bookId": 852, "start": 843553, "end": 843636, "sha256": "1d51416f58ccf2e0cbf9d6c33fc0c63852bee02e894080cc5737bee02089024e", "text": "Updated editions will replace the previous one—the old editions will be renamed.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG852.B00609", "bookId": 852, "start": 843640, "end": 844847, "sha256": "c0760ed3642c948c0431f2de78b6dd0234aacd2ed8de5c62d642c1a292d3b83d", "text": "Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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For forty years, he produced and distributed Project Gutenberg eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00655", "bookId": 852, "start": 861750, "end": 862024, "sha256": "ec1ea19888d48cc687b70f7239113fd0f0e9bb43519ccab3fc672a9c56fcb87d", "text": "Project Gutenberg eBooks are often created from several printed editions, all of which are confirmed as not protected by copyright in the U.S. unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not necessarily keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG852.B00656", "bookId": 852, "start": 862028, "end": 862119, "sha256": "b76474bd1e2179c1ed00b4d5c0b8064a5856352e17258aa0f38153786367ec56", "text": "Most people start at our website which has the main PG search facility: www.gutenberg.org.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG852.B00657", "bookId": 852, "start": 862123, "end": 862377, "sha256": "a5f263b5816b0daf197ac5859f41c975c6f69bae7f1d4442728ab7bd500d57eb", "text": "This website includes information about Project Gutenberg, including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00001", "bookId": 84, "start": 0, "end": 47, "sha256": "4f96e098ddb22b353ab0f20ad9182f17cf86bcffd0d9df8745e7a8f580cc3c8c", "text": "*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 84 ***", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG84.B00002", "bookId": 84, "start": 49, "end": 62, "sha256": "9ef17a1f745d056e0773dde11880501d5a4d18eca81f611cc31e5007f5ea3f5f", "text": "Frankenstein;", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG84.B00003", "bookId": 84, "start": 64, "end": 89, "sha256": "93a8d89b44d9ec95dd67e2903749f6bb08e2f7ea55808a38575499df5c97c623", "text": "or, the Modern Prometheus", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG84.B00004", "bookId": 84, "start": 91, "end": 130, "sha256": "41afbfd5b67da2eaea7f71b140a90562532fce8d407e99b5fe26641df51f39a0", "text": "by Mary Wollstonecraft (Godwin) Shelley", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG84.B00005", "bookId": 84, "start": 134, "end": 142, "sha256": "eabe6aca2f0dcdbddb32c8f06e6edfa1b78618efaf57d677950d443b91d99175", "text": "CONTENTS", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG84.B00006", "bookId": 84, "start": 145, "end": 462, "sha256": "eafd33d2392cc797b34c86e6baed81954b1791e56ef8f58abc977ce39314ffe0", "text": "Letter 1 Letter 2 Letter 3 Letter 4 Chapter 1 Chapter 2 Chapter 3 Chapter 4 Chapter 5 Chapter 6 Chapter 7 Chapter 8 Chapter 9 Chapter 10 Chapter 11 Chapter 12 Chapter 13 Chapter 14 Chapter 15 Chapter 16 Chapter 17 Chapter 18 Chapter 19 Chapter 20 Chapter 21 Chapter 22 Chapter 23 Chapter 24", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00007", "bookId": 84, "start": 467, "end": 475, "sha256": "2c758abf109836c7f8dbd1757f6a2a1b713dea74252ee21d286c2106efcc9716", "text": "Letter 1", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG84.B00008", "bookId": 84, "start": 477, "end": 504, "sha256": "0cbbd855d6c9e5118ceadb7c48b3cc6890dec7777cae1d3ba7fd7f681e33c168", "text": "_To Mrs. Saville, England._", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG84.B00009", "bookId": 84, "start": 507, "end": 541, "sha256": "3101e6517c85a2824013201ccaa201b0ad1268fc6b50c48d8ebfa256870d4439", "text": "St. Petersburgh, Dec. 11th, 17—.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG84.B00010", "bookId": 84, "start": 544, "end": 833, "sha256": "3c16ab06a87b1cb1d022b0c97215a1902d629c31577ad51c1ee92ac3063eaae2", "text": "You will rejoice to hear that no disaster has accompanied the commencement of an enterprise which you have regarded with such evil forebodings. I arrived here yesterday, and my first task is to assure my dear sister of my welfare and increasing confidence in the success of my undertaking.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00011", "bookId": 84, "start": 835, "end": 3039, "sha256": "e3710eeb37edd123fd6c53f4f5f37941933b6334e73712552f1dd065ef941518", "text": "I am already far north of London, and as I walk in the streets of Petersburgh, I feel a cold northern breeze play upon my cheeks, which braces my nerves and fills me with delight. Do you understand this feeling? This breeze, which has travelled from the regions towards which I am advancing, gives me a foretaste of those icy climes. Inspirited by this wind of promise, my daydreams become more fervent and vivid. I try in vain to be persuaded that the pole is the seat of frost and desolation; it ever presents itself to my imagination as the region of beauty and delight. There, Margaret, the sun is for ever visible, its broad disk just skirting the horizon and diffusing a perpetual splendour. There—for with your leave, my sister, I will put some trust in preceding navigators—there snow and frost are banished; and, sailing over a calm sea, we may be wafted to a land surpassing in wonders and in beauty every region hitherto discovered on the habitable globe. Its productions and features may be without example, as the phenomena of the heavenly bodies undoubtedly are in those undiscovered solitudes. What may not be expected in a country of eternal light? I may there discover the wondrous power which attracts the needle and may regulate a thousand celestial observations that require only this voyage to render their seeming eccentricities consistent for ever. I shall satiate my ardent curiosity with the sight of a part of the world never before visited, and may tread a land never before imprinted by the foot of man. These are my enticements, and they are sufficient to conquer all fear of danger or death and to induce me to commence this laborious voyage with the joy a child feels when he embarks in a little boat, with his holiday mates, on an expedition of discovery up his native river. But supposing all these conjectures to be false, you cannot contest the inestimable benefit which I shall confer on all mankind, to the last generation, by discovering a passage near the pole to those countries, to reach which at present so many months are requisite; or by ascertaining the secret of the magnet, which, if at all possible, can only be effected by an undertaking such as mine.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00012", "bookId": 84, "start": 3041, "end": 4011, "sha256": "09e82ec6f1f5401766f8c265f94f6706007c70457150e1e9e88a50dc565a8945", "text": "These reflections have dispelled the agitation with which I began my letter, and I feel my heart glow with an enthusiasm which elevates me to heaven, for nothing contributes so much to tranquillise the mind as a steady purpose—a point on which the soul may fix its intellectual eye. This expedition has been the favourite dream of my early years. I have read with ardour the accounts of the various voyages which have been made in the prospect of arriving at the North Pacific Ocean through the seas which surround the pole. You may remember that a history of all the voyages made for purposes of discovery composed the whole of our good Uncle Thomas’ library. My education was neglected, yet I was passionately fond of reading. These volumes were my study day and night, and my familiarity with them increased that regret which I had felt, as a child, on learning that my father’s dying injunction had forbidden my uncle to allow me to embark in a seafaring life.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00013", "bookId": 84, "start": 4013, "end": 4544, "sha256": "245d58f0fdfd04193cbcce6117168726a372643a78678a73557ca85f96ffe076", "text": "These visions faded when I perused, for the first time, those poets whose effusions entranced my soul and lifted it to heaven. I also became a poet and for one year lived in a paradise of my own creation; I imagined that I also might obtain a niche in the temple where the names of Homer and Shakespeare are consecrated. You are well acquainted with my failure and how heavily I bore the disappointment. But just at that time I inherited the fortune of my cousin, and my thoughts were turned into the channel of their earlier bent.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00014", "bookId": 84, "start": 4546, "end": 5432, "sha256": "e82201d37b9bef083f747e4a9134473a69826d2ad5783b3dba1f260802789f9b", "text": "Six years have passed since I resolved on my present undertaking. I can, even now, remember the hour from which I dedicated myself to this great enterprise. I commenced by inuring my body to hardship. I accompanied the whale-fishers on several expeditions to the North Sea; I voluntarily endured cold, famine, thirst, and want of sleep; I often worked harder than the common sailors during the day and devoted my nights to the study of mathematics, the theory of medicine, and those branches of physical science from which a naval adventurer might derive the greatest practical advantage. Twice I actually hired myself as an under-mate in a Greenland whaler, and acquitted myself to admiration. I must own I felt a little proud when my captain offered me the second dignity in the vessel and entreated me to remain with the greatest earnestness, so valuable did he consider my services.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00015", "bookId": 84, "start": 5434, "end": 6017, "sha256": "5345e7d17ce66591bfaca6f44069b64e6b7eabcd279094b28ecb89362ed166c9", "text": "And now, dear Margaret, do I not deserve to accomplish some great purpose? My life might have been passed in ease and luxury, but I preferred glory to every enticement that wealth placed in my path. Oh, that some encouraging voice would answer in the affirmative! My courage and my resolution is firm; but my hopes fluctuate, and my spirits are often depressed. I am about to proceed on a long and difficult voyage, the emergencies of which will demand all my fortitude: I am required not only to raise the spirits of others, but sometimes to sustain my own, when theirs are failing.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00016", "bookId": 84, "start": 6019, "end": 6586, "sha256": "3296382b0f9e6f98a56eaa15a17c27512a267bc0e50a6039d51c45444075841e", "text": "This is the most favourable period for travelling in Russia. They fly quickly over the snow in their sledges; the motion is pleasant, and, in my opinion, far more agreeable than that of an English stagecoach. The cold is not excessive, if you are wrapped in furs—a dress which I have already adopted, for there is a great difference between walking the deck and remaining seated motionless for hours, when no exercise prevents the blood from actually freezing in your veins. I have no ambition to lose my life on the post-road between St. Petersburgh and Archangel.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00017", "bookId": 84, "start": 6588, "end": 7120, "sha256": "aa11555b22a17d959fd775c25f6020bbcd673098f1f8590ce83c18c56e5662d7", "text": "I shall depart for the latter town in a fortnight or three weeks; and my intention is to hire a ship there, which can easily be done by paying the insurance for the owner, and to engage as many sailors as I think necessary among those who are accustomed to the whale-fishing. I do not intend to sail until the month of June; and when shall I return? Ah, dear sister, how can I answer this question? If I succeed, many, many months, perhaps years, will pass before you and I may meet. If I fail, you will see me again soon, or never.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00018", "bookId": 84, "start": 7122, "end": 7290, "sha256": "404bee693bd68067bc615e6de07dcb828c5a35ffc09b3da706913678dfd260af", "text": "Farewell, my dear, excellent Margaret. Heaven shower down blessings on you, and save me, that I may again and again testify my gratitude for all your love and kindness.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00019", "bookId": 84, "start": 7292, "end": 7318, "sha256": "422e85ec59c5e3efeb60cbb529c980b47eee0aa988482624442e8a2e57e34fd8", "text": "Your affectionate brother,", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG84.B00020", "bookId": 84, "start": 7320, "end": 7329, "sha256": "7a5a929af8e327054aa930676e6215e3d8cb4b39ea6ba9ae8771da6a9f282a0c", "text": "R. Walton", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG84.B00021", "bookId": 84, "start": 7334, "end": 7342, "sha256": "b235260fd5f4dd37bcbf6eee651a16f57c2a28d7e72b7e14384eaec8c84cc078", "text": "Letter 2", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG84.B00022", "bookId": 84, "start": 7344, "end": 7371, "sha256": "0cbbd855d6c9e5118ceadb7c48b3cc6890dec7777cae1d3ba7fd7f681e33c168", "text": "_To Mrs. Saville, England._", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG84.B00023", "bookId": 84, "start": 7373, "end": 7402, "sha256": "fe34da8b340ceefe85943aabc33f3b978feec7e2c435b57773c2ba70479a1f14", "text": "Archangel, 28th March, 17—.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG84.B00024", "bookId": 84, "start": 7405, "end": 7712, "sha256": "1ffc8a24c083e1aad07122ae6ad8493298dc62f0de6d9b6bc5808baa490b3aea", "text": "How slowly the time passes here, encompassed as I am by frost and snow! Yet a second step is taken towards my enterprise. I have hired a vessel and am occupied in collecting my sailors; those whom I have already engaged appear to be men on whom I can depend and are certainly possessed of dauntless courage.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00025", "bookId": 84, "start": 7714, "end": 9498, "sha256": "35df24b1a3d35b85d131e247399864eb9e16003228b5741f34ef3b43b8b431e2", "text": "But I have one want which I have never yet been able to satisfy, and the absence of the object of which I now feel as a most severe evil, I have no friend, Margaret: when I am glowing with the enthusiasm of success, there will be none to participate my joy; if I am assailed by disappointment, no one will endeavour to sustain me in dejection. I shall commit my thoughts to paper, it is true; but that is a poor medium for the communication of feeling. I desire the company of a man who could sympathise with me, whose eyes would reply to mine. You may deem me romantic, my dear sister, but I bitterly feel the want of a friend. I have no one near me, gentle yet courageous, possessed of a cultivated as well as of a capacious mind, whose tastes are like my own, to approve or amend my plans. How would such a friend repair the faults of your poor brother! I am too ardent in execution and too impatient of difficulties. But it is a still greater evil to me that I am self-educated: for the first fourteen years of my life I ran wild on a common and read nothing but our Uncle Thomas’ books of voyages. At that age I became acquainted with the celebrated poets of our own country; but it was only when it had ceased to be in my power to derive its most important benefits from such a conviction that I perceived the necessity of becoming acquainted with more languages than that of my native country. Now I am twenty-eight and am in reality more illiterate than many schoolboys of fifteen. It is true that I have thought more and that my daydreams are more extended and magnificent, but they want (as the painters call it) _keeping;_ and I greatly need a friend who would have sense enough not to despise me as romantic, and affection enough for me to endeavour to regulate my mind.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00026", "bookId": 84, "start": 9500, "end": 10241, "sha256": "85c559deaff5ea4218ee3536adb0271f83a9ed2c2c0fce4d18eedbf565f53e7d", "text": "Well, these are useless complaints; I shall certainly find no friend on the wide ocean, nor even here in Archangel, among merchants and seamen. Yet some feelings, unallied to the dross of human nature, beat even in these rugged bosoms. My lieutenant, for instance, is a man of wonderful courage and enterprise; he is madly desirous of glory, or rather, to word my phrase more characteristically, of advancement in his profession. He is an Englishman, and in the midst of national and professional prejudices, unsoftened by cultivation, retains some of the noblest endowments of humanity. I first became acquainted with him on board a whale vessel; finding that he was unemployed in this city, I easily engaged him to assist in my enterprise.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00027", "bookId": 84, "start": 10243, "end": 12504, "sha256": "2dbfb6550c8b89ec9751efadb3154035c7a58b7a104f4a217f0778e584e0329c", "text": "The master is a person of an excellent disposition and is remarkable in the ship for his gentleness and the mildness of his discipline. This circumstance, added to his well-known integrity and dauntless courage, made me very desirous to engage him. A youth passed in solitude, my best years spent under your gentle and feminine fosterage, has so refined the groundwork of my character that I cannot overcome an intense distaste to the usual brutality exercised on board ship: I have never believed it to be necessary, and when I heard of a mariner equally noted for his kindliness of heart and the respect and obedience paid to him by his crew, I felt myself peculiarly fortunate in being able to secure his services. I heard of him first in rather a romantic manner, from a lady who owes to him the happiness of her life. This, briefly, is his story. Some years ago he loved a young Russian lady of moderate fortune, and having amassed a considerable sum in prize-money, the father of the girl consented to the match. He saw his mistress once before the destined ceremony; but she was bathed in tears, and throwing herself at his feet, entreated him to spare her, confessing at the same time that she loved another, but that he was poor, and that her father would never consent to the union. My generous friend reassured the suppliant, and on being informed of the name of her lover, instantly abandoned his pursuit. He had already bought a farm with his money, on which he had designed to pass the remainder of his life; but he bestowed the whole on his rival, together with the remains of his prize-money to purchase stock, and then himself solicited the young woman’s father to consent to her marriage with her lover. But the old man decidedly refused, thinking himself bound in honour to my friend, who, when he found the father inexorable, quitted his country, nor returned until he heard that his former mistress was married according to her inclinations. “What a noble fellow!” you will exclaim. He is so; but then he is wholly uneducated: he is as silent as a Turk, and a kind of ignorant carelessness attends him, which, while it renders his conduct the more astonishing, detracts from the interest and sympathy which otherwise he would command.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00028", "bookId": 84, "start": 12506, "end": 13101, "sha256": "dfd2238ce82a6c03ad2fb1954f787016e5fc33c30e4b33bf04d68094228cc760", "text": "Yet do not suppose, because I complain a little or because I can conceive a consolation for my toils which I may never know, that I am wavering in my resolutions. Those are as fixed as fate, and my voyage is only now delayed until the weather shall permit my embarkation. The winter has been dreadfully severe, but the spring promises well, and it is considered as a remarkably early season, so that perhaps I may sail sooner than I expected. I shall do nothing rashly: you know me sufficiently to confide in my prudence and considerateness whenever the safety of others is committed to my care.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00029", "bookId": 84, "start": 13103, "end": 14175, "sha256": "6d9273e6e35583edd711fb82f9abe148c4dcf850c72ff11b3e715d4747521551", "text": "I cannot describe to you my sensations on the near prospect of my undertaking. It is impossible to communicate to you a conception of the trembling sensation, half pleasurable and half fearful, with which I am preparing to depart. I am going to unexplored regions, to “the land of mist and snow,” but I shall kill no albatross; therefore do not be alarmed for my safety or if I should come back to you as worn and woeful as the “Ancient Mariner.” You will smile at my allusion, but I will disclose a secret. I have often attributed my attachment to, my passionate enthusiasm for, the dangerous mysteries of ocean to that production of the most imaginative of modern poets. There is something at work in my soul which I do not understand. I am practically industrious—painstaking, a workman to execute with perseverance and labour—but besides this there is a love for the marvellous, a belief in the marvellous, intertwined in all my projects, which hurries me out of the common pathways of men, even to the wild sea and unvisited regions I am about to explore.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00030", "bookId": 84, "start": 14177, "end": 14671, "sha256": "7758369a8767d59390126e42abbd03a62eb49114abcf934d62dc2c3a5ba13fe2", "text": "But to return to dearer considerations. Shall I meet you again, after having traversed immense seas, and returned by the most southern cape of Africa or America? I dare not expect such success, yet I cannot bear to look on the reverse of the picture. Continue for the present to write to me by every opportunity: I may receive your letters on some occasions when I need them most to support my spirits. I love you very tenderly. Remember me with affection, should you never hear from me again.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00031", "bookId": 84, "start": 14673, "end": 14714, "sha256": "c2af96e5b9e15a5194228de0b0ee4ce30a03a844001fd10378d1b1226fc472f0", "text": "Your affectionate brother, Robert Walton", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG84.B00032", "bookId": 84, "start": 14719, "end": 14727, "sha256": "53552226482d00c8b608ea8925707e6b0989e1de5e9682732abd65da867d8209", "text": "Letter 3", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG84.B00033", "bookId": 84, "start": 14729, "end": 14756, "sha256": "0cbbd855d6c9e5118ceadb7c48b3cc6890dec7777cae1d3ba7fd7f681e33c168", "text": "_To Mrs. Saville, England._", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG84.B00034", "bookId": 84, "start": 14758, "end": 14774, "sha256": "35242ac7704b23f7aa9492b49cf93d367b9ea837d9449cd5083fa5428f4af9c6", "text": "July 7th, 17—.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG84.B00035", "bookId": 84, "start": 14777, "end": 14792, "sha256": "0520543187baf9f15af610874b3b8ea619b3ba5faa8788b4ef585f8ff17594f4", "text": "My dear Sister,", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG84.B00036", "bookId": 84, "start": 14794, "end": 15565, "sha256": "c3cd93e109149ff8a7f2cec0927ce0706fd14fe65ad9a84b226837719342759d", "text": "I write a few lines in haste to say that I am safe—and well advanced on my voyage. This letter will reach England by a merchantman now on its homeward voyage from Archangel; more fortunate than I, who may not see my native land, perhaps, for many years. I am, however, in good spirits: my men are bold and apparently firm of purpose, nor do the floating sheets of ice that continually pass us, indicating the dangers of the region towards which we are advancing, appear to dismay them. We have already reached a very high latitude; but it is the height of summer, and although not so warm as in England, the southern gales, which blow us speedily towards those shores which I so ardently desire to attain, breathe a degree of renovating warmth which I had not expected.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00037", "bookId": 84, "start": 15567, "end": 15843, "sha256": "ad43fc02635bfdb1479207078224321c97bee06141adaf73452ca413d1840e60", "text": "No incidents have hitherto befallen us that would make a figure in a letter. One or two stiff gales and the springing of a leak are accidents which experienced navigators scarcely remember to record, and I shall be well content if nothing worse happen to us during our voyage.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00038", "bookId": 84, "start": 15845, "end": 15998, "sha256": "22689a96adf89b07f8fc5032c575754a06ec39aabbc22be2d4da0e2c89818d5a", "text": "Adieu, my dear Margaret. Be assured that for my own sake, as well as yours, I will not rashly encounter danger. I will be cool, persevering, and prudent.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00039", "bookId": 84, "start": 16000, "end": 16317, "sha256": "61e93de3e97bf1a0bad1524c725ded85afc4735b9dc8e0c9aa251fb6bc10ae77", "text": "But success _shall_ crown my endeavours. Wherefore not? Thus far I have gone, tracing a secure way over the pathless seas, the very stars themselves being witnesses and testimonies of my triumph. Why not still proceed over the untamed yet obedient element? What can stop the determined heart and resolved will of man?", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00040", "bookId": 84, "start": 16319, "end": 16424, "sha256": "fa4fff6c42f528251d7746f22aa4c8ebb8aaa3f2d33fa0986fbc40d3c8ac5aae", "text": "My swelling heart involuntarily pours itself out thus. But I must finish. Heaven bless my beloved sister!", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG84.B00041", "bookId": 84, "start": 16426, "end": 16430, "sha256": "11590ec92914c24c03b7a039accd7f88d5598a9ae2699254babd2e95ccb80b27", "text": "R.W.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG84.B00042", "bookId": 84, "start": 16435, "end": 16443, "sha256": "2e7cc8bbd25ea851f47a24b092e63a24e75b179dbb51d666df0ddcc3d9d1bcb4", "text": "Letter 4", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG84.B00043", "bookId": 84, "start": 16446, "end": 16473, "sha256": "0cbbd855d6c9e5118ceadb7c48b3cc6890dec7777cae1d3ba7fd7f681e33c168", "text": "_To Mrs. Saville, England._", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG84.B00044", "bookId": 84, "start": 16475, "end": 16493, "sha256": "0dff46efd1b662edb9a457ce75c447182a40bb9ed3c779c764b2f500126b45d9", "text": "August 5th, 17—.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG84.B00045", "bookId": 84, "start": 16495, "end": 16673, "sha256": "5f75902a6ea212895191d9a8151da7a34686f8265dbe3edefa782a9b5746c016", "text": "So strange an accident has happened to us that I cannot forbear recording it, although it is very probable that you will see me before these papers can come into your possession.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00046", "bookId": 84, "start": 16675, "end": 17019, "sha256": "74561ff17032fafbc9d931ae6af94de109f6ff7ff4f3511c7226340adac84fa3", "text": "Last Monday (July 31st) we were nearly surrounded by ice, which closed in the ship on all sides, scarcely leaving her the sea-room in which she floated. Our situation was somewhat dangerous, especially as we were compassed round by a very thick fog. We accordingly lay to, hoping that some change would take place in the atmosphere and weather.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00047", "bookId": 84, "start": 17021, "end": 17738, "sha256": "92db966d74019777d95a7eade34642fb4aeed49341191b25a4416299be5414cb", "text": "About two o’clock the mist cleared away, and we beheld, stretched out in every direction, vast and irregular plains of ice, which seemed to have no end. Some of my comrades groaned, and my own mind began to grow watchful with anxious thoughts, when a strange sight suddenly attracted our attention and diverted our solicitude from our own situation. We perceived a low carriage, fixed on a sledge and drawn by dogs, pass on towards the north, at the distance of half a mile; a being which had the shape of a man, but apparently of gigantic stature, sat in the sledge and guided the dogs. We watched the rapid progress of the traveller with our telescopes until he was lost among the distant inequalities of the ice.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00048", "bookId": 84, "start": 17740, "end": 18059, "sha256": "7a76d39e248224ac24fd1d89019dc56dd153af71007a288bbbc11c8f86267823", "text": "This appearance excited our unqualified wonder. We were, as we believed, many hundred miles from any land; but this apparition seemed to denote that it was not, in reality, so distant as we had supposed. Shut in, however, by ice, it was impossible to follow his track, which we had observed with the greatest attention.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00049", "bookId": 84, "start": 18061, "end": 18372, "sha256": "1e97b1ab50262a73df12a52651375deddc54226619b0fbad6ba0bdfb1dc7ead7", "text": "About two hours after this occurrence we heard the ground sea, and before night the ice broke and freed our ship. We, however, lay to until the morning, fearing to encounter in the dark those large loose masses which float about after the breaking up of the ice. I profited of this time to rest for a few hours.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00050", "bookId": 84, "start": 18374, "end": 19023, "sha256": "2be9437f7ed3bbcf707fdffe1dfe5cf940ac559e6b8d1173a39fad04591f6491", "text": "In the morning, however, as soon as it was light, I went upon deck and found all the sailors busy on one side of the vessel, apparently talking to someone in the sea. It was, in fact, a sledge, like that we had seen before, which had drifted towards us in the night on a large fragment of ice. Only one dog remained alive; but there was a human being within it whom the sailors were persuading to enter the vessel. He was not, as the other traveller seemed to be, a savage inhabitant of some undiscovered island, but a European. When I appeared on deck the master said, “Here is our captain, and he will not allow you to perish on the open sea.”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00051", "bookId": 84, "start": 19025, "end": 19232, "sha256": "d9b91eba59a1e468d9229ba1e6bcbafe2a35183c76d9b844a5d342fe265e51c1", "text": "On perceiving me, the stranger addressed me in English, although with a foreign accent. “Before I come on board your vessel,” said he, “will you have the kindness to inform me whither you are bound?”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00052", "bookId": 84, "start": 19234, "end": 19595, "sha256": "5c04e9b744474c116e8a78f8d1652fc537cc5e638f60332e059785c6cce03164", "text": "You may conceive my astonishment on hearing such a question addressed to me from a man on the brink of destruction and to whom I should have supposed that my vessel would have been a resource which he would not have exchanged for the most precious wealth the earth can afford. I replied, however, that we were on a voyage of discovery towards the northern pole.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00053", "bookId": 84, "start": 19597, "end": 20373, "sha256": "0b647b8bb3b6b90c0147c5e986dc55b48841fdc0fbd57336ba9ebe0335d0c850", "text": "Upon hearing this he appeared satisfied and consented to come on board. Good God! Margaret, if you had seen the man who thus capitulated for his safety, your surprise would have been boundless. His limbs were nearly frozen, and his body dreadfully emaciated by fatigue and suffering. I never saw a man in so wretched a condition. We attempted to carry him into the cabin, but as soon as he had quitted the fresh air he fainted. We accordingly brought him back to the deck and restored him to animation by rubbing him with brandy and forcing him to swallow a small quantity. As soon as he showed signs of life we wrapped him up in blankets and placed him near the chimney of the kitchen stove. By slow degrees he recovered and ate a little soup, which restored him wonderfully.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00054", "bookId": 84, "start": 20375, "end": 21119, "sha256": "3ad90c8474f2b5c91a0f271eece347d2fab4f965b271880c81096bce5f0fe714", "text": "Two days passed in this manner before he was able to speak, and I often feared that his sufferings had deprived him of understanding. When he had in some measure recovered, I removed him to my own cabin and attended on him as much as my duty would permit. I never saw a more interesting creature: his eyes have generally an expression of wildness, and even madness, but there are moments when, if anyone performs an act of kindness towards him or does him any the most trifling service, his whole countenance is lighted up, as it were, with a beam of benevolence and sweetness that I never saw equalled. But he is generally melancholy and despairing, and sometimes he gnashes his teeth, as if impatient of the weight of woes that oppresses him.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00055", "bookId": 84, "start": 21121, "end": 21491, "sha256": "107d1240a9e063891660cd80e5119c62a7fee574ae78cde555dc12ea3cdeea64", "text": "When my guest was a little recovered I had great trouble to keep off the men, who wished to ask him a thousand questions; but I would not allow him to be tormented by their idle curiosity, in a state of body and mind whose restoration evidently depended upon entire repose. Once, however, the lieutenant asked why he had come so far upon the ice in so strange a vehicle.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00056", "bookId": 84, "start": 21493, "end": 21610, "sha256": "b906e5c4051e9c04622bbab0ae6eea677d785bc62e1a66b231fbd929417d984a", "text": "His countenance instantly assumed an aspect of the deepest gloom, and he replied, “To seek one who fled from me.”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00057", "bookId": 84, "start": 21612, "end": 21678, "sha256": "a422952c10c0c9c28e99456bfb4762e973a442c2b55d92835e465fcba024228c", "text": "“And did the man whom you pursued travel in the same fashion?”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG84.B00058", "bookId": 84, "start": 21680, "end": 21690, "sha256": "838a04296799794f4e1a85c40540fd52027a3aa3d6a1cd735f69b489839212cf", "text": "“Yes.”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG84.B00059", "bookId": 84, "start": 21692, "end": 21833, "sha256": "578e33269cc86992d9288dd14219347be51863b04a5361d7de5e643e29f658e8", "text": "“Then I fancy we have seen him, for the day before we picked you up we saw some dogs drawing a sledge, with a man in it, across the ice.”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00060", "bookId": 84, "start": 21835, "end": 22165, "sha256": "7c42065d02886dcd709bed85032bcc8bf154d582740a2d018fef06516a4ccf32", "text": "This aroused the stranger’s attention, and he asked a multitude of questions concerning the route which the dæmon, as he called him, had pursued. Soon after, when he was alone with me, he said, “I have, doubtless, excited your curiosity, as well as that of these good people; but you are too considerate to make inquiries.”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00061", "bookId": 84, "start": 22167, "end": 22286, "sha256": "a8c50d25bbf3fcf21c358da0f2a9cdbcb254c6d3beb9d7f0d159984a8bc778c9", "text": "“Certainly; it would indeed be very impertinent and inhuman in me to trouble you with any inquisitiveness of mine.”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00062", "bookId": 84, "start": 22288, "end": 22398, "sha256": "81e4f6ba6abd70b72c9e3512a58eb4c2e453a7bde4a5679f3858d1be89192e32", "text": "“And yet you rescued me from a strange and perilous situation; you have benevolently restored me to life.”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG84.B00063", "bookId": 84, "start": 22400, "end": 22723, "sha256": "36951a7b3f96c970b601108b7f23f96fdb3ec036067b3be70e50189fe3ec7907", "text": "Soon after this he inquired if I thought that the breaking up of the ice had destroyed the other sledge. I replied that I could not answer with any degree of certainty, for the ice had not broken until near midnight, and the traveller might have arrived at a place of safety before that time; but of this I could not judge.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00064", "bookId": 84, "start": 22725, "end": 23143, "sha256": "ac0488af42d59e65d3209526520c44df031bcdeb94bd31bdaf564bcb5b9e5034", "text": "From this time a new spirit of life animated the decaying frame of the stranger. He manifested the greatest eagerness to be upon deck to watch for the sledge which had before appeared; but I have persuaded him to remain in the cabin, for he is far too weak to sustain the rawness of the atmosphere. I have promised that someone should watch for him and give him instant notice if any new object should appear in sight.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00065", "bookId": 84, "start": 23145, "end": 23735, "sha256": "1da59aa6295549a2b90800befdc0070ac35f94e6936fbad6847fce18e62a817a", "text": "Such is my journal of what relates to this strange occurrence up to the present day. The stranger has gradually improved in health but is very silent and appears uneasy when anyone except myself enters his cabin. Yet his manners are so conciliating and gentle that the sailors are all interested in him, although they have had very little communication with him. For my own part, I begin to love him as a brother, and his constant and deep grief fills me with sympathy and compassion. He must have been a noble creature in his better days, being even now in wreck so attractive and amiable.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00066", "bookId": 84, "start": 23737, "end": 23975, "sha256": "50810f256fbb51ba0419a5a08056b77f1914795e005513674f84b8b06b366358", "text": "I said in one of my letters, my dear Margaret, that I should find no friend on the wide ocean; yet I have found a man who, before his spirit had been broken by misery, I should have been happy to have possessed as the brother of my heart.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00067", "bookId": 84, "start": 23977, "end": 24087, "sha256": "86202fd19df3c90335ac4c53cf07dc3473b1469fb94a738c1210da1a099f72da", "text": "I shall continue my journal concerning the stranger at intervals, should I have any fresh incidents to record.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00068", "bookId": 84, "start": 24092, "end": 24111, "sha256": "326f72efdfe82d8db6f1c9360e0c6b641a9a43adc02a9b9cc50ce46a3b963cdb", "text": "August 13th, 17—.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG84.B00069", "bookId": 84, "start": 24114, "end": 24512, "sha256": "59345443714b112a453928270585a7203a0ffcb9a96527ae55ff853e3bcc3801", "text": "My affection for my guest increases every day. He excites at once my admiration and my pity to an astonishing degree. How can I see so noble a creature destroyed by misery without feeling the most poignant grief? He is so gentle, yet so wise; his mind is so cultivated, and when he speaks, although his words are culled with the choicest art, yet they flow with rapidity and unparalleled eloquence.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00070", "bookId": 84, "start": 24514, "end": 26019, "sha256": "8b747d0859d77abf5510c09cfe7227d1738caae90f55e8a16ec920974fc0a091", "text": "He is now much recovered from his illness and is continually on the deck, apparently watching for the sledge that preceded his own. Yet, although unhappy, he is not so utterly occupied by his own misery but that he interests himself deeply in the projects of others. He has frequently conversed with me on mine, which I have communicated to him without disguise. He entered attentively into all my arguments in favour of my eventual success and into every minute detail of the measures I had taken to secure it. I was easily led by the sympathy which he evinced to use the language of my heart, to give utterance to the burning ardour of my soul and to say, with all the fervour that warmed me, how gladly I would sacrifice my fortune, my existence, my every hope, to the furtherance of my enterprise. One man’s life or death were but a small price to pay for the acquirement of the knowledge which I sought, for the dominion I should acquire and transmit over the elemental foes of our race. As I spoke, a dark gloom spread over my listener’s countenance. At first I perceived that he tried to suppress his emotion; he placed his hands before his eyes, and my voice quivered and failed me as I beheld tears trickle fast from between his fingers; a groan burst from his heaving breast. I paused; at length he spoke, in broken accents: “Unhappy man! Do you share my madness? Have you drunk also of the intoxicating draught? Hear me; let me reveal my tale, and you will dash the cup from your lips!”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00071", "bookId": 84, "start": 26021, "end": 26257, "sha256": "ff78f2863492d4e7730ea234f6cb62de594afb8210dc595834eb1c23185f2e09", "text": "Such words, you may imagine, strongly excited my curiosity; but the paroxysm of grief that had seized the stranger overcame his weakened powers, and many hours of repose and tranquil conversation were necessary to restore his composure.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00072", "bookId": 84, "start": 26259, "end": 26825, "sha256": "99b300f6f14ae3c3cf3c2f3fd66bfe7f2b981b0f3bf28977246f536f4432c35b", "text": "Having conquered the violence of his feelings, he appeared to despise himself for being the slave of passion; and quelling the dark tyranny of despair, he led me again to converse concerning myself personally. He asked me the history of my earlier years. The tale was quickly told, but it awakened various trains of reflection. I spoke of my desire of finding a friend, of my thirst for a more intimate sympathy with a fellow mind than had ever fallen to my lot, and expressed my conviction that a man could boast of little happiness who did not enjoy this blessing.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00073", "bookId": 84, "start": 26827, "end": 27313, "sha256": "972f15ee6548606f1b434296be04afbb32da3d4d4f807d6952b9fad4f5d2465f", "text": "“I agree with you,” replied the stranger; “we are unfashioned creatures, but half made up, if one wiser, better, dearer than ourselves—such a friend ought to be—do not lend his aid to perfectionate our weak and faulty natures. I once had a friend, the most noble of human creatures, and am entitled, therefore, to judge respecting friendship. You have hope, and the world before you, and have no cause for despair. But I—I have lost everything and cannot begin life anew.”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00074", "bookId": 84, "start": 27315, "end": 27473, "sha256": "1c78c12a0290f27ab35db23405e258f9c6b10a06ad4ec54df750d5a1c138d143", "text": "As he said this his countenance became expressive of a calm, settled grief that touched me to the heart. But he was silent and presently retired to his cabin.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00075", "bookId": 84, "start": 27475, "end": 27955, "sha256": "3e6cfb921f939518d5822d472e4738cbd1e79df3ad7060553046da68d8c1f80d", "text": "Even broken in spirit as he is, no one can feel more deeply than he does the beauties of nature. The starry sky, the sea, and every sight afforded by these wonderful regions seem still to have the power of elevating his soul from earth. Such a man has a double existence: he may suffer misery and be overwhelmed by disappointments, yet when he has retired into himself, he will be like a celestial spirit that has a halo around him, within whose circle no grief or folly ventures.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00076", "bookId": 84, "start": 27957, "end": 28699, "sha256": "02e477c7ec8f470462748a662a242ac4ea6f8582f1ec1d5e07ac65360cb8e076", "text": "Will you smile at the enthusiasm I express concerning this divine wanderer? You would not if you saw him. You have been tutored and refined by books and retirement from the world, and you are therefore somewhat fastidious; but this only renders you the more fit to appreciate the extraordinary merits of this wonderful man. Sometimes I have endeavoured to discover what quality it is which he possesses that elevates him so immeasurably above any other person I ever knew. I believe it to be an intuitive discernment, a quick but never-failing power of judgment, a penetration into the causes of things, unequalled for clearness and precision; add to this a facility of expression and a voice whose varied intonations are soul-subduing music.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00077", "bookId": 84, "start": 28704, "end": 28723, "sha256": "c3a62c647084d4a79ff0cef94e05e1b5a64db609a6349f4ebc837eade069ea15", "text": "August 19th, 17—.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG84.B00078", "bookId": 84, "start": 28726, "end": 29972, "sha256": "e6c2ecb895b496d018dc024e468e8a5831f289328c5070835857a50ffe6e1c55", "text": "Yesterday the stranger said to me, “You may easily perceive, Captain Walton, that I have suffered great and unparalleled misfortunes. I had determined at one time that the memory of these evils should die with me, but you have won me to alter my determination. You seek for knowledge and wisdom, as I once did; and I ardently hope that the gratification of your wishes may not be a serpent to sting you, as mine has been. I do not know that the relation of my disasters will be useful to you; yet, when I reflect that you are pursuing the same course, exposing yourself to the same dangers which have rendered me what I am, I imagine that you may deduce an apt moral from my tale, one that may direct you if you succeed in your undertaking and console you in case of failure. Prepare to hear of occurrences which are usually deemed marvellous. Were we among the tamer scenes of nature I might fear to encounter your unbelief, perhaps your ridicule; but many things will appear possible in these wild and mysterious regions which would provoke the laughter of those unacquainted with the ever-varied powers of nature; nor can I doubt but that my tale conveys in its series internal evidence of the truth of the events of which it is composed.”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00079", "bookId": 84, "start": 29974, "end": 30343, "sha256": "9efa497f8baa459b179e86b29f1b4017485326ad9d351eabf25ee5f1d29a081f", "text": "You may easily imagine that I was much gratified by the offered communication, yet I could not endure that he should renew his grief by a recital of his misfortunes. I felt the greatest eagerness to hear the promised narrative, partly from curiosity and partly from a strong desire to ameliorate his fate if it were in my power. I expressed these feelings in my answer.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00080", "bookId": 84, "start": 30345, "end": 30778, "sha256": "194e75b89e8cda502c5a547a851476c54dbbb5724c5b69442d937754e9b8e7d8", "text": "“I thank you,” he replied, “for your sympathy, but it is useless; my fate is nearly fulfilled. I wait but for one event, and then I shall repose in peace. I understand your feeling,” continued he, perceiving that I wished to interrupt him; “but you are mistaken, my friend, if thus you will allow me to name you; nothing can alter my destiny; listen to my history, and you will perceive how irrevocably it is determined.”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00081", "bookId": 84, "start": 30780, "end": 31713, "sha256": "faedf23928546fb6be2f816107f8f8d252e26d046492c68e1fc902b2d6bb226d", "text": "He then told me that he would commence his narrative the next day when I should be at leisure. This promise drew from me the warmest thanks. I have resolved every night, when I am not imperatively occupied by my duties, to record, as nearly as possible in his own words, what he has related during the day. If I should be engaged, I will at least make notes. This manuscript will doubtless afford you the greatest pleasure; but to me, who know him, and who hear it from his own lips—with what interest and sympathy shall I read it in some future day! Even now, as I commence my task, his full-toned voice swells in my ears; his lustrous eyes dwell on me with all their melancholy sweetness; I see his thin hand raised in animation, while the lineaments of his face are irradiated by the soul within. Strange and harrowing must be his story, frightful the storm which embraced the gallant vessel on its course and wrecked it—thus!", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00082", "bookId": 84, "start": 31718, "end": 31727, "sha256": "3178a647e0f2bcd284eaa96aab1750e61d3211c14aa60f2b45b6bdd27da6a159", "text": "Chapter 1", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG84.B00083", "bookId": 84, "start": 31730, "end": 32294, "sha256": "36ea1a3371b356c1ad3d43e3c917d6591c808d835c721a50edeb417361342a69", "text": "I am by birth a Genevese, and my family is one of the most distinguished of that republic. My ancestors had been for many years counsellors and syndics, and my father had filled several public situations with honour and reputation. He was respected by all who knew him for his integrity and indefatigable attention to public business. He passed his younger days perpetually occupied by the affairs of his country; a variety of circumstances had prevented his marrying early, nor was it until the decline of life that he became a husband and the father of a family.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00084", "bookId": 84, "start": 32296, "end": 33296, "sha256": "bb1ca75c700f0347e13ee218a2c3945923a44714a276a43d5d21c98ddbd256ce", "text": "As the circumstances of his marriage illustrate his character, I cannot refrain from relating them. One of his most intimate friends was a merchant who, from a flourishing state, fell, through numerous mischances, into poverty. This man, whose name was Beaufort, was of a proud and unbending disposition and could not bear to live in poverty and oblivion in the same country where he had formerly been distinguished for his rank and magnificence. Having paid his debts, therefore, in the most honourable manner, he retreated with his daughter to the town of Lucerne, where he lived unknown and in wretchedness. My father loved Beaufort with the truest friendship and was deeply grieved by his retreat in these unfortunate circumstances. He bitterly deplored the false pride which led his friend to a conduct so little worthy of the affection that united them. He lost no time in endeavouring to seek him out, with the hope of persuading him to begin the world again through his credit and assistance.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00085", "bookId": 84, "start": 33298, "end": 34094, "sha256": "e21590d73ef179cb6e5cd7d4555ff0db90e854a51c8d7a16bb6171ac99e4770e", "text": "Beaufort had taken effectual measures to conceal himself, and it was ten months before my father discovered his abode. Overjoyed at this discovery, he hastened to the house, which was situated in a mean street near the Reuss. But when he entered, misery and despair alone welcomed him. Beaufort had saved but a very small sum of money from the wreck of his fortunes, but it was sufficient to provide him with sustenance for some months, and in the meantime he hoped to procure some respectable employment in a merchant’s house. The interval was, consequently, spent in inaction; his grief only became more deep and rankling when he had leisure for reflection, and at length it took so fast hold of his mind that at the end of three months he lay on a bed of sickness, incapable of any exertion.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00086", "bookId": 84, "start": 34096, "end": 34516, "sha256": "5d964527d462ed62c4fc7304600bf5438434d937a75a3182e57c8bb45645a7a6", "text": "His daughter attended him with the greatest tenderness, but she saw with despair that their little fund was rapidly decreasing and that there was no other prospect of support. But Caroline Beaufort possessed a mind of an uncommon mould, and her courage rose to support her in her adversity. She procured plain work; she plaited straw and by various means contrived to earn a pittance scarcely sufficient to support life.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00087", "bookId": 84, "start": 34518, "end": 35131, "sha256": "b16ed2540338d366e2db35bb0c71b6a20c28e2bc584ba9fe66e4660d680c469f", "text": "Several months passed in this manner. Her father grew worse; her time was more entirely occupied in attending him; her means of subsistence decreased; and in the tenth month her father died in her arms, leaving her an orphan and a beggar. This last blow overcame her, and she knelt by Beaufort’s coffin weeping bitterly, when my father entered the chamber. He came like a protecting spirit to the poor girl, who committed herself to his care; and after the interment of his friend he conducted her to Geneva and placed her under the protection of a relation. Two years after this event Caroline became his wife.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00088", "bookId": 84, "start": 35133, "end": 36628, "sha256": "62f5690dd6840eba3584e70452b69bd133c5f157c044410f474d7289773ade87", "text": "There was a considerable difference between the ages of my parents, but this circumstance seemed to unite them only closer in bonds of devoted affection. There was a sense of justice in my father’s upright mind which rendered it necessary that he should approve highly to love strongly. Perhaps during former years he had suffered from the late-discovered unworthiness of one beloved and so was disposed to set a greater value on tried worth. There was a show of gratitude and worship in his attachment to my mother, differing wholly from the doting fondness of age, for it was inspired by reverence for her virtues and a desire to be the means of, in some degree, recompensing her for the sorrows she had endured, but which gave inexpressible grace to his behaviour to her. Everything was made to yield to her wishes and her convenience. He strove to shelter her, as a fair exotic is sheltered by the gardener, from every rougher wind and to surround her with all that could tend to excite pleasurable emotion in her soft and benevolent mind. Her health, and even the tranquillity of her hitherto constant spirit, had been shaken by what she had gone through. During the two years that had elapsed previous to their marriage my father had gradually relinquished all his public functions; and immediately after their union they sought the pleasant climate of Italy, and the change of scene and interest attendant on a tour through that land of wonders, as a restorative for her weakened frame.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00089", "bookId": 84, "start": 36630, "end": 37748, "sha256": "f877d324ba29d9749feaf6ef71c44042bf3576fed57331278acbb9e33a46bd46", "text": "From Italy they visited Germany and France. I, their eldest child, was born at Naples, and as an infant accompanied them in their rambles. I remained for several years their only child. Much as they were attached to each other, they seemed to draw inexhaustible stores of affection from a very mine of love to bestow them upon me. My mother’s tender caresses and my father’s smile of benevolent pleasure while regarding me are my first recollections. I was their plaything and their idol, and something better—their child, the innocent and helpless creature bestowed on them by Heaven, whom to bring up to good, and whose future lot it was in their hands to direct to happiness or misery, according as they fulfilled their duties towards me. With this deep consciousness of what they owed towards the being to which they had given life, added to the active spirit of tenderness that animated both, it may be imagined that while during every hour of my infant life I received a lesson of patience, of charity, and of self-control, I was so guided by a silken cord that all seemed but one train of enjoyment to me.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00090", "bookId": 84, "start": 37750, "end": 39368, "sha256": "f895a3a3152a01795107aa66b8763909460d559c79e2bb8e2a3f6ab2d270a06e", "text": "For a long time I was their only care. My mother had much desired to have a daughter, but I continued their single offspring. When I was about five years old, while making an excursion beyond the frontiers of Italy, they passed a week on the shores of the Lake of Como. Their benevolent disposition often made them enter the cottages of the poor. This, to my mother, was more than a duty; it was a necessity, a passion—remembering what she had suffered, and how she had been relieved—for her to act in her turn the guardian angel to the afflicted. During one of their walks a poor cot in the foldings of a vale attracted their notice as being singularly disconsolate, while the number of half-clothed children gathered about it spoke of penury in its worst shape. One day, when my father had gone by himself to Milan, my mother, accompanied by me, visited this abode. She found a peasant and his wife, hard working, bent down by care and labour, distributing a scanty meal to five hungry babes. Among these there was one which attracted my mother far above all the rest. She appeared of a different stock. The four others were dark-eyed, hardy little vagrants; this child was thin and very fair. Her hair was the brightest living gold, and despite the poverty of her clothing, seemed to set a crown of distinction on her head. Her brow was clear and ample, her blue eyes cloudless, and her lips and the moulding of her face so expressive of sensibility and sweetness that none could behold her without looking on her as of a distinct species, a being heaven-sent, and bearing a celestial stamp in all her features.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00091", "bookId": 84, "start": 39370, "end": 40306, "sha256": "eabc9e3bceab0af7a383a470df80d9469d0c96d238fa20df940897ca601c0b32", "text": "The peasant woman, perceiving that my mother fixed eyes of wonder and admiration on this lovely girl, eagerly communicated her history. She was not her child, but the daughter of a Milanese nobleman. Her mother was a German and had died on giving her birth. The infant had been placed with these good people to nurse: they were better off then. They had not been long married, and their eldest child was but just born. The father of their charge was one of those Italians nursed in the memory of the antique glory of Italy—one among the _schiavi ognor frementi,_ who exerted himself to obtain the liberty of his country. He became the victim of its weakness. Whether he had died or still lingered in the dungeons of Austria was not known. His property was confiscated; his child became an orphan and a beggar. She continued with her foster parents and bloomed in their rude abode, fairer than a garden rose among dark-leaved brambles.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00092", "bookId": 84, "start": 40308, "end": 41101, "sha256": "d7663dd1b560162bd2bc656ab1cae5056b95fbcd8a223106ccaa81c41516c418", "text": "When my father returned from Milan, he found playing with me in the hall of our villa a child fairer than pictured cherub—a creature who seemed to shed radiance from her looks and whose form and motions were lighter than the chamois of the hills. The apparition was soon explained. With his permission my mother prevailed on her rustic guardians to yield their charge to her. They were fond of the sweet orphan. Her presence had seemed a blessing to them, but it would be unfair to her to keep her in poverty and want when Providence afforded her such powerful protection. They consulted their village priest, and the result was that Elizabeth Lavenza became the inmate of my parents’ house—my more than sister—the beautiful and adored companion of all my occupations and my pleasures.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00093", "bookId": 84, "start": 41103, "end": 41908, "sha256": "cdf0ef85cb641245883e0ba79f3581de1ad153d82ece427782d76318abc2d5d4", "text": "Everyone loved Elizabeth. The passionate and almost reverential attachment with which all regarded her became, while I shared it, my pride and my delight. On the evening previous to her being brought to my home, my mother had said playfully, “I have a pretty present for my Victor—tomorrow he shall have it.” And when, on the morrow, she presented Elizabeth to me as her promised gift, I, with childish seriousness, interpreted her words literally and looked upon Elizabeth as mine—mine to protect, love, and cherish. All praises bestowed on her I received as made to a possession of my own. We called each other familiarly by the name of cousin. No word, no expression could body forth the kind of relation in which she stood to me—my more than sister, since till death she was to be mine only.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00094", "bookId": 84, "start": 41913, "end": 41922, "sha256": "11012a8623e958a2b46fc910d209280c789328566b5ab5b3652c71c1ccf7b4fb", "text": "Chapter 2", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG84.B00095", "bookId": 84, "start": 41925, "end": 43129, "sha256": "70d799be7f50ff44010d10482bf4ef9765a75189ce36c7cfbece6789dc4d11b4", "text": "We were brought up together; there was not quite a year difference in our ages. I need not say that we were strangers to any species of disunion or dispute. Harmony was the soul of our companionship, and the diversity and contrast that subsisted in our characters drew us nearer together. Elizabeth was of a calmer and more concentrated disposition; but, with all my ardour, I was capable of a more intense application and was more deeply smitten with the thirst for knowledge. She busied herself with following the aerial creations of the poets; and in the majestic and wondrous scenes which surrounded our Swiss home —the sublime shapes of the mountains, the changes of the seasons, tempest and calm, the silence of winter, and the life and turbulence of our Alpine summers—she found ample scope for admiration and delight. While my companion contemplated with a serious and satisfied spirit the magnificent appearances of things, I delighted in investigating their causes. The world was to me a secret which I desired to divine. Curiosity, earnest research to learn the hidden laws of nature, gladness akin to rapture, as they were unfolded to me, are among the earliest sensations I can remember.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00096", "bookId": 84, "start": 43131, "end": 44332, "sha256": "1a8f4c0cb7247d969f88b6ce3607e5f7b16dfb2a983ae544bec97bd6efffbf88", "text": "On the birth of a second son, my junior by seven years, my parents gave up entirely their wandering life and fixed themselves in their native country. We possessed a house in Geneva, and a _campagne_ on Belrive, the eastern shore of the lake, at the distance of rather more than a league from the city. We resided principally in the latter, and the lives of my parents were passed in considerable seclusion. It was my temper to avoid a crowd and to attach myself fervently to a few. I was indifferent, therefore, to my school-fellows in general; but I united myself in the bonds of the closest friendship to one among them. Henry Clerval was the son of a merchant of Geneva. He was a boy of singular talent and fancy. He loved enterprise, hardship, and even danger for its own sake. He was deeply read in books of chivalry and romance. He composed heroic songs and began to write many a tale of enchantment and knightly adventure. He tried to make us act plays and to enter into masquerades, in which the characters were drawn from the heroes of Roncesvalles, of the Round Table of King Arthur, and the chivalrous train who shed their blood to redeem the holy sepulchre from the hands of the infidels.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00097", "bookId": 84, "start": 44334, "end": 44776, "sha256": "4ba7caf74e56110df05817d3cefd9c9c305caf68d96607f7f6eb082fcd4fd811", "text": "No human being could have passed a happier childhood than myself. My parents were possessed by the very spirit of kindness and indulgence. We felt that they were not the tyrants to rule our lot according to their caprice, but the agents and creators of all the many delights which we enjoyed. When I mingled with other families I distinctly discerned how peculiarly fortunate my lot was, and gratitude assisted the development of filial love.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00098", "bookId": 84, "start": 44778, "end": 45449, "sha256": "fa9208bdd5875c00dcba3cc4f804b70328ff0cc3d8d81cbb3a677673d1d9bcff", "text": "My temper was sometimes violent, and my passions vehement; but by some law in my temperature they were turned not towards childish pursuits but to an eager desire to learn, and not to learn all things indiscriminately. I confess that neither the structure of languages, nor the code of governments, nor the politics of various states possessed attractions for me. It was the secrets of heaven and earth that I desired to learn; and whether it was the outward substance of things or the inner spirit of nature and the mysterious soul of man that occupied me, still my inquiries were directed to the metaphysical, or in its highest sense, the physical secrets of the world.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00099", "bookId": 84, "start": 45451, "end": 46558, "sha256": "f190129e18f6c75f486b458ed9be6b7c72cf109e18ee37628453429279a47c97", "text": "Meanwhile Clerval occupied himself, so to speak, with the moral relations of things. The busy stage of life, the virtues of heroes, and the actions of men were his theme; and his hope and his dream was to become one among those whose names are recorded in story as the gallant and adventurous benefactors of our species. The saintly soul of Elizabeth shone like a shrine-dedicated lamp in our peaceful home. Her sympathy was ours; her smile, her soft voice, the sweet glance of her celestial eyes, were ever there to bless and animate us. She was the living spirit of love to soften and attract; I might have become sullen in my study, rough through the ardour of my nature, but that she was there to subdue me to a semblance of her own gentleness. And Clerval—could aught ill entrench on the noble spirit of Clerval? Yet he might not have been so perfectly humane, so thoughtful in his generosity, so full of kindness and tenderness amidst his passion for adventurous exploit, had she not unfolded to him the real loveliness of beneficence and made the doing good the end and aim of his soaring ambition.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00100", "bookId": 84, "start": 46560, "end": 47203, "sha256": "a3d170e2e07b46f2a541a388e8e0c9a133f5e53fd8bb04e2fe89b724f40617b6", "text": "I feel exquisite pleasure in dwelling on the recollections of childhood, before misfortune had tainted my mind and changed its bright visions of extensive usefulness into gloomy and narrow reflections upon self. Besides, in drawing the picture of my early days, I also record those events which led, by insensible steps, to my after tale of misery, for when I would account to myself for the birth of that passion which afterwards ruled my destiny I find it arise, like a mountain river, from ignoble and almost forgotten sources; but, swelling as it proceeded, it became the torrent which, in its course, has swept away all my hopes and joys.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00101", "bookId": 84, "start": 47205, "end": 48043, "sha256": "e6a9742b09f650c38d596702dbb3aaa83d496dee78d49188148c6a69e26e0746", "text": "Natural philosophy is the genius that has regulated my fate; I desire, therefore, in this narration, to state those facts which led to my predilection for that science. When I was thirteen years of age we all went on a party of pleasure to the baths near Thonon; the inclemency of the weather obliged us to remain a day confined to the inn. In this house I chanced to find a volume of the works of Cornelius Agrippa. I opened it with apathy; the theory which he attempts to demonstrate and the wonderful facts which he relates soon changed this feeling into enthusiasm. A new light seemed to dawn upon my mind, and bounding with joy, I communicated my discovery to my father. My father looked carelessly at the title page of my book and said, “Ah! Cornelius Agrippa! My dear Victor, do not waste your time upon this; it is sad trash.”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00102", "bookId": 84, "start": 48045, "end": 48850, "sha256": "88457cbc1fd3db96c7fec12442ae21158f32ed552b46a0e78c8dd350908a5ebb", "text": "If, instead of this remark, my father had taken the pains to explain to me that the principles of Agrippa had been entirely exploded and that a modern system of science had been introduced which possessed much greater powers than the ancient, because the powers of the latter were chimerical, while those of the former were real and practical, under such circumstances I should certainly have thrown Agrippa aside and have contented my imagination, warmed as it was, by returning with greater ardour to my former studies. It is even possible that the train of my ideas would never have received the fatal impulse that led to my ruin. But the cursory glance my father had taken of my volume by no means assured me that he was acquainted with its contents, and I continued to read with the greatest avidity.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00103", "bookId": 84, "start": 48852, "end": 49662, "sha256": "4e09cb272faa93d486d0e69848c12ab40b268350038422287c696c8ce67ebe81", "text": "When I returned home my first care was to procure the whole works of this author, and afterwards of Paracelsus and Albertus Magnus. I read and studied the wild fancies of these writers with delight; they appeared to me treasures known to few besides myself. I have described myself as always having been imbued with a fervent longing to penetrate the secrets of nature. In spite of the intense labour and wonderful discoveries of modern philosophers, I always came from my studies discontented and unsatisfied. Sir Isaac Newton is said to have avowed that he felt like a child picking up shells beside the great and unexplored ocean of truth. Those of his successors in each branch of natural philosophy with whom I was acquainted appeared even to my boy’s apprehensions as tyros engaged in the same pursuit.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00104", "bookId": 84, "start": 49664, "end": 50236, "sha256": "f48b695277b3bdc1ae3133a40889cdf258820ee82b900a03dd972a3903afe609", "text": "The untaught peasant beheld the elements around him and was acquainted with their practical uses. The most learned philosopher knew little more. He had partially unveiled the face of Nature, but her immortal lineaments were still a wonder and a mystery. He might dissect, anatomise, and give names; but, not to speak of a final cause, causes in their secondary and tertiary grades were utterly unknown to him. I had gazed upon the fortifications and impediments that seemed to keep human beings from entering the citadel of nature, and rashly and ignorantly I had repined.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00105", "bookId": 84, "start": 50238, "end": 51116, "sha256": "00adebab419cdac28be886b58a4007367bc48aba9806d26b4fe4bc888b5cee06", "text": "But here were books, and here were men who had penetrated deeper and knew more. I took their word for all that they averred, and I became their disciple. It may appear strange that such should arise in the eighteenth century; but while I followed the routine of education in the schools of Geneva, I was, to a great degree, self-taught with regard to my favourite studies. My father was not scientific, and I was left to struggle with a child’s blindness, added to a student’s thirst for knowledge. Under the guidance of my new preceptors I entered with the greatest diligence into the search of the philosopher’s stone and the elixir of life; but the latter soon obtained my undivided attention. Wealth was an inferior object, but what glory would attend the discovery if I could banish disease from the human frame and render man invulnerable to any but a violent death!", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00106", "bookId": 84, "start": 51118, "end": 51758, "sha256": "d1e9a5fb5d5d21efc5331ab175710ef023959ff18717e51ac6eb7d9d7c1b48b2", "text": "Nor were these my only visions. The raising of ghosts or devils was a promise liberally accorded by my favourite authors, the fulfilment of which I most eagerly sought; and if my incantations were always unsuccessful, I attributed the failure rather to my own inexperience and mistake than to a want of skill or fidelity in my instructors. And thus for a time I was occupied by exploded systems, mingling, like an unadept, a thousand contradictory theories and floundering desperately in a very slough of multifarious knowledge, guided by an ardent imagination and childish reasoning, till an accident again changed the current of my ideas.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00107", "bookId": 84, "start": 51760, "end": 52592, "sha256": "1f0be4ed37d48a875db8a2bdb5cb2b53acd3cec332d992dfbf257fd06fa3b103", "text": "When I was about fifteen years old we had retired to our house near Belrive, when we witnessed a most violent and terrible thunderstorm. It advanced from behind the mountains of Jura, and the thunder burst at once with frightful loudness from various quarters of the heavens. I remained, while the storm lasted, watching its progress with curiosity and delight. As I stood at the door, on a sudden I beheld a stream of fire issue from an old and beautiful oak which stood about twenty yards from our house; and so soon as the dazzling light vanished, the oak had disappeared, and nothing remained but a blasted stump. When we visited it the next morning, we found the tree shattered in a singular manner. It was not splintered by the shock, but entirely reduced to thin ribbons of wood. I never beheld anything so utterly destroyed.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00108", "bookId": 84, "start": 52594, "end": 53810, "sha256": "06ef45d45e8f7d103f8d8b09ae5cd3bc5893d55643477621d80e12072fd5b80f", "text": "Before this I was not unacquainted with the more obvious laws of electricity. On this occasion a man of great research in natural philosophy was with us, and excited by this catastrophe, he entered on the explanation of a theory which he had formed on the subject of electricity and galvanism, which was at once new and astonishing to me. All that he said threw greatly into the shade Cornelius Agrippa, Albertus Magnus, and Paracelsus, the lords of my imagination; but by some fatality the overthrow of these men disinclined me to pursue my accustomed studies. It seemed to me as if nothing would or could ever be known. All that had so long engaged my attention suddenly grew despicable. By one of those caprices of the mind which we are perhaps most subject to in early youth, I at once gave up my former occupations, set down natural history and all its progeny as a deformed and abortive creation, and entertained the greatest disdain for a would-be science which could never even step within the threshold of real knowledge. In this mood of mind I betook myself to the mathematics and the branches of study appertaining to that science as being built upon secure foundations, and so worthy of my consideration.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00109", "bookId": 84, "start": 53812, "end": 54474, "sha256": "70da10bbb49074b018624f7f69a09b8fc63302e5c52b30d4da8afedee9a21300", "text": "Thus strangely are our souls constructed, and by such slight ligaments are we bound to prosperity or ruin. When I look back, it seems to me as if this almost miraculous change of inclination and will was the immediate suggestion of the guardian angel of my life—the last effort made by the spirit of preservation to avert the storm that was even then hanging in the stars and ready to envelop me. Her victory was announced by an unusual tranquillity and gladness of soul which followed the relinquishing of my ancient and latterly tormenting studies. It was thus that I was to be taught to associate evil with their prosecution, happiness with their disregard.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00110", "bookId": 84, "start": 54476, "end": 54639, "sha256": "e4269e4454ba294d5a7a546098940d25a4917d50a793f55e850253e3b255c064", "text": "It was a strong effort of the spirit of good, but it was ineffectual. Destiny was too potent, and her immutable laws had decreed my utter and terrible destruction.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00111", "bookId": 84, "start": 54644, "end": 54653, "sha256": "dfdb65bb4d966fe9475866f938e6c1c308e6385c4993de245aab47674daa30d6", "text": "Chapter 3", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG84.B00112", "bookId": 84, "start": 54656, "end": 55165, "sha256": "2736fb4ad2db5de0d4119fc4a5ac7ccc064fbc68c2d9939f92f9339e7be3ecf8", "text": "When I had attained the age of seventeen my parents resolved that I should become a student at the university of Ingolstadt. I had hitherto attended the schools of Geneva, but my father thought it necessary for the completion of my education that I should be made acquainted with other customs than those of my native country. My departure was therefore fixed at an early date, but before the day resolved upon could arrive, the first misfortune of my life occurred—an omen, as it were, of my future misery.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00113", "bookId": 84, "start": 55167, "end": 56516, "sha256": "7d5cef7a12a743a2733e148617bfcfe943a09da1671e9f4b4bca56a66fc011bf", "text": "Elizabeth had caught the scarlet fever; her illness was severe, and she was in the greatest danger. During her illness many arguments had been urged to persuade my mother to refrain from attending upon her. She had at first yielded to our entreaties, but when she heard that the life of her favourite was menaced, she could no longer control her anxiety. She attended her sickbed; her watchful attentions triumphed over the malignity of the distemper—Elizabeth was saved, but the consequences of this imprudence were fatal to her preserver. On the third day my mother sickened; her fever was accompanied by the most alarming symptoms, and the looks of her medical attendants prognosticated the worst event. On her deathbed the fortitude and benignity of this best of women did not desert her. She joined the hands of Elizabeth and myself. “My children,” she said, “my firmest hopes of future happiness were placed on the prospect of your union. This expectation will now be the consolation of your father. Elizabeth, my love, you must supply my place to my younger children. Alas! I regret that I am taken from you; and, happy and beloved as I have been, is it not hard to quit you all? But these are not thoughts befitting me; I will endeavour to resign myself cheerfully to death and will indulge a hope of meeting you in another world.”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00114", "bookId": 84, "start": 56518, "end": 57780, "sha256": "43d4a3d10b743b625a10284f5481362db8dd2d3771b69a8d4d5a9d6ab79a56c2", "text": "She died calmly, and her countenance expressed affection even in death. I need not describe the feelings of those whose dearest ties are rent by that most irreparable evil, the void that presents itself to the soul, and the despair that is exhibited on the countenance. It is so long before the mind can persuade itself that she whom we saw every day and whose very existence appeared a part of our own can have departed for ever—that the brightness of a beloved eye can have been extinguished and the sound of a voice so familiar and dear to the ear can be hushed, never more to be heard. These are the reflections of the first days; but when the lapse of time proves the reality of the evil, then the actual bitterness of grief commences. Yet from whom has not that rude hand rent away some dear connection? And why should I describe a sorrow which all have felt, and must feel? The time at length arrives when grief is rather an indulgence than a necessity; and the smile that plays upon the lips, although it may be deemed a sacrilege, is not banished. My mother was dead, but we had still duties which we ought to perform; we must continue our course with the rest and learn to think ourselves fortunate whilst one remains whom the spoiler has not seized.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00115", "bookId": 84, "start": 57782, "end": 58261, "sha256": "8e9043efd681c6aaca72b9dbdd30ab7fb9b77d7ffafa50afaf13c51a53fb271f", "text": "My departure for Ingolstadt, which had been deferred by these events, was now again determined upon. I obtained from my father a respite of some weeks. It appeared to me sacrilege so soon to leave the repose, akin to death, of the house of mourning and to rush into the thick of life. I was new to sorrow, but it did not the less alarm me. I was unwilling to quit the sight of those that remained to me, and above all, I desired to see my sweet Elizabeth in some degree consoled.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00116", "bookId": 84, "start": 58263, "end": 58674, "sha256": "297aca7a766a464b5e7485602103a2956895a559643651933b5e8e9fec169161", "text": "She indeed veiled her grief and strove to act the comforter to us all. She looked steadily on life and assumed its duties with courage and zeal. She devoted herself to those whom she had been taught to call her uncle and cousins. Never was she so enchanting as at this time, when she recalled the sunshine of her smiles and spent them upon us. She forgot even her own regret in her endeavours to make us forget.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00117", "bookId": 84, "start": 58676, "end": 59235, "sha256": "cd00d6afd40d5f526ea92c7e6c926f2f8465d1abfbf1f0a70c4660a2290f36cb", "text": "The day of my departure at length arrived. Clerval spent the last evening with us. He had endeavoured to persuade his father to permit him to accompany me and to become my fellow student, but in vain. His father was a narrow-minded trader and saw idleness and ruin in the aspirations and ambition of his son. Henry deeply felt the misfortune of being debarred from a liberal education. He said little, but when he spoke I read in his kindling eye and in his animated glance a restrained but firm resolve not to be chained to the miserable details of commerce.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00118", "bookId": 84, "start": 59237, "end": 59768, "sha256": "844410870e52c61751f232a14f2a66b7b40ff33d42ba022791fae13eae5fae4f", "text": "We sat late. We could not tear ourselves away from each other nor persuade ourselves to say the word “Farewell!” It was said, and we retired under the pretence of seeking repose, each fancying that the other was deceived; but when at morning’s dawn I descended to the carriage which was to convey me away, they were all there—my father again to bless me, Clerval to press my hand once more, my Elizabeth to renew her entreaties that I would write often and to bestow the last feminine attentions on her playmate and friend.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00119", "bookId": 84, "start": 59770, "end": 60783, "sha256": "01b8e4c512889114a9bf7bb21501d935f68f393e4a167058937b9b0799d8bbcf", "text": "I threw myself into the chaise that was to convey me away and indulged in the most melancholy reflections. I, who had ever been surrounded by amiable companions, continually engaged in endeavouring to bestow mutual pleasure—I was now alone. In the university whither I was going I must form my own friends and be my own protector. My life had hitherto been remarkably secluded and domestic, and this had given me invincible repugnance to new countenances. I loved my brothers, Elizabeth, and Clerval; these were “old familiar faces,” but I believed myself totally unfitted for the company of strangers. Such were my reflections as I commenced my journey; but as I proceeded, my spirits and hopes rose. I ardently desired the acquisition of knowledge. I had often, when at home, thought it hard to remain during my youth cooped up in one place and had longed to enter the world and take my station among other human beings. Now my desires were complied with, and it would, indeed, have been folly to repent.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00120", "bookId": 84, "start": 60785, "end": 61056, "sha256": "5bfd036a1c66fe80de6c007dbc32580200f8e50de743ff75bf6e3e7fb9b8edff", "text": "I had sufficient leisure for these and many other reflections during my journey to Ingolstadt, which was long and fatiguing. At length the high white steeple of the town met my eyes. I alighted and was conducted to my solitary apartment to spend the evening as I pleased.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00121", "bookId": 84, "start": 61058, "end": 61825, "sha256": "991255c3e887281c7c4cc5fb0a1bec04c69ca1111672c685377a62687f0fbfd0", "text": "The next morning I delivered my letters of introduction and paid a visit to some of the principal professors. Chance—or rather the evil influence, the Angel of Destruction, which asserted omnipotent sway over me from the moment I turned my reluctant steps from my father’s door—led me first to M. Krempe, professor of natural philosophy. He was an uncouth man, but deeply imbued in the secrets of his science. He asked me several questions concerning my progress in the different branches of science appertaining to natural philosophy. I replied carelessly, and partly in contempt, mentioned the names of my alchemists as the principal authors I had studied. The professor stared. “Have you,” he said, “really spent your time in studying such nonsense?”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00122", "bookId": 84, "start": 61827, "end": 62437, "sha256": "0dc8a576d27ebb613225e7cc50d4f8bf2acd39fe687886fc0394395fcbca11ae", "text": "I replied in the affirmative. “Every minute,” continued M. Krempe with warmth, “every instant that you have wasted on those books is utterly and entirely lost. You have burdened your memory with exploded systems and useless names. Good God! In what desert land have you lived, where no one was kind enough to inform you that these fancies which you have so greedily imbibed are a thousand years old and as musty as they are ancient? I little expected, in this enlightened and scientific age, to find a disciple of Albertus Magnus and Paracelsus. My dear sir, you must begin your studies entirely anew.”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00123", "bookId": 84, "start": 62439, "end": 62847, "sha256": "e7a8cedf9eec2130563082b40324bdcf4394427c5fd6c8e81a3e9ae99f707e02", "text": "So saying, he stepped aside and wrote down a list of several books treating of natural philosophy which he desired me to procure, and dismissed me after mentioning that in the beginning of the following week he intended to commence a course of lectures upon natural philosophy in its general relations, and that M. Waldman, a fellow professor, would lecture upon chemistry the alternate days that he omitted.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00124", "bookId": 84, "start": 62849, "end": 64193, "sha256": "8155730ada2ccb3ce7a01887038b4a04f9312124eeb028b8bf6a9e6f444cbbeb", "text": "I returned home not disappointed, for I have said that I had long considered those authors useless whom the professor reprobated; but I returned not at all the more inclined to recur to these studies in any shape. M. Krempe was a little squat man with a gruff voice and a repulsive countenance; the teacher, therefore, did not prepossess me in favour of his pursuits. In rather a too philosophical and connected a strain, perhaps, I have given an account of the conclusions I had come to concerning them in my early years. As a child I had not been content with the results promised by the modern professors of natural science. With a confusion of ideas only to be accounted for by my extreme youth and my want of a guide on such matters, I had retrod the steps of knowledge along the paths of time and exchanged the discoveries of recent inquirers for the dreams of forgotten alchemists. Besides, I had a contempt for the uses of modern natural philosophy. It was very different when the masters of the science sought immortality and power; such views, although futile, were grand; but now the scene was changed. The ambition of the inquirer seemed to limit itself to the annihilation of those visions on which my interest in science was chiefly founded. I was required to exchange chimeras of boundless grandeur for realities of little worth.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00125", "bookId": 84, "start": 64195, "end": 64734, "sha256": "e4bf24466f15f22024b86cfe85a4ef4428c79c92d43c5fdfa115a96cfd163dc7", "text": "Such were my reflections during the first two or three days of my residence at Ingolstadt, which were chiefly spent in becoming acquainted with the localities and the principal residents in my new abode. But as the ensuing week commenced, I thought of the information which M. Krempe had given me concerning the lectures. And although I could not consent to go and hear that little conceited fellow deliver sentences out of a pulpit, I recollected what he had said of M. Waldman, whom I had never seen, as he had hitherto been out of town.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00126", "bookId": 84, "start": 64736, "end": 65634, "sha256": "2b5e6dc2a0d04f56600ab73e24ff70bc169a64edbe31210bacbfe138ae6e9445", "text": "Partly from curiosity and partly from idleness, I went into the lecturing room, which M. Waldman entered shortly after. This professor was very unlike his colleague. He appeared about fifty years of age, but with an aspect expressive of the greatest benevolence; a few grey hairs covered his temples, but those at the back of his head were nearly black. His person was short but remarkably erect and his voice the sweetest I had ever heard. He began his lecture by a recapitulation of the history of chemistry and the various improvements made by different men of learning, pronouncing with fervour the names of the most distinguished discoverers. He then took a cursory view of the present state of the science and explained many of its elementary terms. After having made a few preparatory experiments, he concluded with a panegyric upon modern chemistry, the terms of which I shall never forget:", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00127", "bookId": 84, "start": 65636, "end": 66398, "sha256": "b44f9b78266784fb08fd19b8bd0e3dfe4982914a48fe7b90ab26a810fd567947", "text": "“The ancient teachers of this science,” said he, “promised impossibilities and performed nothing. The modern masters promise very little; they know that metals cannot be transmuted and that the elixir of life is a chimera but these philosophers, whose hands seem only made to dabble in dirt, and their eyes to pore over the microscope or crucible, have indeed performed miracles. They penetrate into the recesses of nature and show how she works in her hiding-places. They ascend into the heavens; they have discovered how the blood circulates, and the nature of the air we breathe. They have acquired new and almost unlimited powers; they can command the thunders of heaven, mimic the earthquake, and even mock the invisible world with its own shadows.”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00128", "bookId": 84, "start": 66400, "end": 67005, "sha256": "a2596c1f87a4643756c31f0734871462c8fab9e9da0318fd2ff261fc39c62a75", "text": "Such were the professor’s words—rather let me say such the words of the fate—enounced to destroy me. As he went on I felt as if my soul were grappling with a palpable enemy; one by one the various keys were touched which formed the mechanism of my being; chord after chord was sounded, and soon my mind was filled with one thought, one conception, one purpose. So much has been done, exclaimed the soul of Frankenstein—more, far more, will I achieve; treading in the steps already marked, I will pioneer a new way, explore unknown powers, and unfold to the world the deepest mysteries of creation.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00129", "bookId": 84, "start": 67007, "end": 68922, "sha256": "10d15058d042b003969a6f93fd61147a37c848381290d0a80749266ec76053c3", "text": "I closed not my eyes that night. My internal being was in a state of insurrection and turmoil; I felt that order would thence arise, but I had no power to produce it. By degrees, after the morning’s dawn, sleep came. I awoke, and my yesternight’s thoughts were as a dream. There only remained a resolution to return to my ancient studies and to devote myself to a science for which I believed myself to possess a natural talent. On the same day I paid M. Waldman a visit. His manners in private were even more mild and attractive than in public, for there was a certain dignity in his mien during his lecture which in his own house was replaced by the greatest affability and kindness. I gave him pretty nearly the same account of my former pursuits as I had given to his fellow professor. He heard with attention the little narration concerning my studies and smiled at the names of Cornelius Agrippa and Paracelsus, but without the contempt that M. Krempe had exhibited. He said that “These were men to whose indefatigable zeal modern philosophers were indebted for most of the foundations of their knowledge. They had left to us, as an easier task, to give new names and arrange in connected classifications the facts which they in a great degree had been the instruments of bringing to light. The labours of men of genius, however erroneously directed, scarcely ever fail in ultimately turning to the solid advantage of mankind.” I listened to his statement, which was delivered without any presumption or affectation, and then added that his lecture had removed my prejudices against modern chemists; I expressed myself in measured terms, with the modesty and deference due from a youth to his instructor, without letting escape (inexperience in life would have made me ashamed) any of the enthusiasm which stimulated my intended labours. I requested his advice concerning the books I ought to procure.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00130", "bookId": 84, "start": 68924, "end": 69596, "sha256": "6e4673d769fc98034f1f99d81adad405856ed9eae207a7cda3e91ff398fb0909", "text": "“I am happy,” said M. Waldman, “to have gained a disciple; and if your application equals your ability, I have no doubt of your success. Chemistry is that branch of natural philosophy in which the greatest improvements have been and may be made; it is on that account that I have made it my peculiar study; but at the same time, I have not neglected the other branches of science. A man would make but a very sorry chemist if he attended to that department of human knowledge alone. If your wish is to become really a man of science and not merely a petty experimentalist, I should advise you to apply to every branch of natural philosophy, including mathematics.”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00131", "bookId": 84, "start": 69598, "end": 69932, "sha256": "67ea748a56bf4ca94b69261f46ddba0f623153128addbe614942dba26529f0db", "text": "He then took me into his laboratory and explained to me the uses of his various machines, instructing me as to what I ought to procure and promising me the use of his own when I should have advanced far enough in the science not to derange their mechanism. He also gave me the list of books which I had requested, and I took my leave.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00132", "bookId": 84, "start": 69934, "end": 69997, "sha256": "b8f72462863d1fb2545a5702f3ed48289e1685f66543ceef352cb6ece1c13c2d", "text": "Thus ended a day memorable to me; it decided my future destiny.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG84.B00133", "bookId": 84, "start": 70002, "end": 70011, "sha256": "24eac3fefb58a26a9bb95f96a216fdb0b0dc0edda866f72e3a66442b0d70259f", "text": "Chapter 4", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG84.B00134", "bookId": 84, "start": 70014, "end": 71116, "sha256": "2f36f7cf663b0ce9ab3f7447967f3ef166e1efc36f52ef030e55c0f8e1c9e74c", "text": "From this day natural philosophy, and particularly chemistry, in the most comprehensive sense of the term, became nearly my sole occupation. I read with ardour those works, so full of genius and discrimination, which modern inquirers have written on these subjects. I attended the lectures and cultivated the acquaintance of the men of science of the university, and I found even in M. Krempe a great deal of sound sense and real information, combined, it is true, with a repulsive physiognomy and manners, but not on that account the less valuable. In M. Waldman I found a true friend. His gentleness was never tinged by dogmatism, and his instructions were given with an air of frankness and good nature that banished every idea of pedantry. In a thousand ways he smoothed for me the path of knowledge and made the most abstruse inquiries clear and facile to my apprehension. My application was at first fluctuating and uncertain; it gained strength as I proceeded and soon became so ardent and eager that the stars often disappeared in the light of morning whilst I was yet engaged in my laboratory.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00135", "bookId": 84, "start": 71118, "end": 72642, "sha256": "8b64ad7d6ac73fddddcc81bb83e98aa7b2c8c5ef55f98c59739bb1948c431323", "text": "As I applied so closely, it may be easily conceived that my progress was rapid. My ardour was indeed the astonishment of the students, and my proficiency that of the masters. Professor Krempe often asked me, with a sly smile, how Cornelius Agrippa went on, whilst M. Waldman expressed the most heartfelt exultation in my progress. Two years passed in this manner, during which I paid no visit to Geneva, but was engaged, heart and soul, in the pursuit of some discoveries which I hoped to make. None but those who have experienced them can conceive of the enticements of science. In other studies you go as far as others have gone before you, and there is nothing more to know; but in a scientific pursuit there is continual food for discovery and wonder. A mind of moderate capacity which closely pursues one study must infallibly arrive at great proficiency in that study; and I, who continually sought the attainment of one object of pursuit and was solely wrapped up in this, improved so rapidly that at the end of two years I made some discoveries in the improvement of some chemical instruments, which procured me great esteem and admiration at the university. When I had arrived at this point and had become as well acquainted with the theory and practice of natural philosophy as depended on the lessons of any of the professors at Ingolstadt, my residence there being no longer conducive to my improvements, I thought of returning to my friends and my native town, when an incident happened that protracted my stay.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00136", "bookId": 84, "start": 72644, "end": 74963, "sha256": "aa3d884047b89ccad17abadf780fbd96af927981c89aeadbb9e080fef05722ef", "text": "One of the phenomena which had peculiarly attracted my attention was the structure of the human frame, and, indeed, any animal endued with life. Whence, I often asked myself, did the principle of life proceed? It was a bold question, and one which has ever been considered as a mystery; yet with how many things are we upon the brink of becoming acquainted, if cowardice or carelessness did not restrain our inquiries. I revolved these circumstances in my mind and determined thenceforth to apply myself more particularly to those branches of natural philosophy which relate to physiology. Unless I had been animated by an almost supernatural enthusiasm, my application to this study would have been irksome and almost intolerable. To examine the causes of life, we must first have recourse to death. I became acquainted with the science of anatomy, but this was not sufficient; I must also observe the natural decay and corruption of the human body. In my education my father had taken the greatest precautions that my mind should be impressed with no supernatural horrors. I do not ever remember to have trembled at a tale of superstition or to have feared the apparition of a spirit. Darkness had no effect upon my fancy, and a churchyard was to me merely the receptacle of bodies deprived of life, which, from being the seat of beauty and strength, had become food for the worm. Now I was led to examine the cause and progress of this decay and forced to spend days and nights in vaults and charnel-houses. My attention was fixed upon every object the most insupportable to the delicacy of the human feelings. I saw how the fine form of man was degraded and wasted; I beheld the corruption of death succeed to the blooming cheek of life; I saw how the worm inherited the wonders of the eye and brain. I paused, examining and analysing all the minutiae of causation, as exemplified in the change from life to death, and death to life, until from the midst of this darkness a sudden light broke in upon me—a light so brilliant and wondrous, yet so simple, that while I became dizzy with the immensity of the prospect which it illustrated, I was surprised that among so many men of genius who had directed their inquiries towards the same science, that I alone should be reserved to discover so astonishing a secret.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00137", "bookId": 84, "start": 74965, "end": 75402, "sha256": "0ba3e12203d32c64b4b9f7b2ef2a3550b6ba43ecc75cfd43e6d2ea2e50cb942c", "text": "Remember, I am not recording the vision of a madman. The sun does not more certainly shine in the heavens than that which I now affirm is true. Some miracle might have produced it, yet the stages of the discovery were distinct and probable. After days and nights of incredible labour and fatigue, I succeeded in discovering the cause of generation and life; nay, more, I became myself capable of bestowing animation upon lifeless matter.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00138", "bookId": 84, "start": 75404, "end": 76321, "sha256": "3c689ffa3885e7632ea8b52fa2c7cb6acdb76039a2bd2717c522b46cd3302e79", "text": "The astonishment which I had at first experienced on this discovery soon gave place to delight and rapture. After so much time spent in painful labour, to arrive at once at the summit of my desires was the most gratifying consummation of my toils. But this discovery was so great and overwhelming that all the steps by which I had been progressively led to it were obliterated, and I beheld only the result. What had been the study and desire of the wisest men since the creation of the world was now within my grasp. Not that, like a magic scene, it all opened upon me at once: the information I had obtained was of a nature rather to direct my endeavours so soon as I should point them towards the object of my search than to exhibit that object already accomplished. I was like the Arabian who had been buried with the dead and found a passage to life, aided only by one glimmering and seemingly ineffectual light.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00139", "bookId": 84, "start": 76323, "end": 76961, "sha256": "9d9cd1946dc091fc5f66c991f6e3c485d4046d65a79595e2070171db79ab0558", "text": "I see by your eagerness and the wonder and hope which your eyes express, my friend, that you expect to be informed of the secret with which I am acquainted; that cannot be; listen patiently until the end of my story, and you will easily perceive why I am reserved upon that subject. I will not lead you on, unguarded and ardent as I then was, to your destruction and infallible misery. Learn from me, if not by my precepts, at least by my example, how dangerous is the acquirement of knowledge and how much happier that man is who believes his native town to be the world, than he who aspires to become greater than his nature will allow.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00140", "bookId": 84, "start": 76963, "end": 78584, "sha256": "1b41d42c2dfc45fbe40790c7e429ed71bd5de9683bd314efd0d58fd1811a9928", "text": "When I found so astonishing a power placed within my hands, I hesitated a long time concerning the manner in which I should employ it. Although I possessed the capacity of bestowing animation, yet to prepare a frame for the reception of it, with all its intricacies of fibres, muscles, and veins, still remained a work of inconceivable difficulty and labour. I doubted at first whether I should attempt the creation of a being like myself, or one of simpler organization; but my imagination was too much exalted by my first success to permit me to doubt of my ability to give life to an animal as complex and wonderful as man. The materials at present within my command hardly appeared adequate to so arduous an undertaking, but I doubted not that I should ultimately succeed. I prepared myself for a multitude of reverses; my operations might be incessantly baffled, and at last my work be imperfect, yet when I considered the improvement which every day takes place in science and mechanics, I was encouraged to hope my present attempts would at least lay the foundations of future success. Nor could I consider the magnitude and complexity of my plan as any argument of its impracticability. It was with these feelings that I began the creation of a human being. As the minuteness of the parts formed a great hindrance to my speed, I resolved, contrary to my first intention, to make the being of a gigantic stature, that is to say, about eight feet in height, and proportionably large. After having formed this determination and having spent some months in successfully collecting and arranging my materials, I began.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00141", "bookId": 84, "start": 78586, "end": 79271, "sha256": "22dc14d15013cb728dd25a81d102c5dd52b5fb59b729ec255428a95eb762e92f", "text": "No one can conceive the variety of feelings which bore me onwards, like a hurricane, in the first enthusiasm of success. Life and death appeared to me ideal bounds, which I should first break through, and pour a torrent of light into our dark world. A new species would bless me as its creator and source; many happy and excellent natures would owe their being to me. No father could claim the gratitude of his child so completely as I should deserve theirs. Pursuing these reflections, I thought that if I could bestow animation upon lifeless matter, I might in process of time (although I now found it impossible) renew life where death had apparently devoted the body to corruption.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00142", "bookId": 84, "start": 79273, "end": 80966, "sha256": "5f51676e30ae7771da0b963815b2490171dc70da94ccaab2c392d3749d7f7595", "text": "These thoughts supported my spirits, while I pursued my undertaking with unremitting ardour. My cheek had grown pale with study, and my person had become emaciated with confinement. Sometimes, on the very brink of certainty, I failed; yet still I clung to the hope which the next day or the next hour might realise. One secret which I alone possessed was the hope to which I had dedicated myself; and the moon gazed on my midnight labours, while, with unrelaxed and breathless eagerness, I pursued nature to her hiding-places. Who shall conceive the horrors of my secret toil as I dabbled among the unhallowed damps of the grave or tortured the living animal to animate the lifeless clay? My limbs now tremble, and my eyes swim with the remembrance; but then a resistless and almost frantic impulse urged me forward; I seemed to have lost all soul or sensation but for this one pursuit. It was indeed but a passing trance, that only made me feel with renewed acuteness so soon as, the unnatural stimulus ceasing to operate, I had returned to my old habits. I collected bones from charnel-houses and disturbed, with profane fingers, the tremendous secrets of the human frame. In a solitary chamber, or rather cell, at the top of the house, and separated from all the other apartments by a gallery and staircase, I kept my workshop of filthy creation; my eyeballs were starting from their sockets in attending to the details of my employment. The dissecting room and the slaughter-house furnished many of my materials; and often did my human nature turn with loathing from my occupation, whilst, still urged on by an eagerness which perpetually increased, I brought my work near to a conclusion.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00143", "bookId": 84, "start": 80968, "end": 81750, "sha256": "e2b417d6227e4fb66afe414c0cdd2c4421e15bc5b0a13f2047d60ab1d063e2ac", "text": "The summer months passed while I was thus engaged, heart and soul, in one pursuit. It was a most beautiful season; never did the fields bestow a more plentiful harvest or the vines yield a more luxuriant vintage, but my eyes were insensible to the charms of nature. And the same feelings which made me neglect the scenes around me caused me also to forget those friends who were so many miles absent, and whom I had not seen for so long a time. I knew my silence disquieted them, and I well remembered the words of my father: “I know that while you are pleased with yourself you will think of us with affection, and we shall hear regularly from you. You must pardon me if I regard any interruption in your correspondence as a proof that your other duties are equally neglected.”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00144", "bookId": 84, "start": 81752, "end": 82119, "sha256": "549c976930c177021a7e24c266ae26fce1fe9bb7da99e4033cc8623e65637d08", "text": "I knew well therefore what would be my father’s feelings, but I could not tear my thoughts from my employment, loathsome in itself, but which had taken an irresistible hold of my imagination. I wished, as it were, to procrastinate all that related to my feelings of affection until the great object, which swallowed up every habit of my nature, should be completed.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00145", "bookId": 84, "start": 82121, "end": 83139, "sha256": "db9397b7ec3f4879854533d0749a7ba42b655f342c806f6ee1d1e7e5e5380898", "text": "I then thought that my father would be unjust if he ascribed my neglect to vice or faultiness on my part, but I am now convinced that he was justified in conceiving that I should not be altogether free from blame. A human being in perfection ought always to preserve a calm and peaceful mind and never to allow passion or a transitory desire to disturb his tranquillity. I do not think that the pursuit of knowledge is an exception to this rule. If the study to which you apply yourself has a tendency to weaken your affections and to destroy your taste for those simple pleasures in which no alloy can possibly mix, then that study is certainly unlawful, that is to say, not befitting the human mind. If this rule were always observed; if no man allowed any pursuit whatsoever to interfere with the tranquillity of his domestic affections, Greece had not been enslaved, Cæsar would have spared his country, America would have been discovered more gradually, and the empires of Mexico and Peru had not been destroyed.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00146", "bookId": 84, "start": 83141, "end": 83252, "sha256": "fc5ef458920d2224e8916bdffad7b3722690c2a62439f91a8c83e220c179a3b5", "text": "But I forget that I am moralizing in the most interesting part of my tale, and your looks remind me to proceed.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00147", "bookId": 84, "start": 83254, "end": 84443, "sha256": "6f90f000614fae2d546846afa334d3b3859ac8ed77c4aa6c4256d04b00600e79", "text": "My father made no reproach in his letters and only took notice of my silence by inquiring into my occupations more particularly than before. Winter, spring, and summer passed away during my labours; but I did not watch the blossom or the expanding leaves—sights which before always yielded me supreme delight—so deeply was I engrossed in my occupation. The leaves of that year had withered before my work drew near to a close, and now every day showed me more plainly how well I had succeeded. But my enthusiasm was checked by my anxiety, and I appeared rather like one doomed by slavery to toil in the mines, or any other unwholesome trade than an artist occupied by his favourite employment. Every night I was oppressed by a slow fever, and I became nervous to a most painful degree; the fall of a leaf startled me, and I shunned my fellow creatures as if I had been guilty of a crime. Sometimes I grew alarmed at the wreck I perceived that I had become; the energy of my purpose alone sustained me: my labours would soon end, and I believed that exercise and amusement would then drive away incipient disease; and I promised myself both of these when my creation should be complete.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00148", "bookId": 84, "start": 84448, "end": 84457, "sha256": "0940a074c41a3180574787bd455a928ea3b09aade3959e7595193eeba07bbc4d", "text": "Chapter 5", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG84.B00149", "bookId": 84, "start": 84460, "end": 84998, "sha256": "e4586682029c0cda6c67a3a0216865dffa1742810b6683ae1220770762a935b4", "text": "It was on a dreary night of November that I beheld the accomplishment of my toils. With an anxiety that almost amounted to agony, I collected the instruments of life around me, that I might infuse a spark of being into the lifeless thing that lay at my feet. It was already one in the morning; the rain pattered dismally against the panes, and my candle was nearly burnt out, when, by the glimmer of the half-extinguished light, I saw the dull yellow eye of the creature open; it breathed hard, and a convulsive motion agitated its limbs.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00150", "bookId": 84, "start": 85000, "end": 85615, "sha256": "ba0ab4d44e291cbdaaaab6f5fd07a924e15d864ca04007d4fe38c5a997458536", "text": "How can I describe my emotions at this catastrophe, or how delineate the wretch whom with such infinite pains and care I had endeavoured to form? His limbs were in proportion, and I had selected his features as beautiful. Beautiful! Great God! His yellow skin scarcely covered the work of muscles and arteries beneath; his hair was of a lustrous black, and flowing; his teeth of a pearly whiteness; but these luxuriances only formed a more horrid contrast with his watery eyes, that seemed almost of the same colour as the dun-white sockets in which they were set, his shrivelled complexion and straight black lips.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00151", "bookId": 84, "start": 85617, "end": 87785, "sha256": "30f9524f1786d791f964714b7ea3c686947be8e41d1a7be0794caab8129a5b16", "text": "The different accidents of life are not so changeable as the feelings of human nature. I had worked hard for nearly two years, for the sole purpose of infusing life into an inanimate body. For this I had deprived myself of rest and health. I had desired it with an ardour that far exceeded moderation; but now that I had finished, the beauty of the dream vanished, and breathless horror and disgust filled my heart. Unable to endure the aspect of the being I had created, I rushed out of the room and continued a long time traversing my bed-chamber, unable to compose my mind to sleep. At length lassitude succeeded to the tumult I had before endured, and I threw myself on the bed in my clothes, endeavouring to seek a few moments of forgetfulness. But it was in vain; I slept, indeed, but I was disturbed by the wildest dreams. I thought I saw Elizabeth, in the bloom of health, walking in the streets of Ingolstadt. Delighted and surprised, I embraced her, but as I imprinted the first kiss on her lips, they became livid with the hue of death; her features appeared to change, and I thought that I held the corpse of my dead mother in my arms; a shroud enveloped her form, and I saw the grave-worms crawling in the folds of the flannel. I started from my sleep with horror; a cold dew covered my forehead, my teeth chattered, and every limb became convulsed; when, by the dim and yellow light of the moon, as it forced its way through the window shutters, I beheld the wretch—the miserable monster whom I had created. He held up the curtain of the bed; and his eyes, if eyes they may be called, were fixed on me. His jaws opened, and he muttered some inarticulate sounds, while a grin wrinkled his cheeks. He might have spoken, but I did not hear; one hand was stretched out, seemingly to detain me, but I escaped and rushed downstairs. I took refuge in the courtyard belonging to the house which I inhabited, where I remained during the rest of the night, walking up and down in the greatest agitation, listening attentively, catching and fearing each sound as if it were to announce the approach of the demoniacal corpse to which I had so miserably given life.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00152", "bookId": 84, "start": 87787, "end": 88107, "sha256": "d44c67fc029891bed73de6c3dd09cb5036cc602f9b487fee89be185ebe0be7fc", "text": "Oh! No mortal could support the horror of that countenance. A mummy again endued with animation could not be so hideous as that wretch. I had gazed on him while unfinished; he was ugly then, but when those muscles and joints were rendered capable of motion, it became a thing such as even Dante could not have conceived.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00153", "bookId": 84, "start": 88109, "end": 88527, "sha256": "3d933254b6c143a612bd0f5acb5d8bf9d843bd62f0497c123f4ec17026e302f2", "text": "I passed the night wretchedly. Sometimes my pulse beat so quickly and hardly that I felt the palpitation of every artery; at others, I nearly sank to the ground through languor and extreme weakness. Mingled with this horror, I felt the bitterness of disappointment; dreams that had been my food and pleasant rest for so long a space were now become a hell to me; and the change was so rapid, the overthrow so complete!", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00154", "bookId": 84, "start": 88529, "end": 89113, "sha256": "40d624fe47f684e251edb10c2210c3b74168a1a4927bde0ced741e3a58f34215", "text": "Morning, dismal and wet, at length dawned and discovered to my sleepless and aching eyes the church of Ingolstadt, its white steeple and clock, which indicated the sixth hour. The porter opened the gates of the court, which had that night been my asylum, and I issued into the streets, pacing them with quick steps, as if I sought to avoid the wretch whom I feared every turning of the street would present to my view. I did not dare return to the apartment which I inhabited, but felt impelled to hurry on, although drenched by the rain which poured from a black and comfortless sky.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00155", "bookId": 84, "start": 89115, "end": 89442, "sha256": "a9aec92ebe5d90d2b37e2f8a6b10e2d1d079f410dc863c3fc5fb1f8ee93bcbbc", "text": "I continued walking in this manner for some time, endeavouring by bodily exercise to ease the load that weighed upon my mind. I traversed the streets without any clear conception of where I was or what I was doing. My heart palpitated in the sickness of fear, and I hurried on with irregular steps, not daring to look about me:", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00156", "bookId": 84, "start": 89446, "end": 89644, "sha256": "9988325104601bd109c37c8fe06d6d829a43352ec19aa44d47cfdd1d6722e11d", "text": "Like one who, on a lonely road, Doth walk in fear and dread, And, having once turned round, walks on, And turns no more his head; Because he knows a frightful fiend Doth close behind him tread.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00157", "bookId": 84, "start": 89648, "end": 89686, "sha256": "ce92be9a2b95fff486ab813c72ddb82396307712e8fd117d07bfc48a7d436dda", "text": "[Coleridge’s “Ancient Mariner.”]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG84.B00158", "bookId": 84, "start": 89690, "end": 90302, "sha256": "c8cac4e78c7d7b226f0246b51c0cea6e0dc0ef615364cd41fdde2e74f576cb2f", "text": "Continuing thus, I came at length opposite to the inn at which the various diligences and carriages usually stopped. Here I paused, I knew not why; but I remained some minutes with my eyes fixed on a coach that was coming towards me from the other end of the street. As it drew nearer I observed that it was the Swiss diligence; it stopped just where I was standing, and on the door being opened, I perceived Henry Clerval, who, on seeing me, instantly sprung out. “My dear Frankenstein,” exclaimed he, “how glad I am to see you! How fortunate that you should be here at the very moment of my alighting!”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00159", "bookId": 84, "start": 90304, "end": 91451, "sha256": "a4cbf5869d1ca7f2aee5c240c48226e8b012b52e96309a5868732855ec977cf2", "text": "Nothing could equal my delight on seeing Clerval; his presence brought back to my thoughts my father, Elizabeth, and all those scenes of home so dear to my recollection. I grasped his hand, and in a moment forgot my horror and misfortune; I felt suddenly, and for the first time during many months, calm and serene joy. I welcomed my friend, therefore, in the most cordial manner, and we walked towards my college. Clerval continued talking for some time about our mutual friends and his own good fortune in being permitted to come to Ingolstadt. “You may easily believe,” said he, “how great was the difficulty to persuade my father that all necessary knowledge was not comprised in the noble art of book-keeping; and, indeed, I believe I left him incredulous to the last, for his constant answer to my unwearied entreaties was the same as that of the Dutch schoolmaster in The Vicar of Wakefield: ‘I have ten thousand florins a year without Greek, I eat heartily without Greek.’ But his affection for me at length overcame his dislike of learning, and he has permitted me to undertake a voyage of discovery to the land of knowledge.”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00160", "bookId": 84, "start": 91453, "end": 91564, "sha256": "43ed67fb734f19563015dd7e6c9b6c68848081f1a389a3e243be496e899579f2", "text": "“It gives me the greatest delight to see you; but tell me how you left my father, brothers, and Elizabeth.”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG84.B00161", "bookId": 84, "start": 91566, "end": 91937, "sha256": "66e29968603d3f82119f38fcc34bc756d5f691a3cfb822a22975df5239f134f8", "text": "“Very well, and very happy, only a little uneasy that they hear from you so seldom. By the by, I mean to lecture you a little upon their account myself. But, my dear Frankenstein,” continued he, stopping short and gazing full in my face, “I did not before remark how very ill you appear; so thin and pale; you look as if you had been watching for several nights.”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00162", "bookId": 84, "start": 91939, "end": 92188, "sha256": "e139f541b699b98f528f38ec7a831465bf25320f2b914939d3edfe71a13b1579", "text": "“You have guessed right; I have lately been so deeply engaged in one occupation that I have not allowed myself sufficient rest, as you see; but I hope, I sincerely hope, that all these employments are now at an end and that I am at length free.”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00163", "bookId": 84, "start": 92190, "end": 93293, "sha256": "059e6a30b3e07835a711bdaf5b4499f997417289c8bab29402d849b3084b9452", "text": "I trembled excessively; I could not endure to think of, and far less to allude to, the occurrences of the preceding night. I walked with a quick pace, and we soon arrived at my college. I then reflected, and the thought made me shiver, that the creature whom I had left in my apartment might still be there, alive and walking about. I dreaded to behold this monster, but I feared still more that Henry should see him. Entreating him, therefore, to remain a few minutes at the bottom of the stairs, I darted up towards my own room. My hand was already on the lock of the door before I recollected myself. I then paused, and a cold shivering came over me. I threw the door forcibly open, as children are accustomed to do when they expect a spectre to stand in waiting for them on the other side; but nothing appeared. I stepped fearfully in: the apartment was empty, and my bedroom was also freed from its hideous guest. I could hardly believe that so great a good fortune could have befallen me, but when I became assured that my enemy had indeed fled, I clapped my hands for joy and ran down to Clerval.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00164", "bookId": 84, "start": 93295, "end": 93896, "sha256": "f8622577aefea18be3e0c181084e69c35c8c472db8918d2b706d4010e7dc0231", "text": "We ascended into my room, and the servant presently brought breakfast; but I was unable to contain myself. It was not joy only that possessed me; I felt my flesh tingle with excess of sensitiveness, and my pulse beat rapidly. I was unable to remain for a single instant in the same place; I jumped over the chairs, clapped my hands, and laughed aloud. Clerval at first attributed my unusual spirits to joy on his arrival, but when he observed me more attentively, he saw a wildness in my eyes for which he could not account, and my loud, unrestrained, heartless laughter frightened and astonished him.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00165", "bookId": 84, "start": 93898, "end": 94051, "sha256": "4e2709618022122f9344d43094f5e9da2051a924c075a4e74cd7ba858756d109", "text": "“My dear Victor,” cried he, “what, for God’s sake, is the matter? Do not laugh in that manner. How ill you are! What is the cause of all this?”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00166", "bookId": 84, "start": 94053, "end": 94304, "sha256": "75892c75faecb9fe9841782902008f4df321277ba2596fe709c84adff331d1c4", "text": "“Do not ask me,” cried I, putting my hands before my eyes, for I thought I saw the dreaded spectre glide into the room; “_he_ can tell. Oh, save me! Save me!” I imagined that the monster seized me; I struggled furiously and fell down in a fit.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00167", "bookId": 84, "start": 94306, "end": 94547, "sha256": "7a09a0db4213bf4b6285a481bbdca062da95b9e7fce23443010ca698e92da43d", "text": "Poor Clerval! What must have been his feelings? A meeting, which he anticipated with such joy, so strangely turned to bitterness. But I was not the witness of his grief, for I was lifeless and did not recover my senses for a long, long time.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00168", "bookId": 84, "start": 94549, "end": 95122, "sha256": "cef3090b8f57c9ec04979aa453e97b753809685515d51bb77ddf96bc19c90ae8", "text": "This was the commencement of a nervous fever which confined me for several months. During all that time Henry was my only nurse. I afterwards learned that, knowing my father’s advanced age and unfitness for so long a journey, and how wretched my sickness would make Elizabeth, he spared them this grief by concealing the extent of my disorder. He knew that I could not have a more kind and attentive nurse than himself; and, firm in the hope he felt of my recovery, he did not doubt that, instead of doing harm, he performed the kindest action that he could towards them.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00169", "bookId": 84, "start": 95124, "end": 95666, "sha256": "1c26861c5f5a987d00e1fdcbcdeead2f7d94c93683124140fc5fa64237c2c914", "text": "But I was in reality very ill, and surely nothing but the unbounded and unremitting attentions of my friend could have restored me to life. The form of the monster on whom I had bestowed existence was for ever before my eyes, and I raved incessantly concerning him. Doubtless my words surprised Henry; he at first believed them to be the wanderings of my disturbed imagination, but the pertinacity with which I continually recurred to the same subject persuaded him that my disorder indeed owed its origin to some uncommon and terrible event.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00170", "bookId": 84, "start": 95668, "end": 96251, "sha256": "f74814c49c0acf1d3d0c0149538cb6867b5a953bea67133f861baccf13f02026", "text": "By very slow degrees, and with frequent relapses that alarmed and grieved my friend, I recovered. I remember the first time I became capable of observing outward objects with any kind of pleasure, I perceived that the fallen leaves had disappeared and that the young buds were shooting forth from the trees that shaded my window. It was a divine spring, and the season contributed greatly to my convalescence. I felt also sentiments of joy and affection revive in my bosom; my gloom disappeared, and in a short time I became as cheerful as before I was attacked by the fatal passion.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00171", "bookId": 84, "start": 96253, "end": 96585, "sha256": "91c8a807d64728126142ce8e152374081f5268dfcf4cec8f9875a6242406cc7b", "text": "“Dearest Clerval,” exclaimed I, “how kind, how very good you are to me. This whole winter, instead of being spent in study, as you promised yourself, has been consumed in my sick room. How shall I ever repay you? I feel the greatest remorse for the disappointment of which I have been the occasion, but you will forgive me.”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00172", "bookId": 84, "start": 96587, "end": 96776, "sha256": "19f62a7d0ce3a1929f83a28d1d1664fc995403d7c184dffcf45ae4ef5a133714", "text": "“You will repay me entirely if you do not discompose yourself, but get well as fast as you can; and since you appear in such good spirits, I may speak to you on one subject, may I not?”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00173", "bookId": 84, "start": 96778, "end": 96881, "sha256": "e9f3a79e96d02dcc2053b4d2c62deed3669607b2526643ab55320e8deac4dd03", "text": "I trembled. One subject! What could it be? Could he allude to an object on whom I dared not even think?", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG84.B00174", "bookId": 84, "start": 96883, "end": 97185, "sha256": "8684fc5e80334ae582f85dc93435c3900216846e91d71ced3ad355069b7f4da8", "text": "“Compose yourself,” said Clerval, who observed my change of colour, “I will not mention it if it agitates you; but your father and cousin would be very happy if they received a letter from you in your own handwriting. They hardly know how ill you have been and are uneasy at your long silence.”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00175", "bookId": 84, "start": 97187, "end": 97360, "sha256": "d87cb9280d107c5f60f7c09e4f8b7ee9109c64025ef1154f7d4ecf517f7e4b81", "text": "“Is that all, my dear Henry? How could you suppose that my first thought would not fly towards those dear, dear friends whom I love and who are so deserving of my love?”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00176", "bookId": 84, "start": 97362, "end": 97530, "sha256": "c93b5b6e4c15f75fc59226e98142e3771ba6224df26b9a5159357e087933c9b4", "text": "“If this is your present temper, my friend, you will perhaps be glad to see a letter that has been lying here some days for you; it is from your cousin, I believe.”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00177", "bookId": 84, "start": 97535, "end": 97544, "sha256": "3ee2948142fe79dca50c89a316250540a95466ee4aedb4d7ef6af8ec4db23a5c", "text": "Chapter 6", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG84.B00178", "bookId": 84, "start": 97547, "end": 97629, "sha256": "84faf7da7dd824798a556460f2358d3ccd73584f22ea9579827509bd17cff12b", "text": "Clerval then put the following letter into my hands. It was from my own Elizabeth:", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG84.B00179", "bookId": 84, "start": 97631, "end": 97652, "sha256": "e50da876a655a591aab4728bad6898009cbe83b1c23780f935c7a6f001daf6c0", "text": "“My dearest Cousin,", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG84.B00180", "bookId": 84, "start": 97654, "end": 98589, "sha256": "7d4aac2cbaedb411c24c66fdab9ad2d610b00a593a96cec97f7c136ede0f5bbf", "text": "“You have been ill, very ill, and even the constant letters of dear kind Henry are not sufficient to reassure me on your account. You are forbidden to write—to hold a pen; yet one word from you, dear Victor, is necessary to calm our apprehensions. For a long time I have thought that each post would bring this line, and my persuasions have restrained my uncle from undertaking a journey to Ingolstadt. I have prevented his encountering the inconveniences and perhaps dangers of so long a journey, yet how often have I regretted not being able to perform it myself! I figure to myself that the task of attending on your sickbed has devolved on some mercenary old nurse, who could never guess your wishes nor minister to them with the care and affection of your poor cousin. Yet that is over now: Clerval writes that indeed you are getting better. I eagerly hope that you will confirm this intelligence soon in your own handwriting.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00181", "bookId": 84, "start": 98591, "end": 99490, "sha256": "f4647f214d95a9e66a4cb13efa3f46aeebe9b6e68a6f22f0b966930ee289aedb", "text": "“Get well—and return to us. You will find a happy, cheerful home and friends who love you dearly. Your father’s health is vigorous, and he asks but to see you, but to be assured that you are well; and not a care will ever cloud his benevolent countenance. How pleased you would be to remark the improvement of our Ernest! He is now sixteen and full of activity and spirit. He is desirous to be a true Swiss and to enter into foreign service, but we cannot part with him, at least until his elder brother returns to us. My uncle is not pleased with the idea of a military career in a distant country, but Ernest never had your powers of application. He looks upon study as an odious fetter; his time is spent in the open air, climbing the hills or rowing on the lake. I fear that he will become an idler unless we yield the point and permit him to enter on the profession which he has selected.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00182", "bookId": 84, "start": 99492, "end": 101113, "sha256": "f8b211e9c8b1cc4ce49fc79d9f657840ee7a73a04a3b993dc18ae39c068562e3", "text": "“Little alteration, except the growth of our dear children, has taken place since you left us. The blue lake and snow-clad mountains—they never change; and I think our placid home and our contented hearts are regulated by the same immutable laws. My trifling occupations take up my time and amuse me, and I am rewarded for any exertions by seeing none but happy, kind faces around me. Since you left us, but one change has taken place in our little household. Do you remember on what occasion Justine Moritz entered our family? Probably you do not; I will relate her history, therefore in a few words. Madame Moritz, her mother, was a widow with four children, of whom Justine was the third. This girl had always been the favourite of her father, but through a strange perversity, her mother could not endure her, and after the death of M. Moritz, treated her very ill. My aunt observed this, and when Justine was twelve years of age, prevailed on her mother to allow her to live at our house. The republican institutions of our country have produced simpler and happier manners than those which prevail in the great monarchies that surround it. Hence there is less distinction between the several classes of its inhabitants; and the lower orders, being neither so poor nor so despised, their manners are more refined and moral. A servant in Geneva does not mean the same thing as a servant in France and England. Justine, thus received in our family, learned the duties of a servant, a condition which, in our fortunate country, does not include the idea of ignorance and a sacrifice of the dignity of a human being.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00183", "bookId": 84, "start": 101115, "end": 102067, "sha256": "fbf639290cea56290c859b4e865490281d62a587f46fcd4a23a99d8858309531", "text": "“Justine, you may remember, was a great favourite of yours; and I recollect you once remarked that if you were in an ill humour, one glance from Justine could dissipate it, for the same reason that Ariosto gives concerning the beauty of Angelica—she looked so frank-hearted and happy. My aunt conceived a great attachment for her, by which she was induced to give her an education superior to that which she had at first intended. This benefit was fully repaid; Justine was the most grateful little creature in the world: I do not mean that she made any professions I never heard one pass her lips, but you could see by her eyes that she almost adored her protectress. Although her disposition was gay and in many respects inconsiderate, yet she paid the greatest attention to every gesture of my aunt. She thought her the model of all excellence and endeavoured to imitate her phraseology and manners, so that even now she often reminds me of her.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00184", "bookId": 84, "start": 102069, "end": 102312, "sha256": "768f7c42ad7d7e1cb4981ad44eeb3dd0d9b5256b88f6ebfd948f652305f7d3dd", "text": "“When my dearest aunt died every one was too much occupied in their own grief to notice poor Justine, who had attended her during her illness with the most anxious affection. Poor Justine was very ill; but other trials were reserved for her.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00185", "bookId": 84, "start": 102314, "end": 103728, "sha256": "36f0faad586cd2ba27aebf7a8bb0949447d54183ec3137ca462b8b0a459fd9ce", "text": "“One by one, her brothers and sister died; and her mother, with the exception of her neglected daughter, was left childless. The conscience of the woman was troubled; she began to think that the deaths of her favourites was a judgement from heaven to chastise her partiality. She was a Roman Catholic; and I believe her confessor confirmed the idea which she had conceived. Accordingly, a few months after your departure for Ingolstadt, Justine was called home by her repentant mother. Poor girl! She wept when she quitted our house; she was much altered since the death of my aunt; grief had given softness and a winning mildness to her manners, which had before been remarkable for vivacity. Nor was her residence at her mother’s house of a nature to restore her gaiety. The poor woman was very vacillating in her repentance. She sometimes begged Justine to forgive her unkindness, but much oftener accused her of having caused the deaths of her brothers and sister. Perpetual fretting at length threw Madame Moritz into a decline, which at first increased her irritability, but she is now at peace for ever. She died on the first approach of cold weather, at the beginning of this last winter. Justine has just returned to us; and I assure you I love her tenderly. She is very clever and gentle, and extremely pretty; as I mentioned before, her mien and her expression continually remind me of my dear aunt.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00186", "bookId": 84, "start": 103730, "end": 104139, "sha256": "27de552cf73bacb7152843c8f5b54200e74658a177f6b356a2294ea3381e55c3", "text": "“I must say also a few words to you, my dear cousin, of little darling William. I wish you could see him; he is very tall of his age, with sweet laughing blue eyes, dark eyelashes, and curling hair. When he smiles, two little dimples appear on each cheek, which are rosy with health. He has already had one or two little _wives,_ but Louisa Biron is his favourite, a pretty little girl of five years of age.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00187", "bookId": 84, "start": 104141, "end": 104838, "sha256": "fa055e185ada319ab22636b08511982fcaa4d5efcc8bac03db8fbcb2e9c2f27d", "text": "“Now, dear Victor, I dare say you wish to be indulged in a little gossip concerning the good people of Geneva. The pretty Miss Mansfield has already received the congratulatory visits on her approaching marriage with a young Englishman, John Melbourne, Esq. Her ugly sister, Manon, married M. Duvillard, the rich banker, last autumn. Your favourite schoolfellow, Louis Manoir, has suffered several misfortunes since the departure of Clerval from Geneva. But he has already recovered his spirits, and is reported to be on the point of marrying a lively pretty Frenchwoman, Madame Tavernier. She is a widow, and much older than Manoir; but she is very much admired, and a favourite with everybody.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00188", "bookId": 84, "start": 104840, "end": 105194, "sha256": "57b2e6ca720ad6a608d5283872e6e977e353a250b4fc291f534b4fa9a5819f96", "text": "“I have written myself into better spirits, dear cousin; but my anxiety returns upon me as I conclude. Write, dearest Victor,—one line—one word will be a blessing to us. Ten thousand thanks to Henry for his kindness, his affection, and his many letters; we are sincerely grateful. Adieu! my cousin; take care of yourself; and, I entreat you, write!", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00189", "bookId": 84, "start": 105196, "end": 105217, "sha256": "d30c024b1096a628a17eec535790cdc2aaf62288b53244b3195c939bfea49d24", "text": "“Elizabeth Lavenza.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG84.B00190", "bookId": 84, "start": 105220, "end": 105252, "sha256": "01f6c854b002da48b07e493866f0afeb4f776e8134fdd032bafd1df3dab7267f", "text": "“Geneva, March 18th, 17—.”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG84.B00191", "bookId": 84, "start": 105256, "end": 105565, "sha256": "41ab0758feeffd122f915e30864b31dda7144d6a8d462a237423eb3f7d5ae3b4", "text": "“Dear, dear Elizabeth!” I exclaimed, when I had read her letter: “I will write instantly and relieve them from the anxiety they must feel.” I wrote, and this exertion greatly fatigued me; but my convalescence had commenced, and proceeded regularly. In another fortnight I was able to leave my chamber.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00192", "bookId": 84, "start": 105567, "end": 107609, "sha256": "51d627b355815943205a9d34be1a57f231c4d5874422b69609fedb11ed488712", "text": "One of my first duties on my recovery was to introduce Clerval to the several professors of the university. In doing this, I underwent a kind of rough usage, ill befitting the wounds that my mind had sustained. Ever since the fatal night, the end of my labours, and the beginning of my misfortunes, I had conceived a violent antipathy even to the name of natural philosophy. When I was otherwise quite restored to health, the sight of a chemical instrument would renew all the agony of my nervous symptoms. Henry saw this, and had removed all my apparatus from my view. He had also changed my apartment; for he perceived that I had acquired a dislike for the room which had previously been my laboratory. But these cares of Clerval were made of no avail when I visited the professors. M. Waldman inflicted torture when he praised, with kindness and warmth, the astonishing progress I had made in the sciences. He soon perceived that I disliked the subject; but not guessing the real cause, he attributed my feelings to modesty, and changed the subject from my improvement, to the science itself, with a desire, as I evidently saw, of drawing me out. What could I do? He meant to please, and he tormented me. I felt as if he had placed carefully, one by one, in my view those instruments which were to be afterwards used in putting me to a slow and cruel death. I writhed under his words, yet dared not exhibit the pain I felt. Clerval, whose eyes and feelings were always quick in discerning the sensations of others, declined the subject, alleging, in excuse, his total ignorance; and the conversation took a more general turn. I thanked my friend from my heart, but I did not speak. I saw plainly that he was surprised, but he never attempted to draw my secret from me; and although I loved him with a mixture of affection and reverence that knew no bounds, yet I could never persuade myself to confide in him that event which was so often present to my recollection, but which I feared the detail to another would only impress more deeply.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00193", "bookId": 84, "start": 107611, "end": 108450, "sha256": "0422b0bad631eb549386668f2be7920165e8ed5a18aa6f5c951685e5c26796a3", "text": "M. Krempe was not equally docile; and in my condition at that time, of almost insupportable sensitiveness, his harsh blunt encomiums gave me even more pain than the benevolent approbation of M. Waldman. “D—n the fellow!” cried he; “why, M. Clerval, I assure you he has outstript us all. Ay, stare if you please; but it is nevertheless true. A youngster who, but a few years ago, believed in Cornelius Agrippa as firmly as in the gospel, has now set himself at the head of the university; and if he is not soon pulled down, we shall all be out of countenance.—Ay, ay,” continued he, observing my face expressive of suffering, “M. Frankenstein is modest; an excellent quality in a young man. Young men should be diffident of themselves, you know, M. Clerval: I was myself when young; but that wears out in a very short time.”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00194", "bookId": 84, "start": 108452, "end": 108582, "sha256": "56d0aa0f88fd507da628ef361ac6357e02a42be84f10a340c4c43e88e3b262df", "text": "M. Krempe had now commenced an eulogy on himself, which happily turned the conversation from a subject that was so annoying to me.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00195", "bookId": 84, "start": 108584, "end": 110020, "sha256": "e3519476cf17f5dacab47e26d2da2d4569ac5b4f8e32d63adb695f7e71836647", "text": "Clerval had never sympathised in my tastes for natural science; and his literary pursuits differed wholly from those which had occupied me. He came to the university with the design of making himself complete master of the oriental languages, and thus he should open a field for the plan of life he had marked out for himself. Resolved to pursue no inglorious career, he turned his eyes toward the East, as affording scope for his spirit of enterprise. The Persian, Arabic, and Sanskrit languages engaged his attention, and I was easily induced to enter on the same studies. Idleness had ever been irksome to me, and now that I wished to fly from reflection, and hated my former studies, I felt great relief in being the fellow-pupil with my friend, and found not only instruction but consolation in the works of the orientalists. I did not, like him, attempt a critical knowledge of their dialects, for I did not contemplate making any other use of them than temporary amusement. I read merely to understand their meaning, and they well repaid my labours. Their melancholy is soothing, and their joy elevating, to a degree I never experienced in studying the authors of any other country. When you read their writings, life appears to consist in a warm sun and a garden of roses,—in the smiles and frowns of a fair enemy, and the fire that consumes your own heart. How different from the manly and heroical poetry of Greece and Rome!", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00196", "bookId": 84, "start": 110022, "end": 110678, "sha256": "17c451fd8adcc33593ee13c840c90c6aaf7859b05522817d93485910d053d4fb", "text": "Summer passed away in these occupations, and my return to Geneva was fixed for the latter end of autumn; but being delayed by several accidents, winter and snow arrived, the roads were deemed impassable, and my journey was retarded until the ensuing spring. I felt this delay very bitterly; for I longed to see my native town and my beloved friends. My return had only been delayed so long, from an unwillingness to leave Clerval in a strange place, before he had become acquainted with any of its inhabitants. The winter, however, was spent cheerfully; and although the spring was uncommonly late, when it came its beauty compensated for its dilatoriness.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00197", "bookId": 84, "start": 110680, "end": 111145, "sha256": "3642d30fe4b1ab4f2a82e54f00479de663ab69e19b97bef7c9383ae96d7895c5", "text": "The month of May had already commenced, and I expected the letter daily which was to fix the date of my departure, when Henry proposed a pedestrian tour in the environs of Ingolstadt, that I might bid a personal farewell to the country I had so long inhabited. I acceded with pleasure to this proposition: I was fond of exercise, and Clerval had always been my favourite companion in the ramble of this nature that I had taken among the scenes of my native country.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00198", "bookId": 84, "start": 111147, "end": 112400, "sha256": "dc8ee45f1a1c77816341b365e81268af11c7d4705581618e700abb7da55733e9", "text": "We passed a fortnight in these perambulations: my health and spirits had long been restored, and they gained additional strength from the salubrious air I breathed, the natural incidents of our progress, and the conversation of my friend. Study had before secluded me from the intercourse of my fellow-creatures, and rendered me unsocial; but Clerval called forth the better feelings of my heart; he again taught me to love the aspect of nature, and the cheerful faces of children. Excellent friend! how sincerely you did love me, and endeavour to elevate my mind until it was on a level with your own. A selfish pursuit had cramped and narrowed me, until your gentleness and affection warmed and opened my senses; I became the same happy creature who, a few years ago, loved and beloved by all, had no sorrow or care. When happy, inanimate nature had the power of bestowing on me the most delightful sensations. A serene sky and verdant fields filled me with ecstasy. The present season was indeed divine; the flowers of spring bloomed in the hedges, while those of summer were already in bud. I was undisturbed by thoughts which during the preceding year had pressed upon me, notwithstanding my endeavours to throw them off, with an invincible burden.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00199", "bookId": 84, "start": 112402, "end": 112902, "sha256": "cb20bf60c5d634645a88eb05ff6b6c66baf41bd52361845803386694aa9259b2", "text": "Henry rejoiced in my gaiety, and sincerely sympathised in my feelings: he exerted himself to amuse me, while he expressed the sensations that filled his soul. The resources of his mind on this occasion were truly astonishing: his conversation was full of imagination; and very often, in imitation of the Persian and Arabic writers, he invented tales of wonderful fancy and passion. At other times he repeated my favourite poems, or drew me out into arguments, which he supported with great ingenuity.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00200", "bookId": 84, "start": 112904, "end": 113116, "sha256": "81b8cba3ea64e07c7cdf5f5531a846c01dd202b4d25ec563b61c84cc87d4124e", "text": "We returned to our college on a Sunday afternoon: the peasants were dancing, and every one we met appeared gay and happy. My own spirits were high, and I bounded along with feelings of unbridled joy and hilarity.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00201", "bookId": 84, "start": 113121, "end": 113130, "sha256": "fbb63c1265c0066cd59f517a642bacd87f052b050a191c9eecfb37761e86e4a4", "text": "Chapter 7", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG84.B00202", "bookId": 84, "start": 113133, "end": 113194, "sha256": "470f2356c3b0711934ba01209a14b6cf73515a7ed6681c273867f82eef8961d8", "text": "On my return, I found the following letter from my father:—", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG84.B00203", "bookId": 84, "start": 113196, "end": 113214, "sha256": "48411afad244efc2beb901d4507e21bdf97476c4095104e7df6163e5e5d4c17c", "text": "“My dear Victor,", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG84.B00204", "bookId": 84, "start": 113216, "end": 113947, "sha256": "83dafcfe9f8b8fadf45f09a8251060b7532892679f2c29ebbcdac5c584b0d4d7", "text": "“You have probably waited impatiently for a letter to fix the date of your return to us; and I was at first tempted to write only a few lines, merely mentioning the day on which I should expect you. But that would be a cruel kindness, and I dare not do it. What would be your surprise, my son, when you expected a happy and glad welcome, to behold, on the contrary, tears and wretchedness? And how, Victor, can I relate our misfortune? Absence cannot have rendered you callous to our joys and griefs; and how shall I inflict pain on my long absent son? I wish to prepare you for the woeful news, but I know it is impossible; even now your eye skims over the page to seek the words which are to convey to you the horrible tidings.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00205", "bookId": 84, "start": 113949, "end": 114087, "sha256": "270fb0cd37b9cf0366eb667a62501c6418de67c15ec8bda83fd3464eb2726bdc", "text": "“William is dead!—that sweet child, whose smiles delighted and warmed my heart, who was so gentle, yet so gay! Victor, he is murdered!", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00206", "bookId": 84, "start": 114089, "end": 114187, "sha256": "683805a1516e37e4f88d5e6730fdb620f9e63d8162e5ee76c1f7f7ca1f9413ce", "text": "“I will not attempt to console you; but will simply relate the circumstances of the transaction.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG84.B00207", "bookId": 84, "start": 114189, "end": 114817, "sha256": "6885fe8e074227aec1a67e67e157dade864db3c88536bd8cabe0f86aa0acab4c", "text": "“Last Thursday (May 7th), I, my niece, and your two brothers, went to walk in Plainpalais. The evening was warm and serene, and we prolonged our walk farther than usual. It was already dusk before we thought of returning; and then we discovered that William and Ernest, who had gone on before, were not to be found. We accordingly rested on a seat until they should return. Presently Ernest came, and enquired if we had seen his brother; he said, that he had been playing with him, that William had run away to hide himself, and that he vainly sought for him, and afterwards waited for a long time, but that he did not return.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00208", "bookId": 84, "start": 114819, "end": 115407, "sha256": "eea2913f51ab3d3393b3f3a2d6b2dc8e77faf8725d6539ed2be96fa9ebf3bddf", "text": "“This account rather alarmed us, and we continued to search for him until night fell, when Elizabeth conjectured that he might have returned to the house. He was not there. We returned again, with torches; for I could not rest, when I thought that my sweet boy had lost himself, and was exposed to all the damps and dews of night; Elizabeth also suffered extreme anguish. About five in the morning I discovered my lovely boy, whom the night before I had seen blooming and active in health, stretched on the grass livid and motionless; the print of the murder’s finger was on his neck.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00209", "bookId": 84, "start": 115409, "end": 115771, "sha256": "db8d4d70b85374d0993bf97f1e19a3cd3f5e816cd663b8088c6f70de27a0e2c4", "text": "“He was conveyed home, and the anguish that was visible in my countenance betrayed the secret to Elizabeth. She was very earnest to see the corpse. At first I attempted to prevent her but she persisted, and entering the room where it lay, hastily examined the neck of the victim, and clasping her hands exclaimed, ‘O God! I have murdered my darling child!’", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00210", "bookId": 84, "start": 115773, "end": 116248, "sha256": "3ad31d7f5063ca74507c507694da9790dfcf8e8779dcd68850256e3a4f79ed53", "text": "“She fainted, and was restored with extreme difficulty. When she again lived, it was only to weep and sigh. She told me, that that same evening William had teased her to let him wear a very valuable miniature that she possessed of your mother. This picture is gone, and was doubtless the temptation which urged the murderer to the deed. We have no trace of him at present, although our exertions to discover him are unremitted; but they will not restore my beloved William!", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00211", "bookId": 84, "start": 116250, "end": 116657, "sha256": "8dc89c6292028a96e36348430059de3b49a9284295889e306fa7a2e3e9278b93", "text": "“Come, dearest Victor; you alone can console Elizabeth. She weeps continually, and accuses herself unjustly as the cause of his death; her words pierce my heart. We are all unhappy; but will not that be an additional motive for you, my son, to return and be our comforter? Your dear mother! Alas, Victor! I now say, Thank God she did not live to witness the cruel, miserable death of her youngest darling!", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00212", "bookId": 84, "start": 116659, "end": 116972, "sha256": "ebd2901b1cb4077971ea7323ae13152316ef3e048cd62aa5d8174233d217561d", "text": "“Come, Victor; not brooding thoughts of vengeance against the assassin, but with feelings of peace and gentleness, that will heal, instead of festering, the wounds of our minds. Enter the house of mourning, my friend, but with kindness and affection for those who love you, and not with hatred for your enemies.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00213", "bookId": 84, "start": 116974, "end": 117016, "sha256": "2a10a092aa6d0a4ed58c3408f2a93b0f7fbc65c6abf4f0dc8edeebbdf1bd2c7c", "text": "“Your affectionate and afflicted father,", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG84.B00214", "bookId": 84, "start": 117018, "end": 117043, "sha256": "a48e62e6edec003a3bcebec4576d74ae00be9867a6687640d18503f9d2531ddb", "text": "“Alphonse Frankenstein.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG84.B00215", "bookId": 84, "start": 117047, "end": 117077, "sha256": "59d5445df66328500d6454b25e4017373ec2f2979c60fc0b7a6dbc929d4b123f", "text": "“Geneva, May 12th, 17—.”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG84.B00216", "bookId": 84, "start": 117081, "end": 117327, "sha256": "352624e40b2cdf7c58257a2e546b2f90c855916461d24298fca3faefb0ec74e5", "text": "Clerval, who had watched my countenance as I read this letter, was surprised to observe the despair that succeeded the joy I at first expressed on receiving news from my friends. I threw the letter on the table, and covered my face with my hands.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00217", "bookId": 84, "start": 117329, "end": 117487, "sha256": "901f1980f631f9d9ffc3ab815d28f778e6761deba2c9a1def3b58ca60cd6ea73", "text": "“My dear Frankenstein,” exclaimed Henry, when he perceived me weep with bitterness, “are you always to be unhappy? My dear friend, what has happened?”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00218", "bookId": 84, "start": 117489, "end": 117675, "sha256": "f09c24a18776e2780fda4fc0e42404841a0283c5107730cce6307e9188651e00", "text": "I motioned him to take up the letter, while I walked up and down the room in the extremest agitation. Tears also gushed from the eyes of Clerval, as he read the account of my misfortune.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00219", "bookId": 84, "start": 117677, "end": 117796, "sha256": "5a42f2870daad031968b28c734a1ba2a53792a33ba90cbecd728f4ef6224f83b", "text": "“I can offer you no consolation, my friend,” said he; “your disaster is irreparable. What do you intend to do?”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00220", "bookId": 84, "start": 117798, "end": 117872, "sha256": "c3bddff29d44c266ca57b266580bb8d91b98f11ef63631066dfdb7e788eeea8e", "text": "“To go instantly to Geneva: come with me, Henry, to order the horses.”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG84.B00221", "bookId": 84, "start": 117874, "end": 118593, "sha256": "4dc9dbbbe5a09d13f407e71cfecb71de3258901e7f23da7f3bf928d215fb9dc5", "text": "During our walk, Clerval endeavoured to say a few words of consolation; he could only express his heartfelt sympathy. “Poor William!” said he, “dear lovely child, he now sleeps with his angel mother! Who that had seen him bright and joyous in his young beauty, but must weep over his untimely loss! To die so miserably; to feel the murderer’s grasp! How much more a murdered that could destroy radiant innocence! Poor little fellow! one only consolation have we; his friends mourn and weep, but he is at rest. The pang is over, his sufferings are at an end for ever. A sod covers his gentle form, and he knows no pain. He can no longer be a subject for pity; we must reserve that for his miserable survivors.”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00222", "bookId": 84, "start": 118595, "end": 118836, "sha256": "5db78c62026bce7a0f6845ca68d88190f92499daf6f227d28baa41c945dcae88", "text": "Clerval spoke thus as we hurried through the streets; the words impressed themselves on my mind and I remembered them afterwards in solitude. But now, as soon as the horses arrived, I hurried into a cabriolet, and bade farewell to my friend.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00223", "bookId": 84, "start": 118838, "end": 119605, "sha256": "f89bab2b04dda8177ab594c0acd824d635c039058adb984bfbdbbf8678ef6dfe", "text": "My journey was very melancholy. At first I wished to hurry on, for I longed to console and sympathise with my loved and sorrowing friends; but when I drew near my native town, I slackened my progress. I could hardly sustain the multitude of feelings that crowded into my mind. I passed through scenes familiar to my youth, but which I had not seen for nearly six years. How altered every thing might be during that time! One sudden and desolating change had taken place; but a thousand little circumstances might have by degrees worked other alterations, which, although they were done more tranquilly, might not be the less decisive. Fear overcame me; I dared no advance, dreading a thousand nameless evils that made me tremble, although I was unable to define them.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00224", "bookId": 84, "start": 119607, "end": 119907, "sha256": "3c40865aff5bc1c42e0193f3848a32366a3635869c6a8bc95f35b717e977dce6", "text": "I remained two days at Lausanne, in this painful state of mind. I contemplated the lake: the waters were placid; all around was calm; and the snowy mountains, “the palaces of nature,” were not changed. By degrees the calm and heavenly scene restored me, and I continued my journey towards Geneva.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00225", "bookId": 84, "start": 119909, "end": 120315, "sha256": "184bae8e4af5ee453be54a3d0d89a7d471a0382c68f6303aa5668a890aa4ee90", "text": "The road ran by the side of the lake, which became narrower as I approached my native town. I discovered more distinctly the black sides of Jura, and the bright summit of Mont Blanc. I wept like a child. “Dear mountains! my own beautiful lake! how do you welcome your wanderer? Your summits are clear; the sky and lake are blue and placid. Is this to prognosticate peace, or to mock at my unhappiness?”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00226", "bookId": 84, "start": 120317, "end": 120659, "sha256": "add2e1945b7e59afe5298575155e4e2b3ba6bc7628a533faade59054f560354e", "text": "I fear, my friend, that I shall render myself tedious by dwelling on these preliminary circumstances; but they were days of comparative happiness, and I think of them with pleasure. My country, my beloved country! who but a native can tell the delight I took in again beholding thy streams, thy mountains, and, more than all, thy lovely lake!", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00227", "bookId": 84, "start": 120661, "end": 121160, "sha256": "0ddb2d5dd9ef42ec69f9c5bc29c08a974b4960eef1d637eb905a1efbe0a75565", "text": "Yet, as I drew nearer home, grief and fear again overcame me. Night also closed around; and when I could hardly see the dark mountains, I felt still more gloomily. The picture appeared a vast and dim scene of evil, and I foresaw obscurely that I was destined to become the most wretched of human beings. Alas! I prophesied truly, and failed only in one single circumstance, that in all the misery I imagined and dreaded, I did not conceive the hundredth part of the anguish I was destined to endure.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00228", "bookId": 84, "start": 121162, "end": 121957, "sha256": "19ffed7be094b7a762204d4133666e6a9b3120fe8c622515bf3d00560770f322", "text": "It was completely dark when I arrived in the environs of Geneva; the gates of the town were already shut; and I was obliged to pass the night at Secheron, a village at the distance of half a league from the city. The sky was serene; and, as I was unable to rest, I resolved to visit the spot where my poor William had been murdered. As I could not pass through the town, I was obliged to cross the lake in a boat to arrive at Plainpalais. During this short voyage I saw the lightning playing on the summit of Mont Blanc in the most beautiful figures. The storm appeared to approach rapidly, and, on landing, I ascended a low hill, that I might observe its progress. It advanced; the heavens were clouded, and I soon felt the rain coming slowly in large drops, but its violence quickly increased.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00229", "bookId": 84, "start": 121959, "end": 122798, "sha256": "e48fb27f3d3f2aa51e220c3886f13e24307dbaca122fcebda33a7f402bd6efa4", "text": "I quitted my seat, and walked on, although the darkness and storm increased every minute, and the thunder burst with a terrific crash over my head. It was echoed from Salêve, the Juras, and the Alps of Savoy; vivid flashes of lightning dazzled my eyes, illuminating the lake, making it appear like a vast sheet of fire; then for an instant every thing seemed of a pitchy darkness, until the eye recovered itself from the preceding flash. The storm, as is often the case in Switzerland, appeared at once in various parts of the heavens. The most violent storm hung exactly north of the town, over the part of the lake which lies between the promontory of Belrive and the village of Copêt. Another storm enlightened Jura with faint flashes; and another darkened and sometimes disclosed the Môle, a peaked mountain to the east of the lake.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00230", "bookId": 84, "start": 122800, "end": 124223, "sha256": "6088d90e26ef82ec96346ef051b7f9680fabb117092610bc69f8999929ca276a", "text": "While I watched the tempest, so beautiful yet terrific, I wandered on with a hasty step. This noble war in the sky elevated my spirits; I clasped my hands, and exclaimed aloud, “William, dear angel! this is thy funeral, this thy dirge!” As I said these words, I perceived in the gloom a figure which stole from behind a clump of trees near me; I stood fixed, gazing intently: I could not be mistaken. A flash of lightning illuminated the object, and discovered its shape plainly to me; its gigantic stature, and the deformity of its aspect more hideous than belongs to humanity, instantly informed me that it was the wretch, the filthy dæmon, to whom I had given life. What did he there? Could he be (I shuddered at the conception) the murderer of my brother? No sooner did that idea cross my imagination, than I became convinced of its truth; my teeth chattered, and I was forced to lean against a tree for support. The figure passed me quickly, and I lost it in the gloom. Nothing in human shape could have destroyed the fair child. _He_ was the murderer! I could not doubt it. The mere presence of the idea was an irresistible proof of the fact. I thought of pursuing the devil; but it would have been in vain, for another flash discovered him to me hanging among the rocks of the nearly perpendicular ascent of Mont Salêve, a hill that bounds Plainpalais on the south. He soon reached the summit, and disappeared.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00231", "bookId": 84, "start": 124225, "end": 124797, "sha256": "5fbd3fa526da89f065de746fddc440292308b3d1176b893c98c5cda9bf3ada51", "text": "I remained motionless. The thunder ceased; but the rain still continued, and the scene was enveloped in an impenetrable darkness. I revolved in my mind the events which I had until now sought to forget: the whole train of my progress toward the creation; the appearance of the works of my own hands at my bedside; its departure. Two years had now nearly elapsed since the night on which he first received life; and was this his first crime? Alas! I had turned loose into the world a depraved wretch, whose delight was in carnage and misery; had he not murdered my brother?", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00232", "bookId": 84, "start": 124799, "end": 125316, "sha256": "b2b599047970735b973e28d4c9812ec2906378e7db07660fe3c2580e06291f5a", "text": "No one can conceive the anguish I suffered during the remainder of the night, which I spent, cold and wet, in the open air. But I did not feel the inconvenience of the weather; my imagination was busy in scenes of evil and despair. I considered the being whom I had cast among mankind, and endowed with the will and power to effect purposes of horror, such as the deed which he had now done, nearly in the light of my own vampire, my own spirit let loose from the grave, and forced to destroy all that was dear to me.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00233", "bookId": 84, "start": 125318, "end": 126374, "sha256": "8eaced7b9e8ae0fa72aee4f2854791dc45e6e5e6ac1aef72e8cfdf69d6bf9f53", "text": "Day dawned; and I directed my steps towards the town. The gates were open, and I hastened to my father’s house. My first thought was to discover what I knew of the murderer, and cause instant pursuit to be made. But I paused when I reflected on the story that I had to tell. A being whom I myself had formed, and endued with life, had met me at midnight among the precipices of an inaccessible mountain. I remembered also the nervous fever with which I had been seized just at the time that I dated my creation, and which would give an air of delirium to a tale otherwise so utterly improbable. I well knew that if any other had communicated such a relation to me, I should have looked upon it as the ravings of insanity. Besides, the strange nature of the animal would elude all pursuit, even if I were so far credited as to persuade my relatives to commence it. And then of what use would be pursuit? Who could arrest a creature capable of scaling the overhanging sides of Mont Salêve? These reflections determined me, and I resolved to remain silent.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00234", "bookId": 84, "start": 126376, "end": 126555, "sha256": "22b80c2fb647fc077364bab6bc87adafe05ef14f6e3ea03957af639b6ab0df73", "text": "It was about five in the morning when I entered my father’s house. I told the servants not to disturb the family, and went into the library to attend their usual hour of rising.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00235", "bookId": 84, "start": 126557, "end": 127789, "sha256": "5fed4ea0261303715761e6f3ab4c32c453de9a4c370f4d3d248aa14b0bea1c2e", "text": "Six years had elapsed, passed in a dream but for one indelible trace, and I stood in the same place where I had last embraced my father before my departure for Ingolstadt. Beloved and venerable parent! He still remained to me. I gazed on the picture of my mother, which stood over the mantel-piece. It was an historical subject, painted at my father’s desire, and represented Caroline Beaufort in an agony of despair, kneeling by the coffin of her dead father. Her garb was rustic, and her cheek pale; but there was an air of dignity and beauty, that hardly permitted the sentiment of pity. Below this picture was a miniature of William; and my tears flowed when I looked upon it. While I was thus engaged, Ernest entered: he had heard me arrive, and hastened to welcome me: “Welcome, my dearest Victor,” said he. “Ah! I wish you had come three months ago, and then you would have found us all joyous and delighted. You come to us now to share a misery which nothing can alleviate; yet your presence will, I hope, revive our father, who seems sinking under his misfortune; and your persuasions will induce poor Elizabeth to cease her vain and tormenting self-accusations.—Poor William! he was our darling and our pride!”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00236", "bookId": 84, "start": 127791, "end": 128121, "sha256": "15998b1e45258ec41bb311527e4df14ca517ebff8a37fb6932bb33ea1dbdc07a", "text": "Tears, unrestrained, fell from my brother’s eyes; a sense of mortal agony crept over my frame. Before, I had only imagined the wretchedness of my desolated home; the reality came on me as a new, and a not less terrible, disaster. I tried to calm Ernest; I enquired more minutely concerning my father, and here I named my cousin.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00237", "bookId": 84, "start": 128123, "end": 128327, "sha256": "c90fa7cec16d25c28dc4aac5c11d9344ff977a218444271aa5eab7c482dbcb46", "text": "“She most of all,” said Ernest, “requires consolation; she accused herself of having caused the death of my brother, and that made her very wretched. But since the murderer has been discovered—”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00238", "bookId": 84, "start": 128329, "end": 128564, "sha256": "6ff4fa46348075aa6f81d20bd7f9e717e723f689f4d4d2681a5e75340c8396c5", "text": "“The murderer discovered! Good God! how can that be? who could attempt to pursue him? It is impossible; one might as well try to overtake the winds, or confine a mountain-stream with a straw. I saw him too; he was free last night!”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00239", "bookId": 84, "start": 128566, "end": 128987, "sha256": "a16be244e5bbeab5aae8843a3aaca6a4f82b3d9e90f68cc3776b09e38f1a11d3", "text": "“I do not know what you mean,” replied my brother, in accents of wonder, “but to us the discovery we have made completes our misery. No one would believe it at first; and even now Elizabeth will not be convinced, notwithstanding all the evidence. Indeed, who would credit that Justine Moritz, who was so amiable, and fond of all the family, could suddenly become so capable of so frightful, so appalling a crime?”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00240", "bookId": 84, "start": 128989, "end": 129127, "sha256": "bd5b2653f2cb4420d670384aa286503f354b33fc9dd42df5cd34266c89f236ba", "text": "“Justine Moritz! Poor, poor girl, is she the accused? But it is wrongfully; every one knows that; no one believes it, surely, Ernest?”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00241", "bookId": 84, "start": 129129, "end": 129420, "sha256": "44e8633e868458545e3e0cffd130d28866a88de623c350b91e14052e5187f38f", "text": "“No one did at first; but several circumstances came out, that have almost forced conviction upon us; and her own behaviour has been so confused, as to add to the evidence of facts a weight that, I fear, leaves no hope for doubt. But she will be tried today, and you will then hear all.”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00242", "bookId": 84, "start": 129422, "end": 130117, "sha256": "73855be4ba21d46ae401713f0c1382caf05bb6607ae558c0c47ad0d8b2a60f0f", "text": "He then related that, the morning on which the murder of poor William had been discovered, Justine had been taken ill, and confined to her bed for several days. During this interval, one of the servants, happening to examine the apparel she had worn on the night of the murder, had discovered in her pocket the picture of my mother, which had been judged to be the temptation of the murderer. The servant instantly showed it to one of the others, who, without saying a word to any of the family, went to a magistrate; and, upon their deposition, Justine was apprehended. On being charged with the fact, the poor girl confirmed the suspicion in a great measure by her extreme confusion of manner.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00243", "bookId": 84, "start": 130119, "end": 130290, "sha256": "9507196d6ec0fd66968751a3a0b63a95f62ee87cd09632502c87319938bed1ba", "text": "This was a strange tale, but it did not shake my faith; and I replied earnestly, “You are all mistaken; I know the murderer. Justine, poor, good Justine, is innocent.”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00244", "bookId": 84, "start": 130292, "end": 130655, "sha256": "b7ad901d32d9929a6dd997e9ef92bf0babe254f9ae2e42868349e91b78dcf7f7", "text": "At that instant my father entered. I saw unhappiness deeply impressed on his countenance, but he endeavoured to welcome me cheerfully; and, after we had exchanged our mournful greeting, would have introduced some other topic than that of our disaster, had not Ernest exclaimed, “Good God, papa! Victor says that he knows who was the murderer of poor William.”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00245", "bookId": 84, "start": 130657, "end": 130848, "sha256": "7ff1720007696b465696b9a15672d7878c17a2888a0487fee3ac8f2cb7ec64ba", "text": "“We do also, unfortunately,” replied my father, “for indeed I had rather have been for ever ignorant than have discovered so much depravity and ungratitude in one I valued so highly.”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00246", "bookId": 84, "start": 130850, "end": 130910, "sha256": "4ddc21f204f2f3b1f6211854e93a468f8a257bc529d6def8a9fb073020539ff9", "text": "“My dear father, you are mistaken; Justine is innocent.”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG84.B00247", "bookId": 84, "start": 130912, "end": 131057, "sha256": "ed1d0db6d04139e39c1f2836ea55ab4b73c4c1f5b53ca7af026b421a3e35d819", "text": "“If she is, God forbid that she should suffer as guilty. She is to be tried today, and I hope, I sincerely hope, that she will be acquitted.”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00248", "bookId": 84, "start": 131059, "end": 131631, "sha256": "c3f7b980627aeb67dc40f737229bae42912c974236d7a41f3a01d3ca0bf6cafb", "text": "This speech calmed me. I was firmly convinced in my own mind that Justine, and indeed every human being, was guiltless of this murder. I had no fear, therefore, that any circumstantial evidence could be brought forward strong enough to convict her. My tale was not one to announce publicly; its astounding horror would be looked upon as madness by the vulgar. Did any one indeed exist, except I, the creator, who would believe, unless his senses convinced him, in the existence of the living monument of presumption and rash ignorance which I had let loose upon the world?", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00249", "bookId": 84, "start": 131633, "end": 132549, "sha256": "1a431b0ff713dd28bdaae383738948582f7702afb33881574a5ffa8bffac2141", "text": "We were soon joined by Elizabeth. Time had altered her since I last beheld her; it had endowed her with loveliness surpassing the beauty of her childish years. There was the same candour, the same vivacity, but it was allied to an expression more full of sensibility and intellect. She welcomed me with the greatest affection. “Your arrival, my dear cousin,” said she, “fills me with hope. You perhaps will find some means to justify my poor guiltless Justine. Alas! who is safe, if she be convicted of crime? I rely on her innocence as certainly as I do upon my own. Our misfortune is doubly hard to us; we have not only lost that lovely darling boy, but this poor girl, whom I sincerely love, is to be torn away by even a worse fate. If she is condemned, I never shall know joy more. But she will not, I am sure she will not; and then I shall be happy again, even after the sad death of my little William.”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00250", "bookId": 84, "start": 132551, "end": 132708, "sha256": "d6c81d032fc26bca842ba9ced15e630ede702b9d82a5486b914fff870e1db9bd", "text": "“She is innocent, my Elizabeth,” said I, “and that shall be proved; fear nothing, but let your spirits be cheered by the assurance of her acquittal.”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00251", "bookId": 84, "start": 132710, "end": 132952, "sha256": "3e9d97636af1ffd49a0490649c9fd21453127c9f5fc15825e7e0da8335456173", "text": "“How kind and generous you are! every one else believes in her guilt, and that made me wretched, for I knew that it was impossible: and to see every one else prejudiced in so deadly a manner rendered me hopeless and despairing.” She wept.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00252", "bookId": 84, "start": 132954, "end": 133162, "sha256": "8ee1b97e81f5d8bc0049ce903f28335d41d8eb2ecce9d3fb1c939d0e62ae3f9a", "text": "“Dearest niece,” said my father, “dry your tears. If she is, as you believe, innocent, rely on the justice of our laws, and the activity with which I shall prevent the slightest shadow of partiality.”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00253", "bookId": 84, "start": 133167, "end": 133176, "sha256": "899522b4bde11bcf0bd7ff2341a4f1e26eb4141a6073a023d83d969f22f97f1f", "text": "Chapter 8", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG84.B00254", "bookId": 84, "start": 133179, "end": 134182, "sha256": "d79151dfe5738f0a5043a086175cd99e180c4777443ecd5db5a2acc8b3a200be", "text": "We passed a few sad hours until eleven o’clock, when the trial was to commence. My father and the rest of the family being obliged to attend as witnesses, I accompanied them to the court. During the whole of this wretched mockery of justice I suffered living torture. It was to be decided whether the result of my curiosity and lawless devices would cause the death of two of my fellow beings: one a smiling babe full of innocence and joy, the other far more dreadfully murdered, with every aggravation of infamy that could make the murder memorable in horror. Justine also was a girl of merit and possessed qualities which promised to render her life happy; now all was to be obliterated in an ignominious grave, and I the cause! A thousand times rather would I have confessed myself guilty of the crime ascribed to Justine, but I was absent when it was committed, and such a declaration would have been considered as the ravings of a madman and would not have exculpated her who suffered through me.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00255", "bookId": 84, "start": 134184, "end": 135094, "sha256": "f86054061fa8342dda7dd1fad523b81cd4854dba50735e7386f63cc5554f752d", "text": "The appearance of Justine was calm. She was dressed in mourning, and her countenance, always engaging, was rendered, by the solemnity of her feelings, exquisitely beautiful. Yet she appeared confident in innocence and did not tremble, although gazed on and execrated by thousands, for all the kindness which her beauty might otherwise have excited was obliterated in the minds of the spectators by the imagination of the enormity she was supposed to have committed. She was tranquil, yet her tranquillity was evidently constrained; and as her confusion had before been adduced as a proof of her guilt, she worked up her mind to an appearance of courage. When she entered the court she threw her eyes round it and quickly discovered where we were seated. A tear seemed to dim her eye when she saw us, but she quickly recovered herself, and a look of sorrowful affection seemed to attest her utter guiltlessness.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00256", "bookId": 84, "start": 135096, "end": 136262, "sha256": "841f7542389d630b6209eb238874f50f9be14268d37b1e19925ec1ebdaa3b452", "text": "The trial began, and after the advocate against her had stated the charge, several witnesses were called. Several strange facts combined against her, which might have staggered anyone who had not such proof of her innocence as I had. She had been out the whole of the night on which the murder had been committed and towards morning had been perceived by a market-woman not far from the spot where the body of the murdered child had been afterwards found. The woman asked her what she did there, but she looked very strangely and only returned a confused and unintelligible answer. She returned to the house about eight o’clock, and when one inquired where she had passed the night, she replied that she had been looking for the child and demanded earnestly if anything had been heard concerning him. When shown the body, she fell into violent hysterics and kept her bed for several days. The picture was then produced which the servant had found in her pocket; and when Elizabeth, in a faltering voice, proved that it was the same which, an hour before the child had been missed, she had placed round his neck, a murmur of horror and indignation filled the court.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00257", "bookId": 84, "start": 136264, "end": 136562, "sha256": "703812751ef32ea79af353ed23016dd257b568dbd29a7d25073f1c4ca8926856", "text": "Justine was called on for her defence. As the trial had proceeded, her countenance had altered. Surprise, horror, and misery were strongly expressed. Sometimes she struggled with her tears, but when she was desired to plead, she collected her powers and spoke in an audible although variable voice.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00258", "bookId": 84, "start": 136564, "end": 136942, "sha256": "b3275907e41db5922f9a6c53cce4028541440db7c4f1bf82abf0094b1589b982", "text": "“God knows,” she said, “how entirely I am innocent. But I do not pretend that my protestations should acquit me; I rest my innocence on a plain and simple explanation of the facts which have been adduced against me, and I hope the character I have always borne will incline my judges to a favourable interpretation where any circumstance appears doubtful or suspicious.”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00259", "bookId": 84, "start": 136944, "end": 138098, "sha256": "8288b6a05e471bbffa0e922144373e8031fc0d59d87138a01d15b14ad8c65dbb", "text": "She then related that, by the permission of Elizabeth, she had passed the evening of the night on which the murder had been committed at the house of an aunt at Chêne, a village situated at about a league from Geneva. On her return, at about nine o’clock, she met a man who asked her if she had seen anything of the child who was lost. She was alarmed by this account and passed several hours in looking for him, when the gates of Geneva were shut, and she was forced to remain several hours of the night in a barn belonging to a cottage, being unwilling to call up the inhabitants, to whom she was well known. Most of the night she spent here watching; towards morning she believed that she slept for a few minutes; some steps disturbed her, and she awoke. It was dawn, and she quitted her asylum, that she might again endeavour to find my brother. If she had gone near the spot where his body lay, it was without her knowledge. That she had been bewildered when questioned by the market-woman was not surprising, since she had passed a sleepless night and the fate of poor William was yet uncertain. Concerning the picture she could give no account.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00260", "bookId": 84, "start": 138100, "end": 138707, "sha256": "453e7db44d74d770553129620d2142bfd3650b47afb23964d1d1c727101d356c", "text": "“I know,” continued the unhappy victim, “how heavily and fatally this one circumstance weighs against me, but I have no power of explaining it; and when I have expressed my utter ignorance, I am only left to conjecture concerning the probabilities by which it might have been placed in my pocket. But here also I am checked. I believe that I have no enemy on earth, and none surely would have been so wicked as to destroy me wantonly. Did the murderer place it there? I know of no opportunity afforded him for so doing; or, if I had, why should he have stolen the jewel, to part with it again so soon?", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00261", "bookId": 84, "start": 138709, "end": 139001, "sha256": "fada394da056f3dbac11df858cb149d00ef6b343868f61106e96000e52f6f421", "text": "“I commit my cause to the justice of my judges, yet I see no room for hope. I beg permission to have a few witnesses examined concerning my character, and if their testimony shall not overweigh my supposed guilt, I must be condemned, although I would pledge my salvation on my innocence.”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00262", "bookId": 84, "start": 139003, "end": 139416, "sha256": "9dd595fc7673d0061a68fe4f7814886aa9ef857a99d4c0bd84920f22d8978ba2", "text": "Several witnesses were called who had known her for many years, and they spoke well of her; but fear and hatred of the crime of which they supposed her guilty rendered them timorous and unwilling to come forward. Elizabeth saw even this last resource, her excellent dispositions and irreproachable conduct, about to fail the accused, when, although violently agitated, she desired permission to address the court.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00263", "bookId": 84, "start": 139418, "end": 140868, "sha256": "de799acacc9c46311a4ccb2c6614c882323b3db1cd06330eef78f78f87775347", "text": "“I am,” said she, “the cousin of the unhappy child who was murdered, or rather his sister, for I was educated by and have lived with his parents ever since and even long before his birth. It may therefore be judged indecent in me to come forward on this occasion, but when I see a fellow creature about to perish through the cowardice of her pretended friends, I wish to be allowed to speak, that I may say what I know of her character. I am well acquainted with the accused. I have lived in the same house with her, at one time for five and at another for nearly two years. During all that period she appeared to me the most amiable and benevolent of human creatures. She nursed Madame Frankenstein, my aunt, in her last illness, with the greatest affection and care and afterwards attended her own mother during a tedious illness, in a manner that excited the admiration of all who knew her, after which she again lived in my uncle’s house, where she was beloved by all the family. She was warmly attached to the child who is now dead and acted towards him like a most affectionate mother. For my own part, I do not hesitate to say that, notwithstanding all the evidence produced against her, I believe and rely on her perfect innocence. She had no temptation for such an action; as to the bauble on which the chief proof rests, if she had earnestly desired it, I should have willingly given it to her, so much do I esteem and value her.”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00264", "bookId": 84, "start": 140870, "end": 141810, "sha256": "b47c1f78285f298e2ce6b22a014ef340fc1090f161c799b840aad2fcd86a6df5", "text": "A murmur of approbation followed Elizabeth’s simple and powerful appeal, but it was excited by her generous interference, and not in favour of poor Justine, on whom the public indignation was turned with renewed violence, charging her with the blackest ingratitude. She herself wept as Elizabeth spoke, but she did not answer. My own agitation and anguish was extreme during the whole trial. I believed in her innocence; I knew it. Could the dæmon who had (I did not for a minute doubt) murdered my brother also in his hellish sport have betrayed the innocent to death and ignominy? I could not sustain the horror of my situation, and when I perceived that the popular voice and the countenances of the judges had already condemned my unhappy victim, I rushed out of the court in agony. The tortures of the accused did not equal mine; she was sustained by innocence, but the fangs of remorse tore my bosom and would not forgo their hold.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00265", "bookId": 84, "start": 141812, "end": 142101, "sha256": "e0ff8d5debe5a3c4df9a629bcf5e0fe8b8d568c1489a763933cdec2431946831", "text": "I passed a night of unmingled wretchedness. In the morning I went to the court; my lips and throat were parched. I dared not ask the fatal question, but I was known, and the officer guessed the cause of my visit. The ballots had been thrown; they were all black, and Justine was condemned.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00266", "bookId": 84, "start": 142103, "end": 142651, "sha256": "7626c3dd946e19c47d0a504ac8f5a84f6df755173848822964e69594395a7d3a", "text": "I cannot pretend to describe what I then felt. I had before experienced sensations of horror, and I have endeavoured to bestow upon them adequate expressions, but words cannot convey an idea of the heart-sickening despair that I then endured. The person to whom I addressed myself added that Justine had already confessed her guilt. “That evidence,” he observed, “was hardly required in so glaring a case, but I am glad of it, and, indeed, none of our judges like to condemn a criminal upon circumstantial evidence, be it ever so decisive.”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00267", "bookId": 84, "start": 142653, "end": 142923, "sha256": "2914b8b63c0862eb8c75fa5d66617d85d28fb56ff815a5aee379419f0b7f198b", "text": "This was strange and unexpected intelligence; what could it mean? Had my eyes deceived me? And was I really as mad as the whole world would believe me to be if I disclosed the object of my suspicions? I hastened to return home, and Elizabeth eagerly demanded the result.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00268", "bookId": 84, "start": 142925, "end": 143111, "sha256": "9252e4301b5cbfae850a7e64f294b91871d7d07562bbe635e28a3e416e05c33b", "text": "“My cousin,” replied I, “it is decided as you may have expected; all judges had rather that ten innocent should suffer than that one guilty should escape. But she has confessed.”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00269", "bookId": 84, "start": 143113, "end": 143492, "sha256": "b918fd74dbdbe366225790cb2f15d5d46e70a3632780e8a013383fb9ec6b9a8e", "text": "This was a dire blow to poor Elizabeth, who had relied with firmness upon Justine’s innocence. “Alas!” said she. “How shall I ever again believe in human goodness? Justine, whom I loved and esteemed as my sister, how could she put on those smiles of innocence only to betray? Her mild eyes seemed incapable of any severity or guile, and yet she has committed a murder.”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00270", "bookId": 84, "start": 143494, "end": 143865, "sha256": "e6d04d77f5bd6f02cf30ea21f81a43680e176d2a58f92da8045781a76bd562d1", "text": "Soon after we heard that the poor victim had expressed a desire to see my cousin. My father wished her not to go but said that he left it to her own judgment and feelings to decide. “Yes,” said Elizabeth, “I will go, although she is guilty; and you, Victor, shall accompany me; I cannot go alone.” The idea of this visit was torture to me, yet I could not refuse.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00271", "bookId": 84, "start": 143867, "end": 144173, "sha256": "ce7a2d658ed9490b70572777be65972625feab0ae71b9b4b1e2a2c9921865afd", "text": "We entered the gloomy prison chamber and beheld Justine sitting on some straw at the farther end; her hands were manacled, and her head rested on her knees. She rose on seeing us enter, and when we were left alone with her, she threw herself at the feet of Elizabeth, weeping bitterly. My cousin wept also.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00272", "bookId": 84, "start": 144175, "end": 144355, "sha256": "8efa9248f1a2b87f435693e34304adea064748279e736875c3615512a426b69d", "text": "“Oh, Justine!” said she. “Why did you rob me of my last consolation? I relied on your innocence, and although I was then very wretched, I was not so miserable as I am now.”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00273", "bookId": 84, "start": 144357, "end": 144529, "sha256": "a65fff3fd58babad051aa6c4b46255acc68e41cb5f219a0007b5579d9ff9b044", "text": "“And do you also believe that I am so very, very wicked? Do you also join with my enemies to crush me, to condemn me as a murderer?” Her voice was suffocated with sobs.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00274", "bookId": 84, "start": 144531, "end": 144907, "sha256": "47efdfa34c227761f060a2c9c5a486df76075f00ef443b38825903af4352f0a0", "text": "“Rise, my poor girl,” said Elizabeth; “why do you kneel, if you are innocent? I am not one of your enemies, I believed you guiltless, notwithstanding every evidence, until I heard that you had yourself declared your guilt. That report, you say, is false; and be assured, dear Justine, that nothing can shake my confidence in you for a moment, but your own confession.”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00275", "bookId": 84, "start": 144909, "end": 145536, "sha256": "4b5e1c3e71ff6ee24e14c2e814085ef2366f3614a1210b9e4e6a344b903f500a", "text": "“I did confess, but I confessed a lie. I confessed, that I might obtain absolution; but now that falsehood lies heavier at my heart than all my other sins. The God of heaven forgive me! Ever since I was condemned, my confessor has besieged me; he threatened and menaced, until I almost began to think that I was the monster that he said I was. He threatened excommunication and hell fire in my last moments if I continued obdurate. Dear lady, I had none to support me; all looked on me as a wretch doomed to ignominy and perdition. What could I do? In an evil hour I subscribed to a lie; and now only am I truly miserable.”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00276", "bookId": 84, "start": 145538, "end": 145988, "sha256": "30e5fc61331c96c60049def0c6f9582a4675dc27968d8819b833127e772445bf", "text": "She paused, weeping, and then continued, “I thought with horror, my sweet lady, that you should believe your Justine, whom your blessed aunt had so highly honoured, and whom you loved, was a creature capable of a crime which none but the devil himself could have perpetrated. Dear William! dearest blessed child! I soon shall see you again in heaven, where we shall all be happy; and that consoles me, going as I am to suffer ignominy and death.”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00277", "bookId": 84, "start": 145990, "end": 146384, "sha256": "ddce5cb84d658a1b448a047ea716cdd324868dd9e2d1f370dad3d99757b82c55", "text": "“Oh, Justine! Forgive me for having for one moment distrusted you. Why did you confess? But do not mourn, dear girl. Do not fear. I will proclaim, I will prove your innocence. I will melt the stony hearts of your enemies by my tears and prayers. You shall not die! You, my playfellow, my companion, my sister, perish on the scaffold! No! No! I never could survive so horrible a misfortune.”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00278", "bookId": 84, "start": 146386, "end": 146759, "sha256": "1f294024a93d64b6a8f0d218e9203b1cf57754bf8dc7ca8b4c417e3a8ebc1d40", "text": "Justine shook her head mournfully. “I do not fear to die,” she said; “that pang is past. God raises my weakness and gives me courage to endure the worst. I leave a sad and bitter world; and if you remember me and think of me as of one unjustly condemned, I am resigned to the fate awaiting me. Learn from me, dear lady, to submit in patience to the will of heaven!”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00279", "bookId": 84, "start": 146761, "end": 147318, "sha256": "a419ba4676aa31b6afda736c980a66e26cccb3e3a0fc6adac28a7c2758eb62d1", "text": "During this conversation I had retired to a corner of the prison room, where I could conceal the horrid anguish that possessed me. Despair! Who dared talk of that? The poor victim, who on the morrow was to pass the awful boundary between life and death, felt not, as I did, such deep and bitter agony. I gnashed my teeth and ground them together, uttering a groan that came from my inmost soul. Justine started. When she saw who it was, she approached me and said, “Dear sir, you are very kind to visit me; you, I hope, do not believe that I am guilty?”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00280", "bookId": 84, "start": 147320, "end": 147500, "sha256": "aad968a30057e43d3ab574b9f6139c99164a958ad60d3448e57225b693d6240f", "text": "I could not answer. “No, Justine,” said Elizabeth; “he is more convinced of your innocence than I was, for even when he heard that you had confessed, he did not credit it.”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00281", "bookId": 84, "start": 147502, "end": 147840, "sha256": "9ed775541bfba25c69dec8d1a534273dfa915964a859405d995428cd184ac1d7", "text": "“I truly thank him. In these last moments I feel the sincerest gratitude towards those who think of me with kindness. How sweet is the affection of others to such a wretch as I am! It removes more than half my misfortune, and I feel as if I could die in peace now that my innocence is acknowledged by you, dear lady, and your cousin.”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00282", "bookId": 84, "start": 147842, "end": 148573, "sha256": "ce34c22f28a00c92d9d070ad98b6572e04bb31ef074a6dd15b3387f21e1d83be", "text": "Thus the poor sufferer tried to comfort others and herself. She indeed gained the resignation she desired. But I, the true murderer, felt the never-dying worm alive in my bosom, which allowed of no hope or consolation. Elizabeth also wept and was unhappy, but hers also was the misery of innocence, which, like a cloud that passes over the fair moon, for a while hides but cannot tarnish its brightness. Anguish and despair had penetrated into the core of my heart; I bore a hell within me which nothing could extinguish. We stayed several hours with Justine, and it was with great difficulty that Elizabeth could tear herself away. “I wish,” cried she, “that I were to die with you; I cannot live in this world of misery.”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00283", "bookId": 84, "start": 148575, "end": 148964, "sha256": "9d2c3f93cd4ac9e06fa375079e00b1d4d9a7656461ad8a68dcc1b53e77876ebf", "text": "Justine assumed an air of cheerfulness, while she with difficulty repressed her bitter tears. She embraced Elizabeth and said in a voice of half-suppressed emotion, “Farewell, sweet lady, dearest Elizabeth, my beloved and only friend; may heaven, in its bounty, bless and preserve you; may this be the last misfortune that you will ever suffer! Live, and be happy, and make others so.”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00284", "bookId": 84, "start": 148966, "end": 149471, "sha256": "6a93d1df254ca18ec38d72d6fca6623ee8a09136831d5204de3be2bedda1a699", "text": "And on the morrow Justine died. Elizabeth’s heart-rending eloquence failed to move the judges from their settled conviction in the criminality of the saintly sufferer. My passionate and indignant appeals were lost upon them. And when I received their cold answers and heard the harsh, unfeeling reasoning of these men, my purposed avowal died away on my lips. Thus I might proclaim myself a madman, but not revoke the sentence passed upon my wretched victim. She perished on the scaffold as a murderess!", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00285", "bookId": 84, "start": 149473, "end": 150380, "sha256": "3f235913cd4cce00158a66cf0581abc16a82738863975566385d1620e73a562c", "text": "From the tortures of my own heart, I turned to contemplate the deep and voiceless grief of my Elizabeth. This also was my doing! And my father’s woe, and the desolation of that late so smiling home all was the work of my thrice-accursed hands! Ye weep, unhappy ones, but these are not your last tears! Again shall you raise the funeral wail, and the sound of your lamentations shall again and again be heard! Frankenstein, your son, your kinsman, your early, much-loved friend; he who would spend each vital drop of blood for your sakes, who has no thought nor sense of joy except as it is mirrored also in your dear countenances, who would fill the air with blessings and spend his life in serving you—he bids you weep, to shed countless tears; happy beyond his hopes, if thus inexorable fate be satisfied, and if the destruction pause before the peace of the grave have succeeded to your sad torments!", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00286", "bookId": 84, "start": 150382, "end": 150583, "sha256": "ff517c701373b54cc5aa8186900e83c1358ba899c11538199543f23514b395fa", "text": "Thus spoke my prophetic soul, as, torn by remorse, horror, and despair, I beheld those I loved spend vain sorrow upon the graves of William and Justine, the first hapless victims to my unhallowed arts.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00287", "bookId": 84, "start": 150588, "end": 150597, "sha256": "dba9b2bebb6be0feabec62e8dfe834330ccc3acf9a6a3618ec659e00f43a8e28", "text": "Chapter 9", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG84.B00288", "bookId": 84, "start": 150600, "end": 151690, "sha256": "19b0af60800f90ccdab2a97f145bad260daf261118fa2a019bd21901b692ade4", "text": "Nothing is more painful to the human mind than, after the feelings have been worked up by a quick succession of events, the dead calmness of inaction and certainty which follows and deprives the soul both of hope and fear. Justine died, she rested, and I was alive. The blood flowed freely in my veins, but a weight of despair and remorse pressed on my heart which nothing could remove. Sleep fled from my eyes; I wandered like an evil spirit, for I had committed deeds of mischief beyond description horrible, and more, much more (I persuaded myself) was yet behind. Yet my heart overflowed with kindness and the love of virtue. I had begun life with benevolent intentions and thirsted for the moment when I should put them in practice and make myself useful to my fellow beings. Now all was blasted; instead of that serenity of conscience which allowed me to look back upon the past with self-satisfaction, and from thence to gather promise of new hopes, I was seized by remorse and the sense of guilt, which hurried me away to a hell of intense tortures such as no language can describe.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00289", "bookId": 84, "start": 151692, "end": 151960, "sha256": "5b39b19cb74f7617eb2dcf4eb4d3068ddad1a1c1b45a6037e1e40c71d91bd9a8", "text": "This state of mind preyed upon my health, which had perhaps never entirely recovered from the first shock it had sustained. I shunned the face of man; all sound of joy or complacency was torture to me; solitude was my only consolation—deep, dark, deathlike solitude.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00290", "bookId": 84, "start": 151962, "end": 152734, "sha256": "af73f51f2da0e9696879e110aea03dd491bccafdacb2e0fbcc4794813ad5d143", "text": "My father observed with pain the alteration perceptible in my disposition and habits and endeavoured by arguments deduced from the feelings of his serene conscience and guiltless life to inspire me with fortitude and awaken in me the courage to dispel the dark cloud which brooded over me. “Do you think, Victor,” said he, “that I do not suffer also? No one could love a child more than I loved your brother”—tears came into his eyes as he spoke—“but is it not a duty to the survivors that we should refrain from augmenting their unhappiness by an appearance of immoderate grief? It is also a duty owed to yourself, for excessive sorrow prevents improvement or enjoyment, or even the discharge of daily usefulness, without which no man is fit for society.”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00291", "bookId": 84, "start": 152736, "end": 153061, "sha256": "9d18e0d2b13550d760660d248492da10a938ce68d99457c2474b18e7999bb35f", "text": "This advice, although good, was totally inapplicable to my case; I should have been the first to hide my grief and console my friends if remorse had not mingled its bitterness, and terror its alarm, with my other sensations. Now I could only answer my father with a look of despair and endeavour to hide myself from his view.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00292", "bookId": 84, "start": 153063, "end": 154388, "sha256": "bbf2809b0d53eab648323f8c77e1aff0fa5fcad7f3c6bac590e10bd728ea5af2", "text": "About this time we retired to our house at Belrive. This change was particularly agreeable to me. The shutting of the gates regularly at ten o’clock and the impossibility of remaining on the lake after that hour had rendered our residence within the walls of Geneva very irksome to me. I was now free. Often, after the rest of the family had retired for the night, I took the boat and passed many hours upon the water. Sometimes, with my sails set, I was carried by the wind; and sometimes, after rowing into the middle of the lake, I left the boat to pursue its own course and gave way to my own miserable reflections. I was often tempted, when all was at peace around me, and I the only unquiet thing that wandered restless in a scene so beautiful and heavenly—if I except some bat, or the frogs, whose harsh and interrupted croaking was heard only when I approached the shore—often, I say, I was tempted to plunge into the silent lake, that the waters might close over me and my calamities for ever. But I was restrained, when I thought of the heroic and suffering Elizabeth, whom I tenderly loved, and whose existence was bound up in mine. I thought also of my father and surviving brother; should I by my base desertion leave them exposed and unprotected to the malice of the fiend whom I had let loose among them?", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00293", "bookId": 84, "start": 154390, "end": 155528, "sha256": "1863fa48c39517de00ace1e621cf0704664016e58e54a17403c28ee66a037a9b", "text": "At these moments I wept bitterly and wished that peace would revisit my mind only that I might afford them consolation and happiness. But that could not be. Remorse extinguished every hope. I had been the author of unalterable evils, and I lived in daily fear lest the monster whom I had created should perpetrate some new wickedness. I had an obscure feeling that all was not over and that he would still commit some signal crime, which by its enormity should almost efface the recollection of the past. There was always scope for fear so long as anything I loved remained behind. My abhorrence of this fiend cannot be conceived. When I thought of him I gnashed my teeth, my eyes became inflamed, and I ardently wished to extinguish that life which I had so thoughtlessly bestowed. When I reflected on his crimes and malice, my hatred and revenge burst all bounds of moderation. I would have made a pilgrimage to the highest peak of the Andes, could I, when there, have precipitated him to their base. I wished to see him again, that I might wreak the utmost extent of abhorrence on his head and avenge the deaths of William and Justine.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00294", "bookId": 84, "start": 155530, "end": 156189, "sha256": "267c038ab10b0312f27e56516b512fb99338282b83ebafc4b5db28ef801dc60f", "text": "Our house was the house of mourning. My father’s health was deeply shaken by the horror of the recent events. Elizabeth was sad and desponding; she no longer took delight in her ordinary occupations; all pleasure seemed to her sacrilege toward the dead; eternal woe and tears she then thought was the just tribute she should pay to innocence so blasted and destroyed. She was no longer that happy creature who in earlier youth wandered with me on the banks of the lake and talked with ecstasy of our future prospects. The first of those sorrows which are sent to wean us from the earth had visited her, and its dimming influence quenched her dearest smiles.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00295", "bookId": 84, "start": 156191, "end": 157800, "sha256": "15cfaab5b4c4e396886524b284444cfefb7121143f8297e809ccc39b0c63c8a4", "text": "“When I reflect, my dear cousin,” said she, “on the miserable death of Justine Moritz, I no longer see the world and its works as they before appeared to me. Before, I looked upon the accounts of vice and injustice that I read in books or heard from others as tales of ancient days or imaginary evils; at least they were remote and more familiar to reason than to the imagination; but now misery has come home, and men appear to me as monsters thirsting for each other’s blood. Yet I am certainly unjust. Everybody believed that poor girl to be guilty; and if she could have committed the crime for which she suffered, assuredly she would have been the most depraved of human creatures. For the sake of a few jewels, to have murdered the son of her benefactor and friend, a child whom she had nursed from its birth, and appeared to love as if it had been her own! I could not consent to the death of any human being, but certainly I should have thought such a creature unfit to remain in the society of men. But she was innocent. I know, I feel she was innocent; you are of the same opinion, and that confirms me. Alas! Victor, when falsehood can look so like the truth, who can assure themselves of certain happiness? I feel as if I were walking on the edge of a precipice, towards which thousands are crowding and endeavouring to plunge me into the abyss. William and Justine were assassinated, and the murderer escapes; he walks about the world free, and perhaps respected. But even if I were condemned to suffer on the scaffold for the same crimes, I would not change places with such a wretch.”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00296", "bookId": 84, "start": 157802, "end": 158565, "sha256": "8bfef1b16e6dc5400c33733040ac6650ac5c4f6f9836d1f6ebcc6a4c879cf804", "text": "I listened to this discourse with the extremest agony. I, not in deed, but in effect, was the true murderer. Elizabeth read my anguish in my countenance, and kindly taking my hand, said, “My dearest friend, you must calm yourself. These events have affected me, God knows how deeply; but I am not so wretched as you are. There is an expression of despair, and sometimes of revenge, in your countenance that makes me tremble. Dear Victor, banish these dark passions. Remember the friends around you, who centre all their hopes in you. Have we lost the power of rendering you happy? Ah! While we love, while we are true to each other, here in this land of peace and beauty, your native country, we may reap every tranquil blessing—what can disturb our peace?”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00297", "bookId": 84, "start": 158567, "end": 158839, "sha256": "ecaabbd9dc5236afb6562be6733a879f0d75c0db388897383e34a7eaad676c71", "text": "And could not such words from her whom I fondly prized before every other gift of fortune suffice to chase away the fiend that lurked in my heart? Even as she spoke I drew near to her, as if in terror, lest at that very moment the destroyer had been near to rob me of her.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00298", "bookId": 84, "start": 158841, "end": 159224, "sha256": "c194c6ef6db35dbce630e189278fe3c14f0d17d52891ad4799f86a83f01c524a", "text": "Thus not the tenderness of friendship, nor the beauty of earth, nor of heaven, could redeem my soul from woe; the very accents of love were ineffectual. I was encompassed by a cloud which no beneficial influence could penetrate. The wounded deer dragging its fainting limbs to some untrodden brake, there to gaze upon the arrow which had pierced it, and to die, was but a type of me.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00299", "bookId": 84, "start": 159226, "end": 159901, "sha256": "d4db155a6e95635ad7ef44ceeb123adfcc08dac24e376eeae35089a644e3862d", "text": "Sometimes I could cope with the sullen despair that overwhelmed me, but sometimes the whirlwind passions of my soul drove me to seek, by bodily exercise and by change of place, some relief from my intolerable sensations. It was during an access of this kind that I suddenly left my home, and bending my steps towards the near Alpine valleys, sought in the magnificence, the eternity of such scenes, to forget myself and my ephemeral, because human, sorrows. My wanderings were directed towards the valley of Chamounix. I had visited it frequently during my boyhood. Six years had passed since then: _I_ was a wreck, but nought had changed in those savage and enduring scenes.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00300", "bookId": 84, "start": 159903, "end": 161164, "sha256": "41c82df1465591969cab1fb4ef05e0c4ee3aebed511867c1a630ebfbc192c04d", "text": "I performed the first part of my journey on horseback. I afterwards hired a mule, as the more sure-footed and least liable to receive injury on these rugged roads. The weather was fine; it was about the middle of the month of August, nearly two months after the death of Justine, that miserable epoch from which I dated all my woe. The weight upon my spirit was sensibly lightened as I plunged yet deeper in the ravine of Arve. The immense mountains and precipices that overhung me on every side, the sound of the river raging among the rocks, and the dashing of the waterfalls around spoke of a power mighty as Omnipotence—and I ceased to fear or to bend before any being less almighty than that which had created and ruled the elements, here displayed in their most terrific guise. Still, as I ascended higher, the valley assumed a more magnificent and astonishing character. Ruined castles hanging on the precipices of piny mountains, the impetuous Arve, and cottages every here and there peeping forth from among the trees formed a scene of singular beauty. But it was augmented and rendered sublime by the mighty Alps, whose white and shining pyramids and domes towered above all, as belonging to another earth, the habitations of another race of beings.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00301", "bookId": 84, "start": 161166, "end": 161884, "sha256": "9208a890a2637198303e72bc33088f0cd8ae9fd91355669a4d0f4301e79795c1", "text": "I passed the bridge of Pélissier, where the ravine, which the river forms, opened before me, and I began to ascend the mountain that overhangs it. Soon after, I entered the valley of Chamounix. This valley is more wonderful and sublime, but not so beautiful and picturesque as that of Servox, through which I had just passed. The high and snowy mountains were its immediate boundaries, but I saw no more ruined castles and fertile fields. Immense glaciers approached the road; I heard the rumbling thunder of the falling avalanche and marked the smoke of its passage. Mont Blanc, the supreme and magnificent Mont Blanc, raised itself from the surrounding _aiguilles_, and its tremendous _dôme_ overlooked the valley.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00302", "bookId": 84, "start": 161886, "end": 162563, "sha256": "834955f739c384fffeea506c778f3121c8e2f5ce3c6a35842c414a8a472271f5", "text": "A tingling long-lost sense of pleasure often came across me during this journey. Some turn in the road, some new object suddenly perceived and recognised, reminded me of days gone by, and were associated with the lighthearted gaiety of boyhood. The very winds whispered in soothing accents, and maternal Nature bade me weep no more. Then again the kindly influence ceased to act—I found myself fettered again to grief and indulging in all the misery of reflection. Then I spurred on my animal, striving so to forget the world, my fears, and more than all, myself—or, in a more desperate fashion, I alighted and threw myself on the grass, weighed down by horror and despair.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00303", "bookId": 84, "start": 162565, "end": 163078, "sha256": "16fa73b9ca2d7f4c3cc774a2f4331c64ee3809eefe0669607a86f123e58d4c7b", "text": "At length I arrived at the village of Chamounix. Exhaustion succeeded to the extreme fatigue both of body and of mind which I had endured. For a short space of time I remained at the window watching the pallid lightnings that played above Mont Blanc and listening to the rushing of the Arve, which pursued its noisy way beneath. The same lulling sounds acted as a lullaby to my too keen sensations; when I placed my head upon my pillow, sleep crept over me; I felt it as it came and blessed the giver of oblivion.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00304", "bookId": 84, "start": 163083, "end": 163093, "sha256": "0e20d5547bbae86c2d1fae728234ba750d4c4bba71d87ad2d3e088cb2515a528", "text": "Chapter 10", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG84.B00305", "bookId": 84, "start": 163096, "end": 164569, "sha256": "ce3e9e5bf8fa039f685c9664bec3825100e760997281fc66ec155da250c00184", "text": "I spent the following day roaming through the valley. I stood beside the sources of the Arveiron, which take their rise in a glacier, that with slow pace is advancing down from the summit of the hills to barricade the valley. The abrupt sides of vast mountains were before me; the icy wall of the glacier overhung me; a few shattered pines were scattered around; and the solemn silence of this glorious presence-chamber of imperial Nature was broken only by the brawling waves or the fall of some vast fragment, the thunder sound of the avalanche or the cracking, reverberated along the mountains, of the accumulated ice, which, through the silent working of immutable laws, was ever and anon rent and torn, as if it had been but a plaything in their hands. These sublime and magnificent scenes afforded me the greatest consolation that I was capable of receiving. They elevated me from all littleness of feeling, and although they did not remove my grief, they subdued and tranquillised it. In some degree, also, they diverted my mind from the thoughts over which it had brooded for the last month. I retired to rest at night; my slumbers, as it were, waited on and ministered to by the assemblance of grand shapes which I had contemplated during the day. They congregated round me; the unstained snowy mountain-top, the glittering pinnacle, the pine woods, and ragged bare ravine, the eagle, soaring amidst the clouds—they all gathered round me and bade me be at peace.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00306", "bookId": 84, "start": 164571, "end": 165616, "sha256": "56f141fd18067bbcf8ead9271e11acf2565a03903435b3a3a8e0e07ed3f36ec2", "text": "Where had they fled when the next morning I awoke? All of soul-inspiriting fled with sleep, and dark melancholy clouded every thought. The rain was pouring in torrents, and thick mists hid the summits of the mountains, so that I even saw not the faces of those mighty friends. Still I would penetrate their misty veil and seek them in their cloudy retreats. What were rain and storm to me? My mule was brought to the door, and I resolved to ascend to the summit of Montanvert. I remembered the effect that the view of the tremendous and ever-moving glacier had produced upon my mind when I first saw it. It had then filled me with a sublime ecstasy that gave wings to the soul and allowed it to soar from the obscure world to light and joy. The sight of the awful and majestic in nature had indeed always the effect of solemnising my mind and causing me to forget the passing cares of life. I determined to go without a guide, for I was well acquainted with the path, and the presence of another would destroy the solitary grandeur of the scene.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00307", "bookId": 84, "start": 165618, "end": 167080, "sha256": "945d2737865165bf9f0e60ec2a011ea0bbcf81a0514846fa947acb7bb748d310", "text": "The ascent is precipitous, but the path is cut into continual and short windings, which enable you to surmount the perpendicularity of the mountain. It is a scene terrifically desolate. In a thousand spots the traces of the winter avalanche may be perceived, where trees lie broken and strewed on the ground, some entirely destroyed, others bent, leaning upon the jutting rocks of the mountain or transversely upon other trees. The path, as you ascend higher, is intersected by ravines of snow, down which stones continually roll from above; one of them is particularly dangerous, as the slightest sound, such as even speaking in a loud voice, produces a concussion of air sufficient to draw destruction upon the head of the speaker. The pines are not tall or luxuriant, but they are sombre and add an air of severity to the scene. I looked on the valley beneath; vast mists were rising from the rivers which ran through it and curling in thick wreaths around the opposite mountains, whose summits were hid in the uniform clouds, while rain poured from the dark sky and added to the melancholy impression I received from the objects around me. Alas! Why does man boast of sensibilities superior to those apparent in the brute; it only renders them more necessary beings. If our impulses were confined to hunger, thirst, and desire, we might be nearly free; but now we are moved by every wind that blows and a chance word or scene that that word may convey to us.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00308", "bookId": 84, "start": 167084, "end": 167458, "sha256": "6e21163889a30a78a5135f23bf5807effc503637028fcf4dfcdd1e9582697785", "text": "We rest; a dream has power to poison sleep. We rise; one wand’ring thought pollutes the day. We feel, conceive, or reason; laugh or weep, Embrace fond woe, or cast our cares away; It is the same: for, be it joy or sorrow, The path of its departure still is free. Man’s yesterday may ne’er be like his morrow; Nought may endure but mutability!", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00309", "bookId": 84, "start": 167461, "end": 168666, "sha256": "fe6b9cd40fe03960cf3f8ea770bb93ab355fd0a3551804f77255aeecba315757", "text": "It was nearly noon when I arrived at the top of the ascent. For some time I sat upon the rock that overlooks the sea of ice. A mist covered both that and the surrounding mountains. Presently a breeze dissipated the cloud, and I descended upon the glacier. The surface is very uneven, rising like the waves of a troubled sea, descending low, and interspersed by rifts that sink deep. The field of ice is almost a league in width, but I spent nearly two hours in crossing it. The opposite mountain is a bare perpendicular rock. From the side where I now stood Montanvert was exactly opposite, at the distance of a league; and above it rose Mont Blanc, in awful majesty. I remained in a recess of the rock, gazing on this wonderful and stupendous scene. The sea, or rather the vast river of ice, wound among its dependent mountains, whose aerial summits hung over its recesses. Their icy and glittering peaks shone in the sunlight over the clouds. My heart, which was before sorrowful, now swelled with something like joy; I exclaimed, “Wandering spirits, if indeed ye wander, and do not rest in your narrow beds, allow me this faint happiness, or take me, as your companion, away from the joys of life.”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00310", "bookId": 84, "start": 168668, "end": 169638, "sha256": "942f707d719d90492fcc5c6dc90cfb3ae866ee75c932f60aa877d684576f6794", "text": "As I said this I suddenly beheld the figure of a man, at some distance, advancing towards me with superhuman speed. He bounded over the crevices in the ice, among which I had walked with caution; his stature, also, as he approached, seemed to exceed that of man. I was troubled; a mist came over my eyes, and I felt a faintness seize me, but I was quickly restored by the cold gale of the mountains. I perceived, as the shape came nearer (sight tremendous and abhorred!) that it was the wretch whom I had created. I trembled with rage and horror, resolving to wait his approach and then close with him in mortal combat. He approached; his countenance bespoke bitter anguish, combined with disdain and malignity, while its unearthly ugliness rendered it almost too horrible for human eyes. But I scarcely observed this; rage and hatred had at first deprived me of utterance, and I recovered only to overwhelm him with words expressive of furious detestation and contempt.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00311", "bookId": 84, "start": 169640, "end": 169983, "sha256": "b0a55297a98c9c7cd19c37082c0c2215ffab5ccd5a95f41bc4416501acf74385", "text": "“Devil,” I exclaimed, “do you dare approach me? And do not you fear the fierce vengeance of my arm wreaked on your miserable head? Begone, vile insect! Or rather, stay, that I may trample you to dust! And, oh! That I could, with the extinction of your miserable existence, restore those victims whom you have so diabolically murdered!”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00312", "bookId": 84, "start": 169985, "end": 170602, "sha256": "e906b993d35a5eda0d6fdb123c71458f1ebb645875c6f52d7e1f373d50cdf561", "text": "“I expected this reception,” said the dæmon. “All men hate the wretched; how, then, must I be hated, who am miserable beyond all living things! Yet you, my creator, detest and spurn me, thy creature, to whom thou art bound by ties only dissoluble by the annihilation of one of us. You purpose to kill me. How dare you sport thus with life? Do your duty towards me, and I will do mine towards you and the rest of mankind. If you will comply with my conditions, I will leave them and you at peace; but if you refuse, I will glut the maw of death, until it be satiated with the blood of your remaining friends.”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00313", "bookId": 84, "start": 170604, "end": 170842, "sha256": "7486a25149ed9df824594b66687503f48e47b27a965104f4472db471ee243e63", "text": "“Abhorred monster! Fiend that thou art! The tortures of hell are too mild a vengeance for thy crimes. Wretched devil! You reproach me with your creation, come on, then, that I may extinguish the spark which I so negligently bestowed.”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00314", "bookId": 84, "start": 170844, "end": 170975, "sha256": "dab0e9b96dfa0adc347de9d0ed3e184250f6a70d37144192bf009c4b525eacb0", "text": "My rage was without bounds; I sprang on him, impelled by all the feelings which can arm one being against the existence of another.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00315", "bookId": 84, "start": 170977, "end": 171006, "sha256": "e99dd4af768a2fb22308a1a2caa3118f7bfab3439af6a41329239bd5bb2680c0", "text": "He easily eluded me and said,", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG84.B00316", "bookId": 84, "start": 171008, "end": 172027, "sha256": "2a3de51762a06b2714aa8be055da8d4e9d2fd205dfd0114fae9cf214faa4ee03", "text": "“Be calm! I entreat you to hear me before you give vent to your hatred on my devoted head. Have I not suffered enough, that you seek to increase my misery? Life, although it may only be an accumulation of anguish, is dear to me, and I will defend it. Remember, thou hast made me more powerful than thyself; my height is superior to thine, my joints more supple. But I will not be tempted to set myself in opposition to thee. I am thy creature, and I will be even mild and docile to my natural lord and king if thou wilt also perform thy part, the which thou owest me. Oh, Frankenstein, be not equitable to every other and trample upon me alone, to whom thy justice, and even thy clemency and affection, is most due. Remember that I am thy creature; I ought to be thy Adam, but I am rather the fallen angel, whom thou drivest from joy for no misdeed. Everywhere I see bliss, from which I alone am irrevocably excluded. I was benevolent and good; misery made me a fiend. Make me happy, and I shall again be virtuous.”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00317", "bookId": 84, "start": 172029, "end": 172196, "sha256": "c1b6c528b8aa0dbb898aa5c11b55107885b6636e7c42f859a8d0f03529236430", "text": "“Begone! I will not hear you. There can be no community between you and me; we are enemies. Begone, or let us try our strength in a fight, in which one must fall.”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00318", "bookId": 84, "start": 172198, "end": 173909, "sha256": "9ce1979110904dd95914ef50b5cfd67dcec12b9ca9bbb483116812dee100299c", "text": "“How can I move thee? Will no entreaties cause thee to turn a favourable eye upon thy creature, who implores thy goodness and compassion? Believe me, Frankenstein, I was benevolent; my soul glowed with love and humanity; but am I not alone, miserably alone? You, my creator, abhor me; what hope can I gather from your fellow creatures, who owe me nothing? They spurn and hate me. The desert mountains and dreary glaciers are my refuge. I have wandered here many days; the caves of ice, which I only do not fear, are a dwelling to me, and the only one which man does not grudge. These bleak skies I hail, for they are kinder to me than your fellow beings. If the multitude of mankind knew of my existence, they would do as you do, and arm themselves for my destruction. Shall I not then hate them who abhor me? I will keep no terms with my enemies. I am miserable, and they shall share my wretchedness. Yet it is in your power to recompense me, and deliver them from an evil which it only remains for you to make so great, that not only you and your family, but thousands of others, shall be swallowed up in the whirlwinds of its rage. Let your compassion be moved, and do not disdain me. Listen to my tale; when you have heard that, abandon or commiserate me, as you shall judge that I deserve. But hear me. The guilty are allowed, by human laws, bloody as they are, to speak in their own defence before they are condemned. Listen to me, Frankenstein. You accuse me of murder, and yet you would, with a satisfied conscience, destroy your own creature. Oh, praise the eternal justice of man! Yet I ask you not to spare me; listen to me, and then, if you can, and if you will, destroy the work of your hands.”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00319", "bookId": 84, "start": 173911, "end": 174365, "sha256": "aef9ad59beda72252c4c159aa4ff378dc26cf80458512f40185806f2567af148", "text": "“Why do you call to my remembrance,” I rejoined, “circumstances of which I shudder to reflect, that I have been the miserable origin and author? Cursed be the day, abhorred devil, in which you first saw light! Cursed (although I curse myself) be the hands that formed you! You have made me wretched beyond expression. You have left me no power to consider whether I am just to you or not. Begone! Relieve me from the sight of your detested form.”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00320", "bookId": 84, "start": 174367, "end": 175168, "sha256": "43b3591d81f6201ebe675a201e35b8cc901cf7c40bf2394c74dd61ffdfaadb1d", "text": "“Thus I relieve thee, my creator,” he said, and placed his hated hands before my eyes, which I flung from me with violence; “thus I take from thee a sight which you abhor. Still thou canst listen to me and grant me thy compassion. By the virtues that I once possessed, I demand this from you. Hear my tale; it is long and strange, and the temperature of this place is not fitting to your fine sensations; come to the hut upon the mountain. The sun is yet high in the heavens; before it descends to hide itself behind your snowy precipices and illuminate another world, you will have heard my story and can decide. On you it rests, whether I quit for ever the neighbourhood of man and lead a harmless life, or become the scourge of your fellow creatures and the author of your own speedy ruin.”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00321", "bookId": 84, "start": 175170, "end": 176142, "sha256": "073017f7f6961005cf9f2531b1dda14fe09ca5246ff9e414bc77b9e76b772c21", "text": "As he said this he led the way across the ice; I followed. My heart was full, and I did not answer him, but as I proceeded, I weighed the various arguments that he had used and determined at least to listen to his tale. I was partly urged by curiosity, and compassion confirmed my resolution. I had hitherto supposed him to be the murderer of my brother, and I eagerly sought a confirmation or denial of this opinion. For the first time, also, I felt what the duties of a creator towards his creature were, and that I ought to render him happy before I complained of his wickedness. These motives urged me to comply with his demand. We crossed the ice, therefore, and ascended the opposite rock. The air was cold, and the rain again began to descend; we entered the hut, the fiend with an air of exultation, I with a heavy heart and depressed spirits. But I consented to listen, and seating myself by the fire which my odious companion had lighted, he thus began his tale.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00322", "bookId": 84, "start": 176147, "end": 176157, "sha256": "bca1e39cd700265ce1dd5de6c22deb154fc3e0e324f86b850af0f2f8fdd980db", "text": "Chapter 11", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG84.B00323", "bookId": 84, "start": 176160, "end": 177541, "sha256": "16ceb7a2f8c6cb1986355f9cd96c8af9833afda8cde2f6bfb1d533828df23ce1", "text": "“It is with considerable difficulty that I remember the original era of my being; all the events of that period appear confused and indistinct. A strange multiplicity of sensations seized me, and I saw, felt, heard, and smelt at the same time; and it was, indeed, a long time before I learned to distinguish between the operations of my various senses. By degrees, I remember, a stronger light pressed upon my nerves, so that I was obliged to shut my eyes. Darkness then came over me and troubled me, but hardly had I felt this when, by opening my eyes, as I now suppose, the light poured in upon me again. I walked and, I believe, descended, but I presently found a great alteration in my sensations. Before, dark and opaque bodies had surrounded me, impervious to my touch or sight; but I now found that I could wander on at liberty, with no obstacles which I could not either surmount or avoid. The light became more and more oppressive to me, and the heat wearying me as I walked, I sought a place where I could receive shade. This was the forest near Ingolstadt; and here I lay by the side of a brook resting from my fatigue, until I felt tormented by hunger and thirst. This roused me from my nearly dormant state, and I ate some berries which I found hanging on the trees or lying on the ground. I slaked my thirst at the brook, and then lying down, was overcome by sleep.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00324", "bookId": 84, "start": 177543, "end": 177975, "sha256": "8a45f07c90224314dd6f6d13e71ac48bf675bf51bdb3369d6d1af5133357f077", "text": "“It was dark when I awoke; I felt cold also, and half frightened, as it were, instinctively, finding myself so desolate. Before I had quitted your apartment, on a sensation of cold, I had covered myself with some clothes, but these were insufficient to secure me from the dews of night. I was a poor, helpless, miserable wretch; I knew, and could distinguish, nothing; but feeling pain invade me on all sides, I sat down and wept.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00325", "bookId": 84, "start": 177977, "end": 178672, "sha256": "73858d4016f83584a7f7c825f6ca52f80a2bfabdcfbeced7e4ba2feed5d1a04d", "text": "“Soon a gentle light stole over the heavens and gave me a sensation of pleasure. I started up and beheld a radiant form rise from among the trees. [The moon] I gazed with a kind of wonder. It moved slowly, but it enlightened my path, and I again went out in search of berries. I was still cold when under one of the trees I found a huge cloak, with which I covered myself, and sat down upon the ground. No distinct ideas occupied my mind; all was confused. I felt light, and hunger, and thirst, and darkness; innumerable sounds rang in my ears, and on all sides various scents saluted me; the only object that I could distinguish was the bright moon, and I fixed my eyes on that with pleasure.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00326", "bookId": 84, "start": 178674, "end": 179522, "sha256": "fd261e072b934be3c439f0c61ba0efa10c250d7e0c45e8f09c5a127a1a190628", "text": "“Several changes of day and night passed, and the orb of night had greatly lessened, when I began to distinguish my sensations from each other. I gradually saw plainly the clear stream that supplied me with drink and the trees that shaded me with their foliage. I was delighted when I first discovered that a pleasant sound, which often saluted my ears, proceeded from the throats of the little winged animals who had often intercepted the light from my eyes. I began also to observe, with greater accuracy, the forms that surrounded me and to perceive the boundaries of the radiant roof of light which canopied me. Sometimes I tried to imitate the pleasant songs of the birds but was unable. Sometimes I wished to express my sensations in my own mode, but the uncouth and inarticulate sounds which broke from me frightened me into silence again.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00327", "bookId": 84, "start": 179524, "end": 180037, "sha256": "266e015f4460b666cd195a0625edea98c1d1a443906659c407d40d2e5ef06aec", "text": "“The moon had disappeared from the night, and again, with a lessened form, showed itself, while I still remained in the forest. My sensations had by this time become distinct, and my mind received every day additional ideas. My eyes became accustomed to the light and to perceive objects in their right forms; I distinguished the insect from the herb, and by degrees, one herb from another. I found that the sparrow uttered none but harsh notes, whilst those of the blackbird and thrush were sweet and enticing.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00328", "bookId": 84, "start": 180039, "end": 181158, "sha256": "ce088f8257afe5d23380f98dacd14c804f025c468506988afc9c10339016b5ac", "text": "“One day, when I was oppressed by cold, I found a fire which had been left by some wandering beggars, and was overcome with delight at the warmth I experienced from it. In my joy I thrust my hand into the live embers, but quickly drew it out again with a cry of pain. How strange, I thought, that the same cause should produce such opposite effects! I examined the materials of the fire, and to my joy found it to be composed of wood. I quickly collected some branches, but they were wet and would not burn. I was pained at this and sat still watching the operation of the fire. The wet wood which I had placed near the heat dried and itself became inflamed. I reflected on this, and by touching the various branches, I discovered the cause and busied myself in collecting a great quantity of wood, that I might dry it and have a plentiful supply of fire. When night came on and brought sleep with it, I was in the greatest fear lest my fire should be extinguished. I covered it carefully with dry wood and leaves and placed wet branches upon it; and then, spreading my cloak, I lay on the ground and sank into sleep.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00329", "bookId": 84, "start": 181160, "end": 181903, "sha256": "cb6f6d37d077fe8aa8fa022fd92e68bdecc5d13116535f143fbf7b4724f5c621", "text": "“It was morning when I awoke, and my first care was to visit the fire. I uncovered it, and a gentle breeze quickly fanned it into a flame. I observed this also and contrived a fan of branches, which roused the embers when they were nearly extinguished. When night came again I found, with pleasure, that the fire gave light as well as heat and that the discovery of this element was useful to me in my food, for I found some of the offals that the travellers had left had been roasted, and tasted much more savoury than the berries I gathered from the trees. I tried, therefore, to dress my food in the same manner, placing it on the live embers. I found that the berries were spoiled by this operation, and the nuts and roots much improved.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00330", "bookId": 84, "start": 181905, "end": 182836, "sha256": "aa00ee3be9045583f150b83fb2c478707e8a8bb57b0529b7e453b51749a74c4e", "text": "“Food, however, became scarce, and I often spent the whole day searching in vain for a few acorns to assuage the pangs of hunger. When I found this, I resolved to quit the place that I had hitherto inhabited, to seek for one where the few wants I experienced would be more easily satisfied. In this emigration I exceedingly lamented the loss of the fire which I had obtained through accident and knew not how to reproduce it. I gave several hours to the serious consideration of this difficulty, but I was obliged to relinquish all attempt to supply it, and wrapping myself up in my cloak, I struck across the wood towards the setting sun. I passed three days in these rambles and at length discovered the open country. A great fall of snow had taken place the night before, and the fields were of one uniform white; the appearance was disconsolate, and I found my feet chilled by the cold damp substance that covered the ground.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00331", "bookId": 84, "start": 182838, "end": 183997, "sha256": "68d545e01910b255189de904a7784bbf3d9ecb025e08845132b8e5a482e5d635", "text": "“It was about seven in the morning, and I longed to obtain food and shelter; at length I perceived a small hut, on a rising ground, which had doubtless been built for the convenience of some shepherd. This was a new sight to me, and I examined the structure with great curiosity. Finding the door open, I entered. An old man sat in it, near a fire, over which he was preparing his breakfast. He turned on hearing a noise, and perceiving me, shrieked loudly, and quitting the hut, ran across the fields with a speed of which his debilitated form hardly appeared capable. His appearance, different from any I had ever before seen, and his flight somewhat surprised me. But I was enchanted by the appearance of the hut; here the snow and rain could not penetrate; the ground was dry; and it presented to me then as exquisite and divine a retreat as Pandæmonium appeared to the dæmons of hell after their sufferings in the lake of fire. I greedily devoured the remnants of the shepherd’s breakfast, which consisted of bread, cheese, milk, and wine; the latter, however, I did not like. Then, overcome by fatigue, I lay down among some straw and fell asleep.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00332", "bookId": 84, "start": 183999, "end": 185436, "sha256": "8ea5c72ada1d4e5fad2e63c520dfbf0f4c9e7dade1aa926121ef118a10f338df", "text": "“It was noon when I awoke, and allured by the warmth of the sun, which shone brightly on the white ground, I determined to recommence my travels; and, depositing the remains of the peasant’s breakfast in a wallet I found, I proceeded across the fields for several hours, until at sunset I arrived at a village. How miraculous did this appear! The huts, the neater cottages, and stately houses engaged my admiration by turns. The vegetables in the gardens, the milk and cheese that I saw placed at the windows of some of the cottages, allured my appetite. One of the best of these I entered, but I had hardly placed my foot within the door before the children shrieked, and one of the women fainted. The whole village was roused; some fled, some attacked me, until, grievously bruised by stones and many other kinds of missile weapons, I escaped to the open country and fearfully took refuge in a low hovel, quite bare, and making a wretched appearance after the palaces I had beheld in the village. This hovel however, joined a cottage of a neat and pleasant appearance, but after my late dearly bought experience, I dared not enter it. My place of refuge was constructed of wood, but so low that I could with difficulty sit upright in it. No wood, however, was placed on the earth, which formed the floor, but it was dry; and although the wind entered it by innumerable chinks, I found it an agreeable asylum from the snow and rain.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00333", "bookId": 84, "start": 185438, "end": 186168, "sha256": "4585bd147e073354e8ebded276cc2ee1dbe3ecbfd789122cd0496e8e385b8593", "text": "“Here, then, I retreated and lay down happy to have found a shelter, however miserable, from the inclemency of the season, and still more from the barbarity of man. As soon as morning dawned I crept from my kennel, that I might view the adjacent cottage and discover if I could remain in the habitation I had found. It was situated against the back of the cottage and surrounded on the sides which were exposed by a pig sty and a clear pool of water. One part was open, and by that I had crept in; but now I covered every crevice by which I might be perceived with stones and wood, yet in such a manner that I might move them on occasion to pass out; all the light I enjoyed came through the sty, and that was sufficient for me.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00334", "bookId": 84, "start": 186170, "end": 186745, "sha256": "efdaf8484c9d17fd17fd95239027b43d09ee53b1d3834d85e16b221bc147ce78", "text": "“Having thus arranged my dwelling and carpeted it with clean straw, I retired, for I saw the figure of a man at a distance, and I remembered too well my treatment the night before to trust myself in his power. I had first, however, provided for my sustenance for that day by a loaf of coarse bread, which I purloined, and a cup with which I could drink more conveniently than from my hand of the pure water which flowed by my retreat. The floor was a little raised, so that it was kept perfectly dry, and by its vicinity to the chimney of the cottage it was tolerably warm.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00335", "bookId": 84, "start": 186747, "end": 188086, "sha256": "b7fc2fd1215df497eab0b4564108adf5f6c932a93cc86889029a6615b4333379", "text": "“Being thus provided, I resolved to reside in this hovel until something should occur which might alter my determination. It was indeed a paradise compared to the bleak forest, my former residence, the rain-dropping branches, and dank earth. I ate my breakfast with pleasure and was about to remove a plank to procure myself a little water when I heard a step, and looking through a small chink, I beheld a young creature, with a pail on her head, passing before my hovel. The girl was young and of gentle demeanour, unlike what I have since found cottagers and farmhouse servants to be. Yet she was meanly dressed, a coarse blue petticoat and a linen jacket being her only garb; her fair hair was plaited but not adorned: she looked patient yet sad. I lost sight of her, and in about a quarter of an hour she returned bearing the pail, which was now partly filled with milk. As she walked along, seemingly incommoded by the burden, a young man met her, whose countenance expressed a deeper despondence. Uttering a few sounds with an air of melancholy, he took the pail from her head and bore it to the cottage himself. She followed, and they disappeared. Presently I saw the young man again, with some tools in his hand, cross the field behind the cottage; and the girl was also busied, sometimes in the house and sometimes in the yard.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00336", "bookId": 84, "start": 188088, "end": 189634, "sha256": "13d2d00a209243cedeba4eac2b14e52062b4f26579eb6f2beca486b456b67729", "text": "“On examining my dwelling, I found that one of the windows of the cottage had formerly occupied a part of it, but the panes had been filled up with wood. In one of these was a small and almost imperceptible chink through which the eye could just penetrate. Through this crevice a small room was visible, whitewashed and clean but very bare of furniture. In one corner, near a small fire, sat an old man, leaning his head on his hands in a disconsolate attitude. The young girl was occupied in arranging the cottage; but presently she took something out of a drawer, which employed her hands, and she sat down beside the old man, who, taking up an instrument, began to play and to produce sounds sweeter than the voice of the thrush or the nightingale. It was a lovely sight, even to me, poor wretch who had never beheld aught beautiful before. The silver hair and benevolent countenance of the aged cottager won my reverence, while the gentle manners of the girl enticed my love. He played a sweet mournful air which I perceived drew tears from the eyes of his amiable companion, of which the old man took no notice, until she sobbed audibly; he then pronounced a few sounds, and the fair creature, leaving her work, knelt at his feet. He raised her and smiled with such kindness and affection that I felt sensations of a peculiar and overpowering nature; they were a mixture of pain and pleasure, such as I had never before experienced, either from hunger or cold, warmth or food; and I withdrew from the window, unable to bear these emotions.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00337", "bookId": 84, "start": 189636, "end": 190345, "sha256": "5029db60acea4db4a2eecad1ed5e18298c605c8d46b954c477854659a5e7a14b", "text": "“Soon after this the young man returned, bearing on his shoulders a load of wood. The girl met him at the door, helped to relieve him of his burden, and taking some of the fuel into the cottage, placed it on the fire; then she and the youth went apart into a nook of the cottage, and he showed her a large loaf and a piece of cheese. She seemed pleased and went into the garden for some roots and plants, which she placed in water, and then upon the fire. She afterwards continued her work, whilst the young man went into the garden and appeared busily employed in digging and pulling up roots. After he had been employed thus about an hour, the young woman joined him and they entered the cottage together.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00338", "bookId": 84, "start": 190347, "end": 191186, "sha256": "144ff008297b7998fc8986c34e38028635a866634d38003fac8113637627d051", "text": "“The old man had, in the meantime, been pensive, but on the appearance of his companions he assumed a more cheerful air, and they sat down to eat. The meal was quickly dispatched. The young woman was again occupied in arranging the cottage, the old man walked before the cottage in the sun for a few minutes, leaning on the arm of the youth. Nothing could exceed in beauty the contrast between these two excellent creatures. One was old, with silver hairs and a countenance beaming with benevolence and love; the younger was slight and graceful in his figure, and his features were moulded with the finest symmetry, yet his eyes and attitude expressed the utmost sadness and despondency. The old man returned to the cottage, and the youth, with tools different from those he had used in the morning, directed his steps across the fields.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00339", "bookId": 84, "start": 191188, "end": 191980, "sha256": "a1fef8b06b3925f6ac37594128855930ee1c63b2be001235894fea9555c2c264", "text": "“Night quickly shut in, but to my extreme wonder, I found that the cottagers had a means of prolonging light by the use of tapers, and was delighted to find that the setting of the sun did not put an end to the pleasure I experienced in watching my human neighbours. In the evening the young girl and her companion were employed in various occupations which I did not understand; and the old man again took up the instrument which produced the divine sounds that had enchanted me in the morning. So soon as he had finished, the youth began, not to play, but to utter sounds that were monotonous, and neither resembling the harmony of the old man’s instrument nor the songs of the birds; I since found that he read aloud, but at that time I knew nothing of the science of words or letters.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00340", "bookId": 84, "start": 191982, "end": 192115, "sha256": "85906daad104ea8a60875407be31b4b3583bdf126b6d1e4a41543a02ac25aaf9", "text": "“The family, after having been thus occupied for a short time, extinguished their lights and retired, as I conjectured, to rest.”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00341", "bookId": 84, "start": 192120, "end": 192130, "sha256": "b070a8fd514252765e81ba6a750fd2e08275cd93fc213c44b7a011fd2901a8e8", "text": "Chapter 12", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG84.B00342", "bookId": 84, "start": 192133, "end": 192645, "sha256": "f03ab9746a7d8925c3da44d8343aa8dc72875d84fa04813dc7167e547cd464c7", "text": "“I lay on my straw, but I could not sleep. I thought of the occurrences of the day. What chiefly struck me was the gentle manners of these people, and I longed to join them, but dared not. I remembered too well the treatment I had suffered the night before from the barbarous villagers, and resolved, whatever course of conduct I might hereafter think it right to pursue, that for the present I would remain quietly in my hovel, watching and endeavouring to discover the motives which influenced their actions.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00343", "bookId": 84, "start": 192647, "end": 192807, "sha256": "751488fe0e6cca3b1629add0b2077ea34dabfb27e0d2f186f845ef540c656188", "text": "“The cottagers arose the next morning before the sun. The young woman arranged the cottage and prepared the food, and the youth departed after the first meal.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00344", "bookId": 84, "start": 192809, "end": 193346, "sha256": "6d42b773aecd6e0b8463dd78d9563720d25053dcd962527c2ac056d3dfb681e9", "text": "“This day was passed in the same routine as that which preceded it. The young man was constantly employed out of doors, and the girl in various laborious occupations within. The old man, whom I soon perceived to be blind, employed his leisure hours on his instrument or in contemplation. Nothing could exceed the love and respect which the younger cottagers exhibited towards their venerable companion. They performed towards him every little office of affection and duty with gentleness, and he rewarded them by his benevolent smiles.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00345", "bookId": 84, "start": 193348, "end": 194206, "sha256": "6aeef1724f3ef377f84fb364af9cebf03a96dd211e016431d7cf1fdcfc44d45f", "text": "“They were not entirely happy. The young man and his companion often went apart and appeared to weep. I saw no cause for their unhappiness, but I was deeply affected by it. If such lovely creatures were miserable, it was less strange that I, an imperfect and solitary being, should be wretched. Yet why were these gentle beings unhappy? They possessed a delightful house (for such it was in my eyes) and every luxury; they had a fire to warm them when chill and delicious viands when hungry; they were dressed in excellent clothes; and, still more, they enjoyed one another’s company and speech, interchanging each day looks of affection and kindness. What did their tears imply? Did they really express pain? I was at first unable to solve these questions, but perpetual attention and time explained to me many appearances which were at first enigmatic.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00346", "bookId": 84, "start": 194208, "end": 194793, "sha256": "fed08f4f5f53e2b01b204bce9672806d19a1604139b2ee1012c1eab6e2a00abb", "text": "“A considerable period elapsed before I discovered one of the causes of the uneasiness of this amiable family: it was poverty, and they suffered that evil in a very distressing degree. Their nourishment consisted entirely of the vegetables of their garden and the milk of one cow, which gave very little during the winter, when its masters could scarcely procure food to support it. They often, I believe, suffered the pangs of hunger very poignantly, especially the two younger cottagers, for several times they placed food before the old man when they reserved none for themselves.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00347", "bookId": 84, "start": 194795, "end": 195112, "sha256": "1c82159b99b427c392974eb683924c36f29c47f87467a1604d898b1da99ea851", "text": "“This trait of kindness moved me sensibly. I had been accustomed, during the night, to steal a part of their store for my own consumption, but when I found that in doing this I inflicted pain on the cottagers, I abstained and satisfied myself with berries, nuts, and roots which I gathered from a neighbouring wood.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00348", "bookId": 84, "start": 195114, "end": 195451, "sha256": "33aba1bebf954e21e178458e90698bb2c73926b14fbe0ad6bbacb16876bed71b", "text": "“I discovered also another means through which I was enabled to assist their labours. I found that the youth spent a great part of each day in collecting wood for the family fire, and during the night I often took his tools, the use of which I quickly discovered, and brought home firing sufficient for the consumption of several days.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00349", "bookId": 84, "start": 195453, "end": 195863, "sha256": "0c36e8e5e494115337ec59f45cce08c4c13829aba84de52162285998bb196cf7", "text": "“I remember, the first time that I did this, the young woman, when she opened the door in the morning, appeared greatly astonished on seeing a great pile of wood on the outside. She uttered some words in a loud voice, and the youth joined her, who also expressed surprise. I observed, with pleasure, that he did not go to the forest that day, but spent it in repairing the cottage and cultivating the garden.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00350", "bookId": 84, "start": 195865, "end": 197328, "sha256": "a8aa1db6568a4dcaf217231469157166ab7ce983db9414992859805a4f3c6c97", "text": "“By degrees I made a discovery of still greater moment. I found that these people possessed a method of communicating their experience and feelings to one another by articulate sounds. I perceived that the words they spoke sometimes produced pleasure or pain, smiles or sadness, in the minds and countenances of the hearers. This was indeed a godlike science, and I ardently desired to become acquainted with it. But I was baffled in every attempt I made for this purpose. Their pronunciation was quick, and the words they uttered, not having any apparent connection with visible objects, I was unable to discover any clue by which I could unravel the mystery of their reference. By great application, however, and after having remained during the space of several revolutions of the moon in my hovel, I discovered the names that were given to some of the most familiar objects of discourse; I learned and applied the words, _fire, milk, bread,_ and _wood._ I learned also the names of the cottagers themselves. The youth and his companion had each of them several names, but the old man had only one, which was _father._ The girl was called _sister_ or _Agatha,_ and the youth _Felix, brother,_ or _son_. I cannot describe the delight I felt when I learned the ideas appropriated to each of these sounds and was able to pronounce them. I distinguished several other words without being able as yet to understand or apply them, such as _good, dearest, unhappy._", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00351", "bookId": 84, "start": 197330, "end": 198513, "sha256": "567b356d902a11bd3db52d71a15a73c9533c373e21b120cce74ef830f3747133", "text": "“I spent the winter in this manner. The gentle manners and beauty of the cottagers greatly endeared them to me; when they were unhappy, I felt depressed; when they rejoiced, I sympathised in their joys. I saw few human beings besides them, and if any other happened to enter the cottage, their harsh manners and rude gait only enhanced to me the superior accomplishments of my friends. The old man, I could perceive, often endeavoured to encourage his children, as sometimes I found that he called them, to cast off their melancholy. He would talk in a cheerful accent, with an expression of goodness that bestowed pleasure even upon me. Agatha listened with respect, her eyes sometimes filled with tears, which she endeavoured to wipe away unperceived; but I generally found that her countenance and tone were more cheerful after having listened to the exhortations of her father. It was not thus with Felix. He was always the saddest of the group, and even to my unpractised senses, he appeared to have suffered more deeply than his friends. But if his countenance was more sorrowful, his voice was more cheerful than that of his sister, especially when he addressed the old man.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00352", "bookId": 84, "start": 198515, "end": 199349, "sha256": "518a7d04ad5b997d41af7e7f851cdf651499ac42c2ee10034b270ad09bfb5c70", "text": "“I could mention innumerable instances which, although slight, marked the dispositions of these amiable cottagers. In the midst of poverty and want, Felix carried with pleasure to his sister the first little white flower that peeped out from beneath the snowy ground. Early in the morning, before she had risen, he cleared away the snow that obstructed her path to the milk-house, drew water from the well, and brought the wood from the outhouse, where, to his perpetual astonishment, he found his store always replenished by an invisible hand. In the day, I believe, he worked sometimes for a neighbouring farmer, because he often went forth and did not return until dinner, yet brought no wood with him. At other times he worked in the garden, but as there was little to do in the frosty season, he read to the old man and Agatha.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00353", "bookId": 84, "start": 199351, "end": 200243, "sha256": "c324c14a2c5341f92a87253c3cffd360b66694bfcb7c8b21b8b4657d21e53a34", "text": "“This reading had puzzled me extremely at first, but by degrees I discovered that he uttered many of the same sounds when he read as when he talked. I conjectured, therefore, that he found on the paper signs for speech which he understood, and I ardently longed to comprehend these also; but how was that possible when I did not even understand the sounds for which they stood as signs? I improved, however, sensibly in this science, but not sufficiently to follow up any kind of conversation, although I applied my whole mind to the endeavour, for I easily perceived that, although I eagerly longed to discover myself to the cottagers, I ought not to make the attempt until I had first become master of their language, which knowledge might enable me to make them overlook the deformity of my figure, for with this also the contrast perpetually presented to my eyes had made me acquainted.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00354", "bookId": 84, "start": 200245, "end": 200746, "sha256": "c43886cd8ae76ff3e20a9cbbf3e8ccc63dc7e9ab0504ca377d7f28714ea1589b", "text": "“I had admired the perfect forms of my cottagers—their grace, beauty, and delicate complexions; but how was I terrified when I viewed myself in a transparent pool! At first I started back, unable to believe that it was indeed I who was reflected in the mirror; and when I became fully convinced that I was in reality the monster that I am, I was filled with the bitterest sensations of despondence and mortification. Alas! I did not yet entirely know the fatal effects of this miserable deformity.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00355", "bookId": 84, "start": 200748, "end": 201226, "sha256": "27eca3f400899b86686770f902ec48705e42dd4025b6373c7423e938a5daa503", "text": "“As the sun became warmer and the light of day longer, the snow vanished, and I beheld the bare trees and the black earth. From this time Felix was more employed, and the heart-moving indications of impending famine disappeared. Their food, as I afterwards found, was coarse, but it was wholesome; and they procured a sufficiency of it. Several new kinds of plants sprang up in the garden, which they dressed; and these signs of comfort increased daily as the season advanced.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00356", "bookId": 84, "start": 201228, "end": 201504, "sha256": "3bcb841433eb271a5e906393d0f0d50cbdfd6839b26db350e6c0c896e8bf7113", "text": "“The old man, leaning on his son, walked each day at noon, when it did not rain, as I found it was called when the heavens poured forth its waters. This frequently took place, but a high wind quickly dried the earth, and the season became far more pleasant than it had been.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00357", "bookId": 84, "start": 201506, "end": 202282, "sha256": "cf93475e59ec511c5499389cffd9eb8d3f3f5c39ef3557aebc52d3f45a0c58c6", "text": "“My mode of life in my hovel was uniform. During the morning I attended the motions of the cottagers, and when they were dispersed in various occupations, I slept; the remainder of the day was spent in observing my friends. When they had retired to rest, if there was any moon or the night was star-light, I went into the woods and collected my own food and fuel for the cottage. When I returned, as often as it was necessary, I cleared their path from the snow and performed those offices that I had seen done by Felix. I afterwards found that these labours, performed by an invisible hand, greatly astonished them; and once or twice I heard them, on these occasions, utter the words _good spirit, wonderful_; but I did not then understand the signification of these terms.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00358", "bookId": 84, "start": 202284, "end": 203056, "sha256": "bf64791b01f8a4d9b82188ba8fb7f781ab898eb6470ad15ebdac5455a69905f7", "text": "“My thoughts now became more active, and I longed to discover the motives and feelings of these lovely creatures; I was inquisitive to know why Felix appeared so miserable and Agatha so sad. I thought (foolish wretch!) that it might be in my power to restore happiness to these deserving people. When I slept or was absent, the forms of the venerable blind father, the gentle Agatha, and the excellent Felix flitted before me. I looked upon them as superior beings who would be the arbiters of my future destiny. I formed in my imagination a thousand pictures of presenting myself to them, and their reception of me. I imagined that they would be disgusted, until, by my gentle demeanour and conciliating words, I should first win their favour and afterwards their love.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00359", "bookId": 84, "start": 203058, "end": 203523, "sha256": "5084fc7fb7bfcc3ea8146a9183aab299dd64214c68c380063c4043e8b2885d38", "text": "“These thoughts exhilarated me and led me to apply with fresh ardour to the acquiring the art of language. My organs were indeed harsh, but supple; and although my voice was very unlike the soft music of their tones, yet I pronounced such words as I understood with tolerable ease. It was as the ass and the lap-dog; yet surely the gentle ass whose intentions were affectionate, although his manners were rude, deserved better treatment than blows and execration.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00360", "bookId": 84, "start": 203525, "end": 204147, "sha256": "90375df737de5fd72b5dc24779b7ee67ddf67a37cca85f8d99a21d28e0b4621a", "text": "“The pleasant showers and genial warmth of spring greatly altered the aspect of the earth. Men who before this change seemed to have been hid in caves dispersed themselves and were employed in various arts of cultivation. The birds sang in more cheerful notes, and the leaves began to bud forth on the trees. Happy, happy earth! Fit habitation for gods, which, so short a time before, was bleak, damp, and unwholesome. My spirits were elevated by the enchanting appearance of nature; the past was blotted from my memory, the present was tranquil, and the future gilded by bright rays of hope and anticipations of joy.”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00361", "bookId": 84, "start": 204152, "end": 204162, "sha256": "0b14bb3312fde351e48fc5c99cfc9fab38bc590de410162b9380295754021aaf", "text": "Chapter 13", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG84.B00362", "bookId": 84, "start": 204165, "end": 204324, "sha256": "cfcdec01558eaf0ea6a2a6224dc4a6539df4f6900d039ef7bfa36e0a0e8ca0ac", "text": "“I now hasten to the more moving part of my story. I shall relate events that impressed me with feelings which, from what I had been, have made me what I am.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00363", "bookId": 84, "start": 204326, "end": 204623, "sha256": "9923a04f58aa12a60bdf2782f470048b29446ba2dfe806dda190f1a8647489c7", "text": "“Spring advanced rapidly; the weather became fine and the skies cloudless. It surprised me that what before was desert and gloomy should now bloom with the most beautiful flowers and verdure. My senses were gratified and refreshed by a thousand scents of delight and a thousand sights of beauty.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00364", "bookId": 84, "start": 204625, "end": 205109, "sha256": "9a506568945d1ac07f85223ea878286591822e67b185a61508f189ee7460bd6f", "text": "“It was on one of these days, when my cottagers periodically rested from labour—the old man played on his guitar, and the children listened to him—that I observed the countenance of Felix was melancholy beyond expression; he sighed frequently, and once his father paused in his music, and I conjectured by his manner that he inquired the cause of his son’s sorrow. Felix replied in a cheerful accent, and the old man was recommencing his music when someone tapped at the door.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00365", "bookId": 84, "start": 205111, "end": 205813, "sha256": "bf7925d1d05f6b3d979ca911c72b70412ab35b703d6d64213f6dd2e75f861a11", "text": "“It was a lady on horseback, accompanied by a country-man as a guide. The lady was dressed in a dark suit and covered with a thick black veil. Agatha asked a question, to which the stranger only replied by pronouncing, in a sweet accent, the name of Felix. Her voice was musical but unlike that of either of my friends. On hearing this word, Felix came up hastily to the lady, who, when she saw him, threw up her veil, and I beheld a countenance of angelic beauty and expression. Her hair of a shining raven black, and curiously braided; her eyes were dark, but gentle, although animated; her features of a regular proportion, and her complexion wondrously fair, each cheek tinged with a lovely pink.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00366", "bookId": 84, "start": 205815, "end": 206677, "sha256": "9c46b3b26d6b92672cd997d59560ab6eed202e48da87235804316801b652f554", "text": "“Felix seemed ravished with delight when he saw her, every trait of sorrow vanished from his face, and it instantly expressed a degree of ecstatic joy, of which I could hardly have believed it capable; his eyes sparkled, as his cheek flushed with pleasure; and at that moment I thought him as beautiful as the stranger. She appeared affected by different feelings; wiping a few tears from her lovely eyes, she held out her hand to Felix, who kissed it rapturously and called her, as well as I could distinguish, his sweet Arabian. She did not appear to understand him, but smiled. He assisted her to dismount, and dismissing her guide, conducted her into the cottage. Some conversation took place between him and his father, and the young stranger knelt at the old man’s feet and would have kissed his hand, but he raised her and embraced her affectionately.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00367", "bookId": 84, "start": 206679, "end": 207832, "sha256": "8a9589723a9f69182f81285973cccb539d6c6ebfe9333b8cc06b3aa06f73d4d2", "text": "“I soon perceived that although the stranger uttered articulate sounds and appeared to have a language of her own, she was neither understood by nor herself understood the cottagers. They made many signs which I did not comprehend, but I saw that her presence diffused gladness through the cottage, dispelling their sorrow as the sun dissipates the morning mists. Felix seemed peculiarly happy and with smiles of delight welcomed his Arabian. Agatha, the ever-gentle Agatha, kissed the hands of the lovely stranger, and pointing to her brother, made signs which appeared to me to mean that he had been sorrowful until she came. Some hours passed thus, while they, by their countenances, expressed joy, the cause of which I did not comprehend. Presently I found, by the frequent recurrence of some sound which the stranger repeated after them, that she was endeavouring to learn their language; and the idea instantly occurred to me that I should make use of the same instructions to the same end. The stranger learned about twenty words at the first lesson; most of them, indeed, were those which I had before understood, but I profited by the others.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00368", "bookId": 84, "start": 207834, "end": 208278, "sha256": "dc5c665b59ac9e56db398cbf003ac9ff89e6cabbadf7ab8ef59c2141f24e3d59", "text": "“As night came on, Agatha and the Arabian retired early. When they separated Felix kissed the hand of the stranger and said, ‘Good night sweet Safie.’ He sat up much longer, conversing with his father, and by the frequent repetition of her name I conjectured that their lovely guest was the subject of their conversation. I ardently desired to understand them, and bent every faculty towards that purpose, but found it utterly impossible.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00369", "bookId": 84, "start": 208280, "end": 208665, "sha256": "19f76755f669c08bd69df9a4430ac59505eb5fdb3e3ca1cbc7ce6620b3f60a91", "text": "“The next morning Felix went out to his work, and after the usual occupations of Agatha were finished, the Arabian sat at the feet of the old man, and taking his guitar, played some airs so entrancingly beautiful that they at once drew tears of sorrow and delight from my eyes. She sang, and her voice flowed in a rich cadence, swelling or dying away like a nightingale of the woods.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00370", "bookId": 84, "start": 208667, "end": 209071, "sha256": "def4ba66b5defc0fc5bea2d5dfa6fc84927f8ed3936602751719e874dc1c5acb", "text": "“When she had finished, she gave the guitar to Agatha, who at first declined it. She played a simple air, and her voice accompanied it in sweet accents, but unlike the wondrous strain of the stranger. The old man appeared enraptured and said some words which Agatha endeavoured to explain to Safie, and by which he appeared to wish to express that she bestowed on him the greatest delight by her music.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00371", "bookId": 84, "start": 209073, "end": 209392, "sha256": "b42e930415f5e729530a060d860d261c857c0427308e4a27bc9e172d50492bca", "text": "“The days now passed as peaceably as before, with the sole alteration that joy had taken place of sadness in the countenances of my friends. Safie was always gay and happy; she and I improved rapidly in the knowledge of language, so that in two months I began to comprehend most of the words uttered by my protectors.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00372", "bookId": 84, "start": 209394, "end": 209951, "sha256": "04cdc5ae24c53a264bae7b87f5deac520373e5833ad78770dbaee0b2c2879cfe", "text": "“In the meanwhile also the black ground was covered with herbage, and the green banks interspersed with innumerable flowers, sweet to the scent and the eyes, stars of pale radiance among the moonlight woods; the sun became warmer, the nights clear and balmy; and my nocturnal rambles were an extreme pleasure to me, although they were considerably shortened by the late setting and early rising of the sun, for I never ventured abroad during daylight, fearful of meeting with the same treatment I had formerly endured in the first village which I entered.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00373", "bookId": 84, "start": 209953, "end": 210240, "sha256": "cfd75caa33e4af7d01f83fd954db32f0ab3c1c26e6d2671fc3b710ae65fa3d92", "text": "“My days were spent in close attention, that I might more speedily master the language; and I may boast that I improved more rapidly than the Arabian, who understood very little and conversed in broken accents, whilst I comprehended and could imitate almost every word that was spoken.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00374", "bookId": 84, "start": 210242, "end": 210407, "sha256": "7fec8cd56138a4a6293424bb6a8d5206814ef09f125c95b1082cce7af7ee34ab", "text": "“While I improved in speech, I also learned the science of letters as it was taught to the stranger, and this opened before me a wide field for wonder and delight.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00375", "bookId": 84, "start": 210409, "end": 211336, "sha256": "dee715f80e8185a398d7d54b918c602abd4de3cc990479b7b95b9b141d3dc263", "text": "“The book from which Felix instructed Safie was Volney’s _Ruins of Empires_. I should not have understood the purport of this book had not Felix, in reading it, given very minute explanations. He had chosen this work, he said, because the declamatory style was framed in imitation of the Eastern authors. Through this work I obtained a cursory knowledge of history and a view of the several empires at present existing in the world; it gave me an insight into the manners, governments, and religions of the different nations of the earth. I heard of the slothful Asiatics, of the stupendous genius and mental activity of the Grecians, of the wars and wonderful virtue of the early Romans—of their subsequent degenerating—of the decline of that mighty empire, of chivalry, Christianity, and kings. I heard of the discovery of the American hemisphere and wept with Safie over the hapless fate of its original inhabitants.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00376", "bookId": 84, "start": 211338, "end": 212110, "sha256": "47d7f5855baa453baa9f74d254707a4618a46387e6fe589c3e537ef928c5c806", "text": "“These wonderful narrations inspired me with strange feelings. Was man, indeed, at once so powerful, so virtuous and magnificent, yet so vicious and base? He appeared at one time a mere scion of the evil principle and at another as all that can be conceived of noble and godlike. To be a great and virtuous man appeared the highest honour that can befall a sensitive being; to be base and vicious, as many on record have been, appeared the lowest degradation, a condition more abject than that of the blind mole or harmless worm. For a long time I could not conceive how one man could go forth to murder his fellow, or even why there were laws and governments; but when I heard details of vice and bloodshed, my wonder ceased and I turned away with disgust and loathing.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00377", "bookId": 84, "start": 212112, "end": 212424, "sha256": "076299e8e6d6be19bf38bfcb3659602f3a6f3564d7a3f35a33195377c3be3dc3", "text": "“Every conversation of the cottagers now opened new wonders to me. While I listened to the instructions which Felix bestowed upon the Arabian, the strange system of human society was explained to me. I heard of the division of property, of immense wealth and squalid poverty, of rank, descent, and noble blood.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00378", "bookId": 84, "start": 212426, "end": 213382, "sha256": "fdaab40f11089d50729cc53e18adb278a259c8326675a34b1c0867a5063327ad", "text": "“The words induced me to turn towards myself. I learned that the possessions most esteemed by your fellow creatures were high and unsullied descent united with riches. A man might be respected with only one of these advantages, but without either he was considered, except in very rare instances, as a vagabond and a slave, doomed to waste his powers for the profits of the chosen few! And what was I? Of my creation and creator I was absolutely ignorant, but I knew that I possessed no money, no friends, no kind of property. I was, besides, endued with a figure hideously deformed and loathsome; I was not even of the same nature as man. I was more agile than they and could subsist upon coarser diet; I bore the extremes of heat and cold with less injury to my frame; my stature far exceeded theirs. When I looked around I saw and heard of none like me. Was I, then, a monster, a blot upon the earth, from which all men fled and whom all men disowned?", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00379", "bookId": 84, "start": 213384, "end": 213651, "sha256": "2f32463a1f2588dfdcc4e4dcea63034d72eefb9d0873c2c5615ad00916f03dc3", "text": "“I cannot describe to you the agony that these reflections inflicted upon me; I tried to dispel them, but sorrow only increased with knowledge. Oh, that I had for ever remained in my native wood, nor known nor felt beyond the sensations of hunger, thirst, and heat!", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00380", "bookId": 84, "start": 213653, "end": 214520, "sha256": "c05c5d9636dc8ca7e2bd2e6e557ce894da7c1e98c8282fcdb90bc9fef77a33fe", "text": "“Of what a strange nature is knowledge! It clings to the mind when it has once seized on it like a lichen on the rock. I wished sometimes to shake off all thought and feeling, but I learned that there was but one means to overcome the sensation of pain, and that was death—a state which I feared yet did not understand. I admired virtue and good feelings and loved the gentle manners and amiable qualities of my cottagers, but I was shut out from intercourse with them, except through means which I obtained by stealth, when I was unseen and unknown, and which rather increased than satisfied the desire I had of becoming one among my fellows. The gentle words of Agatha and the animated smiles of the charming Arabian were not for me. The mild exhortations of the old man and the lively conversation of the loved Felix were not for me. Miserable, unhappy wretch!", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00381", "bookId": 84, "start": 214522, "end": 214989, "sha256": "cb3d5bd1ed2103c44e6108e1c2c511d80c5282bd6646065d43d8a15754466d19", "text": "“Other lessons were impressed upon me even more deeply. I heard of the difference of sexes, and the birth and growth of children, how the father doted on the smiles of the infant, and the lively sallies of the older child, how all the life and cares of the mother were wrapped up in the precious charge, how the mind of youth expanded and gained knowledge, of brother, sister, and all the various relationships which bind one human being to another in mutual bonds.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00382", "bookId": 84, "start": 214991, "end": 215459, "sha256": "e4c66dc45091781d30f31c0647e7728ea2ec6de57ef3f3a86383d7bd3a3a67d8", "text": "“But where were my friends and relations? No father had watched my infant days, no mother had blessed me with smiles and caresses; or if they had, all my past life was now a blot, a blind vacancy in which I distinguished nothing. From my earliest remembrance I had been as I then was in height and proportion. I had never yet seen a being resembling me or who claimed any intercourse with me. What was I? The question again recurred, to be answered only with groans.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00383", "bookId": 84, "start": 215461, "end": 215797, "sha256": "d8f5829d93bae8cc993073b6a2b12194f5d3a4d10065e23bb01cb3329834dc63", "text": "“I will soon explain to what these feelings tended, but allow me now to return to the cottagers, whose story excited in me such various feelings of indignation, delight, and wonder, but which all terminated in additional love and reverence for my protectors (for so I loved, in an innocent, half-painful self-deceit, to call them).”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00384", "bookId": 84, "start": 215802, "end": 215812, "sha256": "1df92a1b3f416c14d6508197ab494a7f5ae057c523dd7f5037fe8dce4e1fb3a1", "text": "Chapter 14", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG84.B00385", "bookId": 84, "start": 215815, "end": 216068, "sha256": "a9ceb46e4d3fa24e891969a25b7c71fc8de0bd9466e8d3b4d327c0e198a2ba97", "text": "“Some time elapsed before I learned the history of my friends. It was one which could not fail to impress itself deeply on my mind, unfolding as it did a number of circumstances, each interesting and wonderful to one so utterly inexperienced as I was.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00386", "bookId": 84, "start": 216070, "end": 216612, "sha256": "e8e393e2edebc20a8a0a653eecaf67689883c1f1153bee5384f4012d1a1b0e5c", "text": "“The name of the old man was De Lacey. He was descended from a good family in France, where he had lived for many years in affluence, respected by his superiors and beloved by his equals. His son was bred in the service of his country, and Agatha had ranked with ladies of the highest distinction. A few months before my arrival they had lived in a large and luxurious city called Paris, surrounded by friends and possessed of every enjoyment which virtue, refinement of intellect, or taste, accompanied by a moderate fortune, could afford.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00387", "bookId": 84, "start": 216614, "end": 217162, "sha256": "db5916734bc28cbb77d45fedc36234c84b2f17e8dc2617926f1294ef0edf83d6", "text": "“The father of Safie had been the cause of their ruin. He was a Turkish merchant and had inhabited Paris for many years, when, for some reason which I could not learn, he became obnoxious to the government. He was seized and cast into prison the very day that Safie arrived from Constantinople to join him. He was tried and condemned to death. The injustice of his sentence was very flagrant; all Paris was indignant; and it was judged that his religion and wealth rather than the crime alleged against him had been the cause of his condemnation.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00388", "bookId": 84, "start": 217164, "end": 218179, "sha256": "7f2e520cf08d93608fe70ad830bb73549d8ae0ffcb56018c7e4d8f8566938a19", "text": "“Felix had accidentally been present at the trial; his horror and indignation were uncontrollable when he heard the decision of the court. He made, at that moment, a solemn vow to deliver him and then looked around for the means. After many fruitless attempts to gain admittance to the prison, he found a strongly grated window in an unguarded part of the building, which lighted the dungeon of the unfortunate Muhammadan, who, loaded with chains, waited in despair the execution of the barbarous sentence. Felix visited the grate at night and made known to the prisoner his intentions in his favour. The Turk, amazed and delighted, endeavoured to kindle the zeal of his deliverer by promises of reward and wealth. Felix rejected his offers with contempt, yet when he saw the lovely Safie, who was allowed to visit her father and who by her gestures expressed her lively gratitude, the youth could not help owning to his own mind that the captive possessed a treasure which would fully reward his toil and hazard.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00389", "bookId": 84, "start": 218181, "end": 218569, "sha256": "d17994ee0d63564bb2fba935d2732570b78dded22992f706308806e0dd6c984a", "text": "“The Turk quickly perceived the impression that his daughter had made on the heart of Felix and endeavoured to secure him more entirely in his interests by the promise of her hand in marriage so soon as he should be conveyed to a place of safety. Felix was too delicate to accept this offer, yet he looked forward to the probability of the event as to the consummation of his happiness.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00390", "bookId": 84, "start": 218571, "end": 219044, "sha256": "68002d4d0ece8f9ce1062c69bc14456b0680c6b63054ef8ee4130ad484819924", "text": "“During the ensuing days, while the preparations were going forward for the escape of the merchant, the zeal of Felix was warmed by several letters that he received from this lovely girl, who found means to express her thoughts in the language of her lover by the aid of an old man, a servant of her father who understood French. She thanked him in the most ardent terms for his intended services towards her parent, and at the same time she gently deplored her own fate.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00391", "bookId": 84, "start": 219046, "end": 219425, "sha256": "1b24887dbafe4d586bdf16b7c09c6efa8061b17e592918bb965bb32d009a4ec6", "text": "“I have copies of these letters, for I found means, during my residence in the hovel, to procure the implements of writing; and the letters were often in the hands of Felix or Agatha. Before I depart I will give them to you; they will prove the truth of my tale; but at present, as the sun is already far declined, I shall only have time to repeat the substance of them to you.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00392", "bookId": 84, "start": 219427, "end": 220418, "sha256": "bce4c8108375232be320ced2e38bb12bf40c16d7013cae47441fa7dd3001d1c4", "text": "“Safie related that her mother was a Christian Arab, seized and made a slave by the Turks; recommended by her beauty, she had won the heart of the father of Safie, who married her. The young girl spoke in high and enthusiastic terms of her mother, who, born in freedom, spurned the bondage to which she was now reduced. She instructed her daughter in the tenets of her religion and taught her to aspire to higher powers of intellect and an independence of spirit forbidden to the female followers of Muhammad. This lady died, but her lessons were indelibly impressed on the mind of Safie, who sickened at the prospect of again returning to Asia and being immured within the walls of a harem, allowed only to occupy herself with infantile amusements, ill-suited to the temper of her soul, now accustomed to grand ideas and a noble emulation for virtue. The prospect of marrying a Christian and remaining in a country where women were allowed to take a rank in society was enchanting to her.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00393", "bookId": 84, "start": 220420, "end": 220860, "sha256": "0975ba9beecc82048bf9cb5c793b9fc46a5dd601fa44515be2f81b91d089bc7a", "text": "“The day for the execution of the Turk was fixed, but on the night previous to it he quitted his prison and before morning was distant many leagues from Paris. Felix had procured passports in the name of his father, sister, and himself. He had previously communicated his plan to the former, who aided the deceit by quitting his house, under the pretence of a journey and concealed himself, with his daughter, in an obscure part of Paris.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00394", "bookId": 84, "start": 220862, "end": 221068, "sha256": "54e3f55bdc02a87ed4c5a55cdbe1d23365f42dbeb1b5976249d0397a85716899", "text": "“Felix conducted the fugitives through France to Lyons and across Mont Cenis to Leghorn, where the merchant had decided to wait a favourable opportunity of passing into some part of the Turkish dominions.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00395", "bookId": 84, "start": 221070, "end": 221599, "sha256": "c913316c53f13bfcb311166fc879f45692e93c03da4e00a1593ca1c4ae189105", "text": "“Safie resolved to remain with her father until the moment of his departure, before which time the Turk renewed his promise that she should be united to his deliverer; and Felix remained with them in expectation of that event; and in the meantime he enjoyed the society of the Arabian, who exhibited towards him the simplest and tenderest affection. They conversed with one another through the means of an interpreter, and sometimes with the interpretation of looks; and Safie sang to him the divine airs of her native country.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00396", "bookId": 84, "start": 221601, "end": 222269, "sha256": "6fdf38ed0b253a33b79757d0c50d78ce6abc59998c31a477ab17098931e1f8da", "text": "“The Turk allowed this intimacy to take place and encouraged the hopes of the youthful lovers, while in his heart he had formed far other plans. He loathed the idea that his daughter should be united to a Christian, but he feared the resentment of Felix if he should appear lukewarm, for he knew that he was still in the power of his deliverer if he should choose to betray him to the Italian state which they inhabited. He revolved a thousand plans by which he should be enabled to prolong the deceit until it might be no longer necessary, and secretly to take his daughter with him when he departed. His plans were facilitated by the news which arrived from Paris.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00397", "bookId": 84, "start": 222271, "end": 223097, "sha256": "6c8aefb18862fb171becbed80fb50cd123acc8f6489f92fcd21a901f8ce078a0", "text": "“The government of France were greatly enraged at the escape of their victim and spared no pains to detect and punish his deliverer. The plot of Felix was quickly discovered, and De Lacey and Agatha were thrown into prison. The news reached Felix and roused him from his dream of pleasure. His blind and aged father and his gentle sister lay in a noisome dungeon while he enjoyed the free air and the society of her whom he loved. This idea was torture to him. He quickly arranged with the Turk that if the latter should find a favourable opportunity for escape before Felix could return to Italy, Safie should remain as a boarder at a convent at Leghorn; and then, quitting the lovely Arabian, he hastened to Paris and delivered himself up to the vengeance of the law, hoping to free De Lacey and Agatha by this proceeding.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00398", "bookId": 84, "start": 223099, "end": 223307, "sha256": "515f72b8cc09002ecf641a2a0c65ba5495fc2387ddebe56ad4352a45601ba238", "text": "“He did not succeed. They remained confined for five months before the trial took place, the result of which deprived them of their fortune and condemned them to a perpetual exile from their native country.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00399", "bookId": 84, "start": 223309, "end": 223765, "sha256": "eb1d32b8c9780050590117fae104446e60cc859c7e294c405043ce4999d351b0", "text": "“They found a miserable asylum in the cottage in Germany, where I discovered them. Felix soon learned that the treacherous Turk, for whom he and his family endured such unheard-of oppression, on discovering that his deliverer was thus reduced to poverty and ruin, became a traitor to good feeling and honour and had quitted Italy with his daughter, insultingly sending Felix a pittance of money to aid him, as he said, in some plan of future maintenance.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00400", "bookId": 84, "start": 223767, "end": 224179, "sha256": "14c668c4eb523cba79eb631b2fd200ddc49e5bf8984f5482977f154b48685111", "text": "“Such were the events that preyed on the heart of Felix and rendered him, when I first saw him, the most miserable of his family. He could have endured poverty, and while this distress had been the meed of his virtue, he gloried in it; but the ingratitude of the Turk and the loss of his beloved Safie were misfortunes more bitter and irreparable. The arrival of the Arabian now infused new life into his soul.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00401", "bookId": 84, "start": 224181, "end": 224542, "sha256": "e7a2e084fd7f9bda0d9a3e30eefd7a9dd273e907af9fd66e7eb02b0a4e9fe790", "text": "“When the news reached Leghorn that Felix was deprived of his wealth and rank, the merchant commanded his daughter to think no more of her lover, but to prepare to return to her native country. The generous nature of Safie was outraged by this command; she attempted to expostulate with her father, but he left her angrily, reiterating his tyrannical mandate.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00402", "bookId": 84, "start": 224544, "end": 225069, "sha256": "9b51266ec3786f1fd95737abbc804539fdd11181ec1f2802ac18679b83400edb", "text": "“A few days after, the Turk entered his daughter’s apartment and told her hastily that he had reason to believe that his residence at Leghorn had been divulged and that he should speedily be delivered up to the French government; he had consequently hired a vessel to convey him to Constantinople, for which city he should sail in a few hours. He intended to leave his daughter under the care of a confidential servant, to follow at her leisure with the greater part of his property, which had not yet arrived at Leghorn.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00403", "bookId": 84, "start": 225071, "end": 225707, "sha256": "efda76f8f8239ea511e62706aa46e996cd79bdcd31499e4e62e95927afbc5955", "text": "“When alone, Safie resolved in her own mind the plan of conduct that it would become her to pursue in this emergency. A residence in Turkey was abhorrent to her; her religion and her feelings were alike averse to it. By some papers of her father which fell into her hands she heard of the exile of her lover and learnt the name of the spot where he then resided. She hesitated some time, but at length she formed her determination. Taking with her some jewels that belonged to her and a sum of money, she quitted Italy with an attendant, a native of Leghorn, but who understood the common language of Turkey, and departed for Germany.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00404", "bookId": 84, "start": 225709, "end": 226291, "sha256": "892ca15349d15e4886c6f2a30657bd32f6fa5903e53e961ab47293484305442f", "text": "“She arrived in safety at a town about twenty leagues from the cottage of De Lacey, when her attendant fell dangerously ill. Safie nursed her with the most devoted affection, but the poor girl died, and the Arabian was left alone, unacquainted with the language of the country and utterly ignorant of the customs of the world. She fell, however, into good hands. The Italian had mentioned the name of the spot for which they were bound, and after her death the woman of the house in which they had lived took care that Safie should arrive in safety at the cottage of her lover.”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00405", "bookId": 84, "start": 226296, "end": 226306, "sha256": "ff0168b52817862d689dd532d368e0c71c7928fd9e1acc8450ed2c6c30484195", "text": "Chapter 15", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG84.B00406", "bookId": 84, "start": 226309, "end": 226505, "sha256": "b98d4f5df0e0fa7ddc7b1e4b0c3d931a62bea70112c76c5927f7ba637fb6ea06", "text": "“Such was the history of my beloved cottagers. It impressed me deeply. I learned, from the views of social life which it developed, to admire their virtues and to deprecate the vices of mankind.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00407", "bookId": 84, "start": 226507, "end": 226905, "sha256": "70f07e0074cd4b7db37439a377b54dc6961677f2e9875f3bab2d3784697b7e17", "text": "“As yet I looked upon crime as a distant evil, benevolence and generosity were ever present before me, inciting within me a desire to become an actor in the busy scene where so many admirable qualities were called forth and displayed. But in giving an account of the progress of my intellect, I must not omit a circumstance which occurred in the beginning of the month of August of the same year.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00408", "bookId": 84, "start": 226907, "end": 227599, "sha256": "651fb85e4e4a25c9ed5016ecddae28c5cfdffd88c8d24ba3f481bbd14dab91e5", "text": "“One night during my accustomed visit to the neighbouring wood where I collected my own food and brought home firing for my protectors, I found on the ground a leathern portmanteau containing several articles of dress and some books. I eagerly seized the prize and returned with it to my hovel. Fortunately the books were written in the language, the elements of which I had acquired at the cottage; they consisted of _Paradise Lost_, a volume of _Plutarch’s Lives_, and the _Sorrows of Werter_. The possession of these treasures gave me extreme delight; I now continually studied and exercised my mind upon these histories, whilst my friends were employed in their ordinary occupations.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00409", "bookId": 84, "start": 227601, "end": 228722, "sha256": "75821bf8a8ff3f6af567bcbf84cef560680dac43d46389e0dd5d84d5cb06e69a", "text": "“I can hardly describe to you the effect of these books. They produced in me an infinity of new images and feelings, that sometimes raised me to ecstasy, but more frequently sunk me into the lowest dejection. In the _Sorrows of Werter_, besides the interest of its simple and affecting story, so many opinions are canvassed and so many lights thrown upon what had hitherto been to me obscure subjects that I found in it a never-ending source of speculation and astonishment. The gentle and domestic manners it described, combined with lofty sentiments and feelings, which had for their object something out of self, accorded well with my experience among my protectors and with the wants which were for ever alive in my own bosom. But I thought Werter himself a more divine being than I had ever beheld or imagined; his character contained no pretension, but it sank deep. The disquisitions upon death and suicide were calculated to fill me with wonder. I did not pretend to enter into the merits of the case, yet I inclined towards the opinions of the hero, whose extinction I wept, without precisely understanding it.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00410", "bookId": 84, "start": 228724, "end": 229359, "sha256": "eb2a414dbc12730a054f6060e0023af2b5abe0cad71a0dfab18ece2caffedd75", "text": "“As I read, however, I applied much personally to my own feelings and condition. I found myself similar yet at the same time strangely unlike to the beings concerning whom I read and to whose conversation I was a listener. I sympathised with and partly understood them, but I was unformed in mind; I was dependent on none and related to none. ‘The path of my departure was free,’ and there was none to lament my annihilation. My person was hideous and my stature gigantic. What did this mean? Who was I? What was I? Whence did I come? What was my destination? These questions continually recurred, but I was unable to solve them.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00411", "bookId": 84, "start": 229361, "end": 230855, "sha256": "4890bf676730c8ae3c8e5f53faf789bf1297281083686dcd967ed67143195e4a", "text": "“The volume of _Plutarch’s Lives_ which I possessed contained the histories of the first founders of the ancient republics. This book had a far different effect upon me from the _Sorrows of Werter_. I learned from Werter’s imaginations despondency and gloom, but Plutarch taught me high thoughts; he elevated me above the wretched sphere of my own reflections, to admire and love the heroes of past ages. Many things I read surpassed my understanding and experience. I had a very confused knowledge of kingdoms, wide extents of country, mighty rivers, and boundless seas. But I was perfectly unacquainted with towns and large assemblages of men. The cottage of my protectors had been the only school in which I had studied human nature, but this book developed new and mightier scenes of action. I read of men concerned in public affairs, governing or massacring their species. I felt the greatest ardour for virtue rise within me, and abhorrence for vice, as far as I understood the signification of those terms, relative as they were, as I applied them, to pleasure and pain alone. Induced by these feelings, I was of course led to admire peaceable lawgivers, Numa, Solon, and Lycurgus, in preference to Romulus and Theseus. The patriarchal lives of my protectors caused these impressions to take a firm hold on my mind; perhaps, if my first introduction to humanity had been made by a young soldier, burning for glory and slaughter, I should have been imbued with different sensations.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00412", "bookId": 84, "start": 230857, "end": 231802, "sha256": "72bc5bf15236c6269c6fd7e79242c0de3f776b2478fe6fb6e026f4dcef1b3809", "text": "“But _Paradise Lost_ excited different and far deeper emotions. I read it, as I had read the other volumes which had fallen into my hands, as a true history. It moved every feeling of wonder and awe that the picture of an omnipotent God warring with his creatures was capable of exciting. I often referred the several situations, as their similarity struck me, to my own. Like Adam, I was apparently united by no link to any other being in existence; but his state was far different from mine in every other respect. He had come forth from the hands of God a perfect creature, happy and prosperous, guarded by the especial care of his Creator; he was allowed to converse with and acquire knowledge from beings of a superior nature, but I was wretched, helpless, and alone. Many times I considered Satan as the fitter emblem of my condition, for often, like him, when I viewed the bliss of my protectors, the bitter gall of envy rose within me.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00413", "bookId": 84, "start": 231804, "end": 233169, "sha256": "1df154714dc7eb79870e88c8ad5afa9c30b6c2b8f5d93b281b9cb7f552730130", "text": "“Another circumstance strengthened and confirmed these feelings. Soon after my arrival in the hovel I discovered some papers in the pocket of the dress which I had taken from your laboratory. At first I had neglected them, but now that I was able to decipher the characters in which they were written, I began to study them with diligence. It was your journal of the four months that preceded my creation. You minutely described in these papers every step you took in the progress of your work; this history was mingled with accounts of domestic occurrences. You doubtless recollect these papers. Here they are. Everything is related in them which bears reference to my accursed origin; the whole detail of that series of disgusting circumstances which produced it is set in view; the minutest description of my odious and loathsome person is given, in language which painted your own horrors and rendered mine indelible. I sickened as I read. ‘Hateful day when I received life!’ I exclaimed in agony. ‘Accursed creator! Why did you form a monster so hideous that even _you_ turned from me in disgust? God, in pity, made man beautiful and alluring, after his own image; but my form is a filthy type of yours, more horrid even from the very resemblance. Satan had his companions, fellow devils, to admire and encourage him, but I am solitary and abhorred.’", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00414", "bookId": 84, "start": 233171, "end": 234055, "sha256": "c0e66dc38c9516ca4f87af12f7231e945fad3e9bffb39aa749821bc75807a994", "text": "“These were the reflections of my hours of despondency and solitude; but when I contemplated the virtues of the cottagers, their amiable and benevolent dispositions, I persuaded myself that when they should become acquainted with my admiration of their virtues they would compassionate me and overlook my personal deformity. Could they turn from their door one, however monstrous, who solicited their compassion and friendship? I resolved, at least, not to despair, but in every way to fit myself for an interview with them which would decide my fate. I postponed this attempt for some months longer, for the importance attached to its success inspired me with a dread lest I should fail. Besides, I found that my understanding improved so much with every day’s experience that I was unwilling to commence this undertaking until a few more months should have added to my sagacity.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00415", "bookId": 84, "start": 234057, "end": 234767, "sha256": "b87ccefae7d1e92948fb2e0069dcaade6cdf087963198e706ad3bcb1fa5f1f3b", "text": "“Several changes, in the meantime, took place in the cottage. The presence of Safie diffused happiness among its inhabitants, and I also found that a greater degree of plenty reigned there. Felix and Agatha spent more time in amusement and conversation, and were assisted in their labours by servants. They did not appear rich, but they were contented and happy; their feelings were serene and peaceful, while mine became every day more tumultuous. Increase of knowledge only discovered to me more clearly what a wretched outcast I was. I cherished hope, it is true, but it vanished when I beheld my person reflected in water or my shadow in the moonshine, even as that frail image and that inconstant shade.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00416", "bookId": 84, "start": 234769, "end": 235369, "sha256": "af6008c954b6ba8837e26cd2a0427d995fc22e9ccbbd7928ca1bb6ac6070b756", "text": "“I endeavoured to crush these fears and to fortify myself for the trial which in a few months I resolved to undergo; and sometimes I allowed my thoughts, unchecked by reason, to ramble in the fields of Paradise, and dared to fancy amiable and lovely creatures sympathising with my feelings and cheering my gloom; their angelic countenances breathed smiles of consolation. But it was all a dream; no Eve soothed my sorrows nor shared my thoughts; I was alone. I remembered Adam’s supplication to his Creator. But where was mine? He had abandoned me, and in the bitterness of my heart I cursed him.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00417", "bookId": 84, "start": 235371, "end": 236637, "sha256": "f09918af92414ca0f99be67d20d484586950b8fcc1a5edd64d2cce6c1e591d41", "text": "“Autumn passed thus. I saw, with surprise and grief, the leaves decay and fall, and nature again assume the barren and bleak appearance it had worn when I first beheld the woods and the lovely moon. Yet I did not heed the bleakness of the weather; I was better fitted by my conformation for the endurance of cold than heat. But my chief delights were the sight of the flowers, the birds, and all the gay apparel of summer; when those deserted me, I turned with more attention towards the cottagers. Their happiness was not decreased by the absence of summer. They loved and sympathised with one another; and their joys, depending on each other, were not interrupted by the casualties that took place around them. The more I saw of them, the greater became my desire to claim their protection and kindness; my heart yearned to be known and loved by these amiable creatures; to see their sweet looks directed towards me with affection was the utmost limit of my ambition. I dared not think that they would turn them from me with disdain and horror. The poor that stopped at their door were never driven away. I asked, it is true, for greater treasures than a little food or rest: I required kindness and sympathy; but I did not believe myself utterly unworthy of it.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00418", "bookId": 84, "start": 236639, "end": 237373, "sha256": "51ceb9dde808a36301703865283d94f84485339b7947a9276692a07e7f45238a", "text": "“The winter advanced, and an entire revolution of the seasons had taken place since I awoke into life. My attention at this time was solely directed towards my plan of introducing myself into the cottage of my protectors. I revolved many projects, but that on which I finally fixed was to enter the dwelling when the blind old man should be alone. I had sagacity enough to discover that the unnatural hideousness of my person was the chief object of horror with those who had formerly beheld me. My voice, although harsh, had nothing terrible in it; I thought, therefore, that if in the absence of his children I could gain the good will and mediation of the old De Lacey, I might by his means be tolerated by my younger protectors.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00419", "bookId": 84, "start": 237375, "end": 237973, "sha256": "426d136001329983079811de76660fb5a16274645bbbd162a3c93723573bd0bb", "text": "“One day, when the sun shone on the red leaves that strewed the ground and diffused cheerfulness, although it denied warmth, Safie, Agatha, and Felix departed on a long country walk, and the old man, at his own desire, was left alone in the cottage. When his children had departed, he took up his guitar and played several mournful but sweet airs, more sweet and mournful than I had ever heard him play before. At first his countenance was illuminated with pleasure, but as he continued, thoughtfulness and sadness succeeded; at length, laying aside the instrument, he sat absorbed in reflection.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00420", "bookId": 84, "start": 237975, "end": 238536, "sha256": "dac757d624a22e7c420f17addb77fba003e911571cf99ca086ee07e2de8bd7bf", "text": "“My heart beat quick; this was the hour and moment of trial, which would decide my hopes or realise my fears. The servants were gone to a neighbouring fair. All was silent in and around the cottage; it was an excellent opportunity; yet, when I proceeded to execute my plan, my limbs failed me and I sank to the ground. Again I rose, and exerting all the firmness of which I was master, removed the planks which I had placed before my hovel to conceal my retreat. The fresh air revived me, and with renewed determination I approached the door of their cottage.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00421", "bookId": 84, "start": 238538, "end": 238604, "sha256": "1e5b561c71f00e5a6d9a1721a7d4275ef69059525012e6fbc39dc2b23bf2c1ed", "text": "“I knocked. ‘Who is there?’ said the old man. ‘Come in.’", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG84.B00422", "bookId": 84, "start": 238606, "end": 238796, "sha256": "e820f9ab6301f69eaf6ae5a4c6edd5cc9f21b7394594919f99ddb6c424c9687b", "text": "“I entered. ‘Pardon this intrusion,’ said I; ‘I am a traveller in want of a little rest; you would greatly oblige me if you would allow me to remain a few minutes before the fire.’", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00423", "bookId": 84, "start": 238798, "end": 239022, "sha256": "98db35c77b2b6f0e90ad1624cfd683f7a032bcb8f92b16354c84469e7f53d608", "text": "“‘Enter,’ said De Lacey, ‘and I will try in what manner I can to relieve your wants; but, unfortunately, my children are from home, and as I am blind, I am afraid I shall find it difficult to procure food for you.’", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00424", "bookId": 84, "start": 239024, "end": 239124, "sha256": "bf5c9ccd94a078636d2c5edbe236a07aa7346625535e2f0ebcbc23958329127e", "text": "“‘Do not trouble yourself, my kind host; I have food; it is warmth and rest only that I need.’", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG84.B00425", "bookId": 84, "start": 239126, "end": 239306, "sha256": "a2c9384d50c90fb97802b49a0db62afa5aaede682a4684ab0917e30f3568e66e", "text": "“I sat down, and a silence ensued. I knew that every minute was precious to me, yet I remained irresolute in what manner to commence the interview, when the old man addressed me.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00426", "bookId": 84, "start": 239308, "end": 239390, "sha256": "140e36e8c47261177c4123d8a0846bdc283af4166eb9e16ec0527ffee4c95be2", "text": "‘By your language, stranger, I suppose you are my countryman; are you French?’", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG84.B00427", "bookId": 84, "start": 239392, "end": 239595, "sha256": "09a0b56c77bc1b4983a152e5f446e9a1f681b981e4ecf267551deb877af6bc73", "text": "“‘No; but I was educated by a French family and understand that language only. I am now going to claim the protection of some friends, whom I sincerely love, and of whose favour I have some hopes.’", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00428", "bookId": 84, "start": 239597, "end": 239623, "sha256": "f18ff2626546b5d27327e4ec5c2fe53e5df6e2f7c8d1e3c49ecbe4388dd49143", "text": "“‘Are they Germans?’", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG84.B00429", "bookId": 84, "start": 239625, "end": 239943, "sha256": "a34d4103295cfb8f1ff6b6337babbdaf4f174da4b9af8a115929871eae8f0fea", "text": "“‘No, they are French. But let us change the subject. I am an unfortunate and deserted creature, I look around and I have no relation or friend upon earth. These amiable people to whom I go have never seen me and know little of me. I am full of fears, for if I fail there, I am an outcast in the world for ever.’", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00430", "bookId": 84, "start": 239945, "end": 240217, "sha256": "b3191a868ecbd47680bc0281915536d0d86d8b8392c3c8ae8b6cae66d06a0baf", "text": "“‘Do not despair. To be friendless is indeed to be unfortunate, but the hearts of men, when unprejudiced by any obvious self-interest, are full of brotherly love and charity. Rely, therefore, on your hopes; and if these friends are good and amiable, do not despair.’", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00431", "bookId": 84, "start": 240219, "end": 240574, "sha256": "d4ce86192b088bd4a7b54f714203959fccabe59f771896f8cf6c54ee8561da11", "text": "“‘They are kind—they are the most excellent creatures in the world; but, unfortunately, they are prejudiced against me. I have good dispositions; my life has been hitherto harmless and in some degree beneficial; but a fatal prejudice clouds their eyes, and where they ought to see a feeling and kind friend, they behold only a detestable monster.’", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00432", "bookId": 84, "start": 240576, "end": 240672, "sha256": "d87c44c21158f5f84d7f1486a478e8e14a83b942daf579c2cb70a4410a969c9f", "text": "“‘That is indeed unfortunate; but if you are really blameless, cannot you undeceive them?’", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG84.B00433", "bookId": 84, "start": 240674, "end": 241004, "sha256": "6ff39491bf102173fb10ee1a73bd322acfb5a87b7081aa97a0ca5a373db9b87b", "text": "“‘I am about to undertake that task; and it is on that account that I feel so many overwhelming terrors. I tenderly love these friends; I have, unknown to them, been for many months in the habits of daily kindness towards them; but they believe that I wish to injure them, and it is that prejudice which I wish to overcome.’", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00434", "bookId": 84, "start": 241006, "end": 241045, "sha256": "9c19125d601a194875b42c5cc60d454aae2bfce669ea528e6e0c453d1a0979e9", "text": "“‘Where do these friends reside?’", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG84.B00435", "bookId": 84, "start": 241047, "end": 241071, "sha256": "222778c09d582690d0173426c0ce0abe1ea5031bb0c638d2561927b3f2ef0e07", "text": "“‘Near this spot.’", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG84.B00436", "bookId": 84, "start": 241073, "end": 241471, "sha256": "b95448b2b398bdc91ca1b98c59623488b698d618dda6c8caf75677eba76e58a2", "text": "“The old man paused and then continued, ‘If you will unreservedly confide to me the particulars of your tale, I perhaps may be of use in undeceiving them. I am blind and cannot judge of your countenance, but there is something in your words which persuades me that you are sincere. I am poor and an exile, but it will afford me true pleasure to be in any way serviceable to a human creature.’", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00437", "bookId": 84, "start": 241473, "end": 241694, "sha256": "e89eac9049e8d5ec2c38a97597389421a2252ca4631ee5e3ea7f5139293db04d", "text": "“‘Excellent man! I thank you and accept your generous offer. You raise me from the dust by this kindness; and I trust that, by your aid, I shall not be driven from the society and sympathy of your fellow creatures.’", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00438", "bookId": 84, "start": 241696, "end": 241966, "sha256": "592d7071b4618db5b7b7ab79ef1beeb1c2560e547b85d672b39148521b4fde7d", "text": "“‘Heaven forbid! Even if you were really criminal, for that can only drive you to desperation, and not instigate you to virtue. I also am unfortunate; I and my family have been condemned, although innocent; judge, therefore, if I do not feel for your misfortunes.’", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00439", "bookId": 84, "start": 241968, "end": 242235, "sha256": "a85a04443200d319677bb0a4825ac1c7a0fe9fa6abc704ec19ce53ecb3d1d836", "text": "“‘How can I thank you, my best and only benefactor? From your lips first have I heard the voice of kindness directed towards me; I shall be for ever grateful; and your present humanity assures me of success with those friends whom I am on the point of meeting.’", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00440", "bookId": 84, "start": 242237, "end": 242298, "sha256": "3ae9843f5042de10a84b6c08229f4ecf0280d9ec8b787c6478db7a62b9c5d1cc", "text": "“‘May I know the names and residence of those friends?’", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG84.B00441", "bookId": 84, "start": 242300, "end": 242833, "sha256": "1815534fd49e9fdc74294d2b21019c06c5b88d40e2aae523d91598a0ad83d4c6", "text": "“I paused. This, I thought, was the moment of decision, which was to rob me of or bestow happiness on me for ever. I struggled vainly for firmness sufficient to answer him, but the effort destroyed all my remaining strength; I sank on the chair and sobbed aloud. At that moment I heard the steps of my younger protectors. I had not a moment to lose, but seizing the hand of the old man, I cried, ‘Now is the time! Save and protect me! You and your family are the friends whom I seek. Do not you desert me in the hour of trial!’", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00442", "bookId": 84, "start": 242835, "end": 242896, "sha256": "abfc40822917c466bb21cad2a7339a4b125056dbf61725707e2a9a7afbec0c9f", "text": "“‘Great God!’ exclaimed the old man. ‘Who are you?’", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG84.B00443", "bookId": 84, "start": 242898, "end": 243629, "sha256": "c439405629d407274ade39620e2460a6b281c63fb1d5b8964cac92af31e2cfbd", "text": "“At that instant the cottage door was opened, and Felix, Safie, and Agatha entered. Who can describe their horror and consternation on beholding me? Agatha fainted, and Safie, unable to attend to her friend, rushed out of the cottage. Felix darted forward, and with supernatural force tore me from his father, to whose knees I clung, in a transport of fury, he dashed me to the ground and struck me violently with a stick. I could have torn him limb from limb, as the lion rends the antelope. But my heart sank within me as with bitter sickness, and I refrained. I saw him on the point of repeating his blow, when, overcome by pain and anguish, I quitted the cottage, and in the general tumult escaped unperceived to my hovel.”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00444", "bookId": 84, "start": 243634, "end": 243644, "sha256": "c1ea9e8c34a9895f524a38e6354a8042882e91ab2730e38ab1269287d01a80fb", "text": "Chapter 16", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG84.B00445", "bookId": 84, "start": 243647, "end": 244015, "sha256": "953bb496e86634f7a16864d18b0970787caf6e5e544c04452751d7a06ae5e7a7", "text": "“Cursed, cursed creator! Why did I live? Why, in that instant, did I not extinguish the spark of existence which you had so wantonly bestowed? I know not; despair had not yet taken possession of me; my feelings were those of rage and revenge. I could with pleasure have destroyed the cottage and its inhabitants and have glutted myself with their shrieks and misery.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00446", "bookId": 84, "start": 244017, "end": 244784, "sha256": "54c9e77d918c576063b7ffa455d0fba21480479826d3e9dd95d9cab7fe305592", "text": "“When night came I quitted my retreat and wandered in the wood; and now, no longer restrained by the fear of discovery, I gave vent to my anguish in fearful howlings. I was like a wild beast that had broken the toils, destroying the objects that obstructed me and ranging through the wood with a stag-like swiftness. Oh! What a miserable night I passed! The cold stars shone in mockery, and the bare trees waved their branches above me; now and then the sweet voice of a bird burst forth amidst the universal stillness. All, save I, were at rest or in enjoyment; I, like the arch-fiend, bore a hell within me, and finding myself unsympathised with, wished to tear up the trees, spread havoc and destruction around me, and then to have sat down and enjoyed the ruin.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00447", "bookId": 84, "start": 244786, "end": 245251, "sha256": "770e43d9c664928f6b4188f87325c39c6b04777064749f12ed4b0c5464412118", "text": "“But this was a luxury of sensation that could not endure; I became fatigued with excess of bodily exertion and sank on the damp grass in the sick impotence of despair. There was none among the myriads of men that existed who would pity or assist me; and should I feel kindness towards my enemies? No; from that moment I declared everlasting war against the species, and more than all, against him who had formed me and sent me forth to this insupportable misery.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00448", "bookId": 84, "start": 245253, "end": 245489, "sha256": "6fbbf7fc4fa0cda3c0592689c970be27d88c959867e4225bd9d9b325753be0a5", "text": "“The sun rose; I heard the voices of men and knew that it was impossible to return to my retreat during that day. Accordingly I hid myself in some thick underwood, determining to devote the ensuing hours to reflection on my situation.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00449", "bookId": 84, "start": 245491, "end": 246255, "sha256": "9397f4ed1bee1f8affcb2d0970ff65f3c667e30924426c4f457f035f76297330", "text": "“The pleasant sunshine and the pure air of day restored me to some degree of tranquillity; and when I considered what had passed at the cottage, I could not help believing that I had been too hasty in my conclusions. I had certainly acted imprudently. It was apparent that my conversation had interested the father in my behalf, and I was a fool in having exposed my person to the horror of his children. I ought to have familiarised the old De Lacey to me, and by degrees to have discovered myself to the rest of his family, when they should have been prepared for my approach. But I did not believe my errors to be irretrievable, and after much consideration I resolved to return to the cottage, seek the old man, and by my representations win him to my party.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00450", "bookId": 84, "start": 246257, "end": 246694, "sha256": "589f406972317a3c12861e28767410b648c9adadde29c0d144c59f9a514462ac", "text": "“These thoughts calmed me, and in the afternoon I sank into a profound sleep; but the fever of my blood did not allow me to be visited by peaceful dreams. The horrible scene of the preceding day was for ever acting before my eyes; the females were flying and the enraged Felix tearing me from his father’s feet. I awoke exhausted, and finding that it was already night, I crept forth from my hiding-place, and went in search of food.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00451", "bookId": 84, "start": 246696, "end": 247188, "sha256": "eb5f3bfafa442116d8bc61032976e4242bffa23b873ee00a3b808bdaa853e606", "text": "“When my hunger was appeased, I directed my steps towards the well-known path that conducted to the cottage. All there was at peace. I crept into my hovel and remained in silent expectation of the accustomed hour when the family arose. That hour passed, the sun mounted high in the heavens, but the cottagers did not appear. I trembled violently, apprehending some dreadful misfortune. The inside of the cottage was dark, and I heard no motion; I cannot describe the agony of this suspense.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00452", "bookId": 84, "start": 247190, "end": 247674, "sha256": "6d9e78388aba7c8ec05ba2e34f49e862ed1145dff85df4a8e0f2fe544e6cac1b", "text": "“Presently two countrymen passed by, but pausing near the cottage, they entered into conversation, using violent gesticulations; but I did not understand what they said, as they spoke the language of the country, which differed from that of my protectors. Soon after, however, Felix approached with another man; I was surprised, as I knew that he had not quitted the cottage that morning, and waited anxiously to discover from his discourse the meaning of these unusual appearances.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00453", "bookId": 84, "start": 247676, "end": 247955, "sha256": "34872ccf9e2f93c55b0a96771445a28823bfab921b5fd5c8ffd58dd2ff808750", "text": "“‘Do you consider,’ said his companion to him, ‘that you will be obliged to pay three months’ rent and to lose the produce of your garden? I do not wish to take any unfair advantage, and I beg therefore that you will take some days to consider of your determination.’", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00454", "bookId": 84, "start": 247957, "end": 248326, "sha256": "f1f9083b91eaedee4cc2b622b701364600715a5f0e1ccdc1448db70f0bafcec5", "text": "“‘It is utterly useless,’ replied Felix; ‘we can never again inhabit your cottage. The life of my father is in the greatest danger, owing to the dreadful circumstance that I have related. My wife and my sister will never recover from their horror. I entreat you not to reason with me any more. Take possession of your tenement and let me fly from this place.’", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00455", "bookId": 84, "start": 248328, "end": 248523, "sha256": "06b2922feeed735ceeba76b7541f60ba53e0c38e9cb17d68901ab85e6dd2e0da", "text": "“Felix trembled violently as he said this. He and his companion entered the cottage, in which they remained for a few minutes, and then departed. I never saw any of the family of De Lacey more.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00456", "bookId": 84, "start": 248525, "end": 249507, "sha256": "c870cc9d88074727920af0d14387e34fa9a2de4c72e68d89d1f6a90b8ba3c04e", "text": "“I continued for the remainder of the day in my hovel in a state of utter and stupid despair. My protectors had departed and had broken the only link that held me to the world. For the first time the feelings of revenge and hatred filled my bosom, and I did not strive to control them, but allowing myself to be borne away by the stream, I bent my mind towards injury and death. When I thought of my friends, of the mild voice of De Lacey, the gentle eyes of Agatha, and the exquisite beauty of the Arabian, these thoughts vanished and a gush of tears somewhat soothed me. But again when I reflected that they had spurned and deserted me, anger returned, a rage of anger, and unable to injure anything human, I turned my fury towards inanimate objects. As night advanced, I placed a variety of combustibles around the cottage, and after having destroyed every vestige of cultivation in the garden, I waited with forced impatience until the moon had sunk to commence my operations.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00457", "bookId": 84, "start": 249509, "end": 250255, "sha256": "fff7d92b66edb2b76df384a1d687251df952a6dd51923ac773135da12431dcaf", "text": "“As the night advanced, a fierce wind arose from the woods and quickly dispersed the clouds that had loitered in the heavens; the blast tore along like a mighty avalanche and produced a kind of insanity in my spirits that burst all bounds of reason and reflection. I lighted the dry branch of a tree and danced with fury around the devoted cottage, my eyes still fixed on the western horizon, the edge of which the moon nearly touched. A part of its orb was at length hid, and I waved my brand; it sank, and with a loud scream I fired the straw, and heath, and bushes, which I had collected. The wind fanned the fire, and the cottage was quickly enveloped by the flames, which clung to it and licked it with their forked and destroying tongues.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00458", "bookId": 84, "start": 250257, "end": 250400, "sha256": "6b800f10c6246ed46b8d0b816e019b9c7b61d4a441aac6786be56da5e32a00f8", "text": "“As soon as I was convinced that no assistance could save any part of the habitation, I quitted the scene and sought for refuge in the woods.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00459", "bookId": 84, "start": 250402, "end": 251067, "sha256": "eb16c45855e9b585e0981fb3375ed20c2699a1f1c3226e3c263ef39fcbe25f39", "text": "“And now, with the world before me, whither should I bend my steps? I resolved to fly far from the scene of my misfortunes; but to me, hated and despised, every country must be equally horrible. At length the thought of you crossed my mind. I learned from your papers that you were my father, my creator; and to whom could I apply with more fitness than to him who had given me life? Among the lessons that Felix had bestowed upon Safie, geography had not been omitted; I had learned from these the relative situations of the different countries of the earth. You had mentioned Geneva as the name of your native town, and towards this place I resolved to proceed.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00460", "bookId": 84, "start": 251069, "end": 251790, "sha256": "f4c602d4b55d02d968a9214e85a547a48393d04627ca2e6eaecbeb965242c14d", "text": "“But how was I to direct myself? I knew that I must travel in a southwesterly direction to reach my destination, but the sun was my only guide. I did not know the names of the towns that I was to pass through, nor could I ask information from a single human being; but I did not despair. From you only could I hope for succour, although towards you I felt no sentiment but that of hatred. Unfeeling, heartless creator! You had endowed me with perceptions and passions and then cast me abroad an object for the scorn and horror of mankind. But on you only had I any claim for pity and redress, and from you I determined to seek that justice which I vainly attempted to gain from any other being that wore the human form.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00461", "bookId": 84, "start": 251792, "end": 253019, "sha256": "2206207a7ffa1610a471939dcd9433b09eb58723da2863a19a0ad79d0045f7d2", "text": "“My travels were long and the sufferings I endured intense. It was late in autumn when I quitted the district where I had so long resided. I travelled only at night, fearful of encountering the visage of a human being. Nature decayed around me, and the sun became heatless; rain and snow poured around me; mighty rivers were frozen; the surface of the earth was hard and chill, and bare, and I found no shelter. Oh, earth! How often did I imprecate curses on the cause of my being! The mildness of my nature had fled, and all within me was turned to gall and bitterness. The nearer I approached to your habitation, the more deeply did I feel the spirit of revenge enkindled in my heart. Snow fell, and the waters were hardened, but I rested not. A few incidents now and then directed me, and I possessed a map of the country; but I often wandered wide from my path. The agony of my feelings allowed me no respite; no incident occurred from which my rage and misery could not extract its food; but a circumstance that happened when I arrived on the confines of Switzerland, when the sun had recovered its warmth and the earth again began to look green, confirmed in an especial manner the bitterness and horror of my feelings.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00462", "bookId": 84, "start": 253021, "end": 253770, "sha256": "cce6d103c3dcca4e0c3913de594897e229e7d686323db52c4b1f7dbde40c815e", "text": "“I generally rested during the day and travelled only when I was secured by night from the view of man. One morning, however, finding that my path lay through a deep wood, I ventured to continue my journey after the sun had risen; the day, which was one of the first of spring, cheered even me by the loveliness of its sunshine and the balminess of the air. I felt emotions of gentleness and pleasure, that had long appeared dead, revive within me. Half surprised by the novelty of these sensations, I allowed myself to be borne away by them, and forgetting my solitude and deformity, dared to be happy. Soft tears again bedewed my cheeks, and I even raised my humid eyes with thankfulness towards the blessed sun, which bestowed such joy upon me.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00463", "bookId": 84, "start": 253772, "end": 255076, "sha256": "7a8a4cf11e6f595e32703150242b43f4741f3afd6c63f05492d431c18c92e67d", "text": "“I continued to wind among the paths of the wood, until I came to its boundary, which was skirted by a deep and rapid river, into which many of the trees bent their branches, now budding with the fresh spring. Here I paused, not exactly knowing what path to pursue, when I heard the sound of voices, that induced me to conceal myself under the shade of a cypress. I was scarcely hid when a young girl came running towards the spot where I was concealed, laughing, as if she ran from someone in sport. She continued her course along the precipitous sides of the river, when suddenly her foot slipped, and she fell into the rapid stream. I rushed from my hiding-place and with extreme labour, from the force of the current, saved her and dragged her to shore. She was senseless, and I endeavoured by every means in my power to restore animation, when I was suddenly interrupted by the approach of a rustic, who was probably the person from whom she had playfully fled. On seeing me, he darted towards me, and tearing the girl from my arms, hastened towards the deeper parts of the wood. I followed speedily, I hardly knew why; but when the man saw me draw near, he aimed a gun, which he carried, at my body and fired. I sank to the ground, and my injurer, with increased swiftness, escaped into the wood.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00464", "bookId": 84, "start": 255078, "end": 255556, "sha256": "9d7458516162b8fe91e3314fa21c0bf96f5f88c93054f72dfe34eb304ce905d3", "text": "“This was then the reward of my benevolence! I had saved a human being from destruction, and as a recompense I now writhed under the miserable pain of a wound which shattered the flesh and bone. The feelings of kindness and gentleness which I had entertained but a few moments before gave place to hellish rage and gnashing of teeth. Inflamed by pain, I vowed eternal hatred and vengeance to all mankind. But the agony of my wound overcame me; my pulses paused, and I fainted.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00465", "bookId": 84, "start": 255558, "end": 256055, "sha256": "988ce354b4301cbb617484d65f098821e3a1bc235423b045662c6fb79cf16c87", "text": "“For some weeks I led a miserable life in the woods, endeavouring to cure the wound which I had received. The ball had entered my shoulder, and I knew not whether it had remained there or passed through; at any rate I had no means of extracting it. My sufferings were augmented also by the oppressive sense of the injustice and ingratitude of their infliction. My daily vows rose for revenge—a deep and deadly revenge, such as would alone compensate for the outrages and anguish I had endured.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00466", "bookId": 84, "start": 256057, "end": 256364, "sha256": "ca2dcfd01cb2f8dec4489c6d2065167462f51709a0d1ec00e48b7f086fe50584", "text": "“After some weeks my wound healed, and I continued my journey. The labours I endured were no longer to be alleviated by the bright sun or gentle breezes of spring; all joy was but a mockery which insulted my desolate state and made me feel more painfully that I was not made for the enjoyment of pleasure.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00467", "bookId": 84, "start": 256366, "end": 256471, "sha256": "fa7621eaeaa0271148a49ee920b88cd8a52eca977f61416952cf18470e2309db", "text": "“But my toils now drew near a close, and in two months from this time I reached the environs of Geneva.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG84.B00468", "bookId": 84, "start": 256473, "end": 256795, "sha256": "43b88046af5d3446b425cd1b5ebe1c27048a7e128c1a335ff3f0e6181235e54f", "text": "“It was evening when I arrived, and I retired to a hiding-place among the fields that surround it to meditate in what manner I should apply to you. I was oppressed by fatigue and hunger and far too unhappy to enjoy the gentle breezes of evening or the prospect of the sun setting behind the stupendous mountains of Jura.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00469", "bookId": 84, "start": 256797, "end": 257299, "sha256": "607dbf87c0f9b7a51040aa91be326efa171487fbe26308de1ec94dccf630260d", "text": "“At this time a slight sleep relieved me from the pain of reflection, which was disturbed by the approach of a beautiful child, who came running into the recess I had chosen, with all the sportiveness of infancy. Suddenly, as I gazed on him, an idea seized me that this little creature was unprejudiced and had lived too short a time to have imbibed a horror of deformity. If, therefore, I could seize him and educate him as my companion and friend, I should not be so desolate in this peopled earth.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00470", "bookId": 84, "start": 257301, "end": 257613, "sha256": "ab4d5431b29d969b005c32e92387e54e5cdef3d477fec8e958f7b5385438625f", "text": "“Urged by this impulse, I seized on the boy as he passed and drew him towards me. As soon as he beheld my form, he placed his hands before his eyes and uttered a shrill scream; I drew his hand forcibly from his face and said, ‘Child, what is the meaning of this? I do not intend to hurt you; listen to me.’", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00471", "bookId": 84, "start": 257615, "end": 257790, "sha256": "75e67c31f9ca0df3d29889302e859cc01b452ef0841035f9b39c170940dbb8e3", "text": "“He struggled violently. ‘Let me go,’ he cried; ‘monster! Ugly wretch! You wish to eat me and tear me to pieces. You are an ogre. Let me go, or I will tell my papa.’", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00472", "bookId": 84, "start": 257792, "end": 257866, "sha256": "12250dca5dde9a4638d666f4f0b7d019f8119cb2cc8a5d51de485adb156f8135", "text": "“‘Boy, you will never see your father again; you must come with me.’", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG84.B00473", "bookId": 84, "start": 257868, "end": 257992, "sha256": "4742a5da7310fd2c6da0f2bc6db17a7efee8b13e091262344be3436d3adc61dc", "text": "“‘Hideous monster! Let me go. My papa is a syndic—he is M. Frankenstein—he will punish you. You dare not keep me.’", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00474", "bookId": 84, "start": 257994, "end": 258126, "sha256": "1bd390f04a09f372d13bd53e6281a11259ec018a6869065c5742fc2c833fa46b", "text": "“‘Frankenstein! you belong then to my enemy—to him towards whom I have sworn eternal revenge; you shall be my first victim.’", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00475", "bookId": 84, "start": 258128, "end": 258296, "sha256": "99a50ac07421326605b06c9c811526150914969bbc4166d6ec558e4fca8ca680", "text": "“The child still struggled and loaded me with epithets which carried despair to my heart; I grasped his throat to silence him, and in a moment he lay dead at my feet.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00476", "bookId": 84, "start": 258298, "end": 258576, "sha256": "3b1c19744a8b6645dca27b8ac3ce6301944f1015e5888454ec8518a94a675ac2", "text": "“I gazed on my victim, and my heart swelled with exultation and hellish triumph; clapping my hands, I exclaimed, ‘I too can create desolation; my enemy is not invulnerable; this death will carry despair to him, and a thousand other miseries shall torment and destroy him.’", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00477", "bookId": 84, "start": 258578, "end": 259154, "sha256": "2751016fe6ce8c1dba8aa33fa4e3ee1486adbf41a6ea440bc23a1a005158fac8", "text": "“As I fixed my eyes on the child, I saw something glittering on his breast. I took it; it was a portrait of a most lovely woman. In spite of my malignity, it softened and attracted me. For a few moments I gazed with delight on her dark eyes, fringed by deep lashes, and her lovely lips; but presently my rage returned; I remembered that I was for ever deprived of the delights that such beautiful creatures could bestow and that she whose resemblance I contemplated would, in regarding me, have changed that air of divine benignity to one expressive of disgust and affright.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00478", "bookId": 84, "start": 259156, "end": 259385, "sha256": "76dc8874378e498c14d37f87098a112c23713b86038f3cfd461c6244827fbf71", "text": "“Can you wonder that such thoughts transported me with rage? I only wonder that at that moment, instead of venting my sensations in exclamations and agony, I did not rush among mankind and perish in the attempt to destroy them.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00479", "bookId": 84, "start": 259387, "end": 260029, "sha256": "6b8d405e9fadc91633eaf31be314b9e966d39e9c7bb00b62023c09b4cc01aebb", "text": "“While I was overcome by these feelings, I left the spot where I had committed the murder, and seeking a more secluded hiding-place, I entered a barn which had appeared to me to be empty. A woman was sleeping on some straw; she was young, not indeed so beautiful as her whose portrait I held, but of an agreeable aspect and blooming in the loveliness of youth and health. Here, I thought, is one of those whose joy-imparting smiles are bestowed on all but me. And then I bent over her and whispered, ‘Awake, fairest, thy lover is near—he who would give his life but to obtain one look of affection from thine eyes; my beloved, awake!’", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00480", "bookId": 84, "start": 260031, "end": 260704, "sha256": "0da5dc0a75e7ef0bce6cc42538fff177d7355d7881c26af34ac6b358d395f103", "text": "“The sleeper stirred; a thrill of terror ran through me. Should she indeed awake, and see me, and curse me, and denounce the murderer? Thus would she assuredly act if her darkened eyes opened and she beheld me. The thought was madness; it stirred the fiend within me—not I, but she, shall suffer; the murder I have committed because I am for ever robbed of all that she could give me, she shall atone. The crime had its source in her; be hers the punishment! Thanks to the lessons of Felix and the sanguinary laws of man, I had learned now to work mischief. I bent over her and placed the portrait securely in one of the folds of her dress. She moved again, and I fled.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00481", "bookId": 84, "start": 260706, "end": 261325, "sha256": "46556b96b1b93b74b5885bd25e71968c59e9ccfff4c89764a48732a14de75976", "text": "“For some days I haunted the spot where these scenes had taken place, sometimes wishing to see you, sometimes resolved to quit the world and its miseries for ever. At length I wandered towards these mountains, and have ranged through their immense recesses, consumed by a burning passion which you alone can gratify. We may not part until you have promised to comply with my requisition. I am alone and miserable; man will not associate with me; but one as deformed and horrible as myself would not deny herself to me. My companion must be of the same species and have the same defects. This being you must create.”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00482", "bookId": 84, "start": 261330, "end": 261340, "sha256": "2d581df504137e093663528e7149e05bdd45bc59f85900065fb22ab562e9983e", "text": "Chapter 17", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG84.B00483", "bookId": 84, "start": 261343, "end": 261570, "sha256": "b5810d1bf124f9434d17be31edf8acb9831226c985149e8dbd60a755e297d0c2", "text": "The being finished speaking and fixed his looks upon me in the expectation of a reply. But I was bewildered, perplexed, and unable to arrange my ideas sufficiently to understand the full extent of his proposition. He continued,", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00484", "bookId": 84, "start": 261572, "end": 261788, "sha256": "527306fb61e8ca1644d1d9d3c7ff43b27beeedf4360a77bc1c4709d3ec6cdd17", "text": "“You must create a female for me with whom I can live in the interchange of those sympathies necessary for my being. This you alone can do, and I demand it of you as a right which you must not refuse to concede.”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00485", "bookId": 84, "start": 261790, "end": 262005, "sha256": "e9991776645795103b781b3fca2de0afe9662b4bdf3a7aacdf4c12e3226e0a84", "text": "The latter part of his tale had kindled anew in me the anger that had died away while he narrated his peaceful life among the cottagers, and as he said this I could no longer suppress the rage that burned within me.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00486", "bookId": 84, "start": 262007, "end": 262353, "sha256": "c53795d2c0c23ea3ca8c1195af0e8e5352b74797109d1b7f850c0f162c71b1bc", "text": "“I do refuse it,” I replied; “and no torture shall ever extort a consent from me. You may render me the most miserable of men, but you shall never make me base in my own eyes. Shall I create another like yourself, whose joint wickedness might desolate the world. Begone! I have answered you; you may torture me, but I will never consent.”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00487", "bookId": 84, "start": 262355, "end": 263446, "sha256": "7e3a24c8c0ff6cc045b24f16daa4ab49b2b2dee0661388a8f290375871ff4db4", "text": "“You are in the wrong,” replied the fiend; “and instead of threatening, I am content to reason with you. I am malicious because I am miserable. Am I not shunned and hated by all mankind? You, my creator, would tear me to pieces and triumph; remember that, and tell me why I should pity man more than he pities me? You would not call it murder if you could precipitate me into one of those ice-rifts and destroy my frame, the work of your own hands. Shall I respect man when he condemns me? Let him live with me in the interchange of kindness, and instead of injury I would bestow every benefit upon him with tears of gratitude at his acceptance. But that cannot be; the human senses are insurmountable barriers to our union. Yet mine shall not be the submission of abject slavery. I will revenge my injuries; if I cannot inspire love, I will cause fear, and chiefly towards you my arch-enemy, because my creator, do I swear inextinguishable hatred. Have a care; I will work at your destruction, nor finish until I desolate your heart, so that you shall curse the hour of your birth.”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00488", "bookId": 84, "start": 263448, "end": 263620, "sha256": "54c2f9e13cefb85b9993a3121b582a8874a36064442f95e26805bbfa0f2ce4ef", "text": "A fiendish rage animated him as he said this; his face was wrinkled into contortions too horrible for human eyes to behold; but presently he calmed himself and proceeded—", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00489", "bookId": 84, "start": 263622, "end": 264566, "sha256": "f28ffa5e0f9b0172ea646f35165e15a0c2c74ceed6f567e89762ae48021cdee4", "text": "“I intended to reason. This passion is detrimental to me, for you do not reflect that _you_ are the cause of its excess. If any being felt emotions of benevolence towards me, I should return them a hundred and a hundredfold; for that one creature’s sake I would make peace with the whole kind! But I now indulge in dreams of bliss that cannot be realised. What I ask of you is reasonable and moderate; I demand a creature of another sex, but as hideous as myself; the gratification is small, but it is all that I can receive, and it shall content me. It is true, we shall be monsters, cut off from all the world; but on that account we shall be more attached to one another. Our lives will not be happy, but they will be harmless and free from the misery I now feel. Oh! My creator, make me happy; let me feel gratitude towards you for one benefit! Let me see that I excite the sympathy of some existing thing; do not deny me my request!”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00490", "bookId": 84, "start": 264568, "end": 264940, "sha256": "134ac204bdd8be8191292086cbb619a3a8bcfe668f893420d6a8821ba5eb2c6a", "text": "I was moved. I shuddered when I thought of the possible consequences of my consent, but I felt that there was some justice in his argument. His tale and the feelings he now expressed proved him to be a creature of fine sensations, and did I not as his maker owe him all the portion of happiness that it was in my power to bestow? He saw my change of feeling and continued,", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00491", "bookId": 84, "start": 264942, "end": 265702, "sha256": "19ada34724b6c9aab388f02d23e9ef0d9062b011fa35117bb52c3d047b74ba22", "text": "“If you consent, neither you nor any other human being shall ever see us again; I will go to the vast wilds of South America. My food is not that of man; I do not destroy the lamb and the kid to glut my appetite; acorns and berries afford me sufficient nourishment. My companion will be of the same nature as myself and will be content with the same fare. We shall make our bed of dried leaves; the sun will shine on us as on man and will ripen our food. The picture I present to you is peaceful and human, and you must feel that you could deny it only in the wantonness of power and cruelty. Pitiless as you have been towards me, I now see compassion in your eyes; let me seize the favourable moment and persuade you to promise what I so ardently desire.”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00492", "bookId": 84, "start": 265704, "end": 266204, "sha256": "e215c0ca7b9f5a1965a11abd3b8848753946ff24a007727029abe7ab12ea4fdb", "text": "“You propose,” replied I, “to fly from the habitations of man, to dwell in those wilds where the beasts of the field will be your only companions. How can you, who long for the love and sympathy of man, persevere in this exile? You will return and again seek their kindness, and you will meet with their detestation; your evil passions will be renewed, and you will then have a companion to aid you in the task of destruction. This may not be; cease to argue the point, for I cannot consent.”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00493", "bookId": 84, "start": 266206, "end": 266707, "sha256": "f2d5dd2cfbb8431a9f7508131859c04d1753a9baaf96921391a28d93e420805f", "text": "“How inconstant are your feelings! But a moment ago you were moved by my representations, and why do you again harden yourself to my complaints? I swear to you, by the earth which I inhabit, and by you that made me, that with the companion you bestow, I will quit the neighbourhood of man and dwell, as it may chance, in the most savage of places. My evil passions will have fled, for I shall meet with sympathy! My life will flow quietly away, and in my dying moments I shall not curse my maker.”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00494", "bookId": 84, "start": 266709, "end": 267158, "sha256": "005b0d6c49c03c53382f97ce403bcac8114c7ac06471f924489b18636715e247", "text": "His words had a strange effect upon me. I compassionated him and sometimes felt a wish to console him, but when I looked upon him, when I saw the filthy mass that moved and talked, my heart sickened and my feelings were altered to those of horror and hatred. I tried to stifle these sensations; I thought that as I could not sympathise with him, I had no right to withhold from him the small portion of happiness which was yet in my power to bestow.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00495", "bookId": 84, "start": 267160, "end": 267407, "sha256": "b13a1a427829011b72634ef6ae77f14dcb3d7f2e22c17aed844f90e0df81d693", "text": "“You swear,” I said, “to be harmless; but have you not already shown a degree of malice that should reasonably make me distrust you? May not even this be a feint that will increase your triumph by affording a wider scope for your revenge?”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00496", "bookId": 84, "start": 267409, "end": 267955, "sha256": "1a13a0584b0d4c74bfc3f7e2662c4394a3287026128a1cdea8ff5d56d17c52ea", "text": "“How is this? I must not be trifled with, and I demand an answer. If I have no ties and no affections, hatred and vice must be my portion; the love of another will destroy the cause of my crimes, and I shall become a thing of whose existence everyone will be ignorant. My vices are the children of a forced solitude that I abhor, and my virtues will necessarily arise when I live in communion with an equal. I shall feel the affections of a sensitive being and become linked to the chain of existence and events from which I am now excluded.”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00497", "bookId": 84, "start": 267957, "end": 268719, "sha256": "c7f2fc69421283576d785e1a8ec480f076981c1d9bdc1c432ff5e2ec9f9e9b2a", "text": "I paused some time to reflect on all he had related and the various arguments which he had employed. I thought of the promise of virtues which he had displayed on the opening of his existence and the subsequent blight of all kindly feeling by the loathing and scorn which his protectors had manifested towards him. His power and threats were not omitted in my calculations; a creature who could exist in the ice-caves of the glaciers and hide himself from pursuit among the ridges of inaccessible precipices was a being possessing faculties it would be vain to cope with. After a long pause of reflection I concluded that the justice due both to him and my fellow creatures demanded of me that I should comply with his request. Turning to him, therefore, I said,", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00498", "bookId": 84, "start": 268721, "end": 268938, "sha256": "031336c7774b582fb3aeb2197e92befe8c33d8f84adc1e10e483e43837ac17e5", "text": "“I consent to your demand, on your solemn oath to quit Europe for ever, and every other place in the neighbourhood of man, as soon as I shall deliver into your hands a female who will accompany you in your exile.”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00499", "bookId": 84, "start": 268940, "end": 269296, "sha256": "3556026e8f96e2875cd824aef33dd4e8a4dbd935c3f9ba989c6528386852c8f2", "text": "“I swear,” he cried, “by the sun, and by the blue sky of heaven, and by the fire of love that burns my heart, that if you grant my prayer, while they exist you shall never behold me again. Depart to your home and commence your labours; I shall watch their progress with unutterable anxiety; and fear not but that when you are ready I shall appear.”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00500", "bookId": 84, "start": 269298, "end": 269521, "sha256": "6d570101b35bdd632c6c183c95dc6cf79e56a90d2cd87341ab9df0dfde6bc4bb", "text": "Saying this, he suddenly quitted me, fearful, perhaps, of any change in my sentiments. I saw him descend the mountain with greater speed than the flight of an eagle, and quickly lost among the undulations of the sea of ice.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00501", "bookId": 84, "start": 269523, "end": 270562, "sha256": "199bea8b921ac0be0f13c5817da5c2c62471a86fe393e52e62c9d7a97753e7b6", "text": "His tale had occupied the whole day, and the sun was upon the verge of the horizon when he departed. I knew that I ought to hasten my descent towards the valley, as I should soon be encompassed in darkness; but my heart was heavy, and my steps slow. The labour of winding among the little paths of the mountain and fixing my feet firmly as I advanced perplexed me, occupied as I was by the emotions which the occurrences of the day had produced. Night was far advanced when I came to the halfway resting-place and seated myself beside the fountain. The stars shone at intervals as the clouds passed from over them; the dark pines rose before me, and every here and there a broken tree lay on the ground; it was a scene of wonderful solemnity and stirred strange thoughts within me. I wept bitterly, and clasping my hands in agony, I exclaimed, “Oh! stars and clouds and winds, ye are all about to mock me; if ye really pity me, crush sensation and memory; let me become as nought; but if not, depart, depart, and leave me in darkness.”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00502", "bookId": 84, "start": 270564, "end": 270787, "sha256": "74470f1a4de5f85a05901eff94af8a6ef8ae1e80f919a7770456f2f642176a5b", "text": "These were wild and miserable thoughts, but I cannot describe to you how the eternal twinkling of the stars weighed upon me and how I listened to every blast of wind as if it were a dull ugly siroc on its way to consume me.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00503", "bookId": 84, "start": 270789, "end": 271665, "sha256": "e4d5984ae515cd19781d766b3d240accd3d37339010570e2f13e5f69219e3eb1", "text": "Morning dawned before I arrived at the village of Chamounix; I took no rest, but returned immediately to Geneva. Even in my own heart I could give no expression to my sensations—they weighed on me with a mountain’s weight and their excess destroyed my agony beneath them. Thus I returned home, and entering the house, presented myself to the family. My haggard and wild appearance awoke intense alarm, but I answered no question, scarcely did I speak. I felt as if I were placed under a ban—as if I had no right to claim their sympathies—as if never more might I enjoy companionship with them. Yet even thus I loved them to adoration; and to save them, I resolved to dedicate myself to my most abhorred task. The prospect of such an occupation made every other circumstance of existence pass before me like a dream, and that thought only had to me the reality of life.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00504", "bookId": 84, "start": 271670, "end": 271680, "sha256": "0ab19c4bf1672d856c2505c6719a9e78d34989598cae005b70705b6eac9eabc3", "text": "Chapter 18", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG84.B00505", "bookId": 84, "start": 271683, "end": 273276, "sha256": "bcc34e45849d9ec0b14d468cc2fd6c146a850c12c91b221e7e65068307e46b7d", "text": "Day after day, week after week, passed away on my return to Geneva; and I could not collect the courage to recommence my work. I feared the vengeance of the disappointed fiend, yet I was unable to overcome my repugnance to the task which was enjoined me. I found that I could not compose a female without again devoting several months to profound study and laborious disquisition. I had heard of some discoveries having been made by an English philosopher, the knowledge of which was material to my success, and I sometimes thought of obtaining my father’s consent to visit England for this purpose; but I clung to every pretence of delay and shrank from taking the first step in an undertaking whose immediate necessity began to appear less absolute to me. A change indeed had taken place in me; my health, which had hitherto declined, was now much restored; and my spirits, when unchecked by the memory of my unhappy promise, rose proportionably. My father saw this change with pleasure, and he turned his thoughts towards the best method of eradicating the remains of my melancholy, which every now and then would return by fits, and with a devouring blackness overcast the approaching sunshine. At these moments I took refuge in the most perfect solitude. I passed whole days on the lake alone in a little boat, watching the clouds and listening to the rippling of the waves, silent and listless. But the fresh air and bright sun seldom failed to restore me to some degree of composure, and on my return I met the salutations of my friends with a readier smile and a more cheerful heart.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00506", "bookId": 84, "start": 273278, "end": 273379, "sha256": "891e92839be60630280e8ca159ba591acd7517db712a465f2a7633599fd20232", "text": "It was after my return from one of these rambles that my father, calling me aside, thus addressed me,", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG84.B00507", "bookId": 84, "start": 273381, "end": 273802, "sha256": "f1ebd1661c215557c2fb16c13d252256866d9352969bc3f92d36b6373a654d01", "text": "“I am happy to remark, my dear son, that you have resumed your former pleasures and seem to be returning to yourself. And yet you are still unhappy and still avoid our society. For some time I was lost in conjecture as to the cause of this, but yesterday an idea struck me, and if it is well founded, I conjure you to avow it. Reserve on such a point would be not only useless, but draw down treble misery on us all.”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00508", "bookId": 84, "start": 273804, "end": 273868, "sha256": "b1213f34127353120f51b9f8499931f1a1f99e6f944ba329da9ee2e11fd24306", "text": "I trembled violently at his exordium, and my father continued—", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG84.B00509", "bookId": 84, "start": 273870, "end": 274601, "sha256": "e1c2eceb5dfb39354a09b4d6aa88dd2e6160a73f9c1fd707a9170030d63adc52", "text": "“I confess, my son, that I have always looked forward to your marriage with our dear Elizabeth as the tie of our domestic comfort and the stay of my declining years. You were attached to each other from your earliest infancy; you studied together, and appeared, in dispositions and tastes, entirely suited to one another. But so blind is the experience of man that what I conceived to be the best assistants to my plan may have entirely destroyed it. You, perhaps, regard her as your sister, without any wish that she might become your wife. Nay, you may have met with another whom you may love; and considering yourself as bound in honour to Elizabeth, this struggle may occasion the poignant misery which you appear to feel.”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00510", "bookId": 84, "start": 274603, "end": 274860, "sha256": "cd4cc9ef4520b4c00b8978a5abcef4231334257b4e0dd2470a54219ca785cfbd", "text": "“My dear father, reassure yourself. I love my cousin tenderly and sincerely. I never saw any woman who excited, as Elizabeth does, my warmest admiration and affection. My future hopes and prospects are entirely bound up in the expectation of our union.”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00511", "bookId": 84, "start": 274862, "end": 275835, "sha256": "b27375b1c6499d6e2611ed0b1be7dc15396e856d66ae39f83db5d07bc6b4379b", "text": "“The expression of your sentiments of this subject, my dear Victor, gives me more pleasure than I have for some time experienced. If you feel thus, we shall assuredly be happy, however present events may cast a gloom over us. But it is this gloom which appears to have taken so strong a hold of your mind that I wish to dissipate. Tell me, therefore, whether you object to an immediate solemnisation of the marriage. We have been unfortunate, and recent events have drawn us from that everyday tranquillity befitting my years and infirmities. You are younger; yet I do not suppose, possessed as you are of a competent fortune, that an early marriage would at all interfere with any future plans of honour and utility that you may have formed. Do not suppose, however, that I wish to dictate happiness to you or that a delay on your part would cause me any serious uneasiness. Interpret my words with candour and answer me, I conjure you, with confidence and sincerity.”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00512", "bookId": 84, "start": 275837, "end": 276553, "sha256": "50bca62d58ab7340521d7bf8c747401ce9851ea90db77ebe44aecbd2d03d98d3", "text": "I listened to my father in silence and remained for some time incapable of offering any reply. I revolved rapidly in my mind a multitude of thoughts and endeavoured to arrive at some conclusion. Alas! To me the idea of an immediate union with my Elizabeth was one of horror and dismay. I was bound by a solemn promise which I had not yet fulfilled and dared not break, or if I did, what manifold miseries might not impend over me and my devoted family! Could I enter into a festival with this deadly weight yet hanging round my neck and bowing me to the ground? I must perform my engagement and let the monster depart with his mate before I allowed myself to enjoy the delight of a union from which I expected peace.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00513", "bookId": 84, "start": 276555, "end": 277734, "sha256": "a1c56eb591496171e3d7830896e2f2953f83aed48a712ddb7f438e2f757af951", "text": "I remembered also the necessity imposed upon me of either journeying to England or entering into a long correspondence with those philosophers of that country whose knowledge and discoveries were of indispensable use to me in my present undertaking. The latter method of obtaining the desired intelligence was dilatory and unsatisfactory; besides, I had an insurmountable aversion to the idea of engaging myself in my loathsome task in my father’s house while in habits of familiar intercourse with those I loved. I knew that a thousand fearful accidents might occur, the slightest of which would disclose a tale to thrill all connected with me with horror. I was aware also that I should often lose all self-command, all capacity of hiding the harrowing sensations that would possess me during the progress of my unearthly occupation. I must absent myself from all I loved while thus employed. Once commenced, it would quickly be achieved, and I might be restored to my family in peace and happiness. My promise fulfilled, the monster would depart for ever. Or (so my fond fancy imaged) some accident might meanwhile occur to destroy him and put an end to my slavery for ever.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00514", "bookId": 84, "start": 277736, "end": 278326, "sha256": "cf8d4205e7931bdea8d2174301a345356040e1d5a3801aa7e14d5311c147e619", "text": "These feelings dictated my answer to my father. I expressed a wish to visit England, but concealing the true reasons of this request, I clothed my desires under a guise which excited no suspicion, while I urged my desire with an earnestness that easily induced my father to comply. After so long a period of an absorbing melancholy that resembled madness in its intensity and effects, he was glad to find that I was capable of taking pleasure in the idea of such a journey, and he hoped that change of scene and varied amusement would, before my return, have restored me entirely to myself.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00515", "bookId": 84, "start": 278328, "end": 279106, "sha256": "254e37d10ae8b125e03a429efa21d9ed6f8e6154007dd19182fb94ff5968e9bb", "text": "The duration of my absence was left to my own choice; a few months, or at most a year, was the period contemplated. One paternal kind precaution he had taken to ensure my having a companion. Without previously communicating with me, he had, in concert with Elizabeth, arranged that Clerval should join me at Strasburgh. This interfered with the solitude I coveted for the prosecution of my task; yet at the commencement of my journey the presence of my friend could in no way be an impediment, and truly I rejoiced that thus I should be saved many hours of lonely, maddening reflection. Nay, Henry might stand between me and the intrusion of my foe. If I were alone, would he not at times force his abhorred presence on me to remind me of my task or to contemplate its progress?", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00516", "bookId": 84, "start": 279108, "end": 279564, "sha256": "b5247112c69d1908cb5ef9bd19faf1afee2adb04ef1d3c54f09136d7c932fc1b", "text": "To England, therefore, I was bound, and it was understood that my union with Elizabeth should take place immediately on my return. My father’s age rendered him extremely averse to delay. For myself, there was one reward I promised myself from my detested toils—one consolation for my unparalleled sufferings; it was the prospect of that day when, enfranchised from my miserable slavery, I might claim Elizabeth and forget the past in my union with her.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00517", "bookId": 84, "start": 279566, "end": 280396, "sha256": "d84495f9653cc6ddacd75310f1b65e642b590aab3cea707417b4b6cef342d4a5", "text": "I now made arrangements for my journey, but one feeling haunted me which filled me with fear and agitation. During my absence I should leave my friends unconscious of the existence of their enemy and unprotected from his attacks, exasperated as he might be by my departure. But he had promised to follow me wherever I might go, and would he not accompany me to England? This imagination was dreadful in itself, but soothing inasmuch as it supposed the safety of my friends. I was agonised with the idea of the possibility that the reverse of this might happen. But through the whole period during which I was the slave of my creature I allowed myself to be governed by the impulses of the moment; and my present sensations strongly intimated that the fiend would follow me and exempt my family from the danger of his machinations.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00518", "bookId": 84, "start": 280398, "end": 280963, "sha256": "315ecb378fa67487422ed02c904bac1a4e195092bdbccaba3cb6a6fa639f8f78", "text": "It was in the latter end of September that I again quitted my native country. My journey had been my own suggestion, and Elizabeth therefore acquiesced, but she was filled with disquiet at the idea of my suffering, away from her, the inroads of misery and grief. It had been her care which provided me a companion in Clerval—and yet a man is blind to a thousand minute circumstances which call forth a woman’s sedulous attention. She longed to bid me hasten my return; a thousand conflicting emotions rendered her mute as she bade me a tearful, silent farewell.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00519", "bookId": 84, "start": 280965, "end": 281478, "sha256": "3cb2b59a0d50ad87d8c2fb6e57616dabb070216d40cf5c05cfd337dd220634c8", "text": "I threw myself into the carriage that was to convey me away, hardly knowing whither I was going, and careless of what was passing around. I remembered only, and it was with a bitter anguish that I reflected on it, to order that my chemical instruments should be packed to go with me. Filled with dreary imaginations, I passed through many beautiful and majestic scenes, but my eyes were fixed and unobserving. I could only think of the bourne of my travels and the work which was to occupy me whilst they endured.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00520", "bookId": 84, "start": 281480, "end": 282460, "sha256": "a2051bad361c956e5cf9ccc20f638544fe182d88aa851ae7e21b31080bf544d9", "text": "After some days spent in listless indolence, during which I traversed many leagues, I arrived at Strasburgh, where I waited two days for Clerval. He came. Alas, how great was the contrast between us! He was alive to every new scene, joyful when he saw the beauties of the setting sun, and more happy when he beheld it rise and recommence a new day. He pointed out to me the shifting colours of the landscape and the appearances of the sky. “This is what it is to live,” he cried; “now I enjoy existence! But you, my dear Frankenstein, wherefore are you desponding and sorrowful!” In truth, I was occupied by gloomy thoughts and neither saw the descent of the evening star nor the golden sunrise reflected in the Rhine. And you, my friend, would be far more amused with the journal of Clerval, who observed the scenery with an eye of feeling and delight, than in listening to my reflections. I, a miserable wretch, haunted by a curse that shut up every avenue to enjoyment.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00521", "bookId": 84, "start": 282462, "end": 283384, "sha256": "47da2cf07dbdcab66537a0a064f02b3fd9d0ea622aff6f2f5f9e3c222bf9be73", "text": "We had agreed to descend the Rhine in a boat from Strasburgh to Rotterdam, whence we might take shipping for London. During this voyage we passed many willowy islands and saw several beautiful towns. We stayed a day at Mannheim, and on the fifth from our departure from Strasburgh, arrived at Mainz. The course of the Rhine below Mainz becomes much more picturesque. The river descends rapidly and winds between hills, not high, but steep, and of beautiful forms. We saw many ruined castles standing on the edges of precipices, surrounded by black woods, high and inaccessible. This part of the Rhine, indeed, presents a singularly variegated landscape. In one spot you view rugged hills, ruined castles overlooking tremendous precipices, with the dark Rhine rushing beneath; and on the sudden turn of a promontory, flourishing vineyards with green sloping banks and a meandering river and populous towns occupy the scene.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00522", "bookId": 84, "start": 283386, "end": 285389, "sha256": "9fd220941ab67d9a5d7b45618c484d6e430a25bfc55aa569497beb996c8a9382", "text": "We travelled at the time of the vintage and heard the song of the labourers as we glided down the stream. Even I, depressed in mind, and my spirits continually agitated by gloomy feelings, even I was pleased. I lay at the bottom of the boat, and as I gazed on the cloudless blue sky, I seemed to drink in a tranquillity to which I had long been a stranger. And if these were my sensations, who can describe those of Henry? He felt as if he had been transported to Fairy-land and enjoyed a happiness seldom tasted by man. “I have seen,” he said, “the most beautiful scenes of my own country; I have visited the lakes of Lucerne and Uri, where the snowy mountains descend almost perpendicularly to the water, casting black and impenetrable shades, which would cause a gloomy and mournful appearance were it not for the most verdant islands that relieve the eye by their gay appearance; I have seen this lake agitated by a tempest, when the wind tore up whirlwinds of water and gave you an idea of what the water-spout must be on the great ocean; and the waves dash with fury the base of the mountain, where the priest and his mistress were overwhelmed by an avalanche and where their dying voices are still said to be heard amid the pauses of the nightly wind; I have seen the mountains of La Valais, and the Pays de Vaud; but this country, Victor, pleases me more than all those wonders. The mountains of Switzerland are more majestic and strange, but there is a charm in the banks of this divine river that I never before saw equalled. Look at that castle which overhangs yon precipice; and that also on the island, almost concealed amongst the foliage of those lovely trees; and now that group of labourers coming from among their vines; and that village half hid in the recess of the mountain. Oh, surely the spirit that inhabits and guards this place has a soul more in harmony with man than those who pile the glacier or retire to the inaccessible peaks of the mountains of our own country.”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00523", "bookId": 84, "start": 285391, "end": 286016, "sha256": "b1f3eba17ca9e91e83aa3297930c4f6398942bec3f3c948494e4c6d4e0b706ba", "text": "Clerval! Beloved friend! Even now it delights me to record your words and to dwell on the praise of which you are so eminently deserving. He was a being formed in the “very poetry of nature.” His wild and enthusiastic imagination was chastened by the sensibility of his heart. His soul overflowed with ardent affections, and his friendship was of that devoted and wondrous nature that the worldly-minded teach us to look for only in the imagination. But even human sympathies were not sufficient to satisfy his eager mind. The scenery of external nature, which others regard only with admiration, he loved with ardour:—", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00524", "bookId": 84, "start": 286022, "end": 286349, "sha256": "4143ffbd4bf068257ea0ddf918c423563e4e9f76cbe3c865eb8365e5a952f3e5", "text": "——The sounding cataract Haunted him like a passion: the tall rock, The mountain, and the deep and gloomy wood, Their colours and their forms, were then to him An appetite; a feeling, and a love, That had no need of a remoter charm, By thought supplied, or any interest Unborrow’d from the eye.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00525", "bookId": 84, "start": 286361, "end": 286398, "sha256": "1f9e351dda0523242ba8fd027813edec717909117c2aab7bb273af4397ea0d76", "text": "[Wordsworth’s “Tintern Abbey”.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG84.B00526", "bookId": 84, "start": 286400, "end": 286842, "sha256": "39a83d0e798011ee8de76c75fbe957d1ab27f210b8c158a0d8bd215bc7251307", "text": "And where does he now exist? Is this gentle and lovely being lost for ever? Has this mind, so replete with ideas, imaginations fanciful and magnificent, which formed a world, whose existence depended on the life of its creator;—has this mind perished? Does it now only exist in my memory? No, it is not thus; your form so divinely wrought, and beaming with beauty, has decayed, but your spirit still visits and consoles your unhappy friend.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00527", "bookId": 84, "start": 286844, "end": 287069, "sha256": "45eca36aa845d63e240bfb38f605f7d70251becd33a19075e12414008b4c5406", "text": "Pardon this gush of sorrow; these ineffectual words are but a slight tribute to the unexampled worth of Henry, but they soothe my heart, overflowing with the anguish which his remembrance creates. I will proceed with my tale.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00528", "bookId": 84, "start": 287071, "end": 287254, "sha256": "e339e1e6aa86dc7c866c2010cc8f3bf5874e3608f7f7eb55bf865a9d79aba399", "text": "Beyond Cologne we descended to the plains of Holland; and we resolved to post the remainder of our way, for the wind was contrary and the stream of the river was too gentle to aid us.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00529", "bookId": 84, "start": 287256, "end": 287791, "sha256": "56c0db9aed9649527e282274e0752f65ac8f7b7a9ce98da9b7ae7cf356ba7851", "text": "Our journey here lost the interest arising from beautiful scenery, but we arrived in a few days at Rotterdam, whence we proceeded by sea to England. It was on a clear morning, in the latter days of December, that I first saw the white cliffs of Britain. The banks of the Thames presented a new scene; they were flat but fertile, and almost every town was marked by the remembrance of some story. We saw Tilbury Fort and remembered the Spanish Armada, Gravesend, Woolwich, and Greenwich—places which I had heard of even in my country.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00530", "bookId": 84, "start": 287793, "end": 287915, "sha256": "b1b2c00c986d4e087f3b76bb92137bae72146ee58728d5b0577574847fb3f051", "text": "At length we saw the numerous steeples of London, St. Paul’s towering above all, and the Tower famed in English history.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00531", "bookId": 84, "start": 287920, "end": 287930, "sha256": "6dbade838c3e5bc17cd2e2d19c5a3fed2f37b154632e47bc3e7e73eafe81c3d0", "text": "Chapter 19", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG84.B00532", "bookId": 84, "start": 287933, "end": 288440, "sha256": "dbb5d7950dbeea853124b9ec3eaf2ebc8f4bfe946db2fff8cc2e9ed5b2778512", "text": "London was our present point of rest; we determined to remain several months in this wonderful and celebrated city. Clerval desired the intercourse of the men of genius and talent who flourished at this time, but this was with me a secondary object; I was principally occupied with the means of obtaining the information necessary for the completion of my promise and quickly availed myself of the letters of introduction that I had brought with me, addressed to the most distinguished natural philosophers.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00533", "bookId": 84, "start": 288442, "end": 289220, "sha256": "eac2ec3228b030be9bad9f4fe6c755a551d75a85b435926435e73096fbf0424d", "text": "If this journey had taken place during my days of study and happiness, it would have afforded me inexpressible pleasure. But a blight had come over my existence, and I only visited these people for the sake of the information they might give me on the subject in which my interest was so terribly profound. Company was irksome to me; when alone, I could fill my mind with the sights of heaven and earth; the voice of Henry soothed me, and I could thus cheat myself into a transitory peace. But busy, uninteresting, joyous faces brought back despair to my heart. I saw an insurmountable barrier placed between me and my fellow men; this barrier was sealed with the blood of William and Justine, and to reflect on the events connected with those names filled my soul with anguish.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00534", "bookId": 84, "start": 289222, "end": 290499, "sha256": "28ee09189fa00224a3e86bde74b059f96248e3c23408a089c41b6e235bd8ee5f", "text": "But in Clerval I saw the image of my former self; he was inquisitive and anxious to gain experience and instruction. The difference of manners which he observed was to him an inexhaustible source of instruction and amusement. He was also pursuing an object he had long had in view. His design was to visit India, in the belief that he had in his knowledge of its various languages, and in the views he had taken of its society, the means of materially assisting the progress of European colonization and trade. In Britain only could he further the execution of his plan. He was for ever busy, and the only check to his enjoyments was my sorrowful and dejected mind. I tried to conceal this as much as possible, that I might not debar him from the pleasures natural to one who was entering on a new scene of life, undisturbed by any care or bitter recollection. I often refused to accompany him, alleging another engagement, that I might remain alone. I now also began to collect the materials necessary for my new creation, and this was to me like the torture of single drops of water continually falling on the head. Every thought that was devoted to it was an extreme anguish, and every word that I spoke in allusion to it caused my lips to quiver, and my heart to palpitate.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00535", "bookId": 84, "start": 290501, "end": 291018, "sha256": "4a5f4a73a6987a030c3b2f2133547768c68851651497544b77c25e9ec69e8d82", "text": "After passing some months in London, we received a letter from a person in Scotland who had formerly been our visitor at Geneva. He mentioned the beauties of his native country and asked us if those were not sufficient allurements to induce us to prolong our journey as far north as Perth, where he resided. Clerval eagerly desired to accept this invitation, and I, although I abhorred society, wished to view again mountains and streams and all the wondrous works with which Nature adorns her chosen dwelling-places.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00536", "bookId": 84, "start": 291020, "end": 291580, "sha256": "82a3fbde1a0ed0aa06666041d2792bca5a34f7fabae25f746da0bade8d234f9f", "text": "We had arrived in England at the beginning of October, and it was now February. We accordingly determined to commence our journey towards the north at the expiration of another month. In this expedition we did not intend to follow the great road to Edinburgh, but to visit Windsor, Oxford, Matlock, and the Cumberland lakes, resolving to arrive at the completion of this tour about the end of July. I packed up my chemical instruments and the materials I had collected, resolving to finish my labours in some obscure nook in the northern highlands of Scotland.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00537", "bookId": 84, "start": 291582, "end": 291828, "sha256": "4738ae630cae6a7bae7f4298bde2e02c54d25013e04c2edabcb5ac89c07ef9ba", "text": "We quitted London on the 27th of March and remained a few days at Windsor, rambling in its beautiful forest. This was a new scene to us mountaineers; the majestic oaks, the quantity of game, and the herds of stately deer were all novelties to us.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00538", "bookId": 84, "start": 291830, "end": 292970, "sha256": "87f702b8def49f3ea3afeae4f4c69f50db2fc74c359c2d1a7696dc5fdc04cd80", "text": "From thence we proceeded to Oxford. As we entered this city, our minds were filled with the remembrance of the events that had been transacted there more than a century and a half before. It was here that Charles I. had collected his forces. This city had remained faithful to him, after the whole nation had forsaken his cause to join the standard of Parliament and liberty. The memory of that unfortunate king and his companions, the amiable Falkland, the insolent Goring, his queen, and son, gave a peculiar interest to every part of the city which they might be supposed to have inhabited. The spirit of elder days found a dwelling here, and we delighted to trace its footsteps. If these feelings had not found an imaginary gratification, the appearance of the city had yet in itself sufficient beauty to obtain our admiration. The colleges are ancient and picturesque; the streets are almost magnificent; and the lovely Isis, which flows beside it through meadows of exquisite verdure, is spread forth into a placid expanse of waters, which reflects its majestic assemblage of towers, and spires, and domes, embosomed among aged trees.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00539", "bookId": 84, "start": 292972, "end": 293641, "sha256": "d9a25d9c9397216db9708387ef0a7154b330dfeb5c385ba6fd9b47cb6ad8ad33", "text": "I enjoyed this scene, and yet my enjoyment was embittered both by the memory of the past and the anticipation of the future. I was formed for peaceful happiness. During my youthful days discontent never visited my mind, and if I was ever overcome by _ennui_, the sight of what is beautiful in nature or the study of what is excellent and sublime in the productions of man could always interest my heart and communicate elasticity to my spirits. But I am a blasted tree; the bolt has entered my soul; and I felt then that I should survive to exhibit what I shall soon cease to be—a miserable spectacle of wrecked humanity, pitiable to others and intolerable to myself.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00540", "bookId": 84, "start": 293643, "end": 294412, "sha256": "79605b6c3dfd5c44a408295cd1d219eb94e31ba79a37e537a5563503a361203f", "text": "We passed a considerable period at Oxford, rambling among its environs and endeavouring to identify every spot which might relate to the most animating epoch of English history. Our little voyages of discovery were often prolonged by the successive objects that presented themselves. We visited the tomb of the illustrious Hampden and the field on which that patriot fell. For a moment my soul was elevated from its debasing and miserable fears to contemplate the divine ideas of liberty and self-sacrifice of which these sights were the monuments and the remembrancers. For an instant I dared to shake off my chains and look around me with a free and lofty spirit, but the iron had eaten into my flesh, and I sank again, trembling and hopeless, into my miserable self.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00541", "bookId": 84, "start": 294414, "end": 295082, "sha256": "6fe631e000d6c7d6894cbc1412c58eab9ae2e98e2183b41fdab74f2a21896c1c", "text": "We left Oxford with regret and proceeded to Matlock, which was our next place of rest. The country in the neighbourhood of this village resembled, to a greater degree, the scenery of Switzerland; but everything is on a lower scale, and the green hills want the crown of distant white Alps which always attend on the piny mountains of my native country. We visited the wondrous cave and the little cabinets of natural history, where the curiosities are disposed in the same manner as in the collections at Servox and Chamounix. The latter name made me tremble when pronounced by Henry, and I hastened to quit Matlock, with which that terrible scene was thus associated.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00542", "bookId": 84, "start": 295084, "end": 295899, "sha256": "41a96bf600214a7b3fc7104e8807858b8c3321333b5a63d3b20b1a167ede59d8", "text": "From Derby, still journeying northwards, we passed two months in Cumberland and Westmorland. I could now almost fancy myself among the Swiss mountains. The little patches of snow which yet lingered on the northern sides of the mountains, the lakes, and the dashing of the rocky streams were all familiar and dear sights to me. Here also we made some acquaintances, who almost contrived to cheat me into happiness. The delight of Clerval was proportionably greater than mine; his mind expanded in the company of men of talent, and he found in his own nature greater capacities and resources than he could have imagined himself to have possessed while he associated with his inferiors. “I could pass my life here,” said he to me; “and among these mountains I should scarcely regret Switzerland and the Rhine.”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00543", "bookId": 84, "start": 295901, "end": 296245, "sha256": "c67753c43ff5d139a6753ff05d968fe45b8e51d99999c2dce106c013ce3399d5", "text": "But he found that a traveller’s life is one that includes much pain amidst its enjoyments. His feelings are for ever on the stretch; and when he begins to sink into repose, he finds himself obliged to quit that on which he rests in pleasure for something new, which again engages his attention, and which also he forsakes for other novelties.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00544", "bookId": 84, "start": 296247, "end": 297499, "sha256": "b394c89356c606fd9081d7dd66fde516a6c6b7b58beaa038de7b31a6e0260d3e", "text": "We had scarcely visited the various lakes of Cumberland and Westmorland and conceived an affection for some of the inhabitants when the period of our appointment with our Scotch friend approached, and we left them to travel on. For my own part I was not sorry. I had now neglected my promise for some time, and I feared the effects of the dæmon’s disappointment. He might remain in Switzerland and wreak his vengeance on my relatives. This idea pursued me and tormented me at every moment from which I might otherwise have snatched repose and peace. I waited for my letters with feverish impatience; if they were delayed I was miserable and overcome by a thousand fears; and when they arrived and I saw the superscription of Elizabeth or my father, I hardly dared to read and ascertain my fate. Sometimes I thought that the fiend followed me and might expedite my remissness by murdering my companion. When these thoughts possessed me, I would not quit Henry for a moment, but followed him as his shadow, to protect him from the fancied rage of his destroyer. I felt as if I had committed some great crime, the consciousness of which haunted me. I was guiltless, but I had indeed drawn down a horrible curse upon my head, as mortal as that of crime.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00545", "bookId": 84, "start": 297501, "end": 298061, "sha256": "44a43d23753fd2b6d2589d8e3681274dd2910e2ba2eda652fa23ac16b39bd998", "text": "I visited Edinburgh with languid eyes and mind; and yet that city might have interested the most unfortunate being. Clerval did not like it so well as Oxford, for the antiquity of the latter city was more pleasing to him. But the beauty and regularity of the new town of Edinburgh, its romantic castle and its environs, the most delightful in the world, Arthur’s Seat, St. Bernard’s Well, and the Pentland Hills, compensated him for the change and filled him with cheerfulness and admiration. But I was impatient to arrive at the termination of my journey.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00546", "bookId": 84, "start": 298063, "end": 298724, "sha256": "8cf164c8db2393e88895a489e8224b70d9ee8531267b7194533a88eccfe309b9", "text": "We left Edinburgh in a week, passing through Coupar, St. Andrew’s, and along the banks of the Tay, to Perth, where our friend expected us. But I was in no mood to laugh and talk with strangers or enter into their feelings or plans with the good humour expected from a guest; and accordingly I told Clerval that I wished to make the tour of Scotland alone. “Do you,” said I, “enjoy yourself, and let this be our rendezvous. I may be absent a month or two; but do not interfere with my motions, I entreat you; leave me to peace and solitude for a short time; and when I return, I hope it will be with a lighter heart, more congenial to your own temper.”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00547", "bookId": 84, "start": 298726, "end": 299089, "sha256": "dff8a4d1f8b46025d3a7d8bceeab6b87df7762fa791114fa32fe54dfa523d301", "text": "Henry wished to dissuade me, but seeing me bent on this plan, ceased to remonstrate. He entreated me to write often. “I had rather be with you,” he said, “in your solitary rambles, than with these Scotch people, whom I do not know; hasten, then, my dear friend, to return, that I may again feel myself somewhat at home, which I cannot do in your absence.”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00548", "bookId": 84, "start": 299091, "end": 299351, "sha256": "c6f4648fe0769f47701dc72dc1f35b6daf178f68b52a01c5b4193713549bc894", "text": "Having parted from my friend, I determined to visit some remote spot of Scotland and finish my work in solitude. I did not doubt but that the monster followed me and would discover himself to me when I should have finished, that he might receive his companion.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00549", "bookId": 84, "start": 299353, "end": 299975, "sha256": "81b4739378e0da64cb888df82f3c75c9836d33bfb1aca3088386d6cbf9d62f92", "text": "With this resolution I traversed the northern highlands and fixed on one of the remotest of the Orkneys as the scene of my labours. It was a place fitted for such a work, being hardly more than a rock whose high sides were continually beaten upon by the waves. The soil was barren, scarcely affording pasture for a few miserable cows, and oatmeal for its inhabitants, which consisted of five persons, whose gaunt and scraggy limbs gave tokens of their miserable fare. Vegetables and bread, when they indulged in such luxuries, and even fresh water, was to be procured from the mainland, which was about five miles distant.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00550", "bookId": 84, "start": 299977, "end": 300674, "sha256": "a850974eedb552523de0c55dc0f5df300eee16fe651492641360bde7e0e20602", "text": "On the whole island there were but three miserable huts, and one of these was vacant when I arrived. This I hired. It contained but two rooms, and these exhibited all the squalidness of the most miserable penury. The thatch had fallen in, the walls were unplastered, and the door was off its hinges. I ordered it to be repaired, bought some furniture, and took possession, an incident which would doubtless have occasioned some surprise had not all the senses of the cottagers been benumbed by want and squalid poverty. As it was, I lived ungazed at and unmolested, hardly thanked for the pittance of food and clothes which I gave, so much does suffering blunt even the coarsest sensations of men.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00551", "bookId": 84, "start": 300676, "end": 301275, "sha256": "991cc42a39f60379dd0a6d942ca2ea9312d2cca08ba1624bc3172abd882bb727", "text": "In this retreat I devoted the morning to labour; but in the evening, when the weather permitted, I walked on the stony beach of the sea to listen to the waves as they roared and dashed at my feet. It was a monotonous yet ever-changing scene. I thought of Switzerland; it was far different from this desolate and appalling landscape. Its hills are covered with vines, and its cottages are scattered thickly in the plains. Its fair lakes reflect a blue and gentle sky, and when troubled by the winds, their tumult is but as the play of a lively infant when compared to the roarings of the giant ocean.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00552", "bookId": 84, "start": 301277, "end": 301948, "sha256": "41ca17c5ee4cad64d579344c138d8b50973f95cb1d3c3371925dc3725662a4e5", "text": "In this manner I distributed my occupations when I first arrived, but as I proceeded in my labour, it became every day more horrible and irksome to me. Sometimes I could not prevail on myself to enter my laboratory for several days, and at other times I toiled day and night in order to complete my work. It was, indeed, a filthy process in which I was engaged. During my first experiment, a kind of enthusiastic frenzy had blinded me to the horror of my employment; my mind was intently fixed on the consummation of my labour, and my eyes were shut to the horror of my proceedings. But now I went to it in cold blood, and my heart often sickened at the work of my hands.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00553", "bookId": 84, "start": 301950, "end": 302488, "sha256": "bd39b680e1961263ca5b26d0da5ba1aa242458d6fa4e1b2698e95def9b979a4c", "text": "Thus situated, employed in the most detestable occupation, immersed in a solitude where nothing could for an instant call my attention from the actual scene in which I was engaged, my spirits became unequal; I grew restless and nervous. Every moment I feared to meet my persecutor. Sometimes I sat with my eyes fixed on the ground, fearing to raise them lest they should encounter the object which I so much dreaded to behold. I feared to wander from the sight of my fellow creatures lest when alone he should come to claim his companion.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00554", "bookId": 84, "start": 302490, "end": 302773, "sha256": "1d9e767fc4d6187e643b787b8f1f621914b70f26c05839e258ff381343de829a", "text": "In the mean time I worked on, and my labour was already considerably advanced. I looked towards its completion with a tremulous and eager hope, which I dared not trust myself to question but which was intermixed with obscure forebodings of evil that made my heart sicken in my bosom.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00555", "bookId": 84, "start": 302778, "end": 302788, "sha256": "1f46460a447c70be605a8c44550e0054a0dc86886e15d15f53bb00b4878d1945", "text": "Chapter 20", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG84.B00556", "bookId": 84, "start": 302791, "end": 304213, "sha256": "0a2aa0912be6bdb34e6939b63c4576e40cb819e5f39a98801655ceb60a8dc318", "text": "I sat one evening in my laboratory; the sun had set, and the moon was just rising from the sea; I had not sufficient light for my employment, and I remained idle, in a pause of consideration of whether I should leave my labour for the night or hasten its conclusion by an unremitting attention to it. As I sat, a train of reflection occurred to me which led me to consider the effects of what I was now doing. Three years before, I was engaged in the same manner and had created a fiend whose unparalleled barbarity had desolated my heart and filled it for ever with the bitterest remorse. I was now about to form another being of whose dispositions I was alike ignorant; she might become ten thousand times more malignant than her mate and delight, for its own sake, in murder and wretchedness. He had sworn to quit the neighbourhood of man and hide himself in deserts, but she had not; and she, who in all probability was to become a thinking and reasoning animal, might refuse to comply with a compact made before her creation. They might even hate each other; the creature who already lived loathed his own deformity, and might he not conceive a greater abhorrence for it when it came before his eyes in the female form? She also might turn with disgust from him to the superior beauty of man; she might quit him, and he be again alone, exasperated by the fresh provocation of being deserted by one of his own species.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00557", "bookId": 84, "start": 304215, "end": 305012, "sha256": "9c4127694f453856f6633f4fb2ccfbfc82dcefaf4c025e2b21057a1e5db6acf6", "text": "Even if they were to leave Europe and inhabit the deserts of the new world, yet one of the first results of those sympathies for which the dæmon thirsted would be children, and a race of devils would be propagated upon the earth who might make the very existence of the species of man a condition precarious and full of terror. Had I right, for my own benefit, to inflict this curse upon everlasting generations? I had before been moved by the sophisms of the being I had created; I had been struck senseless by his fiendish threats; but now, for the first time, the wickedness of my promise burst upon me; I shuddered to think that future ages might curse me as their pest, whose selfishness had not hesitated to buy its own peace at the price, perhaps, of the existence of the whole human race.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00558", "bookId": 84, "start": 305014, "end": 305456, "sha256": "ecf3f79ab13c0c6e228c29ff8f37441078da8311d450d3147b7bd49a927188b1", "text": "I trembled and my heart failed within me, when, on looking up, I saw by the light of the moon the dæmon at the casement. A ghastly grin wrinkled his lips as he gazed on me, where I sat fulfilling the task which he had allotted to me. Yes, he had followed me in my travels; he had loitered in forests, hid himself in caves, or taken refuge in wide and desert heaths; and he now came to mark my progress and claim the fulfilment of my promise.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00559", "bookId": 84, "start": 305458, "end": 305859, "sha256": "7754b90df9c451ef4fbd8727ba10aba35d6425d9da452c3e9fffdf283c5ceeab", "text": "As I looked on him, his countenance expressed the utmost extent of malice and treachery. I thought with a sensation of madness on my promise of creating another like to him, and trembling with passion, tore to pieces the thing on which I was engaged. The wretch saw me destroy the creature on whose future existence he depended for happiness, and with a howl of devilish despair and revenge, withdrew.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00560", "bookId": 84, "start": 305861, "end": 306150, "sha256": "dbf34b30857965e3763dcea7300fba45ee97bb12fc3b4c52467dcd6bcadc327a", "text": "I left the room, and locking the door, made a solemn vow in my own heart never to resume my labours; and then, with trembling steps, I sought my own apartment. I was alone; none were near me to dissipate the gloom and relieve me from the sickening oppression of the most terrible reveries.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00561", "bookId": 84, "start": 306152, "end": 306673, "sha256": "1d254f43fa0ce175449c3dbd649335b7b5265addae416b8c1fa74c4512d85cef", "text": "Several hours passed, and I remained near my window gazing on the sea; it was almost motionless, for the winds were hushed, and all nature reposed under the eye of the quiet moon. A few fishing vessels alone specked the water, and now and then the gentle breeze wafted the sound of voices as the fishermen called to one another. I felt the silence, although I was hardly conscious of its extreme profundity, until my ear was suddenly arrested by the paddling of oars near the shore, and a person landed close to my house.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00562", "bookId": 84, "start": 306675, "end": 307101, "sha256": "80e0364863aac516140d446281c35b6534348507cde2d549eb44901956c837db", "text": "In a few minutes after, I heard the creaking of my door, as if some one endeavoured to open it softly. I trembled from head to foot; I felt a presentiment of who it was and wished to rouse one of the peasants who dwelt in a cottage not far from mine; but I was overcome by the sensation of helplessness, so often felt in frightful dreams, when you in vain endeavour to fly from an impending danger, and was rooted to the spot.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00563", "bookId": 84, "start": 307103, "end": 307286, "sha256": "e4330219e6ec6db71060b8710255f6b5f190a38ae586b082d71e72e0497a33f4", "text": "Presently I heard the sound of footsteps along the passage; the door opened, and the wretch whom I dreaded appeared. Shutting the door, he approached me and said in a smothered voice,", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00564", "bookId": 84, "start": 307288, "end": 307735, "sha256": "eb9d90d50f8df61230209df0b7c0f7da3c3be6de8c9ee866891b40633eb19d54", "text": "“You have destroyed the work which you began; what is it that you intend? Do you dare to break your promise? I have endured toil and misery; I left Switzerland with you; I crept along the shores of the Rhine, among its willow islands and over the summits of its hills. I have dwelt many months in the heaths of England and among the deserts of Scotland. I have endured incalculable fatigue, and cold, and hunger; do you dare destroy my hopes?”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00565", "bookId": 84, "start": 307737, "end": 307851, "sha256": "6ada788b92a770b39e9003c7f740b47e7967ea28ce2886173f4594b9045f7657", "text": "“Begone! I do break my promise; never will I create another like yourself, equal in deformity and wickedness.”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00566", "bookId": 84, "start": 307853, "end": 308137, "sha256": "f82e8526996fa5a6265fb189f112c97b5a16f10d2dbc007bd77e8addc762836b", "text": "“Slave, I before reasoned with you, but you have proved yourself unworthy of my condescension. Remember that I have power; you believe yourself miserable, but I can make you so wretched that the light of day will be hateful to you. You are my creator, but I am your master; obey!”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00567", "bookId": 84, "start": 308139, "end": 308524, "sha256": "f3a2f10368ce325074a357659cd740602cff792a8fefdec75910c823c693cdc6", "text": "“The hour of my irresolution is past, and the period of your power is arrived. Your threats cannot move me to do an act of wickedness; but they confirm me in a determination of not creating you a companion in vice. Shall I, in cool blood, set loose upon the earth a dæmon whose delight is in death and wretchedness? Begone! I am firm, and your words will only exasperate my rage.”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00568", "bookId": 84, "start": 308526, "end": 309409, "sha256": "bb047f9b23e5c982fc81fdb584f1a14387e4c253aca43da15b164fc35e793772", "text": "The monster saw my determination in my face and gnashed his teeth in the impotence of anger. “Shall each man,” cried he, “find a wife for his bosom, and each beast have his mate, and I be alone? I had feelings of affection, and they were requited by detestation and scorn. Man! You may hate, but beware! Your hours will pass in dread and misery, and soon the bolt will fall which must ravish from you your happiness for ever. Are you to be happy while I grovel in the intensity of my wretchedness? You can blast my other passions, but revenge remains—revenge, henceforth dearer than light or food! I may die, but first you, my tyrant and tormentor, shall curse the sun that gazes on your misery. Beware, for I am fearless and therefore powerful. I will watch with the wiliness of a snake, that I may sting with its venom. Man, you shall repent of the injuries you inflict.”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00569", "bookId": 84, "start": 309411, "end": 309592, "sha256": "9eefedca445512a968a8e96e3d2ec5eafeb20804ad8bb4bffd5b734dbe789be8", "text": "“Devil, cease; and do not poison the air with these sounds of malice. I have declared my resolution to you, and I am no coward to bend beneath words. Leave me; I am inexorable.”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00570", "bookId": 84, "start": 309594, "end": 309674, "sha256": "6e1525e4c2798246b22fa2263cd991ca24d279a46eced7bf78ddcc1d14b65d0e", "text": "“It is well. I go; but remember, I shall be with you on your wedding-night.”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG84.B00571", "bookId": 84, "start": 309676, "end": 309793, "sha256": "51a9fbc99ed6e056c8a7d37ac751cc2b905b8bb77ef7f02102d6c44258331288", "text": "I started forward and exclaimed, “Villain! Before you sign my death-warrant, be sure that you are yourself safe.”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00572", "bookId": 84, "start": 309795, "end": 310008, "sha256": "65db646e74f208f114866e7eb1420ac06d4d68d05599326f2cd2966b16cd2f64", "text": "I would have seized him, but he eluded me and quitted the house with precipitation. In a few moments I saw him in his boat, which shot across the waters with an arrowy swiftness and was soon lost amidst the waves.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00573", "bookId": 84, "start": 310010, "end": 311067, "sha256": "cb67f5ee737394e30f97d011a4253d3fb93ca2ba6462db27c950361473413558", "text": "All was again silent, but his words rang in my ears. I burned with rage to pursue the murderer of my peace and precipitate him into the ocean. I walked up and down my room hastily and perturbed, while my imagination conjured up a thousand images to torment and sting me. Why had I not followed him and closed with him in mortal strife? But I had suffered him to depart, and he had directed his course towards the mainland. I shuddered to think who might be the next victim sacrificed to his insatiate revenge. And then I thought again of his words—“_I will be with you on your wedding-night._” That, then, was the period fixed for the fulfilment of my destiny. In that hour I should die and at once satisfy and extinguish his malice. The prospect did not move me to fear; yet when I thought of my beloved Elizabeth, of her tears and endless sorrow, when she should find her lover so barbarously snatched from her, tears, the first I had shed for many months, streamed from my eyes, and I resolved not to fall before my enemy without a bitter struggle.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00574", "bookId": 84, "start": 311069, "end": 311751, "sha256": "17d9628804090ca8240c4fa5f23662fc6872e71c2b172ea5d6f809d149c541c8", "text": "The night passed away, and the sun rose from the ocean; my feelings became calmer, if it may be called calmness when the violence of rage sinks into the depths of despair. I left the house, the horrid scene of the last night’s contention, and walked on the beach of the sea, which I almost regarded as an insuperable barrier between me and my fellow creatures; nay, a wish that such should prove the fact stole across me. I desired that I might pass my life on that barren rock, wearily, it is true, but uninterrupted by any sudden shock of misery. If I returned, it was to be sacrificed or to see those whom I most loved die under the grasp of a dæmon whom I had myself created.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00575", "bookId": 84, "start": 311753, "end": 312430, "sha256": "3bc2c04206b179d0ae358ddc910e10bc245c98bc064ff47e6ff450997c77ee2f", "text": "I walked about the isle like a restless spectre, separated from all it loved and miserable in the separation. When it became noon, and the sun rose higher, I lay down on the grass and was overpowered by a deep sleep. I had been awake the whole of the preceding night, my nerves were agitated, and my eyes inflamed by watching and misery. The sleep into which I now sank refreshed me; and when I awoke, I again felt as if I belonged to a race of human beings like myself, and I began to reflect upon what had passed with greater composure; yet still the words of the fiend rang in my ears like a death-knell; they appeared like a dream, yet distinct and oppressive as a reality.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00576", "bookId": 84, "start": 312432, "end": 313401, "sha256": "204429900a1d73ef1f0e01a04776f5aa6b05fe4825b734a4989cef41b34b4032", "text": "The sun had far descended, and I still sat on the shore, satisfying my appetite, which had become ravenous, with an oaten cake, when I saw a fishing-boat land close to me, and one of the men brought me a packet; it contained letters from Geneva, and one from Clerval entreating me to join him. He said that he was wearing away his time fruitlessly where he was, that letters from the friends he had formed in London desired his return to complete the negotiation they had entered into for his Indian enterprise. He could not any longer delay his departure; but as his journey to London might be followed, even sooner than he now conjectured, by his longer voyage, he entreated me to bestow as much of my society on him as I could spare. He besought me, therefore, to leave my solitary isle and to meet him at Perth, that we might proceed southwards together. This letter in a degree recalled me to life, and I determined to quit my island at the expiration of two days.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00577", "bookId": 84, "start": 313403, "end": 314442, "sha256": "e75920c06f050072f54774256e089ed5a8203df4eb65571413763b558b1f752f", "text": "Yet, before I departed, there was a task to perform, on which I shuddered to reflect; I must pack up my chemical instruments, and for that purpose I must enter the room which had been the scene of my odious work, and I must handle those utensils the sight of which was sickening to me. The next morning, at daybreak, I summoned sufficient courage and unlocked the door of my laboratory. The remains of the half-finished creature, whom I had destroyed, lay scattered on the floor, and I almost felt as if I had mangled the living flesh of a human being. I paused to collect myself and then entered the chamber. With trembling hand I conveyed the instruments out of the room, but I reflected that I ought not to leave the relics of my work to excite the horror and suspicion of the peasants; and I accordingly put them into a basket, with a great quantity of stones, and laying them up, determined to throw them into the sea that very night; and in the meantime I sat upon the beach, employed in cleaning and arranging my chemical apparatus.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00578", "bookId": 84, "start": 314444, "end": 315219, "sha256": "564d4ad8c0d19f541bd1afd1cc74d4d7b9d2d9b9b374b988cf26da8f7cc9ed3c", "text": "Nothing could be more complete than the alteration that had taken place in my feelings since the night of the appearance of the dæmon. I had before regarded my promise with a gloomy despair as a thing that, with whatever consequences, must be fulfilled; but I now felt as if a film had been taken from before my eyes and that I for the first time saw clearly. The idea of renewing my labours did not for one instant occur to me; the threat I had heard weighed on my thoughts, but I did not reflect that a voluntary act of mine could avert it. I had resolved in my own mind that to create another like the fiend I had first made would be an act of the basest and most atrocious selfishness, and I banished from my mind every thought that could lead to a different conclusion.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00579", "bookId": 84, "start": 315221, "end": 316351, "sha256": "4bdf4f3682976668ff23c9ff4a880273497227091399e5af741dd5b42a2e34cb", "text": "Between two and three in the morning the moon rose; and I then, putting my basket aboard a little skiff, sailed out about four miles from the shore. The scene was perfectly solitary; a few boats were returning towards land, but I sailed away from them. I felt as if I was about the commission of a dreadful crime and avoided with shuddering anxiety any encounter with my fellow creatures. At one time the moon, which had before been clear, was suddenly overspread by a thick cloud, and I took advantage of the moment of darkness and cast my basket into the sea; I listened to the gurgling sound as it sank and then sailed away from the spot. The sky became clouded, but the air was pure, although chilled by the northeast breeze that was then rising. But it refreshed me and filled me with such agreeable sensations that I resolved to prolong my stay on the water, and fixing the rudder in a direct position, stretched myself at the bottom of the boat. Clouds hid the moon, everything was obscure, and I heard only the sound of the boat as its keel cut through the waves; the murmur lulled me, and in a short time I slept soundly.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00580", "bookId": 84, "start": 316353, "end": 317867, "sha256": "6bd6a90dc871545b4304f6f2c5c113cf5f57ae6c02d8a7b434ec16dbdf8b2433", "text": "I do not know how long I remained in this situation, but when I awoke I found that the sun had already mounted considerably. The wind was high, and the waves continually threatened the safety of my little skiff. I found that the wind was northeast and must have driven me far from the coast from which I had embarked. I endeavoured to change my course but quickly found that if I again made the attempt the boat would be instantly filled with water. Thus situated, my only resource was to drive before the wind. I confess that I felt a few sensations of terror. I had no compass with me and was so slenderly acquainted with the geography of this part of the world that the sun was of little benefit to me. I might be driven into the wide Atlantic and feel all the tortures of starvation or be swallowed up in the immeasurable waters that roared and buffeted around me. I had already been out many hours and felt the torment of a burning thirst, a prelude to my other sufferings. I looked on the heavens, which were covered by clouds that flew before the wind, only to be replaced by others; I looked upon the sea; it was to be my grave. “Fiend,” I exclaimed, “your task is already fulfilled!” I thought of Elizabeth, of my father, and of Clerval—all left behind, on whom the monster might satisfy his sanguinary and merciless passions. This idea plunged me into a reverie so despairing and frightful that even now, when the scene is on the point of closing before me for ever, I shudder to reflect on it.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00581", "bookId": 84, "start": 317869, "end": 318174, "sha256": "8d457ed94ca0109404834e952f34223e959983bb342c45316f8dc071ad8829c8", "text": "Some hours passed thus; but by degrees, as the sun declined towards the horizon, the wind died away into a gentle breeze and the sea became free from breakers. But these gave place to a heavy swell; I felt sick and hardly able to hold the rudder, when suddenly I saw a line of high land towards the south.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00582", "bookId": 84, "start": 318176, "end": 318371, "sha256": "bae5474b6b4f3d809eb689ea51ffbb7cd02f762bfb91de40a5c5659828f493aa", "text": "Almost spent, as I was, by fatigue and the dreadful suspense I endured for several hours, this sudden certainty of life rushed like a flood of warm joy to my heart, and tears gushed from my eyes.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00583", "bookId": 84, "start": 318373, "end": 319256, "sha256": "4ae65bfbd266f5128ea6fc01b4777669b21c67ded4bb5333da505d80c2255b70", "text": "How mutable are our feelings, and how strange is that clinging love we have of life even in the excess of misery! I constructed another sail with a part of my dress and eagerly steered my course towards the land. It had a wild and rocky appearance, but as I approached nearer I easily perceived the traces of cultivation. I saw vessels near the shore and found myself suddenly transported back to the neighbourhood of civilised man. I carefully traced the windings of the land and hailed a steeple which I at length saw issuing from behind a small promontory. As I was in a state of extreme debility, I resolved to sail directly towards the town, as a place where I could most easily procure nourishment. Fortunately I had money with me. As I turned the promontory I perceived a small neat town and a good harbour, which I entered, my heart bounding with joy at my unexpected escape.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00584", "bookId": 84, "start": 319258, "end": 319781, "sha256": "19b1ee4887e0cafb4f3f998f52706501dd8db06a4e67777ef949c9bb048ff68b", "text": "As I was occupied in fixing the boat and arranging the sails, several people crowded towards the spot. They seemed much surprised at my appearance, but instead of offering me any assistance, whispered together with gestures that at any other time might have produced in me a slight sensation of alarm. As it was, I merely remarked that they spoke English, and I therefore addressed them in that language. “My good friends,” said I, “will you be so kind as to tell me the name of this town and inform me where I am?”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00585", "bookId": 84, "start": 319783, "end": 319997, "sha256": "a93fd207269998c9fabb76fe6f76c231c3b2b7824716d952df4ed1d2c6611005", "text": "“You will know that soon enough,” replied a man with a hoarse voice. “Maybe you are come to a place that will not prove much to your taste, but you will not be consulted as to your quarters, I promise you.”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00586", "bookId": 84, "start": 319999, "end": 320307, "sha256": "6aa0cfd28338f28d155950dd5eccd1efdb6d35d2a77f83228ed33152af8110a7", "text": "I was exceedingly surprised on receiving so rude an answer from a stranger, and I was also disconcerted on perceiving the frowning and angry countenances of his companions. “Why do you answer me so roughly?” I replied. “Surely it is not the custom of Englishmen to receive strangers so inhospitably.”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00587", "bookId": 84, "start": 320309, "end": 320440, "sha256": "d1e0ce6a5235b53fe0652f3a5b3d7efcef6fe07542df7488371ff04df1c57d7b", "text": "“I do not know,” said the man, “what the custom of the English may be, but it is the custom of the Irish to hate villains.”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00588", "bookId": 84, "start": 320442, "end": 320931, "sha256": "b2601cc47665f5081a21ed205d6d8de3e4cc4c0588ad63cbdb689de0b746bcde", "text": "While this strange dialogue continued, I perceived the crowd rapidly increase. Their faces expressed a mixture of curiosity and anger, which annoyed and in some degree alarmed me. I inquired the way to the inn, but no one replied. I then moved forward, and a murmuring sound arose from the crowd as they followed and surrounded me, when an ill-looking man approaching tapped me on the shoulder and said, “Come, sir, you must follow me to Mr. Kirwin’s to give an account of yourself.”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00589", "bookId": 84, "start": 320933, "end": 321024, "sha256": "94cd0dcd37abcfd4c47f8f2a3dc1c1e9d4e2504a84db68e6c8b1e8064946b194", "text": "“Who is Mr. Kirwin? Why am I to give an account of myself? Is not this a free country?”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG84.B00590", "bookId": 84, "start": 321026, "end": 321197, "sha256": "5e6bed176acdb8e17963e2a06294361bbd2df4d3e6d10edda2ec92bb4aa26836", "text": "“Ay, sir, free enough for honest folks. Mr. Kirwin is a magistrate, and you are to give an account of the death of a gentleman who was found murdered here last night.”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00591", "bookId": 84, "start": 321199, "end": 321756, "sha256": "35251830afbe72a0627b10350e8087bd4c33d19132a9e82c6b38710b4e06e07e", "text": "This answer startled me, but I presently recovered myself. I was innocent; that could easily be proved; accordingly I followed my conductor in silence and was led to one of the best houses in the town. I was ready to sink from fatigue and hunger, but being surrounded by a crowd, I thought it politic to rouse all my strength, that no physical debility might be construed into apprehension or conscious guilt. Little did I then expect the calamity that was in a few moments to overwhelm me and extinguish in horror and despair all fear of ignominy or death.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00592", "bookId": 84, "start": 321758, "end": 321920, "sha256": "959206a2d92f1152c330fab7b3a6ec85bb59331d5e23e51bbb61af5f7133f741", "text": "I must pause here, for it requires all my fortitude to recall the memory of the frightful events which I am about to relate, in proper detail, to my recollection.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00593", "bookId": 84, "start": 321925, "end": 321935, "sha256": "d4b528b42828f2d695250370681b3224aaf8c12d4c39e646632df37c50235fbb", "text": "Chapter 21", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG84.B00594", "bookId": 84, "start": 321938, "end": 322198, "sha256": "427487dfa1226d23f7717bdf4a9bd886d7f9389e5a9ca95957d60de429f799a9", "text": "I was soon introduced into the presence of the magistrate, an old benevolent man with calm and mild manners. He looked upon me, however, with some degree of severity, and then, turning towards my conductors, he asked who appeared as witnesses on this occasion.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00595", "bookId": 84, "start": 322200, "end": 323578, "sha256": "d5dd30690ca769ff992386f85137e99430de2722eb7953fbae38130c0ba8f048", "text": "About half a dozen men came forward; and, one being selected by the magistrate, he deposed that he had been out fishing the night before with his son and brother-in-law, Daniel Nugent, when, about ten o’clock, they observed a strong northerly blast rising, and they accordingly put in for port. It was a very dark night, as the moon had not yet risen; they did not land at the harbour, but, as they had been accustomed, at a creek about two miles below. He walked on first, carrying a part of the fishing tackle, and his companions followed him at some distance. As he was proceeding along the sands, he struck his foot against something and fell at his length on the ground. His companions came up to assist him, and by the light of their lantern they found that he had fallen on the body of a man, who was to all appearance dead. Their first supposition was that it was the corpse of some person who had been drowned and was thrown on shore by the waves, but on examination they found that the clothes were not wet and even that the body was not then cold. They instantly carried it to the cottage of an old woman near the spot and endeavoured, but in vain, to restore it to life. It appeared to be a handsome young man, about five and twenty years of age. He had apparently been strangled, for there was no sign of any violence except the black mark of fingers on his neck.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00596", "bookId": 84, "start": 323580, "end": 323967, "sha256": "ebef537f787f855b8216461bec25c3d60a799cb6193c261030ae205fe7df5a3c", "text": "The first part of this deposition did not in the least interest me, but when the mark of the fingers was mentioned I remembered the murder of my brother and felt myself extremely agitated; my limbs trembled, and a mist came over my eyes, which obliged me to lean on a chair for support. The magistrate observed me with a keen eye and of course drew an unfavourable augury from my manner.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00597", "bookId": 84, "start": 323969, "end": 324291, "sha256": "9d41d1278a0a03f1dc5ff72eea5e3bdb4fd4dd982a914a752523196711b7e66b", "text": "The son confirmed his father’s account, but when Daniel Nugent was called he swore positively that just before the fall of his companion, he saw a boat, with a single man in it, at a short distance from the shore; and as far as he could judge by the light of a few stars, it was the same boat in which I had just landed.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00598", "bookId": 84, "start": 324293, "end": 324605, "sha256": "e9575fb9c76ef665b4248c8f72b521a86a900eb439d45ac705ab671238415dae", "text": "A woman deposed that she lived near the beach and was standing at the door of her cottage, waiting for the return of the fishermen, about an hour before she heard of the discovery of the body, when she saw a boat with only one man in it push off from that part of the shore where the corpse was afterwards found.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00599", "bookId": 84, "start": 324607, "end": 324826, "sha256": "ca7a58cd6f1409468a3baf82c59ff4a6f467ddc15fec50cbef51e6634a5ca86d", "text": "Another woman confirmed the account of the fishermen having brought the body into her house; it was not cold. They put it into a bed and rubbed it, and Daniel went to the town for an apothecary, but life was quite gone.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00600", "bookId": 84, "start": 324828, "end": 325387, "sha256": "e4c2277b7eaf6c1d64ef0bf3e41cd74008c722a0ad0ab2cbaf38f34cadbedef4", "text": "Several other men were examined concerning my landing, and they agreed that, with the strong north wind that had arisen during the night, it was very probable that I had beaten about for many hours and had been obliged to return nearly to the same spot from which I had departed. Besides, they observed that it appeared that I had brought the body from another place, and it was likely that as I did not appear to know the shore, I might have put into the harbour ignorant of the distance of the town of —— from the place where I had deposited the corpse.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00601", "bookId": 84, "start": 325389, "end": 326096, "sha256": "606f95373b67b3d0b201ccdb91f1b201b098b520e7bf53b2c578ab9dd48c0086", "text": "Mr. Kirwin, on hearing this evidence, desired that I should be taken into the room where the body lay for interment, that it might be observed what effect the sight of it would produce upon me. This idea was probably suggested by the extreme agitation I had exhibited when the mode of the murder had been described. I was accordingly conducted, by the magistrate and several other persons, to the inn. I could not help being struck by the strange coincidences that had taken place during this eventful night; but, knowing that I had been conversing with several persons in the island I had inhabited about the time that the body had been found, I was perfectly tranquil as to the consequences of the affair.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00602", "bookId": 84, "start": 326098, "end": 326747, "sha256": "f17ae30dcf46cd7abcceca5f02b8e26ecbc350a0b49b4c0dbc557ec8b4e6c390", "text": "I entered the room where the corpse lay and was led up to the coffin. How can I describe my sensations on beholding it? I feel yet parched with horror, nor can I reflect on that terrible moment without shuddering and agony. The examination, the presence of the magistrate and witnesses, passed like a dream from my memory when I saw the lifeless form of Henry Clerval stretched before me. I gasped for breath, and throwing myself on the body, I exclaimed, “Have my murderous machinations deprived you also, my dearest Henry, of life? Two I have already destroyed; other victims await their destiny; but you, Clerval, my friend, my benefactor—”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00603", "bookId": 84, "start": 326749, "end": 326873, "sha256": "7609c87590030032e4cf2836395969828fdb1ebe1e481c4a81db09891f7c044c", "text": "The human frame could no longer support the agonies that I endured, and I was carried out of the room in strong convulsions.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00604", "bookId": 84, "start": 326875, "end": 327445, "sha256": "9f287a5ca62b77f2aef60fc471331cbb80db003ea53ef81a728bcf7ada53a977", "text": "A fever succeeded to this. I lay for two months on the point of death; my ravings, as I afterwards heard, were frightful; I called myself the murderer of William, of Justine, and of Clerval. Sometimes I entreated my attendants to assist me in the destruction of the fiend by whom I was tormented; and at others I felt the fingers of the monster already grasping my neck, and screamed aloud with agony and terror. Fortunately, as I spoke my native language, Mr. Kirwin alone understood me; but my gestures and bitter cries were sufficient to affright the other witnesses.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00605", "bookId": 84, "start": 327447, "end": 327923, "sha256": "307ffbcc0a01a72b1109350e5e67ae007c856749a3e1a72927400328a8b063e7", "text": "Why did I not die? More miserable than man ever was before, why did I not sink into forgetfulness and rest? Death snatches away many blooming children, the only hopes of their doting parents; how many brides and youthful lovers have been one day in the bloom of health and hope, and the next a prey for worms and the decay of the tomb! Of what materials was I made that I could thus resist so many shocks, which, like the turning of the wheel, continually renewed the torture?", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00606", "bookId": 84, "start": 327925, "end": 328474, "sha256": "53f37e0898cf69628796383d54f1518bd33efc1e065ea4af9cd85b740d0eb678", "text": "But I was doomed to live and in two months found myself as awaking from a dream, in a prison, stretched on a wretched bed, surrounded by gaolers, turnkeys, bolts, and all the miserable apparatus of a dungeon. It was morning, I remember, when I thus awoke to understanding; I had forgotten the particulars of what had happened and only felt as if some great misfortune had suddenly overwhelmed me; but when I looked around and saw the barred windows and the squalidness of the room in which I was, all flashed across my memory and I groaned bitterly.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00607", "bookId": 84, "start": 328476, "end": 328961, "sha256": "6b9de014858e5abb4eb6a01b10a2a97e2c38aedc06aaa2061fb4fea701cf9cd2", "text": "This sound disturbed an old woman who was sleeping in a chair beside me. She was a hired nurse, the wife of one of the turnkeys, and her countenance expressed all those bad qualities which often characterise that class. The lines of her face were hard and rude, like that of persons accustomed to see without sympathising in sights of misery. Her tone expressed her entire indifference; she addressed me in English, and the voice struck me as one that I had heard during my sufferings.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00608", "bookId": 84, "start": 328963, "end": 329003, "sha256": "7169485312816e082f7c4405dc96e440819ff5f3aba98821b35bc7eb7a564603", "text": "“Are you better now, sir?” said she.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG84.B00609", "bookId": 84, "start": 329005, "end": 329194, "sha256": "67d68e3371d379f47a4f1ba5737c66350b4befe4df32417fbd2fd10469b1e495", "text": "I replied in the same language, with a feeble voice, “I believe I am; but if it be all true, if indeed I did not dream, I am sorry that I am still alive to feel this misery and horror.”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00610", "bookId": 84, "start": 329196, "end": 329544, "sha256": "6c29c938e6381cf00fb3be1a3ec9a085ad01ee4968bef7e22ba61a76df99788b", "text": "“For that matter,” replied the old woman, “if you mean about the gentleman you murdered, I believe that it were better for you if you were dead, for I fancy it will go hard with you! However, that’s none of my business; I am sent to nurse you and get you well; I do my duty with a safe conscience; it were well if everybody did the same.”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00611", "bookId": 84, "start": 329546, "end": 329908, "sha256": "3d668746c7860c5c85f267d05f498a30f6756aec51585398b3b73869c804c61e", "text": "I turned with loathing from the woman who could utter so unfeeling a speech to a person just saved, on the very edge of death; but I felt languid and unable to reflect on all that had passed. The whole series of my life appeared to me as a dream; I sometimes doubted if indeed it were all true, for it never presented itself to my mind with the force of reality.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00612", "bookId": 84, "start": 329910, "end": 330412, "sha256": "d5cabeb41dfe0526efaf007a1e5439a2f1a8e1a71494b7193bdd136372c3e1c5", "text": "As the images that floated before me became more distinct, I grew feverish; a darkness pressed around me; no one was near me who soothed me with the gentle voice of love; no dear hand supported me. The physician came and prescribed medicines, and the old woman prepared them for me; but utter carelessness was visible in the first, and the expression of brutality was strongly marked in the visage of the second. Who could be interested in the fate of a murderer but the hangman who would gain his fee?", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00613", "bookId": 84, "start": 330414, "end": 330982, "sha256": "bb4309a60a0eee99a587bf26eb107f89022c50567a64da1f4be73e6a1ee43147", "text": "These were my first reflections, but I soon learned that Mr. Kirwin had shown me extreme kindness. He had caused the best room in the prison to be prepared for me (wretched indeed was the best); and it was he who had provided a physician and a nurse. It is true, he seldom came to see me, for although he ardently desired to relieve the sufferings of every human creature, he did not wish to be present at the agonies and miserable ravings of a murderer. He came, therefore, sometimes to see that I was not neglected, but his visits were short and with long intervals.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00614", "bookId": 84, "start": 330984, "end": 331606, "sha256": "941329178b588b857739680e663aa4d1421e9b439ba62faf9d26b794e7dd6404", "text": "One day, while I was gradually recovering, I was seated in a chair, my eyes half open and my cheeks livid like those in death. I was overcome by gloom and misery and often reflected I had better seek death than desire to remain in a world which to me was replete with wretchedness. At one time I considered whether I should not declare myself guilty and suffer the penalty of the law, less innocent than poor Justine had been. Such were my thoughts when the door of my apartment was opened and Mr. Kirwin entered. His countenance expressed sympathy and compassion; he drew a chair close to mine and addressed me in French,", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00615", "bookId": 84, "start": 331608, "end": 331709, "sha256": "5b254bbdb0798edfa9a7efac5af2c531431c77b28f7c2d9cca73f00bc28e35a5", "text": "“I fear that this place is very shocking to you; can I do anything to make you more comfortable?”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG84.B00616", "bookId": 84, "start": 331711, "end": 331844, "sha256": "38e0d5cda6bcab7a64d74c3cdbb269776dff7eb5ea645934986955703df4daed", "text": "“I thank you, but all that you mention is nothing to me; on the whole earth there is no comfort which I am capable of receiving.”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00617", "bookId": 84, "start": 331846, "end": 332113, "sha256": "0c436c8f8067dc8ca7cc7437fea42e8742b4f84be76bcd0df41a2b5b239a868c", "text": "“I know that the sympathy of a stranger can be but of little relief to one borne down as you are by so strange a misfortune. But you will, I hope, soon quit this melancholy abode, for doubtless evidence can easily be brought to free you from the criminal charge.”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00618", "bookId": 84, "start": 332115, "end": 332297, "sha256": "b13b688842b390cae5bbe07eaa5dc6b524caf6768a89768cb334091e556504d6", "text": "“That is my least concern; I am, by a course of strange events, become the most miserable of mortals. Persecuted and tortured as I am and have been, can death be any evil to me?”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00619", "bookId": 84, "start": 332299, "end": 332718, "sha256": "8eda6bd03becf76a1de186b85f997e0b63791bce16606cf4977fcf9078ee87f1", "text": "“Nothing indeed could be more unfortunate and agonising than the strange chances that have lately occurred. You were thrown, by some surprising accident, on this shore, renowned for its hospitality, seized immediately, and charged with murder. The first sight that was presented to your eyes was the body of your friend, murdered in so unaccountable a manner and placed, as it were, by some fiend across your path.”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00620", "bookId": 84, "start": 332720, "end": 333001, "sha256": "b025bd4b4dd929eb9fb3a91362b6f3c88c29cd34e7535900ad7cf6c1f82227a5", "text": "As Mr. Kirwin said this, notwithstanding the agitation I endured on this retrospect of my sufferings, I also felt considerable surprise at the knowledge he seemed to possess concerning me. I suppose some astonishment was exhibited in my countenance, for Mr. Kirwin hastened to say,", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00621", "bookId": 84, "start": 333003, "end": 333527, "sha256": "575f4cd1a908d881e31a221a0556946ea43852b17f5b835ca9e77e1cd6d32395", "text": "“Immediately upon your being taken ill, all the papers that were on your person were brought me, and I examined them that I might discover some trace by which I could send to your relations an account of your misfortune and illness. I found several letters, and, among others, one which I discovered from its commencement to be from your father. I instantly wrote to Geneva; nearly two months have elapsed since the departure of my letter. But you are ill; even now you tremble; you are unfit for agitation of any kind.”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00622", "bookId": 84, "start": 333529, "end": 333689, "sha256": "dbcd8749fe572a1f79a7cc86dceca939a0a330f9fde0ae0ccd741cbe7453a1c3", "text": "“This suspense is a thousand times worse than the most horrible event; tell me what new scene of death has been acted, and whose murder I am now to lament?”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00623", "bookId": 84, "start": 333691, "end": 333811, "sha256": "e38998dd1b0e41ebae50b80d16cf4ceca912de45ea72a442b7dafd8dfa929b00", "text": "“Your family is perfectly well,” said Mr. Kirwin with gentleness; “and someone, a friend, is come to visit you.”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00624", "bookId": 84, "start": 333813, "end": 334117, "sha256": "c588a9c54a05e88c7451e3a7be21b9e6f1dd6961d7848090de09d7f17912e36f", "text": "I know not by what chain of thought the idea presented itself, but it instantly darted into my mind that the murderer had come to mock at my misery and taunt me with the death of Clerval, as a new incitement for me to comply with his hellish desires. I put my hand before my eyes, and cried out in agony,", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00625", "bookId": 84, "start": 334119, "end": 334201, "sha256": "a7e581e813f9dd0b26f07f7004645acae94ac5810e885802896aa8fb74ee7118", "text": "“Oh! Take him away! I cannot see him; for God’s sake, do not let him enter!”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG84.B00626", "bookId": 84, "start": 334203, "end": 334360, "sha256": "0d620943c42785e9c446e35416c5e9d7a78c675c168ef9ec1e8e33d0fa2e5b54", "text": "Mr. Kirwin regarded me with a troubled countenance. He could not help regarding my exclamation as a presumption of my guilt and said in rather a severe tone,", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00627", "bookId": 84, "start": 334362, "end": 334504, "sha256": "4b350dd955d8b13cdeb4068bf920024e2b63fc02669598ca223e56535325de6e", "text": "“I should have thought, young man, that the presence of your father would have been welcome instead of inspiring such violent repugnance.”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00628", "bookId": 84, "start": 334506, "end": 334710, "sha256": "5034c63db183a720645b0e68eab583a6068c95039b9a7410fd24f557440f8db9", "text": "“My father!” cried I, while every feature and every muscle was relaxed from anguish to pleasure. “Is my father indeed come? How kind, how very kind! But where is he, why does he not hasten to me?”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00629", "bookId": 84, "start": 334712, "end": 334986, "sha256": "39ebf363d67e06cd47aa214b9e4f6e0378850116425300ceaa898238f17a5515", "text": "My change of manner surprised and pleased the magistrate; perhaps he thought that my former exclamation was a momentary return of delirium, and now he instantly resumed his former benevolence. He rose and quitted the room with my nurse, and in a moment my father entered it.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00630", "bookId": 84, "start": 334988, "end": 335122, "sha256": "fec26d894e8c6e0e2f99547125baec2a7afe4ed5bd9bb9429c50d59f7cb1c83b", "text": "Nothing, at this moment, could have given me greater pleasure than the arrival of my father. I stretched out my hand to him and cried,", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00631", "bookId": 84, "start": 335124, "end": 335177, "sha256": "8092973a8a82957ed6f47840080a8e9e652ac295296e5a37a7e3145d8e15fe0f", "text": "“Are you then safe—and Elizabeth—and Ernest?”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG84.B00632", "bookId": 84, "start": 335179, "end": 335641, "sha256": "1224e7087e4c259f86e3e6ff9776b6ec4bf730efde9dd1fbb94b4bf7e355bdbc", "text": "My father calmed me with assurances of their welfare and endeavoured, by dwelling on these subjects so interesting to my heart, to raise my desponding spirits; but he soon felt that a prison cannot be the abode of cheerfulness. “What a place is this that you inhabit, my son!” said he, looking mournfully at the barred windows and wretched appearance of the room. “You travelled to seek happiness, but a fatality seems to pursue you. And poor Clerval—”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00633", "bookId": 84, "start": 335643, "end": 335762, "sha256": "50ee5749aca3d80e5169aaa393863d2b70905bdc2c768f0f1844ac56b77fa2bc", "text": "The name of my unfortunate and murdered friend was an agitation too great to be endured in my weak state; I shed tears.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00634", "bookId": 84, "start": 335764, "end": 335945, "sha256": "eb0ff0e3175263781e503fab05ef3efdb66d208b53be6605e2ad022aa40aa83c", "text": "“Alas! Yes, my father,” replied I; “some destiny of the most horrible kind hangs over me, and I must live to fulfil it, or surely I should have died on the coffin of Henry.”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00635", "bookId": 84, "start": 335947, "end": 336310, "sha256": "92a9e06591b7ab04b20c324da6b4ab54d292498e9381240c265060091e610ee5", "text": "We were not allowed to converse for any length of time, for the precarious state of my health rendered every precaution necessary that could ensure tranquillity. Mr. Kirwin came in and insisted that my strength should not be exhausted by too much exertion. But the appearance of my father was to me like that of my good angel, and I gradually recovered my health.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00636", "bookId": 84, "start": 336312, "end": 337168, "sha256": "9de263830dcbc1f347575f06bff5526f9955a2de541071c6dcb01fe5ad6b7b43", "text": "As my sickness quitted me, I was absorbed by a gloomy and black melancholy that nothing could dissipate. The image of Clerval was for ever before me, ghastly and murdered. More than once the agitation into which these reflections threw me made my friends dread a dangerous relapse. Alas! Why did they preserve so miserable and detested a life? It was surely that I might fulfil my destiny, which is now drawing to a close. Soon, oh, very soon, will death extinguish these throbbings and relieve me from the mighty weight of anguish that bears me to the dust; and, in executing the award of justice, I shall also sink to rest. Then the appearance of death was distant, although the wish was ever present to my thoughts; and I often sat for hours motionless and speechless, wishing for some mighty revolution that might bury me and my destroyer in its ruins.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00637", "bookId": 84, "start": 337170, "end": 337838, "sha256": "9d4d9dca3eb2747670273c4dbf995c4ab40449913ce8989182ccc87e54e30825", "text": "The season of the assizes approached. I had already been three months in prison, and although I was still weak and in continual danger of a relapse, I was obliged to travel nearly a hundred miles to the country town where the court was held. Mr. Kirwin charged himself with every care of collecting witnesses and arranging my defence. I was spared the disgrace of appearing publicly as a criminal, as the case was not brought before the court that decides on life and death. The grand jury rejected the bill, on its being proved that I was on the Orkney Islands at the hour the body of my friend was found; and a fortnight after my removal I was liberated from prison.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00638", "bookId": 84, "start": 337840, "end": 338642, "sha256": "741fe5a09e168c974149297996fee79eee0f30dfbe5a8765b32d303c6476f03d", "text": "My father was enraptured on finding me freed from the vexations of a criminal charge, that I was again allowed to breathe the fresh atmosphere and permitted to return to my native country. I did not participate in these feelings, for to me the walls of a dungeon or a palace were alike hateful. The cup of life was poisoned for ever, and although the sun shone upon me, as upon the happy and gay of heart, I saw around me nothing but a dense and frightful darkness, penetrated by no light but the glimmer of two eyes that glared upon me. Sometimes they were the expressive eyes of Henry, languishing in death, the dark orbs nearly covered by the lids and the long black lashes that fringed them; sometimes it was the watery, clouded eyes of the monster, as I first saw them in my chamber at Ingolstadt.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00639", "bookId": 84, "start": 338644, "end": 339464, "sha256": "0275e1d89039906cb819b74bb6c16faf91bab17fbfbc09d7694ba7a63797b0bd", "text": "My father tried to awaken in me the feelings of affection. He talked of Geneva, which I should soon visit, of Elizabeth and Ernest; but these words only drew deep groans from me. Sometimes, indeed, I felt a wish for happiness and thought with melancholy delight of my beloved cousin or longed, with a devouring _maladie du pays_, to see once more the blue lake and rapid Rhone, that had been so dear to me in early childhood; but my general state of feeling was a torpor in which a prison was as welcome a residence as the divinest scene in nature; and these fits were seldom interrupted but by paroxysms of anguish and despair. At these moments I often endeavoured to put an end to the existence I loathed, and it required unceasing attendance and vigilance to restrain me from committing some dreadful act of violence.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00640", "bookId": 84, "start": 339466, "end": 340242, "sha256": "98488784f50ff9ae102697b14eab5d4eddb7e0cd183b6fe969f79453380ccc37", "text": "Yet one duty remained to me, the recollection of which finally triumphed over my selfish despair. It was necessary that I should return without delay to Geneva, there to watch over the lives of those I so fondly loved and to lie in wait for the murderer, that if any chance led me to the place of his concealment, or if he dared again to blast me by his presence, I might, with unfailing aim, put an end to the existence of the monstrous image which I had endued with the mockery of a soul still more monstrous. My father still desired to delay our departure, fearful that I could not sustain the fatigues of a journey, for I was a shattered wreck—the shadow of a human being. My strength was gone. I was a mere skeleton, and fever night and day preyed upon my wasted frame.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00641", "bookId": 84, "start": 340244, "end": 341470, "sha256": "4e147dfcec2a799e53f6aad92edd326ebd8b47460aa47e928121bba4c3e56449", "text": "Still, as I urged our leaving Ireland with such inquietude and impatience, my father thought it best to yield. We took our passage on board a vessel bound for Havre-de-Grace and sailed with a fair wind from the Irish shores. It was midnight. I lay on the deck looking at the stars and listening to the dashing of the waves. I hailed the darkness that shut Ireland from my sight, and my pulse beat with a feverish joy when I reflected that I should soon see Geneva. The past appeared to me in the light of a frightful dream; yet the vessel in which I was, the wind that blew me from the detested shore of Ireland, and the sea which surrounded me, told me too forcibly that I was deceived by no vision and that Clerval, my friend and dearest companion, had fallen a victim to me and the monster of my creation. I repassed, in my memory, my whole life; my quiet happiness while residing with my family in Geneva, the death of my mother, and my departure for Ingolstadt. I remembered, shuddering, the mad enthusiasm that hurried me on to the creation of my hideous enemy, and I called to mind the night in which he first lived. I was unable to pursue the train of thought; a thousand feelings pressed upon me, and I wept bitterly.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00642", "bookId": 84, "start": 341472, "end": 342495, "sha256": "f04756ddf776ad5e7f1674efc5bf693d0f1cca55a32e5f32101275ec61d9417c", "text": "Ever since my recovery from the fever, I had been in the custom of taking every night a small quantity of laudanum, for it was by means of this drug only that I was enabled to gain the rest necessary for the preservation of life. Oppressed by the recollection of my various misfortunes, I now swallowed double my usual quantity and soon slept profoundly. But sleep did not afford me respite from thought and misery; my dreams presented a thousand objects that scared me. Towards morning I was possessed by a kind of nightmare; I felt the fiend’s grasp in my neck and could not free myself from it; groans and cries rang in my ears. My father, who was watching over me, perceiving my restlessness, awoke me; the dashing waves were around, the cloudy sky above, the fiend was not here: a sense of security, a feeling that a truce was established between the present hour and the irresistible, disastrous future imparted to me a kind of calm forgetfulness, of which the human mind is by its structure peculiarly susceptible.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00643", "bookId": 84, "start": 342500, "end": 342510, "sha256": "a51ee56bbd3b46d7c378bc771447e5a921fda4aaf7568da841c617d45266174d", "text": "Chapter 22", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG84.B00644", "bookId": 84, "start": 342513, "end": 343398, "sha256": "51880b509a88b026875ac30e7f9eb75ef51077fc928859a065d9b2d9ebb3bd76", "text": "The voyage came to an end. We landed, and proceeded to Paris. I soon found that I had overtaxed my strength and that I must repose before I could continue my journey. My father’s care and attentions were indefatigable, but he did not know the origin of my sufferings and sought erroneous methods to remedy the incurable ill. He wished me to seek amusement in society. I abhorred the face of man. Oh, not abhorred! They were my brethren, my fellow beings, and I felt attracted even to the most repulsive among them, as to creatures of an angelic nature and celestial mechanism. But I felt that I had no right to share their intercourse. I had unchained an enemy among them whose joy it was to shed their blood and to revel in their groans. How they would, each and all, abhor me and hunt me from the world, did they know my unhallowed acts and the crimes which had their source in me!", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00645", "bookId": 84, "start": 343400, "end": 343671, "sha256": "647ea42f3954b85f74f5b7d5df547e770fb7379898b43f255527ae72fda270fb", "text": "My father yielded at length to my desire to avoid society and strove by various arguments to banish my despair. Sometimes he thought that I felt deeply the degradation of being obliged to answer a charge of murder, and he endeavoured to prove to me the futility of pride.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00646", "bookId": 84, "start": 343673, "end": 344045, "sha256": "83f8bf91ec3976e0320c63a61439f729c4c0d87f0dcbc6cddd65fb901bdf3932", "text": "“Alas! My father,” said I, “how little do you know me. Human beings, their feelings and passions, would indeed be degraded if such a wretch as I felt pride. Justine, poor unhappy Justine, was as innocent as I, and she suffered the same charge; she died for it; and I am the cause of this—I murdered her. William, Justine, and Henry—they all died by my hands.”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00647", "bookId": 84, "start": 344047, "end": 345114, "sha256": "e86a8eed69712e75b1a93d1c77ff7f877dcf2df1c329a1074b30fcc2132a6d08", "text": "My father had often, during my imprisonment, heard me make the same assertion; when I thus accused myself, he sometimes seemed to desire an explanation, and at others he appeared to consider it as the offspring of delirium, and that, during my illness, some idea of this kind had presented itself to my imagination, the remembrance of which I preserved in my convalescence. I avoided explanation and maintained a continual silence concerning the wretch I had created. I had a persuasion that I should be supposed mad, and this in itself would for ever have chained my tongue. But, besides, I could not bring myself to disclose a secret which would fill my hearer with consternation and make fear and unnatural horror the inmates of his breast. I checked, therefore, my impatient thirst for sympathy and was silent when I would have given the world to have confided the fatal secret. Yet, still, words like those I have recorded would burst uncontrollably from me. I could offer no explanation of them, but their truth in part relieved the burden of my mysterious woe.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00648", "bookId": 84, "start": 345116, "end": 345307, "sha256": "7ce289cd7417a28c5bb509a8d8b8340dfad76afa3409f886de6094cba3ac844f", "text": "Upon this occasion my father said, with an expression of unbounded wonder, “My dearest Victor, what infatuation is this? My dear son, I entreat you never to make such an assertion again.”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00649", "bookId": 84, "start": 345309, "end": 345692, "sha256": "d3b8cd291635d1fd578a177972c626e34d7373397a3ec7c6268e83e397516dc4", "text": "“I am not mad,” I cried energetically; “the sun and the heavens, who have viewed my operations, can bear witness of my truth. I am the assassin of those most innocent victims; they died by my machinations. A thousand times would I have shed my own blood, drop by drop, to have saved their lives; but I could not, my father, indeed I could not sacrifice the whole human race.”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00650", "bookId": 84, "start": 345694, "end": 346051, "sha256": "f308b7deec18f00c485b3d256c1b3f561da4590d69f9b79495c8a8ce83610bb6", "text": "The conclusion of this speech convinced my father that my ideas were deranged, and he instantly changed the subject of our conversation and endeavoured to alter the course of my thoughts. He wished as much as possible to obliterate the memory of the scenes that had taken place in Ireland and never alluded to them or suffered me to speak of my misfortunes.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00651", "bookId": 84, "start": 346053, "end": 346490, "sha256": "221c9e6d5b3fee2d25bc74d518d6b0082706c1db12c7af3d0d95b30c9f739568", "text": "As time passed away I became more calm; misery had her dwelling in my heart, but I no longer talked in the same incoherent manner of my own crimes; sufficient for me was the consciousness of them. By the utmost self-violence I curbed the imperious voice of wretchedness, which sometimes desired to declare itself to the whole world, and my manners were calmer and more composed than they had ever been since my journey to the sea of ice.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00652", "bookId": 84, "start": 346492, "end": 346598, "sha256": "1793460cb560253240db07cdd2cc19353dca15fc4eea8062f76b74c00e2124cf", "text": "A few days before we left Paris on our way to Switzerland, I received the following letter from Elizabeth:", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG84.B00653", "bookId": 84, "start": 346600, "end": 346618, "sha256": "50ba6b520f44b28f3bb3b8c9041cefa593fd05fd354a2917218ce774b760d78d", "text": "“My dear Friend,", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG84.B00654", "bookId": 84, "start": 346620, "end": 347132, "sha256": "4eaea4beeaa09536a7640a78e0152d695c47b5fc07e9e9875bc76d75cf8ed0d8", "text": "“It gave me the greatest pleasure to receive a letter from my uncle dated at Paris; you are no longer at a formidable distance, and I may hope to see you in less than a fortnight. My poor cousin, how much you must have suffered! I expect to see you looking even more ill than when you quitted Geneva. This winter has been passed most miserably, tortured as I have been by anxious suspense; yet I hope to see peace in your countenance and to find that your heart is not totally void of comfort and tranquillity.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00655", "bookId": 84, "start": 347134, "end": 347453, "sha256": "63e18a6e735ff637bcc7d987316d7e368f644ac9b704497c89d6a33fa117ead1", "text": "“Yet I fear that the same feelings now exist that made you so miserable a year ago, even perhaps augmented by time. I would not disturb you at this period, when so many misfortunes weigh upon you, but a conversation that I had with my uncle previous to his departure renders some explanation necessary before we meet.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00656", "bookId": 84, "start": 347455, "end": 347903, "sha256": "3e1c97d17fc70a64feca35008f19f442851b042dfbe51d86bb651c29b4986bc8", "text": "Explanation! You may possibly say, What can Elizabeth have to explain? If you really say this, my questions are answered and all my doubts satisfied. But you are distant from me, and it is possible that you may dread and yet be pleased with this explanation; and in a probability of this being the case, I dare not any longer postpone writing what, during your absence, I have often wished to express to you but have never had the courage to begin.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00657", "bookId": 84, "start": 347905, "end": 348516, "sha256": "3a9318fc4e5f95a1794e17b25684f39ed6bcb5ef281ac021203a31f72ab4494a", "text": "“You well know, Victor, that our union had been the favourite plan of your parents ever since our infancy. We were told this when young, and taught to look forward to it as an event that would certainly take place. We were affectionate playfellows during childhood, and, I believe, dear and valued friends to one another as we grew older. But as brother and sister often entertain a lively affection towards each other without desiring a more intimate union, may not such also be our case? Tell me, dearest Victor. Answer me, I conjure you by our mutual happiness, with simple truth—Do you not love another?", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00658", "bookId": 84, "start": 348518, "end": 349867, "sha256": "882bbd32efecf7d06cea9d4f46228bec4d2dafaf848dafa5395d0980e3da17ce", "text": "“You have travelled; you have spent several years of your life at Ingolstadt; and I confess to you, my friend, that when I saw you last autumn so unhappy, flying to solitude from the society of every creature, I could not help supposing that you might regret our connection and believe yourself bound in honour to fulfil the wishes of your parents, although they opposed themselves to your inclinations. But this is false reasoning. I confess to you, my friend, that I love you and that in my airy dreams of futurity you have been my constant friend and companion. But it is your happiness I desire as well as my own when I declare to you that our marriage would render me eternally miserable unless it were the dictate of your own free choice. Even now I weep to think that, borne down as you are by the cruellest misfortunes, you may stifle, by the word _honour_, all hope of that love and happiness which would alone restore you to yourself. I, who have so disinterested an affection for you, may increase your miseries tenfold by being an obstacle to your wishes. Ah! Victor, be assured that your cousin and playmate has too sincere a love for you not to be made miserable by this supposition. Be happy, my friend; and if you obey me in this one request, remain satisfied that nothing on earth will have the power to interrupt my tranquillity.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00659", "bookId": 84, "start": 349869, "end": 350178, "sha256": "0dca5d532b2255cb9f6eb8aec8054a6556efc406b2fb97abb2740c776093dd26", "text": "“Do not let this letter disturb you; do not answer tomorrow, or the next day, or even until you come, if it will give you pain. My uncle will send me news of your health, and if I see but one smile on your lips when we meet, occasioned by this or any other exertion of mine, I shall need no other happiness.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00660", "bookId": 84, "start": 350180, "end": 350201, "sha256": "d30c024b1096a628a17eec535790cdc2aaf62288b53244b3195c939bfea49d24", "text": "“Elizabeth Lavenza.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG84.B00661", "bookId": 84, "start": 350205, "end": 350234, "sha256": "b218335ae6a33f958bb62e4ac5a4be20ee3d6a96c07a2679cd150846e4a13b1f", "text": "“Geneva, May 18th, 17—”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG84.B00662", "bookId": 84, "start": 350238, "end": 351198, "sha256": "a407122881de3c4c92eacc19c4bb73ea4208d2f161b0857e569676de6ab02c9e", "text": "This letter revived in my memory what I had before forgotten, the threat of the fiend—“_I will be with you on your wedding-night!_” Such was my sentence, and on that night would the dæmon employ every art to destroy me and tear me from the glimpse of happiness which promised partly to console my sufferings. On that night he had determined to consummate his crimes by my death. Well, be it so; a deadly struggle would then assuredly take place, in which if he were victorious I should be at peace and his power over me be at an end. If he were vanquished, I should be a free man. Alas! What freedom? Such as the peasant enjoys when his family have been massacred before his eyes, his cottage burnt, his lands laid waste, and he is turned adrift, homeless, penniless, and alone, but free. Such would be my liberty except that in my Elizabeth I possessed a treasure, alas, balanced by those horrors of remorse and guilt which would pursue me until death.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00663", "bookId": 84, "start": 351200, "end": 352282, "sha256": "510a99c5c3561f114db8c7999bdef7b71d783b643a26f5445687b269717be7d6", "text": "Sweet and beloved Elizabeth! I read and reread her letter, and some softened feelings stole into my heart and dared to whisper paradisiacal dreams of love and joy; but the apple was already eaten, and the angel’s arm bared to drive me from all hope. Yet I would die to make her happy. If the monster executed his threat, death was inevitable; yet, again, I considered whether my marriage would hasten my fate. My destruction might indeed arrive a few months sooner, but if my torturer should suspect that I postponed it, influenced by his menaces, he would surely find other and perhaps more dreadful means of revenge. He had vowed _to be with me on my wedding-night_, yet he did not consider that threat as binding him to peace in the meantime, for as if to show me that he was not yet satiated with blood, he had murdered Clerval immediately after the enunciation of his threats. I resolved, therefore, that if my immediate union with my cousin would conduce either to hers or my father’s happiness, my adversary’s designs against my life should not retard it a single hour.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00664", "bookId": 84, "start": 352284, "end": 353102, "sha256": "7b3702e5bebd200bf1cf5a12ca4893d618b06a018a6192cbb8a0da5e4dd9b038", "text": "In this state of mind I wrote to Elizabeth. My letter was calm and affectionate. “I fear, my beloved girl,” I said, “little happiness remains for us on earth; yet all that I may one day enjoy is centred in you. Chase away your idle fears; to you alone do I consecrate my life and my endeavours for contentment. I have one secret, Elizabeth, a dreadful one; when revealed to you, it will chill your frame with horror, and then, far from being surprised at my misery, you will only wonder that I survive what I have endured. I will confide this tale of misery and terror to you the day after our marriage shall take place, for, my sweet cousin, there must be perfect confidence between us. But until then, I conjure you, do not mention or allude to it. This I most earnestly entreat, and I know you will comply.”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00665", "bookId": 84, "start": 353104, "end": 353547, "sha256": "95eebc69ea2ea89fa5688ce7162af17e81df8cca324dfe0df1870643b8fd697f", "text": "In about a week after the arrival of Elizabeth’s letter we returned to Geneva. The sweet girl welcomed me with warm affection, yet tears were in her eyes as she beheld my emaciated frame and feverish cheeks. I saw a change in her also. She was thinner and had lost much of that heavenly vivacity that had before charmed me; but her gentleness and soft looks of compassion made her a more fit companion for one blasted and miserable as I was.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00666", "bookId": 84, "start": 353549, "end": 353893, "sha256": "beb41811c7135c43bdd1e3f1119c902ea530d84a5925170ac0d90f25993169be", "text": "The tranquillity which I now enjoyed did not endure. Memory brought madness with it, and when I thought of what had passed, a real insanity possessed me; sometimes I was furious and burnt with rage, sometimes low and despondent. I neither spoke nor looked at anyone, but sat motionless, bewildered by the multitude of miseries that overcame me.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00667", "bookId": 84, "start": 353895, "end": 354387, "sha256": "e756847d8b6f57892d7f8f5d9062ac438115e29b68ded22954dff9b68c8deb48", "text": "Elizabeth alone had the power to draw me from these fits; her gentle voice would soothe me when transported by passion and inspire me with human feelings when sunk in torpor. She wept with me and for me. When reason returned, she would remonstrate and endeavour to inspire me with resignation. Ah! It is well for the unfortunate to be resigned, but for the guilty there is no peace. The agonies of remorse poison the luxury there is otherwise sometimes found in indulging the excess of grief.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00668", "bookId": 84, "start": 354389, "end": 354486, "sha256": "852adc9b536734053bf487d8622059041592670764e0a93aba52f63c461c2792", "text": "Soon after my arrival my father spoke of my immediate marriage with Elizabeth. I remained silent.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG84.B00669", "bookId": 84, "start": 354488, "end": 354532, "sha256": "b9808f449e6597a04e81ef27aee8d671d3506b9f477be42d3af541bffb6ddb81", "text": "“Have you, then, some other attachment?”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG84.B00670", "bookId": 84, "start": 354534, "end": 354732, "sha256": "e6099536e24f4a190ee46e107f3ff08c1ed6bdd9adb9a4ee1a3b7b8d02c24980", "text": "“None on earth. I love Elizabeth and look forward to our union with delight. Let the day therefore be fixed; and on it I will consecrate myself, in life or death, to the happiness of my cousin.”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00671", "bookId": 84, "start": 354734, "end": 355166, "sha256": "dcdbf44a4c4516756e082ff5756394061f89fb928f3e5e26e54a2d17b09e0cd2", "text": "“My dear Victor, do not speak thus. Heavy misfortunes have befallen us, but let us only cling closer to what remains and transfer our love for those whom we have lost to those who yet live. Our circle will be small but bound close by the ties of affection and mutual misfortune. And when time shall have softened your despair, new and dear objects of care will be born to replace those of whom we have been so cruelly deprived.”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00672", "bookId": 84, "start": 355168, "end": 355815, "sha256": "231bcd62124296bde5e2d4418181c7964d793318b4bfb138ae8167b5be867c44", "text": "Such were the lessons of my father. But to me the remembrance of the threat returned; nor can you wonder that, omnipotent as the fiend had yet been in his deeds of blood, I should almost regard him as invincible, and that when he had pronounced the words “_I shall be with you on your wedding-night_,” I should regard the threatened fate as unavoidable. But death was no evil to me if the loss of Elizabeth were balanced with it, and I therefore, with a contented and even cheerful countenance, agreed with my father that if my cousin would consent, the ceremony should take place in ten days, and thus put, as I imagined, the seal to my fate.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00673", "bookId": 84, "start": 355817, "end": 356274, "sha256": "ab1f5fbaab09e2945f0d52c70bf8564e37771a6bcb05d72fefbffb24f19b752b", "text": "Great God! If for one instant I had thought what might be the hellish intention of my fiendish adversary, I would rather have banished myself for ever from my native country and wandered a friendless outcast over the earth than have consented to this miserable marriage. But, as if possessed of magic powers, the monster had blinded me to his real intentions; and when I thought that I had prepared only my own death, I hastened that of a far dearer victim.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00674", "bookId": 84, "start": 356276, "end": 356863, "sha256": "48a46347ea99e3c0ab980dd9218d6de622cb5dda3a369764be66ccbf029e720e", "text": "As the period fixed for our marriage drew nearer, whether from cowardice or a prophetic feeling, I felt my heart sink within me. But I concealed my feelings by an appearance of hilarity that brought smiles and joy to the countenance of my father, but hardly deceived the ever-watchful and nicer eye of Elizabeth. She looked forward to our union with placid contentment, not unmingled with a little fear, which past misfortunes had impressed, that what now appeared certain and tangible happiness might soon dissipate into an airy dream and leave no trace but deep and everlasting regret.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00675", "bookId": 84, "start": 356865, "end": 357533, "sha256": "393137a4842cf55d54d06229f5fc0272063195b98efb7f3979c259bc65c30d2f", "text": "Preparations were made for the event, congratulatory visits were received, and all wore a smiling appearance. I shut up, as well as I could, in my own heart the anxiety that preyed there and entered with seeming earnestness into the plans of my father, although they might only serve as the decorations of my tragedy. Through my father’s exertions a part of the inheritance of Elizabeth had been restored to her by the Austrian government. A small possession on the shores of Como belonged to her. It was agreed that, immediately after our union, we should proceed to Villa Lavenza and spend our first days of happiness beside the beautiful lake near which it stood.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00676", "bookId": 84, "start": 357535, "end": 358152, "sha256": "66d88ddbe968a9c2a68a2a4800fab7bfcc1eaef3b6c5604a2b1d8da05cf332f2", "text": "In the meantime I took every precaution to defend my person in case the fiend should openly attack me. I carried pistols and a dagger constantly about me and was ever on the watch to prevent artifice, and by these means gained a greater degree of tranquillity. Indeed, as the period approached, the threat appeared more as a delusion, not to be regarded as worthy to disturb my peace, while the happiness I hoped for in my marriage wore a greater appearance of certainty as the day fixed for its solemnisation drew nearer and I heard it continually spoken of as an occurrence which no accident could possibly prevent.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00677", "bookId": 84, "start": 358154, "end": 358620, "sha256": "ece6e1baf774633d947bd285a24a03079526048ae74f077448055ceb8ff2d768", "text": "Elizabeth seemed happy; my tranquil demeanour contributed greatly to calm her mind. But on the day that was to fulfil my wishes and my destiny, she was melancholy, and a presentiment of evil pervaded her; and perhaps also she thought of the dreadful secret which I had promised to reveal to her on the following day. My father was in the meantime overjoyed, and, in the bustle of preparation, only recognised in the melancholy of his niece the diffidence of a bride.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00678", "bookId": 84, "start": 358622, "end": 358928, "sha256": "c13290ff168f32cfa15c94750601b4da9ddd87f55fd5c1d9bfb5ee5cd482b531", "text": "After the ceremony was performed a large party assembled at my father’s, but it was agreed that Elizabeth and I should commence our journey by water, sleeping that night at Evian and continuing our voyage on the following day. The day was fair, the wind favourable; all smiled on our nuptial embarkation.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00679", "bookId": 84, "start": 358930, "end": 359613, "sha256": "8159feb251f2721a11b115f88e52007ca65ea602ef85d065a0a6c3144194cdd5", "text": "Those were the last moments of my life during which I enjoyed the feeling of happiness. We passed rapidly along; the sun was hot, but we were sheltered from its rays by a kind of canopy while we enjoyed the beauty of the scene, sometimes on one side of the lake, where we saw Mont Salêve, the pleasant banks of Montalègre, and at a distance, surmounting all, the beautiful Mont Blanc, and the assemblage of snowy mountains that in vain endeavour to emulate her; sometimes coasting the opposite banks, we saw the mighty Jura opposing its dark side to the ambition that would quit its native country, and an almost insurmountable barrier to the invader who should wish to enslave it.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00680", "bookId": 84, "start": 359615, "end": 359861, "sha256": "d8146a3edb4f5bfbd248f249f36fb30932dff3744693b67a5a9626356d30008b", "text": "I took the hand of Elizabeth. “You are sorrowful, my love. Ah! If you knew what I have suffered and what I may yet endure, you would endeavour to let me taste the quiet and freedom from despair that this one day at least permits me to enjoy.”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00681", "bookId": 84, "start": 359863, "end": 360558, "sha256": "e8fcd0f8f4e8137fa66327fe62c162cd4ced3bde6a307eb9460c771e409759d5", "text": "“Be happy, my dear Victor,” replied Elizabeth; “there is, I hope, nothing to distress you; and be assured that if a lively joy is not painted in my face, my heart is contented. Something whispers to me not to depend too much on the prospect that is opened before us, but I will not listen to such a sinister voice. Observe how fast we move along and how the clouds, which sometimes obscure and sometimes rise above the dome of Mont Blanc, render this scene of beauty still more interesting. Look also at the innumerable fish that are swimming in the clear waters, where we can distinguish every pebble that lies at the bottom. What a divine day! How happy and serene all nature appears!”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00682", "bookId": 84, "start": 360560, "end": 360796, "sha256": "08cb9085b5a6aad07ffecc47f2d96e02bbc54216d23a2667da39842ce5692513", "text": "Thus Elizabeth endeavoured to divert her thoughts and mine from all reflection upon melancholy subjects. But her temper was fluctuating; joy for a few instants shone in her eyes, but it continually gave place to distraction and reverie.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00683", "bookId": 84, "start": 360798, "end": 361196, "sha256": "a1f80d592b5b46ec63932c6a8b72b24baf25fffdc9cb363590ecbb54c9d16ecd", "text": "The sun sank lower in the heavens; we passed the river Drance and observed its path through the chasms of the higher and the glens of the lower hills. The Alps here come closer to the lake, and we approached the amphitheatre of mountains which forms its eastern boundary. The spire of Evian shone under the woods that surrounded it and the range of mountain above mountain by which it was overhung.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00684", "bookId": 84, "start": 361198, "end": 361640, "sha256": "6ebf8152c199bd21bb2f8ac0a6d3d78090c858da5c74f1919766f8e40f1e821e", "text": "The wind, which had hitherto carried us along with amazing rapidity, sank at sunset to a light breeze; the soft air just ruffled the water and caused a pleasant motion among the trees as we approached the shore, from which it wafted the most delightful scent of flowers and hay. The sun sank beneath the horizon as we landed, and as I touched the shore I felt those cares and fears revive which soon were to clasp me and cling to me for ever.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00685", "bookId": 84, "start": 361645, "end": 361655, "sha256": "84b70376330a2b777fd70953e0e15a0a8ca1436aef9a17df96363d2c819fc965", "text": "Chapter 23", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG84.B00686", "bookId": 84, "start": 361658, "end": 361928, "sha256": "bd4b97a64d24f21b2456af2275b7a20907082f1c10d6d51efdaee3d250e29b91", "text": "It was eight o’clock when we landed; we walked for a short time on the shore, enjoying the transitory light, and then retired to the inn and contemplated the lovely scene of waters, woods, and mountains, obscured in darkness, yet still displaying their black outlines.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00687", "bookId": 84, "start": 361930, "end": 362347, "sha256": "c47913c0819870e0ee9608fe1cd93dc596d02d69a13166bb7bea2fa0a8a9e459", "text": "The wind, which had fallen in the south, now rose with great violence in the west. The moon had reached her summit in the heavens and was beginning to descend; the clouds swept across it swifter than the flight of the vulture and dimmed her rays, while the lake reflected the scene of the busy heavens, rendered still busier by the restless waves that were beginning to rise. Suddenly a heavy storm of rain descended.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00688", "bookId": 84, "start": 362349, "end": 362730, "sha256": "ed23791c07ecdbc73ca2b374186d195d44b46ae2c0c9e32717379ea5d14b3468", "text": "I had been calm during the day, but so soon as night obscured the shapes of objects, a thousand fears arose in my mind. I was anxious and watchful, while my right hand grasped a pistol which was hidden in my bosom; every sound terrified me, but I resolved that I would sell my life dearly and not shrink from the conflict until my own life or that of my adversary was extinguished.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00689", "bookId": 84, "start": 362732, "end": 362977, "sha256": "e6ae6215f94b1b8625638e363e266bc9878b1d0d8d546d252828b7dde64f136a", "text": "Elizabeth observed my agitation for some time in timid and fearful silence, but there was something in my glance which communicated terror to her, and trembling, she asked, “What is it that agitates you, my dear Victor? What is it you fear?”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00690", "bookId": 84, "start": 362979, "end": 363105, "sha256": "986e1e6d590f2cff55c8f4dc6f7c54d2ea1f6afbb0b3e0b19cc3d4fc90acf5c9", "text": "“Oh! Peace, peace, my love,” replied I; “this night, and all will be safe; but this night is dreadful, very dreadful.”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00691", "bookId": 84, "start": 363107, "end": 363381, "sha256": "d52481a003a26189eb59befa0a6cdc2783dfffd72c340b1481905d547e0c2aa1", "text": "I passed an hour in this state of mind, when suddenly I reflected how fearful the combat which I momentarily expected would be to my wife, and I earnestly entreated her to retire, resolving not to join her until I had obtained some knowledge as to the situation of my enemy.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00692", "bookId": 84, "start": 363383, "end": 364097, "sha256": "7a464a0a1392c4b715766084964908159543ac1fe629e58ea894217bfb7276f0", "text": "She left me, and I continued some time walking up and down the passages of the house and inspecting every corner that might afford a retreat to my adversary. But I discovered no trace of him and was beginning to conjecture that some fortunate chance had intervened to prevent the execution of his menaces when suddenly I heard a shrill and dreadful scream. It came from the room into which Elizabeth had retired. As I heard it, the whole truth rushed into my mind, my arms dropped, the motion of every muscle and fibre was suspended; I could feel the blood trickling in my veins and tingling in the extremities of my limbs. This state lasted but for an instant; the scream was repeated, and I rushed into the room.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00693", "bookId": 84, "start": 364099, "end": 364665, "sha256": "08c25eae358169c9404f0023efac2cfc2975c7c0b1a35b853748e569fb313150", "text": "Great God! Why did I not then expire! Why am I here to relate the destruction of the best hope and the purest creature on earth? She was there, lifeless and inanimate, thrown across the bed, her head hanging down and her pale and distorted features half covered by her hair. Everywhere I turn I see the same figure—her bloodless arms and relaxed form flung by the murderer on its bridal bier. Could I behold this and live? Alas! Life is obstinate and clings closest where it is most hated. For a moment only did I lose recollection; I fell senseless on the ground.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00694", "bookId": 84, "start": 364667, "end": 365513, "sha256": "d5b1bf30387b2555e804736a5e8063b7bc4c97e7e2bfd84efbadfdd11e2329f9", "text": "When I recovered I found myself surrounded by the people of the inn; their countenances expressed a breathless terror, but the horror of others appeared only as a mockery, a shadow of the feelings that oppressed me. I escaped from them to the room where lay the body of Elizabeth, my love, my wife, so lately living, so dear, so worthy. She had been moved from the posture in which I had first beheld her, and now, as she lay, her head upon her arm and a handkerchief thrown across her face and neck, I might have supposed her asleep. I rushed towards her and embraced her with ardour, but the deadly languor and coldness of the limbs told me that what I now held in my arms had ceased to be the Elizabeth whom I had loved and cherished. The murderous mark of the fiend’s grasp was on her neck, and the breath had ceased to issue from her lips.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00695", "bookId": 84, "start": 365515, "end": 366198, "sha256": "80e82d6b5001a4e3d335f5c82af10b3679f2f6278c11d6950a86efb8cea6bc5d", "text": "While I still hung over her in the agony of despair, I happened to look up. The windows of the room had before been darkened, and I felt a kind of panic on seeing the pale yellow light of the moon illuminate the chamber. The shutters had been thrown back, and with a sensation of horror not to be described, I saw at the open window a figure the most hideous and abhorred. A grin was on the face of the monster; he seemed to jeer, as with his fiendish finger he pointed towards the corpse of my wife. I rushed towards the window, and drawing a pistol from my bosom, fired; but he eluded me, leaped from his station, and running with the swiftness of lightning, plunged into the lake.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00696", "bookId": 84, "start": 366200, "end": 366625, "sha256": "e784f45497ad09d53670fb46ac162a5a96f252fccf0d31b336d78f6bee99f098", "text": "The report of the pistol brought a crowd into the room. I pointed to the spot where he had disappeared, and we followed the track with boats; nets were cast, but in vain. After passing several hours, we returned hopeless, most of my companions believing it to have been a form conjured up by my fancy. After having landed, they proceeded to search the country, parties going in different directions among the woods and vines.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00697", "bookId": 84, "start": 366627, "end": 367058, "sha256": "8f896fe7a299171b5ef4a62a10525c2196beea2bab494c17194f7bc946472146", "text": "I attempted to accompany them and proceeded a short distance from the house, but my head whirled round, my steps were like those of a drunken man, I fell at last in a state of utter exhaustion; a film covered my eyes, and my skin was parched with the heat of fever. In this state I was carried back and placed on a bed, hardly conscious of what had happened; my eyes wandered round the room as if to seek something that I had lost.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00698", "bookId": 84, "start": 367060, "end": 367878, "sha256": "e2a704e431f23b6a2345f090e4f0b1b850b61824fd4ee6421d1730c30146921e", "text": "After an interval I arose, and as if by instinct, crawled into the room where the corpse of my beloved lay. There were women weeping around; I hung over it and joined my sad tears to theirs; all this time no distinct idea presented itself to my mind, but my thoughts rambled to various subjects, reflecting confusedly on my misfortunes and their cause. I was bewildered, in a cloud of wonder and horror. The death of William, the execution of Justine, the murder of Clerval, and lastly of my wife; even at that moment I knew not that my only remaining friends were safe from the malignity of the fiend; my father even now might be writhing under his grasp, and Ernest might be dead at his feet. This idea made me shudder and recalled me to action. I started up and resolved to return to Geneva with all possible speed.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00699", "bookId": 84, "start": 367880, "end": 369141, "sha256": "4fcc2e7ee1f111576fe6a9cdf367ffee2c74dcd373ef909e686f7dbbf9ce562d", "text": "There were no horses to be procured, and I must return by the lake; but the wind was unfavourable, and the rain fell in torrents. However, it was hardly morning, and I might reasonably hope to arrive by night. I hired men to row and took an oar myself, for I had always experienced relief from mental torment in bodily exercise. But the overflowing misery I now felt, and the excess of agitation that I endured rendered me incapable of any exertion. I threw down the oar, and leaning my head upon my hands, gave way to every gloomy idea that arose. If I looked up, I saw scenes which were familiar to me in my happier time and which I had contemplated but the day before in the company of her who was now but a shadow and a recollection. Tears streamed from my eyes. The rain had ceased for a moment, and I saw the fish play in the waters as they had done a few hours before; they had then been observed by Elizabeth. Nothing is so painful to the human mind as a great and sudden change. The sun might shine or the clouds might lower, but nothing could appear to me as it had done the day before. A fiend had snatched from me every hope of future happiness; no creature had ever been so miserable as I was; so frightful an event is single in the history of man.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00700", "bookId": 84, "start": 369143, "end": 369520, "sha256": "0e854ff97daac30dd43cdc8eb816a8f9e767c807c4262a500d040591b2212437", "text": "But why should I dwell upon the incidents that followed this last overwhelming event? Mine has been a tale of horrors; I have reached their _acme_, and what I must now relate can but be tedious to you. Know that, one by one, my friends were snatched away; I was left desolate. My own strength is exhausted, and I must tell, in a few words, what remains of my hideous narration.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00701", "bookId": 84, "start": 369522, "end": 370242, "sha256": "af3affc7352f71b1c37e828c338c402c7064afa9707f61367413928509262a01", "text": "I arrived at Geneva. My father and Ernest yet lived, but the former sunk under the tidings that I bore. I see him now, excellent and venerable old man! His eyes wandered in vacancy, for they had lost their charm and their delight—his Elizabeth, his more than daughter, whom he doted on with all that affection which a man feels, who in the decline of life, having few affections, clings more earnestly to those that remain. Cursed, cursed be the fiend that brought misery on his grey hairs and doomed him to waste in wretchedness! He could not live under the horrors that were accumulated around him; the springs of existence suddenly gave way; he was unable to rise from his bed, and in a few days he died in my arms.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00702", "bookId": 84, "start": 370244, "end": 370760, "sha256": "14bc26f89c0bd68841039996f1a030ff900f1b6faeeb0cea22738960e3a30268", "text": "What then became of me? I know not; I lost sensation, and chains and darkness were the only objects that pressed upon me. Sometimes, indeed, I dreamt that I wandered in flowery meadows and pleasant vales with the friends of my youth, but I awoke and found myself in a dungeon. Melancholy followed, but by degrees I gained a clear conception of my miseries and situation and was then released from my prison. For they had called me mad, and during many months, as I understood, a solitary cell had been my habitation.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00703", "bookId": 84, "start": 370762, "end": 371267, "sha256": "1ef425aefe39e890b0a82e3183b0f99c7ab053f58f8cc5600ac3fc714e406fb8", "text": "Liberty, however, had been a useless gift to me, had I not, as I awakened to reason, at the same time awakened to revenge. As the memory of past misfortunes pressed upon me, I began to reflect on their cause—the monster whom I had created, the miserable dæmon whom I had sent abroad into the world for my destruction. I was possessed by a maddening rage when I thought of him, and desired and ardently prayed that I might have him within my grasp to wreak a great and signal revenge on his cursed head.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00704", "bookId": 84, "start": 371269, "end": 371652, "sha256": "0c3c1ae560d155ef7d5798ed661738780e159957bf41963512cc8d2d1b8560df", "text": "Nor did my hate long confine itself to useless wishes; I began to reflect on the best means of securing him; and for this purpose, about a month after my release, I repaired to a criminal judge in the town and told him that I had an accusation to make, that I knew the destroyer of my family, and that I required him to exert his whole authority for the apprehension of the murderer.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00705", "bookId": 84, "start": 371654, "end": 371824, "sha256": "1afff02d41574ac46d68df86fbc442bd26af7f9fa555b93a4f230c3e1ef27757", "text": "The magistrate listened to me with attention and kindness. “Be assured, sir,” said he, “no pains or exertions on my part shall be spared to discover the villain.”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00706", "bookId": 84, "start": 371826, "end": 372523, "sha256": "6a37689bb73c3f4048e53c6f21ce1b26ea7ba123e8e9df5c73849e1408a0f776", "text": "“I thank you,” replied I; “listen, therefore, to the deposition that I have to make. It is indeed a tale so strange that I should fear you would not credit it were there not something in truth which, however wonderful, forces conviction. The story is too connected to be mistaken for a dream, and I have no motive for falsehood.” My manner as I thus addressed him was impressive but calm; I had formed in my own heart a resolution to pursue my destroyer to death, and this purpose quieted my agony and for an interval reconciled me to life. I now related my history briefly but with firmness and precision, marking the dates with accuracy and never deviating into invective or exclamation.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00707", "bookId": 84, "start": 372525, "end": 372768, "sha256": "e3e20286fa75569a2fdc85508660615463bfe4c8fef9fb30837b6377f4b8fadf", "text": "The magistrate appeared at first perfectly incredulous, but as I continued he became more attentive and interested; I saw him sometimes shudder with horror; at others a lively surprise, unmingled with disbelief, was painted on his countenance.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00708", "bookId": 84, "start": 372770, "end": 373086, "sha256": "8ccf28d4b9f51280c1f3225a267096a5ab454c46b2cec1b361dffe9752da6d52", "text": "When I had concluded my narration, I said, “This is the being whom I accuse and for whose seizure and punishment I call upon you to exert your whole power. It is your duty as a magistrate, and I believe and hope that your feelings as a man will not revolt from the execution of those functions on this occasion.”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00709", "bookId": 84, "start": 373088, "end": 373867, "sha256": "5bcdc6a98f12ecac6b76ccaef0ce6945ddc1e2d124bb6536ebcc397d92675ad6", "text": "This address caused a considerable change in the physiognomy of my own auditor. He had heard my story with that half kind of belief that is given to a tale of spirits and supernatural events; but when he was called upon to act officially in consequence, the whole tide of his incredulity returned. He, however, answered mildly, “I would willingly afford you every aid in your pursuit, but the creature of whom you speak appears to have powers which would put all my exertions to defiance. Who can follow an animal which can traverse the sea of ice and inhabit caves and dens where no man would venture to intrude? Besides, some months have elapsed since the commission of his crimes, and no one can conjecture to what place he has wandered or what region he may now inhabit.”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00710", "bookId": 84, "start": 373869, "end": 374189, "sha256": "4e0c12773a1e5f6033141c6bbfb339e4752319cfd52f67f07fc983600012dc12", "text": "“I do not doubt that he hovers near the spot which I inhabit, and if he has indeed taken refuge in the Alps, he may be hunted like the chamois and destroyed as a beast of prey. But I perceive your thoughts; you do not credit my narrative and do not intend to pursue my enemy with the punishment which is his desert.”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00711", "bookId": 84, "start": 374191, "end": 374644, "sha256": "e7f5c282adcd9dddfe73dbb685384d7722bb69fa533f7e98c1c1694d8b98b781", "text": "As I spoke, rage sparkled in my eyes; the magistrate was intimidated. “You are mistaken,” said he. “I will exert myself, and if it is in my power to seize the monster, be assured that he shall suffer punishment proportionate to his crimes. But I fear, from what you have yourself described to be his properties, that this will prove impracticable; and thus, while every proper measure is pursued, you should make up your mind to disappointment.”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00712", "bookId": 84, "start": 374646, "end": 375081, "sha256": "f3bfa9671ddeac1cf499ec629788564c3b2185ffe142f1218411fa7716749083", "text": "“That cannot be; but all that I can say will be of little avail. My revenge is of no moment to you; yet, while I allow it to be a vice, I confess that it is the devouring and only passion of my soul. My rage is unspeakable when I reflect that the murderer, whom I have turned loose upon society, still exists. You refuse my just demand; I have but one resource, and I devote myself, either in my life or death, to his destruction.”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00713", "bookId": 84, "start": 375083, "end": 375546, "sha256": "700fa88175dd8bf2b74876eb7a8afe7bf83173a1be6105709898b1972eb0d766", "text": "I trembled with excess of agitation as I said this; there was a frenzy in my manner, and something, I doubt not, of that haughty fierceness which the martyrs of old are said to have possessed. But to a Genevan magistrate, whose mind was occupied by far other ideas than those of devotion and heroism, this elevation of mind had much the appearance of madness. He endeavoured to soothe me as a nurse does a child and reverted to my tale as the effects of delirium.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00714", "bookId": 84, "start": 375548, "end": 375659, "sha256": "9d027c4a4fad25e4af028455819eb72f58a64e4d39671f56d478a67a9e8a41b1", "text": "“Man,” I cried, “how ignorant art thou in thy pride of wisdom! Cease; you know not what it is you say.”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG84.B00715", "bookId": 84, "start": 375661, "end": 375757, "sha256": "38d0f7de4b3a342d67de068ed237858bebf389a9836a1367e694f05d97080f08", "text": "I broke from the house angry and disturbed and retired to meditate on some other mode of action.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG84.B00716", "bookId": 84, "start": 375762, "end": 375772, "sha256": "50638229e1504a4cb5558d747297a248455bf545a4d3ae2f419eff97e548031e", "text": "Chapter 24", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG84.B00717", "bookId": 84, "start": 375775, "end": 376080, "sha256": "a9d27a132b8f5a50dd5207993148014720c5cc98a9cb9e31b555de0366a37d65", "text": "My present situation was one in which all voluntary thought was swallowed up and lost. I was hurried away by fury; revenge alone endowed me with strength and composure; it moulded my feelings and allowed me to be calculating and calm at periods when otherwise delirium or death would have been my portion.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00718", "bookId": 84, "start": 376082, "end": 376346, "sha256": "231b5b0c23a4dfa1cddd1fc2e05563c35eba8cc41f90869c44430c3428c7e322", "text": "My first resolution was to quit Geneva for ever; my country, which, when I was happy and beloved, was dear to me, now, in my adversity, became hateful. I provided myself with a sum of money, together with a few jewels which had belonged to my mother, and departed.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00719", "bookId": 84, "start": 376348, "end": 376755, "sha256": "e0572716f49d608fd6b204df0e4d3e2207dcb7b97e683b14fe6b5794fdf0d29f", "text": "And now my wanderings began which are to cease but with life. I have traversed a vast portion of the earth and have endured all the hardships which travellers in deserts and barbarous countries are wont to meet. How I have lived I hardly know; many times have I stretched my failing limbs upon the sandy plain and prayed for death. But revenge kept me alive; I dared not die and leave my adversary in being.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00720", "bookId": 84, "start": 376757, "end": 377512, "sha256": "f57b3f3daea34d57f3a120f36a77b7765fcee1ff6733f3d4f364d5eccf060430", "text": "When I quitted Geneva my first labour was to gain some clue by which I might trace the steps of my fiendish enemy. But my plan was unsettled, and I wandered many hours round the confines of the town, uncertain what path I should pursue. As night approached I found myself at the entrance of the cemetery where William, Elizabeth, and my father reposed. I entered it and approached the tomb which marked their graves. Everything was silent except the leaves of the trees, which were gently agitated by the wind; the night was nearly dark, and the scene would have been solemn and affecting even to an uninterested observer. The spirits of the departed seemed to flit around and to cast a shadow, which was felt but not seen, around the head of the mourner.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00721", "bookId": 84, "start": 377514, "end": 378490, "sha256": "9f00fdcfe49e45176a4e6f7046bf8a65ea7d2b24c1fbec9a6b63c71308ab3926", "text": "The deep grief which this scene had at first excited quickly gave way to rage and despair. They were dead, and I lived; their murderer also lived, and to destroy him I must drag out my weary existence. I knelt on the grass and kissed the earth and with quivering lips exclaimed, “By the sacred earth on which I kneel, by the shades that wander near me, by the deep and eternal grief that I feel, I swear; and by thee, O Night, and the spirits that preside over thee, to pursue the dæmon who caused this misery, until he or I shall perish in mortal conflict. For this purpose I will preserve my life; to execute this dear revenge will I again behold the sun and tread the green herbage of earth, which otherwise should vanish from my eyes for ever. And I call on you, spirits of the dead, and on you, wandering ministers of vengeance, to aid and conduct me in my work. Let the cursed and hellish monster drink deep of agony; let him feel the despair that now torments me.”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00722", "bookId": 84, "start": 378492, "end": 378712, "sha256": "be0686270516fe1d4b7b728aae9069e49043d299fc5352bb050d47dc1e13086e", "text": "I had begun my adjuration with solemnity and an awe which almost assured me that the shades of my murdered friends heard and approved my devotion, but the furies possessed me as I concluded, and rage choked my utterance.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00723", "bookId": 84, "start": 378714, "end": 379304, "sha256": "1930c88034faa7c3c8ebf5f218b3237a235004e2cc6f0ad618127c18470e91d5", "text": "I was answered through the stillness of night by a loud and fiendish laugh. It rang on my ears long and heavily; the mountains re-echoed it, and I felt as if all hell surrounded me with mockery and laughter. Surely in that moment I should have been possessed by frenzy and have destroyed my miserable existence but that my vow was heard and that I was reserved for vengeance. The laughter died away, when a well-known and abhorred voice, apparently close to my ear, addressed me in an audible whisper, “I am satisfied, miserable wretch! You have determined to live, and I am satisfied.”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00724", "bookId": 84, "start": 379306, "end": 379528, "sha256": "cfe85c73dbceb8127add550affe72e211e782c48e284670f80ef09dd9b0fd59d", "text": "I darted towards the spot from which the sound proceeded, but the devil eluded my grasp. Suddenly the broad disk of the moon arose and shone full upon his ghastly and distorted shape as he fled with more than mortal speed.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00725", "bookId": 84, "start": 379530, "end": 379873, "sha256": "960f9a5fcb7d47af9e8e98737a9de426254d4071df90d6e9bd237ef91a5becaf", "text": "I pursued him, and for many months this has been my task. Guided by a slight clue, I followed the windings of the Rhone, but vainly. The blue Mediterranean appeared, and by a strange chance, I saw the fiend enter by night and hide himself in a vessel bound for the Black Sea. I took my passage in the same ship, but he escaped, I know not how.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00726", "bookId": 84, "start": 379875, "end": 381164, "sha256": "4c228e168cc245b577c883d0174639161a28020b4480dc5983ef9ff37a63e449", "text": "Amidst the wilds of Tartary and Russia, although he still evaded me, I have ever followed in his track. Sometimes the peasants, scared by this horrid apparition, informed me of his path; sometimes he himself, who feared that if I lost all trace of him I should despair and die, left some mark to guide me. The snows descended on my head, and I saw the print of his huge step on the white plain. To you first entering on life, to whom care is new and agony unknown, how can you understand what I have felt and still feel? Cold, want, and fatigue were the least pains which I was destined to endure; I was cursed by some devil and carried about with me my eternal hell; yet still a spirit of good followed and directed my steps and when I most murmured would suddenly extricate me from seemingly insurmountable difficulties. Sometimes, when nature, overcome by hunger, sank under the exhaustion, a repast was prepared for me in the desert that restored and inspirited me. The fare was, indeed, coarse, such as the peasants of the country ate, but I will not doubt that it was set there by the spirits that I had invoked to aid me. Often, when all was dry, the heavens cloudless, and I was parched by thirst, a slight cloud would bedim the sky, shed the few drops that revived me, and vanish.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00727", "bookId": 84, "start": 381166, "end": 381693, "sha256": "1ba308d1b7dbced7a784db791d2bd1a71686069efc2d4f82a1a9c676d27a0073", "text": "I followed, when I could, the courses of the rivers; but the dæmon generally avoided these, as it was here that the population of the country chiefly collected. In other places human beings were seldom seen, and I generally subsisted on the wild animals that crossed my path. I had money with me and gained the friendship of the villagers by distributing it; or I brought with me some food that I had killed, which, after taking a small part, I always presented to those who had provided me with fire and utensils for cooking.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00728", "bookId": 84, "start": 381695, "end": 383010, "sha256": "321732c7a46f60b1c8523978adda0ea3c61febeb796ce2525519927d1a880179", "text": "My life, as it passed thus, was indeed hateful to me, and it was during sleep alone that I could taste joy. O blessed sleep! Often, when most miserable, I sank to repose, and my dreams lulled me even to rapture. The spirits that guarded me had provided these moments, or rather hours, of happiness that I might retain strength to fulfil my pilgrimage. Deprived of this respite, I should have sunk under my hardships. During the day I was sustained and inspirited by the hope of night, for in sleep I saw my friends, my wife, and my beloved country; again I saw the benevolent countenance of my father, heard the silver tones of my Elizabeth’s voice, and beheld Clerval enjoying health and youth. Often, when wearied by a toilsome march, I persuaded myself that I was dreaming until night should come and that I should then enjoy reality in the arms of my dearest friends. What agonising fondness did I feel for them! How did I cling to their dear forms, as sometimes they haunted even my waking hours, and persuade myself that they still lived! At such moments vengeance, that burned within me, died in my heart, and I pursued my path towards the destruction of the dæmon more as a task enjoined by heaven, as the mechanical impulse of some power of which I was unconscious, than as the ardent desire of my soul.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00729", "bookId": 84, "start": 383012, "end": 383684, "sha256": "c8d2c92cc733256ba0e6ec5c57db048b5c63f0724c513319d0d601ae8c2f2670", "text": "What his feelings were whom I pursued I cannot know. Sometimes, indeed, he left marks in writing on the barks of the trees or cut in stone that guided me and instigated my fury. “My reign is not yet over”—these words were legible in one of these inscriptions—“you live, and my power is complete. Follow me; I seek the everlasting ices of the north, where you will feel the misery of cold and frost, to which I am impassive. You will find near this place, if you follow not too tardily, a dead hare; eat and be refreshed. Come on, my enemy; we have yet to wrestle for our lives, but many hard and miserable hours must you endure until that period shall arrive.”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00730", "bookId": 84, "start": 383686, "end": 384004, "sha256": "3c5b5305af095ef7483ee2d9be7bb3434fc33a34fab5be69ff19cb3ba094542a", "text": "Scoffing devil! Again do I vow vengeance; again do I devote thee, miserable fiend, to torture and death. Never will I give up my search until he or I perish; and then with what ecstasy shall I join my Elizabeth and my departed friends, who even now prepare for me the reward of my tedious toil and horrible pilgrimage!", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00731", "bookId": 84, "start": 384006, "end": 384446, "sha256": "2fc9f34a36c41d880c09df77e0220baae5220fb4ddb4d6268dc5f5bab8886a49", "text": "As I still pursued my journey to the northward, the snows thickened and the cold increased in a degree almost too severe to support. The peasants were shut up in their hovels, and only a few of the most hardy ventured forth to seize the animals whom starvation had forced from their hiding-places to seek for prey. The rivers were covered with ice, and no fish could be procured; and thus I was cut off from my chief article of maintenance.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00732", "bookId": 84, "start": 384448, "end": 384740, "sha256": "6ad17b14e2db1e116362781d687349aa38f1be1014e4393173f217bce4daed5c", "text": "The triumph of my enemy increased with the difficulty of my labours. One inscription that he left was in these words: “Prepare! Your toils only begin; wrap yourself in furs and provide food, for we shall soon enter upon a journey where your sufferings will satisfy my everlasting hatred.”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00733", "bookId": 84, "start": 384742, "end": 385534, "sha256": "2ed15755eada70fa41a8a85f7253e12d7d26ad91ca30228cd0fcf203d6a92d81", "text": "My courage and perseverance were invigorated by these scoffing words; I resolved not to fail in my purpose, and calling on Heaven to support me, I continued with unabated fervour to traverse immense deserts, until the ocean appeared at a distance and formed the utmost boundary of the horizon. Oh! How unlike it was to the blue seasons of the south! Covered with ice, it was only to be distinguished from land by its superior wildness and ruggedness. The Greeks wept for joy when they beheld the Mediterranean from the hills of Asia, and hailed with rapture the boundary of their toils. I did not weep, but I knelt down and with a full heart thanked my guiding spirit for conducting me in safety to the place where I hoped, notwithstanding my adversary’s gibe, to meet and grapple with him.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00734", "bookId": 84, "start": 385536, "end": 386750, "sha256": "b1642f6b2651b2a81687fa7f83240ff29c618ef222fc0d618fb4fededb4e8f36", "text": "Some weeks before this period I had procured a sledge and dogs and thus traversed the snows with inconceivable speed. I know not whether the fiend possessed the same advantages, but I found that, as before I had daily lost ground in the pursuit, I now gained on him, so much so that when I first saw the ocean he was but one day’s journey in advance, and I hoped to intercept him before he should reach the beach. With new courage, therefore, I pressed on, and in two days arrived at a wretched hamlet on the seashore. I inquired of the inhabitants concerning the fiend and gained accurate information. A gigantic monster, they said, had arrived the night before, armed with a gun and many pistols, putting to flight the inhabitants of a solitary cottage through fear of his terrific appearance. He had carried off their store of winter food, and placing it in a sledge, to draw which he had seized on a numerous drove of trained dogs, he had harnessed them, and the same night, to the joy of the horror-struck villagers, had pursued his journey across the sea in a direction that led to no land; and they conjectured that he must speedily be destroyed by the breaking of the ice or frozen by the eternal frosts.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00735", "bookId": 84, "start": 386752, "end": 387374, "sha256": "20a298277d9fc67bdb9eeee978d7e3744c849446049756f3476b9bc629c35226", "text": "On hearing this information I suffered a temporary access of despair. He had escaped me, and I must commence a destructive and almost endless journey across the mountainous ices of the ocean, amidst cold that few of the inhabitants could long endure and which I, the native of a genial and sunny climate, could not hope to survive. Yet at the idea that the fiend should live and be triumphant, my rage and vengeance returned, and like a mighty tide, overwhelmed every other feeling. After a slight repose, during which the spirits of the dead hovered round and instigated me to toil and revenge, I prepared for my journey.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00736", "bookId": 84, "start": 387376, "end": 387532, "sha256": "8077c5c9498162acf9f48798fba0328b88b27faf70acee793ca9b5e389d66fdf", "text": "I exchanged my land-sledge for one fashioned for the inequalities of the Frozen Ocean, and purchasing a plentiful stock of provisions, I departed from land.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00737", "bookId": 84, "start": 387534, "end": 387941, "sha256": "6520240bcf15113e466e8007df2b04111fb8fdb93c639f988deb805075829de6", "text": "I cannot guess how many days have passed since then, but I have endured misery which nothing but the eternal sentiment of a just retribution burning within my heart could have enabled me to support. Immense and rugged mountains of ice often barred up my passage, and I often heard the thunder of the ground sea, which threatened my destruction. But again the frost came and made the paths of the sea secure.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00738", "bookId": 84, "start": 387943, "end": 389010, "sha256": "8d92be7a1eed95bfd1bad294f194af7dc529946bd3bd6a617514eccfa8fefe41", "text": "By the quantity of provision which I had consumed, I should guess that I had passed three weeks in this journey; and the continual protraction of hope, returning back upon the heart, often wrung bitter drops of despondency and grief from my eyes. Despair had indeed almost secured her prey, and I should soon have sunk beneath this misery. Once, after the poor animals that conveyed me had with incredible toil gained the summit of a sloping ice mountain, and one, sinking under his fatigue, died, I viewed the expanse before me with anguish, when suddenly my eye caught a dark speck upon the dusky plain. I strained my sight to discover what it could be and uttered a wild cry of ecstasy when I distinguished a sledge and the distorted proportions of a well-known form within. Oh! With what a burning gush did hope revisit my heart! Warm tears filled my eyes, which I hastily wiped away, that they might not intercept the view I had of the dæmon; but still my sight was dimmed by the burning drops, until, giving way to the emotions that oppressed me, I wept aloud.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00739", "bookId": 84, "start": 389012, "end": 389580, "sha256": "aed15e5c18429533dcbcf39ead2a40cb0d3d4da1fe4692565cb4d8403ece77b8", "text": "But this was not the time for delay; I disencumbered the dogs of their dead companion, gave them a plentiful portion of food, and after an hour’s rest, which was absolutely necessary, and yet which was bitterly irksome to me, I continued my route. The sledge was still visible, nor did I again lose sight of it except at the moments when for a short time some ice-rock concealed it with its intervening crags. I indeed perceptibly gained on it, and when, after nearly two days’ journey, I beheld my enemy at no more than a mile distant, my heart bounded within me.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00740", "bookId": 84, "start": 389582, "end": 390279, "sha256": "22369a73f10ef0d5517eba9a5f8b92b07a453d787e31bf51c04301404810c53a", "text": "But now, when I appeared almost within grasp of my foe, my hopes were suddenly extinguished, and I lost all trace of him more utterly than I had ever done before. A ground sea was heard; the thunder of its progress, as the waters rolled and swelled beneath me, became every moment more ominous and terrific. I pressed on, but in vain. The wind arose; the sea roared; and, as with the mighty shock of an earthquake, it split and cracked with a tremendous and overwhelming sound. The work was soon finished; in a few minutes a tumultuous sea rolled between me and my enemy, and I was left drifting on a scattered piece of ice that was continually lessening and thus preparing for me a hideous death.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00741", "bookId": 84, "start": 390281, "end": 391167, "sha256": "654c884687d013ca7709c9b013301ac04cc97cb70e7c98f2febca97ecc42ebc0", "text": "In this manner many appalling hours passed; several of my dogs died, and I myself was about to sink under the accumulation of distress when I saw your vessel riding at anchor and holding forth to me hopes of succour and life. I had no conception that vessels ever came so far north and was astounded at the sight. I quickly destroyed part of my sledge to construct oars, and by these means was enabled, with infinite fatigue, to move my ice raft in the direction of your ship. I had determined, if you were going southwards, still to trust myself to the mercy of the seas rather than abandon my purpose. I hoped to induce you to grant me a boat with which I could pursue my enemy. But your direction was northwards. You took me on board when my vigour was exhausted, and I should soon have sunk under my multiplied hardships into a death which I still dread, for my task is unfulfilled.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00742", "bookId": 84, "start": 391169, "end": 392158, "sha256": "760476fe296b0ddb334280e8f4406bf4f7ec86bcb271b1b37b8455149ae0ca75", "text": "Oh! When will my guiding spirit, in conducting me to the dæmon, allow me the rest I so much desire; or must I die, and he yet live? If I do, swear to me, Walton, that he shall not escape, that you will seek him and satisfy my vengeance in his death. And do I dare to ask of you to undertake my pilgrimage, to endure the hardships that I have undergone? No; I am not so selfish. Yet, when I am dead, if he should appear, if the ministers of vengeance should conduct him to you, swear that he shall not live—swear that he shall not triumph over my accumulated woes and survive to add to the list of his dark crimes. He is eloquent and persuasive, and once his words had even power over my heart; but trust him not. His soul is as hellish as his form, full of treachery and fiend-like malice. Hear him not; call on the names of William, Justine, Clerval, Elizabeth, my father, and of the wretched Victor, and thrust your sword into his heart. I will hover near and direct the steel aright.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00743", "bookId": 84, "start": 392160, "end": 392186, "sha256": "36c2929e1bd859c8aa1252cb3da82b4dba5c57b201b354b8a2ae1e83cfbb0a18", "text": "Walton, _in continuation._", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG84.B00744", "bookId": 84, "start": 392189, "end": 392208, "sha256": "5b9a8c66c51c8281057d6721c49dc0fbefca3ea2429d40c794872fdf12647e61", "text": "August 26th, 17—.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG84.B00745", "bookId": 84, "start": 392211, "end": 392967, "sha256": "e84da5c823ee9c0abd0c046608d328c790a0b2431c033bf09f52b9083f48db8f", "text": "You have read this strange and terrific story, Margaret; and do you not feel your blood congeal with horror, like that which even now curdles mine? Sometimes, seized with sudden agony, he could not continue his tale; at others, his voice broken, yet piercing, uttered with difficulty the words so replete with anguish. His fine and lovely eyes were now lighted up with indignation, now subdued to downcast sorrow and quenched in infinite wretchedness. Sometimes he commanded his countenance and tones and related the most horrible incidents with a tranquil voice, suppressing every mark of agitation; then, like a volcano bursting forth, his face would suddenly change to an expression of the wildest rage as he shrieked out imprecations on his persecutor.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00746", "bookId": 84, "start": 392969, "end": 393530, "sha256": "72fe8863e840f090ceb80aeb56782c6990e795f7d7195b5a82588644595e65bb", "text": "His tale is connected and told with an appearance of the simplest truth, yet I own to you that the letters of Felix and Safie, which he showed me, and the apparition of the monster seen from our ship, brought to me a greater conviction of the truth of his narrative than his asseverations, however earnest and connected. Such a monster has, then, really existence! I cannot doubt it, yet I am lost in surprise and admiration. Sometimes I endeavoured to gain from Frankenstein the particulars of his creature’s formation, but on this point he was impenetrable.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00747", "bookId": 84, "start": 393532, "end": 393766, "sha256": "0148fd73ced1d3afa51d514283fe94688bfc15e7732cdfc262b2082207a296d1", "text": "“Are you mad, my friend?” said he. “Or whither does your senseless curiosity lead you? Would you also create for yourself and the world a demoniacal enemy? Peace, peace! Learn my miseries and do not seek to increase your own.”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00748", "bookId": 84, "start": 393768, "end": 394129, "sha256": "48d038ebf138b4680761c10b0064d7c1505bf9be34d933fb2e45e970f6d0fa27", "text": "Frankenstein discovered that I made notes concerning his history; he asked to see them and then himself corrected and augmented them in many places, but principally in giving the life and spirit to the conversations he held with his enemy. “Since you have preserved my narration,” said he, “I would not that a mutilated one should go down to posterity.”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00749", "bookId": 84, "start": 394131, "end": 395084, "sha256": "bdc2dd8687b0553dfc536b9eb799820c5fa621d42d4dc513e9be0b8872597b7b", "text": "Thus has a week passed away, while I have listened to the strangest tale that ever imagination formed. My thoughts and every feeling of my soul have been drunk up by the interest for my guest which this tale and his own elevated and gentle manners have created. I wish to soothe him, yet can I counsel one so infinitely miserable, so destitute of every hope of consolation, to live? Oh, no! The only joy that he can now know will be when he composes his shattered spirit to peace and death. Yet he enjoys one comfort, the offspring of solitude and delirium; he believes that when in dreams he holds converse with his friends and derives from that communion consolation for his miseries or excitements to his vengeance, that they are not the creations of his fancy, but the beings themselves who visit him from the regions of a remote world. This faith gives a solemnity to his reveries that render them to me almost as imposing and interesting as truth.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00750", "bookId": 84, "start": 395086, "end": 395613, "sha256": "a9cbee8daf5f05da118d8e5d99b6c15add31b56f9010282444a6e49931077299", "text": "Our conversations are not always confined to his own history and misfortunes. On every point of general literature he displays unbounded knowledge and a quick and piercing apprehension. His eloquence is forcible and touching; nor can I hear him, when he relates a pathetic incident or endeavours to move the passions of pity or love, without tears. What a glorious creature must he have been in the days of his prosperity, when he is thus noble and godlike in ruin! He seems to feel his own worth and the greatness of his fall.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00751", "bookId": 84, "start": 395615, "end": 397112, "sha256": "5a3ec31b7926927898f65b895503af0f4de8e610d671fed46f91cf7838c5a8de", "text": "“When younger,” said he, “I believed myself destined for some great enterprise. My feelings are profound, but I possessed a coolness of judgment that fitted me for illustrious achievements. This sentiment of the worth of my nature supported me when others would have been oppressed, for I deemed it criminal to throw away in useless grief those talents that might be useful to my fellow creatures. When I reflected on the work I had completed, no less a one than the creation of a sensitive and rational animal, I could not rank myself with the herd of common projectors. But this thought, which supported me in the commencement of my career, now serves only to plunge me lower in the dust. All my speculations and hopes are as nothing, and like the archangel who aspired to omnipotence, I am chained in an eternal hell. My imagination was vivid, yet my powers of analysis and application were intense; by the union of these qualities I conceived the idea and executed the creation of a man. Even now I cannot recollect without passion my reveries while the work was incomplete. I trod heaven in my thoughts, now exulting in my powers, now burning with the idea of their effects. From my infancy I was imbued with high hopes and a lofty ambition; but how am I sunk! Oh! My friend, if you had known me as I once was, you would not recognise me in this state of degradation. Despondency rarely visited my heart; a high destiny seemed to bear me on, until I fell, never, never again to rise.”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00752", "bookId": 84, "start": 397114, "end": 397414, "sha256": "f58eeba95b5aa840933ac887ed1074fd9bbdde956af2fa6fb2c4582d23ba32c0", "text": "Must I then lose this admirable being? I have longed for a friend; I have sought one who would sympathise with and love me. Behold, on these desert seas I have found such a one, but I fear I have gained him only to know his value and lose him. I would reconcile him to life, but he repulses the idea.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00753", "bookId": 84, "start": 397416, "end": 398926, "sha256": "aec3f9eda95ad212195b11e480c445d76eb35b5ff920e1a5a9002ee451522aec", "text": "“I thank you, Walton,” he said, “for your kind intentions towards so miserable a wretch; but when you speak of new ties and fresh affections, think you that any can replace those who are gone? Can any man be to me as Clerval was, or any woman another Elizabeth? Even where the affections are not strongly moved by any superior excellence, the companions of our childhood always possess a certain power over our minds which hardly any later friend can obtain. They know our infantine dispositions, which, however they may be afterwards modified, are never eradicated; and they can judge of our actions with more certain conclusions as to the integrity of our motives. A sister or a brother can never, unless indeed such symptoms have been shown early, suspect the other of fraud or false dealing, when another friend, however strongly he may be attached, may, in spite of himself, be contemplated with suspicion. But I enjoyed friends, dear not only through habit and association, but from their own merits; and wherever I am, the soothing voice of my Elizabeth and the conversation of Clerval will be ever whispered in my ear. They are dead, and but one feeling in such a solitude can persuade me to preserve my life. If I were engaged in any high undertaking or design, fraught with extensive utility to my fellow creatures, then could I live to fulfil it. But such is not my destiny; I must pursue and destroy the being to whom I gave existence; then my lot on earth will be fulfilled and I may die.”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00754", "bookId": 84, "start": 398928, "end": 398946, "sha256": "25cab7d08fbb1db588cc083a1dd730092b2595ff782e5755af670410404da3ee", "text": "My beloved Sister,", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG84.B00755", "bookId": 84, "start": 398948, "end": 398961, "sha256": "b3896ed39b4c2f19a0edf0166135ffd1b41d01cef54dfd4e5cab5fb15fa103bc", "text": "September 2d.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG84.B00756", "bookId": 84, "start": 398964, "end": 399557, "sha256": "373184886c05b234c53a5d4d4d9ba042327eb1c3e60f7a41c00c0d3658bedd94", "text": "I write to you, encompassed by peril and ignorant whether I am ever doomed to see again dear England and the dearer friends that inhabit it. I am surrounded by mountains of ice which admit of no escape and threaten every moment to crush my vessel. The brave fellows whom I have persuaded to be my companions look towards me for aid, but I have none to bestow. There is something terribly appalling in our situation, yet my courage and hopes do not desert me. Yet it is terrible to reflect that the lives of all these men are endangered through me. If we are lost, my mad schemes are the cause.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00757", "bookId": 84, "start": 399559, "end": 400001, "sha256": "2b8cbd561939ba15a53dd58b8bde6bce8994b00d6acfd5fe6be88656f51ca801", "text": "And what, Margaret, will be the state of your mind? You will not hear of my destruction, and you will anxiously await my return. Years will pass, and you will have visitings of despair and yet be tortured by hope. Oh! My beloved sister, the sickening failing of your heart-felt expectations is, in prospect, more terrible to me than my own death. But you have a husband and lovely children; you may be happy. Heaven bless you and make you so!", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00758", "bookId": 84, "start": 400003, "end": 400710, "sha256": "dce763d904e334d38a2171b54983271c6ed0ca39532bc893423529ac9a631227", "text": "My unfortunate guest regards me with the tenderest compassion. He endeavours to fill me with hope and talks as if life were a possession which he valued. He reminds me how often the same accidents have happened to other navigators who have attempted this sea, and in spite of myself, he fills me with cheerful auguries. Even the sailors feel the power of his eloquence; when he speaks, they no longer despair; he rouses their energies, and while they hear his voice they believe these vast mountains of ice are mole-hills which will vanish before the resolutions of man. These feelings are transitory; each day of expectation delayed fills them with fear, and I almost dread a mutiny caused by this despair.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00759", "bookId": 84, "start": 400712, "end": 400726, "sha256": "fbc50529bc5ba9974e4920f3cfda4d2fa7030519ea5b8c46b46a86a6bab2b5fb", "text": "September 5th.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG84.B00760", "bookId": 84, "start": 400729, "end": 400889, "sha256": "9101f83d6cbb626475289477fcc610bff065299e6ebdb4cf280cba0baf560e3a", "text": "A scene has just passed of such uncommon interest that, although it is highly probable that these papers may never reach you, yet I cannot forbear recording it.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00761", "bookId": 84, "start": 400891, "end": 401317, "sha256": "05c165775966cd9295587d7f80fd2ce6f3311529c5cd172b2b2ec1eaf90b4a88", "text": "We are still surrounded by mountains of ice, still in imminent danger of being crushed in their conflict. The cold is excessive, and many of my unfortunate comrades have already found a grave amidst this scene of desolation. Frankenstein has daily declined in health; a feverish fire still glimmers in his eyes, but he is exhausted, and when suddenly roused to any exertion, he speedily sinks again into apparent lifelessness.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00762", "bookId": 84, "start": 401319, "end": 402236, "sha256": "f9c2424550cbce5015821240fad7798dda029f7007e3466f16ec8b1d88376698", "text": "I mentioned in my last letter the fears I entertained of a mutiny. This morning, as I sat watching the wan countenance of my friend—his eyes half closed and his limbs hanging listlessly—I was roused by half a dozen of the sailors, who demanded admission into the cabin. They entered, and their leader addressed me. He told me that he and his companions had been chosen by the other sailors to come in deputation to me to make me a requisition which, in justice, I could not refuse. We were immured in ice and should probably never escape, but they feared that if, as was possible, the ice should dissipate and a free passage be opened, I should be rash enough to continue my voyage and lead them into fresh dangers, after they might happily have surmounted this. They insisted, therefore, that I should engage with a solemn promise that if the vessel should be freed I would instantly direct my course southwards.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00763", "bookId": 84, "start": 402238, "end": 402669, "sha256": "9445017d88674efec148bf1787ea91e34efa2a5a7cec57246f0805a7f270b35d", "text": "This speech troubled me. I had not despaired, nor had I yet conceived the idea of returning if set free. Yet could I, in justice, or even in possibility, refuse this demand? I hesitated before I answered, when Frankenstein, who had at first been silent, and indeed appeared hardly to have force enough to attend, now roused himself; his eyes sparkled, and his cheeks flushed with momentary vigour. Turning towards the men, he said,", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00764", "bookId": 84, "start": 402671, "end": 404253, "sha256": "eef26713fc3929708a2a2e58e8bc759b5e95a7b9848617c6fa811e98db923c6d", "text": "“What do you mean? What do you demand of your captain? Are you, then, so easily turned from your design? Did you not call this a glorious expedition? “And wherefore was it glorious? Not because the way was smooth and placid as a southern sea, but because it was full of dangers and terror, because at every new incident your fortitude was to be called forth and your courage exhibited, because danger and death surrounded it, and these you were to brave and overcome. For this was it a glorious, for this was it an honourable undertaking. You were hereafter to be hailed as the benefactors of your species, your names adored as belonging to brave men who encountered death for honour and the benefit of mankind. And now, behold, with the first imagination of danger, or, if you will, the first mighty and terrific trial of your courage, you shrink away and are content to be handed down as men who had not strength enough to endure cold and peril; and so, poor souls, they were chilly and returned to their warm firesides. Why, that requires not this preparation; ye need not have come thus far and dragged your captain to the shame of a defeat merely to prove yourselves cowards. Oh! Be men, or be more than men. Be steady to your purposes and firm as a rock. This ice is not made of such stuff as your hearts may be; it is mutable and cannot withstand you if you say that it shall not. Do not return to your families with the stigma of disgrace marked on your brows. Return as heroes who have fought and conquered and who know not what it is to turn their backs on the foe.”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00765", "bookId": 84, "start": 404255, "end": 404712, "sha256": "16a622bffd47bca4afbf7437fee23d50b68da048de5656438b635081bcce4a3d", "text": "He spoke this with a voice so modulated to the different feelings expressed in his speech, with an eye so full of lofty design and heroism, that can you wonder that these men were moved? They looked at one another and were unable to reply. I spoke; I told them to retire and consider of what had been said, that I would not lead them farther north if they strenuously desired the contrary, but that I hoped that, with reflection, their courage would return.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00766", "bookId": 84, "start": 404714, "end": 404814, "sha256": "c3ff0e485e561e952a33d1dfbf871f7ec150036bec6cf9804d75c318d15c8e3e", "text": "They retired and I turned towards my friend, but he was sunk in languor and almost deprived of life.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG84.B00767", "bookId": 84, "start": 404816, "end": 405073, "sha256": "ff72a68b3456dd026fd55d1b8d940cfb5a8d6c2e87a30c571e1cf6edf1dc01c9", "text": "How all this will terminate, I know not, but I had rather die than return shamefully, my purpose unfulfilled. Yet I fear such will be my fate; the men, unsupported by ideas of glory and honour, can never willingly continue to endure their present hardships.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00768", "bookId": 84, "start": 405075, "end": 405089, "sha256": "e5768767f0478d2422704838e7fd0ca471cb2d5f7ff2618167581c0e52118cfc", "text": "September 7th.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG84.B00769", "bookId": 84, "start": 405092, "end": 405335, "sha256": "e175918d38f7c7d35840fb42f601f1767759e0e5055c074dfc40348fa5eb4191", "text": "The die is cast; I have consented to return if we are not destroyed. Thus are my hopes blasted by cowardice and indecision; I come back ignorant and disappointed. It requires more philosophy than I possess to bear this injustice with patience.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00770", "bookId": 84, "start": 405337, "end": 405352, "sha256": "19b83db82c0fca5058eb466c0b880e80562f0f9c1f766533e04bbab9622ec8ec", "text": "September 12th.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG84.B00771", "bookId": 84, "start": 405355, "end": 405616, "sha256": "7e3f09b99e43f6d0a4432a3a45b31cad541f9086e0d5d7e17afc54d2a8fa1f70", "text": "It is past; I am returning to England. I have lost my hopes of utility and glory; I have lost my friend. But I will endeavour to detail these bitter circumstances to you, my dear sister; and while I am wafted towards England and towards you, I will not despond.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00772", "bookId": 84, "start": 405618, "end": 406451, "sha256": "1f58088b4571e82f2ead7015b051be79b035bd66ed9dd8446a03e9953bbac699", "text": "September 9th, the ice began to move, and roarings like thunder were heard at a distance as the islands split and cracked in every direction. We were in the most imminent peril, but as we could only remain passive, my chief attention was occupied by my unfortunate guest whose illness increased in such a degree that he was entirely confined to his bed. The ice cracked behind us and was driven with force towards the north; a breeze sprang from the west, and on the 11th the passage towards the south became perfectly free. When the sailors saw this and that their return to their native country was apparently assured, a shout of tumultuous joy broke from them, loud and long-continued. Frankenstein, who was dozing, awoke and asked the cause of the tumult. “They shout,” I said, “because they will soon return to England.”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00773", "bookId": 84, "start": 406453, "end": 406487, "sha256": "dc0a86370d6e7f3546e827460a1fd9b5fc67c48f6157adab04ad6f409fb4af0d", "text": "“Do you, then, really return?”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG84.B00774", "bookId": 84, "start": 406489, "end": 406600, "sha256": "f4bed02e89be3ecc6f0d361cbf4b9365e25745eed9660460aefc3ba30d62feb4", "text": "“Alas! Yes; I cannot withstand their demands. I cannot lead them unwillingly to danger, and I must return.”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG84.B00775", "bookId": 84, "start": 406602, "end": 406943, "sha256": "e0aad7a2153b221ece31ea2b6919677d39727fb756e9ac4d7bc3169a4ac8f938", "text": "“Do so, if you will; but I will not. You may give up your purpose, but mine is assigned to me by Heaven, and I dare not. I am weak, but surely the spirits who assist my vengeance will endow me with sufficient strength.” Saying this, he endeavoured to spring from the bed, but the exertion was too great for him; he fell back and fainted.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00776", "bookId": 84, "start": 406945, "end": 407277, "sha256": "aa791e5b117df9c9cbf7e5aea02da846342f1ec1d8c780c9252812517d494644", "text": "It was long before he was restored, and I often thought that life was entirely extinct. At length he opened his eyes; he breathed with difficulty and was unable to speak. The surgeon gave him a composing draught and ordered us to leave him undisturbed. In the meantime he told me that my friend had certainly not many hours to live.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00777", "bookId": 84, "start": 407279, "end": 408940, "sha256": "a7336917f9c12693eeb73f1ee9c48b7807a0236cdb35eb2089a4b759c18e402c", "text": "His sentence was pronounced, and I could only grieve and be patient. I sat by his bed, watching him; his eyes were closed, and I thought he slept; but presently he called to me in a feeble voice, and bidding me come near, said, “Alas! The strength I relied on is gone; I feel that I shall soon die, and he, my enemy and persecutor, may still be in being. Think not, Walton, that in the last moments of my existence I feel that burning hatred and ardent desire of revenge I once expressed; but I feel myself justified in desiring the death of my adversary. During these last days I have been occupied in examining my past conduct; nor do I find it blamable. In a fit of enthusiastic madness I created a rational creature and was bound towards him to assure, as far as was in my power, his happiness and well-being. This was my duty, but there was another still paramount to that. My duties towards the beings of my own species had greater claims to my attention because they included a greater proportion of happiness or misery. Urged by this view, I refused, and I did right in refusing, to create a companion for the first creature. He showed unparalleled malignity and selfishness in evil; he destroyed my friends; he devoted to destruction beings who possessed exquisite sensations, happiness, and wisdom; nor do I know where this thirst for vengeance may end. Miserable himself that he may render no other wretched, he ought to die. The task of his destruction was mine, but I have failed. When actuated by selfish and vicious motives, I asked you to undertake my unfinished work, and I renew this request now, when I am only induced by reason and virtue.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00778", "bookId": 84, "start": 408942, "end": 409387, "sha256": "8923854c9f8e4caac0eb141800c662754df664efd076416441a53e4b861ac665", "text": "“Yet I cannot ask you to renounce your country and friends to fulfil this task; and now that you are returning to England, you will have little chance of meeting with him. But the consideration of these points, and the well balancing of what you may esteem your duties, I leave to you; my judgment and ideas are already disturbed by the near approach of death. I dare not ask you to do what I think right, for I may still be misled by passion.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00779", "bookId": 84, "start": 409389, "end": 409925, "sha256": "01f4adfda27f9d7f710bbe85501ce6216d6735660c0ae9a66613143b8c60874b", "text": "“That he should live to be an instrument of mischief disturbs me; in other respects, this hour, when I momentarily expect my release, is the only happy one which I have enjoyed for several years. The forms of the beloved dead flit before me, and I hasten to their arms. Farewell, Walton! Seek happiness in tranquillity and avoid ambition, even if it be only the apparently innocent one of distinguishing yourself in science and discoveries. Yet why do I say this? I have myself been blasted in these hopes, yet another may succeed.”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00780", "bookId": 84, "start": 409927, "end": 410224, "sha256": "27b890d5c1e4157cea38e12a02c55eb2dbf0c115ec2a23c48afc9644b1ff51b1", "text": "His voice became fainter as he spoke, and at length, exhausted by his effort, he sank into silence. About half an hour afterwards he attempted again to speak but was unable; he pressed my hand feebly, and his eyes closed for ever, while the irradiation of a gentle smile passed away from his lips.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00781", "bookId": 84, "start": 410226, "end": 410577, "sha256": "7c5f5c4baf72b9eee273c47d9754c55e30228edb0fc650f93148dc42e489d16f", "text": "Margaret, what comment can I make on the untimely extinction of this glorious spirit? What can I say that will enable you to understand the depth of my sorrow? All that I should express would be inadequate and feeble. My tears flow; my mind is overshadowed by a cloud of disappointment. But I journey towards England, and I may there find consolation.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00782", "bookId": 84, "start": 410579, "end": 410879, "sha256": "db8f08a62ea77363311c114a08e5dc46c5924eb4521e1c56cfa0ce13786d6931", "text": "I am interrupted. What do these sounds portend? It is midnight; the breeze blows fairly, and the watch on deck scarcely stir. Again there is a sound as of a human voice, but hoarser; it comes from the cabin where the remains of Frankenstein still lie. I must arise and examine. Good night, my sister.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00783", "bookId": 84, "start": 410881, "end": 411129, "sha256": "e1276843b5541f8fde74e0bf1d52bf339e4e3518fa5abd1f56004234f705a04d", "text": "Great God! what a scene has just taken place! I am yet dizzy with the remembrance of it. I hardly know whether I shall have the power to detail it; yet the tale which I have recorded would be incomplete without this final and wonderful catastrophe.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00784", "bookId": 84, "start": 411131, "end": 411859, "sha256": "cde9177370dafabcb8c7e7be07b7b5677ecc656a12fd32e9f4e38cf2fe1695f2", "text": "I entered the cabin where lay the remains of my ill-fated and admirable friend. Over him hung a form which I cannot find words to describe—gigantic in stature, yet uncouth and distorted in its proportions. As he hung over the coffin, his face was concealed by long locks of ragged hair; but one vast hand was extended, in colour and apparent texture like that of a mummy. When he heard the sound of my approach, he ceased to utter exclamations of grief and horror and sprung towards the window. Never did I behold a vision so horrible as his face, of such loathsome yet appalling hideousness. I shut my eyes involuntarily and endeavoured to recollect what were my duties with regard to this destroyer. I called on him to stay.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00785", "bookId": 84, "start": 411861, "end": 412091, "sha256": "99487f667aea3a56d93c43ca10dc097accaf1069d4a595f71d385b4597d7f85b", "text": "He paused, looking on me with wonder, and again turning towards the lifeless form of his creator, he seemed to forget my presence, and every feature and gesture seemed instigated by the wildest rage of some uncontrollable passion.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00786", "bookId": 84, "start": 412093, "end": 412450, "sha256": "d1b1b77104db32d803ef3fea591550fc3b73b8b404acdbcd43180a340209cf60", "text": "“That is also my victim!” he exclaimed. “In his murder my crimes are consummated; the miserable series of my being is wound to its close! Oh, Frankenstein! Generous and self-devoted being! What does it avail that I now ask thee to pardon me? I, who irretrievably destroyed thee by destroying all thou lovedst. Alas! He is cold, he cannot answer me.”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00787", "bookId": 84, "start": 412452, "end": 413024, "sha256": "8a401666295eb856f14465a2e21a6e08ec615e1d461bde92715927768e0326c8", "text": "His voice seemed suffocated, and my first impulses, which had suggested to me the duty of obeying the dying request of my friend in destroying his enemy, were now suspended by a mixture of curiosity and compassion. I approached this tremendous being; I dared not again raise my eyes to his face, there was something so scaring and unearthly in his ugliness. I attempted to speak, but the words died away on my lips. The monster continued to utter wild and incoherent self-reproaches. At length I gathered resolution to address him in a pause of the tempest of his passion.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00788", "bookId": 84, "start": 413026, "end": 413263, "sha256": "d926d8239c589f88d05404d78ba59af69848f31ee38fee6d4530588b2a922f5b", "text": "“Your repentance,” I said, “is now superfluous. If you had listened to the voice of conscience and heeded the stings of remorse before you had urged your diabolical vengeance to this extremity, Frankenstein would yet have lived.”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00789", "bookId": 84, "start": 413265, "end": 413917, "sha256": "dfbd2228fac4a4f95395b16b5afb1f3c29650ce464f95d4a5631ab03b5c665f0", "text": "“And do you dream?” said the dæmon. “Do you think that I was then dead to agony and remorse? He,” he continued, pointing to the corpse, “he suffered not in the consummation of the deed. Oh! Not the ten-thousandth portion of the anguish that was mine during the lingering detail of its execution. A frightful selfishness hurried me on, while my heart was poisoned with remorse. Think you that the groans of Clerval were music to my ears? My heart was fashioned to be susceptible of love and sympathy, and when wrenched by misery to vice and hatred, it did not endure the violence of the change without torture such as you cannot even imagine.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00790", "bookId": 84, "start": 413919, "end": 415061, "sha256": "cc0b2b1bd89b1bf7c144bd0c0ce07e1666b3e955b7eb3b67b056afb1532f5cb0", "text": "“After the murder of Clerval I returned to Switzerland, heart-broken and overcome. I pitied Frankenstein; my pity amounted to horror; I abhorred myself. But when I discovered that he, the author at once of my existence and of its unspeakable torments, dared to hope for happiness, that while he accumulated wretchedness and despair upon me he sought his own enjoyment in feelings and passions from the indulgence of which I was for ever barred, then impotent envy and bitter indignation filled me with an insatiable thirst for vengeance. I recollected my threat and resolved that it should be accomplished. I knew that I was preparing for myself a deadly torture, but I was the slave, not the master, of an impulse which I detested yet could not disobey. Yet when she died! Nay, then I was not miserable. I had cast off all feeling, subdued all anguish, to riot in the excess of my despair. Evil thenceforth became my good. Urged thus far, I had no choice but to adapt my nature to an element which I had willingly chosen. The completion of my demoniacal design became an insatiable passion. And now it is ended; there is my last victim!”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00791", "bookId": 84, "start": 415063, "end": 415799, "sha256": "ce6ecc81ddc93011fad1700edb5463ca8c7f0fc60e8cae902f49c58b5188cb37", "text": "I was at first touched by the expressions of his misery; yet, when I called to mind what Frankenstein had said of his powers of eloquence and persuasion, and when I again cast my eyes on the lifeless form of my friend, indignation was rekindled within me. “Wretch!” I said. “It is well that you come here to whine over the desolation that you have made. You throw a torch into a pile of buildings, and when they are consumed, you sit among the ruins and lament the fall. Hypocritical fiend! If he whom you mourn still lived, still would he be the object, again would he become the prey, of your accursed vengeance. It is not pity that you feel; you lament only because the victim of your malignity is withdrawn from your power.”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00792", "bookId": 84, "start": 415801, "end": 417297, "sha256": "0b369f2f324776946f9632f1b00c338a62a945b6ecd2495dcc3817da62c211f5", "text": "“Oh, it is not thus—not thus,” interrupted the being. “Yet such must be the impression conveyed to you by what appears to be the purport of my actions. Yet I seek not a fellow feeling in my misery. No sympathy may I ever find. When I first sought it, it was the love of virtue, the feelings of happiness and affection with which my whole being overflowed, that I wished to be participated. But now that virtue has become to me a shadow, and that happiness and affection are turned into bitter and loathing despair, in what should I seek for sympathy? I am content to suffer alone while my sufferings shall endure; when I die, I am well satisfied that abhorrence and opprobrium should load my memory. Once my fancy was soothed with dreams of virtue, of fame, and of enjoyment. Once I falsely hoped to meet with beings who, pardoning my outward form, would love me for the excellent qualities which I was capable of unfolding. I was nourished with high thoughts of honour and devotion. But now crime has degraded me beneath the meanest animal. No guilt, no mischief, no malignity, no misery, can be found comparable to mine. When I run over the frightful catalogue of my sins, I cannot believe that I am the same creature whose thoughts were once filled with sublime and transcendent visions of the beauty and the majesty of goodness. But it is even so; the fallen angel becomes a malignant devil. Yet even that enemy of God and man had friends and associates in his desolation; I am alone.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00793", "bookId": 84, "start": 417299, "end": 418187, "sha256": "c42b52815a5e594a96ae2453ce42f646315ea9f117badcd01111b71f89f4eab4", "text": "“You, who call Frankenstein your friend, seem to have a knowledge of my crimes and his misfortunes. But in the detail which he gave you of them he could not sum up the hours and months of misery which I endured wasting in impotent passions. For while I destroyed his hopes, I did not satisfy my own desires. They were for ever ardent and craving; still I desired love and fellowship, and I was still spurned. Was there no injustice in this? Am I to be thought the only criminal, when all humankind sinned against me? Why do you not hate Felix, who drove his friend from his door with contumely? Why do you not execrate the rustic who sought to destroy the saviour of his child? Nay, these are virtuous and immaculate beings! I, the miserable and the abandoned, am an abortion, to be spurned at, and kicked, and trampled on. Even now my blood boils at the recollection of this injustice.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00794", "bookId": 84, "start": 418189, "end": 418904, "sha256": "bfd26a7ced17a767b94783b3258638761d0a96efe07df6ac8ea9d9fb8a874ad9", "text": "“But it is true that I am a wretch. I have murdered the lovely and the helpless; I have strangled the innocent as they slept and grasped to death his throat who never injured me or any other living thing. I have devoted my creator, the select specimen of all that is worthy of love and admiration among men, to misery; I have pursued him even to that irremediable ruin. There he lies, white and cold in death. You hate me, but your abhorrence cannot equal that with which I regard myself. I look on the hands which executed the deed; I think on the heart in which the imagination of it was conceived and long for the moment when these hands will meet my eyes, when that imagination will haunt my thoughts no more.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00795", "bookId": 84, "start": 418906, "end": 420296, "sha256": "6bc2990e8a62defc65ce1361a81cc06a01b0ac7ae60167af3125e6969c3a99b1", "text": "“Fear not that I shall be the instrument of future mischief. My work is nearly complete. Neither yours nor any man’s death is needed to consummate the series of my being and accomplish that which must be done, but it requires my own. Do not think that I shall be slow to perform this sacrifice. I shall quit your vessel on the ice raft which brought me thither and shall seek the most northern extremity of the globe; I shall collect my funeral pile and consume to ashes this miserable frame, that its remains may afford no light to any curious and unhallowed wretch who would create such another as I have been. I shall die. I shall no longer feel the agonies which now consume me or be the prey of feelings unsatisfied, yet unquenched. He is dead who called me into being; and when I shall be no more, the very remembrance of us both will speedily vanish. I shall no longer see the sun or stars or feel the winds play on my cheeks. Light, feeling, and sense will pass away; and in this condition must I find my happiness. Some years ago, when the images which this world affords first opened upon me, when I felt the cheering warmth of summer and heard the rustling of the leaves and the warbling of the birds, and these were all to me, I should have wept to die; now it is my only consolation. Polluted by crimes and torn by the bitterest remorse, where can I find rest but in death?", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00796", "bookId": 84, "start": 420298, "end": 420974, "sha256": "24f65a3776243832623b992af4834369ca9d1946e661dab74ec7dfd2e9a67c7c", "text": "“Farewell! I leave you, and in you the last of humankind whom these eyes will ever behold. Farewell, Frankenstein! If thou wert yet alive and yet cherished a desire of revenge against me, it would be better satiated in my life than in my destruction. But it was not so; thou didst seek my extinction, that I might not cause greater wretchedness; and if yet, in some mode unknown to me, thou hadst not ceased to think and feel, thou wouldst not desire against me a vengeance greater than that which I feel. Blasted as thou wert, my agony was still superior to thine, for the bitter sting of remorse will not cease to rankle in my wounds until death shall close them for ever.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00797", "bookId": 84, "start": 420976, "end": 421414, "sha256": "d52e6d2762c13b4628e36cf65beea312c1b41e402436ae17512b915313c597bb", "text": "“But soon,” he cried with sad and solemn enthusiasm, “I shall die, and what I now feel be no longer felt. Soon these burning miseries will be extinct. I shall ascend my funeral pile triumphantly and exult in the agony of the torturing flames. The light of that conflagration will fade away; my ashes will be swept into the sea by the winds. My spirit will sleep in peace, or if it thinks, it will not surely think thus. Farewell.”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00798", "bookId": 84, "start": 421416, "end": 421584, "sha256": "6e40655baf328b9f6ec183af89a2a4bc6dfc97d174f0f29f5d8a55b4c5781907", "text": "He sprang from the cabin-window as he said this, upon the ice raft which lay close to the vessel. He was soon borne away by the waves and lost in darkness and distance.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG84.B00799", "bookId": 84, "start": 421587, "end": 421633, "sha256": "32d292c02681ebfb65f3629b9305c8aa20a8391cba053434dcf81abe46ab80f4", "text": "*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 84 ***", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00001", "bookId": 15491, "start": 0, "end": 43, "sha256": "57e2768228be100727ad9311318b7811e9172409b9b1d6abae1df06b01cd064a", "text": "The Project Gutenberg eBook of Micrographia", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00002", "bookId": 15491, "start": 51, "end": 499, "sha256": "62db454c1111d54cdba024eeeb6e739829aeed6f4102b241601e70a27cb18ffc", "text": "This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you will have to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this eBook.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00003", "bookId": 15491, "start": 503, "end": 522, "sha256": "ec9b63c1884bc46e05926eb8b78aa5838988c4d8e5ff61218bf2129d31a5fa53", "text": "Title: Micrographia", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00004", "bookId": 15491, "start": 526, "end": 546, "sha256": "b29b3bd7b9791e6071c04e87d7059df535c7729ea4fee2ba3a39a58e2bc9fff9", "text": "Author: Robert Hooke", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00005", "bookId": 15491, "start": 562, "end": 658, "sha256": "d8cae56d75ca733e815e07e38902ce4684401fa5de4c246f45c501eb89ec0f16", "text": "Release date: March 29, 2005 [eBook #15491] Most recently updated: May 24, 2021", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00006", "bookId": 15491, "start": 662, "end": 679, "sha256": "b57efaf39e21b67232bab14763e8c43f8421fb22c0332f8f40796466905aaf80", "text": "Language: English", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00007", "bookId": 15491, "start": 683, "end": 744, "sha256": "53b7ffcc563d9fd97b65972352ea26f0edb8298d6c5ae52bf40f5be97756f861", "text": "Other information and formats: www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/15491", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00008", "bookId": 15491, "start": 748, "end": 896, "sha256": "295aa46ca0923b1e2e64e57202697a0c38a288057d53ac92f36c2405aa1ea2ab", "text": "Credits: Robert Shimmin, Keith Edkins, and the Project Gutenberg Online Distributed Proofreading Team. Revised by Richard Tonsing.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00009", "bookId": 15491, "start": 902, "end": 959, "sha256": "0701d48563b7ba4eef2aca479ae7ee441a53e338c2ca96d81005e15a413a9e17", "text": "*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK MICROGRAPHIA ***", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00010", "bookId": 15491, "start": 969, "end": 1300, "sha256": "5f1c0e6a5b87713f88da4c9f8847186848761830f96dd7e5d2ccce1f4680a0f4", "text": "Note: Project Gutenberg also has an HTML version of this file which includes the original remarkable illustrations. See 15491–h.htm or 15491–h.zip: (https://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/1/5/4/9/15491/15491–h/15491–h.htm) or (https://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/1/5/4/9/15491/15491–h/15491–h.zip)", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00011", "bookId": 15491, "start": 1310, "end": 1446, "sha256": "0be21ca4ef81f31b592cb7032f51d39fbbfb994d6930140f16f0bd817e2b855e", "text": "The reader of this text file should understand that words or phrases between underscores should be imagined to be set in italics.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00012", "bookId": 15491, "start": 1463, "end": 1496, "sha256": "92bf9343d426ee004c3cb7caa3f283036b2f3626f071d4807d38518427facd12", "text": "* * * * *", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00013", "bookId": 15491, "start": 1500, "end": 1582, "sha256": "73f14bb159a1076ee92045a8172e5de17c48c18378b318c00f1437c8bc8e15b7", "text": "By the Council of the ROYAL SOCIETY of London for Improving of Natural Knowledge.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00014", "bookId": 15491, "start": 1586, "end": 1892, "sha256": "41d1591440d8dc369b099e4cbb7fa5328a7e5c0631c9f9b4d1620e442060e031", "text": "Ordered, That the Book written by Robert Hooke, M.A. Fellow of this Society, Entituled, Micrographia, or some Physiological Descriptions of Minute Bodies, made by Magnifying Glasses, with Observations and Inquiries thereupon, Be printed by John Martyn, and James Allestry, Printers to the said Society.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00015", "bookId": 15491, "start": 1896, "end": 1912, "sha256": "b601d4b2efeef489753a940c4aed1fe31890f5cc84282da3de94070eca768dbb", "text": "Novem. 23. 1664.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00016", "bookId": 15491, "start": 1916, "end": 1933, "sha256": "3ca40a9b15b95e1ec4afa511345a8e4cc767c8eaf3790116fa4ef926da787715", "text": "BROUNCKER. 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HOOKE, Fellow of the ROYAL SOCIETY.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00029", "bookId": 15491, "start": 2248, "end": 2281, "sha256": "92bf9343d426ee004c3cb7caa3f283036b2f3626f071d4807d38518427facd12", "text": "* * * * *", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00030", "bookId": 15491, "start": 2293, "end": 2404, "sha256": "1ba0ef968bbe55f8e7245e8ec1b5065228636c0e68b425bd1827f678f70f8e00", "text": "_Non possis oculo quantum contendere Linceus, Non tamen idcirco contemnas Lippus inungi._ Horat. Ep. lib. 1.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00031", "bookId": 15491, "start": 2410, "end": 2424, "sha256": "a7d04715f7b106d0798812fbf3e6f78563c35d0e503460e8ad87770a7742cba1", "text": "[Illustration]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00032", "bookId": 15491, "start": 2435, "end": 2468, "sha256": "92bf9343d426ee004c3cb7caa3f283036b2f3626f071d4807d38518427facd12", "text": "* * * * *", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00033", "bookId": 15491, "start": 2474, "end": 2639, "sha256": "7e0e9a7468f632361faa6dc6469734396962fef6223460f2b8ed400814a7b308", "text": "LONDON, Printed by Jo. Martyn, and Ja. Allestry, Printers to the ROYAL SOCIETY, and are to be sold at their Shop at the Bell in S. Paul’s Church-yard. M DC LX V.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00034", "bookId": 15491, "start": 2650, "end": 2683, "sha256": "92bf9343d426ee004c3cb7caa3f283036b2f3626f071d4807d38518427facd12", "text": "* * * * *", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00035", "bookId": 15491, "start": 2689, "end": 2695, "sha256": "d912aa1da24938a6ffe5fcb964fb32a820d6dfb0abf8faac03749e30954c1843", "text": "TO THE", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00036", "bookId": 15491, "start": 2699, "end": 2704, "sha256": "98226ec397f6f7f848212ab3d18774071620753816d0327de00ee0dadac77144", "text": "KING.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00037", "bookId": 15491, "start": 2708, "end": 2712, "sha256": "a2536ec8764c56d7caa3aadd4a91b7036c030edb1cff78d91a5572754b194300", "text": "SIR,", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00038", "bookId": 15491, "start": 2716, "end": 4318, "sha256": "2eb7dcde067262a36b274c099f018d5cfa42359514a0f183720f136ea79ddde3", "text": "I Do here most humbly lay this _small_ Present at _Your Majesties_ Royal feet. And though it comes accompany’d with two _disadvantages_, the _meanness_ of the _Author_, and of the _Subject_; yet in both I am _incouraged_ by the _greatness_ of your _Mercy_ and your _Knowledge_. By the _one_ I am taught, that you can _forgive_ the most _presumptuous Offendors_: And by the _other_, that you will not _esteem_ the least work of _Nature_, or _Art_, unworthy your _Observation_. Amidst the many _felicities_ that have accompani’d _your Majesties_ happy _Restauration_ and _Government_, it is none of the least considerable that _Philosophy_ and _Experimental Learning_ have _prosper’d_ under your _Royal Patronage_. And as the calm prosperity of your Reign has given us the _leisure_ to follow these _Studies_ of _quiet_ and _retirement_, so it is just, that the _Fruits_ of them should, by way of _acknowledgement_, be return’d to _your Majesty_. There are, Sir, several other of your Subjects, of your _Royal Society_, now busie about _Nobler_ matters: The _Improvement_ of _Manufactures_ and _Agriculture_, the _Increase_ of _Commerce_, the _Advantage_ of _Navigation_: In all which they are _assisted_ by _your Majesties Incouragement_ and _Example_. Amidst all those _greater_ Designs, I here presume to bring in that which is more _proportionable_ to the _smalness_ of my Abilities, and to offer some of the _least_ of all _visible things_, to that _Mighty King_, that has _establisht an Empire_ over the best of all _Invisible things_ of this World, the _Minds_ of Men.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00039", "bookId": 15491, "start": 4322, "end": 4389, "sha256": "5d5bbd64c078baa4bffb963c0c5735d704e58b0ff7be618553990f01951549ef", "text": "Your Majesties most humble and most obedient Subject and Servant,", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00040", "bookId": 15491, "start": 4393, "end": 4406, "sha256": "898a3dc500c92ac98ab54a8b893e3b4831777dd8454a368b657c4c2a4be641ef", "text": "ROBERT HOOKE.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00041", "bookId": 15491, "start": 4417, "end": 4450, "sha256": "92bf9343d426ee004c3cb7caa3f283036b2f3626f071d4807d38518427facd12", "text": "* * * * *", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00042", "bookId": 15491, "start": 4454, "end": 4460, "sha256": "d912aa1da24938a6ffe5fcb964fb32a820d6dfb0abf8faac03749e30954c1843", "text": "TO THE", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00043", "bookId": 15491, "start": 4464, "end": 4478, "sha256": "7b6f33cb574df29a9e7afef4780ce1e415556c02ee0b0cbdb20d54ed8c5d890a", "text": "ROYAL SOCIETY.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00044", "bookId": 15491, "start": 4482, "end": 5994, "sha256": "089453e88f29a893272bc1d9688adeb99dbd929c99ba39511ce2a489e587e13a", "text": "After my _Address_ to our _Great Founder_ and _Patron_, I could not but think my self oblig’d, in consideration of those _many Ingagements_ you have laid upon me, to offer these my _poor Labours_ to this MOST ILLUSTRIOUS ASSEMBLY. YOU have been pleas’d formerly to accept of these rude _Draughts_. I have since added to them some _Descriptions_, and some _Conjectures_ of my own. And therefore, together with YOUR _Acceptance_, I must also beg YOUR _pardon_. The Rules YOU have prescrib’d YOUR selves in YOUR Philosophical Progress do seem the best that have ever yet been practis’d. And particularly that of avoiding _Dogmatizing_, and the _espousal_ of any _Hypothesis_ not sufficiently grounded and confirm’d by _Experiments_. This way seems the most excellent, and may preserve both _Philosophy_ and _Natural History_ from its former _Corruptions_. In saying which, I may seem to condemn my own Course in this Treatise; in which there may perhaps be some _Expressions_, which may seem more _positive_ then YOUR Prescriptions will permit: And though I desire to have them understood only as _Conjectures_ and _Quæries_ (which YOUR Method does not altogether disallow) yet if even in those I have exceeded, ’tis fit that I should declare, that it was not done by YOUR Directions. For it is most unreasonable, that YOU should undergo the _imputation_ of the _faults_ of my _Conjectures_, seeing YOU can receive so _small advantage_ of reputation by the _sleight Observations_ of", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00045", "bookId": 15491, "start": 5998, "end": 6041, "sha256": "209625ec5116234aeb5ab33a637f9bec65146f7edc95b887fbe90c2453cac93d", "text": "YOUR most humble and most faithful Servant", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00046", "bookId": 15491, "start": 6045, "end": 6058, "sha256": "898a3dc500c92ac98ab54a8b893e3b4831777dd8454a368b657c4c2a4be641ef", "text": "ROBERT HOOKE.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00047", "bookId": 15491, "start": 6069, "end": 6102, "sha256": "92bf9343d426ee004c3cb7caa3f283036b2f3626f071d4807d38518427facd12", "text": "* * * * *", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00048", "bookId": 15491, "start": 6108, "end": 6111, "sha256": "a3e5514bcfd79e7649e30fbf98826208f3da47833b4223b68cff2db23beb3801", "text": "THE", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00049", "bookId": 15491, "start": 6115, "end": 6123, "sha256": "027490d745c7c8ff49ec56b0e3fb74105b7f81ce69a7a23dbc11aed956852609", "text": "PREFACE.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00050", "bookId": 15491, "start": 6127, "end": 7141, "sha256": "64e88b5db89695c66f6037205dcfbe7a1e871a68f4c08b0c112d32dc1b544390", "text": "It is the great prerogative of Mankind above other Creatures, that we are not only able to _behold_ the works of Nature, or barely to _sustein_ our lives by them, but we have also the power of _considering_, _comparing_, _altering_, _assisting_, and _improving_ them to various uses. And as this is the peculiar priviledge of humane Nature in general, so is it capable of being so far advanced by the helps of Art, and Experience, as to make some Men excel others in their Observations, and Deductions, almost as much as they do Beasts. By the addition of such _artificial Instruments_ and _methods_, there may be, in some manner, a reparation made for the mischiefs, and imperfection, mankind has drawn upon it self, by negligence, and intemperance, and a wilful and superstitious deserting the Prescripts and Rules of Nature, whereby every man, both from a deriv’d corruption, innate and born with him, and from his breeding and converse with men, is very subject to slip into all sorts of errors.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00051", "bookId": 15491, "start": 7145, "end": 7552, "sha256": "605da62ade7bac88d494fef640044ae61da6888729151f76cebd12e49f18e698", "text": "The only way which now remains for us to recover some degree of those former perfections, seems to be, by rectifying the operations of the _Sense_, the _Memory_, and _Reason_, since upon the evidence, the _strength_, the _integrity_, and the _right correspondence_ of all these, all the light, by which our actions are to be guided is to be renewed, and all our command over things is to be establisht.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00052", "bookId": 15491, "start": 7556, "end": 7812, "sha256": "cbe2a3c6ab8fa6f664e5d618966d0663692e46145549a2e5f7f32493c21e4876", "text": "It is therefore most worthy of our consideration, to recollect their several defects, that so we may the better understand how to supply them, and by what assistances we may _inlarge_ their power, and _secure_ them in performing their particular duties.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00053", "bookId": 15491, "start": 7816, "end": 8339, "sha256": "1e653b35efe9d3f372f0fce13a4f6dc70fa1248b020c5bcee4b63c64f51f547b", "text": "As for the actions of our _Senses_, we cannot but observe them to be in many particulars much outdone by those of other Creatures, and when at best, to be far short of the perfection they seem capable of: And these infirmities of the Senses arise from a double cause, either from the _disproportion of the Object to the Organ_, whereby an infinite number of things can never enter into them, or else from _error in the Perception_, that many things, which come within their reach, are not received in a right manner.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00054", "bookId": 15491, "start": 8343, "end": 8756, "sha256": "c57c5daae7f6de2eb2ba5716632bbf3e97b74b4f16903d0ad0e600c8e6c0628e", "text": "The like frailties are to be found in the _Memory;_ we often let many things _slip away_ from us, which deserve to be retain’d, and of those which we treasure up, a great part is either _frivolous_ or _false_; and if good, and substantial, either in tract of time _obliterated_, or at best so _overwhelmed_ and buried under more frothy notions, that when there is need of them, they are in vain sought for.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00055", "bookId": 15491, "start": 8760, "end": 9920, "sha256": "c390b2981d0f809bfdbdee6de178be54a6883c7587b63f9ad8833621cb4a7ef5", "text": "The two main foundations being so deceivable, it is no wonder, that all the succeeding works which we build upon them, of arguing, concluding, defining, judging, and all the other degrees of Reason, are lyable to the same imperfection, being, at best, either vain, or uncertain: So that the errors of the _understanding_ are answerable to the two other, being defective both in the quantity and goodness of its knowledge; for the limits, to which our thoughts are confin’d, are small in respect of the vast extent of Nature it self; some parts of it are _too large_ to be comprehended, and some _too little_ to be perceived. And from thence it must follow, that not having a full sensation of the Object, we must be very lame and imperfect in our conceptions about it, and in all the proportions which we build upon it; hence, we often take the _shadow_ of things for the _substance_, small _appearances_ for good _similitudes_, _similitudes_ for _definitions;_ and even many of those, which we think, to be the most solid definitions, are rather expressions of our own misguided apprehensions then of the true nature of the things themselves.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00056", "bookId": 15491, "start": 9924, "end": 10268, "sha256": "f2ef733cce5c7f0d955a83473c226d5d2e10a2696a9c58d642f88e569d3a5cf4", "text": "The effects of these imperfections are manifested in different ways, according to the temper and disposition of the several minds of men, some they incline to _gross ignorance_ and stupidity, and others to a _presumptuous imposing_ on other mens Opinions, and a _confident dogmatizing_ on matters, whereof there is no assurance to be given.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00057", "bookId": 15491, "start": 10272, "end": 10779, "sha256": "fd4c5e8a1d902240e81db77c963b175d92b55a32177a3fe8317bdfd1a7f8c6c4", "text": "Thus all the uncertainty, and mistakes of humane actions, proceed either from the narrowness and wandring of our _Senses_, from the slipperiness or delusion of our _Memory_, from the confinement or rashness of our _Understanding_, so that ’tis no wonder, that our power over natural causes and effects is so slowly improv’d, seeing we are not only to contend with the obscurity and _difficulty of the things_ whereon we work and think, but even the _forces of our own minds_ conspire to betray us.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00058", "bookId": 15491, "start": 10783, "end": 11309, "sha256": "04dd816d43a56dd05873ce398de593542c2d6fde999a2c00a3831aafbe16f162", "text": "These being the dangers in the process of humane Reason, the remedies of them all can only proceed from the _real_, the _mechanical_, the _experimental_ Philosophy, which has this advantage over the Philosophy of _discourse_ and _disputation_, that whereas that chiefly aims at the subtilty of its Deductions and Conclusions, without much regard to the first ground-work, which ought to be well laid on the Sense and Memory; so this intends the right ordering of them all, and the making them serviceable to each other.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00059", "bookId": 15491, "start": 11313, "end": 11459, "sha256": "603dbc2f88c7f7719a7d321cf59d421848327af63897de27d0937334b169edbe", "text": "The first thing to be undertaken in this weighty work, is a _watchfulness over the failings_ and an _inlargement of the dominion_, of the Senses.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00060", "bookId": 15491, "start": 11463, "end": 12354, "sha256": "4b3a084b26079e4b0d0544762d93070efe86a9fdfc18518413547178a2daadb0", "text": "To which end it is requisite, first, That there should be a _scrupulous_ choice, and a _strict examination_, of the reality, constancy, and certainty of the Particulars that we admit: This is the first rise whereon truth is to begin, and here the most severe, and most impartial diligence, must be imployed; the storing up of all, without any regard to evidence or use, will only tend to darkness and confusion. We must not therefore esteem the riches of our Philosophical treasure by the _number_ only, but chiefly by the _weight_; the most _vulgar_ Instances are not to be neglected, but above all, the most _instructive_ are to be entertain’d; the footsteps of Nature are to be trac’d, not only in her _ordinary course_, but when she seems to be put to her shifts, to make many _doublings_ and _turnings_, and to use some kind of art in indeavouring to avoid our discovery.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00061", "bookId": 15491, "start": 12358, "end": 13408, "sha256": "233cb731d8cff527679afe92596cf920d4632d77561ae1fdc6fcd57543eb415d", "text": "The next care to be taken, in respect of the Senses, is a supplying of their infirmities with _Instruments_, and, as it were, the adding of _artificial Organs_ to the _natural_; this in one of them has been of late years accomplisht with prodigious benefit to all sorts of useful knowledge, by the invention of Optical Glasses. By the means of _Telescopes_, there is nothing so _far distant_ but may be represented to our view; and by the help of _Microscopes_, there is nothing so _small_, as to escape our inquiry; hence there is a new visible World discovered to the understanding. By this means the Heavens are open’d, and a vast number of new Stars, and new Motions, and new Productions appear in them, to which all the antient Astronomers were utterly Strangers. By this the Earth it self, which lyes so neer us, under our feet, shews quite a new thing to us, and in every _little particle_ of its matter; we now behold almost as great a variety of Creatures, as we were able before to reckon up in the whole _Universe_ it self.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00062", "bookId": 15491, "start": 13412, "end": 14283, "sha256": "fa13f7a399bce22299a3af78c6f44cab4137d018d88e9dfd0bcf77d73c8943d4", "text": "It seems not improbable, but that by these helps the subtilty of the composition of Bodies, the structure of their parts, the various texture of their matter, the instruments and manner of their inward motions, and all the other possible appearances of things, may come to be more fully discovered; all which the antient _Peripateticks_ were content to comprehend in two general and (unless further explain’d) useless words of _Matter_ and _Form_. From whence there may arise many admirable advantages, towards the increase of the _Operative_, and the _Mechanick_ Knowledge, to which this Age seems so much inclined, because we may perhaps be inabled to discern all the secret workings of Nature, almost in the same manner as we do those that are the productions of Art, and are manag’d by Wheels, and Engines, and Springs, that were devised by humane Wit.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00063", "bookId": 15491, "start": 14287, "end": 14890, "sha256": "ee55469ba68a069e59ce62c44c2ff0ea14d5ae8d474a1f341c9d644c5d26951a", "text": "In this kind I here present to the World my imperfect Indeavours; which though they shall prove no other way considerable, yet, I hope, they may be in some measure useful to the main Design of a _reformation_ in Philosophy, if it be only by shewing, that there it not so much requir’d towards it, any strength of _Imagination_, or exactness of _Method_, or depth of _Contemplation_ (though the addition of these, where they can be had, must needs produce a much more perfect composure) as a sincere _Hand_, and a _faithful_ Eye, to examine, and to record, the things themselves as they appear.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00064", "bookId": 15491, "start": 14894, "end": 15390, "sha256": "00a192350290363c09529345c0c97d123fc37b0caf3e1b040ce3aab58c438b66", "text": "And I beg my Reader, to let me take the boldness to assure him, that in this present condition of knowledge, a man so qualified, as I have indeavoured to be, only with resolution, and integrity, and plain intentions of imploying his _Senses_ aright, may venture to compare the reality and the usefulness of his services, towards the true Philosophy, with those of other men, that are of much stronger, and more acute _speculations_, that shall not make use of the same method by the Senses.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00065", "bookId": 15491, "start": 15394, "end": 16062, "sha256": "4345fc7e9d971db89c3eb8b2490c04479c93ef03d11ef6a1475ad325ea3aa7cf", "text": "The truth is, the Science of Nature has been already too long made only a work of the _Brain_ and the _Fancy_: It is now high time that it should return to the plainness and soundness of _Observations_ on _material_ and _obvious_ things. It is said of great Empires, That _the best way to preserve them from decay, is to bring them back to the first Principles, and Arts, on which they did begin_. The same is undoubtedly true in Philosophy, that by wandring far away into _invisible Notions_, has almost quite destroy’d it self, and it can never be recovered, or continued, but by returning into the same _sensible paths_, in which it did at first proceed.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00066", "bookId": 15491, "start": 16066, "end": 16942, "sha256": "307c4eabf32ed40fdbaf1e78245be3d56ad5a371068003eb01aa6050081a2693", "text": "If therefore the Reader expects from me any infallible Deductions, or certainty of _Axioms_, I am to say for my self, that those stronger Works of Wit and Imagination are above my weak Abilities; or if they had not been so, I would not have made use of them in this present Subject before me: Whenever he finds that I have ventur’d at any small Conjectures, at the causes of the things that I have observed, I beseech him to look upon them only as _doubtful Problems_, and _uncertain ghesses_, and not as unquestionable Conclusions, or matters of unconfutable Science; I have produced nothing here, with intent to bind his understanding to an _implicit_ consent; I am so far from that, that I desire him, not absolutely to rely upon these Observations of my eyes, if he finds them contradicted by the future Ocular Experiments of sober and impartial Discoverers.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00067", "bookId": 15491, "start": 16946, "end": 17569, "sha256": "04cf3b9c7f377dfde70348d87d31df822c92bee4c6accb879387acc8e22052d7", "text": "As for my part, I have obtained my end, if these my small Labours shall be thought fit to take up some place in the large stock of _natural Observations_, which so many hands are busie in providing. If I have contributed the _meanest foundations_ whereon others may raise nobler _Superstructures_, I am abundantly satisfied; and all my ambition is, that I may serve to the great Philosophers of this Age, as the makers and the grinders of my Glasses did to me; that I may prepare and furnish them with some _Materials_, which they may afterwards _order_ and _manage_ with better skill, and to far greater advantage.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00068", "bookId": 15491, "start": 17573, "end": 18324, "sha256": "5b89547355483f98dec2399bd98e65f8a3b01dbe322c173356e8d843ab9cdfc3", "text": "The next remedies in this universal cure of the Mind are to be applied to the _Memory_, and they are to consist of such Directions as may inform us, what things are best to be _stor’d up_ for our purpose, and which is the best way of so _disposing_ them, that they may not only be _kept in safety_, but ready and convenient, to be at any time _produc’d_ for use, as occasion shall require. But I will not here prevent my self in what I may say in another Discourse, wherein I shall make an attempt to propose some Considerations of the manner of compiling a Natural and Artificial History, and of so ranging and registring its Particulars into Philosophical Tables, as may make them most useful for the raising of _Axioms_ and _Theories_.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00069", "bookId": 15491, "start": 18328, "end": 19137, "sha256": "01da9887c7203ff9c735385370878e9f23ff68d6da80a7b66c6816aa21c8b877", "text": "The last indeed is the most _hazardous_ Enterprize, and yet the most _necessary_; and that is, to take such care that the _Judgment_ and the _Reason_ of Man (which is the third Faculty to be repair’d and improv’d) should receive such assistance, as to avoid the dangers to which it is by nature most subject. The Imperfections, which I have already mention’d, to which it is lyable, do either belong to the _extent_, or the _goodness_ of its knowledge; and here the difficulty is the greater, least that which may be thought a _remedy_ for the one should prove _destructive_ to the other, least by seeking to inlarge our Knowledge, we should render it weak and uncertain; and least by being too scrupulous and exact about every Circumstance of it, we should confine and streighten it too much.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00070", "bookId": 15491, "start": 19141, "end": 20912, "sha256": "729b375b1826bb3dbae4cc63f48be37b2828fb843818aba6394d9f97bde0e041", "text": "In both these the middle wayes are to be taken, nothing is to be_ omitted_, and yet every thing to pass a _mature deliberation_: No _Intelligence_ from Men of all Professions, and quarters of the World, to be _slighted_, and yet all to be so _severely examin’d_, that there remain no room for doubt or instability; much _rigour_ in admitting, much _strictness_ in comparing, and above all, much _slowness_ in debating, and _shyness_ in determining, is to be practised. The _Understanding_ is to _order_ all the inferiour services of the lower Faculties; but yet it is to do this only as a _lawful Master_, and not as a _Tyrant._ It must not _incroach_ upon their Offices, nor take upon it self the employments which belong to either of them. It must _watch_ the irregularities of the Senses, but it must not go before them, or _prevent_ their information. It must _examine_, _range_, and _dispose_ of the bank which is laid up in the Memory: but it must be sure to make _distinction_ between the _sober_ and _well collected heap_, and the _extravagant Ideas_, and _mistaken Images_, which there it may sometimes light upon. So many are the _links_, upon which the true Philosophy depends, of which, if any one be _loose_, or _weak_, the whole _chain_ is in danger of being dissolv’d; it is to _begin_ with the Hands and Eyes, and to _proceed_ on through the Memory, to be _continued_ by the Reason; nor is it to stop there, but to _come about_ to the Hands and Eyes again, and so, by a _continual passage round_ from one Faculty to another, it is to be maintained in life and strength, as much as the body of man is by the _circulation_ of the blood through the several parts of the body, the Arms, the Feet, the Lungs, the Heart, and the Head.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00071", "bookId": 15491, "start": 20916, "end": 22178, "sha256": "d898bccb7f2603102dc21ca7cdb6ce0ee219641549d9ce734cc73ff5f46aaecd", "text": "If once this method were followed with diligence and attention, there is nothing that lyes within the power of human Wit (or which is far more effectual) of human Industry, which we might not compass; we might not only hope for Inventions to equalize those of _Copernicus_, _Galileo_, _Gilbert_, _Harvy_, and of others, whose Names are almost lost, that were the Inventors of _Gun-powder_, the _Seamans Compass_, _Printing_, _Etching_, _Graving_, _Microscopes_, &c. but multitudes that may far exceed them: for even those discoveries seem to have been the products of some such method, though but imperfect; What may not be therefore expected from it if thoroughly prosecuted? _Talking_ and _contention of Arguments_ would soon be turn’d into _labours_; all the fine _dreams_ of Opinions, and _universal metaphysical natures_, which the luxury of subtil Brains has devis’d, would quickly vanish, and give place to _solid Histories_, _Experiments_ and _Works._ And as at first, mankind _fell_ by _tasting_ of the forbidden Tree of Knowledge, so we, their Posterity, may be in part _restor’d_ by the same way, not only by _beholding_ and _contemplating_, but by _tasting_ too those fruits of Natural knowledge, that were never yet forbidden.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00072", "bookId": 15491, "start": 22182, "end": 22695, "sha256": "e0a80e3cc803dc5c6a628bcd2b37ed58ae78269ee5e185348fadaa3990c76b8e", "text": "From hence the World may be assisted with _variety_ of Inventions, _new_ matter for Sciences may be _collected_, the _old improv’d_, and their _rust_ rubb’d away; and as it is by the benefit of Senses that we receive all our Skill in the works of Nature, so they also may be wonderfully benefited by it, and may be guided to an easier and more exact performance of their Offices; ’tis not unlikely, but that we may find out wherein our Senses are deficient, and as easily find wayes of repairing them.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00073", "bookId": 15491, "start": 22699, "end": 23165, "sha256": "eecdd89a61aae7399caf8913a61295510c41f0e8a9cd8919d9ccaf2be959adc6", "text": "The Indeavours of Skilful men have been most conversant about the assistance of the Eye, and many noble Productions have followed upon it; and from hence we may conclude, that there is a way open’d for advancing the operations, not only of all the other Senses, but even of the Eye it self; that which has been already done ought not to content us, but rather to incourage us to proceed further, and to attempt greater things in the same and different wayes.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00074", "bookId": 15491, "start": 23169, "end": 23541, "sha256": "6220ea44152218b230789dbba80c82bf7a0084006d122a1b8b7d6441e96dd5f7", "text": "’Tis not unlikely, but that there may be yet invented several other helps for the eye, at much exceeding those already found, as those do the bare eye, such as by which we may perhaps be able to discover _living Creatures_ in the Moon, or other Planets, the _figures_ of the compounding Particles of matter, and the particular _Schematisms_ and _Textures_ of Bodies.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00075", "bookId": 15491, "start": 23545, "end": 24832, "sha256": "d94a0ddfc099925fb9c4c3ad9a98d4c50137a9d47fa556c9a1c077fef5e6d8ca", "text": "And as _Glasses_ have highly promoted our _seeing_, so ’tis not improbable, but that there may be found many _Mechanical Inventions_ to improve our other Senses, of _hearing_, _smelling_, _tasting_, _touching._ ’Tis not impossible to hear a _whisper_ a _furlongs_ distance, it having been already done; and perhaps the nature of the thing would not make it more impossible, though that furlong should be ten times multiply’d. And though some famous Authors have affirm’d it impossible to hear through the _thinnest plate_ of _Muscovy-glass_; yet I know a way, by which ’tis easie enough to hear one speak through a _wall a yard thick_. It has not been yet thoroughly examin’d, how far _Otocousticons_ may be improv’d, nor what other wayes there may be of _quickning_ our hearing, or _conveying_ sound through _other bodies_ then the _Air_: for that that is not the only _medium_, I can assure the Reader, that I have, by the help of a _distended wire_, propagated the sound to a very considerable distance in an _instant_, or with as seemingly quick a motion as that of light, at least, incomparably swifter then that, which at the same time was propagated through the Air; and this not only in a straight line, or direct, but in one bended in many angles.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00076", "bookId": 15491, "start": 24836, "end": 26447, "sha256": "80bb64deb32c4107dc3d0dedf17dd3a66c67c3cc7be86a92b98d3b36fbab9cfa", "text": "Nor are the other three so perfect, but that _diligence_, _attention_, and many _mechanical contrivances_, may also highly improve them. For since the sense of _smelling_ seems to be made by the _swift passage_ of the _Air_ (_impregnated_ with the steams and _effluvia_ of several odorous Bodies) through the grisly _meanders_ of the Nose whose surfaces are _cover’d_ with a very sensible _nerve_, and _moistned_ by a _transudation_ from the _processus mamillares_ of the Brain, and some adjoyning _glandules_, and by the moist _steam_ of the _Lungs_, with a Liquor convenient for the reception of those _effluvia_ and by the adhesion and mixing of those steams with that liquor, and thereby affecting the nerve, or perhaps by insinuating themselves into the juices of the brain, after the same manner, as I have in the following Observations intimated, the parts of Salt to pass through the skins of Effs, and Frogs. Since, I say, smelling seems to be made by some such way, ’tis not improbable, but that some contrivance, for making a great quantity of Air pass quick through the Nose, might as much promote the sense of smelling, as the any wayes hindring that passage does dull and destroy it. Several tryals I have made, both of hindring and promoting this sense, and have succeeded in some according to expectation; and indeed to me it seems capable of being improv’d, for the judging of the constitutions of many Bodies. Perhaps we may thereby also judge (as other Creatures seem to do) what is wholsome, what poyson; and in a word, what are the specifick properties of Bodies.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00077", "bookId": 15491, "start": 26451, "end": 27000, "sha256": "9936e76b1c12d4e6e2cdb8a0b24aa7cf784193ddffaa21c56fe7764ad9a18378", "text": "There may be also some other mechanical wayes found out, of sensibly perceiving the _effluvia_ of Bodies; several Instances of which, were it here proper, I could give of Mineral steams and exhalations; and it seems not impossible, but that by some such wayes improved, may be discovered, what Minerals lye buried under the Earth, without the trouble to dig for them; some things to confirm this Conjecture may be found in _Agricola_, and other Writers of Minerals, speaking of the Vegetables that are apt to thrive, or pine, in those steams.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00078", "bookId": 15491, "start": 27004, "end": 27743, "sha256": "923b0476632d0480dab08627910b6288496db32ab9bc29e351882430ca13278b", "text": "Whether also those steams, which seem to issue out of the Earth, and mix with the Air (and so to precipitate some _aqueous_ Exhalations, wherewith ’tis impregnated) may not be by some way detected before they produce the effect, seems hard to determine; yet something of this kind I am able to discover, by an Instrument I contriv’d to shew all the minute variations in the pressure of the Air; by which I constantly find, that before, and during the time of rainy weather, the pressure of the Air is less, and in _dry weather_, but especially when an _Eastern Wind_ (which having past over vast tracts of Land is heavy with Earthy Particles) blows, it is much more, though these changes are varied according to very odd Laws.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00079", "bookId": 15491, "start": 27751, "end": 32574, "sha256": "f7c116060fcdf8d02e923288e08dbbe8ec245a140db11d6a56035391b3017b8a", "text": "The Instrument is this. I prepare a pretty capacious Bolt-head AB, with a small stem about two foot and a half long DC; upon the end of this D I put on a small bended Glass, or brazen _syphon_ DEF (open at D, E and F, but to be closed with cement at F and E, as occasion serves) whose stem F should be about six or eight inches long, but the bore of it not above half an inch diameter, and very even; these I fix very strongly together by the help of very hard Cement, and then fit the whole Glass ABCDEF into a long Board, or Frame, in such manner, that almost half the head AB may lye buried in a concave Hemisphere cut into the Board RS; then I place it so on the Board RS, as is exprest in the first figure of the first Scheme; and fix it very firm and steady in that posture, so as that the weight of the _Mercury_ that is afterwards to be put into it, may not in the least shake or stir it; then drawing a line XY on the Frame RT, so that it may divide the ball into two equal parts, or that it may pass, as ’twere, through the center of the ball. I begin from that, and divide all the rest of the Board towards UT into inches, and the inches between the 25 and the end E (which need not be above two or three and thirty inches distant from the line XY) I subdivide into Decimals; then stopping the end F with soft Cement, or soft Wax, I invert the Frame, placing the head downwards, and the Orifice E upwards; and by it, with a small Funnel, I fill the whole Glass with Quicksilver; then by stopping the small Orifice E with my finger, I oftentimes erect and invert the whole Glass and Frame, and thereby free the Quicksilver and Glass from all the bubbles or parcels of lurking Air; then inverting it as before, I fill it top full with clear and well strain’d Quicksilver, and having made ready a small ball of pretty hard Cement, by heat made very soft, I press it into the hole E, and thereby stop it very fast; and to secure this Cement from flying out afterward, I bind over it a piece of Leather, that is spread over in the inside with Cement, and wound about it while the Cement is hot: Having thus fastned it, I gently erect again the Glass after this manner: I first let the Frame down edge-wayes, till the edge RV touch the Floor, or ly horizontal; and then in that edging posture raise the end RS; this I do, that if there chance to be any Air hidden in the small Pipe E, it may ascend into the Pipe F, and not into the Pipe DC: Having thus erected it, and hung it by the hole Q, or fixt it perpendicularly by any other means, I open the end F, and by a small _Syphon_ I draw out the _Mercury_ so long, till I find the surface of it AB in the head to touch exactly the line XY; at which time I immediately take away the _Syphon_, and if by chance it be run somewhat below the line XY, by pouring in gently a little _Mercury_ at F, I raise it again to its desired height, by this contrivance I make all the sensible rising and falling of the _Mercury_ to be visible in the surface of the _Mercury_ in the Pipe F, and scarce any in the head AB. But because there really is some small change of the upper surface also, I find by several Observations how much it rises in the Ball, and falls in the Pipe F, to make the distance between the two surfaces an inch greater then it was before; and the measure that it falls in the Pipe is the length of the inch by which I am to mark the parts of the Tube F, or the Board on which it lyes, into inches and Decimals: Having thus justned and divided it, I have a large Wheel MNOP, whose outmost limb is divided into two hundred equal parts; this by certain small Pillars is fixt on the Frame RT, in the manner exprest in the Figure. In the middle of this, on the back side, in a convenient frame, is placed a small Cylinder, whose circumference is equal to twice the length of one of those divisions, which I find answer to an inch of ascent, or descent, of _Mercury_: This Cylinder I, is movable on a very small Needle, on the end of which is fixt a very light Index KL, all which are so pois’d on the Axis, or Needle, that no part is heavier then another: Then about this Cylinder is wound a small Clew of Silk, with two small steel Bullets at each end of it GH; one of these, which is somewhat the heavier, ought to be so big, as freely to move to and fro in the Pipe F; by means of which contrivance, every the least variation of the height of the _Mercury_ will be made exceeding visible by the motion to and fro of the small Index KL.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00080", "bookId": 15491, "start": 32578, "end": 33458, "sha256": "cde5fee3b167370c9bc293d46f758ad9ae7d298ce6cd81b72994eab0feee2b89", "text": "But this is but one way of discovering the _effluvia_ of the Earth mixt with the Air; there may be perhaps many others, witness the _Hygroscope_, an Instrument whereby the watery steams volatile in the Air are discerned, which the Nose it self is not able to find. This I have describ’d in the following Tract in the Description of the Beard of a wild Oat. Others there are, may be discovered both by the Nose, and by other wayes also. Thus the _smoak_ of burning _Wood_ is _smelt_, _seen_, and sufficiently _felt_ by the eyes: The _fumes_ of burning _Brimstone_ are _smelt_ and discovered also by the destroying the Colours of Bodies, as by the _whitening of a red Rose_: And who knows, but that the Industry of man, following this method, may find out wayes of improving this sense to as great a degree of perfection at it is in any Animal, and perhaps yet higher.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00081", "bookId": 15491, "start": 33462, "end": 34798, "sha256": "4ec494c066e82521e28f47fd651b2b98a5dc46c6b982cf8f0e89444de791d23c", "text": "’Tis not improbable also, but that our _taste_ may be very much improv’d, either by _preparing_ our taste for the Body, as, after eating _bitter_ things, _Wine_, or other _Vinous liquors_, are more sensibly tasted; or else by _preparing_ Bodies for our tast; as the dissolving of Metals with acid Liquors, make them tastable, which were before altogether insipid; thus _Lead_ becomes _sweeter_ then Sugar, and _Silver_ more _bitter_ then Gall, _Copper_ and _Iron_ of most _loathsome_ tasts. And indeed the business of this sense being to discover the presence of dissolved Bodies in Liquors put on the Tongue, or in general to discover that a fluid body has some solid body dissolv’d in it, and what they are; whatever contrivance makes this discovery improves this sense. In this kind the mixtures of Chymical Liquors afford many Instances; as the sweet Vinegar that is impregnated with Lead may be discovered to be so by the affusion of a little of an _Alcalizate solution_: The bitter liquor of _Aqua fortis_ and _Silver_ may be discover’d to be charg’d with that Metal, by laying in it some plates of Copper: ’Tis not improbable also, but there may be multitudes of other wayes of discovering the parts dissolv’d, or dissoluble in liquors; and what is this discovery but a kind of _secundary tasting_.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00082", "bookId": 15491, "start": 34802, "end": 36739, "sha256": "7119f5c1f982c129c19990e1e938a4693f65584c11277c3a2a853681b2ddf351", "text": "’Tis not improbable also, but that the sense of _feeling_ may be highly improv’d, for that being a sense that judges of the more _gross_ and _robust motions_ of the _Particles_ of _Bodies_, seems capable of being improv’d and assisted very many wayes. Thus for the distinguishing of _Heat_ and _Cold_, the _Weather-glass_ and _Thermometer_, which I have describ’d in this following Treatise, do exceedingly perfect it; by each of which the least variations of heat or cold, which the most Acute sense is not able to distinguish, are manifested. This is oftentimes further promoted also by the help of _Burning-glasses_, and the like, which collect and unite the radiating heat. Thus the _roughness_ and _smoothness_ of a Body is made much more sensible by the help of a _Microscope_, then by the most _tender_ and _delicate Hand_. Perhaps, a Physitian might, by several other _tangible_ proprieties, discover the constitution of a Body as well as by the _Pulse_. I do but instance in these, to shew what possibility there may be of many others, and what probability and hopes there were of finding them, if this method were followed; for the Offices of the five Senses being to detect either the _subtil_ and _curious Motions_ propagated through all _pellucid_ or perfectly _homogeneous_ Bodies; Or the more _gross_ and _vibrative Pulse_ communicated through the _Air_ and all other convenient _mediums_, whether fluid or solid: Or the _effluvia_ of Bodies _dissolv’d_ in the _Air_; Or the _particles_ of bodies _dissolv’d_ or _dissoluble_ in _Liquors_, or the more _quick_ and _violent shaking motion_ of _heat_ in all or any of these: whatsoever does any wayes promote any of these kinds of _criteria_, does afford a way of improving some one sense. And what a multitude of these would a diligent Man meet with in his inquiries? And this for the helping and promoting the _sensitive faculty_ only.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00083", "bookId": 15491, "start": 36743, "end": 37410, "sha256": "5b6582bec4dc527a8db00df46b24253d2b9528676f13fccb87c1c9839c3679de", "text": "Next, as for the _Memory_, or _retentive faculty_, we may be sufficiently instructed from the _written Histories_ of _civil actions_, what great assistance may be afforded the Memory, in the committing to writing things observable in _natural operations_. If a Physitian be therefore accounted the more able in his Faculty, because he has had long experience and practice, the remembrance of which, though perhaps very imperfect, does regulate all his after actions: What ought to be thought of that man, that has not only a perfect _register_ of his own experience, but is grown _old_ with the experience of many hundreds of years, and many thousands of men.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00084", "bookId": 15491, "start": 37414, "end": 38141, "sha256": "4cccccbe72aa3a105164a28085ce461ca5e45b9da46385c2de70fd4fb8de878a", "text": "And though of late, men, beginning to be sensible of this convenience, have here and there registred and printed some few _Centuries_, yet for the most part they are set down very lamely and imperfectly, and, I fear, many times not so truly, they seeming, several of them, to be design’d more for _Ostentation_ then _publique use_: For, not to instance, that they do, for the most part, omit those Experiences they have made, wherein their Patients have miscarried, it is very easie to be perceiv’d, that they do all along _hyperbolically extol_ their own Prescriptions, and vilifie those of others. Notwithstanding all which, these kinds of Histories are generally esteem’d useful, even to the ablest Physitian.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00085", "bookId": 15491, "start": 38145, "end": 38796, "sha256": "05afd37949935c8438c3868d4d7d46bef5102422f900d9ddf372321f8146e337", "text": "What may not be expected from the _rational_ or _deductive Faculty_ that is furnisht with such _Materials_, and those so readily _adapted_, and rang’d for use, that in a moment, as ’twere, thousands of Instances, serving for the _illustration_, _determination_, or _invention_, of almost any inquiry, may be _represented_ even to the sight? How neer the nature of _Axioms_ must all those _Propositions_ be which are examin’d before so many _Witnesses_? And how difficult will it be for any, though never so subtil an error in Philosophy, to _scape_ from being discover’d, after it has indur’d the _touch_, and so many other _tryals_?", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00086", "bookId": 15491, "start": 38800, "end": 39698, "sha256": "58cb6f99d3bd9eb170e0e72628480cbb5973f40b6ed18221fec042578bb042a9", "text": "What kind of mechanical way, and physical invention also is there requir’d that might not this way be found out? The _Invention_ of a way to find the _Longitude_ of places is easily perform’d, and that to as great _perfection_ as is desir’d, or to at great an _accurateness_ as the _Latitude_ of places can be found at Sea; and perhaps yet also to a greater certainty then that has been hitherto found, as I shall very speedily freely manifest to the world. The way of _flying_ in the Air seems principally unpracticable, by reason of the _want of strength_ in _humane muscles_; if therefore that could be suppli’d, it were, I think, easie to make twenty contrivances to perform the office of _Wings_: What Attempts also I have made for the supplying that Defect, and my successes therein, which, I think, are wholly new, and not inconsiderable, I shall in another place relate.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00087", "bookId": 15491, "start": 39702, "end": 40031, "sha256": "84a999309c82a085b182ef0ced6701f6f7d83695f20519aa12502e647d374419", "text": "’Tis not unlikely also, but that _Chymists_, if they followed this method, might find out their so much sought for _Alkahest_. What an _universal Menstruum_, which dissolves all sorts of _Sulphureous Bodies_, I have discover’d (which has not been before taken notice of as such) I have shewn in the sixteenth Observation.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00088", "bookId": 15491, "start": 40035, "end": 41267, "sha256": "876408d047e1283fe6db179a5649eddb5cb3b3a37528f4c4f947d557294811bc", "text": "What a prodigious variety of Inventions in _Anatomy_ has this latter Age afforded, even in our own Bodies in the very _Heart_, by which we live, and the Brain, which is the seat of our knowledge of other things? witness all the excellent Works of _Pecquet_, _Bartholinus_, _Billius_, and many others; and at home, of Doctor _Harvy_, Doctor _Ent_, Doctor _Willis_, Doctor _Glisson_. In _Celestial Observations_ we have far exceeded all the Antients, even the _Chaldeans_ and _Egyptians_ themselves, whose _vast Plains_, _high Towers_, and _clear Air_, did not give them so great advantages over us, as have over them by our _Glasses_. By the help of which, they have been very much outdone by the famous _Galileo_, _Hevelius_, _Zulichem_; and our own Countrymen, Mr. _Rook_, Doctor _Wren_, and the great Ornament of our Church and Nation, the _Lord Bishop of Exeter_. And to say no more in _Aerial Discoveries_, there has been a wonderful progress made by the _Noble Engine_ of _the most Illustrious Mr. Boyle_, whom it becomes me to mention with all honour, not only as my particular Patron, but as the _Patron_ of _Philosophy_ it self; which he every day _increases_ by his _Labours_, and _adorns_ by his _Example_.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00089", "bookId": 15491, "start": 41271, "end": 42416, "sha256": "8fb97f33d6d550f4de027a7f478634411fbe5d8631580197e24d85d804f38961", "text": "The good success of all these _great Men_, and many others, and the now seemingly great _obviousness_ of most of their and divers other Inventions, which from the beginning of the world have been, as ’twere, trod on, and yet not minded till these last _inquisitive_ Ages (an Argument that there may be yet behind multitudes of the like) puts me in mind to recommend such Studies, and the prosecution of them by such methods, to the _Gentlemen_ of our Nation, whose _leisure_ makes them fit to _undertake_, and the _plenty_ of their fortunes _to accomplish_, extraordinary things in this way. And I do not only propose this kind of _Experimental Philosophy_ as a matter of high _rapture_ and _delight_ of the mind, but even as a _material_ and _sensible Pleasure_. So vast it the _variety of Objects_ which will come under their Inspections, so many _different wayes_ there are _of handling_ them, so great is the _satisfaction_ of _finding_ out _new things_, that I dare compare the _contentment_ which they will injoy, not only to that of _contemplation_, but even to that which most men prefer of _the very Senses themselves_.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00090", "bookId": 15491, "start": 42420, "end": 43293, "sha256": "e70c1df99914187b7ef7a49facb93face7c2c8b48e65c550e6621dce0a390e33", "text": "And if they will please to take any incouragement from so mean and so imperfect endeavours as mine, upon my own experience, I can assure them, without arrogance, That there has not been any inquiry or Problem in _Mechanicks_, that I have hitherto propounded to my self, but by a certain method (which I may on some other opportunity explain) I have been able presently to examine the possibility of it; and if so, as easily to excogitate divers wayes of performing it: And indeed it is possible to do as much by _this method_ in _Mechanicks_, as by _Algebra_ can be perform’d in _Geometry_. Nor can I at all doubt, but that the same method is as applicable to _Physical Enquiries_, and as likely to find and reap thence as plentiful a crop of Inventions; and indeed there seems to be no subject so barren, but may with this good husbandry be highly improv’d.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00091", "bookId": 15491, "start": 43297, "end": 44162, "sha256": "94f9625220628ff4c0a2c33b580f5d28ef2b93e096f2f42a0d812011ba87920d", "text": "Toward the prosecution of this method in _Physical Inquiries_, I have here and there _gleaned_ up an _handful_ of Observations, in the collection of most of which I made use of _Microscopes_, and some other _Glasses_ and _Instruments_ that improve the sense; which way I have herein taken, not that there are not multitudes of useful and pleasant Observables, yet uncollected, obvious enough without the helps of Art, but only to promote the use of Mechanical helps for the Senses, both in the surveying the already visible World, and for the discovery of many others hitherto unknown, and to make us, with the great Conqueror, to be affected that we have not yet overcome one World when there are so many others to be discovered, every considerable improvement of _Telescopes_ or _Microscopes_ producing new Worlds and _Terra-Incognita’s_ to our view.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00092", "bookId": 15491, "start": 44166, "end": 45496, "sha256": "ad4f8562e24590cbfc8dedf5ee95a70f5e29d7c0dd4020c2172e248b74ea1350", "text": "The Glasses I used were of our English make, but though very good of the kind, yet far short of what might be expected, could we once find a way of making Glasses Elliptical, or of some more true shape; for though both _Microscopes_, and _Telescopes_, as they now are, will magnifie an Object about a thousand thousand times bigger then it appears to the naked eye; yet the Apertures of the Object glasses are so very small, that very few Rays are admitted, and even of those few there are so many false, that the Object appears _dark_ and _indistinct_: And indeed these inconveniences are such, as seem inseparable from Spherical Glasses, even when most exactly made; but the way we have hitherto made use of for that purpose is so imperfect, that there may be perhaps ten wrought before one be made tolerably good, and most of those ten perhaps every one differing in goodness one from another, which is an Argument, that the way hitherto used is, at least, very uncertain. So that these Glasses have a double defect; the one, that very few of them are exactly true wrought; the other, that even of those that are best among them, none will admit a sufficient number of Rayes to magnifie the Object beyond a determinate bigness. Against which Inconveniences the only Remedies I have hitherto met with are these.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00093", "bookId": 15491, "start": 45504, "end": 47761, "sha256": "e784b721849254add20f876d7dbdb48e7bf54dbf01c44e40030535cc51ac74e5", "text": "First, for _Microscopes_ (where the Object we view is near and within our power) the best way of making it appear bright in the Glass, is to cast a great quantity of light on it by means of _convex glasses_, for thereby, though the aperture be very small, yet there will throng in through it such multitudes, that an Object will by this means indure to be magnifi’d as much again as it would be without it. The way for doing which is this. I make choice of some Room that has only one window open to the South, and at about three or four foot distance from this Window, on a Table, I place my _Microscope_, and then so place either a round Globe of Water, or a very deep clear_ plano convex_ Glass (whose convex side is turn’d towards the Window) that there is a great quantity of Rayes collected and thrown upon the Object: Or if the Sun shine, I place a small piece of oyly Paper very near the Object, between that and the light; then with a good large Burning-Glass I so collect and throw the Rayes on the Paper, that there may be a very great quantity of light pass through it to the Object; yet I so proportion that light, that it may not singe or burn the Paper. Instead of which Paper there may be made use of a small piece of Looking-glass plate, one of whose sides is made rough by being rubb’d on a flat Tool with very fine sand, this will, if the heat be leisurely cast on it, indure a much greater degree of heat, and consequently very much augment a convenient light. By all which means the light of the Sun, or of a Window, may be so cast on an Object, as to make it twice as light as it would otherwise be without it, and that without any inconvenience of glaring, which the immediate light of the Sun is very apt to create in most Objects; for by this means the light is so equally diffused, that all parts are alike inlightned; but when the immediate light of the Sun falls on it, the reflexions from some few parts are so vivid, that they drown the appearance of all the other, and are themselves also, by reason of the inequality of light, indistinct, and appear only radiant spots.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00094", "bookId": 15491, "start": 47769, "end": 48356, "sha256": "59eb497c48da5eb5f52784322b0a3cc8fdd5ebfff90e9b033a0d0b7cfc5829cb", "text": "But because the light of the Sun, and also that of a Window, is in a continual variation, and so many Objects cannot be view’d long enough by them to be throughly examin’d; besides that, oftentimes the Weather is so dark and cloudy, that for many dayes together nothing can be view’d: And because also there are many Objects to be met with in the night, which cannot so conveniently be kept perhaps till the day, therefore to procure and cast a sufficient quantity of light on an Object in the night, I thought of, and often used this, Expedient.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00095", "bookId": 15491, "start": 48364, "end": 49551, "sha256": "cb683fffd29732c9c7049a7d8c37cdbfd7462d9fe526212f72230fc5702196b2", "text": "I procur’d me a small Pedestal, such as is describ’d in the fifth Figure of the first _Scheme_ on the small Pillar AB, of which were two movable Armes CD, which by means of the Screws EF, I could fix in any part of the Pillar; on the undermost of these I plac’d a pretty large Globe of Glass G, fill’d with exceeding clear Brine, stopt, inverted, and fixt in the manner visible in the Figure; out of the side of which Arm proceeded another Arm H, with many joynts; to the end of which was fastned a deep plain _Convex glass_ I, which by means of this Arm could be moved to and fro, and fixt in any posture. On the upper Arm was placed a small Lamp K, which could be so mov’d upon the end of the Arm, as to be set in a fit posture to give light through the Ball: By means of this Instrument duly plac’d, as is exprest in the Figure, with the small flame of a Lamp may be cast as great and convenient a light on the Object as it will well indure; and being always constant, and to be had at any time, I found most proper for drawing the representations of those small Objects I had occasion to observe.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00096", "bookId": 15491, "start": 49559, "end": 49927, "sha256": "413fd8e9141df66432d406fb09d60f0d0b00c4c528063c9d25c736ac1e24462c", "text": "None of all which ways (though much beyond any other hitherto made use of by any I know) do afford a sufficient help, but after a certain degree of magnifying, they leave us again in the lurch. Hence it were very desirable, that some way were thought of for making the Object-glass of such a Figure as would conveniently bear a large Aperture.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00097", "bookId": 15491, "start": 49931, "end": 52059, "sha256": "6ea37fb9974a25a41b4eec97908bef126f4bba550d4a2ac90afd69eadd38546e", "text": "As for _Telescopes_, the only improvement they seem capable of, is the increasing of their length; for the Object being remote, there is no thought of giving it a greater light then it has; and therefore to augment the Aperture, the Glass must be ground of a very large sphere; for, by that means, the longer the Glass be, the bigger aperture will it bear, if the Glasses be of an equal goodness in their kind. Therefore a six will indure a much larger Aperture then a three foot Glass, and a sixty foot Glass will proportionably bear a greater Aperture then a thirty, and will as much excel it also as a six foot does a three foot, as I have experimentally observ’d in one of that length made by Mr. _Richard Reives_ here at _London_, which will bear an Aperture above three inches over, and yet make the Object proportionably big and distinct; whereas there are very few thirty foot Glasses that will indure an Aperture of more then two inches over. So that for _Telescopes_, supposing we had a very ready way of making their Object Glasses of exactly spherical Surfaces, we might, by increasing the length of the Glass, magnifie the Object to any assignable bigness. And for performing both these, I cannot imagine any way more easie, and more exact, then by this following Engine, by means of which, any Glasses, of what length soever, may be speedily made. It seems the most easie, because with one and the same Tool may be with care ground an Object Glass, of any length or breadth requisite, and that with very little or no trouble in fitting the Engine, and without much skill in the Grinder. It seems to be the most exact, for to the very last stroke the Glass does regulate and rectifie the Tool to its exact Figure; and the longer or more the Tool and Glass are wrought together, the more exact will both of them be of the desir’d Figure. Further, the motions of the Glass and Tool do so cross each other, that there is not one point of eithers Surface, but has thousands of cross motions thwarting it, so that there can be no kind of Rings or Gutters made either in the Tool or Glass.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00098", "bookId": 15491, "start": 52067, "end": 55611, "sha256": "9a776ac519a915a67705abf2a643a39ba6b2f8053c721a71fd9ce1953e935068", "text": "The contrivance of the Engine is, only to make the ends of two large _Mandrils_ so to move, that the Centers of them may be at any convenient distance asunder, and that the _Axis_ of the _Mandrils_ lying both in the same plain produc’d, may meet each other in any assignable Angle; both which requisites may be very well perform’d by the Engine describ’d in the third Figure of the first _Scheme_: where AB signifies the Beam of a Lath fixt perpendicularly or Horizontally, CD the two Poppet heads, fixt at about two foot distance, EF an Iron _Mandril_, whose tapering neck F runs in an adapted tapering brass Collar; the other end E runs on the point of a Screw G; in a convenient place of this is fastned H a pully Wheel, and into the end of it, that comes through the Poppet head C, is screwed a Ring of a hollow _Cylinder_ K, or some other conveniently shap’d Tool, of what wideness shall be thought most proper for the cize of Glasses, about which it is to be imploy’d: As, for Object glasses, between twelve foot and an hundred foot long, the Ring may be about six inches over, or indeed somewhat more for those longer Glasses. It would be convenient also, and not very chargeable, to have four or five several Tools; as one for all Glasses between an inch and a foot, one for all Glasses between a foot and ten foot long, another for all between ten and an hundred, a fourth for all between a hundred and a thousand foot long; and if Curiosity shall ever proceed so far, one for all lengths between a thousand and ten thousand foot long; for indeed the principle is such, that supposing the _Mandrils_ well made, and of a good length, and supposing great care be used in working and polishing them, I see no reason, but that a Glass of a thousand, nay of ten thousand foot long, may be as well made as one of ten; for the reason is the same, supposing the _Mandrils_ and Tools be made sufficiently strong, so that they cannot bend; and supposing the Glass, out of which they are wrought, be capable of so great a regularity in its parts as to refraction: this hollow _Cylinder_ K is to contain the Sand, and by being drove round very quick to and fro by means of a small Wheel, which may be mov’d with ones foot, serves to grind the Glass: The other _Mandril_ is shap’d like this, but it has an even neck instead of a taper one, and runs in a Collar, that by the help of a Screw and a joynt made like M in the Figure, it can be still adjustned to the wearing or wasting neck: into the end of this _Mandril_ is screwed a Chock N on which with Cement or Glew is fastned the piece of Glass Q that is to be form’d; the middle of which Glass is to be plac’d just on the edge of the Ring, and the Lath OP is to be set and fixt (by means of certain pieces and screws, the manner whereof will be sufficiently evidenc’d by the Figure) in such an Angle as is requisite to the forming of such a Sphere as the Glass is design’d to be of; the geometrical ground of which being sufficiently plain, though not heeded before, I shall, for brevities sake, pass over. This last _Mandril_ to be made (by means of the former, or some other Wheel) to run round very swift also, by which two cross motions the Glass cannot chuse (if care be us’d) but be wrought into a most exactly spherical Surface.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00099", "bookId": 15491, "start": 55615, "end": 56664, "sha256": "24134a002fc9e99ed242c69d6eb71d44fb8a88a533fa5f9cb7a9b8aefb112f84", "text": "But because we are certain, from the _Laws of refraction_ (which I I have experimentally found to be so, by an Instrument I shall presently describe) that _the lines of the angles of Incidence are proportionate to the lines of the angles of Refraction_, therefore if Glasses could be made of those kind of Figures, or some other, such as the most incomparable _Des Cartes_ has invented, and demonstrated in his Philosophical and Mathematical Works, we might hope for a much greater perfection of Opticks then can be rationally expected from spherical ones; for though, _cæteris paribus_, we find, that the larger the _Telescope_ Object Glasses are, and the shorter those of the _Microscope_, the better they magnifie, yet both of them, beside such determinate dimensions, are by certain inconveniences rendred unuseful; for it will be exceeding _difficult_ to make and _manage_ a Tube above an _hundred foot long_, and it will be as difficult to _inlighten_ an Object less then an hundred part of an inch distant from the Object Glass.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00100", "bookId": 15491, "start": 56668, "end": 57311, "sha256": "f733bbc8378a5c62f680d20e7390788fd2c41ca9af516d528338ed7959448b65", "text": "I have not as yet made any attempts of that kind, though I know two or three wayes, which, as far as I have yet considered, seem very probable, and may invite me to make a tryal as soon as I have an opportunity, of which I may hereafter perhaps acquaint the world. In the Interim, I shall describe the Instrument I even now mention’d, by which the _refraction_ of all kinds of Liquors may be most exactly measur’d, thereby to give the curious an opportunity of making what further tryals of that kind they shall think requisite to any of their intended tryals; and to let them see that the laws of Refraction are not only notional.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00101", "bookId": 15491, "start": 57319, "end": 62354, "sha256": "e424da9cbbbeea2c5d36dbe9d7d06352191db02a574d44e7312b7dc1420260e7", "text": "The Instrument consisted of five Rulers, or long pieces placed together, after the manner exprest in the second Figure of the first _Scheme_, where AB denotes a straight piece of wood about six foot and two inches long, about three inches over, and an inch and half thick, on the back side of which was hung a small plummet by a line stretcht from top to bottom, by which this piece was set exactly upright, and so very firmly fixt; in the middle of this was made a hole or center, into which one end of a hollow cylindrical brass Box CC, fashion’d as I shall by and by describe, was plac’d, and could very easily and truly be mov’d to and fro; the other end of this Box being put into, and moving in, a hole made in a small arm DD; into this box was fastned the long Ruler EF, about three foot and three or four inches long, and at three foot from the above mention’d Centers PP was a hole E, cut through, and cross’d with two small threads, and at the end of it was fixt a small sight G, and on the back side of it was fixt a small Arm H, with a Screw to fix it in any place on the Ruler LM; this Ruler LM was mov’d on the Center B (which was exactly three foot distance from the middle Center P) and a line drawn through the middle of it LM, was divided by a Line of cords into some sixty degrees, and each degree was subdivided into minutes, so that putting the cross of the threads in E upon any part of this divided line, I presently knew what Angle the two Rules AB and EF made with each other, and by turning the Screw in H, I could fix them in any position. The other Ruler also RS was made much after the same manner, only it was not fixt to the hollow cylindrical Box, but, by means of two small brass Armes or Ears, it mov’d on the Centers of it; this also, by means of the cross threads in the hole S, and by a Screw in K, could be fastned on any division of another line of cords of the same radius drawn on NO. And so by that means, the Angle made by the two Rulers, AB and RS, was also known. The Brass box CC in the middle was shap’d very much like the Figure X, that is, it was a cylindrical Box stopp’d close at either end, off of which a part both of the sides and bottomes was cut out, so that the Box, when the Pipe and that was joyned to it, would contain the Water when fill’d half full, and would likewise, without running over, indure to be inclin’d to an Angle, equal to that of the greatest refraction of Water, and no more, without running over. The Ruler EF was fixt very fast to the Pipe V, so that the Pipe V directed the length of the Ruler EF, and the Box and Ruler were mov’d on the Pin TT, so as to make any desirable Angle with the Ruler AB. The bottom of this Pipe V was stop’d with a small piece of exactly plain Glass, which was plac’d exactly perpendicular to the Line of direction, or _Axis_ of the Ruler EF. The Pins also TT were drill’d with small holes through the _Axis_, and through those holes was stretcht and fastned a small Wire. There was likewise a small Pipe of Tin loosly put on upon the end of V, and reaching down to the sight G; the use of which was only to keep any false Rayes of light from passing through the bottom of V, and only admitting such to pass as pierced through the sight G: All things being placed together in the manner describ’d in the Figure; that is, the Ruler AB being fixt perpendicular, I fill’d the Box CC with Water, or any other Liquor, whose refraction I intended to try, till the Wire passing through the middle of it were just covered: then I moved and fixt the Ruler FE at any assignable Angle, and placed the flame of a Candle just against the sight G; and looking through the sight I, I moved the Ruler RS to and fro, till I perceived the light passing through G to be covered, as ’twere, or divided by the dark Wire passing through PP: then turning the Screw in K, I fixt it in that posture: And through the hole S, I observed what degree and part of it was cut by the cross threads in S. And this gave me the Angle of Inclination, APS answering to the Angle of Refraction BPE: for the surface of the Liquor in the Box will be alwayes horizontal, and consequently AB will be a perpendicular to it; the Angle therefore APS will measure, or be the Angle of Inclination in the Liquor; next EPB must be the Angle of Refraction, for the Ray that passes through the sight G, passes also perpendicularly through the Glass _Diaphragme_ at F, and consequently also perpendicularly through the lower surface of the Liquor contiguous to the Glass, and therefore suffers no refraction till it meet with the horizontal surface of the Liquor in CC, which is determined by the two Angles.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00102", "bookId": 15491, "start": 62358, "end": 63425, "sha256": "c36e2d3f0e35a865f50373336f5a53f650839a8f7d0553362da9de72e2a1ae82", "text": "By means of this Instrument I can with _little trouble_, and a very small quantity of any _Liquor_, examine, most accurately, the _refraction_ of it not only for one inclination, but for all; and thereby am inabled to make very accurate Tables; several of which I have also experimentally made, and find, that _Oyl of Turpentine_ has a much greater Refraction then _Spirit of Wine_, though it be _lighter_; and that _Spirit of Wine_ has a greater Refraction then _Water_, though it be lighter also; but that _salt Water_ also has a greater Refraction then _fresh_, though it be _heavier_: but _Alum water_ has a less refraction then common _Water_, though heavier also. So that it seems, as to the _refraction_ made in a Liquor, the _specifick gravity_ is of no efficacy. By this I have also found that look what _proportion _the _Sine_ of the Angle of _one Inclination_ has to the _Sine_ of the Angle of _Refraction_, correspondent to it, the same _proportion_ have all the _Sines_ of other Inclinations to the _Sines_ of their appropriate Refractions.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00103", "bookId": 15491, "start": 63433, "end": 64253, "sha256": "e21e0eb057ae0cb54aa9cf19ed63fc56f85b0e5483325f3fa141a1eb844d616a", "text": "My way for measuring how much a Glass magnifies an Object, plac’d at a convenient distance from my eye, is this. Having rectifi’d the _Microscope_, to see the desir’d Object through it very distinctly, at the same time that I look upon the Object through the Glass with one eye, I look upon other Objects at the same distance with my other bare eye; by which means I am able, by the help of a _Ruler_ divided into inches and small parts, and laid on the _Pedestal_ of the _Microscope_, to cast, as it were, the magnifi’d appearance of the Object upon the Ruler, and thereby exactly to measure the Diameter it appears of through the Glass, which being compar’d with the Diameter it appears of to the naked eye, will easily afford the quantity of its magnifying.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00104", "bookId": 15491, "start": 64261, "end": 67364, "sha256": "c38ff2c25bf6931845ef12e1b28532b17eeecd96800d3c2f9c59b66ad884b649", "text": "The _Microscope_, which for the most part I made use of, was shap’d much like that in the sixth Figure of the first _Scheme_, the Tube being for the most part not above six or seven inches long, though, by reason it had four Drawers, it could very much be lengthened, as occasion required; this was contriv’d with three Glasses; a small Object Glass at A, a thinner Eye Glass about B, and a very deep one about C: this I made use of only when I had occasion to see much of an Object at once; the middle Glass conveying a very great company of radiating Pencils, which would go another way, and throwing them upon the deep Eye Glass. But when ever I had occasion to examine the small parts of a Body more accurately, I took out the middle Glass, and only made use of one Eye Glass with the Object Glass, for always the fewer the Refractions are, the more bright and clear the Object appears. And therefore ’tis not to be doubted, but could we make a_ Microscope _to have one only refraction, it would, _cæteris paribus_, far excel any other that had a greater number. And hence it is, that if you take a very clear piece of a broken _Venice_ Glass, and in a Lamp draw it out into very small hairs or threads, then holding the ends of these threads in the flame, till they melt and run into a small round Globul, or drop, which will hang at the end of the thread; and if further you stick several of these upon the end of a stick with a little sealing Wax, so as that the threads stand upwards, and then on a Whetstone first grind off a good part of them, and afterward on a smooth Metal plate, with a little Tripoly, rub them till they come to be very smooth; if one of these be fixt with a little soft Wax against a small needle hole, prick’d through a thin Plate of Brass, Lead, Pewter, or any other Metal, and an Object, plac’d very near, be look’d at through it, it will both magnifie and make some Objects more distinct then any of the great _Microscopes_. But because these, though exceeding easily made, are yet very troublesome to be us’d, because of their smalness, and the nearness of the Object; therefore to prevent both these, and yet have only two Refractions, I provided me a Tube of Brass, shap’d much like that in the fourth Figure of the first _Scheme_; into the smaller end of this I fixt with Wax a good _plano convex_ Object Glass, with the convex side towards the Object, and into the bigger end I fixt also with wax a pretty large plano _Convex_ Glass, with the _convex_ side towards my eye, then by means of the small hole by the side, I fill’d the intermediate space between these two Glasses with very clear Water, and with a Screw stopp’d it in; then putting on a Cell for the Eye, I could perceive an Object more bright then I could when the intermediate space was only fill’d with Air, but this, for other inconveniences, I made but little use of.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00105", "bookId": 15491, "start": 67372, "end": 68105, "sha256": "c579bc4881fe9a52e85df224d5923e3b91fbdf080786bcadfdb9adf2b203191c", "text": "My way for fixing both the Glass and Object to the Pedestal most conveniently was thus: Upon one side of a round Pedestal AB, in the sixth Figure of the first _Scheme_, was fixt a small Pillar CC, on this was fitted a small Iron Arm D, which could be mov’d up and down, and fixt in any part of the Pillar, by means of a small Screw E; on the end of this Arm was a small Ball fitted into a kind of socket F, made in the side of the Brass Ring G, through which the small end of the Tube was screw’d; by means of which contrivance I could place and fix the Tube in what posture I desir’d (which for many Observations was exceeding necessary) and adjusten it most exactly to any Object.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00106", "bookId": 15491, "start": 68113, "end": 69304, "sha256": "b9f99bee93217def14406c9728e78b5bd2f0a7ff2317aae6363f597af606c9fe", "text": "For placing the Object, I made this contrivance; upon the end of a small brass Link or Staple HH, I so fastned a round Plate II, that it might be turn’d round upon its Center K, and going pretty stiff, would stand fixt in any posture it was set; on the side of this was fixt a small Pillar P, about three quarters of an inch high, and through the top of this was thrust a small Iron pin M, whose top just stood over the Center of the Plate; on this top I fixt a small Object, and by means of these contrivances I was able to turn it into all kind of positions, both to my Eye and the Light; for by moving round the small Plate on its center, could move it one way, and by turning the Pin M, I could move it another way, and this without stirring the Glass at all, or at least but very little; the Plate likewise I could move to and fro to any part of the Pedestal (which in many cases was very convenient) and fix it also in any Position, by means of a Nut N, which was screw’d on upon the lower part of the Pillar CC. All the other Contrivances are obvious enough from the draught, and will need no description.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00107", "bookId": 15491, "start": 69308, "end": 70048, "sha256": "0a9ff55027f24591d5a4c4e125549b314292eafbdc2ea750a940cf2c26e0170e", "text": "Now though this were the Instrument I made most use of, yet I have made several other Tryals with other kinds of Microscopes, which both for _matter_ and _form_ were very different from common spherical Glasses. I have made a _Microscope_ with one piece of Glass, both whose surfaces were _plains_. I have made another only with a _plano concave_, without any kind of reflection, divers also by means of _reflection_. I have made others of _Waters_, _Gums_, _Resins_, _Salts_, _Arsenick_, _Oyls_, and with divers other _mixtures of watery_ and _oyly Liquors_. And indeed the subject is capable of a great variety; but I find generally none more useful then that which is made with _two Glasses_, such as I have already describ’d.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00108", "bookId": 15491, "start": 70052, "end": 70857, "sha256": "f572af7ce70ce54265e69850e06da8f21db25f91cf6ead557e3869dbc77f21e6", "text": "What the things are I observ’d, the following descriptions will manifest; in brief, they were either _exceeding small Bodies_, or _exceeding small Pores_, or _exceeding small Motions_, some of each of which the Reader will find in the following Notes, and such, as I presume, (many of them at least) will be _new_, and perhaps not less _strange_: Some _specimen_ of each of which Heads the Reader will find in the subsequent delineations, and indeed of some more then I was willing there should be; which was occasioned by my first Intentions to print a much greater number then I have since found time to compleat. Of such therefore as I had, I selected only some few of every Head, which for some particulars seem’d most observable, rejecting the rest as superfluous to the present Design.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00109", "bookId": 15491, "start": 70861, "end": 72555, "sha256": "0a4ee6ef3032f57aae8582b0f97139a2dc99673c889abb246c9e00fe04dca001", "text": "What each of the delineated Subjects are, the following descriptions annext to each will inform, of which I shall here, only once for all, add, That in divers of them the Gravers have pretty well follow’d my directions and draughts; and that in making of them, I indeavoured (as far as I was able) first to discover the true appearance, and next to make a plain representation of it. This I mention the rather, because of these kind of Objects there is much more difficulty to discover the true shape, then of those visible to the naked eye, the same Object seeming quite differing, in one position to the Light, from what it really is, and may be discover’d in another. And therefore I never began to make any draught before by many examinations in several lights, and in several positions to those lights, I had discover’d the true form. For it is exceeding difficult in some Objects, to distinguish between a _prominency_ and a _depression_, between a _shadow_ and a _black stain_, or a _reflection_ and a _whiteness in the colour_. Besides, the transparency of most Objects renders them yet much more difficult then if they were _opacous_. The Eyes of a Fly in one kind of light appear almost like a Lattice, drill’d through with abundance of small holes; which probably may be the Reason, why the Ingenious _Dr. Power_ seems to suppose them such. In the Sunshine they look like a Surface cover’d with golden Nails; in another posture, like a Surface cover’d with Pyramids; in another with Cones; and in other postures of quite other shapes; but that which exhibits the best, is the Light collected on the Object, by those means I have already describ’d.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00110", "bookId": 15491, "start": 72559, "end": 76155, "sha256": "fc4e07c1356481e4d1fb471c69ec64174a2099a89230df9a0e0c9a6f74715bf1", "text": "And this was undertaken in prosecution of the Design which the _ROYAL SOCIETY_ has propos’d to it self. For the Members of the Assembly having before their eys so many _fatal_ Instances of the errors and falshoods, in which the greatest part of mankind has so long wandred, because they rely’d upon the strength of humane Reason alone, have begun anew to correct all _Hypotheses_ by sense, as Seamen do their _dead Reckonings_ by _Cœlestial Observations_; and to this purpose it has been their principal indeavour to _enlarge & strengthen_ the _Senses_ by _Medicine_, and by such _outward Instruments_ as are proper for their particular works. By this means they find some reason to suspect, that those effects of Bodies, which have been commonly attributed to _Qualities_, and those confess’d to be _occult_, are perform’d by the small _Machines_ of Nature, which are not to be discern’d without these helps, seeming the meer products of _Motion_, _Figure_, and _Magnitude_; and that the _Natural Textures_, which some call the _Plastick faculty_, may be made in _Looms_, which a greater perfection of Opticks may make discernable by these Glasses; so as now they are no more puzzled about them, then the vulgar are to conceive, how _Tapestry_ or _flowred Stuffs_ are woven. And the ends of all these Inquiries they intend to be the _Pleasure_ of Contemplative minds, but above all, the _ease and dispatch_ of the labours of mens hands. They do indeed neglect no opportunity to bring all the _rare_ things of Remote Countries within the compass of their knowledge and practice. But they still acknowledg their _most useful_ Informations to arise from _common_ things, and from _diversifying_ their most _ordinary_ operations upon them. They do not wholly reject Experiments of meer _light_ and _theory_; but they principally aim at such, whose Applications will _improve and facilitate_ the present way of _Manual Arts_. And though some men, who are perhaps taken up about less honourable Employments, are pleas’d to censure their proceedings, yet they can shew more _fruits_ of their first three years, wherein they have assembled, then any other _Society_ in _Europe_ can for a much larger space of time. ’Tis true, such undertakings as theirs do commonly meet with small incouragement, because men are generally rather taken with the _plausible_ and _discursive_, then the _real_ and the solid part of Philosophy; yet by the good fortune of their institution, in an Age of all others the most _inquisitive_, they have been assisted by the _contribution_ and _presence_ of very many of the chief _Nobility_ and _Gentry_, and others who are some of the _most considerable_ in their several Professions. But that that yet farther convinces me of the _Real esteem_ that the more _serious_ part of men have of this _Society_, is, that several _Merchants_, men who act in earnest (whose Object is _meum & tuum_, that great _Rudder_ of humane affairs) have adventur’d considerable sums of _Money_, to put in practice what some of our Members have contrived, and have continued _stedfast_ in their good opinions of such Indeavours, when not one of a hundred of the vulgar have believed their undertakings feasable. And it is also fit to be added, that they have one advantage peculiar to themselves, that very many of their number are _men of Converse and Traffick_; which is a good Omen, that their attempts will bring Philosophy from _words_ to _action_, seeing the men of Business have had so great a share in their first foundation.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00111", "bookId": 15491, "start": 76159, "end": 78030, "sha256": "865c22d2c323644f5cbd100cd3bba98338dce9cce9f1a597fa4dcb0ae841bdf6", "text": "And of this kind I ought not to conceal one particular _Generosity_, which more nearly concerns my self. It is the _munificence_ of _Sir John Cutler_, in endowing a Lecture for the promotion of _Mechanick Arts_, to be governed and directed by This _Society._This _Bounty_ I mention for the _Honourableness_ of the thing it self, and for the expectation which I have of the _efficacy_ of the _Example_; for it cannot now be objected to them, that their Designs will be esteemed _frivolous_ and _vain_, when they have such a _real Testimony_ of the _Approbation_ of a _Man_ that is such an _eminent Ornament_ of this renowned City, and one, who, by the _Variety_, and the _happy Success_, of his negotiations, has given evident proofs, that he is not easie to be deceiv’d. This Gentleman has well observ’d, that the _Arts_ of life have been too long _imprison’d_ in the dark shops of Mechanicks themselves, & there _hindred from growth_, either by ignorance, or self-interest: and he has bravely _freed_ them from these _inconveniences_: He hath not only obliged _Tradesmen_, but _Trade_ it self: He has done a work that is worthy of _London_, and has taught the chief City of Commerce in the world the right way how Commerce is to be improv’d. We have already seen many other great signs of Liberality and a large mind, from the same hand: For by his _diligence_ about the _Corporation for the Poor_; by his honorable _Subscriptions_ for the rebuilding of St. Paul’s; by his chearful _Disbursment_ for the replanting of _Ireland_, and by many other such _publick works_, he has shewn by what means he indeavours to _establish_ his Memory; and now by this last gift he has done that, which became one of the _wisest Citizens_ of our Nation to accomplish, seeing one of the _wisest of our Statesmen, the Lord Verulam_, first propounded it.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00112", "bookId": 15491, "start": 78034, "end": 79697, "sha256": "8e695aace6e3d63edd10c898a9ac4054ff6623d041da11f1420e1766ec155951", "text": "But to return to my Subject, from a digression, which, I hope, my Reader will pardon me, seeing the Example is so rare that I can make no more such digressions. If these my first Labours shall be any wayes useful to inquiring men, I must attribute the incouragement and promotion of them to a very _Reverend_ and _Learned Person_, of whom this ought in justice to be said, _That there is scarce any one Invention, which this Nation has produc’d in our Age, but it has some way or other been set forward by his assistance_. My Reader, I believe, will quickly ghess, that it is _Dr. Wilkins_ that I mean. He is indeed a man born for the _good_ of _mankind_, and for the _honour_ of his _Country_. In the _sweetness_ of whose _behaviour_, in the _calmness_ of his _mind_, in the _unbounded goodness_ of his _heart_, we have an evident Instance, what the true and the _primitive unpassionate Religion_ was, before it was _sowred_ by particular _Factions._ In a word, his _Zeal_ has been so _constant_ and _effectual_ in advancing all good and profitable _Arts, that_ as one of the Antient _Romans_ said of _Scipio_, _That he thanked God that he was a _Roman_; because whereever _Scipio_ had been born, there had been the seat of the Empire of the world_: So may I thank God, that _Dr. Wilkins_ was an _Englishman_, for whereever he had lived, there had been the chief Seat of _generous Knowledge_ and _true Philosophy_. To the truth of this, there are so many worthy men living that will subscribe, that I am confident, what I have here said, will not be looked upon, by any ingenious Reader, as a _Panegyrick_, but only as a _real testimony_.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00113", "bookId": 15491, "start": 79701, "end": 80480, "sha256": "94cbcd085d8a62f32eff73fab9dcb3a3374c17586003d2e81aefcda83d58666c", "text": "By the Advice of this _Excellent man_ I first set upon this Enterprise, yet still came to it with much _Reluctancy_, because I was to follow the footsteps of so eminent a Person as _Dr. Wren_, who was the first that attempted any thing of this nature; whose original draughts do now make one of the Ornaments of that great Collection of Rarities in the _Kings Closet_. This _Honor_, which his first beginnings of this kind have receiv’d, to be admitted into the most famous place of the world, did not so much _incourage_, as the _hazard_ of coming after _Dr. Wren_ did _affright_ me; for of him I must affirm, that, since the time of _Archimedes_, there scarce ever met in one man, in so great a perfection, such a _Mechanical Hand_, and so _Philosophical_ a _Mind_.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00114", "bookId": 15491, "start": 80484, "end": 81172, "sha256": "ef8453ee4bf116b64e50fa6ff21822854ac3913368b725935a2ff9c53232fed6", "text": "But at last, being assured both by _Dr. Wilkins_, and _Dr. Wren_ himself, that he had given over his intentions of prosecuting it, and not finding that there was any else design’d the pursuing of it, I set upon this undertaking, and was not a little incourag’d to proceed in it, by the Honour the _Royal Society_ was pleas’d to favour me with, in approving of those draughts (which from time to time as I had an opportunity of describing) I presented to them. And particularly by the Incitements of divers of those Noble and excellent Persons of it, which were my more especial Friends, who were not less urgent with me for the publishing, then for the prosecution of them.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00115", "bookId": 15491, "start": 81176, "end": 82464, "sha256": "be1042167628b6f62aaf0af525c4821d2f4d7f32080da14dd6f4f547cfcd07c6", "text": "After I had almost compleated these Pictures and Observations (having had divers of them engraven, and was ready to send them to the Press) I was inform’d, that the Ingenious Physitian _Dr. Henry Power_ had made several _Microscopical_ Observations, which had I not afterwards, upon our interchangably viewing each others Papers, found that they were for the most part differing from mine, either in the Subject it self, or in the particulars taken notice of; and that his design was only to print Observations without Pictures, I had even then _suppressed_ what I had so far proceeded in. But being further _excited_ by several of my Friends, in compliance with their opinions, that it would not be unacceptable to several inquisitive Men, and hoping also, that I should thereby discover something New to the World, I have at length cast in my Mite, into the vast Treasury of _A Philosophical History_. And it is my _hope_, as well as _belief_, that these my _Labours_ will be no more comparable to the _Productions_ of many other _Natural Philosophers_, who are now every where busie about _greater_ things; then my _little Objects_ are to be compar’d to the greater and more beautiful _Works of Nature_, A Flea, a Mite, a Gnat, to an Horse, an Elephant, or a Lyon.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00116", "bookId": 15491, "start": 82477, "end": 82510, "sha256": "92bf9343d426ee004c3cb7caa3f283036b2f3626f071d4807d38518427facd12", "text": "* * * * *", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00117", "bookId": 15491, "start": 82516, "end": 82529, "sha256": "d0be22ac3f4942f492759e26edf97c82276f56c305aabba038b9c83ccc659da3", "text": "MICROGRAPHIA,", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00118", "bookId": 15491, "start": 82533, "end": 82540, "sha256": "0c3b1e8773fb6b0c10b2b0b591d4fc661881b81add9985f13c0514a8a1c31b00", "text": "OR SOME", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00119", "bookId": 15491, "start": 82544, "end": 82570, "sha256": "101cefae6ddb4b9bac86e754124354c9f9ec899c1f532c6d3c0a5cfa36e5ebc8", "text": "Physiological Descriptions", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00120", "bookId": 15491, "start": 82574, "end": 82576, "sha256": "270826d41d0a807d41e14d413e764fd30dab7a7bcd1e478ea94b9e812671042b", "text": "OF", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00121", "bookId": 15491, "start": 82580, "end": 82594, "sha256": "90915b05cd55359076a36e50764f06f8ec9bcb3123d953f0520e158df7e01877", "text": "MINUTE BODIES,", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00122", "bookId": 15491, "start": 82598, "end": 82605, "sha256": "c12fc78e65317f59e5dacbd8169e870027b6e76e6f741a6661af00f328978455", "text": "MADE BY", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00123", "bookId": 15491, "start": 82609, "end": 82628, "sha256": "32dec54e169e38b79ecbfe63356ab7032a20e978a1bc023d06909b2dfa037f72", "text": "MAGNIFYING GLASSES;", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00124", "bookId": 15491, "start": 82632, "end": 82636, "sha256": "d0f8aacc687e4259617cd8de375660f37a736e678f0e6e315d01f7f9b4409d68", "text": "WITH", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00125", "bookId": 15491, "start": 82640, "end": 82677, "sha256": "b75cbccf8411426e76daaee71f0ae4a74b023dcf6639754b109eb8d3f22ee322", "text": "OBSERVATIONS and INQUIRIES thereupon.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00126", "bookId": 15491, "start": 82688, "end": 82721, "sha256": "92bf9343d426ee004c3cb7caa3f283036b2f3626f071d4807d38518427facd12", "text": "* * * * *", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00127", "bookId": 15491, "start": 82727, "end": 82777, "sha256": "74daa2b2a17e0fa9ecb73feb04e68e3064da6ca74ff08318e8b99487d1937694", "text": "Observ. I. _Of the Point of a sharp small Needle._", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00128", "bookId": 15491, "start": 82781, "end": 83764, "sha256": "8b70fe292eb49ae5b8d0caf76155e9dcec33d907b8f0f9763822e0095cf16408", "text": "As in _Geometry_, the most natural way of beginning is from a Mathematical _point_; so is the same method in Observations and _Natural history_ the most genuine, simple, and instructive. We must first endevour to make _letters_, and draw _single_ strokes true, before we venture to write whole _Sentences_, or to draw large _Pictures_. And in _Physical_ Enquiries, we must endevour to follow Nature in the more _plain_ and _easie_ ways she treads in the most _simple_ and _uncompounded bodies_, to trace her steps, and be acquainted with her manner of walking there, before we venture our selves into the multitude of _meanders_ she has in _bodies of a more complicated_ nature; lest, being unable to distinguish and judge of our way, we quickly lose both _Nature_ our Guide, and _our selves_ too, and are left to wander in the _labyrinth_ of groundless opinions; wanting both _judgment_, that _light_, and _experience_, that _clew_, which should direct our proceedings.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00129", "bookId": 15491, "start": 83768, "end": 84962, "sha256": "0d9bc5ed3d2434c5df8f35d0cf083e40e89ecb342042575fb75debac2033f553", "text": "We will begin these our Inquiries therefore with the Observations of Bodies of the most _simple nature_ first, and so gradually proceed to those of a more _compounded_ one. In prosecution of which method, we shall begin with a _Physical point_; of which kind the _Point of a Needle_ is commonly reckon’d for one; and is indeed, for the most part, made so sharp, that the naked eye cannot distinguish any parts of it: It very easily pierces, and makes its way through all kind of bodies softer then it self: But if view’d with a very good _Microscope_, we may find that the _top_ of a Needle (though as to the sense very _sharp_) appears a _broad_, _blunt_, and very _irregular_ end; not resembling a Cone, as is imagin’d, but onely a piece of a tapering body, with a great part of the top remov’d, or deficient. The Points of Pins are yet more blunt, and the Points of the most curious Mathematical Instruments do very seldome arrive at so great a sharpness; how much therefore can be built upon demonstrations made onely by the productions of the Ruler and Compasses, he will be better able to consider that shall but view those _points_ and _lines_ with a _Microscope_.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00130", "bookId": 15491, "start": 84966, "end": 86098, "sha256": "4355ac13b9e6db85880cde22983d390bd873ee20f99706e7349feda677a4e04b", "text": "Now though this point be commonly accounted the sharpest (whence when we would express the sharpness of a point the most _superlatively_, we say, As sharp as a Needle) yet the _Microscope_ can afford us hundreds of Instances of Points many thousand times sharper: such as those of the _hairs_, and _bristles_, and _claws_ of multitudes of _Insects_; the _thorns_, or _crooks_, or _hairs_ of _leaves_, and other small vegetables; nay, the ends of the _stiriæ_ or small _parallelipipeds_ of _Amianthus_, and _alumen plumosum_; of many of which, though the Points are so sharp as not to be visible, though view’d with a _Microscope_ (which magnifies the Object, in bulk, above a million of times) yet I doubt not, but were we able _practically_ to make _Microscopes_ according to the _theory_ of them, we might find hills, and dales, and pores, and a sufficient bredth, or expansion, to give all those parts elbow-room, even in the blunt top of the very Point of any of these so very sharp bodies. For certainly the _quantity_ or extension of any body may be _Divisible in infinitum_, though perhaps not the _matter_.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00131", "bookId": 15491, "start": 86102, "end": 88428, "sha256": "51ea913411b8d31796ec5de799cf57c808c7580230066b30dbf64f66c8e77353", "text": "But to proceed: The Image we have here exhibited in the first Figure[1], was the top of a small and very sharp Needle, whose point _aa_ nevertheless appear’d through the _Microscope_ above a quarter of an inch broad, not round nor flat, but _irregular_ and _uneven_; so that it seem’d to have been big enough to have afforded a hundred armed Mites room enough to be rang’d by each other without endangering the breaking one anothers necks, by being thrust off on either side. The surface of which, though appearing to the naked eye very smooth, could not nevertheless hide a multitude of holes and scratches and ruggednesses from being discover’d by the _Microscope_ to invest it, several of which inequalities (as A, B, C, seem’d _holes_ made by some small specks of _Rust_; and D some _adventitious body_, that stuck very close to it) were _casual_. All the rest that roughen the surface, were onely so many marks of the rudeness and bungling of _Art_. So unaccurate is it, in all its productions, even in those which seem most neat, that if examin’d with an organ more acute then that by which they were made, the more we see of their _shape_, the less appearance will there be of their _beauty_: whereas in the works of _Nature_, the deepest Discoveries shew us the greatest Excellencies. An evident Argument, that he that was the Author of all these things, was no other then _Omnipotent_; being able to include as great a variety of parts and contrivances in the yet smallest Discernable Point, as in those vaster bodies (which comparatively are called also Points) such as the _Earth_, _Sun_, or _Planets_. Nor need it seem strange that the Earth it self may be by an _Analogie_ call’d a Physical Point: For as its body, though now so near us as to fill our eys and fancies with a sense of the vastness of it, may by a little Distance, and some convenient _Diminishing_ Glasses, be made vanish into a scarce visible Speck, or Point (as I have often try’d on the _Moon_, and (when not too bright) on the _Sun_ it self.) So, could a Mechanical contrivance succesfully answer our _Theory_, we might see the least spot as big as the Earth it self; and Discover, as _Des Cartes_[2] also conjectures, as great a variety of bodies in the _Moon_, or _Planets_, as in the _Earth_.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00132", "bookId": 15491, "start": 88432, "end": 91713, "sha256": "8cfe0c11f61b699b2da8ce12da00fdce1e4fbe7d95d5d663962f247ca3f2f0e7", "text": "But leaving these Discoveries to future Industries, we shall proceed to add one Observation more of a _point_ commonly so call’d, that is, the mark of a _full stop_, or _period_. And for this purpose I observed many both _printed_ ones and _written_; and among multitudes I found _few_ of them more _round_ or _regular_ then this which I have delineated in the third figure of the second Scheme, but _very many_ abundantly _more disfigur’d_; and for the most part if they seem’d equally round to the eye, I found those points that had been made by a _Copper-plate_, and Roll-press, to be as misshapen as those which had been made with _Types_, the most curious and smothly _engraven strokes_ and _points_, looking but as so many _furrows_ and _holes_, and their _printed impressions_, but like _smutty daubings_ on a matt or uneven floor with a blunt extinguisht brand or stick’s end. And as for _points_ made with a _pen_ they were much _more ragged_ and _deformed_. Nay, having view’d certain pieces of exceeding curious writing of the kind (one of which in the bredth of a _two-pence_ compris’d _the Lords prayer, the Apostles Creed, the ten Commandments, and about half a dozen verses besides of the Bible_, whose _lines_ were _so small_ and _near together_, that I was unable to _number_ them with my _naked eye_,) a very ordinary _Microscope_, I had then about me, inabled me to see that what the Writer of it had asserted was _true_, but withall discover’d of what pitifull _bungling scribbles_ and _scrawls_ it was compos’d, _Arabian_ and _China characters_ being almost as well shap’d, yet thus much I must say for the Man, that it was for the most part _legible_ enough, though in some places there wanted a good _fantsy_ well _preposest_ to help one through. If this manner _of small writing_ were made _easie_ and _practicable_ (and I think I know such a one, but have never yet made tryal of it, whereby one might be inabled to write _a great deale_ with _much ease_, and _accurately_ enough in a very _little roome_) it might be of very good use to convey _secret Intelligence_ without any danger of _Discovery_ or _mistrusting_. But to come again to the point. The _Irregularities_ of it are caused by three or four _coadjutors_, one of which is, the _uneven surface_ of the _paper_, which at best appears no smother then a very course piece of _shag’d cloth_, next the _irregularity of the Type_ or _Ingraving_, and a third is the _rough Daubing_ of the _Printing-Ink_ that lies upon the instrument that makes the impression, to all which, add the _variation_ made by the Different _lights_ and _shadows_, and you may have sufficient reason to ghess that a _point_ may appear much more _ugly_ then _this_, which I have here presented, which though it appear’d through the _Microscope_ _gray_, like a great splatch of _London_ dirt, about three inches over; yet to the _naked eye_ it was _black_ and no bigger then that in the midst of the Circle A. And could I have found Room in this Plate to have inserted an O you should have seen that the _letters_ were not more distinct then the _points_ of Distinction, nor a _drawn circle_ more exactly _so_, then we have now shown a _point_ to be a _point_.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00133", "bookId": 15491, "start": 91724, "end": 91757, "sha256": "92bf9343d426ee004c3cb7caa3f283036b2f3626f071d4807d38518427facd12", "text": "* * * * *", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00134", "bookId": 15491, "start": 91763, "end": 91800, "sha256": "e07e94038f4cd9474fe170ff3baf9c9c006c068ba6a95bcf3495e07df2a83ac1", "text": "Observ. II. _Of the Edge of a Razor._", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00135", "bookId": 15491, "start": 91804, "end": 92690, "sha256": "d7bb2061ec885697e32fb9b194c27f41e39da3e94052b0b02d446d6576cfc10b", "text": "The sharpest _Edge_ hath the same kind of affinity to the sharpest _Point_ in Physicks, as a _line_ hath to a _point_ in Mathematicks; and therefore the Treaty concerning this, may very properly be annexed to the former. A Razor doth appear to be a Body of a very neat and curious aspect, till more closely viewed by the _Microscope_, and there we may observe its very Edge to be of all kind of shapes, except what it should be. For examining that of a very sharp one, I could not find that any part of it had any thing of sharpness in it; but it appeared a rough surface of a very considerable bredth from side to side, the narrowest part not seeming thinner then the back of a pretty thick Knife. Nor is’t likely that it should appear any otherwise, since as we just now shew’d that a _point_ appear’d a _circle_, ’tis rational a _line_ should be a _parallelogram_.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00136", "bookId": 15491, "start": 92694, "end": 95690, "sha256": "6010f0fd30585d119051c709937e1757c4146906910b78bf09d23098b79e7249", "text": "Now for the drawing this second Figure[3] (which represents a part of the Edge about half a quarter of an inch long of a Razor well set) I so plac’d it between the Object-glass & the light, that there appear’d a reflection from the very Edge, represented by the white line abcdef. In which you may perceive it to be somewhat sharper then elsewhere about d, to be indented or pitted about b, to be broader and thicker about c, and unequal and rugged about e, and pretty even between ab and ef. Nor was that part of the Edge ghik so smooth as one would imagine so smooth bodies as a Hone and Oyl should leave it; for besides those multitudes of scratches, which appear to have raz’d the surface ghik, and to cross each other every way which are not half of them exprest in the Figure, there were several great and deep scratches, or furrows, such as gh and ik, which made the surface yet more rugged, caus’d perhaps by some small Dust casually falling on the Hone, or some harder or more flinty part of the Hone it self. The other part of the Razor ll, which is polish’d on a grinding-stone, appear’d much rougher then the other, looking almost like a plow’d field, with many parallels, ridges, and furrows, and a cloddy, as ’twere, or an uneven surface: nor shall we wonder at the roughnesses of those surfaces, since even in the most curious wrought Glasses for _Microscopes_, and other Optical uses, I have, when the Sun has shone well on them, discover’d their surface to be variously raz’d or scratched, and to consist of an infinite of small broken surfaces, which reflect the light of very various and differing colours. And indeed it seems impossible by Art to cut the surface of any hard and brittle body smooth, since _Putte_, or even the most curious _Powder_ that can be made use of, to polish such a body, must consist of little hard rough particles, and each of them must cut its way, and consequently leave some kind of gutter or furrow behind it. And though Nature does seem to do it very readily in all kinds of fluid bodies, yet perhaps future observators may discover even these also rugged; it being very probable, as I elsewhere shew, that fluid bodies are made up of small solid particles variously and strongly mov’d, and may find reason to think there is scarce a surface _in rerum naturâ_ perfectly smooth. The black spot mn, I ghess to be some small speck of rust, for that I have oft observ’d to be the manner of the working of Corrosive Juyces. To conclude, this Edge and piece of a Razor, if it had been really such as it appear’d through the _Microscope_, would scarcely have serv’d to cleave wood, much less to have cut off the hair of beards, unless it were after the manner that _Lucian_ merrily relates _Charon_ to have made use of, when with a Carpenters Axe he chop’d off the beard of a sage Philosopher, whose gravity he very cautiously fear’d would indanger the oversetting of his Wherry.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00137", "bookId": 15491, "start": 95701, "end": 95734, "sha256": "92bf9343d426ee004c3cb7caa3f283036b2f3626f071d4807d38518427facd12", "text": "* * * * *", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00138", "bookId": 15491, "start": 95740, "end": 95785, "sha256": "d5c843e96f1f0e6d20d9175b70b2e019c332295bd0d208375303a71ca6e859e5", "text": "Observ. III. _Of fine Lawn, or Linnen Cloth._", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00139", "bookId": 15491, "start": 95789, "end": 96651, "sha256": "83766996f14c48d4a7976f31d36b9b017da8465da5675b9a17836678c661f286", "text": "This is another product of Art, A piece of the finest Lawn I was able to get, so curious that the threads were scarce discernable by the naked eye, and yet through an ordinary _Microscope_ you may perceive[4] what a goodly piece of _coarse Matting_ it is; what proportionable cords each of its threads are, being not unlike, both in shape and size, the bigger and coarser kind of _single Rope-yarn_, wherewith they usually make _Cables_. That which makes the Lawn so transparent, is by the _Microscope_, nay by the naked eye, if attentively viewed, plainly enough evidenced to be the multitude of square holes which are left between the threads, appearing to have much more hole in respect of the intercurrent parts then is for the most part left in a _lattice-window_, which it does a little resemble, onely the crossing parts are round and not flat.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00140", "bookId": 15491, "start": 96655, "end": 97498, "sha256": "29b9e50162613de8414550416c53b0e964c3f30eca55e17e014df07eb0a3ce72", "text": "These threads that compose this fine contexture, though they are as small as those that constitute the finer sorts of Silks, have notwithstanding nothing of their glossie, pleasant, and lively reflection. Nay, I have been informed both by the Inventor himself, and several other eye-witnesses, that though the flax, out of which it is made, has been (by a singular art, of that excellent Person, and Noble Virtuoso, M. _Charls Howard_, brother to the _Duke of Norfolk_) so curiously dress’d and prepar’d, as to appear both to the eye and the touch, full as _fine_ and as _glossie_, and to receive all kinds of colours, as well as Sleave-Silk; yet when this Silken Flax is twisted into threads, it quite loseth its former luster, and becomes as plain and base a thread to look on, as one of the same bigness, made of common Flax.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00141", "bookId": 15491, "start": 97502, "end": 100391, "sha256": "73b8d145ed31e94ea72509dcf29386103b751b7a0f6fdc0db7c59f4738b333c5", "text": "The reason of which odd _Phenomenon_ seems no other then this; that though the curiously drest Flax has its parts so exceedingly small, as to equallize, if not to be much smaller then the clew of the Silk-worm, especially in thinness, yet the differences between the figures of the constituting filaments are so great, and their substances so various, that whereas those of the _Silk_ are _small_, _round_, _hard_, _transparent_, and to their bigness proportionably _stiff_, so as each filament preserves its proper _Figure_, and consequently its vivid _reflection_ intire, though twisted into a thread, if not too hard; those of Flax are _flat_, _limber_, _softer_, and _less transparent_, and in twisting into a thread they joyn, and lie so close together, as to lose their own, and destroy each others particular reflections. There seems therefore three Particulars very requisite to make the so drest Flax appear Silk also when spun into threads. First, that the substance of it should be made more _clear_ and _transparent_, Flax retaining in it a kind of opacating brown, or yellow; and the parts of the whitest kind I have yet observ’d with the _Microscope_ appearing white, like flaw’d Horn or Glass, rather then clear, like clear Horn or Glass. Next that, the filaments should each of them be _rounded_, if that could be done, which yet is not so very necessary, if the first be perform’d, and this third, which is, that each of the small filaments be _stifned_; for though they be square, or flat, provided they be _transparent_ and stiff, much the same appearances must necessarily follow. Now, though I have not yet made trial, yet I doubt not, but that both these proprieties may be also induc’d upon the Flax, and perhaps too by one and the same Expedient, which some trials may quickly inform any ingenious attempter of, who from the use and profit of such an Invention, may find sufficient argument to be prompted to such Inquiries. As for the _tenacity_ of the substance of Flax, out of which the thread is made, it seems much inferiour to that of Silk, the one being a _vegetable_, the other an _animal_ substance. And whether it proceed from the better concoction, or the more homogeneous constitution of _animal_ substances above those of _vegetables_, I do not here determine; yet since I generally find, that _vegetable_ substances do not equalize the _tenacity_ of _animal_, nor these the _tenacity_ of some purified _mineral_ substances; I am very apt to think, that the _tenacity_ of bodies does not proceed from the _hamous_, or _hooked_ particles, as the _Epicureans_ and some modern _Philosophers_ have imagin’d; but from the more exact _congruity_ of the constituent parts, which are contiguous to each other, and so bulky, as not to be easily separated, or shatter’d, by any small pulls or concussion of heat.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00142", "bookId": 15491, "start": 100402, "end": 100435, "sha256": "92bf9343d426ee004c3cb7caa3f283036b2f3626f071d4807d38518427facd12", "text": "* * * * *", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00143", "bookId": 15491, "start": 100441, "end": 100486, "sha256": "e0f69affb4b805d51727531e01de86e6e6fffa9eca58d5fdcbb993b6e8ce5bd0", "text": "Observ. IV. _Of fine waled Silk, or Taffety._", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00144", "bookId": 15491, "start": 100490, "end": 104319, "sha256": "96067d420eec011eb881c7da622049e88aeb10d4979489c8c6e5546bfbb56dd5", "text": "This[5] is the appearance of a piece of very fine Taffety-riband in the bigger magnifying Glass, which you see exhibits it like a very convenient substance to make Bed-matts, or Door-matts of, or to serve for Beehives, Corn-scuttles, Chairs, or Corn-tubs, it being not unlike that kind of work, wherewith in many parts in _England_, they make such Utensils of Straw, a little wreathed, and bound together with thongs of Brambles. For in this Contexture, each little filament, fiber, or clew of the Silk-worm, seem’d about the bigness of an ordinary Straw, as appears by the little irregular pieces, ab, cd, and ef; The _Warp_, or the thread that ran crossing the Riband, appear’d like a single Rope of an Inch Diameter; but the _Woof_, or the thread that ran the length of the Riband, appear’d not half so big. Each Inch of six-peny-broad Riband appearing no less then a piece of Matting Inch and half thick, and twelve foot square, a few yards of this, would be enough to floor the long Gallery of the _Loure_ at _Paris_. But to return to our piece of Riband: It affords us a not unpleasant object, appearing like a bundle, or wreath, of very clear and transparent _Cylinders_, if the Silk be white, and curiously ting’d; if it be colour’d, each of those small horney _Cylinders_ affording in some place or other of them, as vivid a reflection, as if it had been sent from a _Cylinder_ of Glass or Horn. Insomuch, that the reflections of Red, appear’d as if coming from so many _Granates_, or _Rubies_. The loveliness of the colours of Silks above those of hairy Stuffs, or Linnen, consisting, as I else-where intimate, chiefly in the transparency, and vivid reflections from the _Concave_, or inner surface of the _transparent Cylinder_, as are also the colours of Precious Stones; for most of the reflections from each of these _Cylinders_, come from the _Concave_ surface of the air, which is as ’twere the foil that incompasses the _Cylinder_. The colours with which each of these _Cylinders_ are ting’d, seem partly to be superficial, and sticking to the out-sides of them; and partly, to be imbib’d, or sunck into the substance of them: for Silk, seeming to be little else then a dried thread of Glew, may be suppos’d to be very easily relaxt, and softened, by being steeped in warm, nay in cold, if penetrant, juyces or liquors. And thereby those tinctures, though they tinge perhaps but a small part of the substance, yet being so highly impregnated with the colour, as to be almost black with it, may leave an impression strong enough to exhibite the desir’d colour. A pretty kinde of artificial Stuff I have seen, looking almost like transparent Parchment, Horn, or Ising-glass, and perhaps some such thing it may be made of, which being transparent, and of a glutinous nature, and easily mollified by keeping in water, as I found upon trial, had imbib’d, and did remain ting’d with a great variety of very vivid colours, and to the naked eye, it look’d very like the substance of the Silk. And I have often thought, that probably there might be a way found out, to make an artificial glutinous composition, much resembling, if not full as good, nay better, then that Excrement, or whatever other substance it be out of which, the Silk-worm wire-draws his clew. If such a composition were found, it were certainly an easie matter to find very quick ways of drawing it out into small wires for use. I need not mention the use of such an Invention, nor the benefit that is likely to accrue to the finder, they being sufficiently obvious. This hint therefore, may, I hope, give some Ingenious inquisitive Person an occasion of making some trials, which if successfull, I have my aim, and I suppose he will have no occasion to be displeas’d.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00145", "bookId": 15491, "start": 104330, "end": 104363, "sha256": "92bf9343d426ee004c3cb7caa3f283036b2f3626f071d4807d38518427facd12", "text": "* * * * *", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00146", "bookId": 15491, "start": 104369, "end": 104410, "sha256": "0235665d57976b1211226c120e29446ec889f2464a8d2d264a57c841fa793bc5", "text": "Observ. V. _Of watered Silks, or Stuffs._", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00147", "bookId": 15491, "start": 104414, "end": 109290, "sha256": "dde5e20cb862cca45c82527363a3f18fa0619cee768536feed71926db81f3ee3", "text": "There are but few _Artificial_ things that are worth observing with a _Microscope_, and therefore I shall speak but briefly concerning them. For the Productions of art are such rude mis-shapen things, that when view’d with a _Microscope_, is little else observable, but their deformity. The most curious Carvings appearing no better then those rude _Russian_ Images we find mention’d in _Purchas_, where three notches at the end of a Stick, stood for a face. And the most smooth and burnish’d surfaces appear most rough and unpolisht: So that my first Reason why I shall add but a few observations of them, is, their mis-shapen form; and the next, is their uselessness. For why should we trouble our selves in the examination of that form or shape (which is all we are able to reach with a _Microscope_) which we know was design’d for no higher a use, then what we were able to view with our naked eye? Why should we endeavour to discover mysteries in that which has no such thing in it? And like _Rabbins_ find out _Caballisms_, and _ænigmâs_ in the Figure, and placing of Letters, where no such thing lies hid: whereas in _natural_ forms there are some so small, and so curious, and their design’d business so far remov’d beyond the reach of our sight, that the more we magnify the object, the more excellencies and mysteries do appear; And the more we discover the imperfections of our senses; and the Omnipotency and Infinite perfections of the great Creatour. I shall therefore onely add one or two Observations more _artificial_ things, and then come to the Treaty concerning such matters as are the Productions of a more curious Workman. One of these, shall be that of a piece of water’d Silk, represented in the second Figure of the third _Scheme_,[6] as it appear’d through the least magnifying Glass. _AB_ signifying the long way of the Stuff, and _CD_ the broad way. This Stuff, if the right side of it be looked upon, appears to the naked eye, all over so waved, undulated, or grain’d, with a curious, though irregular variety of brighter and darker parts, that it adds no small gracefulness to the Gloss of it. It is so known a propriety, that it needs but little explication, but it is observable, which perhaps everyone has not considered, that those parts which appear the darker part of the wave, in one position to the light, in another appears the lighter, and the contrary; and by this means the undulations become transient, and in a continual change, according as the position of the parts in respect of the incident beams of light is varied. The reason of which odd _phænomena_, to one that has but diligently examin’d it even with his naked eye, will be obvious enough. But he that observes it with a _Microscope_, may more easily perceive what this _Proteus_ is, and how it comes to change its shape. He may very easily perceive, that it proceeds onely from the variety of the _Reflections_ of light, which is caus’d by the various _shape of the Particles_, or little protuberant parts of the thread that compose the surface; and that those parts of the waves that appear the brighter, throw towards the eye a multitude of small reflections of light, whereas the darker scarce afford any. The reason of which reflection, the _Microscope_ plainly discovers, as appears by the Figure. In which you may perceive, that the brighter parts of the surface consist of an abundance of large and strong reflections, denoted by a, a, a, a, a, &c. for the surfaces of those threads that run the _long way_, are by the Mechanical process of watering, _creas’d_ or _angled_ in another kind of posture then they were by the weaving: for by the weaving they are onely _bent round_ the warping threads; but by the watering, they are _bent with an angle, or elbow_, that is in stead of lying, or being bent _round_ the threads, as in the third Figure, a, a, a, a, a, are about b, b, b (b, b, b representing the ends, as ’twere, of the cross threads, they are bent about) they are creas’d on the top of those threads, with an _angle_, as in the fourth Figure, and that with all imaginable variety; so that, whereas before they reflected the light onely from one point of the round surface, as about c, c, c, they now when water’d, reflect the beams from more then half the whole surface, as de, de, de, and in other postures they return no reflections at all from those surfaces. Hence in one posture they compose the brighter parts of the waves, in another the darker. And these reflections are also varied, according as the particular parts are variously bent. The reason of which creasing we shall next examine; and here we must fetch our information from the Mechanism or manner of proceeding in this operation; which, as I have been inform’d, is no other then this.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00148", "bookId": 15491, "start": 109294, "end": 111572, "sha256": "aafd4567ec1c3bb55637e0731a37936ff136a775d221f76bc0e73fd1cfe696d6", "text": "They double all the Stuff that is to be water’d, that is, they crease it just through the middle of it, the whole length of the piece, leaving the right side of the Stuff inward, and placing the two edges, or silvages just upon one another, and, as near as they can, place the wale so in the doubling of it, that the wale of the one side may lie very near parallel, or even with the wale of the other; for the nearer that posture they lie, the greater will the watering appear; and the more obliquely, or across to each other they lie, the smaller are the waves. Their way for folding it for a great wale is thus: they take a Pin, and begin at one side of the piece in any wale, and so moving it towards the other side, thereby direct their hands to the opposite ends of the wale, and then, as near as they can, place the two opposite ends of the same wale together, and so double, or fold the whole piece, repeating this enquiry with a Pin at every yard or two’s distance through the whole length; then they sprinkle it with water, and fold it the long-ways, placing between every fold a piece of Pastboard, by which means all the wrong side of the water’d Stuff becomes flat, and with little wales, and the wales on the other side become the more protuberant; whence the creasings or angular bendings of the wales become the more perspicuous. Having folded it in this manner, they place it with an interjacent Pastboard into an hot Press, where it is kept very violently prest, till it be dry and stiff; by which means, the wales of either contiguous sides leave their own impressions upon each other, as is very manifest by the second Figure, where ’tis obvious enough, that the wale of the piece ABCD runs parallel between the pricked lines ef, ef, ef, and as manifest to discern the impressions upon these wales, left by those that were prest upon them, which lying not exactly parallel with them, but a little athwart them, as is denoted by the lines of, oooo, gh, gh, gh, between which the other wales did lie parallel; they are so variously, and irregularly creas’d that being put into that shape when wet, and kept so till they be drie, they so let each others threads, that the Moldings remain almost as long as the Stuff lasts.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00149", "bookId": 15491, "start": 111576, "end": 111999, "sha256": "ea0c4ac05f1fd11ea5a666c1ee7ca1592c87fca065b84f6bbd5f8cfbd9c61587", "text": "Hence it may appear to any one that attentively considers the Figure, why the parts of the wale a, a, a, a, a, a, should appear bright; and why the parts b, b, b, b, b, b, b, should appear shadowed, or dark; why some, as d, d, d, d, d, d, should appear partly light, and partly dark: the varieties of which reflections and shadows are the only cause of the appearance of watering in Silks, or any other kind of Stuffs.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00150", "bookId": 15491, "start": 112003, "end": 112384, "sha256": "1f78a327152ea962f6abf7431b7f8202bdf6bab32812da196a6581a651ea9cc8", "text": "From the variety of reflection, may also be deduc’d the cause why a small breez or gale of wind ruffling the surface of a smooth water, makes it appear black; as also, on the other side, why the smoothing or burnishing the surface of whitened Silver makes it look black; and multitudes of other phænomena might hereby be solv’d, which are too many to be here insisted on.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00151", "bookId": 15491, "start": 112395, "end": 112428, "sha256": "92bf9343d426ee004c3cb7caa3f283036b2f3626f071d4807d38518427facd12", "text": "* * * * *", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00152", "bookId": 15491, "start": 112434, "end": 112469, "sha256": "c75db8939392fa2101025cb0b7138505bcc3816add035712bdb77975603c00e3", "text": "Observ. VI. _Of Small Glass Canes._", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00153", "bookId": 15491, "start": 112473, "end": 115805, "sha256": "809ffcdcc035a3558e2871ce9f4fa7bb5f33290fde9c75d449da3b88c05a9c1f", "text": "That I might be satisfi’d, whether it were not possible to make an _Artificial_ pore as _small_ as any _Natural_ I had yet found, I made several attempts with small _glass pipes_, melted in the flame of a Lamp, and then very _suddenly_ drawn out into a great length. And, by _that means_, without much difficulty, I was able to draw some almost as small as a _Cobweb_, which yet, with the _Microscope_, I could plainly perceive[7] to be _perforated_, both by looking on the _ends_ of it, and by looking on it _against the light_ which was much the _easier way_ to determine whether it were solid or perforated; for, taking a small pipe of glass, and closing one end of it, then filling it _half full_ of water, and holding it _against the light_, I could, by this means, very easily find what was the _differing aspect_ of a _solid_ and a _perforated_ piece of glass; and so easily distinguish, without seeing either end, whether any _Cylinder_ of glass I look’d on, were a _solid stick_, or a _hollow cane_. And by this means, I could also presently judge of any small _filament_ of glass, whether it were _hollow_ or _not_, which would have been exceeding tedious to examine by looking on the end. And many such like ways I was fain to make use of, in the examining of divers other particulars related in this Book, which would have been no easie task to have determined meerly by the more common way of looking on, or viewing the Object. For, if we consider first, the very _faint light_ wherewith the object is enlightened, whence many particles appear _opacous_, which when more enlightned, appear very _transparent_, so that I was fain to _determine_ its _transparency_ by one glass, and its _texture_ by another. Next, the _unmanageableness_ of most _Objects_, by reason of their _smalness_, 3. The _difficulty of finding_ the desired point, and of _placing_ it so, as to reflect the _light conveniently_ for the Inquiry. Lastly, ones being able to view it but with _one eye_ at once, they will appear no small _obstructions_, nor are they easily _remov’d_ without many _contrivances_. But to proceed, I could not find that water, or some _deeply ting’d_ liquors would in small ones rise so high as one would expect; and the _highest_ I have found it yet rise in any of the pipes I have try’d, was to 21 _inches_ above the level of the water in the vessel: for though I found that in the small pipes it would _nimbly enter_ at first, and run about 6 or 7 _inches_ upwards; yet I found it then to move upwards _so slow_, that I have not yet had the _patience_ to observe it above that height of 21 _inches_ (and that was in a pretty _large Pipe_, in comparison of those I formerly mentioned; for I could observe the _progress_ of a _very deep ting’d liquor_ in it with my _naked eye_, without much trouble; whereas many of the _other pipes_ were so _very small_, that unless in a _convenient posture_ to the light, I could not perceive _them_:) But ’tis very probable, that a greater _patience_ and _assiduity_ may discover the liquors to _rise_, at least to remain _suspended_, at heights that I should be loath now even to _ghess_ at, if at least there be any _proportion_ kept between the height of the ascending liquor, and the _bigness of the holes_ of the pipes.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00154", "bookId": 15491, "start": 115809, "end": 115861, "sha256": "f8077143a395beb8969e08477cac3a4c3d99a15bed8b0fdf7e703486dc3a6bbb", "text": "_AN ATTEMPT FOR THE EXPLICATION OF THIS EXPERIMENT._", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00155", "bookId": 15491, "start": 115865, "end": 116140, "sha256": "d42d28969f5cd2efd410cc478bd99365bd94c0cc5d4e4b782e3df17c48c77848", "text": "My Conjecture, _That the unequal height of the surfaces of the water, proceeded from the greater pressure made upon the water by the Air without the Pipes_ ABC, _then by that within them_[8]; I shall endeavour to confirm from the truth of the two following _Propositions_:", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00156", "bookId": 15491, "start": 116144, "end": 116272, "sha256": "67cb03f34af2bad097022aaed0b1f92a7d3281e108322dff9302503608bcd722", "text": "The first of which is, _That an unequal pressure of the incumbent Air, will cause an unequal height in the water’s Surfaces_.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00157", "bookId": 15491, "start": 116276, "end": 116356, "sha256": "0ba67776c030e86c79795ec72116e680b9f6a9883a29d47ed1de723d1488c7ba", "text": "And the second is, _That in this experiment there is such an unequal pressure_.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00158", "bookId": 15491, "start": 116360, "end": 117212, "sha256": "8f7b9886d4ca204631db00801e35562037567c0e572b34c5052189030f0057f2", "text": "That the first is true, the following _Experiment_ will evince. For if you take any Vessel so contrived, as that you can at pleasure either _increase_ or _diminish_ the _pressure_ of the Air upon this or that part of the _Superficies_ of the _water_, the _equality_ of the height of those parts will presently be _lost_; and that part of the _Superficies_ that sustains the _greater pressure_, will be _inferior_ to that which undergoes the _less_. A fit Vessel for this purpose, will be an inverted Glass _Syphon_, such an one as is described in the _Sixth Figure_. For if into it you put Water enough to fill it as high as _AB_, and gently blow in at _D_, you shall _depress_ the Superficies _B_, and thereby _raise_ the opposite Superficies _A_ to a _considerable height_, and by gently _sucking_ you may produce clean _contrary_ effects.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00159", "bookId": 15491, "start": 117216, "end": 117409, "sha256": "1254294b49c9517799545004b894401f5bb2fe9ac7e041a601c1c5caf4752490", "text": "Next, That there is such an _unequal pressure_, I shall prove from this, _That there is a much greater incongruity of Air to Glass, and some other Bodies, then there is of Water to the same_.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00160", "bookId": 15491, "start": 117413, "end": 117715, "sha256": "0318078c62fdf741a103eca9c2a4513a5d75ea77d0865eee487ad014be8dcb6c", "text": "By _Congruity, I mean a property of a fluid Body, whereby any part of it is readily united with any other part, either of itself, or of any other Similar, fluid, or solid body: And by Incongruity a property of a fluid, by which it is hindred from uniting with any dissimilar, fluid, or solid Body._", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00161", "bookId": 15491, "start": 117719, "end": 119556, "sha256": "2d167b77eecdca3db89f35af335db9a6777a091a314110fcb8365c50aac5fbb2", "text": "This last property, any one that hath been observingly conversant about fluid Bodies, cannot be ignorant of. For (not now to mention several _Chymical Spirits_ and _Oyls_, which will _very hardly_, if at _all_, be brought to _mix_ with one another; insomuch that there may be found some 8 or 9, or more, several distinct Liquors, which _swimming_ one upon another, will not presently _mix_) we need seek no further for Examples of this kind in _fluids_, then to observe the _drops of rain_ falling through the _air_ and the _bubbles of air_ which are by any means conveyed under the surface of the _water_; or a drop of common _Sallet-Oyl_ swimming upon water. In all which, and many more examples of this kind that might be enumerated, the _incongruity_ of two _fluids_ is easily discernable. And as for the _Congruity_ or _Incongruity_ of Liquids, with several kinds of _firm_ Bodies, they have long since been taken notice of, and called by the Names of _Driness_ and _Moisture_ (though these two names are not comprehensive enough, being commonly used to signifie only the adhering or not adhering of _water_ to some other _solid Bodies_) of this kind we may observe that _water_ will more readily _wet some woods_ then _others_; and that _water_, let fall upon a _Feather_, the whiter side of a _Colwort_, and some other leaves, or upon almost any _dusty_, _unctuous_, or _resinous_ superficies, will not _at all adhere_ to them, but easily _tumble off_ from them, like a solid _Bowl_; whereas, if dropt upon _Linnen_, _Paper_, _Clay_, _green Wood_, &c. it will not be taken off, without leaving some part of it behind _adhering_ to them. So _Quick-silver_, which will very _hardly_ be brought to _stick_ to any _vegetable body_, will _readily adhere_ to, and _mingle_ with, several clean _metalline bodies_.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00162", "bookId": 15491, "start": 119560, "end": 128585, "sha256": "4da1d588647e88701eed21a206e09a57215a2ee09a0430911961353f0080250d", "text": "And that we may the better finde what the _cause_ of _Congruity_ and _Incongruity_ in bodies is, it will be requisite to consider, First, what is the _cause_ of _fluidness_; And this, _I conceive_, to be nothing else but a certain _pulse_ or _shake_ of _heat_; for Heat being nothing else but a very _brisk_ and _vehement agitation_ of the parts of a body (as I have elswhere made _probable_) the parts of a body are thereby made so _loose_ from one another, that they easily _move any way_, and become _fluid_. That I may explain this a little by a gross Similitude, let us suppose a dish of sand set upon some body that is very much _agitated_, and shaken with some _quick_ and _strong vibrating motion_, as on a _Milstone_ turn’d round upon the under stone very violently whilst it is empty; or on a very stiff _Drum_-head, which is vehemently or very nimbly beaten with the Drumsticks. By this means, the sand in the dish, which before lay like a _dull_ and unactive body, becomes a perfect _fluid_; and ye can no sooner make a _hole_ in it with your finger, but it is immediately _filled up again_, and the upper surface of it _levell’d_. Nor can you _bury_ a _light body_, as a piece of Cork under it, but it presently _emerges_ or _swims_ as ’twere on the top; nor can you lay a _heavier_ on the top of it, as a piece of Lead, but it is immediately _buried_ in Sand, and (as ’twere) sinks to the bottom. Nor can you make a _hole_ in the side of the Dish, but the sand shall _run out_ of it to a _level_, not an _obvious property_ of a fluid body, as such, but this dos _imitate_; and all this meerly caused by the vehement _agitation_ of the conteining vessel; for by this means, _each_ sand becomes to have a _vibrative_ or _dancing_ motion, so as no other heavier body can _rest_ on it, unless _sustein’d_ by some other on either side: Nor will it suffer any Body to be _beneath_ it, unless it be a _heavier_ then it self. Another Instance of the strange _loosening_ nature of a violent jarring Motion, or a strong and nimble vibrative one, we may have from a piece of _iron_ grated on very strongly with a _file_: for if into that a pin _screw’d_ so firm and hard, that though it has a convenient head to it, yet it can by no means be _unscrew’d_ by the fingers; if, I say, you attempt to unscrew this whilst _grated on by the file_, it will be found to undoe and turn very _easily_. The first of these Examples manifests, how a body actually _divided_ into small parts, becomes a _fluid_. And the latter manifests by what means the agitation of heat so easily _loosens_ and _unties_ the parts of _solid_ and _firm_ bodies. Nor need we suppose heat to be any thing else, besides such a motion; for supposing we could _Mechanically_ produce such a one _quick_ and _strong_ enough, we need not spend _fuel_ to _melt_ a body. Now, that I do not speak this altogether groundless, I must refer the Reader to the Observations I have made upon the shining sparks of Steel, for there he shall find that _the same_ effects are produced upon small chips or parcels of Steel by the _flame_, and by _a quick and violent motion_; and if the body of _steel_ may be thus melted (as I there shew it may) I think we have little reason to doubt that almost _any other_ may not also. Every Smith can inform one how quickly both his _File_ and the _Iron_ grows _hot_ with _filing_, and if you _rub_ almost any two _hard_ bodies together, they will do the same: And we know, that a sufficient degree of heat causes _fluidity_, in some bodies much sooner, and in others later; that is, the parts of the body of some are so _loose_ from one another, and so _unapt to cohere_, and so _minute_ and _little_, that a very _small_ degree of agitation keeps them always in the _state of fluidity_. Of this kind, I suppose, the _Æther_, that is the _medium_ or _fluid_ body, in which all other bodies do as it were swim and move; and particularly, the _Air_, which seems nothing else but a kind of _tincture_ or _solution_ of terrestrial and aqueous particles _dissolv’d_ into it, and agitated by it, just as the _tincture_ of _Cocheneel_ is nothing but some finer _dissoluble_ parts of that Concrete lick’d up or _dissolv’d_ by the _fluid_ water. And from this Notion of it, we may easily give a more Intelligible reason how the Air becomes so capable of _Rarefaction_ and _Condensation_. For, as in _tinctures_, one grain of some _strongly tinging_ substance may _sensibly_ colour some _hundred thousand_ grains of _appropriated_ Liquors, so as every _drop_ of it has its proportionate share, and be sensibly ting’d, as I have try’d both with _Logwood_ and _Cocheneel_: And as some few grains of _Salt_ is able to infect as great a quantity, as may be found by _præcipitations_, though not so easily by the _sight_ or _taste_; so the _Air_, which seems to be but as ’twere a _tincture_ or _saline substance, dissolv’d and agitated by the fluid and agil Æther_, may disperse and _expand_ it self into a _vast space_, if it have room enough, and infect, as it were, every part of that space. But, as on the other side, if there be but some _few grains_ of the liquor, it may _extract all_ the colour of the tinging substance, and may _dissolve_ all the Salt, and thereby become _much more impregnated_ with those substances, so may _all_ the air that sufficed in a _rarify’d state_ to fill some _hundred thousand_ spaces of Æther, be compris’d in only _one_, but in a position proportionable _dense_. And though we have not yet found out such _strainers_ for Tinctures and Salts as we have for the Air, being yet unable to _separate_ them from their dissolving liquors by any kind of _filtre_, without _præcipitation_, as we are able to _separate_ the Air from the Æther by _Glass_, and several other bodies. And though we are yet unable and ignorant of the ways of _præcipitating_ Air out of the Æther as we can Tinctures, and Salts out of several _dissolvents_; yet neither of these seeming _impossible_ from the nature of the things, nor so _improbable_ but that some happy future industry may find out ways to effect them; nay, further, since we find that Nature _does really perform_ (though by what means we are not certain) both these actions, namely, by _præcipitating_ the Air in Rain and Dews, and by supplying the Streams and Rivers of the World with fresh water, _strain’d_ through secret subterraneous Caverns: And since, that in very many other _proprieties_ they do so exactly _seem_ of the _same nature_; till further observations or tryals do inform us of the _contrary_, we may _safely enough conclude_ them of the _same kind_. For it seldom happens that any two natures have so many properties _coincident_ or the _same_, as I have observ’d Solutions and Air to have, and to be _different_ in the rest. And therefore I think it neither _impossible_, _irrational_, nay nor _difficult_ to be able to _predict_ what is _likely_ to happen in other particulars also, besides those which _Observation_ or _Experiment_ have declared thus or thus; especially, if the _circumstances_ that do often very much conduce to the variation of the effects be duly _weigh’d_ and _consider’d_. And indeed, were there not a _probability_ of this, our _inquiries_ would be _endless_, our _tryals vain_, and our greatest _inventions_ would be nothing but the meer _products_ of _chance_, and not of _Reason_; and, like _Mariners_ in an Ocean, destitute both of a _Compass_ and the sight of the _Celestial guides_, we might indeed, _by chance_, Steer _directly_ towards our desired Port, but ’tis _a thousand to one_ but we _miss_ our aim. But to proceed, we may hence also give a plain reason, how the Air comes to be _darkned_ by _clouds_, &c. which are nothing but a kind of _precipitation_, and how those _precipitations_ fall down in _Showrs_. Hence also could I very easily, and I think truly, deduce the cause of the curious _sixangular figures_ of Snow, and the appearances of _Haloes, &c._ and the sudden _thickning_ of the Sky with Clouds, and the _vanishing_ and _disappearing_ of those Clouds again; for all these things may be very easily _imitated_ in a _glass of liquor_, with some slight _Chymical preparations_ as I have often try’d, and may somewhere else more largely relate, but have not now time to set them down. But to proceed, there are other bodies that consist of particles more _Gross_, and of a more _apt_ figure for _cohesion_, and this requires _somewhat greater_ agitation; such, I suppose ☿, _fermented vinous_ _Spirits_, several _Chymical Oils_, which are much of kin to those Spirits, &c. Others yet require a _greater_, as _water_, and so others _much greater_, for almost infinite degrees: For, I suppose there are very _few_ bodies in the world that may not be made _aliquatenus_ fluid, by _some_ or _other_ degree of agitation or heat.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00163", "bookId": 15491, "start": 128589, "end": 133846, "sha256": "e005bedc411fca8d24f9d0878e7493867ddb40363f7a3c2ffd976a209f5291c9", "text": "Having therefore in short set down my Notion of a Fluid body, I come in the next place to consider what _Congruity_ is; and this, as I said before, being a _Relative property_ of a fluid, whereby it may be said to be _like_ or _unlike_ to this or that other body, whereby it _does_ or _does not mix_ with this or that body. We will again have recourse to our former Experiment, though but a rude one; and here if we mix in the dish _several kinds_ of sands, some of _bigger_, others of _less_ and finer bulks, we shall find that by the agitation _the fine sand_ will _eject_ and _throw out_ of it self all those _bigger_ bulks of small _stones_ and the like, and those will _be gathered_ together all into _one_ place; and if there be _other_ bodies in it of other natures, those also will be _separated_ into a place by themselves, and _united_ or _tumbled_ up together. And though this do not come up to the _highest property_ of _Congruity_, which is a _Cohæsion_ of the parts of the fluid together, or a kind of _attraction_ and _tenacity_, yet this does as ’twere _shadow_ it out, and somewhat resemble it; for just after the same manner, I suppose the _pulse_ of heat to _agitate_ the small parcels of matter, and those that are of a _like bigness_, and _figure_, and _matter_, will _hold_, or _dance_ together, and those which are of a _differing_ kind will be _thrust_ or _shov’d_ out from between them; for particles that are _similar_, will, like so many _equal musical strings equally stretcht_, vibrate together in a kind of _Harmony_ or _unison_; whereas others that are _dissimilar_, upon what account soever, unless the disproportion be otherwise counter-ballanc’d, will, like so many _strings out of tune_ to those unisons, though they have the same agitating _pulse_, yet make quite _differing_ kinds of _vibrations_ and _repercussions_, so that though they may be both mov’d, yet are their _vibrations_ so _different_, and so _untun’d_, as ’twere to each other, that they _cross_ and _jar_ against each other, and consequently, _cannot agree_ together, but _fly back_ from each other to their similar particles. Now, to give you an instance how the _disproportion_ of some bodies in one respect, may be _counter-ballanc’d_ by a _contrary disproportion_ of the same body in another respect, whence we find that the subtil _vinous spirit_ is _congruous_, or does readily _mix_ with _water_, which in many properties is of a very _differing nature_, we may consider that a _unison_ may be made either by two _strings_ of the same _bigness_, _length_, and _tension_, or by two strings of the same _bigness_, but of _differing length_, and a _contrary differing tension_, or _3ly._ by two strings of _unequal length_ and _bigness_, and of a _differing tension_, or of _equal length_, and _differing bigness_ and _tension_, and several other such varieties. To which _three properties_ in _strings_, will correspond _three proprieties_ also in _sand_, or the _particles_ of bodies, their _Matter_ or _Substance_, their _Figure_ or _Shape_, and their _Body_ or _Bulk_. And from the _varieties_ of these _three_, may arise _infinite varieties_ in fluid bodies, though all agitated by the _same pulse_ or _vibrative_ motion. And there may be as many ways of making Harmonies and Discords with these, as there may be with _musical strings_. Having therefore seen what is the cause of Congruity or Incongruity, those relative properties of fluids, we may, from what has been said, very easily collect, what is the _reason_ of those Relative proprieties also between _fluid bodies_ and _solid_; for since all bodies consist of _particles_ of such a _Substance_, _Figure_, and _Bulk_; but in some they are _united_ together more _firmly_ then to be _loosened_ from each other by every _vibrative_ motion (though I imagine that there is no body in the world, but that some degree of agitation may, as I hinted before, agitate and loosen the particles so as to make them fluid) those _cohering_ particles may _vibrate_ in the same manner almost as those that are _loose_ and become _unisons_ or _discords_, as I may so speak, to them. Now that the _parts_ of all _bodies_, though never so _solid_, do yet _vibrate_, I think we need go no further for proof, then that _all_ bodies have some _degrees_ of _heat_ in them, and that there has not been yet found any thing _perfectly cold_: Nor can I believe indeed that there is any such thing in Nature, as a body whose particles are at _rest_, or _lazy_ and _unactive_ in the great _Theatre_ of the _World_, it being quite _contrary_ to the grand _Oeconomy_ of the Universe. We see therefore what is the reason of the _sympathy_ or uniting of some bodies together, and of the _antipathy_ or flight of others from each other: For _Congruity_ seems nothing else but a _Sympathy_, and _Incongruity_ an _Antipathy_ of bodies, hence _similar_ bodies once _united_ will not _easily part_, and _dissimilar_ bodies once _disjoyn’d_ will not _easily unite_ again; from hence may be very easily deduc’d the reason of the _suspension_ of _water_ and _Quick-silver_ above their usual _station_, as I shall more at large anon shew.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00164", "bookId": 15491, "start": 133850, "end": 133963, "sha256": "8cb381b4de2116e2451ed151d33fec6048e3fc9b1cb77474b2cc0f931f8f9eca", "text": "These properties therefore (alwayes the concomitants of fluid bodies) produce these following visible _Effects_:", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00165", "bookId": 15491, "start": 133967, "end": 136251, "sha256": "e96b4537e8bbed2b548e04b2f2e62f7004c95a73b57bfaa8fd05f3404c75efda", "text": "First, They _unite_ the parts of a fluid to its _similar_ Solid, or keep them _separate_ from its _dissimilar_. Hence _Quick-silver_ will (as we noted before) _stick_ to _Gold_, _Silver_, _Tin_, _Lead_, &c. and _unite_ with them: but _roul_ off from _Wood_, _Stone_, _Glass_, &c. if never so little scituated out of its _horizontal level_; and _water_ that will _wet salt_ and _dissolve_ it, will _slip_ off from _Tallow_, or the like, without at all _adhering_; as it may likewise be observed to do upon a _dusty_ superficies. And next they cause the parts of _homogeneal fluid_ bodies readily to _adhere_ together and _mix_, and of _heterogeneal_, to be exceeding _averse_ thereunto. Hence we find, that _two_ small _drops_ of _water_, on any superficies they can roul on, will, if they chance to touch each other, _readily unite_ and _mix_ into one 3d _drop_: The like may be observed with two small _Bowls_ of _Quick-silver_ upon a Table or Glass, provided their surfaces be not _dusty_; and with two drops of _Oyl_ upon fair water, _&c._ And further, _water_ put unto _wine_, _salt water_, _vinegar_, _spirit_ of _wine_, or the like, does immediately (especially if they be shaken together) _disperse_ it self all over them. Hence, on the contrary, we also find, that _Oyl of Tartar_ poured upon _Quick-silver_, and _Spirit of Wine_ on that _Oyl_, and _Oyl of Turpentine_ on that _Spirit_, and _Air_ upon that _Oyl_, though they be stopt closely up into a Bottle, and _shaken_ never so much, they will by no means long suffer any of their bigger parts to be _united_ or included within any of the other Liquors (by which recited Liquors, may be plainly enough represented the four _Peripatetical Elements_, and the more subtil _Æther_ above all.) From this property ’tis, that a drop of _water_ does not mingle with, or vanish into _Air_, but is _driven_ (by that Fluid equally protruding it on every side) and forc’t into as little a space as it can possibly be contained in, namely, into a _Round Globule_. So likewise a little _Air_ blown under the _water_, is _united_ or thrust into a _Bubble_ by the ambient water. And a parcel of _Quick-silver_ enclosed with _Air_, _Water_, or almost any other _Liquor_, is _formed_ into a _round Ball_.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00166", "bookId": 15491, "start": 136255, "end": 137157, "sha256": "84af48447d7bd2c5fc809208895b31d921859317629c208304a74f362f60f61e", "text": "Now the cause why all these included Fluids, newly mentioned, or as many others as are wholly included within a heterogeneous fluid, are not _exactly_ of a _Spherical Figure_ (seeing that if caused by these Principles only, it could be of no other) must proceed from some other kind of _pressure_ against the two opposite flatted sides. This _adventitious_ or _accidental pressure_ may proceed from _divers causes_, and accordingly must _diversifie_ the Figure of the included heterogeneous fluid: For seeing that a body may be included either with a fluid only, or only with a solid, or partly with a fluid, and partly with a solid, or partly with one fluid, and partly with another; there will be found a very great variety of the terminating _surfaces_, much differing from a _Spherical_, according to the various resistance or pressure that belongs to each of these encompassing bodies.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00167", "bookId": 15491, "start": 137161, "end": 140964, "sha256": "4e5ea90eb5bf8ead4d1cdc69c0a661477c0abf8294613e551a6466f90ce74b55", "text": "Which Properties may in general be deduced from two heads, _viz._ _Motion_, and _Rest_. For, either this Globular Figure is altered by a _natural Motion_, such as is _Gravity_, or a _violent_, such as is any _accidental motion_ of the fluids, as we see in the _wind_ ruffling up the water, and the _purlings_ of _Streams_, and _foaming_ of _Catarracts_, and the like. Or thirdly, By the _Rest_, _Firmness_ and _Stability_ of the ambient _Solid_. For if the including _Solid_ be of an _angular_ or any other _irregular_ Form, the included _fluid_ will be near of the _like_, as a Pint-_Pot_ full of _water_, or a _Bladder_ full of _Air_. And next, if the including or included fluid have a greater _gravity_ one than another, then will the _globular_ Form be deprest into an _Elliptico-spherical_: As if, for example, we suppose the Circle _ABCD_, in the _fourth Figure_, to represent a _drop of water_, _Quick-silver_, or the like, included with the _Air_ or the like, which supposing there were no _gravity_ at all in either of the _fluids_, or that the _contained_ and _containing_ were of the _same weight_, would be _equally comprest_ into an exactly _spherical_ body (the ambient fluid _forcing equally_ against every side of it.) But supposing either a greater _gravity_ in the included, by reason whereof the parts of it being _prest_ from _A_ towards _B_, and thereby the whole put into _motion_, and that _motion_ being _hindred_ by the _resistance_ of the _subjacent_ parts of the ambient, the _globular_ Figure _ADBC_ will be _deprest_ into the _Elliptico-spherical_, _EGFH_. For the side _A_ is _detruded_ to _E_ by the _Gravity_, and _B_ to _F_ by the _resistance_ of the subjacent medium: and therefore _C_ must necessarily be thrust to _G_; and _D_ to _H_. Or else, supposing a greater _gravity_ in the _ambient_, by whose more then ordinary _pressure_ against the under side of the included globule; _B_ will be forced to _F_, and by its _resistance_ of the motion _upwards_, the side _A_ will be _deprest_ to _E_, and therefore _C_ being thrust to _G_ and _D_ to _H_; the _globular_ Figure by this means also will be made an _Elliptico-spherical_. Next if a fluid be included _partly_ with one, and _partly_ with another fluid, it will be found to be shaped _diversly_, according to the proportion of the _gravity_ and _incongruity_ of the 3 _fluids_ one to another: As in the _second Figure_, let the upper _MMM_ be _Air_, the middle _LMNO_ be common _Oyl_, the lower _OOO_ be _Water_, the _Oyl_ will be form’d, not into a _spherical_ Figure, such as is represented by the _pricked Line_, but into such a Figure as LMNO, whose side LMN will be of a flatter _Elliptical_ Figure, by reason of the great disproportion between the _Gravity_ of _Oyl_ and _Air_, and the side LOM of a rounder, because of the smaller difference between the weight of _Oyl_ and _Water_. Lastly, The _globular_ Figure will be changed, if the _ambient_ be partly _fluid_ and partly _solid_. And here the termination of the incompassed _fluid_ towards the incompassing is shap’d according to the proportion of the congruity or incongruity of the _fluids_ to the _solids_, and of the gravity and incongruity of the _fluids_ one to another. As suppose the subjacent _medium_ that hinders an included fluids descent, be a _solid_, as let KI, in the _fourth Figure_, represent the smooth superficies of a _Table_; EGFH, a parcel of _running Mercury_; the side GFH will be more flatted, according to the proportion of the incongruity of the _Mercury_ and _Air_ to the _Wood_, and of the _gravity_ of _Mercury_ and _Air_ one to another; The side GEH will likewise be a little more deprest by reason the subjacent parts are now at rest, which were before in motion.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00168", "bookId": 15491, "start": 140968, "end": 144487, "sha256": "9ca579f397997f90d089950e48142a38daa642f760ff6fa49165e49c0277f064", "text": "Or further in the _third figure_, let AILD represent an including _solid_ medium of a cylindrical shape (as suppose a small _Glass Jar_) Let FGEMM represent a contain’d _fluid_, as water; this towards the bottom and sides, is figured according to the concavity of the _Glass_: But its upper _Surface_, (which by reason of its gravity, (not considering at all the Air above it, and so neither the congruity or incongruity of either of them to the Glass) should be terminated by part of a _Sphere_ whose diameter should be the same with that of the earth, which to our sense would appear a straight _Line_, as FGE, Or which by reason of its having a greater congruity to Glass than Air has, (not considering its Gravity) would be thrust into a _concave Sphere_, as CHB, whose diameter would be the same with that of the concavity of the Vessel:) Its upper Surface, I say, by reason of its having a greater gravity then the Air, and having likewise a greater congruity to Glass then the Air has, is terminated, by a _concave Elliptico-spherical Figure_, as CKB. For by its congruity it easily conforms it self, and adheres to the Glass, and constitutes as it were one containing body with it, and therefore should thrust the contained Air on that side it touches it, into a _spherical_ Figure, as BHC, but the motion of Gravity depressing a little the Corners B and C, reduces it into the aforesaid Figure CKB. Now that it is the greater congruity of one of the two _contiguous fluids_, then of the other, to the containing _solid_, that causes the separating surfaces to be thus or thus figured: And that it is not because this or that figurated surface is more proper, natural, or peculiar to one of these fluid bodies, then to the other, will appear from this; that the same _fluids_ will by being put into differing _solids_, change their _surfaces_. For the same water, which in a Glass or wooden Vessel will have a concave surface upwards, and will rise higher in a smaller then a greater Pipe, the same water, I say, in the same Pipes greased over or oyled, will produce quite contrary effects; for it will have a _protuberant_ and _convex_ surface upwards, and will not rise so high in small, as in bigger Pipes: Nay, in the very same solid Vessel, you may make the very same two contiguous _Liquids_ to alter their Surfaces; for taking a small Wine-glass, or such like Vessel, and pouring water gently into it, you shall perceive the _surface_ of the water all the way _concave_, till it rise even with the top, when you shall find it (if you gently and carefully pour in more) to grow very _protuberant_ and _convex_; the reason of which is plain, for that the _solid_ sides of the containing body are no longer extended, to which the water does more readily adhere then the air; but it is henceforth to be included with air, which would reduce it into a _hemisphere_, but by reason of its _gravity_, it is flatted into an _Oval_. _Quicksilver_ also which to _Glass_ is more incongruous then _Air_ (and thereby being put into a _Glass-pipe_, will not adhere to it, but by the more _congruous air_ will be forced to have a very _protuberant_ surface, and to rise higher in a greater then a lesser Pipe) this _Quicksilver_ to clean _Metal_, especially to _Gold_, _Silver_, _Tin_, _Lead_, &c. _Iron_ excepted, is more _congruous_ then _Air_, and will not only stick to it, but have a _concave_ Surface like _water_, and rise higher in a less, then in a greater Pipe.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00169", "bookId": 15491, "start": 144491, "end": 146962, "sha256": "c8917d8a5aaf143259251a9ec06ab66d0c6e1c96cd3f654f1568ed90b59eb88d", "text": "In all these Examples it is evident, that there is an _extraordinary_ and _adventitious force_, by which the _globular_ Figure of the contained _heterogeneous_ fluid is altered; neither can it be imagined, how it should otherwise be of any other Figure then _Globular_: For being by the _heterogeneous_ fluid equally _protruded_ every way, whatsoever part is _protuberant_, will be thereby _deprest_. From this cause it is, that in its effects it does very much resemble a _round Spring_ (such as a _Hoop_.) For as in a _round Spring_ there is required an additional _pressure_ against two opposite sides, to reduce it into an _Oval_ Form, or to force it in between the sides of a _Hole_, whose _Diameter_ is less then that of the _Spring_, there must be a considerable force or _protrusion_ against _the concave_ or inner side of the _Spring_; So to alter this _spherical_ constitution of an included fluid body, there is required more pressure against opposite sides to reduce it into an _Oval_; and, to press it into an _Hole_ less in _Diameter_ then it self, it requires a greater _protrusion_ against all the other sides, What degrees of force are requisite to reduce them into longer and longer _Ovals_, or to press them into less and less _holes_, I have not yet experimentally calculated; but thus much by experiment I find in general, that there is alwayes required a greater pressure to close them into longer _Ovals_, or protrude them into smaller _holes_. The necessity and reason of this, were it requisite, I could easily explain: but being not so necessary, and requiring more room and time then I have for it at present, I shall here omit it; and proceed to shew, that this may be presently found true, if Experiment be made with a _round Spring_ (the way of making which trials is _obvious_ enough.) And with the fluid bodies of _Mercury_, _Air_, _&c._ the way of trying which, will be somewhat more difficult; and therefore I shall in brief describe it. He therefore that would try with _Air_, must first be provided of a _Glass-pipe_, made of the shape of that in the _fifth Figure_, whereof the side AB, represents a straight _Tube_ of about three foot long, C, represents another part of it, which consists of a _round Bubble_; so ordered, that there is left a _passage_ or _hole_ at the top, into which may be fastened with _cement_ several _small Pipes_ of determinate _cylindrical_ cavities: as let the _hollow_ of", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00170", "bookId": 15491, "start": 146968, "end": 148150, "sha256": "f3c4640e14a38cb3523d9b3f25db32fefec128b2018d2832690bf7a14f02d78d", "text": "F. ¼ G. ⅙ H. ⅛ I. be ¹⁄₁₂ of an inch. K. ¹⁄₁₆ L. ¹⁄₂₄ M. ¹⁄₃₂ &c.—— There may be added as many more, as the Experimenter shall think fit, with holes continually decreasing by known quantities, so far as his senses are able to help him; I say, so far, because there may be made _Pipes_ so small that it will be impossible to perceive the _perforation_ with ones naked eye, though by the help of a _Microscope_, it may easily enough be perceived: Nay, I have made a _Pipe_ perforated from end to end, so small, that with my naked eye I could very hardly see the body of it, insomuch that I have been able to knit it up into a knot without breaking: And more accurately examining one with my _Microscope_, I found it not so big as a sixteenth part of one of the smaller hairs of my head which was of the smaller and finer sort of hair, so that sixteen of these _Pipes_ bound faggot-wise together, would but have equalized one single hair; how small therefore must its _perforation_ be? It appearing to me through the _Microscope_ to be a proportionably _thick-sided Pipe_.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00171", "bookId": 15491, "start": 148154, "end": 150454, "sha256": "358dda3a0f27af35cf7bd9d37f212014f9e3dda5a5ae3a18cd8c1facce6135e3", "text": "To proceed then, for the trial of the Experiment, the Experimenter must place the _Tube_ AB, perpendicular, and fill the _Pipe_ F (cemented into the hole E) with water, but leave the _bubble_ C full of _Air_, and then gently pouring in water into the Pipe AB, he must observe diligently how high the water will rise in it before it protrude the _bubble_ of Air C, through the narrow passage of F, and denote exactly the height of the _Cylinder_ of water, then cementing in a second Pipe as G, and filling it with water; he may proceed as with the former, denoting likewise the height of the _Cylinder_ of water, able to protrude the _bubble_ C through the passage of G, the like may he do with the next _Pipe_, and the next, &c. as far as he is able: then comparing the several heights of the _Cylinders_, with the several _holes_ through which each _Cylinder_ did force the _air_ (having due regard to the _Cylinders_ of water in the small _Tubes_) it will be very easie to determine, what force is requisite to press the _Air_ into such and such _a hole_, or (to apply it to our present experiment) how much of the pressure of the _Air_ is taken off by its ingress into smaller and smaller _holes_. From the application of which to the entring of the _Air_ into the bigger _hole_ of the _Vessel_, and into the smaller _hole_ of the _Pipe_, we shall clearly find, that there is a greater pressure of the air upon the water in the _Vessel_ or greater _pipe_, then there is upon that in the lesser _pipe_: For since the pressure of the _air_ every way is found to be equal, that is, as much as is able to press up and sustain a _Cylinder_ of _Quicksilver_ of two foot and a half high, or thereabouts; And since of this pressure so many more degrees are required to force the _Air_ into a smaller then into a greater _hole_ that is full of a more congruous fluid. And lastly, since those degrees that are requisite to press it in, are thereby taken off from the _Air_ within, and the _Air_ within left with so many degrees of pressure less then the _Air_ without; it will follow, that the _Air_ in the less _Tube_ or _pipe_, will have less pressure against the superficies of the _water_ therein, then the _Air_ in the bigger: which was the minor Proposition to be proved.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00172", "bookId": 15491, "start": 150458, "end": 150775, "sha256": "27621a3f63ecc3b7483da2accddc8eb368f81a9e8b6fca6c83ccd78d511ff1ee", "text": "The Conclusion therefore will necessarily follow, _viz._ That _this unequal pressure of the Air caused by its ingress into unequal holes, is a cause sufficient to produce this effect, without the help of any other concurrent_; and therefore is probably the principal (if not the only) cause of these _Phænomena_.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00173", "bookId": 15491, "start": 150779, "end": 151691, "sha256": "ac3b84ccc06896f3f7b4500aa50ae5207a3755e568e0bb0220c33ef06bb2fc76", "text": "This therefore being thus explained, there will be divers _Phænomena_ explicable thereby, as, the rising of _Liquors_ in a _Filtre_, the rising of _Spirit of Wine_, _Oyl_, _melted Tallow_, &c. in the _Week_ of a _Lamp_, (though made of small _Wire_, _Threeds_ of _Asbestus_, _Strings_ of _Glass_, or the like) the rising of _Liquors_ in a _Spunge_, piece of _Bread_, _Sand_, &c. perhaps also the ascending of the _Sap_ in _Trees_ and _Plants_, through their small, and some of them _imperceptible pores_, (of which I have said more, on another occasion) at least the passing of it out of the earth into their roots. And indeed upon the consideration of this Principle, multitudes of other uses of it occurr’d to me, which I have not yet so well examined and digested as to propound for _Axioms_, but only as _Queries_ and _Conjectures_ which may serve as _hints_ toward some further _discoveries_.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00174", "bookId": 15491, "start": 151695, "end": 152840, "sha256": "53ea8a165058f70a9f6d68c0fd0085b06148664d735afcd5fdf86c782a864586", "text": "As first, Upon the consideration of the _congruity_ and _incongruity_ of Bodies, as to _touch_, I found also the like _congruity_ and _incongruity_ (if I may so speak) as to the _Transmitting_ of the _Rates_ of Light: For as in this regard, _water_ (not now to mention other Liquors) seems nearer of affinity to _Glass_ then _Air_, and _Air_ then _Quicksilver_: whence an _oblique Ray_ out of _Glass_, will pass into _water_ with very little _refraction_ from the _perpendicular_, but none out of _Glass_ into _Air_, excepting a _direct_, will pass without a very great refraction from the perpendicular, nay any oblique Ray under thirty degrees, will not be admitted into the Air at all. And _Quicksilver_ will neither admit oblique or direct, but reflects all; seeming, as to the transmitting of the Raies of Light, to be of a quite differing constitution, from that of _Air_, _Water_, _Glass_, &c. and to resemble most those opacous and strong reflecting bodies of Metals: So also as to the property of cohesion or congruity, Water seems to keep the same order, being more congruous to Glass then Air, and Air then Quicksilver.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00175", "bookId": 15491, "start": 152844, "end": 154011, "sha256": "22022a0e5d6c28905047ddb759803237026bb84014cf3322a6770aff2e68e292", "text": "A Second thing (which was hinted to me, by the consideration of the included fluids globular form, caused by the protrusion of the ambient heterogeneous fluid) was, whether the _Phænomena_ of gravity might not by this means be explained, by supposing the _Globe_ of Earth, Water, and Air to be included with a _fluid_, heterogeneous to all and each of them, so subtil, as not only to be every where _interspersed_ through the _Air_, (or rather the _air_ through it) but to _pervade_ the bodies of _Glass_, and even the _closest Metals_, by which means it may endeavour to _detrude_ all earthly bodies as far from it as it can; and partly thereby, and partly by other of its properties may move them towards the Center of the Earth. Now that there is some such fluid, I could produce many Experiments and Reasons, that do seem to prove it: But because it would ask some time and room to set them down and explain them, and to consider and answer all the Objections (many whereof I foresee) that may be alledged against it; I shall at present proceed to other _Queries_, contenting my self to have here only given a hint of what I may say more elswhere.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00176", "bookId": 15491, "start": 154015, "end": 154433, "sha256": "8df485d76d07ad784f3220c8d0f22c618a07bdce92d2ada387338cb0841fbc29", "text": "A Third _Query_ then was, Whether the _heterogeneity_ of the _ambient fluid_ may not be accounted a _secondary cause_ of the _roundness_ or _globular form_ of the _greater bodies_ of the world, such as are those of the _Sun_, _Stars_, and _Planets_, the _substance_ of each of which seems altogether _heterogeneous_ to the _circumambient fluid æther_? And of this I shall say more in the Observation of the Moon.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00177", "bookId": 15491, "start": 154437, "end": 155318, "sha256": "364c7cbb3f4d1e28b92bd355e6d2e00fb5059e0f1d0bf7a1dfb4114a498ddf89", "text": "A Fourth was, Whether the _globular form_ of the _smaller parcels_ of matter here upon the _Earth_, as that of _Fruits_, _Pebbles_, or _Flints_, &c. (which seem to have been a _Liquor_ at first) may not be caused by the _heterogeneous ambient fluid_. For thus we see that melted _Glass_ will be naturally formed into a _round Figure_; so likewise any small Parcel of any _fusible body_, if it be perfectly enclosed by the _Air_, will be driven into a _globular_ Form; and, when cold, will be found a _solid Ball_. This is plainly enough manifested to us by their way of making _shot_ with the _drops of Lead_; which being a very pretty curiosity, and known but to a very few, and having the liberty of publishing it granted me, by that _Eminent Virtuoso_ Sir _Robert Moray_, who brought in this Account of it to the _Royal Society_, I have here transcribed and inserted.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00178", "bookId": 15491, "start": 155322, "end": 155396, "sha256": "2b0fa4f63c00160cd35c2342da39033334ba4ed496ca03eb02c56180b1dc1b64", "text": "To make small shot of different sizes; Communicated by his Highness _P.R._", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00179", "bookId": 15491, "start": 155400, "end": 156920, "sha256": "41384b59ffee88674b1c4b92c48698b5a180d6c3f165294301930b69f81ea1da", "text": "_Take Lead out of the Pig what quantity you please, melt it down, stir and clear it with an iron Ladle, gathering together the blackish parts that swim at top like scum, and when you see the colour of the clear Lead to be greenish, but no sooner, strew upon it _Auripigmentum_ powdered according to the quantity of Lead, about as much as will lye upon a half Crown piece will serve for eighteen or twenty pound weight of some sorts of Lead; others will require more, or less. After the _Auripigmentum_ is put in, stir the Lead well, and the _Auripigmentum_ will flame: when the flame is over, take out some of the Lead in a Ladle having a lip or notch in the brim for convenient pouring out of the Lead, and being well warmed amongst the melted Lead, and with a stick make some single drops of Lead trickle out of the Ladle into water in a Glass, which if they fall to be round and without tails, there is _Auripigmentum_ enough put in, and the temper of the heat is right, otherwise put in more. Then lay two bars of Iron (or some more proper Iron-tool made on purpose) upon a Pail of water, and place upon them a round Plate of Copper, of the size and figure of an ordinary large Pewter or Silver Trencher, the hollow whereof is to be about three inches over, the bottom lower then the brims about half an inch, pierced with thirty, forty, or more small holes; the smaller the holes are, the smaller the shot will be; and the brim is to be thicker then the bottom, to conserve the heat the better._", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00180", "bookId": 15491, "start": 156924, "end": 157511, "sha256": "5aaaca4e4c964f4fefbf7406df623ca5849e5f297a7098af0809da5ff27c566d", "text": "_The bottom of the Trencher being some four inches distant from the water in the Pail, lay upon it some burning Coles, to keep the Lead melted upon it. Then with the hot Ladle take Lead off the Pot where it stands melted, and pour it softly upon the burning Coles over the bottom of the Trencher, and it will immediately run through the holes into the water in small round drops. Thus pour on new Lead still as fast as it runs through the Trencher till all be done; blowing now and then the Coles with hand-Bellows, when the Lead in the Trencher cools so as to stop from running._", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00181", "bookId": 15491, "start": 157515, "end": 158378, "sha256": "e60d973c37e46d87baefaf138fdbaf35f14503bdfd5c2f70a66b2e187a151364", "text": "_Whilst one pours on the Lead, another must, with another Ladle, thrusted four or five inches under water in the Pail, catch from time to time some of the shot, as it drops down, to see the size of it, and whether there be any faults in it. The greatest care is to keep the Lead upon the Trencher in the right degree of heat; if it be too cool, it will not run through the Trencher, though it stand melted upon it; and this is to be helped by blowing the Coals a little, or pouring on new Lead that is hotter: but the cooler the Lead, the larger the Shot; and the hotter, the smaller; when it is too hot, the drops will crack and fly; then you must stop pouring on new Lead, and let it cool; and so long as you observe the right temper of the heat, the Lead will constantly drop into very round Shot, without so much as one with a tail in many pounds._", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00182", "bookId": 15491, "start": 158382, "end": 158883, "sha256": "40733ba91af1bc2632feb7b0f4d00ab923b73f1fba2162fada8e89bedf0e0317", "text": "_When all is done, take your Shot out of the Pail of water, and put it in a Frying-pan over the fire to dry them, which must be done warily, still shaking them that they melt not; and when they are dry you may separate the small from the great, in Pearl Sives made of Copper or Lattin let into one another, into as many sizes at you please. But if you would have your Shot larger then the Trencher makes them, you may do it with a Stick, making them trickle out of the Ladle, as hath been said._", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00183", "bookId": 15491, "start": 158887, "end": 159187, "sha256": "1775b4b5b255e0a4650305e0cf75bd2d8ed3202f0e138c507d042caebb7f88a0", "text": "_If the Trencher be but toucht a very little when the Lead stops from going through it, and be not too cool, it will drop again, but it is better not to touch it at all. At the melting of the Lead take care that there be no kind of Oyl, Grease, or the like, upon the Pots, or Ladles, or Trencher._", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00184", "bookId": 15491, "start": 159191, "end": 159679, "sha256": "f2da626155cef11996b4adfe1b67115599eb54b6a5052be3039a75eeaee202da", "text": "_The Chief cause of this Globular Figure of the Shot, seems to be the _Auripigmentum_; for, as soon as it is put in among the melted Lead, it loses its shining brightness, contracting instantly a grayish film or skin upon it, when you scum it to make it clean with the Ladle. So that when the Air comes at the falling drop of the melted Lead, that skin constricts them every where equally: but upon what account, and whether this be the true cause, is left to further disquisition._", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00185", "bookId": 15491, "start": 159683, "end": 159882, "sha256": "9f783a3dad133a498d49f0ba0d3710366eae34566f4d509d8e64ae7715c27240", "text": "Much after this same manner, when the Air is exceeding cold through which it passes; do we find the drops of Rain, falling from the Clouds, congealed into round Hail-stones by the freezing Ambient.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00186", "bookId": 15491, "start": 159886, "end": 161327, "sha256": "65ca8fe3b09c629792f7c400def5ceca692dde79d81373f7bc953d9e24b3201c", "text": "To which may be added this other known Experiment, That if you gently let fall a drop of _water_ upon small _sand_ or _dust_, you shall find, as it were, an artificial _round stone_ quickly generated. I cannot upon this occasion omit the mentioning of the strange kind of _Grain_, which I have observed in a _stone_ brought from _Kettering_ in _Northamptonshire_, and therefore called by Masons _Kettering-Stone_, of which see the Description. Which brings into my mind what I long since observed in the fiery Sparks that are struck out of a Steel. For having a great desire to see what was left behind, after the Spark was gone out, I purposely struck fire over a very white piece of Paper, and observing diligently where some conspicuous sparks went out, I found a very little black spot no bigger then the point of a Pin, which through a _Microscope_ appeared to be a perfectly round Ball, looking much like a polisht ball of Steel, insomuch that I was able to see the Image of the window reflected from it. I cannot here stay (having done it more fully in another place) to examine the particular Reasons of it, but shall only hint, that I imagine it to be some small parcel of the Steel, which by the violence of the motion of the stroke (most of which seems to be imprest upon those small parcels) is made so glowing hot, that it is melted into a _Vitrum_, which by the ambient Air is thrust into the form of a Ball.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00187", "bookId": 15491, "start": 161331, "end": 161639, "sha256": "39b00f888924c43f846b106506a12808c3898cc7f615630f023defbb706394f6", "text": "A Fifth thing which I thought worth Examination was, Whether the motion of all kind of Springs, might not be reduced to the Principle whereby the included _heterogeneous fluid_ seems to be moved; or to that whereby two Solids, as Marbles, or the like, are thrust and kept together by the _ambient fluid_.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00188", "bookId": 15491, "start": 161643, "end": 162812, "sha256": "e74722c8908bd828ae0847e01b0c044633b1142b36a2f120591ded163391f40d", "text": "A Sixth thing was, Whether the Rising and Ebullition of the Water out of Springs and Fountains (which lie much higher from the Center of the Earth then the Superficies of the Sea, from whence it seems to be derived) may not be explicated by the rising of Water in a smaller Pipe: For the Sea-water being strained through the Pores or Crannies of the Earth, is, as it were, included in little Pipes, where the pressure of the Air has not so great a power to resist its rising: But examining this way, and finding in it several difficulties almost irremovable, I thought upon a way that would much more naturally and conceivably explain it, which was by this following Experiment: I took a Glass-Tube, of the form of that described in the sixth Figure, and chusing two _heterogeneous fluids_, such as Water and Oyl, I poured in as much Water as filled up the Pipes as high as AB, then putting in some Oyl into the Tube AC, I deprest the superficies A of the Water to F, and B I raised to G, which was not so high perpendicularly as the superficies of the Oyl F, by the space FI, wherefore the proportion of the gravity of these two Liquors was as GH to FE.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00189", "bookId": 15491, "start": 162816, "end": 163647, "sha256": "5dfb9f44e2ad7e5f047f93b6b9b8978c058d6529a01a67146b10d847b62bfc1d", "text": "This Experiment I tried with several other Liquors, and particularly with fresh Water and Salt (which I made by dissolving Salt in warm Water) which two though they are nothing heterogeneous, yet before they would perfectly mix one with another, I made trial of the Experiment: Nay, letting the Tube wherein I tried the Experiment remain for many dayes, I observed them not to mix; but the superficies of the fresh was rather more then less elevated above that of the Salt. Now the proportion of the gravity of Sea-water, to that of River-water, according to _Stevinus_ and _Varenius_, and as I have since found pretty true by making trial my self, is as 46. to 45. that is, 46. Ounces of the salt Water will take up no more room then 45. of the fresh. Or reciprocally 45 pints of salt-water weigh as much as 46 of fresh.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00190", "bookId": 15491, "start": 163651, "end": 166529, "sha256": "48b4cc60ac2dd1cb5ed1624bdcaae77c104b22c208ae36fbf8c917153786aa9c", "text": "But I found the proportion of Brine to fresh Water to be near 13 to 12: Supposing therefore GHM to represent the Sea, and FI the height of the Mountain above the Superficies of the Sea, FM a Cavern in the Earth, beginning at the bottom of the Sea, and terminated at the top of the Mountain, LM the Sand at the bottom, through which the Water is as it were strained, so as that the fresher parts are only permitted to transude, and the saline kept back; if therefore the proportion of G M to FM be as 45 to 46, then may the Cylinder of Salt-water GM make the Cylinder of Fresh-water to rise as high as E, and to run over at N. I cannot here stand to examine or confute their Opinion, who make the depth of the Sea, below its Superficies, to be no more perpendicularly measured then the height of the Mountains above it: ’Tis enough for me to say, there is no one of those that have asserted it, have experimentally known the perpendicular of either; nor shall I here determine, whether there may not be many other causes of the separation of the fresh water from the salt, as perhaps some parts of the Earth through which it is to pass, may contain a Salt, that mixing and uniting with the Sea-salt, may precipitate it; much after the same manner as the _Alcalizate_ and _Acid Salts_ mix and precipitate each other in the preparation of _Tartarum Vitriolatum._ I know not also whether the exceeding cold (that must necessarily be) at the bottom of the Water, may not help towards this separation, for we find, that warm Water is able to dissolve and contain more Salt, then the same cold; insomuch that Brines strongly impregnated by heat, if let cool, do suffer much of their Salt to subside and crystallize about the bottom and sides. I know not also whether the exceeding pressure of the parts of the Water one against another, may not keep the Salt from descending to the very bottom, as finding little or no room to insert it self between those parts, protruded so violently together, or else squeeze it upwards into the superiour parts of the Sea, where it may more easily obtain room for it self, amongst the parts of the Water, by reason that there is more heat and less pressure. To this Opinion I was somewhat the more induced by the relations I have met with in _Geographical Writers_, of drawing fresh Water from the bottom of the Sea, which is salt above. I cannot now stand to examine, whether this natural perpetual motion may not artificially be imitated: Nor can I stand to answer the Objections which may be made against this my Supposition: As, First, How it comes to pass, that there are sometimes salt Springs much higher then the Superficies of the Water? And, Secondly, Why Springs do not run faster and slower, according to the varying height made of the Cylinder of Sea-water, by the ebbing and flowing of the Sea?", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00191", "bookId": 15491, "start": 166533, "end": 166772, "sha256": "38e222a7cd7438d8a241fb5896670e2b6887827e0cf8c5afef6bee918e2eb903", "text": "As to the First, In short, I say, the fresh Water may receive again a saline Tincture near the Superficies of the Earth, by passing through some salt _Mines_, or else many of the saline parts of the Sea may be kept back, though not all.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00192", "bookId": 15491, "start": 166776, "end": 169466, "sha256": "0c49e4942a201324668e6a190ea27db6f4101bc3dbc52fde369a29d91b8700ff", "text": "And as to the Second, The same _Spring_ may be fed and supplyed by divers _Caverns_, coming from very far distant parts of the _Sea_, so as that it may in one place be _high_, in another _low water_; and so by that means the _Spring_ may be equally supply’d at all times. Or else the _Cavern_ may be so straight and narrow, that the water not having so ready and free passage through it, cannot upon so short and quick mutations of pressure, be able to produce any sensible effect at such a distance. Besides that, to confirm this _hypothesis_, there are many _Examples_ found in _Natural Historians_, of _Springs_ that do ebb and flow like the Sea: As particularly, those recorded by the Learned _Camden_, and after him by _Speed_, to be found in this _Island_: One of which, they relate to be on the Top of a Mountain, by the small Village _Kilken_ in _Flintshire_, _Maris æmulus qui statis temporibus suas evomit & resorbet Aquas_; Which at certain times riseth and falleth after the manner of the Sea. A Second in _Caermardenshire_, near _Caermarden_, at a place called _Cantred Bichan_; _Qui (ut scribit Giraldus) naturali die bis undis deficiens, & toties exuberans, marinas imitatur instabilitates_; That twice in four and twenty hours ebbing and flowing; resembleth the unstable motions of the Sea. The _Phænomena_ of which two may be easily made out, by supposing the _Cavern_, by which they are fed, to arise from the bottom of the next Sea. A Third, is a Well upon the River _Ogmore_ in _Glamorganshire_, and near unto _Newton_, of which _Camden_ relates himself to be certified, by a Letter from a Learned Friend of his that observed it, _Fons abest hinc, &c._ The Letter is a little too long to be inserted, but the substance is this; That this Well ebbs and flows quite contrary to the flowing and ebbing of the Sea in those parts: for ’tis almost empty at Full Sea, but full at Low water. This may happen from the Channel by which it is supplied, which may come from the bottom of a Sea very remote from those parts, and where the Tides are much differing from those of the approximate shores. A Fourth, lies in _Westmorland_, near the River _Leder_; _Qui instar Euripi sæpius in die reciprocantibus undis fluit & refluit_, which ebbs and flows many times a day. This may proceed from its being supplyed from many Channels, coming from several parts of the Sea, lying sufficiently distant asunder to have the times of High water differing enough one from the other; so as that whensoever it shall be High water over any of those places, where these Channels begin, it shall likewise be so in the Well; but this is but a supposition.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00193", "bookId": 15491, "start": 169470, "end": 169996, "sha256": "23126f3a947e150687ab39404ddec6cb059c60b683f1a2939d68c0da121502ca", "text": "A Seventh _Query_ was, Whether the _dissolution_ or mixing of several bodies, whether fluid or solid, with saline or other Liquors, might not partly be attributed to this Principle of the congruity of those bodies and their dissolvents? As of Salt in Water, Metals in several _Menstruums_, Unctuous Gums in Oyls, the mixing of Wine and Water, &c. And whether _precipitation_ be not partly made from the same Principle of Incongruity? I say _partly_, because there are in some Dissolutions, some other Causes concurrent.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00194", "bookId": 15491, "start": 170000, "end": 172583, "sha256": "f50b5ecb61c0cf45c0ec40cd501a1107bb55cc283b40c442839ab6d65624a586", "text": "I shall lastly make a much more seemingly strange and unlikely _Query_; and that is, Whether this Principle, well examined and explained, may not be found a _coefficient_ in the most considerable Operations of Nature? As in those of _Heat_, and _Light_, and consequently of _Rarefaction_ and _Condensation_, _Hardness_, and _Fluidness_, _Perspicuity_ and _Opacousness_, _Refractions_ and _Colours. &c._ Nay, I know not whether there may be many things done in Nature, in which this may not (be said to) have a Finger? This I have in some other passages of this Treatise further enquired into and shewn, that as well _Light_ as _Heat_ may be caused by _corrosion_, which is applicable to _congruity_, and consequently all the rest will be but _subsequents_: In the mean time I would not willingly be guilty of that _Error_, which the thrice Noble and Learned _Verulam_ justly takes notice of, as such, and calls _Philosophiæ Genus Empiricum, quod in paucorum Experimentorum Angustiis & Obscuritate fundatum est_. For I neither conclude from one single Experiment, nor are the Experiments I make use of all made upon one Subject: Nor wrest I any Experiment to make it _quadrare_ with any preconceiv’d Notion. But on the contrary, I endeavour to be conversant in divers kinds of Experiments, and all and every one of those Trials, I make the Standards or Touchstones, by which I try all my former Notions, whether they hold out in weight, and measure, and touch, &c. For as that Body is no other then a Counterfeit Gold, which wants any one of the Proprieties of Gold, (such as are the Malleableness, Weight, Colour, Fixtness in the Fire, Indissolubleness in _Aqua fortis_, and the like) though it has all the other; so will all those Notions be found to be false and deceitful, that will not undergo all the Trials and Tests made of them by Experiments. And therefore such as will not come up to the desired _Apex_ of Perfection, I rather wholly reject and take new, then by piecing and patching, endeavour to retain the old, as knowing such things at best to be but lame and imperfect. And this course I learned from Nature; whom we find neglectful of the old Body, and suffering its Decaies and Infirmities to remain without repair, and altogether sollicitous and careful of perpetuating the _Species_ by new _Individuals_. And it is certainly the most likely way to erect a glorious Structure and Temple to _Nature_, such as she will be found (by any _zealous Votary_) to reside in; to begin to build a new upon a sure Foundation of Experiments.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00195", "bookId": 15491, "start": 172587, "end": 174285, "sha256": "f114e878fa8e72b5567f50d8de9703c45ce25a79d0e4d6c445269e448d6ff5f6", "text": "But to digress no further from the consideration of the _Phænomena_, more immediately explicable by this Experiment, we shall proceed to shew, That, as to the rising of Water in a _Filtre_, the reason of it will be manifest to him, that does take notice, that a _Filtre_ is constituted of a great number of small long solid bodies, which lie so close together, that the Air in its getting in between them, doth lose of its pressure that it has against the _Fluid_ without them, by which means the Water or Liquor not finding so strong a resistance between them as is able to counter-ballance the pressure on its superficies without, is raised upward, till it meet with a pressure of the Air which is able to hinder it. And as to the Rising of Oyl, melted Tallow, Spirit of Wine, &c. in the Week of a Candle or Lamp, it is evident, that it differs in nothing from the former, save only in this, that in a _Filtre_ the Liquor descends and runs away by another part; and in the Week the Liquor is dispersed and carried away by the Flame; something there is ascribable to the Heat, for that it may rarifie the more volatil and spirituous parts of those combustible Liquors, and so being made lighter then the Air, it may be protruded upwards by that more ponderous fluid body in the Form of Vapours; but this can be ascribed to the ascension of but a very little, and most likely of that only which ascends without the Week. As for the Rising of it in a Spunge, Bread, Cotton, &c. above the superficies of the subjacent Liquor, what has been said about the _Filtre_ (if considered) will easily suggest a reason, considering that all these bodies abound with small holes or pores.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00196", "bookId": 15491, "start": 174289, "end": 177060, "sha256": "838a8d4f35c7a661e426270bc5d3c302b9608e30f98e56f63b9c07f998f9d3d9", "text": "From this same Principle also (_viz. the unequal pressure of the Air against the unequal superficies of the water_) proceeds the cause of the accession or incursion of any floating body against the sides of the containing Vessel; or the _appropinquation_ of two floating bodies, as _Bubbles_, _Corks_, _Sticks_, _Straws_, &c. one towards another. As for instance, Take a Glass jar, such as AB in the seventh _Figure_, and filling it pretty near the top with water, throw into it a small round piece of Cork, as C, and plunge it all over in water, that it be wet, so as that the water may rise up by the sides of it, then placing it any where upon the superficies, about an inch, or one inch and a quarter from any side, and you shall perceive it by degrees to make _perpendicularly_ toward the nearest part of the side, and the nearer it approaches, the faster to be moved, the reason of which _Phænomenon_ will be found no other then this, that the Air has a greater pressure against the middle of the _superficies_, then it has against those parts that approach nearer, and are _contiguous_ to the sides. Now that the pressure is greater, may (as I shewed before in the explication of the third _Figure_) be evinced from the flatting of the water in the middle, which arises from the gravity of the under _fluid_: for since, as I shewed before, if there were no gravity in the under _fluid_, or that it were equal to that of the upper, the terminating Surface would be _Spherical_, and since it is the additional pressure of the gravity of water that makes it so flat, it follows, that the pressure upon the middle must be greater then towards the sides. Hence the Ball having a stronger pressure against that side of it which respects the middle of the _superficies_, then against that which respects the _approximate_ side, must necessarily move towards that part, from whence it finds least resistance, and so be _accelerated_, as the resistance decrease. Hence the more the water is raised under that part of its way it is passing above the middle, the faster it is moved: And therefore you will find it to move faster in E then in D, and in D then in C. Neither could I find the floating substance to be moved at all, until it were placed upon some part of the _Superficies_ that was sensibly elevated above the height of the middle part. Now that this may be the true cause, you may try with a blown Bladder, and an exactly round Ball upon a very smooth side of some pliable body, as _Horn_ or _Quicksilver._ For if the Ball be placed under a part of the Bladder which is upon one side of the middle of its pressure, and you press strongly against the Bladder, you shall find the Ball moved from the middle towards the sides.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00197", "bookId": 15491, "start": 177064, "end": 179625, "sha256": "d83a9935160a3ee210a5ccfe1496cffc305743c328d2a5e6c7f6d31a4054648b", "text": "Having therefore shewn the reason of the motion of any float towards the sides, the reason of the incursion of any two floating bodies will easily appear: For the rising of the water against the sides of either of them, is an Argument sufficient, to shew the pressure of the Air to be there less, then it is further from it, where it is not so much elevated; and therefore the reason of the motion of the other toward it, will be the same as towards the side of the Glass, only here from the same reason, they are mutually moved toward each other, whereas the side of the Glass in the former remains fixt. If also you gently fill the Jar so full with water, that the water is _protuberant_ above the sides, the same piece of Cork that before did hasten towards the sides, does now fly from it as fast towards the middle of the Superficies; the reason of which will be found no other then this, that the pressure of the Air is stronger against the sides of the Superficies G and H, then against the middle I; for since, as I shewed before, the Principle of congruity would make the terminating Surface Spherical, and that the flatting of the Surface in the middle is from the abatement of the waters pressure outwards, by the contrary indeavour of its gravity; it follows that the pressure in the middle must be less then on the sides; and therefore the consecution will be the same as in the former. It is very odd to one that considers not the reason of it, to see two floating bodies of wood to approach each other, as though they were indued with some magnetical vigour; which brings into my mind what I formerly tried with a piece of Cork or such like body, which I so ordered, that by putting a little stick into the same water, one part of the said Cork would approach and make toward the stick, whereas another would discede and fly away, nay it would have a kind of verticity, so as that if the _Æquator_ (as I may so speak) of the Cork were placed towards the stick, if let alone, it would instantly turn its appropriate Pole toward it, and then run a-tilt at it: and this was done only by taking a dry Cork, and wetting one side of it with one small stroak; for by this means gently putting it upon the water, it would depress the superficies on every side of it that was dry, and therefore the greatest pressure of the Air, being near those sides, caused it either to chase away, or else to fly off from any other floating body, whereas that side only, against which the water ascended, was thereby able to attract.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00198", "bookId": 15491, "start": 179629, "end": 180770, "sha256": "dd2e610b54c05a4afe95c48e2b1f95185bae738ea30c14031f7f95ad96264f10", "text": "It remains only, that I should determine how high the Water or other Liquor may by this means be raised in a smaller Pipe above the Superficies of that without it, and at what height it may be sustained: But to determine this, will be exceeding difficult, unless I could certainly know how much of the Airs pressure is taken off by the smalness of such and such a Pipe, and whether it may be wholly taken off, that is, whether there can be a hole or pore so small, into which Air could not at all enter, though water might with its whole force, for were there such, ’tis manifest, that the water might rise in it to some five or six and thirty English Foot high. I know not whether the capillary Pipes in the bodies of small Trees, which we call their _Microscopical pores_, may not be such; and whether the congruity of the sides of the Pore may not yet draw the juyce even higher then the Air was able by its bare pressure to raise it: For, Congruity is a principle that not only unites and holds a body joyned to it, but, which is more, attracts and draws a body that is very near it, and holds it above its usual height.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00199", "bookId": 15491, "start": 180774, "end": 181871, "sha256": "f790d972b04825ef713e6720c7088e8a1948621079ec11524f1613c500cdd22e", "text": "And this is obvious even in a drop of water suspended under any Similar or Congruous body: For, besides the ambient pressure that helps to keep it sustein’d, there is the Congruity of the bodies that are contiguous. This is yet more evident in Tenacious and Glutinous bodies; such as Gummous Liquors, Syrups, Pitch, and Rosin melted, &c. Tar, Turpentine, Balsom, Birdlime, &c. for there it is evident, that the Parts of the tenacious body, as I may so call it, do stick and adhere so closely together, that though drawn out into long and very slender Cylinders, yet they will not easily relinquish one another; and this, though the bodies be _aliquatenus_ fluid, and in motion by one another, which, to such as consider a fluid body only as its parts are in a confused irregular motion, without taking in also the congruity of the parts one among another, and incongruity to some other bodies, does appear not a little strange. So that besides the incongruity of the ambient fluid to it, we are to consider also the congruity of the parts of the contein’d fluid one with another.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00200", "bookId": 15491, "start": 181875, "end": 186142, "sha256": "ce4b42047c4b4a05d74099439537d384c7fac44fa408c9f231e0d8176fc5c058", "text": "And this Congruity (that I may here a little further explain it) is both a Tenacious and an Attractive power; for the Congruity, in the Vibrative motions, may be the cause of all kind of attraction, not only Electrical, but Magnetical also, and therefore it may be also of Tenacity and Glutinousness. For, from a perfect congruity of the motions of two distant bodies, the intermediate fluid particles are separated and droven away from between them, and thereby those congruous bodies are, by the incompassing mediums, compell’d and forced neerer together; wherefore that attractiveness must needs be stronger, when, by an immediate contact, they are forc’d to be exactly the same: As I shew more at large in my _Theory_ of the _Magnet_. And this hints to me the reason of the suspension of the _Mercury_ many inches, nay many feet, above the usual station of 30 inches. For the parts of _Quick-Silver_, being so very similar and congruous to each other, if once united, will not easily suffer a divulsion: And the parts of water, that were any wayes _heterogeneous_, being by _exantlation_ or rarefaction exhausted, the remaining parts being also very similar, will not easily part neither. And the parts of the Glass being solid, are more difficultly disjoyn’d; and the water, being somewhat similar to both, is, as it were, a medium to unite both the _Glass_ and the _Mercury_ together. So that all three being united, and not very dissimilar, by means of this contact, if care be taken that the Tube in erecting be not shogged, the _Quicksilver_ will remain suspended, notwithstanding its contrary indeavour of Gravity, a great height above its ordinary Station; but if this immediate Contact be removed, either by a meer separation of them one from another by the force of a shog, whereby the other becomes imbodied between them, and licks up from the surface some agil parts, and so hurling them makes them air, or else by some small heterogeneous agil part of the Water, or Air, or Quicksilver, which appears like a bubble, and by its jumbling to and fro there is made way for the _heterogeneous Æther_ to obtrude it self between the Glass and either of the other Fluids, the Gravity of _Mercury precipitates_ it downward with very great violence; and if the Vessel that holds the restagnating _Mercury_ be convenient, the _Mercury_ will for a time _vibrate_ to and fro with very large _reciprocations_, and at last will remain kept up by the pressure of the external Air at the height of neer thirty inches. And whereas it may be objected, that it cannot be, that the meer imbodying of the _Æther_ between these bodies can be the cause, since the _Æther_ having a free passage alwayes, both through the Pores of the Glass, and through those of the Fluids, there is no reason why it should not make a separation at all times whilst it remains suspended, as when it is violently disjoyned by a shog. To this I answer, That though the _Æther_ passes between the Particles, that is, through the Pores of bodies, so as that any chasm or separation being made, it has infinite passages to admit its entry into it, yet such is the tenacity or attractive virtue of Congruity, that till it be overcome by the meer strength of Gravity, or by a shog assisting that Conatus of Gravity, or by an agil Particle, that is like a leaver agitated by the _Æther_; and thereby the parts of the congruous substances are separated so far asunder, that the strength of congruity is so far weakened, as not to be able to reunite them, the parts to be taken hold of being removed out of the attractive Sphere, as I may so speak, of the congruity; such, I say, is the tenacity of congruity, that it retains and holds the almost contiguous Particles of the Fluid, and suffers them not to be separated, till by meer force that attractive or retentive faculty be overcome: But the separation being once made beyond the Sphere of the attractive activity of congruity, that virtue becomes of no effect at all, but the _Mercury_ freely falls downwards till it meet with a resistance from the pressure of the _ambient_ Air, able to resist its gravity, and keep it forced up in the Pipe to the height of about thirty inches.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00201", "bookId": 15491, "start": 186146, "end": 187243, "sha256": "7b8db290ad540f15086f5297481a208a77a8aba4b473bffa12873c4db0477363", "text": "Thus have I gently raised a Steel _pendulum_ by a Loadstone to a great Angle, till by the shaking of my hand I have chanced to make a separation between them, which is no sooner made, but as if the Loadstone had retained no attractive virtue, the _Pendulum_ moves freely from it towards the other side. So vast a difference is there between the attractive virtue of the _Magnet_ when it acts upon a contiguous and upon a disjoyned body: and much more must there be between the attractive virtues of congruity upon a contiguous and disjoyned body; and in truth the attractive virtue is so little upon a body disjoyned, that though I have with a _Microscope_ observed very diligently, whether there were any extraordinary _protuberance_ on the side of a drop of water that was exceeding neer to the end of a green stick, but did not touch it, I could not perceive the least; though I found, that as soon as ever it toucht it the whole drop would presently unite it self with it; so that it seems an absolute contact is requisite to the exercising of the tenacious faculty of congruity.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00202", "bookId": 15491, "start": 187254, "end": 187287, "sha256": "92bf9343d426ee004c3cb7caa3f283036b2f3626f071d4807d38518427facd12", "text": "* * * * *", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00203", "bookId": 15491, "start": 187293, "end": 187344, "sha256": "dcc926f48d11aca03a855433889aae3e7df0a97b6b85c792e52c995edd559d7c", "text": "Observ. VII. _Of some _Phænomena_ of Glass drops._", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00204", "bookId": 15491, "start": 187348, "end": 187708, "sha256": "fdd5f288ff87c698341e8861eb470ff02b66475770b1f72561fef665e475d701", "text": "These _Glass Drops_ are small parcels of coarse green Glass taken out of the Pots that contain the _Metal_ (as they call it) in fusion, upon the end of an Iron Pipe; and being exceeding hot, and thereby of a kind of sluggish fluid Consistence, are suffered to drop from thence into a Bucket of cold Water, and in it to lye till they be grown sensibly cold.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00205", "bookId": 15491, "start": 187712, "end": 188527, "sha256": "990ae51e4b230bc073008ac26bf7bff825f2df7c17e8b1abbd87f719240e9ebe", "text": "Some of these I broke in the open air, by snapping off a little of the small stem with my fingers, others by crushing it with a small pair of Plyers; which I had no sooner done, then the whole bulk of the drop flew violently, with a very brisk noise, into multitudes of small pieces, some of which were as small as dust, though in some there were remaining pieces pretty large, without any flaw at all, and others very much flaw’d, which by rubbing between ones fingers was easily reduced to dust; these dispersed every way so violently, that some of them pierced my skin. I could not find, either with my naked Eye, or a _Microscope_, that any of the broken pieces were of a regular figure, nor any one like another, but for the most part those that flaw’d off in large pieces were prettily branched.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00206", "bookId": 15491, "start": 188531, "end": 188734, "sha256": "a39d63d4214ec2650d98740a50ce1f4098ddf5d30ec55807285b962a021cc71d", "text": "The ends of others of these drops I nipt off whilst all the bodies and ends of them lay buried under the water, which, like the former, flew all to pieces with as brisk a noise, and as strong a motion.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00207", "bookId": 15491, "start": 188738, "end": 189371, "sha256": "e9287149a3a4a6a330f749ecb43df2894cea8bd8d151c9d91e6094a90d428b7a", "text": "Others of these I tried to break, by grinding away the blunt end, and though I took a seemingly good one, and had ground away neer two thirds of the Ball, yet would it not fly to pieces, but now and then some small rings of it would snap and fly off, not without a brisk noise and quick motion, leaving the Surface of the drop whence it flew very prettily branched or creased, which was easily discoverable by the _Microscope_. This drop, after I had thus ground it, without at all impairing the remnant that was not ground away, I caused to fly immediately all into sand upon the nipping off the very tip of its slender end.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00208", "bookId": 15491, "start": 189375, "end": 189697, "sha256": "40b87373732f96c825b51af1d696280913bf61a2ba1b6a3f3099c5293719dc1b", "text": "Another of these drops I began to grind away at the smaller end, but had not worn away on the stone above a quarter of an inch before the whole drop flew with a brisk crack into sand or small dust; nor would it have held so long, had there not been a little flaw in the piece that I ground away, as I afterwards found.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00209", "bookId": 15491, "start": 189701, "end": 191027, "sha256": "23f74b39373d861b9009259d4a46b08cfcf8073c136d2c19b97d3565f4f8b190", "text": "Several others of these drops I covered over with a thin but very tuff skin of _Icthyocolla_, which being very tough and very transparent, was the most convenient substance for these tryals that I could imagine, having dipt, I say, several of these drops in this transparent Glue whilst hot, and suffering them to hang by a string tied about the end of them till they were cold, and the skin pretty tough; then wrapping all the body of the drop (leaving out only the very tip) in fine supple Kids-leather very closely, I nipped off the small top, and found, as I expected, that notwithstanding this skin of Glue, and the close wrapping up in Leather, upon the breaking of the top, the drop gave a crack like the rest, and gave my hand a pretty brisk impulse: but yet the skin and leather was so strong as to keep the parts from flying out of their former posture; and, the skin being transparent, I found that the drop retained exactly its former figure and polish, but was grown perfectly opacous and all over flaw’d, all those flaws lying in the manner of rings, from the bottom or blunt end, to the very top or small point. And by several examinations with a _Microscope_, of several thus broken, I found the flaws, both within the body of the drop, and on the outward surface, to lye much in this order.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00210", "bookId": 15491, "start": 191031, "end": 192286, "sha256": "9740ae094bbf4db3e36129192df8bd84e31ba57c9a27d0639438ea127238fe6b", "text": "Let AB in the Figure X of the fourth Scheme represent the drop cased over with _Icthyocolla_ or _Isinglass_, (by being ordered as is before prescribed) crazed or flawed into pieces, but by the skin or case kept in its former figure, and each of its flawed parts preserved exactly in its due posture; the outward appearance of it somewhat plainly to the naked eye, but much more conspicuous if viewed with a small lens appeared much after this shape. That is, the blunt end B for a pretty breadth, namely, as far as the Ring CCC seemed irregularly flawed with divers clefts, which all seemed to tend towards the Center of it, being, as I afterwards found, and shall anon shew in the description of the figure Y, the Basis, as it were, of a Cone, which was terminated a little above the middle of the drop, all the rest of the Surface from CCC to A was flawed with an infinite number of small and parallel Rings, which as they were for the most part very round, so were they very thick and close together, but were not so exactly flaw’d as to make a perfect Ring, but each circular part was by irregular cracks flawed likewise into multitudes of irregular flakes or tiles; and this order was observed likewise the whole length of the neck.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00211", "bookId": 15491, "start": 192290, "end": 192989, "sha256": "66121af0f04abb916aeeb89e6c33cbc24c6a31f2dac6f29eb33cce65be8a91c7", "text": "Now though I could not so exactly cut this _conical Body_ through the _Axis_, as is represented by the figure Y; yet by _anatomizing_, as it were, of several, and taking notice of divers particular circumstances, I was informed, that could I have artificially divided a flaw’d drop through the _Axis_ or _Center_, I should with a _Microscope_ have found it to appear much of this form, where A signifies the _Apex_, and B the blunt end, CC the Cone of the Basis, which is terminated at T the top or end of it, which seems to be the very middle of the blunt end in which, not only the conical body of the Basis CC is terminated, but as many of the parts of the drop as reach as high as DD.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00212", "bookId": 15491, "start": 192993, "end": 193434, "sha256": "64fb0e32a5e360f38fe58933c2f11aae39c68331463ca8ce8ea9b6c98ba15c3e", "text": "And it seemed to be the head or beginning of a Pith, as it were, or a part of the body which seemed more spungy then the rest, and much more irregularly flawed, which from T ascended by EE, though less visible, into the small neck towards A. The Grain, as it were, of all the flaws, that proceeds from all the outward Surface ADCCDA, was much the same, as is represented by the black strokes that meet in the middle DT, DT, DE, DE, &c.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00213", "bookId": 15491, "start": 193438, "end": 194382, "sha256": "1b1fc3faba706da2e2fb1e03af0ab1af834a05abe93596b6ef9d174e0b1c92c5", "text": "Nor is this kind of Grain, as I may call it, peculiar to Glass drops thus quenched; for (not to mention _Coperas-stones_, and divers other _Marchasites_ and _Minerals_, which I have often taken notice of to be in the very same manner flaked or grained, with a kind of Pith in the middle) I have observed the same in all manner of cast Iron, especially the coarser sort, such as Stoves, and Furnaces, and Backs, and Pots are made of: For upon the breaking of any of those Substances it is obvious to observe, how from the out-sides towards the middle, there is a kind of Radiation or Grain much resembling this of the Glass-drop; but this Grain is most conspicuous in Iron-bullets, if they be broken: the same _Phænomena_ may be produced by casting _regulus_ of _Antimony_ into a Bullet-mold, as also with _Glass of Antimony_, or with almost any such kind of _Vitrified substance_, either cast into a cold Mold or poured into Water.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00214", "bookId": 15491, "start": 194386, "end": 194855, "sha256": "4987aff3aa7c11179658efb720e63ecb64adfb54085be558dcda28a017e92ae4", "text": "Others of these Drops I heat red hot in the fire, and then suffered them to cool by degrees. And these I found to have quite lost all their _fulminating_ or flying quality, as also their hard, brittle and springy texture; and to emerge of a much softer temper, and much easier to be broken or snapt with ones finger; but its strong and brittle quality was quite destroyed, and it seemed much of the same consistence with other green Glass well nealed in the Oven.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00215", "bookId": 15491, "start": 194859, "end": 196083, "sha256": "649a994b8809b31372bc66090e4c94a81122e13bc358c90115a19f61874d11a3", "text": "The Figure and bigness of these for the most part was the same with that of the Figure Z; that is, all the surface of them was very smooth and polisht, and for the most part round, but very rugged or knobbed about D, and all the length of the stem was here and there pitted or flatted. About D, which is at the upper part of the drop under that side of the stem which is concave, there usually was made some one or more little Hillocks or Prominences. The drop it self, before it be broken, appears very transparent, and towards the middle of it, to be very full of small Bubbles, of some kind of aerial substance, which by the refraction of the outward surface appear much bigger then really they are; and this may be in good part removed, by putting the drop under the surface of clear Water, for by that means most part of the refraction of the convex Surface of the drop is destroyed, and the bubbles will appear much smaller. And this, by the by, minds me of the appearing magnitude of the _aperture_ of the _iris_, or _pupil_ of the eye, which though it appear, and be therefore judged very large, is yet not above a quarter of the bigness it appears of, by the _lenticular_ refraction of the _Cornea_.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00216", "bookId": 15491, "start": 196087, "end": 197482, "sha256": "3d29932092e34ae073de273fe62726c329d0dfbd841c762ce5416db13c81464a", "text": "The cause of all which _Phænomena_ I imagine to be no other then this, That the Parts of the Glass being by the excessive heat of the fire kept off and separated one from another, and thereby put into a kind of sluggish fluid Consistence, are suffered to drop off with that heat or agitation remaining in them, into cold Water; by which means the outsides of the drop are presently cool’d and _crusted_, and are thereby made of a loose texture, because the parts of it have not time to settle themselves leisurely together, and so to lie very close together: And the innermost parts of the drop, retaining still much of their former heat and agitations, remain of a loose texture also, and, according as the cold strikes inwards from the bottom and sides, are quenched, as it were, and made rigid in that very posture wherein the cold finds them. For the parts of the _crust_ being already hardened, will not suffer the parts to shrink any more from the outward Surface inward; and though it shrink a little by reason of the small parcels of some Aerial substances dispersed through the matter of the Glass, yet that is not neer so much as it appears (as I just now hinted;) nor if it were, would it be sufficient for to consolidate and condense the body of Glass into a _tuff_ and close _texture_, after it had been so excessively rarified by the heat of the glass-Furnace.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00217", "bookId": 15491, "start": 197486, "end": 197672, "sha256": "93132a4d5c185a6a623418afbc81e54fb7c2258fa58aae9eaad30cf4c43b2325", "text": "But that there may be such an expansion of the aerial substance contained in those little _blebbs_ or bubbles in the body of the drop, this following Experiment will make more evident.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00218", "bookId": 15491, "start": 197683, "end": 197716, "sha256": "92bf9343d426ee004c3cb7caa3f283036b2f3626f071d4807d38518427facd12", "text": "* * * * *", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00219", "bookId": 15491, "start": 197720, "end": 198857, "sha256": "1889113e3456a9eab2dc4e2491c466872b064ea76294016c33cb86e82f050100", "text": "Take a small Glass-Cane about a foot long, seal up one end of it _hermetically_, then put in a very small bubble of Glass, almost of the shape of an Essence-viol with the open mouth towards the sealed end, then draw out the other end of the Pipe very small, and fill the whole Cylinder with water, then set this Tube by the Fire till the Water begin to boyl, and the Air in the bubble be in good part rarified and driven out, then by sucking at the smalling Pipe, more of the Air or vapours in the bubble may be suck’d out, so that it may sink to the bottom; when it is sunk to the bottom, in the flame of a Candle, or Lamp, nip up the slender Pipe and let it cool: whereupon it is obvious to observe, first, that the Water by degrees will subside and shrink into much less room: Next, that the Air or vapours in the Glass will expand themselves so, as to buoy up the little Glass: Thirdly, that all about the inside of the Glass-pipe there will appear an infinite number of small bubbles, which as the Water grows colder and colder will swell bigger and bigger, and many of them buoy themselves up and break at the top.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00220", "bookId": 15491, "start": 198861, "end": 200756, "sha256": "f0ae32a28b8c245636fe0f50114fde3a3f73cc26074febeaa3b535031c05294e", "text": "From this _Disceding_ of the heat in Glass drops, that is, by the quenching or cooling Irradiations propagated from the Surface upwards and inwards, by the lines CT, CT, DT, DE, &c. the bubbles in the drop have room to expand themselves a little, and the parts of the Glass contract themselves; but this operation being too quick for the sluggish parts of the Glass, the contraction is performed very unequally and irregularly, and thereby the Particles of the Glass are bent, some one way, and some another, yet so as that most of them draw towards the Pith or middle TEEE, or rather from that outward: so that they cannot _extricate_ or unbend themselves, till some part of TEEE be broken and loosened, for all the parts about that are placed in the manner of an Arch, and so till their hold at TEEE be loosened they cannot fly asunder, but uphold, and shelter, and fix each other much like the stones in a Vault, where each stone does concurre to the stability of the whole Fabrick, and no one stone can be taken away but the whole Arch falls. And wheresoever any of those radiating wedges DTD, &c. are removed, which are the component parts of this Arch, the whole Fabrick presently falls to pieces; for all the Springs of the several parts are set at liberty, which immediately extricate themselves and fly asunder every way; each part by its spring contributing to the darting of it self and some other contiguous part. But if this drop be heat so hot as that the parts by degrees can unbend themselves, and be settled and annealed in that posture, and be then suffered gently to subside and cool; The parts by this nealing losing their springiness, constitute a drop of a more soft but less brittle texture, and the parts being not at all under a flexure, though any part of the middle or Pith TEEE be broken, yet will not the drop at all fly to pieces as before.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00221", "bookId": 15491, "start": 200760, "end": 200911, "sha256": "13b82efe0102911dca6a03140fb33328c0a2492e2ffc6928496a68dd69a7b45a", "text": "This Conjecture of mine I shall indeavour to make out by explaining each particular Assertion with _analogous_ Experiments: The Assertions are these.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00222", "bookId": 15491, "start": 200919, "end": 201064, "sha256": "00f76985785ac29bd730d731e6cb9b5e11b24a715ec246540b12cf11188bc931", "text": "First, That the parts of the Glass, whilst in a fluid Consistence and hot, are more rarified, or take up more room, then when hard and cold.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00223", "bookId": 15491, "start": 201072, "end": 201142, "sha256": "ed2e5c459462c36056f54a204d7a5958df1c5f8ca414c44be53b0337c17b556c", "text": "Secondly, That the parts of the drop do suffer a two-fold contraction.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00224", "bookId": 15491, "start": 201150, "end": 201278, "sha256": "ad5793bf09c6cc96cb323e43234226c90aaa56634de849938607319130211633", "text": "Thirdly, That the dropping or quenching the glowing metal in the Water makes it of a hard, springing, and rarified texture.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00225", "bookId": 15491, "start": 201286, "end": 201442, "sha256": "38a3ec9eabd1c3541e45a477378580116eefe153d224bff5e59f570573404e81", "text": "Fourthly, That there is a flexion or force remaining upon the parts of the Glass thus quenched, from which they indeavour to extricate themselves.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00226", "bookId": 15491, "start": 201450, "end": 201589, "sha256": "5fd92ed6e8e306752ee97764dd688620108daee31a04c97d7c82e8af81675b0d", "text": "Fifthly, That the Fabrick of the drop, that is able to hinder the parts from extricating themselves, is _analogus_ to that of an Arch.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00227", "bookId": 15491, "start": 201597, "end": 201687, "sha256": "0a9be5ca6e429f32d41a617aa8f5768de3096d1ac3bb56e74a576ec593f06d41", "text": "Sixthly, That the sudden flying asunder of the parts proceeds from their springiness.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00228", "bookId": 15491, "start": 201695, "end": 201871, "sha256": "64eeb143a5a62eea1179aa5b0b02f8120f3c87a949c5fd2f3ffcbc0feb76fda6", "text": "Seventhly, That a gradual heating and cooling does anneal or reduce the parts of Glass to a texture that is more loose, and easilier to be broken, but not so brittle.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00229", "bookId": 15491, "start": 201875, "end": 204720, "sha256": "d5817f56a7cc9b074e5f52d7cce50abf1f92f38c8d126c43d58d192565b23686", "text": "That the first of these is true may be gathered from this, That _Heat is a property of a body arising from the motion or agitation of its parts_; and therefore whatever body is thereby toucht must necessarily receive some part of that motion, whereby its parts will be shaken and agitated, and so by degrees free and extricate themselves from one another, and each part so moved does by that motion _exert_ a _conatus_ of _protruding_ and displacing all the adjacent Particles. Thus Air included in a vessel, by being heated will burst it to pieces. Thus have I broke a Bladder held over the fire in my hand, with such a violence and noise, that it almost made me deaf for the present, and much surpassed the noise of a Musket: The like have I done by throwing into the fire small glass Bubbles hermetically sealed, with a little drop of Water included in them. Thus Water also, or any other Liquor, included in a convenient vessel, by being warmed, manifestly expands it self with a very great violence, so as to break the strongest vessel, if when heated it be narrowly imprisoned in it. This is very manifest by the _Sealed Thermometers_, which I have, by several tryals, at last brought to a great certainty and tenderness: for I have made some with stems above four foot long, in which the expanding Liquor would so far vary, as to be very neer the very top in the heat of Summer, and prety neer the bottom at the coldest time of the Winter. The Stems I use for them are very thick, straight, and even Pipes of Glass, with a very small _perforation_, and both the head and body I have made on purpose at the Glass-house, of the same metal whereof the Pipes are drawn: these I can easily in the flame of a Lamp, urged with the blast of a pair of Bellows, seal and close together, so as to remain very firm, close and even; by this means I joyn on the body first, and then fill both it and a part of the stem, proportionate to the length of the stem and the warmth of the season I fill it in with the best rectified _Spirit of Wine_ highly _ting’d_ with the lovely colour of _Cocheneel_, which I deepen the more by pouring some drops of common _Spirit of Urine_, which must not be too well rectified, because it will be apt to make the Liquor to curdle and stick in the small perforation of the stem. This Liquor I have upon tryal found the most tender of any spirituous Liquor, and those are much more sensibly affected with the variations of heat and cold then other more flegmatick and ponderous Liquors, and as capable of receiving a deep tincture, and keeping it, as any Liquor whatsoever; and (which makes it yet more acceptable) is not subject to be frozen by any cold yet known. When I have thus filled it, I can very easily in the forementioned flame of a Lamp seal and joyn on the head of it.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00230", "bookId": 15491, "start": 204724, "end": 206540, "sha256": "e0a98e8007a3522738915ef54f29a59eb791d735786d62d15266761a909b1482", "text": "Then, for graduating the stem, I fix that for the beginning of my division where the surface of the liquor in the stem remains when the ball is placed in common distilled water, that is so cold that it just begins to freeze and shoot into flakes; and that mark I fix at a convenient place of the stem, to make it capable of exhibiting very many degrees of cold, below that which is requisite to freeze water: the rest of my divisions, both above and below this (which I mark with a [0] or nought) I place according to the Degrees of _Expansion_, or _Contraction_ of the Liquor in proportion to the bulk it had when it indur’d the newly mention’d freezing cold. And this may be very easily and accurately enough done by this following way; Prepare a Cylindrical vessel of very thin plate Brass or Silver, ABCD of the figure Z; the Diameter AB of whose cavity let be about two inches, and the depth BC the same; let each end be cover’d with a flat and smooth plate of the same substance, closely soder’d on, and in the midst of the upper cover make a pretty large hole EF, about the bigness of a fifth part of the Diameter of the other; into this fasten very well with cement a straight and even Cylindrical pipe of Glass, EFGH, the Diameter of whose cavity let be exactly one tenth of the Diameter of the greater Cylinder. Let this pipe be mark’d at GH with a Diamant, so that G from E may be distant just two inches, or the same height with that of the cavity of the greater Cylinder, then divide the length EG exactly into 10 parts, so the capacity of the hollow of each of these divisions will be ¹⁄₁₀₀₀ part of the capacity of the greater Cylinder. This vessel being thus prepared, the way of marking and graduating the _Thermometers_ may be very easily thus performed:", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00231", "bookId": 15491, "start": 206544, "end": 207563, "sha256": "87aa85b211550d41410872de5c227d560e3994c984c8cd3c1cfe113e8f0a22f0", "text": "Fill this Cylindrical vessel with the same liquor wherewith the _Thermometers_ are fill’d, then place both it and the _Thermometer_ you are to _graduate_, in water that is ready to be frozen, and bring the surface of the liquor in the _Thermometer_ to the first marke or [0]; then so proportion the liquor in the Cylindrical vessel, that the surface of it may just be at the lower end of the small glass-Cylinder; then very gently and gradually warm the water in which both the _Thermometer_ and this Cylindrical vessel stand, and as you perceive the ting’d liquor to rise in both stems, with the point of a Diamond give several marks on the stem of the _Thermometer_ at those places, which by comparing the expansion in both Stems, are found to correspond to the divisions of the cylindrical vessel, and having by this means marked some few of these divisions on the Stem, it will be very easie by these to mark all the rest of the Stem, and accordingly to assign to every division a proper character.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00232", "bookId": 15491, "start": 207567, "end": 207935, "sha256": "d19fc2660e987d855b6715654d6e2184fc08910ac88dc0d3b95d524a41953048", "text": "A _Thermometer_, thus marked and prepared, will be the fittest Instrument to make a Standard of heat and cold that can be imagined. For being sealed up, it is not at all subject to variation or wasting, nor is it liable to be changed by the varying pressure of the Air, which all other kind of _Thermometers_ that are open to the Air are liable to. But to proceed.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00233", "bookId": 15491, "start": 207939, "end": 208149, "sha256": "2ddc32647343fc8710bcb3e685ef3c0203225872faa761fc624cf8eae04782ed", "text": "This property of Expansion with Heat, and Contraction with Cold, is not peculiar to Liquors only, but to all kind of solid Bodies also, especially Metals, which will more manifestly appear by this Experiment.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00234", "bookId": 15491, "start": 208153, "end": 208559, "sha256": "c40e06bd4752aa62754e12bb757f1ebfae9ef98862e58719b42ac02e0c09e43f", "text": "Take the Barrel of a Stopcock of Brass, and let the Key, which is well fitted to it, be riveted into it, so that it may slip, and be easily turned round, then heat this Cock in the fire, and you will find the Key so swollen, that you will not be able to turn it round in the Barrel; but if it be suffered to cool again, as soon as it is cold it will be as movable, and as easie to be turned as before.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00235", "bookId": 15491, "start": 208563, "end": 209018, "sha256": "978702f7d2d23e7cab3b1d0555e63e85346ffdccab21682523464d3953226ad2", "text": "This Quality is also very observable in _Lead_, _Tin_, _Silver_, _Antimony_, _Pitch_, _Rosin_, _Bees-wax_, _Butter_, and the like; all which, if after they be melted you suffer gently to cool, you shall find the parts of the upper Surface to subside and fall inwards, losing that plumpness and smoothness it had whilst in fusion. The like I have also observed in the cooling of _Glass of Antimony_, which does very neer approach the nature of Glass,", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00236", "bookId": 15491, "start": 209022, "end": 209271, "sha256": "2011ba1819ff0aadfed892e2531ac68eebbd19c12d1391a8037b8b4d3783545a", "text": "But because these are all Examples taken from other materials then Glass, and argue only, that possibly there may be the like property also in Glass, not that really there is; we shall by three or four Experiments indeavour to manifest that also.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00237", "bookId": 15491, "start": 209275, "end": 210173, "sha256": "01f76b8366464027c79788535fc1b16edf25ab9a1a8c0222fd00429950791cf0", "text": "And the First is an Observation that is very obvious even in these very drops, to wit, that they are all of them terminated with an unequal or irregular Surface, especially about the smaller part of the drop, and the whole length of the stem; as about D, and from thence to A, the whole Surface, which would have been round if the drop had cool’d leisurely, is, by being quenched hastily, very irregularly flatted and pitted; which I suppose proceeds partly from the Waters unequally cooling and pressing the parts of the drop, and partly from the self-contracting or subsiding quality of the substance of the Glass: For the vehemency of the heat of the drop causes such hidden motions and bubbles in the cold Water, that some parts of the Water bear more forcibly against one part then against another, and consequently do more suddenly cool those parts to which they are contiguous.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00238", "bookId": 15491, "start": 210177, "end": 210591, "sha256": "c1af2a8c07b9a6263d4223ba8adfd517817c17c1ac8060222cec79f9107c2ac8", "text": "A Second Argument may be drawn from the Experiment of cutting Glasses with a hot Iron. For in that Experiment the top of the Iron heats, and thereby rarifies the parts of the Glass that lie just before the crack, whence each of those agitated parts indeavouring to expand its self and get elbow-room, thrusts off all the rest of the contiguous parts, and consequently promotes the crack that was before begun.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00239", "bookId": 15491, "start": 210595, "end": 211832, "sha256": "37052b02e1df9f8688e8f74ffa3b7be2116fd3d2ef3e5cc76c92c79c590ef7e9", "text": "A Third Argument may be drawn from the way of producing a crack in a sound piece or plate of Glass, which is done two wayes, either First, by suddenly heating a piece of Glass in one place more then in another. And by this means _chymists_ usually cut off the necks of Glass-bodies, by two kinds of Instruments, either by a glowing hot round Iron-Ring, which just incompasses the place that is to be cut, or else by a _Sulphur’d_ Threed, which is often wound about the place where the separation is to be made, and then fired. Or Secondly, A Glass may be cracked by cooling it suddenly in any place with Water, or the like, after it has been all leisurely and gradually heated very hot. Both which _Phænomena_ seem manifestly to proceed from the _expansion_ and contraction of the parts of the Glass, which is also made more probable by this circumstance which I have observed, that a piece of common window-glass being heated in the middle very suddenly with a live Coal or hot Iron, does usually at the first crack fall into pieces, whereas if the Plate has been gradually heated very hot, and a drop of cold Water and the like be put on the middle of it, it only flaws it, but does not break it asunder immediately.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00240", "bookId": 15491, "start": 211836, "end": 212215, "sha256": "031474351fd2deaa319c97ea8473ab37d47ffda82582b47aab7f67023da128f1", "text": "A Fourth Argument may be drawn from this Experiment; Take a Glass-pipe, and fit into a solid stick of Glass, so as it will but just be moved in it. Then by degrees heat them whilst they are one within another, and they will grow stiffer, but when they are again cold, they will be as easie to be turned as before. This Expansion of Glass is more manifest in this Experiment.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00241", "bookId": 15491, "start": 212219, "end": 212792, "sha256": "ac8c046d267fc1c75e7dba726c74e457bc52956fe84bb85270f18b346bba7d68", "text": "Take a stick of Glass of a considerable length, and fit it so between the two ends or screws of a Lath, that it may but just easily turn, and that the very ends of it may be just toucht and susteined thereby; then applying the flame of the Candle to the middle of it, and heating it hot, you will presently find the Glass to stick very fast on those points, and not without much difficulty to be convertible on them, before that by removing the flame for a while from it, it be suffered to cool, and when you will find it as easie to be turned round as at the first.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00242", "bookId": 15491, "start": 212796, "end": 214633, "sha256": "edd24a5dc33d87e228f7220ba9f078784bfd04722809f8fa4607f6a3125d72f3", "text": "From all which Experiments it is very evident, that all those Bodies, and particularly Glass, suffers an Expansion by Heat, and that a very considerable one, whilst they are in a state of Fusion. For _Fluidity_, as I elsewhere mention, _being nothing but an effect of very strong and quick shaking motion, whereby the parts are, as it were, loosened from each other, and consequently leave an interjacent space or vacuity_; it follows, that all those shaken Particles must necessarily take up much more room then when they were at rest, and lay quietly upon each other. And this is further confirmed by a Pot of _boyling Alabaster_, which will manifestly rise a sixth or eighth part higher in the Pot, whilst it is boyling, then it will remain at, both before and after it be boyled. The reason of which odd _Phænomenon_ (to hint it here only by the way) is this, that there is in the curious powder of Alabaster, and other calcining Stones, a certain watery substance, which is so fixt and included with the solid Particles, that till the heat be very considerable they will not fly away; but after the heat is increased to such a degree, they break out every way in vapours, and thereby so shake and loosen the small corpuscles of the Powder from each other, that they become perfectly of the nature of a fluid body, and one may move a stick to and fro through it, and stir it as easily as water, and the vapours burst and break out in bubbles just as in boyling water, and the like; whereas, both before those watery parts are flying away, and after they are quite gone; that is, before and after it have done boyling, all those effects cease, and a stick is as difficultly moved to and fro in it as in sand, or the like. Which Explication I could easily prove, had I time; but this is not a fit place for it.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00243", "bookId": 15491, "start": 214637, "end": 216206, "sha256": "a4be818e95a1a0158b14316218654063e77f5d6ab2bcecafad0adb402278b651", "text": "To proceed therefore, I say, that the dropping of this expanded Body into cold Water, does make the parts of the Glass suffer a double contraction: The first is, of those parts which are neer the Surface of the Drop. For Cold, as I said before, contracting Bodies, that is, _by the abatement of the agitating faculty the parts falling neerer together_; the parts next adjoyning to the Water must needs lose much of their motion, and impart it to the Ambient water (which the Ebullition and commotion of it manifests) and thereby become a solid and hard crust, whilst the innermost parts remain yet fluid and expanded; whence, as they grow cold also by degrees, their parts must necessarily be left at liberty to be condensed, but because of the hardness of the outward crust, the contraction cannot be admitted that way; but there being many very small, and before inconspicuous, bubbles in the substance of the Glass, upon the subsiding of the parts of the Glass, the agil substance contained in them has liberty of expanding it self a little, and thereby those bubbles grow much bigger, which is the second Contraction. And both these are confirmed from the appearance of the Drop it self: for as for the outward parts, we see, first, that it is irregular and shrunk, as it were, which is caused by the yielding a little of the hardened Skin to a Contraction, after the very outmost Surface is settled; and as for the internal parts, one may with ones naked Eye perceive abundance of very conspicuous bubbles, and with the _Microscope_ many more.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00244", "bookId": 15491, "start": 216210, "end": 217201, "sha256": "a88209b40e03439a27ac0e74883a48c97ee65bd3cfc9a5750258594015a7c037", "text": "The Consideration of which Particulars will easily make the Third Position probable, that is, that the parts of the drop will be of a very hard, though of a rarified Texture; for if the outward parts of the Drop, by reason of its hard crust, will indure very little Contraction, and the agil Particles, included in those bubbles, by the losing of their agitation, by the decrease of the Heat, lose also most part of their Spring and Expansive power; it follows (the withdrawing of the heat being very sudden) that the parts must be left in a very loose Texture, and by reason of the implication of the parts one about another, which from their sluggishnes and glutinousness I suppose to be much after the manner of the sticks in a Thorn-bush, or a Lock of Wool; it will follow, I say, that the parts will hold each other very strongly together, and indeavour to draw each other neerer together, and consequently their Texture must be very hard and stiff, but very much rarified.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00245", "bookId": 15491, "start": 217205, "end": 218357, "sha256": "cfb9f2136a1eb2c8d33807152c3e39d9bec18628322db384603c69313178ab2d", "text": "And this will make probable my next Position, That _the parts of the Glass are under a kind of tension or flexure, out of which they indeavour to extricate and free themselves_, and thereby all the parts draw towards the Center or middle, and would, if the outward parts would give way, as they do when the outward parts cool leisurely (as in baking of Glasses) contract the bulk of the drop into a much less compass. For since, as I proved before, the Internal parts of the drop, when fluid, were of a very rarified Texture, and, as it were, tos’d open like a Lock of Wool, and if they were suffered leisurely to cool, would be again prest, as it were, close together: And since that the heat, which kept them bended and open, is removed, and yet the parts not suffered to get as neer together as they naturally would; It follows, that the Particles remain under a kind of _tension_ and _flexure_, and consequently have an indeavour to free themselves from that _bending_ and _distension_, which they do, as soon as either the tip be broken, or as soon as by a leisurely heating and cooling, the parts are nealed into another posture.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00246", "bookId": 15491, "start": 218361, "end": 221177, "sha256": "a052a14fef29901daf0d95c44f670455127b9c3df7b01929500f5489553a815b", "text": "And this will make my next Position probable, that _the parts of the Glass drops are contignated together in the form of an Arch_, cannot any where yield or be drawn inwards, till by the removing of some one part of it (as it happens in the removing one of the stones of an Arch) the whole Fabrick is shatter’d, and falls to pieces, and each of the Springs is left at liberty, suddenly to extricate it self: for since I have made it probable, that the internal parts of the Glass have a contractive power inwards, and the external parts are incapable of such a Contraction, and the figure of it being spherical; it follows, that the superficial parts must bear against each other, and keep one another from being condens’d into a less room, in the same manner as the stones of an Arch conduce to the upholding each other in that Figure. And this is made more probable by another Experiment which was communicated to me by an excellent Person, whose extraordinary Abilities in all kind of Knowledg, especially in that of Natural things, and his generous Disposition in communicating, incouraged me to have recourse to him on many occasions. The Experiment was this: Small Glass-balls (about the bigness of that represented in the _Figure &._) would, upon rubbing or scratching the inward Surface, fly all insunder, with a pretty brisk noise; whereas neither before nor after the inner Surface had been thus scratcht, did there appear any flaw or crack. And putting the pieces of one of those broken ones together again, the flaws appeared much after the manner of the black lines on the Figure, _&._ These Balls were small, but exceeding thick bubbles of Glass, which being crack’d off from the _Puntilion_ whilst very hot, and so suffered to cool without nealing them in the Oven over the Furnace, do thereby (being made of white Glass, which cools much quicker then green Glass, and is thereby made much brittler) acquire a very _porous_ and very brittle _texture_: so that if with the point of a Needle or Bodkin, the inside of any of them be rubbed prety hard, and then laid on a Table, it will, within a very little while, break into many pieces with a brisk noise, and throw the parts above a span asunder on the Table: Now though the pieces are not so small as those of a _fulminating_ drop, yet they as plainly shew, that the outward parts of the Glass have a great _Conatus_ to fly asunder, were they not held together by the _tenacity_ of the parts of the inward Surface: for we see as soon as those parts are crazed by hard rubbing, and thereby their tenacity spoiled, the springiness of the more outward parts quickly makes a divulsion, and the broken pieces will, if the concave Surface of them be further scratcht with a Diamond, fly again into smaller pieces.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00247", "bookId": 15491, "start": 221181, "end": 223151, "sha256": "0db783dc28bcfd00c965180d2885a07783d15ae588a702bc9d842972ac2c5205", "text": "From which preceding considerations it will follow Sixthly, That the sudden flying asunder of the parts as soon as this Arch is any where disordered or broken, proceeds from the springing of the parts; which, indeavouring to _extricate_ themselves as soon as they get the liberty, they perform it with such a quickness, that they throw one another away with very great violence: for the Particles that compose the Crust have a _Conatus_ to lye further from one another, and therefore as soon as the external parts are loosened they dart themselves outward with great violence, just as so many Springs would do, if they were detained and fastened to the body, as soon as they should be suddenly loosened; and the internal parts drawing inward, they contract so violently; that they rebound back again and fly into multitude of small shivers or sands. Now though they appear not, either to the naked Eye, or the _Microscope_, yet I am very apt to think there may be abundance of small flaws or cracks, which, by reason the strong reflecting Air is not got between the _contiguous_ parts, appear not. And that this may be so, I argue from this, that I have very often been able to make a crack or flaw, in some convenient pieces of Glass, to appear and disappear at pleasure, according as by pressing together, or pulling asunder the contiguous parts, I excluded or admitted the strong reflecting Air between the parts: And it is very probable, that there may be some Body, that is either very rarified Air, or something _analogous_ to it, which fills the bubbles of these drops; which I argue, first, from the roundness of them, and next, from the vivid reflection of Light which they exhibite: Now though I doubt not, but that the Air in them is very much rarified, yet that there is some in them, to such as well consider this Experiment of the disappearing of a crack upon the _extruding_ of the Air, I suppose it will seem more then probable.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00248", "bookId": 15491, "start": 223155, "end": 224759, "sha256": "6fd776881e8865bf4a756512d6c74cf3e389d9fcf58ff872efaeaff8be91cb5b", "text": "The Seventh and last therefore that I shall prove, is, _That the gradual heating and cooling of these so extended bodies does reduce the parts of the Glass to a looser and softer temper_. And this I found by heating them, and keeping them for a prety while very red hot in a fire; for thereby I found them to grow a little lighter, and the small Stems to be very easily broken and snapt any where, without at all making the drop fly; whereas before they were so exceeding hard, that they could not be broken without much difficulty; and upon their breaking the whole drop would fly in pieces with very great violence. The Reason of which last seems to be, that the leisurely heating and cooling of the parts does not only wast some part of the Glass it self, but ranges all the parts into a better order, and gives each Particle an opportunity of _relaxing_ its self, and consequently neither will the parts hold so strongly together as before, nor be so difficult to be broken: The parts now more easily yielding, nor will the other parts fly in pieces, because the parts have no bended Springs. The _relaxation_ also in the temper of hardned Steel, and hammered Metals, by nealing them in the fire, seems to proceed from much the same cause. For both by quenching suddenly such Metals as have _vitrified_ parts interspers’d, as Steel has, and by hammering of other kinds that do not so much abound with them, as Silver, Brass, &c. the parts are put into and detained in a bended posture, which by the agitation of Heat are shaken, and loosened, and suffered to unbend themselves.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00249", "bookId": 15491, "start": 224770, "end": 224803, "sha256": "92bf9343d426ee004c3cb7caa3f283036b2f3626f071d4807d38518427facd12", "text": "* * * * *", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00250", "bookId": 15491, "start": 224809, "end": 224874, "sha256": "51967a76be68a93fb8434e130284c011be0ffba7b94e93d8628d217a5ed5781f", "text": "Observ. VIII. _Of the fiery Sparks struck from a Flint or Steel._", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00251", "bookId": 15491, "start": 224878, "end": 227105, "sha256": "5f1086bbc9aaf335b639082abe2561fc3e7ce0a1d3f9f8ed1f50e1d65cbce86d", "text": "It is a very common Experiment, by striking with a Flint against a Steel, to make certain fiery and shining Sparks to fly out from between those two compressing Bodies. About eight years since, upon casually reading the Explication of this odd _Phænomenon_, by the most Ingenious _Des Cartes_, I had a great desire to be satisfied, what that Substance was that gave such a shining and bright Light: And to that end I spread a sheet of white Paper, and on it, observing the place where several of these Sparks seemed to vanish, I found certain very small, black, but glistering Spots of a movable Substance, each of which examining with my _Microscope_, I found to be a small round _Globule_; some of which, as they looked prety small, so did they from their Surface yield a very bright and strong reflection on that side which was next the Light; and each look’d almost like a prety bright Iron-Ball, whose Surface was prety regular, such as is represented by the Figure A. In this I could perceive the Image of the Window prety well, or of a Stick, which I moved up and down between the Light and it. Others I found, which were, as to the bulk of the Ball, prety regularly round, but the Surface of them, as it was not very smooth, but rough, and more irregular, so was the reflection from it more faint and confused. Such were the Surfaces of B. C. D. and E. Some of these I found cleft or cracked, as C, others quite broken in two and hollow, as D. which seemed to be half the hollow shell of a Granado, broken irregularly in pieces. Several others I found of other shapes; but that which is represented by E, I observed to be a very big Spark of fire, which went out upon one side of the Flint that I struck fire withall, to which it stuck by the root F, at the end of which small Stem was fastened-on a _Hemisphere_, or half a hollow Ball, with the mouth of it open from the stemwards, so that it looked much like a Funnel, or an old fashioned Bowl without a foot. This night, making many tryals and observations of this Experiment, I met, among a multitude of the Globular ones which I had observed, a couple of Instances, which are very remarkable to the confirmation of my _Hypothesis_.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00252", "bookId": 15491, "start": 227109, "end": 227399, "sha256": "81ba184e744e32ccbcf7d48dc9fa94d26d083544e73c2095d25061cc54e582d3", "text": "And the First was of a pretty big Ball fastened on to the end of a small sliver of Iron, which _Compositum_ seemed to be nothing else but a long thin chip of Iron, one of whose ends was melted into a small round Globul; the other end remaining unmelted and irregular, and perfectly Iron.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00253", "bookId": 15491, "start": 227403, "end": 227884, "sha256": "0c51fd10ce7a2d0e3987704f31ec5d26d5bef395541165341a5514f9ed072455", "text": "The Second Instance was not less remarkable then the First; for I found, when a Spark went out, nothing but a very small thin long sliver of Iron or Steel, unmelted at either end. So that it seems, that some of these Sparks are the slivers or chips of the Iron _vitrified_, Others are only the slivers melted into Balls without vitrification, And the third kind are only small slivers of the Iron, made red-hot with the violence of the stroke given on the Steel by the Flint.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00254", "bookId": 15491, "start": 227888, "end": 229669, "sha256": "f56e72fd36bed51dadfe35f1e49ce6a4b65a232497ad61b9c8960213465b2256", "text": "He that shall diligently examine the _Phænomena_ of this Experiment, will, I doubt not, find cause to believe, that the reason I have heretofore given of it, is the true and genuine cause of it, namely, That _the Spark, appearing so bright in the falling, is nothing else but a small piece of the Steel or Flint, but most commonly of the Steel, which by the violence of the stroke is at the same time sever’d and heat red-hot, and that sometimes to such a degree, as to make it melt together into a small Globule of Steel; and sometimes also is that heat so very intense, as further to melt it and vitrifie it; but many times the heat is so gentle, as to be able to make the sliver only red hot, which notwithstanding falling upon the tinder_ (that is only a very curious small Coal made of the small threads of Linnen burnt to coals and char’d) _it easily sets it on fire_. Nor will any part of this _Hypothesis_ seem strange to him that considers, First, that either hammering, or filing or otherwise violently rubbing of Steel, will presently make it so hot as to be able to burn ones fingers. Next, that the whole force of the stroke is exerted upon that small part where the Flint and Steel first touch: For the Bodies being each of them so very hard, the puls cannot be far communicated, that is, the parts of each can yield but very little, and therefore the violence of the concussion will be _exerted_ on that piece of Steel which is cut off by the Flint. Thirdly, that the filings or small parts of Steel are very apt, as it were, to take fire, and are presently red hot, that is, there seems to be a very _combustible sulphureous_ Body in Iron or Steel, which the Air very readily preys upon, as soon as the body is a little violently heated.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00255", "bookId": 15491, "start": 229673, "end": 230051, "sha256": "a4b92fd5cbabac1f01cfa1f549a6b1688966a34ddca1887c69debb91300bc420", "text": "And this is obvious in the filings of Steel or Iron cast through the flame of a Candle; for even by that sudden _transitus_ of the small chips of Iron, they are heat red hot, and that _combustible sulphureous_ Body is presently prey’d upon and devoured by the _aereal_ incompassing _Menstruum_, whose office in this Particular I have shewn in the Explication of Charcole.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00256", "bookId": 15491, "start": 230055, "end": 231072, "sha256": "2f6b96620f125e85994760e3286c08306a04efe1dea83f3d1815513ff98f15f4", "text": "And in prosecution of this Experiment, having taken the filings of Iron and Steel, and with the point of a Knife cast them through the flame of a Candle, I observed where some conspicuous shining Particles fell, and looking on them with my _Microscope_, I found them to be nothing else but such round Globules, as I formerly found the Sparks struck from the Steel by a stroke to be, only a little bigger; and shaking together all the filings that had fallen upon the sheet of Paper underneath and observing them with the _Microscope_, I found a great number of small Globules, such as the former, though there were also many of the parts that had remained untoucht and rough filings or chips of Iron. So that, it seems, Iron does contain a very _combustible sulphureous_ Body, which is, in all likelihood, one of the causes of this _Phænomenon_, and which may be perhaps very much concerned in the business of its hardening and tempering: of which somewhat is said in the Description of _Muscovy-glass_.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00257", "bookId": 15491, "start": 231076, "end": 233000, "sha256": "55dd619c28cb922ee4e3a19e8a479b9fe4d5854e89a5252b9bb286eaa57950cc", "text": "So that, these things considered, we need not trouble our selves to find out what kind of Pores they are, both in the Flint and Steel, that contain the _Atoms of fire_, nor how those _Atoms_ come to be hindred from running all out, when a dore or passage in their Pores is made by the concussion: nor need we trouble our selves to examine by what _Prometheus_ the Element of Fire comes to be fetcht down from above the Regions of the Air, in what Cells or Boxes it is kept, and what _Epimetheus_ lets it go: Nor to consider what it is that causes so great a conflux of the atomical Particles of Fire, which are said to fly to a flaming Body, like Vultures or Eagles to a putrifying Carcass, and there to make a very great pudder. Since we have nothing more difficult in this _Hypothesis_ to conceive, first, as to the kindling of Tinder, then how a large Iron-bullet, let fall red or glowing hot upon a heap of Small-coal, should set fire to those that are next to it first: Nor secondly, is this last more difficult to be explicated, then that a Body, as Silver for Instance, put into a weak _Menstruum_, as unrectified _Aqua fortis_ should, when it is put in a great heat, be there dissolved by it, and not before; which _Hypothesis_ is more largely explicated in the Description of Charcoal. To conclude, we see by this Instance, how much Experiments may conduce to the regulating of _Philosophical notions_. For if the most Acute _Des Cartes_ had applied himself experimentally to have examined what substance it was that caused that shining of the falling Sparks struck from a Flint and a Steel, he would certainly have a little altered his _Hypothesis_, and we should have found, that his Ingenious Principles would have admitted a very plausible Explication of this _Phænomenon_; whereas by not examining so far as he might, he has set down an Explication which Experiment do’s contradict.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00258", "bookId": 15491, "start": 233004, "end": 233610, "sha256": "8e7faae9de9e06e551dc2f13dd3069f2c371d331c2589644a1e50569bb2ab2f0", "text": "But before I leave this Description, I must not forget to take notice of the Globular form into which each of these is most curiously formed. And this _Phænomenon_, as I have elsewhere more largely shewn, proceeds from a propriety which belongs to all kinds of fluid Bodies more or less, and is caused by the Incongruity of the Ambient and included Fluid, which so acts and modulates each other, that they acquire, as neer as is possible, a _spherical_ or _globular_ form, which propriety and several of the _Phænomena_ that proceed from it, I have more fully explicated in the sixth Observation.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00259", "bookId": 15491, "start": 233614, "end": 234074, "sha256": "8f98283532fb0148754246edad2304455259f7fcc8fd4ebca3463d44da8ba537", "text": "One Experiment, which does very much illustrate my present Explication, and is in it self exceeding pretty, I must not pass by: And that is a way of making small _Globules_ or _Balls_ of Lead, or Tin, as small almost as these of Iron or Steel, and that exceeding easily and quickly, by turning the filings or chips of those Metals also into perfectly round _Globules_. The way, in short, as I received it from the _Learned Physitian Doctor_ I.G. is this;", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00260", "bookId": 15491, "start": 234078, "end": 235064, "sha256": "cd08c2dc586621bd5acb9c8f32e59d33de9a2c6ecfa41e1bb10e925ad8394c66", "text": "Reduce the Metal you would thus shape, into exceeding fine filings, the finer the filings are, the finer will the Balls be: _Stratifie_ these filings with the fine and well dryed powder of quick Lime in a _Crucible_ proportioned to the quantity you intend to make: When you have thus filled your _Crucible_, by continual _stratifications_ of the filings and powder, so that, as neer as may be, no one of the filings may touch another, place the _Crucible_ in a _gradual fire_, and by degrees let it be brought to a heat big enough to make all the filings, that are mixt with the quick Lime, to melt, and no more; for if the fire be too hot, many of these filings will joyn and run together; whereas if the heat be proportioned, upon washing the Lime-dust in fair Water, all those small filings of the Metal will subside to the bottom in a most curious powder, consisting all of exactly round _Globules_, which, if it be very fine, is very excellent to make Hour-glasses of.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00261", "bookId": 15491, "start": 235068, "end": 235418, "sha256": "2fd750ab60a7008ff0d3cac5860a425fc282a3271aaeb9f4a1250c17e3a06e34", "text": "Now though quick Lime be the powder that this direction makes choice of, yet I doubt not, but that there may be much more convenient ones found out, one of which I have made tryal of, and found very effectual; and were it not for discovering, by the mentioning of it, another Secret, which I am not free to impart, I should have here inserted it.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00262", "bookId": 15491, "start": 235429, "end": 235462, "sha256": "92bf9343d426ee004c3cb7caa3f283036b2f3626f071d4807d38518427facd12", "text": "* * * * *", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00263", "bookId": 15491, "start": 235468, "end": 235549, "sha256": "e312d94f9836966e1ba2d70a863d97b12e41d37941b6241eceb19522fd47aaf0", "text": "Observ. IX. _Of the Colours observable in Muscovy-Glass, and other thin Bodies_.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00264", "bookId": 15491, "start": 235553, "end": 239461, "sha256": "5c33185964874293f8cb5a6767c020436ff7e64daec0f730d351be20e64e336a", "text": "Moscovy-glass, or _Lapis specularis_, is a Body that seems to have as many Curiosities in its Fabrick as any common Mineral I have met with: for first, It is transparent to a great thickness: Next, it is compounded of an infinite number of thin flakes joyned or generated one upon another so close & smooth, as with many hundreds of them to make one smooth and thin Plate of a transparent flexible substance, which with care and diligence may be slit into pieces so exceedingly thin as to be hardly perceivable by the eye, and yet even those, which I have thought the thinnest, I have with a good _Microscope_ found to be made up of many other Plates, yet thinner; and it is probable, that, were our _Microscopes_ much better, we might much further discover its divisibility. Nor are these flakes only regular as to the smoothness of their Surfaces, but thirdly, In many Plates they may be perceived to be terminated naturally with edges of the figure of a _Rhomboeid_. This Figure is much more conspicuous in our English talk, much whereof is found in the Lead Mines, and is commonly called _Spar_, and _Kauck_, which is of the same kind of substance with the _Selenitis_, but is seldom found in so large flakes as that is, nor is it altogether so tuff, but is much more clear and transparent, and much more curiously shaped, and yet may be cleft and flak’d like the other _Selenitis_. But fourthly, this stone has a property, which in respect of the _Microscope_, is more notable, and that is, that it exhibits several appearances of Colours, both to the naked Eye, but much more conspicuously to the _Microscope_; for the exhibiting of which, I took a piece of _Muscovy-glass_, and splitting or cleaving it into thin Plates, I found that up and down in several parts of them I could plainly perceive several white specks or flaws, and others diversly coloured with all the Colours of the _Rainbow_; and with the _Microscope_ I could perceive, that these Colours were ranged in rings that incompassed the white speck or flaw, and were round or irregular, according to the shape of the spot which they terminated; and the position of Colours, in respect of one another, was the very same as in the _Rainbow_. The consecution of those Colours from the middle of the spot outward being Blew, Purple, Scarlet, Yellow, Green; Blew, Purple, Scarlet, and so onwards, sometimes half a score times repeated, that is, there appeared six, seven, eight, nine or ten several coloured rings or lines, each incircling the other, in the same manner as I have often seen a very _vivid Rainbow_ to have four or five several Rings of Colours, that is, accounting all the Gradations between Red and Blew for one: But the order of the Colours in these Rings was quite contrary to the primary or innermost _Rainbow_, and the same with those of the secondary or outermost Rainbow; these coloured Lines or _Irises_, as I may so call them, were some of them much brighter then others, and some of them also very much broader, they being some of them ten, twenty, nay, I believe, neer a hundred times broader then others; and those usually were broadest which were neerest the center or middle of the flaw. And oftentimes I found, that these Colours reacht to the very middle of the flaw, and then there appeared in the middle a very large spot, for the most part, all of one colour, which was very vivid, and all the other Colours incompassing it, gradually ascending, and growing narrower towards the edges, keeping the same order, as in the _secundary Rainbow_, that is, if the middle were Blew, the next incompassing it would be a Purple, the third a Red, the fourth a Yellow, &c. as above; if the middle were a Red, the next without it would be a Yellow, the third a Green, the fourth a Blew, and so onward. And this order it alwayes kept whatsoever were the middle Colour.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00265", "bookId": 15491, "start": 239465, "end": 240441, "sha256": "824ead5ff784690492e83b031b2ae1feb89b84c55fa6958f5bdc07ab27c3e700", "text": "There was further observable in several other parts of this Body, many Lines or Threads, each of them of some one peculiar Colour, and those so exceedingly bright and vivid, that it afforded a very pleasant object through the _Microscope_. Some of these _threads_ I have observed also to be pieced or made up of several short lengths of differently coloured _ends_ (as I may so call them) as a line appearing about two inches long through the _Microscope_, has been compounded of about half an inch of a Peach colour, ⅛ of a lovely Grass-green, ¾ of an inch more of a bright Scarlet, and the rest of the line of a Watchet blew. Others of them were much otherwise coloured; the variety being almost infinite. Another thing which is very observable, is, that if you find any place where the colours are very broad and conspicuous to the naked eye, you may, by pressing that place with your finger, make the colours change places, and go from one part to another.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00266", "bookId": 15491, "start": 240445, "end": 241734, "sha256": "52162d0e53ecf84368e2706df65ae1840bfb5ee3713291e2c4ef9f7a50a074a6", "text": "There is one _Phænomenon_ more, which may, if care be used, exhibit to the beholder, as it has divers times to me, an exceeding pleasant, and not less instructive Spectacle; And that is, if curiosity and diligence be used, you may so split this admirable Substance, that you may have pretty large Plates (in companion of those smaller ones which you may observe in the Rings) that are perhaps an ⅛ or a ⅙ part of an inch over, each of them appearing through the _Microscope_ most curiously, intirely, and uniformly adorned with some one vivid colour: this, if examined with the _Microscope_, may be plainly perceived to be in all parts of it equally thick. Two, three, or more of these lying one upon another, exhibit oftentimes curious compounded colours, which produce such a _Compositum_, as one would scarce imagine should be the result of such _ingredients_: As perhaps a _faint yellow_ and a _blew_ may produce a very _deep purple_. But when anon we come to the more strict examination of these _Phænomena_, and to inquire into the causes and reasons of these productions, we shall, I hope, make it more conceivable how they are produced, and shew them to be no other then the natural and necessary effects arising from the peculiar union of concurrent causes.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00267", "bookId": 15491, "start": 241738, "end": 243008, "sha256": "2a9a4eea01f7d080189f93c9690e6c7c9183dbc09ce1ffc3ec920ff96349e4a6", "text": "These _Phænomena_, being so various, and so truly admirable, it will certainly be very well worth our inquiry, to examine the causes and reasons of them, and to consider, whether from these causes demonstratively evidenced, may not be deduced the true causes of the production of all kind of Colours. And I the rather now do it, instead of an Appendix or Digression to this History, then upon the occasion of examining the Colours in Peacocks, or other Feathers, because this Subject, as it does afford more variety of particular Colours, so does it afford much better wayes of examining each circumstance. And this will be made manifest to him that considers, first, that this laminated body is more simple and regular then the parts of Peacocks feathers, this consisting only of an indefinite number of plain and smooth Plates, heaped up, or _incumbent_ on each other. Next, that the parts of this body are much more manageable, to be divided or joyned, then the parts of a Peacocks feather, or any other substance that I know. And thirdly, because that in this we are able from a colourless body to produce several coloured bodies, affording all the variety of Colours imaginable: And several others, which the subsequent Inquiry will make manifest.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00268", "bookId": 15491, "start": 243012, "end": 243425, "sha256": "d63184ebf2d9e432a1c47617054ef79fe3d2f0c23352addae3d1d799ce4507fc", "text": "To begin therefore, it is manifest from several circumstances, that the material cause of the _apparition_ of these several Colours, is some _Lamina_ or Plate of a transparent or pellucid body of a thickness very determinate and proportioned according to the greater or less refractive power of the _pellucid_ body. And that this is so, abundance of Instances and particular Circumstances will make manifest.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00269", "bookId": 15491, "start": 243429, "end": 244440, "sha256": "f44132e88ee5fe7c845ec8a3267503864a2f722f88d450f440acf201f54324e9", "text": "As _first_, if you take any small piece of the _Muscovy-glass_, and with a Needle, or some other convenient Instrument, cleave it oftentimes into thinner and thinner _Laminæ_, you shall find, that till you come to a determinate thinness of them, they shall all appear transparent and colourless, but if you continue to split and divide them further, you shall find at last, that each Plate, after it comes to such a determinate thickness, shall appear most lovely ting’d or imbued with a determinate colour. If _further_, by any means you so flaw a pretty thick piece, that one part does begin to cleave a little from the other, and between those two there be by any means gotten some pellucid _medium_, those _laminated_ pellucid bodies that fill that space, shall exhibit several Rainbows or coloured Lines, the colours of which will be disposed and ranged according to the various thicknesses of the several parts of that Plate. That this is so, is yet _further_ confirmed by this Experiment.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00270", "bookId": 15491, "start": 244444, "end": 245975, "sha256": "e7aa6e030ea36afd0a978d1b6ef7a5f8adab1564d431fd5f1039f4ddaba81311", "text": "Take two small pieces of ground and polisht Looking-glass-plate, each about the bigness of a shilling, take these two dry, and with your fore-fingers and thumbs press them very hard and close together, and you shall find, that when they approach each other very near, there will appear several _Irises_ or coloured Lines, in the same manner almost as in the _Muscovy-glass_; and you may very easily change any of the Colours of any part of the interposed body, by pressing the Plates closer and harder together, or leaving them more lax; that is, a part which appeared coloured with a red, may be presently ting’d with a yellow, blew, green, purple, or the like, by altering the appropinquation of the terminating Plates. Now that air is not necessary to be the interposed body, but that any other transparent fluid will do much the same, may be tryed by wetting those approximated Surfaces with Water, or any other transparent Liquor, and proceeding with it in the same manner as you did with the Air; and you will find much the like effect, only with this difference, that those comprest bodies, which differ most, in their refractive quality, from the compressing bodies, exhibit the most strong and vivid tinctures. Nor is it necessary, that this _laminated_ and _ting’d_ body should be of a fluid substance, any other substance, provided it be thin enough and transparent, doing the same thing: this the _Laminæ_ of our _Muscovy-glass_ hint; but it may be confirm’d by multitudes of other Instances.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00271", "bookId": 15491, "start": 245979, "end": 246879, "sha256": "a72966a5e10b1273d1ed055d2087966507bdfb20f177b88a5382be94f69ebe54", "text": "And first, we shall find, that even Glass it self may, by the help of a Lamp, be blown thin enough to produce these _Phænomena_ of Colours: which _Phænomena_ accidentally happening, as I have been attempting to frame small Glasses with a Lamp, did not a little surprize me at first, having never heard or seen any thing of it before; though afterwards comparing it with the _Phænomena_, I had often observed in those Bubbles which Children use to make with Soap-water, I did the less wonder; especially when upon Experiment I found, I was able to produce the same _Phænomena_ in thin Bubbles made with any other transparent Substance. Thus have I produced them with Bubbles of _Pitch_, _Rosin_, _Colophony_, _Turpentine_, _Solutions_ of several _Gums_, as _Gum-Arabick_ in water; any _glutinous_ Liquor, as _Wort_, _Wine_, _Spirit of Wine_, _Oyl of Turpentine_, _Glare of Snails_, &c.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00272", "bookId": 15491, "start": 246883, "end": 247544, "sha256": "570e59250b80616892ddacb0abe335b274096c9248cb691a262f8332947f18ae", "text": "It would be needless to enumerate the several Instances, these being enough to shew the generality or universality of this propriety. Only I must not omit, that we have instances also of this kind even in metalline Bodies and animal; for those several Colours which are observed to follow each other upon the polisht surface of hardned Steel, when it is by a sufficient degree of heat gradually tempered or softened, are produced, from nothing else but a certain thin _Lamina_ of a _vitrum_ or _vitrified_ part of the Metal, which by that degree of heat, and the concurring action of the ambient Air, is driven out and fixed on the surface of the Steel.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00273", "bookId": 15491, "start": 247548, "end": 248094, "sha256": "bb473c5fd337f747671e42a25b50a003d29bb96e3cad71b9b385ec380803483f", "text": "And this hints to me a very probable (at least, if not the true) cause of the hardning and tempering of Steel, which has not, I think, been yet given, nor, that I know of been so much as thought of by any. And that is this, that the hardness of it arises from a greater proportion of a vitrified Substance interspersed through the pores of the Steel. And that the tempering or softning of it arises from the proportionate or smaller parcels of it left within those pores. This will seem the more probable, if we consider these Particulars.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00274", "bookId": 15491, "start": 248098, "end": 248259, "sha256": "34d2abc91141ba701ba084d3ad050e8b7dbe18f9fc5bdfc7233037d27c9b0d69", "text": "First, That the pure parts of Metals are of themselves very _flexible_ and _tuff_; that is, will indure bending and hammering, and yet retain their continuity.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00275", "bookId": 15491, "start": 248263, "end": 248517, "sha256": "f47a1c90579801b77c268888fd0ca5e86f6c9061bb3b613cde925769d95c9d37", "text": "Next, That the Parts of all vitrified Substances, as all kinds of Glass, the _Scoria_ of Metals, &c. are very hard, and also very brittle, being neither _flexible_ nor _malleable_, but may by hammering or beating be broken into small parts or powders.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00276", "bookId": 15491, "start": 248521, "end": 249169, "sha256": "c36be2d3ad2c25fcfba2a42696b6c18ed4eedf25e1c9db37788dbbab77c3c6c8", "text": "Thirdly, That all Metals (excepting Gold and Silver, which do not so much with the bare fire, unless assisted by other saline Bodies) do more or less _vitrifie_ by the strength of fire, that is, are corroded by a Saline Substance, which I elsewhere shew to be the true cause of fire; and are thereby, as by several other _Menstruums_ converted into _Scoria_; And this is called, _calcining_ of them, by Chimists. Thus Iron and Copper by heating and quenching do turn all of them by degrees into _Scoria_, which are evidently _vitrified_ Substances, and unite with Glass, and are easily _fusible_; and when cold, very hard, and very brittle.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00277", "bookId": 15491, "start": 249173, "end": 249448, "sha256": "033115c98ec9353dcd129199190d73b49a093eddf16d47d91e55a1c65e88651d", "text": "Fourthly, That most kind of _Vitrifications_ or _Calcinations_ are made by Salts, uniting and incorporating with the metalline Particles. Nor do I know any one _calcination_ wherein a _Saline_ body may not, with very great probability, be said to be an agent or coadjutor.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00278", "bookId": 15491, "start": 249452, "end": 249593, "sha256": "b904f1f90f445497d3b9ee7187b8e3b9832c0c7f7e4c5c4f88256264a35a3192", "text": "Fifthly, That Iron is converted into Steel by means of the incorporation of certain salts, with which it is kept a certain time in the fire.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00279", "bookId": 15491, "start": 249597, "end": 250107, "sha256": "07fc3428bc946d8722bb5ae170cd602b4fd0aea00c8b1bd20fa044c25b3180b4", "text": "Sixthly, That any Iron may, in a very little time, be _case hardned_, as the Tradesmen call it, by casing the iron to be hardned with clay, and putting between the clay and iron a good quantity of a mixture of _Urine_, _Soot_, _Sea-salt_, and _Horses hoofs_ (all which contein great quantities of Saline bodies) and then putting the case into a good strong fire, and keeping it in a considerable degree of heat for a good while, and afterwards heating, and quenching or cooling it suddenly in cold water.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00280", "bookId": 15491, "start": 250111, "end": 250341, "sha256": "de3e8ac77b3beb8b61cfb698d84b04c33ee9e9e14c0d7a1fb6340c867a6f19db", "text": "Seventhly, That all kind of vitrify’d substances, by being suddenly cool’d, become very hard and brittle. And thence arises the pretty _Phænomena_ of the Glass Drops, which I have already further explained in its own place.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00281", "bookId": 15491, "start": 250345, "end": 250479, "sha256": "0eb062c23fc778a73a82b3bfa4f00d7256d95401fd43b83106d40f0d5232fb92", "text": "Eighthly, That those metals which are not so apt to vitrifie, do not acquire any hardness by quenching in water, as Silver, Gold, &c.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00282", "bookId": 15491, "start": 250483, "end": 252406, "sha256": "abaf8daebae4e47e69592710847892f89f22cf49c63bb070f9410291324e5304", "text": "These considerations premis’d, will, I suppose, make way for the more easie reception of this following Explication of the _Phænomena_ of hardned and temper’d Steel. That Steel is a substance made out of Iron, by means of a certain proportionate _Vitrification_ of several parts, which are so curiously and proportionately mixt with the more tough and unalter’d parts of the Iron, that when by the great heat of the fire this vitrify’d substance is melted, and consequently rarify’d, and thereby the pores of the Iron are more open, if then by means of dipping it in cold water it be suddenly cold, and the parts hardned, that is, stay’d in that same degree of _Expansion_ they were in when hot, the parts become very hard and brittle, and that upon the same account almost as small parcels of glass quenched in water grow brittle, which we have already explicated. If after this the piece of Steel be held in some convenient heat, till by degrees certain colours appear upon the surface of the brightned metal, the very hard and brittle tone of the metal, by degrees relaxes and becomes much more tough and soft; namely, the action of the heat does by degrees loosen the parts of the Steel that were before streached or set _atilt_ as it were, and stayed open by each other, whereby they become relaxed and set at liberty, whence some of the more brittle interjacent parts are thrust out and melted into a thin skin on the surface of the Steel, which from no colour increases to a deep Purple, and so onward by these _gradations_ or consecutions, _White, Yellow, Orange, Minium, Scarlet, Purple, Blew, Watchet_, &c. and the parts within are more conveniently, and proportionately mixt; and so they gradually subside into a texture which is much better proportion’d and closer joyn’d, whence that rigidness of parts ceases, and the parts begin to acquire their former _ductilness_.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00283", "bookId": 15491, "start": 252410, "end": 253116, "sha256": "2ad3451d327d083012da05d6839cf4dabd6dbcb4c8c3f6a805a73adeff09d7bc", "text": "Now, that ’tis nothing but the vitrify’d metal that sticks upon the surface of the colour’d body, is evident from this, that if by any means it be scraped and rubb’d off, the metal underneath it is white and clear; and if it be kept longer in the fire, so as to increase to a considerable thickness, it may, by blows, be beaten off in flakes. This is further confirm’d by this observable, that that Iron or Steel will keep longer from rusting which is covered with this vitrify’d case: Thus also Lead will, by degrees, be all turn’d into a litharge; for that colour which covers the top being scum’d or shov’d aside, appears to be nothing else but a litharge or vitrify’d Lead.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00284", "bookId": 15491, "start": 253120, "end": 253358, "sha256": "a6bad5d19dceed575f15fb1310c141b68be1344d361cf3ff50e1c9dd790d036e", "text": "This is observable also in some sort, on Brass, Copper, Silver, Gold, Tin, but is most conspicuous in Lead: all those Colours that cover the surface of the Metal being nothing else, but a very thin vitrifi’d part of the heated Metal.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00285", "bookId": 15491, "start": 253362, "end": 253995, "sha256": "97e45102b52435573a50fb3a27a861eb5c594ae09298200820725aad8316fec5", "text": "The other Instance we have, is in Animal bodies, as in Pearls, Mother of Pearl-shels, Oyster-shels, and almost all other kinds of stony shels whatsoever. This have I also sometimes with pleasure observ’d even in Muscles and Tendons. Further, if you take any glutinous substance and run it exceedingly thin upon the surface of a smooth glass or a polisht metaline body, you shall find the like effects produced: and in general, wheresoever you meet with a transparent body thin enough, that is terminated by reflecting bodies of differing refractions from it, there will be a production of these pleasing and lovely colours.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00286", "bookId": 15491, "start": 253999, "end": 254272, "sha256": "285bb29c81546cf49238cce095b52d40923f7923825c305bda3dfcb163a5939d", "text": "Nor is it necessary, that the two _terminating_ Bodies should be both of the same kind, as may appear by the _vitrified Laminæ_ on _Steel_, _Lead_, and other Metals, one surface of which _Laminæ_ is contiguous to the surface of the Metal, the other to that of the Air.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00287", "bookId": 15491, "start": 254276, "end": 254947, "sha256": "65b05404861d361ff56268600c0f414364ffd454d96010bc620f40f0bec32d77", "text": "Nor is it necessary, that these colour’d _Laminæ_ should be of an even thickness, that is, should have their edges and middles of equal thickness, as in a Looking-glass-plate, which circumstance is only requisite to make the Plate appear all of the same colour; but they may resemble a _Lens_, that is, have their middles thicker then their edges; or else a _double concave_, that is, be thinner in the middle then at the edges; in both which cases there will be various coloured rings or lines, with differing consecutions or orders of Colours; the order of the first from the middle outwards being Red, Yellow, Green, Blew, &c. And the latter quite contrary.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00288", "bookId": 15491, "start": 254951, "end": 255706, "sha256": "dad2ee2c1ef2b256a37c21e11e03df029f0b653c422f05ed40971f3604952534", "text": "But further, it is altogether necessary, that the Plate, in the places where the Colours appear, should be of a determinate thickness: First, It must not be more then such a thickness, for when the Plate is increased to such a thickness, the Colours cease; and besides, I have seen in a thin piece of _Muscovy-glass_, where the two ends of two Plates, which appearing both single, exhibited two distinct and differing Colours; but in that place where they were united, and constituted one double Plate (as I may call it) they appeared transparent and colourless. Nor, Secondly, may the Plates be _thinner_ then such a determinate _cize_; for we alwayes find, that the very outmost Rim of these flaws is terminated in a white and colourless Ring.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00289", "bookId": 15491, "start": 255710, "end": 256554, "sha256": "cfb13b95af24360c3565203478402f99fdf2fdc53b23e34e02df2a15345366bd", "text": "Further, in this Production of Colours there is no need of a determinate Light of such a bigness and no more, nor of a determinate position of that Light, that it should be on this side, and not on that side; nor of a terminating shadow, as in the Prisme, and Rainbow, or Water-ball: for we find, that the Light in the open Air, either in or out of the Sun-beams, and within a Room, either from one or many Windows, produces much the same effect: only where the Light is brightest, there the Colours are most _vivid_. So does the light of a Candle, collected by a Glass-ball. And further, it is all one whatever side of the coloured Rings be towards the light; for the whole Ring keeps its proper Colours from the middle outwards in the same order as I before related, without varying at all, upon changing the position of the light.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00290", "bookId": 15491, "start": 256558, "end": 257826, "sha256": "98d6d21586aadd56b50c431864f071604756c0f26a55bc1c245cd72b5b96c669", "text": "But above all it is most observable, that here are all kind of Colours generated in a _pellucid_ body, where there is properly no such refraction as _Des Cartes_ supposes his _Globules_ to acquire a _verticity_ by: For in the plain and even Plates it is manifest, that the second refraction (according to _Des Cartes_ his Principles in the _fifth Section of the eighth Chapter of his Meteors_) does regulate and restore the supposed _turbinated Globules_ unto their former uniform motion. This Experiment therefore will prove such a one as our _thrice excellent Verulam_ calls _Experimentum Crucis_, serving as a Guide or Land-mark, by which to direct our course in the search after the true cause of Colours. Affording us this particular negative Information, that for the production of Colours there is not necessary either a great refraction, as in the Prisme; nor Secondly, a determination of Light and shadow, such as is both in the Prisme and Glass-ball. Now that we may see likewise what affirmative and positive Instruction it yields, it will be necessary, to examine it a little more particularly and strictly; which that we may the better do, it will be requisite to premise somewhat in general concerning the nature of Light and Refraction.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00291", "bookId": 15491, "start": 257830, "end": 257953, "sha256": "a181c7489e7266ad73736c9705270141c9ade86d1cebadf630a2f788180b4b4f", "text": "And first for Light it seems very manifest, that there is no luminous Body but has the parts of it in motion more or less.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00292", "bookId": 15491, "start": 257957, "end": 258824, "sha256": "943cdf69684de10cf1f7317005019d1cfa34efd77b8b40467eb2e1db6265dc4b", "text": "First, That all kind of _fiery burning Bodies_ have their parts in motion, I think, will be very easily granted me. That the _spark_ struck from a Flint and Steel is in a rapid agitation, I have elsewhere made probable. And that the Parts of _rotten Wood_, _rotten Fish_ and the like, are also in motion, I think, will as easily be conceded by those, who consider, that those parts never begin to shine till the Bodies be in a state of putrefaction; and that is now generally granted by all, to be caused by the motion of the parts of putrifying bodies. That the _Bononian stone_ shines no longer then it is either warmed by the Sun-beams, or by the flame of a Fire or of a Candle, is the general report of those that write of it, and of others that have seen it. And that heat argues a motion of the internal parts is (as I said before) generally granted.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00293", "bookId": 15491, "start": 258828, "end": 260690, "sha256": "c057874bbbfede6707b367a6dbc840977a0755086f52a6ec7a0b990e72d3a083", "text": "But there is one Instance more, which was first shewn to the _Royal Society_ by Mr. _Clayton_ a worthy Member thereof, which does make this Assertion more evident then all the rest: And that is, That a _Diamond_ being _rub’d_, _struck_ or _heated_ in the dark, shines for a pretty while after, so long as that motion, which is imparted by any of those Agents, remains (in the same manner as a Glass, rubb’d, struck, or (by a means which I shall elsewhere mention) heated, yields a sound which lasts as long as the vibrating motion of that _sonorous_ body) several Experiments made on which Stone, are since published in a Discourse of Colours, by the truly honourable Mr. _Boyle_. What may be said of those _Ignes fatui_ that appear in the night, I cannot so well affirm, having never had the opportunity to examine them my self, nor to be inform’d by any others that had observ’d them: And the relations of them in Authors are so imperfect, that nothing can be built on them. But I hope I shall be able in another place to make it at least very probable, that there is even in those also a Motion which causes this effect. That the shining of _Sea-water_ proceeds from the same cause, may be argued from this, That it shines not till either it be beaten against a Rock, or be some other wayes broken or agitated by Storms, or Oars, or other _percussing_ bodies. And that the Animal _Energies_ or Spirituous _agil_ parts are very active in _Cats eyes_ when they shine, seems evident enough, because their eyes never shine but when they look very intensly either to find their prey, or being hunted in a dark room, when they seek after their adversary, or to find a way to escape. And the like may be said of the shining _Bellies of Gloworms_; since ’tis evident they can at pleasure either increase or extinguish that Radiation.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00294", "bookId": 15491, "start": 260694, "end": 261640, "sha256": "4f91e5f9d0b0414d0a9596ad5e3a94d18d7d3f80127d5663c1adacb475c34765", "text": "It would be somewhat too long a work for this place _Zetetically_ to examine, and positively to prove, what particular kind of motion it is that must be the efficient of Light; for though it be a motion, yet ’tis not every motion that produces it, since we find there are many bodies very violently mov’d, which yet afford not such an effect; and there are other bodies, which to our other senses, seem not mov’d so much, which yet shine. Thus Water and quick-silver, and most other liquors heated, shine not; and several hard bodies, as Iron, Silver, Brass, Copper, Wood, &c. though very often struck with a hammer, shine not presently, though they will all of them grow exceeding hot; whereas rotten Wood, rotten Fish, Sea-water, Gloworms, &c. have nothing of tangible heat in them, and yet (where there is no stronger light to affect the Sensory) they shine some of them so Vividly, that one may make a shift to read by them.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00295", "bookId": 15491, "start": 261644, "end": 261824, "sha256": "561e74485ca0384e5302861e9bb883ae6dc33d8d7e56675ff12ab7b0f0f3c4c7", "text": "It would be too long, I say, here to insert the discursive progress by which I inquir’d after the proprieties of the motion of Light, and therefore I shall only add the result.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00296", "bookId": 15491, "start": 261828, "end": 262619, "sha256": "fc9ec4dc62a989ac37b9f9209aa229f41f690e6e89f2d7a4904c8f78c496857f", "text": "And, First, I found it ought to be exceeding _quick_, such as those motions of _fermentation_ and _putrefaction_, whereby, certainly, the parts are exceeding nimbly and violently mov’d; and that, because we find those motions are able more minutely to shatter and divide the body, then the most violent heats or _menstruums_ we yet know. And that fire is nothing else but such a _dissolution_ of the Burning body, made by the most _universal menstruum_ of all _sulphureous bodies_, namely, the Air, we shall in an other place of this Tractate endeavour to make probable. And that, in all extreamly hot shining bodies, there is a very quick motion that causes Light, as well as a more robust that causes Heat, may be argued from the celerity wherewith the bodyes are dissolv’d.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00297", "bookId": 15491, "start": 262623, "end": 263646, "sha256": "21f892b4cbf62e53a84c9c5889714f0c8a4e48b663ba11ed8029ce6b58a64ace", "text": "Next, it must be a _Vibrative motion_. And for this the newly mention’d _Diamond_ affords us a good argument; since if the motion of the parts did not return, the Diamond must after many rubbings decay and be wasted: but we have no reason to suspect the latter, especially if we consider the exceeding difficulty that is found in cutting or wearing away a Diamond. And a Circular motion of the parts is much more improbable, since, if that were granted, and they be suppos’d irregular and Angular parts, I see not how the parts of the Diamond should hold so firmly together, or remain in the same sensible dimensions, which yet they do. Next, if they be _Globular_, and mov’d only with a _turbinated_ motion, I know not any cause that can impress that motion upon the _pellucid medium_, which yet is done. Thirdly, any other _irregular_ motion of the parts one amongst another, must necessarily make the body of a fluid consistence, from which it is far enough. It must therefore be a _Vibrating_ motion.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00298", "bookId": 15491, "start": 263650, "end": 263966, "sha256": "4d0aa736bd6ebc6dad22ea72b10367952b1aa3ff81cb403f6608da81e537b10c", "text": "And Thirdly, That it is a very _short-vibrating motion_, I think the instances drawn from the shining of Diamonds will also make probable. For a Diamond being the hardest body we yet know in the World, and consequently the least apt to yield or bend, must consequently also have its _vibrations_ exceeding short.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00299", "bookId": 15491, "start": 263970, "end": 264101, "sha256": "74c619e5a4caa7e9a7dc916be5eed3c7e85117ca410f6927662b083eee2f5b5a", "text": "And these, I think, are the three principal proprieties of a motion, requisite to produce the effect call’d Light in the Object.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00300", "bookId": 15491, "start": 264105, "end": 264284, "sha256": "43683681365779b9da682ac7f4d34089d2d3f615f2ab526105ed2febec87a6b4", "text": "The next thing we are to consider, is the way or manner of the _trajection_ of this motion through the interpos’d pellucid body to the eye: And here it will be easily granted,", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00301", "bookId": 15491, "start": 264288, "end": 266722, "sha256": "485393e6d425a5e27959ced5ebb99062db8da7a2578598c32ad3716ffc4df00d", "text": "First, That it must be a body _susceptible_ and _impartible_ of this motion that will deserve the name of a Transparent. And next, that the parts of such a body must be _Homogeneous_, or of the same kind. Thirdly, that the constitution and motion of the parts must be such, that the appulse of the luminous body may be communicated or propagated through it to the greatest imaginable distance in the least imaginable time, though I see no reason to affirm, that it must be in an instant: For I know not any one Experiment or observation that does prove it. And, whereas it may be objected, That we see the Sun risen at the very instant when it is above the sensible Horizon, and that we see a Star hidden by the body of the Moon at the same instant, when the Star, the Moon, and our Eye are all in the same line; and the like Observations, or rather suppositions, may be urg’d. I have this to answer, That I can as easily deny as they affirm; for I would fain know by what means any one can be assured any more of the Affirmative, then I of the Negative. If indeed the propagation were very slow, ’tis possible something might be discovered by Eclypses of the Moon; but though we should grant the progress of the light from the Earth to the Moon, and from the Moon back to the Earth again to be full two Minutes in performing, I know not any possible means to discover it; nay, there may be some instances perhaps of Horizontal Eclypses that may seem very much to favour this supposition of the slower progression of Light then most imagine. And the like may be said of the Eclypses of the Sun, &c. But of this only by the by. Fourthly, That the motion is propagated every way through an _Homogeneous medium_ by _direct_ or _straight_ lines extended every way like Rays from the center of a Sphere. Fifthly, in an _Homogeneous medium_ this motion is propagated every way with _equal velocity_, whence necessarily every _pulse_ or _vibration_ of the luminous body will generate a Sphere, which will continually increase, and grow bigger, just after the same manner (though indefinitely swifter) as the waves or rings on the surface of the water do swell into bigger and bigger circles about a point of it, where, by the sinking of a Stone the motion was begun, whence it necessarily follows, that all the parts of these Spheres undulated through an _Homogeneous medium_ cut the Rays at right angles.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00302", "bookId": 15491, "start": 266726, "end": 267656, "sha256": "66f3ed78910d9d13cd1c0b566520166c43631ade3920ca7a2f62d03d7e3f97ae", "text": "But because all transparent _mediums_ are not _Homogeneous_ to one another, therefore we will next examine how this pulse or motion will be propagated through differingly transparent _mediums_. And here, according to the most acute and excellent Philosopher _Des Cartes_, I suppose the sign of the angle of inclination in the first _medium_ to be to the sign of refraction in the second, As the density of the first, to the density of the second. By density, I mean not the density in respect of gravity (with which the refractions or transparency of _mediums_ hold no proportion) but in respect onely to the _trajection_ of the Rays of light, in which respect they only differ in this; that the one propagates the pulse more easily and weakly, the other more slowly, but more strongly. But as for the pulses themselves, they will by the refraction acquire another propriety, which we shall now endeavour to explicate.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00303", "bookId": 15491, "start": 267660, "end": 269096, "sha256": "8426d9d394533ae36f7a1b314f289a8dfb70d3155ba5fbe5c082f039a9aae15d", "text": "We will suppose therefore in the first Figure ACFD to be a physical Ray, or ABC and DEF to be two Mathematical Rays, _trajected_ from a very remote point of a luminous body through an _Homogeneous_ transparent _medium_ LLL, and DA, EB, FC, to be small portions of the orbicular impulses which must therefore cut the Rays at right angles; these Rays meeting with the plain surface NO of a _medium_ that yields an easier _transitus_ to the propagation of light, and falling _obliquely_ on it, they will in the _medium_ MMM be refracted towards the perpendicular of the surface. And because this _medium_ is more easily _trajected_ then the former by a third, therefore the point C of the orbicular pulse FC will be mov’d to H four spaces in the same time that F the other end of it is mov’d to G three spaces, therefore the whole refracted pulse GH shall be _oblique_ to the refracted Rays CHK and GI; and the angle GHC shall be an acute, and so much the more acute by how much the greater the refraction be, then which nothing is more evident, for the sign of the inclination is to the sign of refraction as GF to TC the distance between the point C and the perpendicular from G on CK, which being as four to three, HC being longer then GF is longer also then TC, therefore the angle GHC is less than GTC. So that henceforth the parts of the pulses GH and IK are mov’d ascew, or cut the Rays at _oblique_ angles.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00304", "bookId": 15491, "start": 269100, "end": 269642, "sha256": "d36af2c4e93a9e95497b3b85a51d467043cc5dd3273ec03d97ca78c69b6a73b8", "text": "It is not my business in this place to set down the reasons why this or that body should impede the Rays more, others less: as why Water should transmit the Rays more easily, though more weakly than air. Onely thus much in general I shall hint, that I suppose the _medium_ MMM to have less of the transparent undulating subtile matter, and that matter to be less implicated by it, whereas LLL I suppose to contain a greater quantity of the fluid undulating substance, and this to be more implicated with the particles of that _medium_.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00305", "bookId": 15491, "start": 269646, "end": 270553, "sha256": "53dd1aa0764d7f2359dc840b7b72c1676a6627b45237fffbab8bd9b3eb6a9086", "text": "But to proceed, the same kind of _obliquity_ of the Pulses and Rays will happen also when the refraction is made out of a more easie into a more difficult _mediu_; as by the calculations of GQ & CSR which are refracted from the perpendicular. In both which calculations ’tis _obvious_ to observe, that always that part of the Ray towards which the refraction is made has the end of the _orbicular pulse_ precedent to that of the other side. And always, the oftner the refraction is made the same way, Or the greater the single refraction is, the more is this unequal progress. So that having found this odd propriety to be an inseparable concomitant of a refracted Ray, not streightned by a contrary refraction, we will next examine the refractions of the Sun-beams, as they are suffer’d onely to pass through a small passage, _obliquely_ out of a more difficult, into a more easie _medium_.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00306", "bookId": 15491, "start": 270557, "end": 272851, "sha256": "e8c54f6b0e79b7e11a994673f21b17acc8a4847aec7805ab52289c74144e80c3", "text": "Let us suppose therefore ABC in the second Figure to represent a large _Chemical Glass-body_ about two foot long, filled with very fair Water as high as AB, and inclin’d in a convenient posture with B towards the Sun: Let us further suppose the top of it to be cover’d with an _opacous_ body, all but the hole ab, through which the Sun-beams are suffer’d to pass into the Water, and are thereby refracted to cdef, against which part, if a Paper be expanded on the outside, there will appear all the colours of the Rainbow, that is, there will be generated the two principal colours, _Scarlet_ and _Blue_, and all the _intermediate_ ones which arise from the composition and dilutings of these two, that is, cd shall exhibit a _Scarlet_, which toward d is diluted into a _Yellow_; this is the refraction of the Ray, ik, which comes from the underside of the Sun; and the Ray ef shall appear of a deep _Blue_, which is gradually towards e diluted into a pale _Watchet-blue_. Between d and e the two _diluted_ colours. _Blue_ and _Yellow_ are mixt and compounded into a _Green_; and this I imagine to be the reason why _Green_ is so acceptable a colour to the eye, and that either of the two extremes are, if intense, rather a little offensive, namely, the being plac’d in the middle between the two extremes, and compounded out of both those, _diluted_ also, or somewhat qualifi’d, for the _composition_, arising from the mixture of the two extremes _undiluted_, makes a _Purple_, which though it be a lovely colour, and pretty acceptable to the eye, yet is it nothing comparable to the ravishing pleasure with which a curious and well tempered _Green_ affects the eye. If removing the Paper, the eye be plac’d against cd, it will perceive the lower side of the Sun (or a Candle at night which is much better, because it offends not the eye, and is more easily manageable) to be of a deep _Red_, and if against ef it will perceive the upper part of the luminous body to be of a deep _Blue_; and these colours will appear deeper and deeper, according as the Rays from the luminous body fall more _obliquely_ on the surface of the Water, and thereby suffer a greater refraction, and the more distinct, the further cdef is removed from the trajecting hole.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00307", "bookId": 15491, "start": 272855, "end": 273476, "sha256": "76cd077a1b2b16a94137d663c72b3d34e8870466544c79f88020c5d95955f9ac", "text": "So that upon the whole, we shall find that the reason of the _Phænomena_ seems to depend upon the _obliquity_ of the _orbicular pulse_, to the Lines of Radiation, and in particular, that the Ray cd which constitutes the _Scarlet_ has its inner parts, namely those which are next to the middle of the luminous body, precedent to the outermost which are contiguous to the dark and _unradiating_ skie. And that the Ray ef which gives a _Blue_, has its outward part, namely, that which is contiguous to the dark skie precedent to the pulse from the innermost, which borders on the bright _area_ of the luminous body.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00308", "bookId": 15491, "start": 273480, "end": 274293, "sha256": "b52616ff6dcb31aba0857b441c0a2ca4cc52ed341118bec94249fd333638b1ab", "text": "We may observe further, that the cause of the _diluting_ of the colours towards the middle, proceeds partly from the wideness of the hole through which the Rays pass, whereby the Rays from several parts of the luminous body, fall upon many of the same parts between c and f as is more manifest by the Figure: And partly also from the nature of the refraction it self, for the vividness or strength of the two terminating colours, arising chiefly as we have seen, from the very great difference that is betwixt the outsides of those _oblique undulations_ & the dark Rays circumambient, and that disparity betwixt the _approximate_ Rays, decaying gradually: the further inward toward the middle of the luminous body they are remov’d, the more must the colour approach to a white or an undisturbed light.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00309", "bookId": 15491, "start": 274297, "end": 275118, "sha256": "45ab64794a2a02a39d58dec08de8e17405b3492f02dda3374c2318037fb0e801", "text": "Upon the calculation of the refraction and reflection from a Ball of Water or Glass, we have much the same _Phænomena_, namely, an _obliquity_ of the undulation in the same manner as we have found it here. Which, because it is very much to our present purpose, and affords such an _Instancia crucis_, as no one that I know has hitherto taken notice of, I shall further examine. For it does very plainly and positively distinguish, and shew, which of the two _Hypotheses_, either the _Cartesian_ or this is to be followed, by affording a generation of all the colors in the Rainbow, where according to the _Cartesian Principles_ there should be none at all generated. And secondly, by affording an instance that does more closely confine the cause of these _Phænomena_ of colours to this present _Hypothesis_.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00310", "bookId": 15491, "start": 275122, "end": 276207, "sha256": "5f7e5677da85da6ff151b219bcb7d39240919a27d3b639efedeb2edca52d31a9", "text": "And first, for the _Cartesian_, we have this to object against it, That whereas he says (_Meteorum Cap. 8. Sect. 5._) _Sed judicabam unicam (refractione scilicet) ad minimum requiri, & quidem talem ut ejus effectus aliâ contrariâ (refractione) non destruatur: Nam experientia docet si superficies _NM_ & _NP_ (nempe refringentes) Parallelæ forent, radios tantundem per alteram iterum erectos quantum per unam frangerentur, nullos colores depicturos_; This Principle of his holds true indeed in a prisme where the refracting surfaces are plain, but is contradicted by the Ball or Cylinder, whether of Water or Glass, where the refracting surfaces are Orbicular or Cylindrical. For if we examine the passage of any _Globule_ or Ray of the primary _Iris_, we shall find it to pass out of the Ball or Cylinder again, with the same inclination and refraction that it enter’d in withall, and that that last refraction by means of the _intermediate_ reflection shall be the same as if without any reflection at all the Ray had been twice refracted by two Parallel surfaces.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00311", "bookId": 15491, "start": 276211, "end": 277923, "sha256": "bc1850fa263430d5ba747081727b47f62edaa82c87be5610a75d7036b994b0eb", "text": "And that this is true, not onely in one, but in every Ray that goes to the constitution of the Primary Iris; nay, in every Ray, that suffers only two refractions, and one reflection, by the surface of the round body, we shall presently see most evident, if we repeat the _Cartesian Scheme_, mentioned in the tenth _Section_ of the eighth _Chapter_ of his _Meteors_, where EFKNP in the third Figure[9] is one of the Rays of the Primary Iris, twice refracted at F and N, and once reflected at K by the surface of the Water-ball. For, first it is evident, that KF and KN are equal, because KN being the reflected part of KF they have both the same inclination on the surface K that is the angles FKT, and NKV made by the two Rays and the Tangent of K are equal, which is evident by the Laws of reflection; whence it will follow also, that KN has the same inclination on the surface N, or the Tangent of it XN that the Ray KF has to the surface F, or the Tangent of it FY, whence it must necessarily follow, that the refractions at F and N are equal, that is, KFE and KNP are equal. Now, that the surface N is by the reflection at K made parallel to the surface at F, is evident from the principles of reflection; for reflection being nothing but an inverting of the Rays, if we re-invert the Ray KNP, and make the same inclinations below the line TKV that it has above, it will be most evident, that KH the inverse of KN will be the continuation of the line FK, and that LHI the inverse of OX is parallel to FY. And HM the inverse of NP is Parallel to EF for the angle KHI is equal to KNO which is equal to KFY, and the angle KHM is equal to KNP which is equal to KFE which was to be prov’d.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00312", "bookId": 15491, "start": 277927, "end": 278338, "sha256": "97fcdb1e751c4dac8a7f86f47f12d5ac13bf621112d1feb509a71086a6784b8b", "text": "So that according to the above mentioned _Cartesian_ principles there should be generated no colour at all in a Ball of Water or Glass by two refractions and one reflection, which does hold most true indeed, if the surfaces be plain, as may be experimented with any kind of prisme where the two refracting surfaces are equally inclin’d to the reflecting; but in this the _Phænomena_ are quite otherwise.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00313", "bookId": 15491, "start": 278342, "end": 278675, "sha256": "4bb1fa43361ea52e2fdda6d0392f3c0b7548688cb02b55e37dac4d513ae27be8", "text": "The cause therefore of the generation of colour must not be what _Des Cartes_ assigns, namely, a certain _rotation_ of the _Globuli ætherei_, which are the particles which he supposes to constitute the _Pellucid medium_, But somewhat else, perhaps what we have lately supposed, and shall by and by further prosecute and explain.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00314", "bookId": 15491, "start": 278679, "end": 278863, "sha256": "9906b0d6c87027a8dd994a90c39aadc916de36a15a7e418a5117a6557d237a95", "text": "But, First I shall crave leave to propound some other difficulties of his, notwithstanding exceedingly ingenious _Hypothesis_, which I plainly confess to me seem such; and those are,", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00315", "bookId": 15491, "start": 278867, "end": 281236, "sha256": "b94dd7d523aeb52731a5b4b723398d44b910b52c4514c343c8932390ce46fb06", "text": "First, if that light be (as is affirmed, _Diopt._ cap. 1. §. 8.) not so properly a motion, as an action or propension to motion, I cannot conceive how the eye can come to be sensible of the _verticity_ of a _Globule_, which is generated in a drop of Rain, perhaps a mile off from it. For that _Globule_ is not carry’d to the eye according to his formerly recited Principle; and if not so, I cannot conceive how it can communicate its _rotation_, or circular motion to the line of the _Globules_ between the drop and the eye. It cannot be by means of every ones turning the next before him; for if so, then onely all the _Globules_ that are in the odd places must be turned the same way with the first, namely, the 3. 5. 7. 9. 11, &c. but all the _Globules_ interposited between them in the even places; namely, the 2. 4. 6. 8. 10. &c. must be the quite contrary, whence, according to the _Cartesian Hypothesis_, there must be no distinct colour generated, but a confusion. Next, since the _Cartesian Globuli_ are suppos’d (_Principiorum Philosoph._ Part. 3. §. 86.) to be each of them continually in motion about their centers, I cannot conceive how the eye is able to distinguish this new generated motion from their former inherent one, if I may so call that other wherewith they are mov’d or _turbinated_, from some other cause than refraction. And thirdly, I cannot conceive how these motions should not happen sometimes to oppose each other, and then, in stead of a _rotation_, there would be nothing but a direct motion generated, and consequently no colour. And fourthly, I cannot conceive, how by the _Cartesian Hypothesis_ it is possible to give any plausible reason of the nature of the Colours generated in the thin _laminæ_ of these our _Microscopical Observations_; for in many of these, the refracting and reflecting surfaces are parallel to each other, and consequently no _rotation_ can be generated, nor is there any necessity of a shadow or termination of the bright Rays, such as is suppos’d (_Chap._ 8. §. 5. _Et præterea observavi umbram quoque, aut limitationem luminis requiri:_ and _Chap._ 8. §. 9.) to be necessary to the generation of any distinct colours; Besides that, here is oftentimes one colour generated without any of the other appendant ones, which cannot be by the _Cartesian Hypothesis_.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00316", "bookId": 15491, "start": 281240, "end": 281682, "sha256": "ef850ae8feb4b070b6aef87f3e4f9c6e69bdc170e18324c468adb013c7f25267", "text": "There must be therefore some other propriety of refraction that causes colour. And upon the examination of the thing, I cannot conceive any one more general, inseparable, and sufficient, than that which I have before assign’d. That we may therefore see how exactly our _Hypothesis_ agrees also with the _Phænomena_ of the refracting round body, whether _Globe_ or _Cylinder_, we shall next subjoyn our _Calculation_ or _Examen_ of it.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00317", "bookId": 15491, "start": 281686, "end": 282450, "sha256": "5a427f4a3ed1e988d0db701992449b9624824a9e9a5ac46085281cf4159dffb1", "text": "And to this end, we will calculate any two Rays: as for instance;[10] let EF be a Ray cutting the _Radius_ CD (divided into 20. parts) in G 16. parts distant from C, and ef another Ray, which cuts the same _Radius_ in g 17. parts distant, these will be refracted to K and k, and from thence reflected to N and n, and from thence refracted toward P and p; therefore the Arch Ff will be 5.d 5′. The Arch FK 106.d 30′. the Arch fk 101.d 2′. The line FG 6000. and fg 5267. therefore hf. 733. therefore Fc 980, almost. The line FK 16024. and fk 15436. therefore Nd 196. and no 147 almost, the line Nn 1019 the Arch Nn 5.d 51′. therefore the Angle Nno is 34.d 43′. therefore the Angle Non is 139.d 56′. which is almost 50.d more than a right Angle.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00318", "bookId": 15491, "start": 282454, "end": 284006, "sha256": "0d1322c1c683d8e551ad4c6d8b5e3a737105e1d22503cd7a289b0194c8271b11", "text": "It is evident therefore by this _Hypothesis_, that at the same time that ef touches f. EF is arrived at c. And by that time efkn is got to n, EFKN is got to d and when it touches N, the pulse of the other Ray is got to o. and no farther, which is very short of the place it should have arriv’d to, to make the Ray np to cut the _orbicular pulse_ No at right Angles: therefore the Angle Nop is an acute Angle, but the quite contrary of this will happen, if 17. and 18. be calculated in stead of 16. and 17. both which does most exactly agree with the _Phænomena_: For if the Sun, or a Candle (which is better) be placed about Ee, and the eye about Pp, the Rays EFef at 16. and 17. will paint the side of the luminous object toward np _Blue_, and towards NP _Red_. But the quite contrary will happen when EF is 17. and ef 18. for then towards NP shall be a _Blue_, and towards np a _Red_, exactly according to the calculation. And there appears the _Blue_ of the Rainbow, where the two _Blue_ sides of the two Images unite, and there the _Red_ where the two _Red_ sides unite, that is, where the two Images are just disappearing; which is, when the Rays EF and NP produc’d till they meet, make an Angle of about 41. and an half; the like union is there of the two Images in the Production of the _Secundary Iris_, and the same causes, as upon calculation may appear; onely with this difference, that it is somewhat more faint, by reason of the duplicate reflection, which does always weaken the impulse the oftner it is repeated.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00319", "bookId": 15491, "start": 284010, "end": 284856, "sha256": "c1ff0825a9869d04ee153eccfdfcf81e93e3137be173a7af816d278836415314", "text": "Now, though the second refraction made at Nn be convenient, that is, do make the Rays glance the more, yet is it not altogether requisite; for it is plain from the calculation, that the pulse dn is sufficiently _oblique_ to the Rays KN and kn, as wel as the pulse fc is _oblique_ to the Rays FK & fk. And therefore if a piece of very fine Paper be held close against Nn and the eye look on it either through the Ball as from D, or from the other side, as from B. there shall appear a Rainbow, or colour’d line painted on it with the part toward X appearing _Red_, towards O, _Blue_; the same also shall happen, if the Paper be placed about Kk, for towards T shall appear a _Red_, and towards V a _Blue_, which does exactly agree with this my _Hypothesis_, as upon the calculation of the progress of the pulse will most easily appear.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00320", "bookId": 15491, "start": 284860, "end": 285497, "sha256": "64938de8ecc0a532a280a2ed1f18918fd5cc2e28a1028df8c21e8f9b39cbd67e", "text": "Nor do these two observations of the colours appearing to the eye about p differing from what they appear on the Paper at N contradict each other; but rather confirm and exactly agree with one another, as will be evident to him that examines the reasons set down by the ingenious. _Des Cartes_ in the 12. _Sect._ of the 8. _Chapter of his Meteors_, where he gives the true reason why the colours appear of a quite contrary order to the eye, to what they appear’d on the Paper if the eye be plac’d in steed of the Paper: And as in the Prisme, so also in the Water-drop, or Globe the _Phænomena_, and reason are much the same.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00321", "bookId": 15491, "start": 285501, "end": 285961, "sha256": "2cd96e58996bb677b022858872a037039cc0815581b4282ea8fa7f2476b6bb83", "text": "Having therefore shewn that there is such a propriety in the _prisme_ and water _Globule_ whereby the pulse is made _oblique_ to the progressive, and that so much the more, by how much greater the refraction is, I shall in the next place consider, how this conduces to the production of colours, and what kind of impression it makes upon the bottom of the eye; and to this end it will be requisite to examine this _Hypothesis_ a little more particularly.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00322", "bookId": 15491, "start": 285965, "end": 287955, "sha256": "271a2765ce6645e88265aad882a154d8fd8cd67a10145b01886fec29f822d171", "text": "First therefore, if we consider the manner of the progress of the pulse, it will seem rational to conclude, that that part or end of the pulse which precedes the other, must necessarily be somwhat more _obtunded_, or _impeded_ by the resistance of the transparent _medium_, than the other part or end of it which is subsequent, whose way is, as it were, prepared by the other; especially if the adjacent _medium_ be not in the same manner enlightned or agitated. And therefore (in the fourth _Figure_ of the sixth _Iconism_) the Ray AAAHB will have its side HH more deadened by the resistance of the dark or quiet _medium_ PPP, Whence there will be a kind of deadness superinduc’d on the side HHH, which will continually increase from B, and strike deeper and deeper into the Ray by the line BR; Whence all the parts of the triangle, RBHO will be of a dead _Blue_ colour, and so much the deeper, by how much the nearer they lie to the line BHH, which is most deaded or impeded, and so much the more _dilute_, by how much the nearer it approaches the line BR. Next on the other side of the Ray AAN, the end A of the pulse AH will be promoted, or made stronger, having its passage already prepar’d as ’twere by the other parts preceding, and so its impression wil be stronger; And because of its _obliquity_ to the Ray, there will be propagated a kind of faint motion into QQ the adjacent dark or quiet _medium_, which faint motion will spread further and further into QQ as the Ray is propagated further and further from A, namely, as far as the line MA, whence all the triangle MAN will be ting’d with a _Red_, and that _Red_ will be the deeper the nearer it approaches the line MA, and the _paler_ or _yellower_ the nearer it is the line NA. And if the Ray be continued, so that the lines AN and BR (which are the bounds of the _Red_ and _Blue diluted_) do meet and cross each other, there will be beyond that intersection generated all kinds of _Greens_.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00323", "bookId": 15491, "start": 287959, "end": 289050, "sha256": "94a40920e5bf90d01875f0efd419674bed53cf97a63380ef9f1048ddc753c285", "text": "Now, these being the proprieties of every single refracted Ray of light, it will be easie enough to consider what must be the result of very many such Rays collateral: As if we suppose infinite such Rays _interjacent_ between AKSB and ANOB, which are the terminating: For in this case the Ray AKSB will have its _Red_ triangle intire, as lying next to the dark or quiet _medium_, but the other side of it BS will have no _Blue_, because the _medium adjacent_ to it SBO, is mov’d or enlightned, and consequently that light does destroy the colour. So likewise will the Ray ANOB lose its _Red_, because the _adjacent medium_ is mov’d or enlightned, but the other side of the Ray that is _adjacent_ to the dark, namely, AHO will preserve its _Blue_ entire, and these Rays must be so far produc’d as till AN and BR cut each other, before there will be any _Green_ produc’d. From these Proprieties well consider’d, may be deduc’d the reasons of all the _Phænomena_ of the _prisme_, and of the _Globules_ or drops of Water which conduce to the production of the Rainbow.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00324", "bookId": 15491, "start": 289054, "end": 291122, "sha256": "ce241427269a34cc79cbf014b1993608badb067eb58d15e8c0d9cd3ff3136ad3", "text": "Next for the impression they make on the _Retina_, we will further examine this _Hypothesis_: Suppose therefore ABCDEF, in the fifth _Figure_, to represent the Ball of the eye: on the _Cornea_ of which ABC two Rays GACH and KCAI (which are the terminating Rays of a luminous body) falling, are by the refraction thereof collected or _converg’d_ into two points at the bottom of the eye. Now, because these terminating Rays, and all the _intermediate_ ones which come from any part of the luminous body, are suppos’d by some sufficient refraction before they enter the eye, to have their pulses made _oblique_ to their progression, and consequently each Ray to have potentially _superinduc’d_ two proprieties, or colours, viz. a _Red_ on the one side, and a _Blue_ on the other, which notwithstanding are never actually manifest, but when this or that Ray has the one or the other side of it bordering on a dark or unmov’d _medium_, therefore as soon as these Rays are entred into the eye and so have one side of each of them bordering on a dark part of the humours of the eye, they will each of them actually exhibit some colour; therefore ADC the production of GACH will exhibit a _Blue_, because the side CD is _adjacent_ to the dark _medium_ CQDC, but nothing of a _Red_, because its side AD is _adjacent_ to the enlightned _medium_ ADFA: And all the Rays that from the points of the luminous body are collected on the parts of the _Retina_ between D and F shall have their _Blue_ so much the more _diluted_ by how much the farther these points of collection are distant from D towards F; and the Ray AFC the production of KCAI, will exhibit a _Red_, because the side AF is adjacent to the dark or quiet _medium_ of the eye APFA, but nothing of a _Blue_, because its side CF is _adjacent_ to the enlightned _medium_ CFDC, and all the Rays from the intermediate parts of the luminous body that are collected between F and D shall have their _Red_ so much the more diluted, by how much the farther they are distant from F towards D.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00325", "bookId": 15491, "start": 291126, "end": 292306, "sha256": "8938e81d4e69eae5d831fcb549ee3ad59936c3f3d83fbbf3ae9a166284c5b0fb", "text": "Now, because by the refraction in the _Cornea_, and some other parts of the eye, the sides of each Ray, which before were almost parallel, are made to _converge_ and meet in a point at the bottom of the eye, therefore that side of the _pulse_ which preceded before these refractions, shall first touch the _Retina_, and the other side last. And therefore according as this or that side, or end of the pulse shall be impeded, accordingly will the _impressions_ on the _Retina_ be varied; therefore by the Ray GACH refracted by the _Cornea_ to D there shall be on that point a stroke or impression confus’d, whose weakest end, namely, that by the line CD shall precede, and the stronger, namely, that by the line AD shall follow. And by the Ray KCAI refracted to F, there shall be on that part a confus’d stroke or impression, whose strongest part, namely, that by the line CF shal precede, and whose weakest or impeded, namely, that by the line AF shall follow, and all the intermediate points between F and D will receive impressions from the _converg’d_ Rays so much the more like the impressions on F and D by how much the nearer they approach that or this.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00326", "bookId": 15491, "start": 292310, "end": 292725, "sha256": "7ee6bf1c39cb444734680fc9f074e0efec84d7b26de8361fb17ee8cf47a0e101", "text": "From the consideration of the proprieties of which impressions, we may collect these short definitions of Colours: That _Blue is an impression on the Retina of an oblique and confus’d pulse of light, whose weakest part precedes, and whose strongest follows._ And, that _Red is an impression on the Retina of an oblique and confus’d pulse of light, whose strongest part precedes, and whose weakest follows._", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00327", "bookId": 15491, "start": 292729, "end": 293048, "sha256": "4011371f26ff871447ec9938c9554ea10fea92d601d945b7ced19bb5e3e75871", "text": "Which proprieties, as they have been already manifested, in the Prisme and falling drops of Rain, to be the causes of the colours there generated, may be easily found to be the efficients also of the colours appearing in thin _laminated_ transparent bodies; for the explication of which, all this has been premised.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00328", "bookId": 15491, "start": 293052, "end": 293191, "sha256": "1e4246fb214e599705a219b39e7bcf08610e02d4d64047fa84abe1aee4d64519", "text": "And that this is so, a little closer examination of the _Phænomena_ and the _Figure_ of the body, by this _Hypothesis_ will make evident.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00329", "bookId": 15491, "start": 293195, "end": 294457, "sha256": "7336663562ceffd0bc4a8277907a58c7b8f56433a2728ab799f9dac7b2a139c0", "text": "For first (as we have already observed) the _laminated_ body must be of a determinate thickness, that is, it must not be thinner then such a determinate quantity; for I have always observ’d, that neer the edges of those which are exceeding thin, the colours disappear, and the part grows white; nor must it be thicker then another determinate quantity; for I have likewise observ’d, that beyond such a thickness, no colours appear’d, but the Plate looked white, between which two determinate thicknesses were all the colour’d Rings; of which in some substances I have found ten or twelve, in others not half so many, which I suppose depends much upon the transparency of the _laminated_ body. Thus though the consecutions are the same in the scum or the skin on the top of metals; yet in those consecutions in the same colour is not so often repeated as in the consecutions in thin Glass, or in Sope-water, or any other more transparent and glutinous liquor; for in these I have observ’d, _Red, Yellow, Green, Blue, Purple; Red, Yellow, Green, Blue, Purple; Red, Yellow, Green, Blue, Purple; Red, Yellow, &c._ to succeed each other, ten or twelve times, but in the other more _opacous_ bodies the consecutions will not be half so many.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00330", "bookId": 15491, "start": 294461, "end": 294897, "sha256": "13df2e2f22d5bcde495ae0e801ebdbf908926bdb573e43ec50664ce691501460", "text": "And therefore secondly, the _laminated_ body must be transparent, and this I argue from this, that I have not been able to produce any colour at all with an _opacous_ body, though never so thin. And this I have often try’d, by pressing small _Globule_ of _Mercury_ between two smooth Plates of Glass, whereby I have reduc’d that body to a much greater thinness then was requisite to exhibit the colours with a transparent body.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00331", "bookId": 15491, "start": 294901, "end": 295128, "sha256": "308fbbe080dfca6292133d0e1340ab3f089879bd6c960cbad79734bd46087682", "text": "Thirdly, there must be a considerable reflecting body adjacent to the under or further side of the _lamina_ or _plate_: for this I always found, that the greater that reflection was, the more vivid were the appearing colours.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00332", "bookId": 15491, "start": 295132, "end": 295986, "sha256": "31569e82c67d211d04b87ad0df26a511bdfe522e7ac4a56c5919822d1605ef43", "text": "From which Observations, is most evident, that the reflection from the under or further side of the body is the principal cause of the production of these colours; which, that it is so, and how it conduces to that effect, I shall further explain in the following Figure, which is here described of a very great thickness, as if it had been view’d through the _Microscope_; and ’tis indeed much thicker than any _Microscope_ (I have yet us’d) has been able to shew me those colour’d plates of Glass, or _Muscovie-glass_, which I have not without much trouble view’d with it, for though I have endeavoured to magnifie them as much as the Glasses were capable of, yet are they so exceeding thin, that I have not hitherto been able positively to determine their thickness. This Figure therefore I here represent, is wholy _Hypothetical_.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00333", "bookId": 15491, "start": 295990, "end": 297393, "sha256": "aaa4425b9a781d64d6157b76d5fe43559daa8a424a7d6ea9157c1c5cc9e427d0", "text": "Let ABCDHFE in the sixth Figure be a _frustum_ of _Muscovy-glass_, thinner toward the end AE, and thicker towards DF. Let us first suppose the Ray aghb coming from the Sun, of some remote luminous object to fall _obliquely_ on the thinner plate BAE, part therefore is reflected back by cghd, the first _Superficies_; whereby the perpendicular pulse ab is after reflexion propagated by cd, cd, equally remote from each other with ab, ab, so that ag + gc, or bh + hd are either of them equal to aa, as is also cc, but the body BAE being transparent, a part of the light of this Ray is refracted in the surface AB, and propagated by gikh to the surface EF, whence it is reflected and refracted again by the surface AB. So that after two refractions and one reflection, there is propagated a kind of fainter Ray emnf, whose pulse is not only weaker by reason of the two refractions in the surface AB, but by reason of the time spent in passing and repassing between the two surfaces AB and EF, ef which is this fainter or weaker pulse comes behind the pulse cd; so that hereby (the surfaces AB, and EF being so neer together, that the eye cannot _discriminate_ them from one) this confus’d or _duplicated_ pulse, whose strongest part precedes, and whose weakest follows, does produce on the _Retina_, (or the _optick nerve_ that covers the bottom of the eye) the sensation of a _Yellow_.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00334", "bookId": 15491, "start": 297397, "end": 297725, "sha256": "be952dc29a659a746754cbf0016cdb3ff204019b653d36a9471c493e8aa300db", "text": "And secondly, this _Yellow_ will appear so much the deeper, by how much the further back towards the middle between cd and cd the spurious pulse ef is remov’d, as in 2 where the surface BC being further remov’d from EF, the weaker pulse ef will be nearer to the middle, and will make an impression on the eye of a _Red_.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00335", "bookId": 15491, "start": 297729, "end": 298424, "sha256": "476380707e701cd9fa8458558fbddabfbb2390fa358e275a24b5a1a31da3a025", "text": "But thirdly, if the two reflecting surfaces be yet further remov’d asunder (as in 3 CD and EF are) then will the weaker pulse be so farr behind, that it will be more then half the distance between cd and cd. And in this case it will rather seem to precede the following stronger pulse, then to follow the preceding one, and consequently a _Blue_ will be generated. And when the weaker pulse is just in the middle between two strong ones, then is a deep and lovely _Purple_ generated; but when the weaker pulse ef is very neer to cd, then is there generated a _Green_, which will be _bluer_, or _yellower_, according as the _approximate_ weak pulse does precede or follow the stronger.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00336", "bookId": 15491, "start": 298428, "end": 298854, "sha256": "94edb84a7d494869c7b1ce7b5ca7973087740f1aff6329be71e15dbcc76cd235", "text": "Now fourthly, if the thicker Plate chance to be cleft into two thinner Plates, as CDFE is divided into two Plates by the surface GH then from the composition arising from the three reflections in the surfaces CD, GH, and EF, there will be generated several compounded or mixt colours, which will be very differing, according as the proportion between the thicknesses of those two divided Plates CDHG, and GHFE are varied.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00337", "bookId": 15491, "start": 298858, "end": 300690, "sha256": "1a0c738e1f1b483200dbc2c1b044c2e2798fc2faf60d1ea615cebf78ad199639", "text": "And _fifthly_, if these surfaces CD and FE are further remov’d asunder, the weaker pulse will yet lagg behind much further, and not onely be _coincident_ with the second, cd, but lagg behind that also, and that so much the more, by how much the thicker the Plate be; so that by degrees it will be _coincident_ with the third cd backward also, and by degrees, as the Plate grows thicker with a fourth, and so onward to a fifth, sixth, seventh, or eighth; so that if there be a thin transparent body, that from the greatest thinness requisite to produce colours, does, in the manner of a Wedge, by degrees grow to the greatest thickness that a Plate can be of, to exhibit a colour by the reflection of Light from such a body, there shall be generated several consecutions of colours, whose order from the thin end towards the thick, shall be _Yellow, Red, Purple, Blue, Green; Yellow, Red, Purple, Blue, Green; Yellow, Red, Purple, Blue, Green; Yellow_, &c. and these so often repeated, as the weaker pulse does lose paces with its _Primary_, or first pulse, and is _coincident_ with a second, third, fourth, fifth, sixth, &c. pulse behind the first. And this, as it is _coincident_, or follows from the first _Hypothesis_ I took of colours, so upon experiment have I found it in multitudes of instances that seem to prove it. One thing which seems of the greatest concern in this _Hypothesis_, is to determine the greatest or least thickness requisite for these effects, which, though I have not been wanting in attempting, yet so exceeding thin are these coloured Plates, and so imperfect our _Microscope_, that I have not been hitherto successfull, though if my endeavours shall answer my expectations, I shall hope to gratifie the curious Reader with some things more remov’d beyond our reach hitherto.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00338", "bookId": 15491, "start": 300694, "end": 300911, "sha256": "dece2ec0ed404a50236a025415daa7e310c3fc3c5498cc9074a79465e0f7d427", "text": "Thus have I, with as much brevity as I was able, endeavoured to explicate (_Hypothetically_ at least) the causes of the _Phænomena_ I formerly recited, on the consideration of which I have been the more particular.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00339", "bookId": 15491, "start": 300915, "end": 301671, "sha256": "43ab5c63ae59e71af6d6c67cab5cbb6a17d7bdefb4e4532df4021a24853e539a", "text": "First, because I think these I have newly given are capable of explicating all the _Phænomena_ of colours, not onely of those appearing in the _Prisme_, Water-drop, or Rainbow, and in _laminated_ or plated bodies, but of all that are in the world, whether they be fluid or solid bodies, whether in thick or thin, whether transparent, or seemingly opacous, as I shall in the next Observation further endeavour to shew. And secondly, because this being one of the two ornaments of all bodies discoverable by the sight, whether looked on with, or without a _Microscope_, it seem’d to deserve (somewhere in this Tract, which contains a description of the Figure and Colour of some minute bodies) to be somewhat the more intimately enquir’d into.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00340", "bookId": 15491, "start": 301682, "end": 301715, "sha256": "92bf9343d426ee004c3cb7caa3f283036b2f3626f071d4807d38518427facd12", "text": "* * * * *", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00341", "bookId": 15491, "start": 301721, "end": 301773, "sha256": "52a30fdfb67a891588f553963dc9e72879a825ed544896a7786e3e8c73a0ea08", "text": "Observ. X. _Of _Metalline_, and other real Colours._", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00342", "bookId": 15491, "start": 301777, "end": 303004, "sha256": "442f2692d3ce5c083e80a745c7a7f4ec072950c113494683fb149076aed5693e", "text": "Having in the former Discourse, from the Fundamental cause of Colour, made it probable, that there are but two Colours, and shewn, that the _Phantasm_ of Colour is caus’d by the sensation of the _oblique_ or uneven pulse of Light which is capable of no more varieties than two that arise from the two sides of the _oblique_ pulse, though each of those be capable of infinite gradations or degrees (each of them beginning from _White_, and ending the one in the deepest _Scarlet_ or _Yellow_, the other in the deepest _Blue_) I shall in this _Section_ set down some Observations which I have made of other colours, such as _Metalline_ powders tinging or colour’d bodies and several kinds of tinctures or ting’d liquors, all which, together with those I treated of in the former Observation will, I suppose, comprise the several subjects in which colour is observ’d to be inherent, and the several manners by which it _inheres_, or is apparent in them. And here I shall endeavour to shew by what composition all kind of compound colours are made, and how there is no colour in the world but may be made from the various degrees of these two colours, together with the intermixtures of _Black_ and _White_.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00343", "bookId": 15491, "start": 303008, "end": 303798, "sha256": "2ea49c8b8f576dd0ba8be711a85010d47e890cbf907a3af77c9674b3f51717b5", "text": "And this being so, as I shall anon shew, it seems an evident argument to me, that all colours whatsoever, whether in fluid or solid, whether in very transparent or seemingly _opacous_, have the same efficient cause, to wit, some kind of _refraction_ whereby the Rays that proceed from such bodies, have their pulse _obliquated_ or confus’d in the manner I explicated in the former _Section_; that is, a _Red_ is caus’d by a duplicated or confus’d pulse, whose strongest pulse precedes, and a weaker follows: and a _Blue_ is caus’d by a confus’d pulse, where the weaker pulse precedes, and the stronger follows. And according as these are, more or less, or variously mixt and compounded, so are the _sensations_, and consequently the _phantasms_ of colours _diversified_.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00344", "bookId": 15491, "start": 303802, "end": 304969, "sha256": "4959fc7e1cd6f5ead3a810a388ea7a20422c2c0c975fbc95f18f3615c5d6de03", "text": "To proceed therefore; I suppose, that all transparent colour’d bodies, whether fluid or solid, do consist at least of two parts, or two kinds of substances, the one of a substance of a somewhat differing _refraction_ from the other. That one of these substances which may be call’d the _tinging_ substance, does consist of distinct parts, or particles of a determinate bigness which are _disseminated_, or dispers’d all over the other: That these particles, if the body be equally and uniformly colour’d, are evenly rang’d and dispers’d over the other contiguous body; That where the body is deepest ting’d, there these particles are rang’d thickest, and where ’tis but faintly ting’d, they are rang’d much thinner, but uniformly. That by the mixture of another body that unites with either of these, which has a differing refraction from either of the other, quite differing effects will be produc’d, that is, the _consecutions_ of the confus’d pulses will be much of another kind, and consequently produce other _sensations_ and _phantasms_ of colours, and from a _Red_ may turn to a _Blue_, or from a _Blue_ to a _Red_, &c.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00345", "bookId": 15491, "start": 304973, "end": 305873, "sha256": "5b125ce4d0a2dc6ba4755e82eb66ece308c6de0adb871fecb9c2b699eb051e2f", "text": "Now, that this may be the better understood, I shall endeavour to explain my meaning a little more sensible by a _Scheme_: Suppose we therefore in the seventh _Figure_ of the sixth _Scheme_, that ABCD represents a Vessel holding a ting’d liquor, let IIIII, &c. be the clear liquor, and let the tinging body that is mixt with it be EE, &c. FF, &c. GG, &c. HH, &c. whose particles (whether round, or some other determinate Figure is little to our purpose) are first of a determinate and equal bulk. Next, they are rang’d into the form of _Quincunx_, or _Equilaterotriangular_ order, which that probably they are so, and why they are so, I shall elsewhere endeavour to shew. Thirdly, they are of such a nature, as does either more easily or more difficultly transmit the Rays of light then the liquor; if more easily, a _Blue_ is generated, and if more difficultly, a _Red_ or _Scarlet_.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00346", "bookId": 15491, "start": 305877, "end": 306745, "sha256": "ff7ff8c57e190ce6609733eb68f33e6e9bee257dc51f74ef80ce4a6db2089f7a", "text": "And first, let us suppose the tinging particles to be of a substance that does more _impede_ the Rays of light, we shall find that the pulse or wave of light mov’d from AD to BC, will proceed on, through the containing _medium_ by the pulses or waves KK, LL, MM, NN, OO; but because several of these Rays that go to the constitution of these pulses will be slugged or stopped by the tinging particles E, F, G, H; therefore there shall be _secundary_ and weak pulse that shall follow the Ray, namely PP which will be the weaker: first, because it has suffer’d many refractions in the impeding body; next, for that the Rays will be a little dispers’d or confus’d by reason of the refraction in each of the particles, whether _round_ or _angular_; and this will be more evident, if we a little more closely examine any one particular tinging _Globule_.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00347", "bookId": 15491, "start": 306749, "end": 307380, "sha256": "c1a1ca889961bcd67953015d83eb3a83bf3ef530ce0893bd1531b810fb0f4ce9", "text": "Suppose we therefore AB in the eighth _Figure_ of the sixth _Scheme_, to represent a tinging _Globule_ or particle which has a greater refraction than the liquor in which it is contain’d: Let CD be a part of the pulse of light which is _propagated_ through the containing _medium_; this pulse will be a little stopt or impeded by the _Globule_, and so by that time the pulse is past to EF that part of it which has been impeded by passing through the _Globule_, will get but to LM, and so that pulse which has been _propagated_ through the _Globule_, to wit, LM, NO, PQ, will always come behind the pulses EF, GH, IK, &c.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00348", "bookId": 15491, "start": 307384, "end": 308105, "sha256": "2cbb4cad413019fdeeac842ebeac72e24490a1034691fe724530dc4c5bdc4e37", "text": "Next, by reason of the greater impediment in AB, and its _Globular_ Figure, the Rays that pass through it will be dispers’d, and very much scatter’d. Whence CA and DB which before went _direct_ and _parallel_, will after the refraction in AB, _diverge_ and spread by AP, and BQ; so that as the Rays do meet with more and more of these tinging particles in their way, by so much the more will the pulse of light further lagg behind the clearer pulse, or that which has fewer refractions, and thence the deeper will the colour be, and the fainter the light that is trajected through it; for not onely many Rays are reflected from the surfaces of AB, but those Rays that get through it are very much disordered.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00349", "bookId": 15491, "start": 308109, "end": 309344, "sha256": "8088333f5085cd23eee432d88617fb4c36384be1317ae99fbef36c92f3348bc5", "text": "By this _Hypothesis_ there is no one experiment of colour that I have yet met with, but may be, I conceive, very rationably solv’d, and perhaps, had I time to examine several particulars requisite to the demonstration of it, I might prove it more than probable, for all the experiments about the changes and mixings of colours related in the Treatise of Colours, published by the _Incomparable_ Mr. _Boyle_, and multitudes of others which I have observ’d, do so easily and naturally flow from those principles, that I am very apt to think it probable, that they own their production to no other _secundary_ cause: As to instance in two or three experiments. In the twentieth Experiment, this _Noble Authour_ has shewn that the deep _bluish purple-colour_ of _Violets_, may be turn’d into a _Green_, by _Alcalizate Salts_, and to a _Red_ by acid; that is, a _Purple_ consists of two colours, a deep _Red_, and a deep _Blue_; when the _Blue_ is diluted, or altered, or destroy’d by _acid Salts_, the _Red_ becomes predominant, but when the _Red_ is diluted by _Alcalizate_, and the _Blue_ heightned, there is generated a _Green_; for of a _Red_ diluted, is made a _Yellow_, and _Yellow_ and _Blue_ make a _Green_.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00350", "bookId": 15491, "start": 309348, "end": 310872, "sha256": "032bf968f1f074d6bc0344f348acac1727051756f88faa9fa889c965bd94614c", "text": "Now, because the _spurious_ pulses which cause a _Red_ and a _Blue_, do the one follow the clear pulse, and the other precede it, it usually follows, that those _Saline_ refracting bodies which do _dilute_ the colour of the one, do deepen that of the other. And this will be made manifest by almost all kinds of _Purples_, and many sorts of _Greens_, both these colours consisting of mixt colours; for if we suppose A and A in the ninth Figure, to represent two pulses of clear light, which follow each other at a convenient distance, AA, each of which has a _spurious_ pulse preceding it, as BB, which makes a _Blue_, and another following it, as CC, which makes a _Red_, the one caus’d by tinging particles that have a greater refraction, the other by others that have a less refracting quality then the liquor or _Menstruum_ in which these are dissolv’d, whatsoever liquor does so alter the refraction of the one, without altering that of the other part of the ting’d liquor, must needs very much alter the colour of the liquor; for if the refraction of the _dissolvent_ be increas’d, and the refraction of the tinging particles not altered, then will the preceding _spurious_ pulse be shortned or stopt, and not out-run the clear pulse so much; so that BB will become EE, and the _Blue_ be _diluted_, whereas the other _spurious_ pulse which follows will be made to lagg much more, and be further behind AA than before, and CC will become _ff_, and so the _Yellow_ or _Red_ will be heightned.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00351", "bookId": 15491, "start": 310876, "end": 312188, "sha256": "c0941aae384e8eccfdcae20cfafd94dc1b2a51844bbb52e3cb2562c7cb5b9bfa", "text": "A _Saline_ liquor therefore, mixt with another ting’d liquor, may alter the colour of it several ways, either by altering the refraction of the liquor in which the colour swims: or secondly by varying the refraction of the coloured particles, by uniting more intimately either with some particular _corpuscles_ of the tinging body, or with all of them, according as it has a _congruity_ to some more especially, or to all alike: or thirdly, by uniting and interweaving it self with some other body that is already joyn’d with the tinging particles, with which substance it may have a _congruity_, though it have very little with the particles themselves: or fourthly, it may alter the colour of a ting’d liquor by dis-joyning certain particles which were before united with the tinging particles, which though they were somewhat _congruous_ to these particles, have yet a greater _congruity_ with the newly _infus’d Saline menstruum_. It may likewise alter the colour by further dissolving the tinging substance into smaller and smaller _particles_, and so _diluting_ the colour; or by uniting several _particles_ together as in precipitations, and so deepning it, and some such other ways, which many experiments and comparisons of differing trials together, might easily inform one of.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00352", "bookId": 15491, "start": 312192, "end": 312507, "sha256": "6411b095aa279f2b1f399fabf261299a74b767a2b3605a3c5c7c3afa4919c744", "text": "From these Principles applied, may be made out all the varieties of colours observable, either in liquors, or any other ting’d bodies, with great ease, and I hope intelligible enough, there being nothing in the _notion_ of colour, or in the suppos’d production, but is very conceivable, and may be possible.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00353", "bookId": 15491, "start": 312511, "end": 312887, "sha256": "e18d4b7da7519ad53de112635844c129becc96b2ab7a7ddce124a33119a47d13", "text": "The greatest difficulty that I find against this _Hypothesis_, is, that there seem to be more distinct colours then two, that is, then Yellow and Blue. This Objection is grounded on this reason, that there are several Reds, which _diluted_, make not a Saffron or pale Yellow, and therefore Red, or Scarlet seems to be a third colour distinct from a deep degree of Yellow.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00354", "bookId": 15491, "start": 312891, "end": 313516, "sha256": "3ef463f058909702899d9baa84b962c688a3bf6f1bcd26bbc4492e1d588d485d", "text": "To which I answer, that Saffron affords us a deep Scarlet tincture, which may be _diluted_ into as pale a Yellow as any, either by making a weak solution of the Saffron, by infusing a small parcel of it into a great quantity of liquor, as in spirit of Wine, or else by looking through a very thin quantity of the tincture, and which may be heightn’d into the loveliest Scarlet, by looking through a very thick body of this tincture, or through a thinner parcel of it, which is highly _impregnated_ with the tinging body, by having had a greater quantity of the Saffron dissolv’d in a smaller parcel of the liquor.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00355", "bookId": 15491, "start": 313520, "end": 314661, "sha256": "b59f5181ea1f1894bfd8931b16122b4c58c66a7a0fcc316c41cdf587d25e869d", "text": "Now, though there may be some particles of other tinging bodies that give a lovely Scarlet also, which though _diluted_ never so much with liquor, or looked on through never so thin a parcel of ting’d liquor, will not yet afford a pale Yellow, but onely a kind of faint Red; yet this is no argument but that those ting’d particles may have in them the faintest degree of Yellow, though we may be unable to make them exhibit it; For that power of being _diluted_ depending upon the divisibility of the ting’d body, if I am unable to make the tinging particles so thin as to exhibit that colour, it does not therefore follow, that the thing is impossible to be done; now, the tinging particles of some bodies are of such a nature, that unless there be found some way of comminuting them into less bulks then the liquor does dissolve them into, all the Rays that pass through them must necessarily receive a tincture so deep, as their appropriate refractions and bulks compar’d with the proprieties of the dissolving liquor must necessarily dispose them to empress, which may perhaps be a pretty deep Yellow, or pale Red.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00356", "bookId": 15491, "start": 314665, "end": 314778, "sha256": "cfe067590c4bc6862b798681cdc1227f335ecf2664c066b4ac8cdc81716f9715", "text": "And that this is not _gratis dictum_, I shall add one instance of this kind, wherein the thing is most manifest.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00357", "bookId": 15491, "start": 314782, "end": 315575, "sha256": "5a5b48bb5c9de72b863cb79c3cbf82c223eb52e588575029a6945e276024322f", "text": "If you take Blue _Smalt_, you shall find, that to afford the deepest Blue, which _cæteris paribus_ has the greatest particles or sands; and if you further divide, or grind those particles on a Grindstone, or _porphyry_ stone, you may by _comminuting_ the sands of it, _dilute_ the Blue into as pale a one as you please, which you cannot do by laying the colour thin; for wheresoever any single particle is, it exhibits as deep a Blue as the whole mass. Now, there are other Blues, which though never so much ground, will not be _diluted_ by grinding, because consisting of very small particles, very deeply ting’d, they cannot by grinding be actually separated into smaller particles then the operation of the fire, or some other dissolving _menstruum_, reduc’d them to already.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00358", "bookId": 15491, "start": 315579, "end": 316466, "sha256": "63e3e8dd53af8aec5a6d53390a8c2e86e9f0b2f5aaf3dc5bfc0701886de52813", "text": "Thus all kind of _Metalline_ colours, whether _precipitated_, _sublim’d_, _calcin’d_, or otherwise prepar’d, are hardly chang’d by grinding, as _ultra marine_ is not more _diluted_; nor is _Vermilion_ or _Red-lead_ made of a more faint colour by grinding; for the smallest particles of these which I have view’d with my greatest Magnifying-Glass, if they be well enlightned, appear very deeply ting’d with their peculiar colours; nor, though I have magnified and enlightned the particles exceedingly, could I in many of them, perceive them to be transparent, or to be whole particles, but the smallest specks that I could find among well ground _Vermilion_ and _Red-lead_, seem’d to be a Red mass, compounded of a multitude of less and less motes, which sticking together, compos’d a bulk, not one thousand thousandth part of the smallest visible sand or mote.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00359", "bookId": 15491, "start": 316470, "end": 317505, "sha256": "adcb4d4383c8831d43b873c049a21cd507ef923ca0ad197d96f9c35eff18308e", "text": "And this I find generally in most _Metalline_ colours, that though they consist of parts so exceedingly small, yet are they very deeply ting’d, they being so ponderous, and having such a multitude of terrestrial particles throng’d into a little room; so that ’tis difficult to find any particle transparent or resembling a pretious stone, though not impossible; for I have observ’d divers such shining and resplendent colours intermixt with the particles of _Cinnaber_, both natural and artificial, before it hath been ground and broken or flaw’d into _Vermilion_: As I have also in _Orpiment_, _Red-lead_, and _Bise_, which makes me suppose, that those _metalline_ colours are by grinding, not onely broken and separated actually into smaller pieces, but that they are also flaw’d and brused, whence they, for the most part, become _opacous_, like flaw’d Crystal or Glass, &c. But for _Smalts_ and _verditures_, I have been able with a _Microscope_ to perceive their particles very many of them transparent.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00360", "bookId": 15491, "start": 317509, "end": 318219, "sha256": "48fa7e892e3224d2b99f27c4f9b4cd3c2662302364e00b440f8cdbbb3e82e663", "text": "Now, that the others also may be transparent, though they do not appear so to the _Microscope_, may be made probable by this Experiment: that if you take _ammel_ that is almost _opacous_, and grind it very well on a _Porphyry_, or _Serpentine_, the small particles will by reason of their flaws, appear perfectly _opacous_; and that ’tis the flaws that produce this _opacousness_, may be argued from this, that particles of the same _Ammel_ much thicker if unflaw’d will appear somewhat transparent even to the eye; and from this also, that the most transparent and clear Crystal, if heated in the fire, and then suddenly quenched, so that it be all over flaw’d, will appear _opacous_ and white.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00361", "bookId": 15491, "start": 318223, "end": 318761, "sha256": "734f9dc449741aec017f0298583d93c5eb0d5cb4f14c01f5b3ecf886df1cdd55", "text": "And that the particles of _Metalline_ colours are transparent, may be argued yet further from this, that the Crystals, or _Vitriols_ of all Metals, are transparent, which since they consist of _metalline_ as well as _saline_ particles, those _metalline_ ones must be transparent, which is yet further confirm’d from this, that they have for the most part, _appropriate_ colours; so the _vitriol_ of Gold is Yellow; of Copper, Blue, and sometimes Green; of Iron, green; of Tinn and Lead, a pale White; of Silver, a pale Blue, _&._", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00362", "bookId": 15491, "start": 318765, "end": 319830, "sha256": "7ca3d0bc4774b942f6f77f683b7e629006afaa9bbcea8c89ebcbc510aa264bea", "text": "And next, the _Solution_ of all Metals into _menstruums_ are much the same with the _Vitriols_, or Crystals. It seems therefore very probable, that those colours which are made by the _precipitation_ of those particles out of the _menstruums_ by transparent _precipitating_ liquors should be transparent also. Thus Gold _precipitates_ with _oyl of Tartar_, or _spirit of Urine_ into a brown Yellow, Copper with spirit of _Urine_ into a Mucous blue, which retains its transparency. A solution of sublimate (as the same Illustrious Authour I lately mention’d shews in his 40. Experiment) _precipitates_ with oyl of _Tartar_ _per deliquium_, into an Orange colour’d _precipitate_; nor is it less probable, that the _calcination_ of those _Vitriols_ by the fire, should have their particles transparent: Thus _Saccarum Saturni_, or the _Vitriol of Lead_ by _calcination_ becomes a deep Orange-colour’d _minium_, which is a kind of _precipitation_ by some Salt which proceeds from the fire; common _Vitriol_ _calcin’d_, yields a deep Brown Red, &c.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00363", "bookId": 15491, "start": 319834, "end": 320110, "sha256": "5acc6c595baf3205d8e43366791a1e142200e87b1d20f752fd6855a8e224af85", "text": "A third Argument, that the particles of Metals are transparent, is, that being _calcin’d_, and melted with Glass, they tinge the Glass with transparent colours. Thus the _Calx_ of Silver tinges the Glass on which it is anneal’d with a lovely Yellow, or Gold colour, &c.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00364", "bookId": 15491, "start": 320114, "end": 320939, "sha256": "e021dc86724d75ce8aa586e901b2f59226aa1401669e47f0c6b0b906be4ddbe6", "text": "And that the parts of Metals are transparent, may be farther argued from the transparency of Leaf-gold, which held against the light, both to the naked eye, and the _Microscope_, exhibits a deep Green. And though I have never seen the other Metals _laminated_ so thin, that I was able to perceive them transparent, yet, for Copper and Brass, if we had the same conveniency for _laminating_ them, as we have for Gold, we might, perhaps, through such plates or leaves, find very differing degrees of Blue, or Green; for it seems very probable, that those Rays that rebound from them ting’d, with a deep Yellow, or pale Red, as from Copper, or with a pale Yellow, as from Brass, have past through them; for I cannot conceive how by reflection alone those Rays can receive a tincture, taking any _Hypothesis_ extant.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00365", "bookId": 15491, "start": 320943, "end": 322146, "sha256": "798e20f9c4ff283ce1b98cc13545a00a0d7697216361f097c623cd30c425762d", "text": "So that we see there may a sufficient reason be drawn from these instances, why those colours which we are unable to _dilute_ to the palest Yellow, or Blue, or Green, are not therefore to be concluded not to be a deeper degree of them; for supposing we had a great company of small _Globular_ essence Bottles, or round Glass bubbles, about the bigness of a Walnut, fill’d each of them with a very deep mixture of Saffron, and that every one of them did appear of a deep Scarlet colour, and all of them together did _exhibit_ at a distance, a deep dy’d Scarlet body. It does not follow, because after we have come nearer to this _congeries_, or mass, and divided it into its parts, and examining each of its parts severally or apart, we find them to have much the same colour with the whole mats; it does not, I say, therefore follow, that if we could break those _Globules_ smaller, or any other ways come to see a smaller or thinner parcel of the ting’d liquor that fill’d those bubbles, that that ting’d liquor must always appear Red, or of a Scarlet hue, since if Experiment be made, the quite contrary will ensue; for it is capable of being _diluted_ into the palest Yellow.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00366", "bookId": 15491, "start": 322150, "end": 323016, "sha256": "c3cb703bcb9c54881186acb0a73747a8d75add8983edcb3d6ffe19fe7c94ea81", "text": "Now, that I might avoid all the Objections of this kind, by exhibiting an Experiment that might by ocular proof convince those whom other reasons would not prevail with, I provided me a _Prismatical Glass_, made hollow, just in the form of a Wedge, such as is represented in the tenth _Figure_ of the sixth _Scheme_. The two _parallelogram_ sides ABCD, ABEF, which met at a point, were made of the clearest Looking-glass plates well ground and polish’d that I could get; these were joyn’d with hard cement to the _triangular_ sides, BCE, ADF, which were of Wood; the _Parallelogram_ base BCEF, likewise was of Wood joyn’d on to the rest with hard cement, and the whole _Prismatical_ Box was exactly stopt every where, but onely a little hole near the base was left, whereby the Vessel could be fill’d with any liquor, or emptied again at pleasure.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00367", "bookId": 15491, "start": 323020, "end": 324158, "sha256": "3e5a02dc58f829833ff0ce74dd93ed84967768e6a1c5f8d8d793237a3c9d1723", "text": "One of these Boxes (for I had two of them) I fill’d with a pretty deep tincture of _Aloes_, drawn onely with fair Water, and then stopt the hole with a piece of Wax, then, by holding this Wedge against the Light, and looking through it, it was obvious enough to see the tincture of the liquor near the edge of the Wedge where it was but very thin, to be a pale but well colour’d Yellow, and further and further from the edge, as the liquor grew thicker and thicker, this tincture appear’d deeper and deeper, so that near the blunt end, which was seven Inches from the edge and three Inches and an half thick; it was of a deep and well colour’d Red. Now, the clearer and purer this tincture be, the more lovely will the deep Scarlet be, and the fouler the tincture be, the more dirty will the Red appear; so that some dirty tinctures have afforded their deepest Red much of the colour of burnt Oker or _Spanish_ brown; others as lovely a colour as _Vermilion_, and some much brighter; but several others, according as the tinctures were worse or more foul, exhibited various kinds of Reds, of very differing degrees.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00368", "bookId": 15491, "start": 324162, "end": 324910, "sha256": "1552e1172cd2049c282f68ea410dca21c35cb120f8b5491f81cd62682573e892", "text": "The other of these Wedges, I fill’d with a most lovely tincture of Copper, drawn from the filings of it, with spirit of _Urine_, and this Wedge held as the former against the Light, afforded all manner of Blues, from the faintest to the deepest, so that I was in good hope by these two, to have produc’d all the varieties of colours imaginable; for I thought by this means to have been able by placing the two _Parallelogram_ sides together, and the edges contrary ways, to have so mov’d them to and fro one by another, as by looking through them in several places, and through several thicknesses, I should have compounded, and consequently have seen all those colours, which by other like compositions of colours would have ensued.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00369", "bookId": 15491, "start": 324914, "end": 325772, "sha256": "de5b5ffe21f0a19cc630f92a04859577fb4172bad37ab8d9ab2386557a4266c8", "text": "But insteed of meeting with what I look’d for, I met with somewhat more admirable; and that was, that I found my self utterly unable to see through them when placed both together, though they were transparent enough when asunder; and though I could see through twice the thickness, when both of them were fill’d with the same colour’d liquors, whether both with the Yellow, or both with the Blue, yet when one was fill’d with the Yellow, the other with the Blue, and both looked through, they both appear’d dark, onely when the parts near the tops were look’d through, they exhibited Greens, and those of very great variety, as I expected, but the Purples and other colours, I could not by any means make, whether I endeavour’d to look through them both against the Sun, or whether I plac’d them against the hole of a darkned room.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00370", "bookId": 15491, "start": 325776, "end": 326391, "sha256": "83c69d737f796a1dbb72cc7cb797d53cd5ae49e8f36b456a0ae42ac6490138ac", "text": "But notwithstanding this mis-ghessing, I proceeded on with my trial in a dark room, and having two holes near one another, I was able, by placing my Wedges against them, to mix the ting’d Rays that past through them, and fell on a sheet of white Paper held at a convenient distance from them as I pleas’d; so that I could make the Paper appear of what colour I would, by varying the thicknesses of the Wedges, and consequently the tincture of the Rays that past through the two holes, and sometimes also by varying the Paper, that is, insteed of a white Paper, holding a gray, or a black piece of Paper.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00371", "bookId": 15491, "start": 326395, "end": 326912, "sha256": "f2eb89de9d4cecc1b43e6ad2c5d914ff1f45b0dd4b45fdc16189c3318e93a21e", "text": "Whence I experimentally found what I had before imagin’d, that all the varieties of colours imaginable are produc’d from several degrees of these two colours, namely, Yellow and Blue, or the mixture of them with light and darkness, that is, white and black. And all those almost infinite varieties which Limners and Painters are able to make by compounding those several colours they lay on their Shels or _Palads_, are nothing else, but some _compositum_, made up of some one or more, or all of these four.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00372", "bookId": 15491, "start": 326916, "end": 328038, "sha256": "7ba05df77014813e164b174cdba5190d2ed4ed55b4e7d3ab3e89dcda8fd19344", "text": "Now, whereas it may here again be objected, that neither can the Reds be made out of the Yellows, added together, or laid on in greater or less quantity, nor can the Yellows be made out of the Reds though laid never so thin; and as for the addition of White or Black, they do nothing but either whiten or darken the colours to which they are added, and not at all make them of any other kind of colour: as for instance, _Vermilion_, by being temper’d with White Lead, does not at all grow more Yellow, but onely there is made a whiter kind of Red. Nor does Yellow _Oker_, though laid never so thick, produce the colour of _Vermilion_, nor though it be temper’d with Black, does it at all make a Red; nay, though it be temper’d with White, it will not afford a fainter kind of Yellow, such as _masticut_, but onely a whiten’d Yellow; nor will the Blues be _diluted_ or deepned after the manner I speak of, as _Indico_ will never afford so fine a Blue as _Ultramarine_ or _Bise_; nor will it, temper’d with _Vermilion_, ever afford a Green, though each of them be never so much temper’d with white.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00373", "bookId": 15491, "start": 328042, "end": 328787, "sha256": "1a09bfad76de10bf31aa1da2c6192db0ac8ccd957b41c3d93aae21df40504a3b", "text": "To which I answer, that there is a great difference between _diluting_ a colour and whitening of it; for _diluting_ a colour, is to make the colour’d parts more thin, so that the ting’d light, which is made by trajecting those ting’d bodies, does not receive so deep a tincture; but whitening a colour is onely an intermixing of many clear reflections of light among the same ting’d parts; deepning also, and darkning or blacking a colour, are very different; for deepning a colour, is to make the light pass through a greater quantity of the same tinging body; and darkning or blacking a colour, is onely interposing a multitude of dark or black spots among the same ting’d parts, or placing the colour in a more faint light.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00374", "bookId": 15491, "start": 328791, "end": 329958, "sha256": "f9df7142b389ba8f69f8ddb1ccae8cde06ad8386ced85be74378552b246fea44", "text": "First therefore, as to the former of these operations, that is, diluting and deepning, most of the colours us’d by the Limners and Painters are incapable of, to wit, _Vermilion_ and _Red-lead_, and _Oker_, because the ting’d parts are so exceeding small, that the most curious Grindstones we have, are not able to separate them into parts actually divided so small as the ting’d particles are; for looking on the most curiously ground _Vermilion_, and _Oker_, and _Red-lead_, I could perceive that even those small _corpuscles_ of the bodies they left were compounded of many pieces, that is, they seem’d to be small pieces compounded of a multitude of lesser ting’d parts: each piece seeming almost like a piece of Red Glass, or ting’d Crystal all flaw’d; so that unless the Grindstone could actually divide them into smaller pieces then those flaw’d particles were, which compounded that ting’d mote I could see with my _Microscope_, it would be impossible to _dilute_ the colour by grinding, which, because the finest we have will not reach to do in _Vermilion_ or _Oker_, therefore they cannot at all, or very hardly be _diluted_.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00375", "bookId": 15491, "start": 329962, "end": 330753, "sha256": "0511461841101a84f3ebfff11f79d0b993731ec0ddc81a2e6b1318a98f061c8f", "text": "Other colours indeed, whose ting’d particles are such as may be made smaller, by grinding their colour, may be _diluted_. Thus several of the Blues may be _diluted_, as _Smalt_ and _Bise_; and _Masticut_, which is Yellow, may be made more faint: And even _Vermilion_ it self may, by too much grinding, be brought to the colour of _Red-lead_, which is but an Orange colour, which is confest by all to be very much upon the Yellow. Now, though perhaps somewhat of this _diluting_ of _Vermilion_ by overmuch grinding may be attributed to the Grindstone, or muller, for that some of their parts may be worn off and mixt with the colour, yet there seems not very much, for I have done it on a Serpentine-stone with a muller made of a Pebble, and yet observ’d the same effect follow.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00376", "bookId": 15491, "start": 330757, "end": 331369, "sha256": "50a079aefbcdd034b8532ad187223ff5dd00784e73c1b703a650c2dffc57fc42", "text": "And secondly, as to the other of these operations on colours, that is, the deepning of them, Limners and Painters colours are for the most part also uncapable. For they being for the most part _opacous_; and that _opacousness_, as I said before, proceeding from the particles, being very much flaw’d, unless we were able to joyn and reunite those flaw’d particles again into one piece, we shall not be able to deepen the colour, which since we are unable to do with most of the colours which are by Painters accounted _opacous_, we are therefore unable to deepen them by adding more of the same kind.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00377", "bookId": 15491, "start": 331373, "end": 332270, "sha256": "74485147a090497abfaabe24780a511b152b75cf4dd5fcf8ddf583953f38aa85", "text": "But because all those _opacous_ colours have two kinds of beams or Rays reflected from them, that is, Rays unting’d, which are onely reflected from the outward surface, without at all penetrating of the body, and ting’d Rays which are reflected from the inward surfaces or flaws after they have suffer’d a two-fold refraction; and because that transparent liquors mixt with such _corpuscles_, do, for the most part, take off the former kind of reflection; therefore these colours mixt with Water or Oyl, appear much deeper than when dry, for most part of that white reflection from the outward surface is remov’d. Nay, some of these colours are very much deepned by the mixture with some transparent liquor, and that because they may perhaps get between those two flaws, and so consequently joyn two or more of those flaw’d pieces together; but this happens but in a very few.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00378", "bookId": 15491, "start": 332274, "end": 332449, "sha256": "66356495920c09297424f0e57155666b05e07f95407476d705afe67147429f42", "text": "Now, to shew that all this is not _gratis dictum_, I shall set down some Experiments which do manifest these things to be probable and likely, which I have here deliver’d.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00379", "bookId": 15491, "start": 332453, "end": 332996, "sha256": "05e70a98e80f9b33a2c54a216a49f8c1a9e0f1f8ae5b4393da568255c77355ed", "text": "For, first, if you take any ting’d liquor whatsoever, especially if it be pretty deeply ting’d, and by any means work it into a froth, the _congeries_ of that froth shall seem an _opacous_ body, and appear of the same colour, but much whiter than that of the liquor out of which it is made. For the abundance of reflections of the Rays against those surfaces of the bubbles of which the froth consists, does so often rebound the Rays backwards, that little or no light can pass through, and consequently the froth appears _opacous_.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00380", "bookId": 15491, "start": 333000, "end": 333403, "sha256": "79f1bc9b72ad52e21d107bb354067fc6f5227bacd29e83dccf76f5b185cb53ab", "text": "Again, if to any of these ting’d liquors that will endure the boiling there be added a small quantity of fine flower (the parts of which through the _Microscope_ are plainly enough to be perceiv’d to consist of transparent _corpuscles_) and suffer’d to boyl till it thicken the liquor, the mass of the liquor will appear _opacous_, and ting’d with the same colour, but very much whiten’d.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00381", "bookId": 15491, "start": 333407, "end": 333671, "sha256": "032fa3a8342779926bffef720e03584cd52d7e977104434d6c1cced454d66e63", "text": "Thus, if you take a piece of transparent Glass that is well colour’d, and by heating it, and then quenching it in Water, you flaw it all over, it will become _opacous_, and will exhibit the same colour with which the piece is ting’d, but fainter and whiter.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00382", "bookId": 15491, "start": 333675, "end": 334300, "sha256": "66f13633c1e601ade87be8f1c98319d491a4a7351fefa025ad73fcf586dc5108", "text": "Or, if you take a Pipe of this transparent Glass, and in the flame of a Lamp melt it, and then blow it into very thin bubbles, then break those bubbles, and collect a good parcel of those _laminæ_ together in a Paper, you shall find that a small thickness of those Plates will constitute an _opacous_ body, and that you may see through the mass of Glass before it be thus _laminated_, above four times the thickness: And besides, they will now afford a colour by reflection as other _opacous_ (as they are call’d) colours will, but much fainter and whiter than that of the Lump or Pipe out of which they were made.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00383", "bookId": 15491, "start": 334304, "end": 334509, "sha256": "08bbb5815367f2b7b7ff13c6894bb8e70a45167e75988102a2431e8a7e4c5a86", "text": "Thus also, if you take _Putty_, and melt it with any transparent colour’d Glass, it will make it become an _opacous_ colour’d lump, and to yield a paler and whiter colour than the lump by reflection.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00384", "bookId": 15491, "start": 334513, "end": 335131, "sha256": "787715a28efd76ba6c01f4a85d23e58f4726c16ae12f955f5b416b9ceb341c92", "text": "The same thing may be done by a preparation of _Antimony_, as has been shewn by the Learned _Physician_, Dr. _C.M._ in his Excellent Observations and Notes on _Nery’s Art of Glass_; and by this means all transparent colours become _opacous_, or _ammels_. And though by being ground they lose very much of their colour, growing much whiter by reason of the multitude of single reflections from their outward surface, as I shew’d afore, yet the fire that in the nealing or melting re-unites them, and so renews those _spurious_ reflections, removes also those whitenings of the colour that proceed from them.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00385", "bookId": 15491, "start": 335135, "end": 335373, "sha256": "13698241bd519320e94ec74c0f5acd6edc209eae33758ff3374e4be1648d05fd", "text": "As for the other colours which Painters use, which are transparent, and us’d to varnish over all other paintings, ’tis well enough known that the laying on of them thinner or thicker, does very much _dilute_ or deepen their colour.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00386", "bookId": 15491, "start": 335377, "end": 335863, "sha256": "fab88c7dae96fe9e3b2237cc9cbe2801bc91156033e2be32bde4ee074353784e", "text": "Painters Colours therefore consisting most of them of solid particles, so small that they cannot be either re-united into thicker particles by any Art yet known, and consequently cannot be deepned; or divided into particles so small as the flaw’d particles that exhibit that colour, much less into smaller, and consequently cannot be _diluted_; It is necessary that they which are to imitate all kinds of colours, should have as many degrees of each colour as can be procur’d.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00387", "bookId": 15491, "start": 335867, "end": 336247, "sha256": "153077673138fcebd3c29e3e1f9654e3404c52ff0fee7e7553896b6873f7c51f", "text": "And to this purpose, both Limners and Painters have a very great variety both of Yellows and Blues, besides several other colour’d bodies that exhibit very compounded colours, such as Greens and Purples; and others that are compounded of several degrees of Yellow, or several degrees of Blue, sometimes unmixt, and sometimes compounded with several other colour’d bodies.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00388", "bookId": 15491, "start": 336251, "end": 336545, "sha256": "c92bf8754872fc449ff539877e455e0dc1842f2eb9c4d80214940df0bfc28a61", "text": "The Yellows, from the palest to the deepest Red or Scarlet, which has no intermixture of Blue, are _pale and deep Masticut, Orpament, English Oker, brown Oker, Red-Lead, and Vermilion, burnt English Oker, and burnt brown Oker_, which last have a mixture of dark or dirty parts with them, &c.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00389", "bookId": 15491, "start": 336549, "end": 336715, "sha256": "a1892596d010ea9d50035de9a971bcc06a906927235e7f7f8676de08732c7428", "text": "Their Blues are several kinds of _Smalts_, and _Verditures_, and _Bise_, and _Ultramarine_, and _Indico_, which last has many dirty or dark parts intermixt with it.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00390", "bookId": 15491, "start": 336719, "end": 336895, "sha256": "fcb179683520415b02ba0d8fff14c74cf569bea3ad88144c9f09b132b1455504", "text": "Their compounded colour’d bodies, as _Pink_, and _Verdigrese_, which are Greens, the one a _Popingay_, the other a _Sea-green_; then _Lac_, which is a very lovely _Purple_.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00391", "bookId": 15491, "start": 336899, "end": 338490, "sha256": "bbff02e4efdad06dd1ef99dcab332674095f3a4bc8d390dff50f70af1a28ade8", "text": "To which may be added their Black and White, which they also usually call Colours, of each of which they have several kinds, such as _Bone Black_, made of _Ivory_ burnt in a close Vessel, and _Blue Black_, made of the small coal of _Willow_, or some other Wood; and _Cullens earth_, which is a kind of brown Black, &c. Their usual Whites are either artificial or natural _White Lead_, the last of which is the best they yet have, and with the mixing and tempering these colours together, are they able to make an imitation of any colour whatsoever: Their Reds or deep Yellows, they can _dilute_ by mixing pale Yellows with them, and deepen their pale by mixing deeper with them; for it is not with _Opacous_ colours as it is with transparent, where by adding more Yellow to yellow, it is deepned, but in _opacous_ _diluted_. They can whiten any colour by mixing White with it, and darken any colour by mixing Black, or some dark and dirty colour. And in a word, most of the colours, or colour’d bodies they use in Limning and Painting, are such, as though mixt with any other of their colours, they preserve their own hue, and by being in such very smal parts dispers’d through the other colour’d bodies, they both, or altogether represent to the eye a _compositum_ of all; the eye being unable, by reason of their smalness, to distinguish the peculiarly colour’d particles, but receives them as one intire _compositum_: whereas in many of these, the _Microscope_ very easily distinguishes each of the compounding colours distinct, and exhibiting its own colour.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00392", "bookId": 15491, "start": 338494, "end": 338760, "sha256": "3f22fdb1422aaded9e33d9234de5eda1c078d533307cf7e74542673e0f63a2b0", "text": "Thus have I by gently mixing _Vermilion_ and _Bise_ dry, produc’d a very fine Purple, or mixt colour, but looking on it with the _Microscope_, I could easily distinguish both the Red and the Blue particles, which did not at all produce the _Phantasm_ of Purple.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00393", "bookId": 15491, "start": 338764, "end": 339257, "sha256": "78321f150a9e1aaa7a167e3870ef4c09cdbae7f72b8a177f9316d0af2e6c95d1", "text": "To summ up all therefore in a word, I have not yet found any solid colour’d body, that I have yet examin’d, perfectly _opacous_; but those that are least transparent are _Metalline_ and _Mineral_ bodies, whose particles generally, seeming either to be very small, or very much flaw’d, appear for the most part _opacous_, though there are very few of them that I have look’d on with a _Microscope_, that have not very plainly or circumstantially manifested themselves transparent.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00394", "bookId": 15491, "start": 339261, "end": 340022, "sha256": "d13da403c230573d3f2cfd6af365af6d6f4851a57f41f57024b0c9ad72ccc713", "text": "And indeed, there seem to be so few bodies in the world that are _in minimis_ opacous, that I think one may make it a rational _Query_, Whether there be any body absolutely thus _opacous_? For I doubt not at all (and I have taken notice of very many circumstances that make me of this mind) that could we very much improve the _Microscope_, we might be able to see all those bodies very plainly transparent, which we now are fain onely to ghess at by circumstances. Nay, the Object Glasses we yet make use of are such, that they make many transparent bodies to the eye, seem _opacous_ through them, which if we widen the Aperture a little, and cast more light on the objects, and not charge the Glasses so deep, will again disclose their transparency.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00395", "bookId": 15491, "start": 340026, "end": 341096, "sha256": "63a8772517bc0b3ac606b42cfc9d1b7a3f91f4c4df3917d66e95c61751728949", "text": "Now, as for all kinds of colours that are dissolvable in Water, or other liquors, there is nothing so manifest, as that all those ting’d liquors are transparent; and many of them are capable of being _diluted_ and compounded or mixt with other colours, and divers of them are capable of being very much chang’d and heightned, and fixt with several kinds of _Saline menstruums_. Others of them upon compounding, destroy or vitiate each others colours, and _precipitate_, or otherwise very much alter each others tincture. In the true ordering and _diluting_, and deepning, and mixing, and fixing of each of which, consists one of the greatest mysteries of the Dyers; of which particulars, because our _Microscope_ affords us very little information, I shall add nothing more at present; but onely that with a very few tinctures order’d and mixt after certain ways, too long to be here set down, I have been able to make an appearance of all the various colours imaginable, without at all using the help of _Salts_, or _Saline menstruums_ to vary them.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00396", "bookId": 15491, "start": 341100, "end": 341987, "sha256": "f4c705c4c44d8f90c359b13680ce9f8dcad767d0e6c8722cb3934a30fdb82a9a", "text": "As for the mutation of Colours by _Saline menstruums_, they have already been so fully and excellently handled by the lately mention’d Incomparable _Authour_, that I can add nothing, but that of a multitude of trials that I made, I have found them exactly to agree with his Rules and Theories; and though there may be infinite instances, yet may they be reduc’d under a few Heads, and compris’d within a very few Rules. And generally I find, that _Saline menstruums_ are most operative upon those colours that are Purple, or have some degree of Purple in them, and upon the other colours much less. The _spurious_ pulses that compose which, being (as I formerly noted) so very neer the middle between the true ones, that a small variation throws them both to one side, or both to the other, and so consequently must make a vast mutation in the formerly appearing Colour.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00397", "bookId": 15491, "start": 341998, "end": 342031, "sha256": "92bf9343d426ee004c3cb7caa3f283036b2f3626f071d4807d38518427facd12", "text": "* * * * *", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00398", "bookId": 15491, "start": 342037, "end": 342089, "sha256": "bcef954b4e92361ffe09fe62749b5796704e8a8732df994a5d816079bbeeb868", "text": "Observ. XI. _Of _Figures_ observ’d in small Sand._", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00399", "bookId": 15491, "start": 342093, "end": 343084, "sha256": "0bfce88ffd68d3b9cac50119709638eb4cea91de89b608a3c0a3e6d7f6d83978", "text": "Sand generally seems to be nothing else but exceeding small Pebbles, or at least some very small parcels of a bigger stone; the whiter kind seems through the _Microscope_ to consist of small transparent pieces of some _pellucid_ body, each of them looking much like a piece of _Alum_, or _Salt Gem_; and this kind of Sand is angled for the most part irregularly, without any certain shape, and the _granules_ of it are for the most part flaw’d, through amongst many of them it is not difficult to find some that are perfectly _pellucid_, like a piece of clear Crystal, and divers likewise most curiously shap’d, much after the manner of the bigger _Stiriæ_ of Crystal, or like the small Diamants I observ’d in certain Flints, of which I shall by and by relate; which last particular seems to argue, that this kind of Sand is not made by the comminution of greater transparent Crystaline bodies, but by the _concretion_ or _coagulation_ of Water, or some other fluid body.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00400", "bookId": 15491, "start": 343088, "end": 343573, "sha256": "56bdcdf251e2a2f0fc89e544cd13da205043a41fe42dc52bb9229783c8cf9311", "text": "There are other kinds of courser Sands, which are browner, and have their particles much bigger; these, view’d with a _Microscope_, seem much courser and more _opacous_ substances, and most of them are of some irregularly rounded Figures; and though they seem not so _opacous_ as to the naked eye, yet they seem very foul and cloudy, but neither do these want curiously transparent, no more than they do regularly figur’d and well colour’d particles, as I have often found.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00401", "bookId": 15491, "start": 343577, "end": 344593, "sha256": "b0843c5e0c23fe78fa926554a6d486c0604f8254db0b029bf1645b1b869d1a23", "text": "There are multitudes of other kinds of Sands, which in many particulars, plainly enough discoverable by the _Microscope_, differ both from these last mention’d kinds of Sands, and from one another: there seeming to be as great variety of Sands, as there is of Stones. And as amongst Stones some are call’d precious from their excellency, so also are there Sands which deserve the same Epithite for their beauty; for viewing a small parcel of _East-India_ Sand (which was given me by my highly honoured friend, Mr. _Daniel Colwall_) and, since that, another parcel, much of the same kind, I found several of them, both very transparent like precious Stones, and regularly figur’d like Crystal, _Cornish_ Diamants, some Rubies, &c. and also ting’d with very lively and deep colours, like _Rubys_, _Saphyrs_, _Emeralds_, &c. These kinds of granules I have often found also in _English_ Sand. And ’tis easie to make such a counterfeit Sand with deeply ting’d Glass, Enamels and Painters colours.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00402", "bookId": 15491, "start": 344597, "end": 344812, "sha256": "8fabaa6f6d24c5b1b5375058229fd69e85709d51fa1835ed92a340b4fcffbcd2", "text": "It were endless to describe the multitudes of Figures I have met with in these kind of minute bodies, such as _Spherical_, _Oval_, _Pyramidal_, _Conical_, _Prismatical_, of each of which kinds I have taken notice.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00403", "bookId": 15491, "start": 344816, "end": 345793, "sha256": "6d0782dc8cf4773a523a6fb5cb98afd36d836c7c2a5b275d930eef7637db8b35", "text": "But amongst many others, I met with none more observable than this pretty Shell (described in the _Figure_ X. of the fifth _Scheme_) which, though as it was light on by chance, deserv’d to have been omitted (I being unable to direct any one to find the like) yet for its rarity was it not inconsiderable, especially upon the account of the information it may afford us. For by it we have a very good instance of the curiosity of Nature in another kind of Animals which are remov’d, by reason of their minuteness, beyond the reach of our eyes, so that as there are several sorts of Insects, as Mites, and others, so small as not yet to have had any names; (some of which I shall afterwards describe) and small Fishes, as Leeches in Vinegar; and smal vegetables, as Moss, and Rose-Leave-plants; and small Mushroms, as mould: so are there, it seems, small Shel-fish likewise, Nature shewing her curiosity in every Tribe of _Animals_, _Vegetables_, and _Minerals_.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00404", "bookId": 15491, "start": 345797, "end": 346962, "sha256": "5c8e2ac3684e075bafcf1d0196f9c71c560abdfa275183091839837b3aa33c5e", "text": "I was trying several small and single Magnifying Glasses, and casually viewing a parcel of white Sand, when I perceiv’d one of the grains exactly shap’d and wreath’d like a Shell, but endeavouring to distinguish it with my naked eye, it was so very small, that I was fain again to make use of the Glass to find it; then, whilest I thus look’d on it, with a Pin I separated all the rest of the granules of Sand, and found it afterwards to appear to the naked eye an exceeding small white spot, no bigger than the point of a Pin. Afterwards I view’d it every way with a better _Microscope_ and found it on both sides, and edge-ways, to resemble the Shell of a small Water-Snail with a flat spiral Shell: it had twelve wreathings, a, b, c, d, e, &c. all very proportionably growing one less than another toward the middle or center of the Shell, where there was a very small round white spot. I could not certainly discover whether the Shell were hollow or not, but it seem’d fill’d with somewhat, and ’tis probable that it might be _petrify’d_ as other larger Shels often are, such as are mention’d in the seventeenth _Observation_.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00405", "bookId": 15491, "start": 346973, "end": 347006, "sha256": "92bf9343d426ee004c3cb7caa3f283036b2f3626f071d4807d38518427facd12", "text": "* * * * *", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00406", "bookId": 15491, "start": 347012, "end": 347048, "sha256": "8184c470c5af407925fe3b9504191778bdd60cfa8e7ccd807729cb19899bab75", "text": "Observ. XII. _Of _Gravel_ in Urine._", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00407", "bookId": 15491, "start": 347052, "end": 347600, "sha256": "bfb2d213ad380b0ea7585f54e3b69449536f535430927b6ad106b6cf26460dd5", "text": "I Have often observ’d the Sand or Gravel of Urine, which seems to be a _tartareous_ substance, generated out of a _saline_ and a _terrestrial_ substance _crystalliz’d_ together, in the form of _Tartar_, sometimes sticking to the sides of the _Urinal_, but for the most part sinking to the bottom, and there lying in the form of coorse common Sand; these, through the _Microscope_, appear to be a company of small bodies, partly transparent and partly _opacous_, some White, some Yellow, some Red, others of more brown and duskie colours.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00408", "bookId": 15491, "start": 347604, "end": 348392, "sha256": "5ad3945299f449e59a6e03f1294a8e5074b68309857beaf596cc54c113d561df", "text": "The Figure of them is for the most part flat, in the manner of Slats or such like plated Stones, that is, each of them seem to be made up of several other thinner Plates, much like _Muscovie Glass_, or _English Sparr_ to the last of which, the white plated Gravel seems most likely; for they seem not onely plated like that, but their sides shap’d also into _Rhombs_, _Rhomboeids_, and sometimes into _Rectangles_ and _Squares_. Their bigness and Figure may be seen in the second _Figure_ of the seventh _Plate_, which represents about a dozen of them lying upon a plate ABCD, some of which, as a, b, c, d seem’d more regular than the rest, and e, which was a small one, sticking on the top of another, was a perfect _Rhomboeid_ on the top, and had four _Rectangular_ sides.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00409", "bookId": 15491, "start": 348396, "end": 348582, "sha256": "e3c68d5dbc0b7df6bce12dc5863452503dec53300c4d428857bed95374d771bc", "text": "The line E which was the measure of the _Microscope_, is ¹⁄₃₂ part of an _English_ Inch, so that the greatest bredth of any of them, exceeded not ¹⁄₁₂₈ part of an Inch.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00410", "bookId": 15491, "start": 348586, "end": 349075, "sha256": "9b60d15f310fbd594ed14dc02a6e0e3dfe2f5eb6019f08833d77c88723c8392d", "text": "Putting these into several liquors, I found _oyl of Vitriol_, _Spirit of Urine_, and several other _Saline menstruums_ to dissolve them; and the first of these in less than a minute without _Ebullition_, Water, and several other liquors, had no sudden operation upon them. This I mention, because those liquors that dissolve them, first make them very white, not _vitiating_, but rather rectifying their Figure, and thereby make them afford a very pretty object for the _Microscope_.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00411", "bookId": 15491, "start": 349079, "end": 349368, "sha256": "6e6f1f7e4510b3a4301a9e43c713ce5354d44870ba9780ad8add84c0cdb75c4a", "text": "How great an advantage it would be to such as are troubled with the Stone, to find some _menstruum_ might dissolve them without hurting the Bladder, is easily imagin’d, since some _injections_ made of such bodies might likewise dissolve the stone, which seems much of the same nature.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00412", "bookId": 15491, "start": 349372, "end": 350188, "sha256": "2149ce28868d0451800ee5fae683136b424ef4f00dd48f30add2db9d92bac230", "text": "It may therefore, perhaps, be worthy some Physicians enquiry, whether there may not be something mixt with the Urine in which the Gravel or Stone lies, which may again make it dissolve it, the first of which seems by it’s regular Figures to have been sometimes _Crystalliz’d_ out of it. For whether this _Crystallization_ be made in the manner as _Alum_, _Peter_, &c. are _crystallized_ out of a cooling liquor, in which, by boyling they have been dissolv’d; or whether it be made in the manner of _Tartarum Vitriolatum_, that is, by the _Coalition_ of an _acid_ and a _Sulphureous_ substance, it seems not impossible, but that the liquor it lies in, may be again made a _dissolvent_ of it. But leaving these inquiries to Physicians or Chymists, to whom it does more properly belong, I shall proceed.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00413", "bookId": 15491, "start": 350199, "end": 350232, "sha256": "92bf9343d426ee004c3cb7caa3f283036b2f3626f071d4807d38518427facd12", "text": "* * * * *", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00414", "bookId": 15491, "start": 350238, "end": 350303, "sha256": "46cb0a6c1850efef92d05bdd9c716994bec71538004df8be18ffad2054b3c434", "text": "Observ. XIII. _Of the small _Diamants_, or _Sparks_ in _Flints_._", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00415", "bookId": 15491, "start": 350307, "end": 350842, "sha256": "620f53cf1bdd7d01a230b9faafaa0a75d15e314e170470a91ef842c8ac805804", "text": "Chancing to break a Flint stone in pieces, I found within it a certain cavity all crusted over with a very pretty candied substance, some of the parts of which, upon changing the posture of the Stone, in respect of the _Incident_ light, exhibited a number of small, but very vivid reflections; and having made use of my _Microscope_, I could perceive the whole surface of that cavity to be all beset with a multitude of little _Crystaline_ or _Adamantine_ bodies, so curiously shap’d, that it afforded a not unpleasing object.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00416", "bookId": 15491, "start": 350846, "end": 351204, "sha256": "60988cde7c05b790dabc66f6b048647db0c932c9057e354cf1b03b3eaf21bc59", "text": "Having considered those vivid _repercussions_ of light, I found them to be made partly from the plain external surface of these regularly figured bodies (which afforded the vivid reflections) and partly to be made from within the somewhat _pellucid_ body, that is, from some surface of the body, opposite to that superficies of it which was next the eye.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00417", "bookId": 15491, "start": 351208, "end": 351929, "sha256": "13380b4b38c35acc651abba465740610f53abf7e1c7e8cabe52da079c0a32f78", "text": "And because these bodies were so small, that I could not well come to make Experiments and Examinations of them, I provided me several small _stiriæ_ of Crystals or Diamants, found in great quantities in _Cornwall_ and are therefore commonly called _Cornish Diamants_: these being very _pellucid_, and growing in a hollow cavity of a Rock (as I have been several times informed by those that have observ’d them) much after the same manner as these do in the Flint, and having besides their outward surface very regularly shap’d, retaining very near the same Figures with some of those I observ’d in the other, became a convenient help to me for the Examination of the proprieties of those kinds of bodies.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00418", "bookId": 15491, "start": 351933, "end": 352546, "sha256": "77e88cf7c83a063d0f584d620c1046c2b92c402b022ee1b3818443aa3001e991", "text": "And first for the Reflections, in these I found it very observable, That the brightest reflections of light proceeded from within the _pellucid_ body; that is, that the Rays admitted through the _pellucid_ substance in their getting out on the opposite side, were by the contiguous and strong reflecting surface of the Air very vividly reflected, so that more Rays were reflected to the eye by this surface, though the Ray in entring and getting out of the Crystal had suffer’d a double refraction, than there were from the outward surface of the Glass where the Ray had suffer’d no refraction at all.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00419", "bookId": 15491, "start": 352550, "end": 353810, "sha256": "3230a12ac5d209fc56b7745766c780811e49bb48c45473063d79957b7613923a", "text": "And that this was the surface of the Air that gave so vivid a _re-percussion_ I try’d by this means I sunk half of a _stiria_ in Water, so that only Water was contiguous to the under surface, and then the internal reflection was so exceedingly faint, that it was scarce discernable. Again, I try’d to alter this vivid reflection by keeping off the Air, with a body not fluid, and that was by rubbing and holding my finger very hard against the under surface, so as in many places the pulp of my finger did touch the Glass, without any _interjacent_ air between, then observing the reflection, I found, that wheresoever my finger or skin toucht the surface, from that part there was no reflection, but in the little furrows or creases of my skin, where there remain’d little small lines of air, from them was return’d a very vivid reflection as before. I try’d further, by making the surface of very pure Quicksilver to be contiguous to the under surface of this _pellucid_ body, and then the reflection from that was so exceedingly more vivid than from the air, as the reflection from air was than the reflection from the Water; from all which trials I plainly saw, that the strong reflecting air was the cause of this _Phænomenon_.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00420", "bookId": 15491, "start": 353814, "end": 354581, "sha256": "12ebd0bd6056c7e28d23fbd5fcaaa3d612ce5e5472b583e11b7cf80da9e3ef8d", "text": "And this agrees very well with the _Hypothesis_ of light and _Pellucid_ bodies which I have mention’d in the description of _Muscovy-glass_; for we there suppose Glass to be a _medium_, which does less resist the pulse of light, and consequently, that most of the Rays incident on it enter into it, and are refracted towards the _perpendicular_; whereas the air I suppose to be a body that does more resist it, and consequently more are _re-percuss’d_ then do enter it: the same kind of trials have I made, with _Crystalline Glass_, with drops of fluid bodies, and several other ways, which do all seem to agree very exactly with this _Theory_. So that from this Principle well establish’d, we may deduce severall Corollaries not unworthy observation.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00421", "bookId": 15491, "start": 354585, "end": 355158, "sha256": "5e7cf4c5092303473ee21153065ac3b64757d1090a9736528a7900ea65a7b44c", "text": "And the first is; that it plainly appears by this, that the production of the Rainbow is as much to be ascribed to the reflection of the concave surface of the air, as to the refraction of the _Globular_ drops: this will be evidently manifest by these Experiments, if you _foliate_ that part of a Glass-ball that is to reflect an _Iris_, as in the _Cartesian_ Experiment, above mention’d, the reflections will be abundantly more strong, and the colours more vivid: and if that part of the surface be touch’d with Water, scarce affords any sensible colour at all.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00422", "bookId": 15491, "start": 355162, "end": 355910, "sha256": "6962b4b62eb26a66eb7df78fc02db02efe67b23dc3b45fb8de7f491a75711643", "text": "Next we learn, that the great reason why _pellucid_ bodies beaten small are white, is from the multitude of reflections, not from the particles of the body, but from the _contiguous_ surface of the air. And this is evidently manifested, by filling the _Interstitia_ of those powder’d bodies with Water, whereby their whiteness presently disappears. From the same reason proceeds the whiteness of many kinds of Sands, which in the _Microscope_ appear to be made up of a multitude of little _pellucid_ bodies, whose brightest reflections may by the _Microscope_ be plainly perceiv’d to come from their internal surfaces; and much of the whiteness of it may be destroy’d by the affusion of fair Water to be contiguous to those surfaces.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00423", "bookId": 15491, "start": 355914, "end": 356325, "sha256": "005944fd2d0f4576b860344497b1dbce783e041ede181b46a6976744e779a31e", "text": "The whiteness also of froth, is for the most part to be ascribed to the reflection of the light from the surface of the air within the Bubbles, and very little to the reflection from the surface of the Water it self: for this last reflection does not return a quarter so many Rays, as that which is made from the surface of the air, as I have certainly found by a multitude of Observations and Experiments.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00424", "bookId": 15491, "start": 356329, "end": 356857, "sha256": "50276ec434f29538d895dbb512d2fe6fef96ac17d8ed012a64adc1b9dcba10fb", "text": "The whiteness of _Linnen_, _Paper_, _Silk_, &c. proceeds much from the same reason, as the _Microscope_ will easily discover; for the Paper is made up of an abundance of _pellucid_ bodies, which afford a very plentifull reflection from within, that is, from the concave surface of the air contiguous to its component particles; wherefore by the affusion of Water, Oyl, Tallow, Turpentine, &c. all those reflections are made more faint, and the beams of light are suffer’d to traject & run through the Paper more freely.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00425", "bookId": 15491, "start": 356861, "end": 357920, "sha256": "188589a2ae55abf2ec4832529d99907549539972b971ae19395f657c889ea0ea", "text": "Hence further we may learn the reason of the whiteness of many bodies, and by what means they may be in part made _pellucid_: As white Marble for instance, for this body is composed of a _pellucid_ body exceedingly flaw’d, that is, there are abundance of thin, and very fine cracks or chinks amongst the multitude of particles of the body, that contain in them small parcels of air, which do so _re-percuss_ and drive back the penetrating beams, that they cannot enter very deep within that body; which the _Microscope_ does plainly inform us to be made up of a _Congeries_ of _pellucid_ particles. And I further found it somewhat more evidently by some attempts I made towards the making transparent Marble, for by heating the Stone a little, and soaking it in Oyl, Turpentine, Oyl of Turpentine, &c., I found that I was able to see much deeper into the body of Marble than before; and one trial, which was not with an unctuous substance, succeeded better than the rest, of which, when I have a better opportunity, I shall make further trial.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00426", "bookId": 15491, "start": 357924, "end": 358705, "sha256": "a05d7f1ed9ed68623266fe232dfe668c2e34ff85ba7eacc5972356f0472badfe", "text": "This also gives us a probable reason of the so much admired _Phænomena_, of the _Oculus Mundi_, an _Oval_ stone, which commonly looks like white Alabaster, but being laid a certain time in Water, it grows _pellucid_, and transparent, and being suffer’d to lie again dry, it by degrees loses that transparency, and becomes white as before. For the Stone being of a hollow spongie nature, has in the first and last of these appearances, all those pores fill’d with the obtunding and reflecting air; whereas in the second, all those pores are fill’d with a _medium_ that has much the same refraction with the particles of the Stone, and therefore those two being _contiguous_, make, as ’twere, one _continued medium_, of which more is said in the 15. _Observation_.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00427", "bookId": 15491, "start": 358709, "end": 359717, "sha256": "6f9927a8327b2d8236a24d2145488410fedac11c923df0a70aa5bcb2372d5994", "text": "There are a multitude of other _Phænomena_, that are produc’d from this same Principle, which as it has not been taken notice of by any yet that I know, so I think, upon more diligent observation, will it not be found the least considerable. But I have here onely time to hint _Hypotheses_, and not to prosecute them so fully as I could wish; many of them having a vast extent in the production of a multitude of _Phænomena_, which have been by others, either not attempted to be explain’d, or else attributed to some other cause than what I have assign’d, and perhaps than the right; and therefore I shall leave this to the prosecution of such as have more leisure: onely before I leave it, I must not pretermit to hint, that by this Principle, multitudes of the _Phænomena_ of the air, as about _Mists_, _Clouds_, _Meteors_, _Haloes_, &c. are most plainly and (perhaps) truly explicable; multitudes also of the _Phænomena_ in colour’d bodies, as liquors, &c. are deducible from it.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00428", "bookId": 15491, "start": 359721, "end": 360283, "sha256": "9be404cf379bb0bb447a1dc7e07e4f51594aad293472d91db466fb946fbf2bb8", "text": "And from this I shall proceed to a second considerable _Phænomenon_ which these Diamants exhibit, and that is the regularity of their _Figure_, which is a propriety not less general than the former, It comprising within its extent, all kinds of _Metals_, all kinds of _Minerals_, most _Precious stones_, all kinds of _Salts_, multitudes of _Earths_, and almost all kinds of _fluid bodies_. And this is another propiety, which, though a little superficially taken notice of by some, has not, that I know, been so much as attempted to be explicated by any.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00429", "bookId": 15491, "start": 360287, "end": 364345, "sha256": "5d19ca6cea47e7596412bf6084c03c453cc77c8d9c2764da9bcf947245b77821", "text": "This propriety of bodies, as I think it the most worthy, and next in order to be consider’d after the contemplation of the _Globular Figure_, so have I long had a desire as wel as a determination to have prosecuted it if I had had an opportunity, having long since propos’d to my self the method of my enquiry therein, it containing all the allurements that I think any enquiry is capable of: For, first I take it to proceed from the most simple principle that any kind of form can come from, next the _Globular_, which was therefore the first I set upon, and what I have therein perform’d, I leave the Judicious Reader to determine. For as that form proceeded from a propiety of fluid bodies, which I have call’d _Congruity_, or _Incongruity_; so I think, had I time and opportunity, I could make probable, that all these regular Figures that are so conspicuously _various_ and _curious_, and do so adorn and beautifie such multitudes of bodies, as I have above hinted, arise onely from three or four several positions or postures of _Globular_ particles, and those the most plain, obvious, and necessary conjunctions of such figur’d particles that are possible, so that supposing such and such plain and obvious causes concurring the _coagulating particles_ must necessarily compose a body of such a determinate regular Figure, and no other, and this with as much necessity and obviousness as a fluid body encompast with a _Heterogeneous_ fluid must be protruded into a _Spherule_ or _Globe_. And this I have _ad oculum_ demonstrated with a company of bullets, and some few other very simple bodies; so that there was not any regular Figure, which I have hitherto met withall, of any of those bodies that I have above named, that I could not with the composition of bullets or globules, and one or two other bodies, imitate, even almost by shaking them together. And thus for instance may we find that the _Globular_ bullets will of themselves, if put on an inclining plain, so that they may run together, naturally run into a _triangular_ order, composing all the variety of figures that can be imagin’d to be made out of _æquilateral triangles_; and such will you find, upon trial, all the Surfaces of _Alum_ to be compos’d of: For three bullets lying on a plain, as close to one another as they can compose an _æquilatero-triangular_ form, as in A in the 7. _Scheme_. If a fourth be joyn’d to them on either side as closely as it can, they four compose the most regular Rhombus consisting of two _æquilateral triangles_, as B. If a fifth be joyn’d to them on either side in as close a position as it can, which is the propriety of the _Texture_, it makes a _Trapezium_, or four-sided Figure, two of whose angles are 120. and two 60. degrees, as C. If a sixth be added, as before, either it makes an _æquilateral triangle_, as D, or a Rhomboeid, as E, or an _Hexangular Figure_, as F, which is compos’d of two _primary Rhombs_. If a seventh be added, it makes either an _æquilatero-hexagonal_ Figure, as G, or some kind of six-sided _Figure_, as H, or I. And though there be never so many placed together, they may be rang’d into some of these lately mentioned Figures, all the angles of which will be either _60_. degrees, or 120. as the figure K. which is an _æquiangular hexagonal_ Figure is compounded of 12. _Globules_, or may be of 25, or 27, or 36, or 42, &c. and by these kinds of texture, or position of globular bodies, may you find out all the variety of regular shapes, into which the smooth surfaces of _Alum_ are form’d, as upon examination any one may easily find; nor does it hold only in superficies, but in solidity also, for it’s obvious that a fourth _Globule_ laid upon the third in this texture, composes a regular _Tetrahedron_, which is a very usual Figure of the _Crystals_ of _Alum_. And (to hasten) there is no one Figure into which _Alum_ is observ’d to be crystallized, but may by this texture of _Globules_ be imitated, and by no other.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00430", "bookId": 15491, "start": 364349, "end": 365306, "sha256": "c96f1291ba05d5603d2ef1f0960a397ce50af96ea008fb425586f638d2534178", "text": "I could instance also in the Figure of _Sea-salt_, and _Sal-gem_, that it is compos’d of a texture of _Globules_, placed in a _cubical_ form, as L, and that all the Figures of those Salts may be imitated by this texture of _Globules_ and by no other whatsoever. And that the forms of _Vitriol_ and of _Salt-Peter_, as also of _Crystal_, _Hore-frost_, &c. are compounded of these two textures, but modulated by certain proprieties: But I have not here time to insist upon, as I have not neither to shew by what means _Globules_ come to be thus context, and what those _Globules_ are, and many other particulars requisite to a full and intelligible explication of this propriety of bodies. Nor have I hitherto found indeed an opportunity of prosecuting the inquiry so farr as I design’d; nor do I know when I may, it requiring abundance of time, and a great deal of assistance to go through with what I design’d; the model of which was this:", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00431", "bookId": 15491, "start": 365310, "end": 365476, "sha256": "4bbab7441701810401d0c33176d49b8514b313f93a5078f2b4f097fa06950e50", "text": "First, to get as exact and full a collection as I could, of all the differing kinds of Geometrical figur’d bodies, some three or four several bodies of each kind.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00432", "bookId": 15491, "start": 365480, "end": 365717, "sha256": "b3f9633bff41d12591d8b3834c1299433ddd8b7499e5f8e7cd0757362c8f6e00", "text": "Secondly, with them to get as exact a History as possibly I could learn of their places of Generation or finding, and to enquire after as many circumstances that tended to the Illustrating of this Enquiry, as possibly I could observe.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00433", "bookId": 15491, "start": 365721, "end": 365924, "sha256": "9d13e112d1cc929661940190d7ad130b4a03b3b0d43b6647de8bc1553644a899", "text": "Thirdly, to make as many trials as upon experience I could find requisite, in Dissolutions and Coagulations of several crystallizing Salts; for the needfull instruction and information in this Enquiry.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00434", "bookId": 15491, "start": 365928, "end": 366153, "sha256": "f2abeb55f20766f561b6376d99a8c5a477cca20eefcf5f0f332c8c80726b6b31", "text": "Fourthly, to make several trials on divers other bodies, as Metals, Minerals, and Stones, by dissolving them in several _Menstruums_, and crystalizing them, to see what Figures would arise from those several _Compositums_.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00435", "bookId": 15491, "start": 366157, "end": 366393, "sha256": "de3e711009b493b0cb4d338c0f17cec6faa23512a5a2235cc9a4186d7d418621", "text": "Fifthly, to make Compositions and Coagulations of several Salts together into the same mass, to observe of what Figure the product of them would be; and in all, to note as many circumstances as I should judge conducive to my Enquiry.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00436", "bookId": 15491, "start": 366397, "end": 366527, "sha256": "61b9aa1384aad04d30d579d794f3b22fbc0ab09c0ed42c647c0c1703c29efa69", "text": "Sixthly, to enquire the closeness or rarity of the texture of these bodies, by examining their gravity, and their refraction, &c.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00437", "bookId": 15491, "start": 366531, "end": 366689, "sha256": "e60433fe5aaf814a4ba640834dabd22565344b52f8266d47dfd4eb3444db2683", "text": "Seventhly, to enquire particularly what operations the fire has upon several kinds of Salts, what changes it causes in their Figures, Textures, or Energies.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00438", "bookId": 15491, "start": 366693, "end": 366876, "sha256": "5c709f86cf1ea7ea5ed224760b815b54a2d3192bc42d466bae92aca86557adac", "text": "Eighthly, to examine their manner of dissolution, or acting upon those bodies dissoluble in them; The texture of those bodies before and after the process. And this for the History.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00439", "bookId": 15491, "start": 366880, "end": 367024, "sha256": "9f8c50943e6f5d63523eeac3a27c9cab9f84acd99d9adeabe7a3c7dc79f3f1a3", "text": "Next for the Solution, To have examin’d by what, and how many means, such and such Figures, actions and effects could be produc’d possibly.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00440", "bookId": 15491, "start": 367028, "end": 367272, "sha256": "b7968e93f6a7288a015decb5ec33401ddf413bd2985ea1a8716600acf302d8c1", "text": "And lastly, from all circumstances well weigh’d, I should have endeavoured to have shewn which of them was most likely, and (if the informations by these Enquiries would have born it) to have demonstrated which of them it must be, and was.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00441", "bookId": 15491, "start": 367276, "end": 368042, "sha256": "466971f287cb56b567cbdd3a147a4e19868290521103bcb879e7260e42797725", "text": "But to proceed, As I believe it next to the Globular the most simple; so do I, in the second place, judge it not less pleasant; for that which makes an Enquiry pleasant, are, first a noble _Inventum_ that promises to crown the successfull endeavour; and such must certainly the knowledge of the efficient and concurrent causes of all these curious Geometrical Figures be, which has made the Philosophers hitherto to conclude nature in these things to play the Geometrician, according to that saying of _Plato_, Ὁ Θεὸς γεομετρεῖ. Or next, a great variety of matter in the Enquiry; and here we meet with nothing less than the _Mathematicks_ of nature, having every day a new Figure to contemplate, or a variation of the same in another body,", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00442", "bookId": 15491, "start": 368046, "end": 368815, "sha256": "82194464d7d6617dcc696951f9212bf9ae4495b030d67c1d18c8cdfdc8886372", "text": "Which do afford us a third thing, which will yet more sweeten the Enquiry, and that is, a multitude of information; we are not so much to grope in the dark, as in most other Enquiries, where the _Inventum_ is great; for having such a multitude of instances to compare, and such easie ways of generating, or compounding and of destroying the form, as in the _Solution_ and _Crystallization_ of Salts, we cannot but learn plentifull information to proceed by. And this will further appear from the universality of the Principle which Nature has made use of almost in all inanimate bodies. And therefore, as the contemplation of them all conduces to the knowledg of any one; so from a Scientifical knowledge of any one does follow the fame of all, and every one.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00443", "bookId": 15491, "start": 368819, "end": 369374, "sha256": "2a269afaccb581e3f4256a100ac822b8e5984935137d88c1407be540c5ccbd14", "text": "And fourthly, for the usefulness of this knowledge, when acquir’d; certainly none can doubt, that considers that it caries us a step forward into the Labyrinth of Nature, in the right way towards the end we propose our selves in all Philosophical Enquiries. So that knowing what is the form of Inanimate or Mineral bodies, we shall be the better able to proceed in our next Enquiry after the forms of Vegetative bodies; and last of all, of Animate ones, that seeming to be the highest step of natural knowledge that the mind of man is capable of.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00444", "bookId": 15491, "start": 369385, "end": 369418, "sha256": "92bf9343d426ee004c3cb7caa3f283036b2f3626f071d4807d38518427facd12", "text": "* * * * *", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00445", "bookId": 15491, "start": 369424, "end": 369477, "sha256": "dd9e47399593b71e79c431c0b8ea4dffecc835c8012120b2b436eac1bdd01741", "text": "Observ. XIV. _Of several kindes of frozen _Figures_._", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00446", "bookId": 15491, "start": 369481, "end": 370249, "sha256": "4dce216c79c02edf13aba1bbdf6b005273205dacb29a438ea00fb9dc8fe613c6", "text": "I have very often in a Morning, when there has been a great _hoar-frost_, with an indifferently magnifying _Microscope_, observ’d the small _Stiriæ_, or Crystalline beard, which then usually covers the face of most bodies that lie open to the cold air, and found them to be generally _Hexangular prismatical_ bodies, much like the long Crystals of _Salt-peter_, save onely that the ends of them were differing: for whereas those of _Nitre_ are for the most part _pyramidal_, being terminated either in a point or edge; these of Frost were hollow, and the cavity in some seem’d pretty deep, and this cavity was the more plainly to be seen, because usually one or other of the six _parallelogram_ sides was wanting, or at least much shorter then the rest.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00447", "bookId": 15491, "start": 370253, "end": 371277, "sha256": "f038842cec86763c52693faa694f3b7462651a4ce2b813803b80494b67a840d0", "text": "But this was onely the Figure of the _Bearded hoar-frost_; and as for the particles of other kinds of _hoar-frosts_, they seem’d for the most part irregular, or of no certain Figure. Nay, the parts of those curious branchings, or _vortices_, that usually in cold weather tarnish the surface of Glass, appear through the _Microscope_ very rude and unshapen, as do most other kinds of frozen _Figures_, which to the naked eye seem exceeding neat and curious, such as the Figures of _Snow_, frozen _Urine_, _Hail_, several _Figures_ frozen in common Water, &c. Some Observations of each of which I shall hereunto annex, because if well consider’d and examin’d, they may, perhaps, prove very instructive for the finding out of what I have endeavoured in the preceding Observation to shew, to be (next the _Globular Figure_ which is caus’d by _congruity_, as I hope I have made probable in the sixth _Observation_) the most simple and plain operation of Nature, of which, notwithstanding we are yet ignorant.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00448", "bookId": 15491, "start": 371281, "end": 371283, "sha256": "6177fd2664d785bf3c9f9b89a952d6510465c507c1b37b3b4d93295eb409896b", "text": "I.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00449", "bookId": 15491, "start": 371287, "end": 371385, "sha256": "36fb0ffc0bf642b2d96541d20343e4352bbe86b480cc96b6138c502568bfbf09", "text": "_Several Observables in the _six-branched_ Figures form’d on the surface of Urine by freezing._", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00450", "bookId": 15491, "start": 371389, "end": 371646, "sha256": "49c874af90b75e35e13f0d3ae083ae1eee1b938045b1f96f18a8fae446f46446", "text": "1 [11]The Figures were all frozen almost even with the surface of the _Urine_ in the Vessel; but the bigger stems were a little _prominent_ above that surface, and the parts of those stems which were nearest the center (a) were biggest above the surface.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00451", "bookId": 15491, "start": 371650, "end": 372088, "sha256": "ca9118fb2d5b714f43fcd1f2a24f886e763ef131873aa4f45fd79a22ffeafc8e", "text": "2 I have observ’d several kinds of these Figures, some smaller, no bigger then a Two-pence, others so bigg, that I have by measure found one of its stems or branches above four foot long; and of these, some were pretty round, having all their branches pretty neer alike; other of them were more extended towards one side, as usually those very large ones were, which I have observ’d in Ditches which have been full of foul water.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00452", "bookId": 15491, "start": 372092, "end": 372319, "sha256": "134708986b9929e101224cc023dced115bb2fc0f575d02928ed8d52de2245f21", "text": "3 None of all these Figures I have yet taken notice of, had any regular position in respect of one another, or of the sides of the Vessel; nor did I find any of them equally to exactness extended every way from the center a.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00453", "bookId": 15491, "start": 372323, "end": 372943, "sha256": "c7f5ebc7f4021c10a3c269b39d9e346aaf0d31fddbb946139faee6d8c53ceee8", "text": "4 Where ever there was a center, the branchings from it, ab, ac, ad, ae, af, ag, were never fewer, or more then six, which usually concurr’d, or met one another very neer in the same point or center, a; though oftentimes not exactly; and were enclin’d to each other by an angle, of very near sixty degrees, I say, very neer, because, though having endeavoured to measure them the most accurately I was able, with the largest Compasses I had, I could not find any sensible variation from that measure, yet the whole six-branched Figure seeming to compose a solid angle, they must necessarily be somewhat less.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00454", "bookId": 15491, "start": 372947, "end": 373329, "sha256": "b53dc4db4c6ce35ca00840f432e9d86bfc533903ba2b75fd479ba68d6cd15276", "text": "5 The middle lines or stems of these branches, ab, ac, ad, ae, af, ag, seem’d somewhat whiter, and a little higher then any of the _intermediate_ branchings of these Figures; and the center a, was the most _prominent_ part of the whole Figure, seeming the _apex_ of a solid angle or _pyramid_, each of the six plains being a little enclin’d below the surface of the _Urin_.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00455", "bookId": 15491, "start": 373333, "end": 373668, "sha256": "f514903b9d371d0a7376bd0774ef5bcf0b378e9c7277873af91e222464a70bdb", "text": "6 The lateral branchings issuing out of the great ones, such as op, mq, &c. were each of them inclin’d to the great ones, by the same angle of about sixty degrees, as the great ones were one to another, and always the bigger branchings were _prominent_ above the less, and the less above the least, by proportionate _gradations_.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00456", "bookId": 15491, "start": 373672, "end": 374096, "sha256": "e210d3cda137eec5f67e4b47550ce1367db75ce70b5edbe4bd1e5e50e09619e8", "text": "7 The _lateral_ branches shooting out of the great ones, went all of them from the center, and each of them was parallel to that great branch, next to which it lay; so that as all the branches on one side were parallel to one another, so were they all of them to the _approximate_ great branch, as po, qr, as they were parallel to each other, and shot from the center, so were they parallel also to the great branch ab.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00457", "bookId": 15491, "start": 374100, "end": 374231, "sha256": "000e6996b027bec9042950bba9e4b8fecd5a811523814698227d6168fb7de42d", "text": "8 Some of the stems of the six branches proceeded straight, and of a thickness that gradually grew sharper towards the end, as ag.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00458", "bookId": 15491, "start": 374235, "end": 374667, "sha256": "5b149d53dce64844b5f5e523de4c7fd81d9a9cd6e6cc06416175df551f9829a1", "text": "9 Others of the stems of those branches grew bigger and knotty towards the middle, and the branches also as well as stems, from Cylinders grew into Plates, in a most admirable and curious order, so exceeding regular and delicate, as nothing could be more, as is visible in ab, ac, ad, ae, af, but towards the end of some of these stems, they began again to grow smaller and to recover their former branchings, as about k and n.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00459", "bookId": 15491, "start": 374671, "end": 374973, "sha256": "58e93220544903f704085fa32e4332b87976a43980df682a10bb53ec6997a01c", "text": "10 Many of the _lateral_ branches had _collateral_ branches (if I may so call them) as qm had many such as st, and most of those again _subcollateral_, as vw, and these again had others less, which one may call _laterosubcollateral_, and these again others, and they others, &c. in greater Figures.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00460", "bookId": 15491, "start": 374977, "end": 375289, "sha256": "7bb72b6cae91cd2062b24b4ca973513b91684c951fff95c858cae428ae3a6f09", "text": "11 The branchings of the main Stems joyn’d not together by any regular line, nor did one side of the one lie over the other side of the other, but the small _collateral_ and _subcollateral_ branches did lie at top of one another according to a certain order or method, which I always observ’d to be this.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00461", "bookId": 15491, "start": 375293, "end": 375599, "sha256": "5676642de221b94acc616ca2cccba893408abda1a5101eeae622e6cd3de4cb85", "text": "12 That side of a _collateral_ or _subcollateral_, &c. branch, lay over the side of the _approximate_ (as the feathers in the wing of a Bird) whose branchings proceeded parallel to the last biggest stem from which it sprung, and not to the biggest stem of all, unless that were a second stem backwards.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00462", "bookId": 15491, "start": 375603, "end": 375775, "sha256": "d6827880a9b65fef73cc5bded442197efee98a2eb9e73330f949beb4f62f6378", "text": "13 This rule that held in the branchings of the _Sexangular Figure_ held also in the branchings of any other great or small stem, though it did not proceed from a center.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00463", "bookId": 15491, "start": 375779, "end": 375950, "sha256": "28a78560da78bf2e8b94468857a0f270a57eed88172eac78f749c7da2c4fdcc5", "text": "14 The exactness and curiosity of the figuration of these branches, was in every particular so transcendent, that I judge it almost impossible for humane art to imitate.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00464", "bookId": 15491, "start": 375954, "end": 376104, "sha256": "827741826bf917144ae3d543c7365ad74311fc1ed35d2e6904d6a2d37b054362", "text": "15 Tasting several cleer pieces of this _Ice_, I could not find any _Urinous_ taste in them, but those few I tasted, seem’d as _insipid_ as water.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00465", "bookId": 15491, "start": 376108, "end": 376826, "sha256": "e252b1f24cc03c812a0e97f74e96756b2f1179ecb592cbf7dc3f339eea4a6a9b", "text": "16 A figuration somewhat like this, though indeed in some particulars much more curious, I have several times observ’d in _regulus martis stellatus_, but with this difference, that all the stems and branchings are bended in a most excellent and regular order, whereas in _Ice_ the stems and branchings are streight, but in all other particulars it agrees with this, and seems indeed nothing but one of these stars, or branched Figures frozen on _Urine_, distorted, or wreathed a little, with a certain proportion: _Lead_ also that has _Arsenick_ and some other things mixt with it, I have found to have its surface, when suffer’d to cool, figured somewhat like the branchings of _Urine_, but much smaller.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00466", "bookId": 15491, "start": 376830, "end": 377595, "sha256": "e40aa737c0994e5ada5d54b84f3a11a0a7ee025fc94cbbd43967bfd64b2a48dc", "text": "17 But there is a _Vegetable_ which does exceedingly imitate these branches, and that is, _Fearn_, where the main stem may be observ’d to shoot out branches, and the stems of each of these _lateral_ branches, to send forth _collateral_, and those _subcollateral_ and those _laterosubcollateral_, &c. and all those much after the same order with the branchings, divisions, and subdivisions in the branchings of these Figures in frozen _Urine_; so that if the Figures of both be well consider’d, one would ghess that there were not much greater need of a _seminal principle_ for the production of _Fearn_, then for the production of the branches of _Urine_, or the _Stella martis_, there seeming to be as much form and beauty in the one as in the other.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00467", "bookId": 15491, "start": 377599, "end": 378160, "sha256": "d87aa5803d74f66b0b3dc2abf31a515630efc231c3eb1bf08253ec51817fb2c9", "text": "And indeed, this Plant of _Fearn_, if all particulars be well consider’d, will seem of as simple, and uncompounded a form as any _Vegetable_, next to _Mould_ or _Mushromes_, and would next after the invention of the forms of those, deserve to be enquir’d into; for notwithstanding several have affirm’d it to have seed, and to be propagated thereby; yet, though I have made very diligent enquiry after that particular, I cannot find that there is any part of it that can be imagin’d to be more seminal then another: But this onely here by the by:", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00468", "bookId": 15491, "start": 378164, "end": 378222, "sha256": "1bcdc6ff524049d32263292d9ee7dd68e502bb5d5d4735f67b5d69db2c1ef6ad", "text": "For the freezing Figures in _Urine_, I found it requisite,", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00469", "bookId": 15491, "start": 378226, "end": 378330, "sha256": "0f2ea633c63f605ea3398ed43d0f5cdb44f5704596056064d6f06e176259e545", "text": "First, that the Superficies be not disturbed with any wind, or other commotion of the air, or the like.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00470", "bookId": 15491, "start": 378334, "end": 378552, "sha256": "9c8472fa4344ada078cab04f7f48eb2362f6ad34d08cb863652a860802edb89e", "text": "Secondly, that it be not too long exposed, so as that the whole bulk be frozen, for oftentimes, in such cases, by reason of the swelling the of _Ice_, or from some other cause, the curious branched Figures disappear.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00471", "bookId": 15491, "start": 378556, "end": 378737, "sha256": "46accae580583968fe1e56473b21b974fd3aae0e5bf0f8a54eb4bb9e49bc90fb", "text": "Thirdly, an artificial freezing with _Snow_ and _Salt_, apply’d to the outside of the containing Vessel, succeeds not well, unless there be a very little quantity in the Vessel.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00472", "bookId": 15491, "start": 378741, "end": 378946, "sha256": "a284a6132ae0c7ec536595346c1705288f4698a3a9e62a84acbfcd33fc3200be", "text": "Fourthly, If you take any cleer and smooth Glass, and wetting all the inside of it with _Urine_, you expose it to a very sharp freezing, you will find it cover’d with a very regular and curious Figure.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00473", "bookId": 15491, "start": 378950, "end": 378953, "sha256": "c7e15ed5d6855b3d9c4d1d9c8df86084dd7b9012db5a79f92d626c17e0c445fc", "text": "II.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00474", "bookId": 15491, "start": 378957, "end": 378991, "sha256": "64a63d62be39c9058a3b3875b145296f38c8f3c0a4a670b3a85d0ec683e97271", "text": "_Observables in figur’d _Snow_._", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00475", "bookId": 15491, "start": 378995, "end": 379550, "sha256": "8c4310b0fafa77f9b2c96bb41c12eb4df5923a60d2589e96fcbc92605562e858", "text": "Exposing a piece of black Cloth, or a black Hatt to the falling _Snow_, I have often with great pleasure, observ’d such an infinite variety of curiously figur’d _Snow_, that it would be as impossible to draw the Figure and shape of every one of them, as to imitate exactly the curious and Geometrical _Mechanisme_ of Nature in any one. Some coorse draughts, such as the coldness of the weather, and the ill provisions, I had by me for such a purpose, would permit me to make, I have here added in the Second _Figure_ of the Eighth _Scheme_.[12]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00476", "bookId": 15491, "start": 379554, "end": 379851, "sha256": "25b6b3caa9cbde85eaccf501f53c5750a26f5ad31a6563ceab1e9444a6af15ab", "text": "In all which I observ’d, that if they were of any regular Figures, they were always branched out with six principal branches, all of equal length, shape and make, from the center, being each of them inclin’d to either of the next branches on either side of it, by an angle of sixty degrees.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00477", "bookId": 15491, "start": 379855, "end": 380115, "sha256": "339913a4358099146e767491843106180137c9d4653cc7ba066f46a0913bbd83", "text": "Now, as all these stems were for the most part in one flake exactly of the same make, so were they in differing Figures of very differing ones; so that in a very little time I have observ’d above an hundred several cizes and shapes of these starry flakes.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00478", "bookId": 15491, "start": 380119, "end": 380810, "sha256": "bd86fb34a63cc93fcf9dd77296d6f9384ed071b4ebf159a87a9999d4bc64007f", "text": "The branches also out of each stem of any one of these flakes, were exactly alike in the same flake; so that of whatever Figure one of the branches were, the other five were sure to be of the same, very exactly, that is, if the branchings of the one were small _Perallelipipeds_ or Plates, the branchings of the other five were of the same; and generally, the branchings were very conformable to the rules and method observ’d before, in the Figures on _Urine_, that is, the branchings from each side of the stems were parallel to the next stem on that side, and if the stems were plated, the branches also were the same; if the stems were very long, the branches also were so, &c.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00479", "bookId": 15491, "start": 380814, "end": 382403, "sha256": "4b637408f5c3dd6b96033ea3a4fca24c3238d94f41e82b1afa25ce05fe1089d5", "text": "Observing some of these figur’d flakes with a _Microscope_, I found them not to appear so curious and exactly figur’d as one would have imagin’d, but like Artificial Figures, the bigger they were magnify’d, the more irregularities appear’d in them; but this irregularity seem’d ascribable to the thawing and breaking of the flake by the fall, and not at all to the defect of the _plastick_ virtue of Nature, whose curiosity in the formation of most of these kind of regular Figures, such as those of _Salt_, _Minerals_, &c. appears by the help of the _Microscope_, to be very many degrees smaller then the most acute eye is able to perceive without it. And though one of these six-branched Stars appear’d here below much of the shape described in the Third _Figure_ of the Eighth _Scheme_; yet I am very apt to think, that could we have a sight of one of them through a _Microscope_ as they are generated in the Clouds before their Figures are vitiated by external accidents, they would exhibit abundance of curiosity and neatness there also, though never so much magnify’d: For since I have observ’d the Figures of _Salts_ and _Minerals_ to be some of them so exceeding small, that I have scarcely been able to perceive them with the _Microscope_, and yet have they been regular, and since (as far as I have yet examin’d it) there seems to be but one and the same cause that produces both these effects, I think it not irrational to suppose that these pretty figur’d Stars of _Snow_, when at first generated might be also very regular and exact.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00480", "bookId": 15491, "start": 382407, "end": 382411, "sha256": "f8c27f79b3c0d27534bf7d7fb53370d9cb62a85bdf46de1012aebc74804c0124", "text": "III.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00481", "bookId": 15491, "start": 382415, "end": 382460, "sha256": "c01f63d8b59ed6649a41b47b34c32a688081684d52ce3bbc9b5bd686cd32ce94", "text": "_Several kinds of Figures in _Water_ frozen._", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00482", "bookId": 15491, "start": 382464, "end": 383612, "sha256": "616baf04bce32304364b731165005566f1e98240d11fc936f365d940c6bf9a48", "text": "Putting fair Water into a large capacious Vessel of _Glass_, and exposing it to the cold, I observ’d after a little time, several broad, flat, and thin _laminæ_, or plates of _Ice_, crossing the bulk of the water and one another very irregularly, onely most of them seem’d to turn one of their edges towards that side of the Glass which was next it, and seem’d to grow, as ’twere from the inside of the Vessel inwards towards the middle, almost like so many blades of _Fern_. Having taken several of these plates out of water on the blade of a Knife, I observ’d them figur’d much after the manner of _Herring bones_, or _Fern blades_, that is, there was one bigger stem in the middle like the back-bone, and out of it, on either side, were a multitude of small _stiriæ_, or _icicles_, like the smaller bones, or the smaller branches in _Fern_, each of these branches on the one side, were parallel to all the rest on the same side, and all of them seem’d to make an angle with the stem, towards the top, of sixty degrees, and towards the bottom or root of this stem, of 120. See the fourth _Figure_ of the 8. _Plate_.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00483", "bookId": 15491, "start": 383616, "end": 383980, "sha256": "86a48ca1b16d7d4f7eee93f3754410e0c2ced99bf113426a8523d822ce88b08c", "text": "I observ’d likewise several very pretty Varieties of Figures in Water, frozen on the top of a broad flat Marble-stone, expos’d to the cold with a little Water on it, some like feathers, some of other shapes, many of them were very much of the shape exprest in the fifth Figure of the 8. _Scheme_, which is extremely differing from any of the other Figures.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00484", "bookId": 15491, "start": 383984, "end": 384451, "sha256": "df8784f76f3b54776b9c35773ee967da3111dd5f905b6ecb30aa6fd3da959ac8", "text": "I observ’d likewise, that the shootings of _Ice_ on the top of Water, beginning to freeze, were in streight _prismatical_ bodies much like those of _roch-peter_, that they crost each other usually without any kind of order or rule, that they were always a little higher then the surface of the Water that lay between them; that by degrees those _interjacent_ spaces would be fill’d with _Ice_ also, which usually would be as high as the surface of the rest.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00485", "bookId": 15491, "start": 384455, "end": 384982, "sha256": "fd125ccb30803d701579352c725c20dc5529e84d70122e870f448077c4592dfc", "text": "In flakes of _Ice_ that had been frozen on the top of Water to any considerable thickness, I observ’d that both the upper and the under sides of it were curiously quill’d, furrow’d, or grain’d, as it were, which when the Sun shone on the Plate, was exceeding easily to be perceiv’d to be much after the shape of the lines in the 6. _Figure_ of the 8. _Scheme_, that is, they consisted of several streight ends of parallel Plates, which were of divers lengths and angles to one another without any certain order.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00486", "bookId": 15491, "start": 384986, "end": 386620, "sha256": "26503ee1f479116a8f46a4849a86676885229b1d618095c2b9473981e9b97f6e", "text": "The cause of all which regular Figures (and of hundreds of others, namely of _Salts_, _Minerals_, _Metals_, &c. which I could have here inserted, would it not have been too long) seems to be deducible from the same Principles, which I have (in the 13. _Observation_) hinted only, having not yet had time to compleat a _Theory_ of them. But indeed (which I there also hinted) I judge it the second step by which the _Pyramid_ of natural knowledge (which is the knowledge of the form of bodies) is to be ascended: And whosoever will climb it, must be well furnish’d with that which the Noble _Verulam_ calls _Scalam Intellectus_; he must have scaling Ladders, otherwise the steps are so large and high, there will be no getting up them, and consequently little hopes of attaining any higher station, such as to the knowledge of the most simple principle of Vegetation manifested in Mould and Mushromes, which, as I elsewhere endeavoured to shew, seems to be the third step; for it seems to me, that the Intellect of man is like his body, destitute of wings, and cannot move from a lower to a higher and more sublime station of knowledg, otherwise then step by step, nay even there where the way is prepar’d and already made passible; as in the _Elements of Geometry_, or the like, where it is fain to climb a whole _series_ of Propositions by degrees, before it attains the knowledge of one _Probleme_. But if the ascent be high, difficult and above its reach, it must have recourse to a _novum organum_, some new engine and contrivance, some new kind of _Algebra_, or _Analytick Art_ before it can surmount it.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00487", "bookId": 15491, "start": 386631, "end": 386664, "sha256": "92bf9343d426ee004c3cb7caa3f283036b2f3626f071d4807d38518427facd12", "text": "* * * * *", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00488", "bookId": 15491, "start": 386670, "end": 386745, "sha256": "c0060937b8ddafee6518326ee771d5596a0357c22f7a6c83d1d7984c944d6a9e", "text": "Observ. XV. _Of _Kettering-stone_, and of the pores of _Inanimate_ bodies._", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00489", "bookId": 15491, "start": 386749, "end": 388085, "sha256": "beb1be0f3dfda4558b3c95da380119dd90e5dbd251b8be6d48790acf6461d10d", "text": "[13]This Stone which is brought from _Kettering_ in _Northampton-Shire_, and digg’d out of a Quarry, as I am inform’d, has a grain altogether admirable, nor have I ever seen or heard of any other stone that has the like. It is made up of an innumerable company of small bodies, not all of the same cize or shape, but for the most part, not much differing from a Globular form, nor exceed they one another in Diameter above three or four times; they appear to the eye, like the Cobb or Ovary of a _Herring_, or some smaller fishes, but for the most part, the particles seem somewhat less, and not so uniform; but their variation from a perfect globular ball, seems to be only by the pressure of the _contiguous_ bals which have a little deprest and protruded those toucht sides inward, and forc’d the other sides as much outwards beyond the limits of a Globe; just as it would happen, if a heap of exactly round Balls of soft Clay were heaped upon one another; or, as I have often seen a heap of small Globules of _Quicksilver_, reduc’d to that form by rubbing it much in a glaz’d Vessel, with some slimy or sluggish liquor, such as Spittle, when though the top of the upper Globules be very neer spherical, yet those that are prest upon by others, exactly imitate the forms of these lately mention’d grains.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00490", "bookId": 15491, "start": 388089, "end": 389044, "sha256": "b3cf06c55d7f65735c37e8b7a749f9e44fe95ee491e7e8d789fefbffd7a61f14", "text": "Where these grains touch each other, they are so firmly united or settled together, that they seldom part without breaking a hole in one or th’other of them, such as a, a, a, b, c, c, &c. Some of which fractions, as a, a, a, a, where the touch has been but light, break no more then the outward crust, or first shell of the stone, which is of a white colour, a little dash’d with a brownish Yellow, and is very thin, like the shell of an Egg: and I have seen some of those grains perfectly resemble some kind of Eggs, both in colour and shape: But where the union of the _contiguous granules_ has been more firm, there the divulsion has made a greater Chasm, as at b, b, b, in so much that I have observ’d some of them quite broken in two, as at c, c, c, which has discovered to me a further resemblance they have to Eggs, they having an appearance of a white and yelk, by two differing substances that envelope and encompass each other.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00491", "bookId": 15491, "start": 389048, "end": 389360, "sha256": "1a567164268dae92734370bfdd78bfed466ae3d1334fd299cd597d25d8324b10", "text": "That which we may call the white was pretty whitish neer the yelk, but more duskie towards the shell; some of them I could plainly perceive to be shot or radiated like a _Pyrites_ or _fire-stone_; the yelk in some I saw hollow, in others fill’d with a duskie brown and porous substance like a kind of pith.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00492", "bookId": 15491, "start": 389364, "end": 389741, "sha256": "fedaff75fa0220a6f04813b8ca2940640cdca5c01c9819ad225633d92d32f0dc", "text": "The small pores, or _interstitia_ eeee betwixt the Globules, I plainly saw, and found by other trials to be every way pervious to air and water, for I could blow through a piece of this stone of a considerable thickness, as easily as I have blown through a Cane, which minded me of the pores which _Des Cartes_ allow his _materia subtilis_ between the _æthereal_ globules.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00493", "bookId": 15491, "start": 389745, "end": 390920, "sha256": "589a080dad0a253e3ad5570678c6b9d1624befd02c06e60ad9ab298bb9b7f48d", "text": "The object, through the _Microscope_, appears like a _Congeries_ or heap of Pibbles, such as I have often seen cast up on the shore, by the working of the Sea after a great storm, or like (in shape, though not colour) a company of small Globules of Quicksilver, look’d on with a _Microscope_, when reduc’d into that form by the way lately mentioned. And perhaps, this last may give some hint at the manner of the formation of the former: For supposing some _Lapidescent_ substance to be generated, or some way brought (either by some commixture of bodies in the Sea it self, or protruded in, perhaps, out of some _subterraneous_ caverns) to the bottom of the Sea, and there remaining in the form of a liquor like Quicksilver, _heterogeneous_ to the ambient _Saline_ fluid, it may by the working and tumblings of the Sea to and fro be jumbled and comminuted into such Globules as may afterwards be hardned into Flints, the lying of which one upon another, when in the Sea, being not very hard, by reason of the weight of the incompassing fluid, may cause the undermost to be a little, though not much, varied from a globular Figure. But this only by the by.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00494", "bookId": 15491, "start": 390924, "end": 391298, "sha256": "a8e5533a0c5e1a1c67430701131c11dda79bccc23fa84e58c4e04cf3b5ce518e", "text": "After what manner this _Kettering-stone_ should be generated I cannot learn, having never been there to view the place, and observe the circumstances; but it seems to me from the structure of it to be generated from some substance once more fluid, and afterwards by degrees growing harder, almost after the same manner as I supposed the generation of Flints to be made.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00495", "bookId": 15491, "start": 391302, "end": 391547, "sha256": "6927351b772bb02aa538d2873cdd33135ce64d7acb7e160269d0c03e076d11d3", "text": "But whatever were the cause of its curious texture, we may learn this information from it; that even in those things which we account vile, rude, and coorse, Nature has not been wanting to shew abundance of curiosity and excellent Mechanisme.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00496", "bookId": 15491, "start": 391551, "end": 391790, "sha256": "40e0644ed639c1abdad7986a7726de10cd76f98a0d86ccca0dabc79cd427d50f", "text": "We may here find a Stone by help of a _Microscope_, to be made up of abundance of small Balls, which do but just touch each other, and yet there being so many contacts, they make a firm hard mass, or a Stone much harder then Free-stone.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00497", "bookId": 15491, "start": 391794, "end": 392264, "sha256": "aeb4cece78b374b9d31d15c0cf38e8188dc6a381f991799f80acef1b2d010dc1", "text": "Next, though we can by a _Microscope_ discern so curious a shape in the particles, yet to the naked eye there scarce appears any such thing; which may afford us a good argument to think, that even in those bodies also, whose _texture_ we are not able to discern, though help’d with _Microscopes_, there may be yet _latent_ so curious a _Schematisme_, that it may abundantly satisfie the curious searcher, who shall be so happy as to find some way to discover it.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00498", "bookId": 15491, "start": 392268, "end": 392610, "sha256": "c57c01558205514df8f7d1a3a91ab389b78fe19b994962ea4b3264b7319f7c33", "text": "Next, we here find a Stone, though to the naked eye a very close one, yet every way perforated with innumerable pores, which are nothing else but the _interstitia_, between those multitudes of minute globular particles, that compose the bulk it self, and these pores are not only discover’d by the _Microscope_, but by this contrivance.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00499", "bookId": 15491, "start": 392614, "end": 393144, "sha256": "c62cf394948a66ad32e31f8774480b1100ebf9f76f7aebfa60f14404550168b4", "text": "I took a pretty large piece of this stone, and covering it all over with cement, save only at two opposite parts, I found my self able, by blowing in at one end that was left open, to blow my spittle, with which I had wet the other end, into abundance of bubbles, which argued these pores to be open and pervious through the whole stone, which affords us a very pretty instance of the porousness of some seemingly close bodies, of which kind I shall anon have occasion to subjoyn many more, tending to prove the same thing.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00500", "bookId": 15491, "start": 393148, "end": 394685, "sha256": "b4e364381c1b655f45bb74f9ce692df1bf1ae8d1a5a4a4a7614ce3b53688b344", "text": "I must not here omit to take notice, that in this body there is not a _vegetative_ faculty that should so contrive this structure for any peculiar use of _Vegetation_ or growth, whereas in the other instances of vegetable porous bodies, there is an _anima_ or _forma informans_, that does contrive all the Structures and _Mechanisms_ of the constituting body, to make them subservient and usefull to the great Work or Function they are to perform. And so I ghess the pores in Wood, and other vegetables, in bones, and other Animal substances, to be as so many channels, provided by the Great and Alwise Creator, for the conveyance of appropriated juyces to particular parts. And therefore, that this may tend, or be pervious all towards one part, and may have impediments, as valves or the like, to any other; but in this body we have very little reason so suspect there should be any such design, for it is equally pervious every way, not onely forward, but backwards, and side-ways, and seems indeed much rather to be _Homogeneous_ or similar to those pores, which we may with great probability believe to be the channels of _pellucid_ bodies, not directed, or more open any one way, then any other, being equally pervious every way. And, according as these pores are more or greater in respect of the _interstitial_ bodies, the more transparent are the so constituted concretes; and the smaller those pores are, the weaker is the _Impulse_ of light communicated through them, though the more quick be the progress.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00501", "bookId": 15491, "start": 394689, "end": 394847, "sha256": "0a78da2497e32ef4bd96f8769a2ddefd66dfa26d6a1bdc5f147ccebcf7341d84", "text": "Upon this Occasion, I hope it will not be altogether unseasonable, if I propound my conjectures and _Hypothesis_ about the _medium_ and conveyance of light.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00502", "bookId": 15491, "start": 394851, "end": 395546, "sha256": "af6c7fc892acc95fff3ae8efd2805ad5034584b9ceb9897b12eeffe9f8db4cb2", "text": "I suppose then, that the greatest part of the _Interstitia_ of the world, that lies between the bodies of the Sun and Starrs, and the Planets, and the Earth, to be an exceeding fluid body, very apt and ready to be mov’d, and to communicate the motion of any one part to any other part, though never so far distant: Nor do I much concern my self, to determine what the Figure of the particles of this exceedingly subtile fluid _medium_ must be, nor whether it have any interstitiated pores or vacuities, it being sufficient to solve all the _Phænomena_ to suppose it an exceedingly fluid, or the most fluid body in the world, and as yet impossible to determine the other difficulties.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00503", "bookId": 15491, "start": 395550, "end": 395658, "sha256": "8132ff330c0e9e702f9287b5d94569853048a029fbadefa28bb0fdd1ea66e5bf", "text": "That being so exceeding fluid a body, it easily gives passage to all other bodies to move to and fro in it.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00504", "bookId": 15491, "start": 395662, "end": 396095, "sha256": "14286270e43276ef69daa2cb1b286577bd3dc51cd85be758a38bf50d293764a9", "text": "That it neither receives from any of its parts, or from other bodies; nor communicates to any of its parts, or to any other body, any impulse, or motion in a direct line, that is not of a determinate quickness. And that when the motion is of such determinate swiftness, it both receives, and communicates, or propagates an impulse or motion to any imaginable distance in streight lines, with an unimaginable celerity and vigour.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00505", "bookId": 15491, "start": 396099, "end": 396454, "sha256": "965c7b02b86c42092cab18852f1d7ed521794130c6fa2ebbfbeb5185a1e42efe", "text": "That all kind of solid bodies consist of pretty massie particles in respect of the particles of this fluid _medium_, which in many places do so touch each other, that none of this fluid _medium_ interposes much after the same manner (to use a gross similitude) as a heap of great stones compose one great _congeries_ or mass in the midst of the water.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00506", "bookId": 15491, "start": 396458, "end": 396619, "sha256": "d1aa28e300fd9722cc444e1f4db59f3a2893c40e1684e5c38b2b4923a5cf020a", "text": "That all fluid bodies which we may call _tangible_, are nothing but some more subtile parts of those particles, that serve to constitute all _tangible_ bodies.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00507", "bookId": 15491, "start": 396623, "end": 397002, "sha256": "bd7e35d8f19a9c3fcc0215364f6b1f01503bc05f4adea1ed4487f5341928ec9f", "text": "That the water, and such other fluid bodies, are nothing but a _congeries_ of particles agitated or made fluid by it in the same manner as the particles of _Salt_ are agitated or made fluid by a parcel of water, in which they are dissolv’d, and subsiding to the bottom of it, constitute a fluid body, much more massie and dense, and less fluid then the pure water it self.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00508", "bookId": 15491, "start": 397006, "end": 398087, "sha256": "4abd56a8b689466418d61193cd1f41609b1fada17917dec841f20e1cb5290ad1", "text": "That the air on the other side is a certain company of particles of quite another kind, that is, such as are very much smaller, and more easily moveable by the motion of this fluid _medium_; much like those very subtile parts of _Cochenel_, other very deep tinging bodies, where by a very small parcel of matter is able to tinge and diffuse it self over a very great quantity of the fluid dissolvent; or somewhat after that manner, as smoak, and such like minute bodies, or steams, are observ’d to tinge a very great quantity of air; onely this last similitude is deficient in one propriety, and that is a perpetuity or continuance in that state of commixture with the air, but the former does more nearly approach to the nature and manner of the air’s being dissolv’d by this fluid or _Æther_. And this Similitude will further hold in these proprieties; that as those tinctures may be increased by certain bodies, so may they be precipitated by others, as I shall afterwards shew it to be very probable, that the like accidents happen even to the Air it self.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00509", "bookId": 15491, "start": 398091, "end": 398844, "sha256": "1d6b6ea2570fed988498868601944df97c3ca0300f14f0fe844e7649cda6772e", "text": "Further, as these solutions and tinctures do alter the nature of these fluid bodies, as to their aptness to propagate a motion or impulse through them, even so does the particles of the Air, Water, and other fluid bodies, and of Glass, Crystal, &c. which are commixt with this bulk of the _Æther_ alter the motion of the propagated pulse of light; that is, where these more bulkie particles are more plentifull, and consequently a lesser quantity of the _Æther_ between them to be mov’d, there the motion must necessarily be the swifter, though not so robust, which will produce those effects, which I have (I hope) with some probability, ascribed to it in the digression about Colours, at the end of the _Observations_ on _Muscovy-glass._", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00510", "bookId": 15491, "start": 398848, "end": 399158, "sha256": "610702e89691f466cdd5d4ff75c35653fed312faf5b433d249d642afe1bf903e", "text": "Now, that other Stones, and those which have the closest and hardest textures, and seem (as far as we are able to discover with our eyes, though help’d with the best _Microscopes_) freest from pores, are yet notwithstanding replenish’d with them, an Instance or two will, I suppose, make more probable.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00511", "bookId": 15491, "start": 399162, "end": 399593, "sha256": "65aa1e6b50056a67a138399fd7186797948aac126491430f31bbd4b423b6d80c", "text": "A very solid and unflaw’d piece of cleer white _Marble_, if it be well polish’d and glaz’d, has so curiously smooth a surface, that the best and most polish’d surface of any wrought-glass, seems not to the naked eye, nor through a _Microscope_, to be more smooth, and less porous. And yet, that this hard close body is replenish’d with abundance of pores, I think these following Experiments will sufficiently prove.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00512", "bookId": 15491, "start": 399597, "end": 400483, "sha256": "c22c2308435084811f6ff30ae8f36ebf4d2528fcb296eda1905ce1da30bbffb8", "text": "The first is, That if you take such a piece, and for a pretty while boyl it in Turpentine and Oyl of Turpentine, you shall find that the stone will be all imbu’d with it; and whereas before it look’d more white, but more opacous, now it will look more greasie, but be much more transparent, and if you let it lie but a little while, and then break off a part of it, you shall find the unctuous body to have penetrated it to such a determinate depth every way within the surface. This may be yet easier try’d with a piece of the same _Marble_, a little warm’d in the fire, and then a little Pitch or Tarr melted on the top of it; for these black bodies, by their insinuating themselves into the invisible pores of the stone, ting it with so black a hue, that there can be no further doubt of the truth of this assertion, that it abounds with small imperceptible pores.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00513", "bookId": 15491, "start": 400487, "end": 400757, "sha256": "574aaebf659d67ed60af25d0884c6f7869f1263f48841b68bdb36ef64da81c8f", "text": "Now, that other bodies will also sink into the pores of _Marble_, besides unctuous, I have try’d, and found, that a very Blue tincture made in _spirit of Urine_ would very readily and easily sink into it, as would also several tinctures drawn with _spirit of Wine_.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00514", "bookId": 15491, "start": 400761, "end": 401399, "sha256": "de356349d51843cee688eeaeffce1ec263f80bce007010aa7fdc106411a47ce4", "text": "Nor is _Marble_ the only seemingly close stone, which by other kinds of Experiments may be found porous; for I have by this kind of Experiment on divers other stones found much the same effect, and in some, indeed much more notable. Other stones I have found so porous, that with the _Microscope_ I could perceive several small winding holes, much like Worm-holes, as I have noted in some kind of _Purbeck-stone_, by looking on the surface of a piece newly flaw’d off, for if otherwise, the surface has been long expos’d to the Air, or has been scraped with any tool, those small caverns are fill’d with dust, and disappear.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00515", "bookId": 15491, "start": 401403, "end": 401798, "sha256": "42c42a5fb3d85dd8032b969dbb01feb14f3c251821a4f20ab7c61f4efed823da", "text": "And to confirm this _Conjecture_, yet further, I shall here insert an excellent account, given into the _Royal Society_ by that Eminently Learned Physician, Doctor _Goddard_, of an Experiment, not less instructive then curious and accurate, made by himself on a very hard and seemingly close stone call’d _Oculus Mundi_, as I find it preserv’d in the Records of that Honourable Society.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00516", "bookId": 15491, "start": 401806, "end": 401944, "sha256": "507c977d30bc4c5589a48368b4dda8e603aaac81850a15ed59b36cf18bd10458", "text": "A small stone of the kind, call’d by some Authours, _Oculus Mundi_, being dry and cloudy, weigh’d 5²⁰⁹⁄₂₅₆ _Grains_.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00517", "bookId": 15491, "start": 401952, "end": 402109, "sha256": "d1418d4061b8ba9f38047644619201a11d49a63677bc552b78f921ec21da2d47", "text": "The same put under water for a night, and somewhat more, became transparent, and the superficies being wiped dry, weighed 6³⁄₂₅₆ _Grains_.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00518", "bookId": 15491, "start": 402117, "end": 402192, "sha256": "7dbec8411feab97dec34ee2e7d418e1a6556d3450f92213d241447cb71e89ccc", "text": "The difference between these two weights, 0⁵⁰⁄₂₅₆ of a _Grain_.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00519", "bookId": 15491, "start": 402200, "end": 402312, "sha256": "1c0404f89c3a637bb60b5f7251e3126286d6c560a42f9dcf26b61f9a3341bc3c", "text": "The same Stone kept out of water one Day and becoming cloudy again weighed, 5²²⁵⁄₂₅₆ _Graines_.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00520", "bookId": 15491, "start": 402320, "end": 402390, "sha256": "946aa6d5971f5cb8e260e28499f6b514b222c6fee3d30bea20a5cd06be1e4968", "text": "Which was more then the first weight, 0¹⁶⁄₂₅₆ of a _Grain_.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00521", "bookId": 15491, "start": 402398, "end": 402474, "sha256": "c4f9302d238502064eceed490fc8de5476b01b48df880f11b53dba1805d035c7", "text": "The same being kept two Days longer weighed, 5²⁰²⁄₂₅₆ _Graines_.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00522", "bookId": 15491, "start": 402482, "end": 402539, "sha256": "cd7e8d0c004954207600016cd719d9d1bf843eb46fa16ccc010512e6ed22b2fe", "text": "Which was less then at first, 0⁷⁄₂₅₆ a _Grain_.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00523", "bookId": 15491, "start": 402547, "end": 402612, "sha256": "453f50432d050475b593ea96851dc16b5880e9d7ae555fe301746013fd44d929", "text": "Being kept dry something longer it did not grow sensibly lighter.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00524", "bookId": 15491, "start": 402620, "end": 402893, "sha256": "9cac798bb7b6ddd7948cd63a26b62aee0a565f6803d859716741cd3de7a8dafa", "text": "Being put under water for a night and becoming again transparent and wiped dry, the weight was, _6³⁄₂₅₆ Grains_, the same with the first after putting in water, and more then the last weight after keeping of it dry, 0⁵⁷⁄₂₅₆ of a _Grain_.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00525", "bookId": 15491, "start": 402901, "end": 403170, "sha256": "5d50c420a9198ae7465223f06076f7d083407d68a82cbe7ff9641914242d9fae", "text": "Another Stone of the same kind being variegated with milky _white_ and _gray_ like some sorts of _Agates_, while it lay under water, was alwaies invironed with little Bubbles, such as appear in water a little before boyling, next the sides of the Vessel.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00526", "bookId": 15491, "start": 403178, "end": 403397, "sha256": "7becbc2107a87477c75b9779cc2da6968a341e3e06d7e7b4aa0ec8a20ce1f817", "text": "There were also some the like Bubbles on the Surface of the water just over it, as if either some exhalations came out of it, or that it did excite some fermentation in the parts of the water contiguous to it.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00527", "bookId": 15491, "start": 403405, "end": 403897, "sha256": "be41cc4583ada84e6754df5986aec3b906701e31a8646aa7c360e073ce58ef5f", "text": "There was little sensible difference in the transparency of this Stone, before the putting under water, and after: To be sure the milky-_white_ parts continued as before, but more difference in weight then in the former. For whereas before the putting into the water the weight was 18⁹⁷⁄₁₂₈ _Graines_. After it had lyen in about four and twenty hours the weight was 20²⁷⁄₁₂₈ _Graines_, so the difference was, 1⁵⁸⁄₁₂₈ _Graines_.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00528", "bookId": 15491, "start": 403905, "end": 404144, "sha256": "db13b8097c156091cefc5ddfc5ca3eac77cbbfc89fc67f32f8eddbc0cb3ebc00", "text": "The same Stone was infused in the water scalding hot, and so continued for a while after it was cold, but got no more weight then upon infusing in the cold, neither was there any sensible Difference in the weight both times.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00529", "bookId": 15491, "start": 404148, "end": 405228, "sha256": "5fc66c827537c8854fc1cee59979b96631ed13bfbb46c3dc11ce9e867f0acb02", "text": "In which Experiment, there are three Observables that seem very manifestly to prove the porousness of these seemingly close bodies: the first is their acquiring a transparency, and losing their whiteness after steeping in water, which will seem the more strongly to argue it, if what I have already said about the making transparent, or clarifying of some bodies, as the white powder of beaten Glass, and the froth of some glutinous transparent liquor be well consider’d; for thereby it will seem rational to think that this transparency arises from the insinuation of the water (which has much the same refraction with such stony particles, as may be discover’d by Sand view’d with a _Microscope_) into those pores which were formerly repleat with air (that has a very differing refraction, and consequently is very reflective) which seems to be confirm’d by the second Observable, namely, the increase of weight after keeping, and decrease upon drying. And thirdly, seem’d yet more sensibly confirm’d by the multitude of bubbles in the last Experiment.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00530", "bookId": 15491, "start": 405232, "end": 405707, "sha256": "2bb943939d192a3cd0533f12af0dddd219cb5461e519e65051f0d62d8427159d", "text": "We find also most Acid Salts very readily to dissolve and separate the parts of this body one from another; which is yet a further Argument to confirm the porousness of bodies, and will serve as such, to shew that even Glass also has an abundance of pores in it, since there are several liquors, that with long staying in a Glass, will so _Corrode_ and eat into it, as at last, to make it pervious to the liquor it contain’d, of which I have seen very many Instances.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00531", "bookId": 15491, "start": 405711, "end": 406149, "sha256": "9c738f3904058552c0a3fa31c24950716b8af857f07e5f1f47042fbf6dd46d39", "text": "Since therefore we find by other proofs, that many of those bodies which we think the most solid ones, and appear so to our sight, have notwithstanding abundance of those grosser kind of pores, which will admit several kinds of liquors into them, why should we not believe that Glass, and all other transparent bodies abound with them, since we have many other arguments, besides the propagation of light, which seem to argue for it?", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00532", "bookId": 15491, "start": 406153, "end": 406431, "sha256": "3e111f27453fb69ae34a39a5d78b65f0314ca0e116a331b15e509150b67c5141", "text": "And whereas it may be objected, that the propagation of light is no argument that there are those atomical pores in glass, since there are _Hypotheses_ plausible enough to solve those _Phænomena_, by supposing the pulse onely to be communicated through the transparent body.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00533", "bookId": 15491, "start": 406435, "end": 407510, "sha256": "78c3e335242e060d9938747bfff1604513d031356f9d659b3a8890e307649de8", "text": "To this I answer, that that _Hypothesis_ which the industrious _Mersennus_ has publish’d about the slower motion of the end of a Ray in a denser _medium_, then in a more rare and thin, seems altogether unsufficient to solve abundance of _Phænomena_, of which this is not the least considerable, that it is impossible from that supposition, that any colours should be generated from the refraction of the Rays; for since by that _Hypothesis_ the _undulating pulse_ is always carried perpendicular, or at right angles with the Ray or Line of direction, it follows, that the stroke of the pulse of light, after it has been once or twice refracted (through a Prisme, for example) must affect the eye with the same kind of stroke as if it had not been refracted at all. Nor will it be enough for a Defendant of that _Hypothesis_, to say, that perhaps it is because the refractions have made the Rays more weak, for if so, then two refractions in the two parallel sides of a _Quadrangular Prisme_ would produce colours, but we have no such _Phænomena_ produc’d.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00534", "bookId": 15491, "start": 407514, "end": 408044, "sha256": "3e9dd59d89a81102291c712d1e50313e83ca0adab6df10df91f6b40741b296f2", "text": "There are several Arguments that I could bring to evince that there are in all transparent bodies such atomical pores. And that there is such a fluid body as I am arguing for, which is the _medium_, or Instrument, by which the pulse of Light is convey’d from the _lucid body_ to the enlightn’d. But that it being a digression from the Observations I was recording, about the Pores of _Kettering-Stone_, it would be too much such, if I should protract it too long; and therefore I shall proceed to the next _Observation_.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00535", "bookId": 15491, "start": 408055, "end": 408088, "sha256": "92bf9343d426ee004c3cb7caa3f283036b2f3626f071d4807d38518427facd12", "text": "* * * * *", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00536", "bookId": 15491, "start": 408094, "end": 408146, "sha256": "1023dad273a6d847ba0ff3aa8233c7ead87fb977f54549f667065536d5f141cc", "text": "Observ. XVI. _Of _Charcoal_, or burnt _Vegetables_._", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00537", "bookId": 15491, "start": 408150, "end": 408985, "sha256": "cb31dead17a1d331174d7707d41b4306bb36643994772195047c934bca2a24a9", "text": "Charcoal, or a Vegetable burnt black, affords an object no less pleasant than instructive, for if you take a small round Charcoal, and break it short with your fingers, you may perceive it to break with a very smooth and sleek surface, almost like the surface of black sealing Wax; this surface, if it be look’d on with an ordinary _Microscope_, does manifest abundance of those pores which are also visible to the eye in many kinds of _Wood_, rang’d round the pith, both a in kind of circular order, and a radiant one. Of these there are a multitude in the substance of the Coal, every where almost perforating and drilling it from end to end; by means of which, be the Coal never so long, you may easily blow through it; and this you may presently find, by wetting one end of it with Spittle, and blowing at the other.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00538", "bookId": 15491, "start": 408989, "end": 409641, "sha256": "99e2c5dadd18e8553284bb2c62aefbfd8cfec3506adfba29dee677013c8a6792", "text": "But this is not all, for besides those many great and conspicuous irregular spots or pores, if a better _Microscope_ be made use of, there will appear an infinite company of exceedingly small, and very regular pores, so thick and so orderly set, and so close to one another, that they leave very little room or space between them to be fill’d with a solid body, for the apparent _interstitia_ or separating sides of these pores seem so thin in some places, that the texture of a Honey-comb cannot be more porous. Though this be not every where so, the intercurrent partitions in some places being very much thicker in proportion to the holes.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00539", "bookId": 15491, "start": 409645, "end": 410100, "sha256": "d53c1d0bd11ff894183b98e2a22b3c4898f91dd8b089553991be76f912d7f3f5", "text": "Most of these small pores seem’d to be pretty round, and were rang’d in rows that radiated from the pith to the bark; they all of them seem’d to be continued open pores, running the whole length of the Stick; and that they were all perforated, I try’d by breaking off a very thin sliver of the Coal cross-ways, and then with my _Microscope_, diligently surveying them against the light, for by that means I was able to see quite through them.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00540", "bookId": 15491, "start": 410104, "end": 411157, "sha256": "5c0dcbbc254fdea59f8361e4f4ac325ec197099ba1e3f7d66efd98c16ee8d754", "text": "These pores were so exceeding small and thick, that in a line of them, ¹⁄₁₈ part of an Inch long, I found by numbering them no less then 150. small pores; and therefore in a line of them an Inch long, must be no less then 2700. pores, and in a circular _area_ of an Inch diameter, must be about 5725350. of the like pores; so that a Stick of an Inch Diameter, may contain no less then seven hundred and twenty five thousand, besides 5 Millions of pores, which would, I doubt not, seem even incredible, were not every one left to believe his own eyes. Nay, having since examin’d _Cocus, black and green Ebony, Lignum Vitæ_, &c. I found, that all these Woods have their pores, abundantly smaller then those of soft light Wood; in so much, that those of _Guajacum_ seem’d not above an eighth part of the bigness of the pores of Beech, but then the _Interstitia_ were thicker; so prodigiously curious are the contrivances, pipes, or sluces by which the _Succus nutritius_, or Juyce of a Vegetable is convey’d from place to place.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00541", "bookId": 15491, "start": 411161, "end": 411252, "sha256": "cf7337ea57f095771b66662597faad2e8ad6919365c7d944def876e6fa1378d2", "text": "This _Observation_ seems to afford us the true reason of several _Phænomena_ of Coals; as", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00542", "bookId": 15491, "start": 411256, "end": 411957, "sha256": "646c9efb90b5e290058596fa61d14030389b4a879c61182c41efe262f85a524f", "text": "First, why they look black; and for this we need go no further then the _Scheme_, for certainly, a body that has so many pores in it as this is discover’d to have, from each of which no light is reflected, must necessarily look black, especially, when the pores are somewhat bigger in proportion to the intervals then they are cut in the _Scheme_, black being nothing else but a privation of Light, or a want of reflection; and wheresoever this reflecting quality is deficient, there does that part look black, whether it be from a porousness of the body, as in this Instance, or in a deadning and dulling quality, such as I have observ’d in the _Scoria_ of Lead, Tin, Silver, Copper, &c.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00543", "bookId": 15491, "start": 411961, "end": 412296, "sha256": "d09a345a407c36d7e2afb5393b8b5025bb4b09d97d6ae0a5024c66b52dac4408", "text": "Next, we may also as plainly see the reason of its shining quality, and that is from the even breaking off of the stick, the solid _interstitia_ having a regular termination or surface, and having a pretty strong reflecting quality, the many small reflections become united to the naked eye, and make a very pretty shining surface.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00544", "bookId": 15491, "start": 412300, "end": 412690, "sha256": "c1ef754eff324c051c2f7152bfb0a20c25fa00902664ece0231601c554244a7d", "text": "Thirdly, the reason of its hardness and brittleness seems evident, for since all the watery or liquid substance that moistn’d and toughn’d those _Interstitia_ of the more solid parts, are evaporated and remov’d, that which is left behind becomes of the nature almost of a stone, which will not at all, or very little, bend without a _divulsion_ or _solution_ of its _continuity_.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00545", "bookId": 15491, "start": 412694, "end": 412890, "sha256": "b15fd2ad84f48ae4f7750a0c2ed18c50aa99e1238c5fdfddf1349df5df637fa0", "text": "It is not my design at present, to examine the use and _Mechanisme_ of these parts of Wood, that being more proper to another Enquiry; but rather to hint, that from this Experiment we may learn,", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00546", "bookId": 15491, "start": 412894, "end": 413686, "sha256": "30c6f07e7a007ae72dd62649442738dcc56cb624bf6af3ea5c31a39689b57ae6", "text": "First, what is the cause of the blackness of many burnt bodies, which we may find to be nothing else but this; that the heat of the fire agitating and rarifying the waterish, transparent, and volatile water that is contain’d in them, by the continuation of that action, does so totally expel and drive away all that which before fill’d the pores, and was dispers’d also through the solid mass of it, and thereby caus’d an universal kind of transparency, that it not onely leaves all the pores empty, but all the _Interstitia_ also so dry and _opacous_, and perhaps also yet further perforated, that that light onely is reflected back which falls upon the very outward edges of the pores, all they that enter into the pores of the body, never returning, but being lost in it.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00547", "bookId": 15491, "start": 413690, "end": 414678, "sha256": "e4062743e1a29b468cb4fd0730e18471c8cd3fda2bc2e00847edac7d8841028b", "text": "Now, that the Charring or coaling of a body is nothing else, may be easily believ’d by one that shall consider the means of its production, which may be done after this, or any such manner. The body to be charr’d or coal’d, may be put into a _Crucible_, Pot, or any other Vessel that will endure to be made red-hot in the fire without breaking, and then cover’d over with Sand, so as no part of it be suffer’d to be open to the Air, then set into a good fire, and there kept till the Sand has continu’d red hot for a quarter, half, an hour or two, or more, according to the nature and bigness of the body to be coal’d or charr’d, then taking it out of the fire, and letting it stand till it be quite cold, the body may be taken out of the Sand well charr’d and cleans’d of its waterish parts; but in the taking of it out, care must be had that the Sand be very neer cold, for else, when it comes into the free air, it will take fire, and readily burn away.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00548", "bookId": 15491, "start": 414682, "end": 415411, "sha256": "3a0c1cc21206f6a64c2ba989c9d0e3f6cbf435cf3ed6c45fd66a2db83aa1c51b", "text": "This maybe done also in any close Vessel of Glass, as a _Retort_, or the like, and the several fluid substances that come over may be receiv’d in a fit _Recipient_, which will yet further countenance this _Hypothesis_: And their manner of charring Wood in great quantity comes much to the same thing, namely, an application of a great heat to the body, and preserving it from the free access of the devouring air; this may be easily learn’d from the History of Charring of Coal, most excellently describ’d and publish’d by that most accomplish’d Gentleman, Mr. _John Evelin_, in the 100, 101, 103, pages of his _Sylva_, to which I shall therefore refer the curious Reader that desires a full information of it.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00549", "bookId": 15491, "start": 415415, "end": 416264, "sha256": "2194b17a7cbd5df3455aa594a4a946fd2724bbba4a9d9c91e22f2b924d19e0b1", "text": "Next, we may learn what part of the Wood it is that is the _combustible_ matter, for since we shall find that none, or very little of those fluid substances that are driven over into the Receiver are _combustible_, and that most of that which is left behind is so, it follows, that the solid _interstitia_ of the Wood are the _combustible_ matter. Further, the reason why uncharr’d Wood burns with a greater flame then that which is charr’d, is as evident, because those waterish or volatil parts issuing out of the fired Wood, every way, not onely shatter and open the body, the better for the fire to enter, but issuing out in vapours or wind, they become like so many little _æolipiles_, or Bellows, whereby they blow and agitate the fir’d part, and conduce to the more speedy and violent consumption or dissolution of the body.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00550", "bookId": 15491, "start": 416268, "end": 416655, "sha256": "6842aa66f581f66fdf3a83de926706e18f70bb8882c09457aaf4d203872b640d", "text": "Thirdly, from the Experiment of charring of Coals (whereby we see that notwithstanding the great heat, and the duration of it, the solid parts of the Wood remain, whilest they are preserv’d from the free access of the air undissipated) we may learn, that which has not, that I know of, been publish’d or hinted, nay, not so much as thought of, by any; and that in short is this.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00551", "bookId": 15491, "start": 416659, "end": 416881, "sha256": "8903adcc0a5e592d727d56d033bfe34ebadaeaefe913f31a9c64656393674d4f", "text": "First, _that the Air_ in which we live, move, and breath, and which encompasses very many, and cherishes most bodies it encompasses, that this Air is the _menstruum_, or universal dissolvent of all _Sulphureous_ bodies.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00552", "bookId": 15491, "start": 416885, "end": 417073, "sha256": "1547a9824989d0a4e5fdeb760eecaac16e52f4dbc1734ec80f4ad6c4d75bace6", "text": "Secondly, _that this action_ it performs not, till the body be first sufficiently heated, as we find requisite also to the dissolution of many other bodies by several other _menstruums_.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00553", "bookId": 15491, "start": 417077, "end": 417324, "sha256": "c157ff514e0b246f80da73b47d87534a24b8888b2ace1c490e804d2cb601924e", "text": "Thirdly, _that this action_ of dissolution, produces or generates a very great heat, and that which we call Fire; and this is common also to many dissolutions of other bodies, made by _menstruums_, of which I could give multitudes of Instances.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00554", "bookId": 15491, "start": 417328, "end": 417632, "sha256": "ee4e2b3a8029791e3c90b3a6ddf8b30d39152cf6fe82c424657e6f5b1c188753", "text": "Fourthly, _that this action_ is perform’d with so great a violence, and does so minutely act, and rapidly agitate the smallest parts of the _combustible_ matter, that it produces in the _diaphanous medium_ of the Air, the action or pulse of light, which what it is, I have else-where already shewn.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00555", "bookId": 15491, "start": 417636, "end": 417944, "sha256": "55205e06fcad2e691d457d0561af1ae9bc1b638f82c997a8ffd3f009586f32c1", "text": "Fifthly, _that the dissolution_ of sulphureous bodies is made by a substance inherent, and mixt with the Air, that is like, if not the very same, with that which is fixt in _Salt-peter_, which by multitudes of Experiments that may be made with _Salt-peter_, will, I think, most evidently be demonstrated.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00556", "bookId": 15491, "start": 417948, "end": 418289, "sha256": "30472bcd2ac3edbdefa925b470ec72300a16d930bf018861b06b428e6b55f437", "text": "Sixthly, _that in this dissolution_ of bodies by the Air, a certain part is united and mixt, or dissolv’d and turn’d into the Air, and made to fly up and down with it in the same manner as a _metalline_ or other body dissolved into any _menstruums_, does follow the motions and progresses of that _menstruum_ till it be precipitated.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00557", "bookId": 15491, "start": 418293, "end": 418987, "sha256": "ee188c63360190229ee70dfa0edcfe2030349cb31faad029780d909f07297b96", "text": "Seventhly, That as there is one part that is dissoluble by the Air, so are there other parts with which the parts of the Air mixing and uniting, do make a _Coagulum_, or _precipitation_, as one may call it, which causes it to be separated from the Air, but this _precipitate_ is so light, and in so small and rarify’d or porous clusters, that it is very volatil, and is easily carry’d up by the motion of the Air, though afterwards, when the heat and agitation that kept it rarify’d ceases, it easily condenses, and commixt with other indissoluble parts, it sticks and adheres to the next bodies it meets withall; and this is a certain _Salt_ that may be extracted out of _Soot_.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00558", "bookId": 15491, "start": 418991, "end": 419764, "sha256": "d177ec790a34efac68746528b35d9acf37765d80f18d673b99588a46de8704a1", "text": "Eighthly, that many indissoluble parts being very apt and prompt to be rarify’d, and so, whilest they continue in that heat and agitation, are lighter then the Ambient Air, are thereby thrust and carry’d upwards with great violence, and by that means carry along with them, not onely that _Saline concrete_ I mention’d before, but many terrestrial, or indissoluble and irrarefiable parts, nay, many parts also which are dissoluble, but are not suffer’d to stay long enough in a sufficient heat to make them prompt and apt for that action. And therefore we find in _Soot_, not onely a part, that being continued longer in a competent heat, will be dissolv’d by the Air, or take fire and burn; but a part also which is fixt, terrestrial, and irrarefiable.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00559", "bookId": 15491, "start": 419768, "end": 421045, "sha256": "c45e34ed1f6fc5a33e6274ae922361925b25b62b3c77e0b890349c341658c32b", "text": "Ninthly, that as there are these several parts that will rarifie and fly, or be driven up by the heat, so are there many others, that as they are indissoluble by the _aerial menstruum_, so are they of such sluggish and gross parts, that they are not easily rarify’d by heat, and therefore cannot be rais’d by it; the volatility or fixtness of a body seeming to consist only in this, that the one is of a texture, or has component parts that will be easily rarify’d into the form of Air, and the other, that it has such as will not, without much ado, be brought to such a constitution; and this is that part which remains behind in a white body call’d Ashes, which contains a substance, or _Salt_, which Chymists call _Alkali_: what the particular natures of each of these bodies are, I shall not here examine, intending it in another place, but shall rather add that this _Hypothesis_ does so exactly agree with all _Phænomena_, of Fire, and so genuinely explicate each particular circumstance that I have hitherto observ’d, that it is more then probable, that this cause which I have assign’d is the true adequate, real, and onely cause of those _Phænomena_; And therefore I shall proceed a little further, to shew the nature and use of the Air.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00560", "bookId": 15491, "start": 421049, "end": 421823, "sha256": "0d0b03f20b92b14eda1897b6b563233367bd30178decc5d4fed080df4579c66b", "text": "Tenthly, therefore the dissolving parts of the Air are but few, that is, it seems of the nature of those _Saline menstruums_, or spirits, that have very much flegme mixt with the spirits, and therefore a small parcel of it is quickly glutted, and will dissolve no more; and therefore unless some fresh part of this _menstruum_ be apply’d to the body to be dissolv’d, the action ceases, and the body leaves to be dissolv’d and to shine, which is the Indication of it, though plac’d or kept in the greatest heat; whereas _Salt-peter_ is a _menstruum_, when melted and red-hot, that abounds more with those Dissolvent particles, and therefore as a small quantity of it will dissolve a great sulphureous body, so will the dissolution be very quick and violent.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00561", "bookId": 15491, "start": 421827, "end": 422281, "sha256": "bb51bfa666db08019a41e773b157748ae4d496a649e1485fdcd5cd26ffdbdd0e", "text": "Therefore in the _Eleventh_ place, it is observable, that, as in other solutions, if a copious and quick supply of fresh _menstruum_, though but weak, be poured on, or applied to the dissoluble body, it quickly consumes it: So this _menstruum_ of the Air, if by Bellows, or any other such contrivance, it be copiously apply’d to the shining body, is found to dissolve it as soon, and as violently as the more strong _menstruum_ of melted _Nitre_.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00562", "bookId": 15491, "start": 422285, "end": 423667, "sha256": "d7192fd513ceebe58a1a9e4a494b77cb2e27f75a62827becee8a81c61b6b38e3", "text": "Therefore twelfthly, it seems reasonable to think that there is no such thing as an Element of Fire that should attract or draw up the flame, or towards which the flame should endeavour to ascend out of a desire or appetite of uniting with that as its _Homogeneal_ primitive and generating Element; but that that shining transient body which we call _Flame_, is nothing else but a mixture of Air, and volatil sulphureous parts of dissoluble or combustible bodies, which are acting upon each other whilst they ascend, that is, flame seems to be a mixture of Air, and the combustible volatil parts of any body, which parts the encompassing Air does dissolve or work upon, which action, as it does intend the heat of the _aerial_ parts of the dissolvent, so does it thereby further rarifie those parts that are acting, or that are very neer them, whereby they growing much lighter then the heavie parts of that _Menstruum_ that are more remote, are thereby protruded and driven upward; and this may be easily observ’d also in dissolutions made by any other _menstruum_, especially such as either create heat or bubbles. Now, this action of the _Menstruum_, or _Air_, on the dissoluble parts, is made with such violence, or is such, that it imparts such a motion or pulse to the _diaphanous_ parts of the Air, as I have elsewhere shewn is requisite to produce light.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00563", "bookId": 15491, "start": 423671, "end": 426842, "sha256": "964410c26d6c2f71816e8af098bd6543c24dbc3dcbb6f2411134a862157f986d", "text": "This _Hypothesis_ I have endeavoured to raise from an Infinite of Observations and Experiments, the process of which would be much too long to be here inserted, and will perhaps another time afford matter copious enough for a much larger Discourse, the Air being a Subject which (though all the world has hitherto liv’d and breath’d in, and been unconversant about) has yet been so little truly examin’d or explain’d, that a diligent enquirer will be able to find but very little information from what has been (till of late) written of it: But being once well understood, it will, I doubt not, inable a man to render an intelligible, nay probable, if not the true reason of all the _Phænomena_ of Fire, which, as it has been found by Writers and Philosophers of all Ages a matter of no small difficulty, as may be sufficiently understood by their strange _Hypotheses_, and unintelligible Solutions of some few _Phænomena_ of it; so will it prove a matter of no small concern and use in humane affairs, as I shall elsewhere endeavour to manifest when I come to shew the use of the Air in respiration, and for the preservation of the life, nay, for the conservation and restauration of the health and natural constitution of mankind as well as all other aereal _animals_, as also the uses of this principle or propriety of the Air in chymical, mechanical, and other operations. In this place I have onely time to hint an _Hypothesis_, which, if God permit me life and opportunity, I may elsewhere prosecute, improve and publish. In the mean time, before I finish this Discourse, I must not forget to acquaint the Reader, that having had the liberty granted me of making some trials on a piece of _Lignum fossile_ shewn to the Royal Society, by the eminently Ingenious and Learned Physician, Doctor _Ent_, who receiv’d it for a Present from the famous _Ingenioso Cavalliero de Pozzi_, it being one of the fairest and best pieces of _Lignum fossile_ he had seen; Having (I say) taken a small piece of this Wood, and examin’d it, I found it to burn in the open Air almost like other Wood, and insteed of a resinous smoak or fume, it yielded a very bituminous one, smelling much of that kind of sent: But that which I chiefly took notice of, was, that cutting off a small piece of it, about the bigness of my Thumb, and charring it in a _Crucible_ with Sand, after the manner I above prescrib’d, I found it infinitely to abound with the smaller sort of pores, so extreamly thick, and so regularly perforating the substance of it long-ways, that breaking it off across, I found it to look very like an Honey-comb; but as for any of the second, or bigger kind of pores, I could not find that it had any; so that it seems, whatever were the cause of its production, it was not without those small kind of pores which we have onely hitherto found in Vegetable bodies: and comparing them with the pores which I have found in the Charcoals that I by this means made of several other kinds of Wood, I find it resemble none so much as those of Firr, to which it is not much unlike in grain also, and several other proprieties.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00564", "bookId": 15491, "start": 426846, "end": 428893, "sha256": "ed29968c9fe03f21dccc74bdeb383f58ce5706ceba2a7c1dbaa9eeecd432d6ca", "text": "And therefore, what ever is by some, who have written of it, and particularly by _Francisco Stelluto_, wrote a Treatise in _Italian_ of that Subject, which was Printed at _Rome_, 1637, affirm’d that it is a certain kind of Clay or Earth, which in tract of time is turn’d into Wood; I rather suspect the quite contrary, that it was at first certain great Trees of Fir or Pine, which by some Earthquake, or other casualty, came to be buried under the Earth, and was there, after a long time’s residence (according to the several natures of the encompassing adjacent parts) either rotted and turn’d into a kind of Clay, or _petrify’d_ and turn’d into a kind of Stone, or else had its pores fill’d with certain Mineral juices, which being stay’d in them, and in tract of time coagulated, appear’d, upon cleaving out, like small Metalline Wires, or else from some flames or scorching forms that are the occasion oftentimes, and usually accompany Earthquakes, might be blasted and turn’d into Coal, or else from certain _subterraneous_ fires which are affirm’d by that Authour to abound much about those parts (namely, in a Province of _Italy_, call’d _Umbria_, now the _Dutchie_ of _Spoletto_, in the Territory of _Todi_, anciently call’d _Tudor_; and between the two Villages of _Collesecco_ and _Rosaro_ not far distant from the high-way leading to _Rome_, where it is found in greater quantity then elsewhere) are by reason of their being encompassed with Earth, and so kept close from the dissolving Air, charr’d and converted into Coal. It would be too long a work to describe the several kinds of pores which I met withall, and by this means discovered in several other Vegetable bodies; nor is it my present design to expatiate upon Instances of the same kind, but rather to give a Specimen of as many kinds as I have had opportunity as yet of observing, reserving the prosecution and enlarging on particulars till a more fit opportunity; and in prosecution of this design, I shall here add:", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00565", "bookId": 15491, "start": 428904, "end": 428937, "sha256": "92bf9343d426ee004c3cb7caa3f283036b2f3626f071d4807d38518427facd12", "text": "* * * * *", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00566", "bookId": 15491, "start": 428943, "end": 429013, "sha256": "8e24300fb87280220042f31f842d3f4275e2b94098c8f7c7270b1a746273da2e", "text": "Observ. XVII. _Of _Petrify’d wood_, and other _Petrify’d bodies_._", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00567", "bookId": 15491, "start": 429017, "end": 429566, "sha256": "b87c42bdcb1f304b40380554290b089200ea2a9a5d3dc5394a4b61528f37cfb5", "text": "Of this sort of substance, I observ’d several pieces of very differing kinds, both for their outward shape, colour, grain, _texture_, hardness, &c. some being brown and reddish; others gray, like a Hone; others black, and Flint-like: some soft, like a Slate or Whetstone, others as hard as a Flint, and as brittle. That which I more particular examin’d, was a piece about the bigness of a mans hand, which seem’d to have been a part of some large tree, that by rottenness had been broken off from it before it began to be _petrify’d_.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00568", "bookId": 15491, "start": 429570, "end": 430392, "sha256": "152d40811899a71294d7860837985ce7a0936a4a0df9c1b9f5d30246c7a6d6ea", "text": "And indeed, all that I have yet seen, seem to have been rotten Wood before the petrifaction was begun; and not long since, examining and viewing a huge great _Oak_, that seem’d with meer age to be rotten as it stood, I was very much confirm’d in this opinion; for I found, that the grain, colour, and shape of the Wood, was exactly like this _petrify’d_ substance; and with a _Microscope_, I found, that all those _Microscopical_ pores, which in sappy or firm and sound Wood are fill’d with the natural or innate juices of those Vegetables, in this they were all empty, like those of _Vegetables charr’d_; but with this difference, that they seem’d much larger then I have seen any in _Charcoals_; nay, even then those of Coals made of great blocks of Timber, which are commonly call’d _Old-coals_.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00569", "bookId": 15491, "start": 430396, "end": 430967, "sha256": "24d67390a8c658559d463be3c7d32c58df7393c60c9f3c5641586b7358563f91", "text": "The reason of which difference may probably be, that the charring of Vegetables, being an operation quickly perform’d, and whilest the Wood is sappy, the more solid parts may more easily shrink together, and contract the pores or _interstitia_ between them, then in the rotten Wood, where that natural juice seems onely to be wash’d away by _adventitious_ or unnatural moisture; and so though the natural juice be wasted from between the firm parts, yet those parts are kept asunder by the _adventitious_ moystures, and so by degrees settled in those postures.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00570", "bookId": 15491, "start": 430971, "end": 431620, "sha256": "d17b6780644a77395e71f51c4a099a51e5c5d219bf7cab54bc5245a7ce8ef022", "text": "And this I likewise found in the _petrify’d_ Wood, that the pores were somewhat bigger then those of _Charcoal_, each pore being neer upon half as bigg again, but they did not bear that disproportion which is exprest in the tenth _Scheme_, between the small specks or pores in the first Figure (which representeth the pores of Coal or Wood charr’d) and the black spots of the second Figure (which represent the like _Microscopical pores_ in the _petrify’d_ Wood) for these last were drawn by a _Microscope_ that magnify’d the object above six times more in Diameter then the _Microscope_ by which those pores of Coal were observ’d.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00571", "bookId": 15491, "start": 431624, "end": 431795, "sha256": "bd43a786e008edd78d5f435fb67704c9260c5efdf27270da456c556a3ec3a6bc", "text": "Now, though they were a little bigger, yet did they keep the exact figure and order of the pores of Coals and of rotten Wood, which last also were much of the same cize.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00572", "bookId": 15491, "start": 431799, "end": 432339, "sha256": "a2bf2fa3eed88c64f8be8461bc635344437a76e2f7d1108974ee86ee0beb6e12", "text": "The other Observations on this _petrify’d_ substance, that a while since, by the appointment of the _Royal Society_, I made, and presented to them an account of, were these that follow, which had the honour done them by the most accomplish’d Mr. _Evelin_, my highly honoured friend, to be inserted and published among those excellent Observations wherewith his _Sylva_ is replenish’d, and would therefore have been here omitted, had not the Figure of them, as they appear’d through the _Microscope_ been before that engraven.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00573", "bookId": 15491, "start": 432343, "end": 432395, "sha256": "91461f7a93adb47579f28da6424112efdd0357fd352cc0ebec655713fe2c0c77", "text": "This _Petrify’d_ substance resembled Wood, in that", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00574", "bookId": 15491, "start": 432399, "end": 432906, "sha256": "6742640f1d6cc50a89777af015753eea19eb1359bd2a25329abe67acc55253d1", "text": "First, all the parts of it seem’d not at all _dislocated_, or alter’d from their natural Position, whil’st they were Wood, but the whole piece retain’d the exact shape of Wood, having many of the conspicuous pores of wood still remaining pores, and shewing a manifest difference visible enough between the grain of the Wood and that of the bark, especially when any side of it was cut smooth and polite; for then it appear’d to have a very lovely grain, like that of some curious close Wood.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00575", "bookId": 15491, "start": 432910, "end": 433435, "sha256": "ac9b3ae2c5c0a1609b0c3c999f6fd622016675fcffa77f17c7aa0f59b73c0781", "text": "Next (it resembled Wood) in that all the smaller and (if I may so call those which are onely visible with a good magnifying Glass) _Microscopical_ pores of it appear (both when the substance is cut and polish’d _transversly_ and _parallel_ to the pores of it) perfectly like the _Microscopical_ pores of several kinds of Wood, especially like and equal to those of several sorts of rotten Wood which I have since observ’d, retaining both the shape, position and magnitude of such pores. It was differing from Wood:", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00576", "bookId": 15491, "start": 433439, "end": 433601, "sha256": "19aaf202e479b0c1de5be66672b854ee8bb52ba1d28024df2a2dee0e84652ab5", "text": "First; in _weight_, being to common water as 3¼ to 1. whereas there are few of our _English_ Woods, that when very dry are found to be full as heavie as water.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00577", "bookId": 15491, "start": 433605, "end": 433979, "sha256": "030ada0aaa4bb27a656dfa54d3d1e8c6fbcaea6329192021de0605bea82e97bb", "text": "Secondly, in _hardness_, being very neer as hard as a Flint; and in some places of it also resembling the grain of a Flint: and, like it, it would very readily cut Glass, and would not without difficulty, especially in some parts of it, be scratch’d by a black hard Flint: It would also as readily strike fire against a Steel, or against a Flint, as any common Flint.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00578", "bookId": 15491, "start": 433983, "end": 434388, "sha256": "e26e3f60999b893cf6e4d6a6ea46f618c3261569f6bf240bfc7c01978c1cca8d", "text": "Thirdly, in the _closeness_ of it, for though all the _Microscopical_ pores of this _petrify’d_ substance were very conspicuous in one position, yet by altering that position of the polish’d surface to the light, it was also manifest, that those pores appear’d darker then the rest of the body, onely because they were fill’d up with a more duskie substance, and not because they were hollow.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00579", "bookId": 15491, "start": 434392, "end": 435130, "sha256": "47a9ada7ed8c368583a073bd70832a84cac7e1c02dc0330e5f77afac0275744a", "text": "Fourthly, in its _incombustibleness_, in that it would not burn in the fire; nay, though I kept it a good while red-hot in the flame of a Lamp, made very _intense_ by the blast of a small Pipe, and a large Charcoal, yet it seem’d not at all to have diminish’d its extension; but only I found it to have chang’d its colour, and to appear of a more dark and duskie brown colour; nor could I perceive that those parts which seem’d to have been Wood at first, were any thing wasted, but the parts appear’d as solid and close as before. It was further observable also, that as it did not consume like Wood, so neither did it crack and flie like a Flint, or such like hard Stone, nor was it long before it appear’d red-hot.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00580", "bookId": 15491, "start": 435134, "end": 435569, "sha256": "11c1b767bf4e3c47803af9587f7b57d7c839167e199e74bafa82e81a72077460", "text": "Fifthly, in its _dissolubleness_; for putting some drops of distill’d _Vinegar_ upon the Stone, I found it presently to yield very many Bubbles, just like those which may be observ’d in spirit of _Vinegar_ when it corrodes _corals_, though perhaps many of those small Bubbles might proceed from some small parcels of Air which were driven out of the pores of this _petrify’d_ substance by the insinuating liquid _menstruum_.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00581", "bookId": 15491, "start": 435573, "end": 435808, "sha256": "590747199f464ce517021fec67cbe277c786b426449e2165354f9b3514033332", "text": "Sixthly, in its _rigidness_, and _friability_, being not at all flexible but brittle like a Flint, insomuch that I could with one knock of a Hammer break off a piece of it, and with a few more, reduce that into a pretty fine powder.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00582", "bookId": 15491, "start": 435812, "end": 435973, "sha256": "338737df997726750074a43b9615ce7cd849c88c8215a7e4c3d784b13d8d3d6d", "text": "Seventhly, it seem’d also very differing from Wood to the _touch_, _feeling_ more cold then Wood usually does, and much like other close stones and Minerals.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00583", "bookId": 15491, "start": 435977, "end": 436026, "sha256": "2226719f2cbd4b00c760d8b7a3dc6f22fddf349b7d7b03a23b30d94b1751c441", "text": "The Reasons of all which _Phænomena_ seem to be,", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00584", "bookId": 15491, "start": 436030, "end": 436885, "sha256": "88db47108b38fa2e121b2d27a5baeec535b8eaff08b853597a52a3dad98edc36", "text": "That _petrify’d_ Wood having lain in some place where it was well soak’d with _petrifying_ water (that is, such a water as is well _impregnated_ with stony and earthy particles) did by degrees separate, either by straining and _filtration_, or perhaps, by _precipitation_, _cohesion_ or _coagulation_, abundance of stony particles from the permeating water, which stony particles, being by means of the fluid _vehicle_ convey’d, not onely into the _Microscopical_ pores, and so perfectly stopping them up, but also into the pores or _interstitia_, which may, perhaps, be even in the texture or _Schematisme_ of that part of the Wood, which, through the _Microscope_, appears most solid, do thereby so augment the weight of the Wood, as to make it above three times heavier then water, and perhaps, six times as heavie as it was when Wood.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00585", "bookId": 15491, "start": 436889, "end": 437402, "sha256": "1007354c9d8a4f17dc70fd09f8a2a64b3f8a9e5ec10748e8678b5fbbaf88e0b4", "text": "Next, they thereby so lock up and fetter the parts of the Wood, that the fire cannot easily make them flie away, but the action of the fire upon them is onely able to _Char_ those parts, as it were, like a piece of Wood, if it be clos’d very fast up in Clay, and kept a good while red-hot in the fire, will by the heat of the fire be charr’d and not consum’d, which may, perhaps, also be somewhat of the cause, why the _petrify’d_ substance appear’d of a dark brown colour after it had been burnt.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00586", "bookId": 15491, "start": 437406, "end": 437796, "sha256": "72a2fcf514acfb28ea654e4f4364679ead25f51a81877e4dafadbb2a2db8fb3e", "text": "By this _intrusion_ of the _petrifying_ particles, this substance also becomes hard and _friable_; for the smaller pores of the Wood being perfectly wedg’d, and stuft up with those stony particles, the small parts of the Wood have no places or pores into which they may slide upon bending, and consequently little or no flexion or yielding at all can be caus’d in such a substance.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00587", "bookId": 15491, "start": 437800, "end": 437975, "sha256": "f5e37a87576c4c89a28040c2e5cdfb766d8253d98dd2da9e07bf138593a69736", "text": "The remaining particles likewise of the Wood among the stony particles, may keep them from cracking and flying when put into the fire, as they are very apt to do in a Flint.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00588", "bookId": 15491, "start": 437979, "end": 438613, "sha256": "94b5ee9e200237c2190a5485f40c51d7822e26f636d1c75366cb53230db2c985", "text": "Nor is Wood the onely substance that may by this kind of _transmutation_ be chang’d into stone; for I my self have seen and examin’d very many kinds of substances, and among very credible Authours, we may meet with Histories of such _Metamorphoses_ wrought almost on all kind of substances, both _Vegetable_ and _Animal_, which Histories, it is not my business at present, either to relate, or _epitomise_, but only to set down some Observation I lately made on several kind of _petrify’d_ Shels, found about _Keinsham_, which lies within four or five miles of _Bristol_, which are commonly call’d _Serpentine-stones._", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00589", "bookId": 15491, "start": 438617, "end": 438834, "sha256": "b8f8be4bf2b5143581d8e900d2212c31d0122cc8bbe5b6438b621257de3a0ea4", "text": "Examining several of these very curiously figur’d bodies (which are commonly thought to be Stones form’d by some extraordinary _Plastick virtue_ _latent_ in the Earth it self) I took notice of these particulars:", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00590", "bookId": 15491, "start": 438838, "end": 439154, "sha256": "e6521fae5fac4ee2105dd4b298520688d974a153505accd3fe43207e2f95309e", "text": "First, that these figured bodies, or stones, were of very differing substances, as to hardness: some of Clay, some Marle, some soft Stone, almost of the hardness of those soft stones which Masons call Fire-stone, others as hard as Portland stone, others as hard as Marble, and some as hard as a Flint or Crystal.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00591", "bookId": 15491, "start": 439158, "end": 439589, "sha256": "d683342a54212c18875132c8f72753caa58ced1adfd1b4b898df44b02ac9de08", "text": "Next, they were of very differing substances as to transparency and colour; some white, some almost black, some brown, some Metalline, or like Marchasites; some transparent like white Marble, others like flaw’d Crystal, some gray, some of divers colours; some radiated like those long _petrify’d drops_, which are commonly found at the _Peak_, and in other _subterraneous caverns_, which have a kind of pith in the middle.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00592", "bookId": 15491, "start": 439593, "end": 440693, "sha256": "f40f7a5209d9f0f12102b57ac36518d1c3ba474d47af0aec7a4a71c2cf733091", "text": "Thirdly, that they were very different as to the manner of their outward figuration; for some of them seem’d to have been the substance that had fill’d the Shell of some kind of Shel-fish; others, to have been the substance that had contain’d or enwrapp’d one of those Shels, on both which, the perfect impression either of the inside or outside of such Shells seem’d to be left, but for the most part, those impressions seem’d to be made by an imperfect or broken Shell, the great end or mouth of the Shell being always wanting, and oftentimes the little end, and sometimes half, and in some there were impressions, just as if there had been holes broken in the figurating, imprinting or moulding Shell; some of them seem’d to be made by such a Shell very much brused or flaw’d, insomuch that one would verily have thought that very figur’d stone had been broken or brused whilst a gelly, as ’twere, and so hardned, but within in the grain of the stone, there appear’d not the least sign of any such bruse or breaking, but onely on the very uttermost superficies.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00593", "bookId": 15491, "start": 440697, "end": 442579, "sha256": "99227dd77b77e974606d3e6993da62effc7270304a93169eaef27c1529c172b9", "text": "Fourthly, they were very different, as to their outward covering, some having the perfect Shell, both in figure, colour, and substance, sticking on upon its surface, and adhering to it, but might very easily be separated from it, and like other common _Cockle_ or _Scolop-shels_, which some of them most accurately resembled, were very dissoluble in common _Vinegar_, others of them, especially those _Serpentine_, or _Helical stones_ were cover’d or retained the shining or Pearl-colour’d substance of the inside of a Shel, which substance, on some parts of them, was exceeding thin, and might very easily be rubbed off; on other parts it was pretty thick, and retained a white coat, or flaky substance on the top, just like the outsides of such Shells; some of them had very large pieces of the Shell very plainly sticking on to them, which were easily to be broken or flaked off by degrees: they likewise, some of them retain’d all along the surface of them very pretty kind of _sutures_, such as are observ’d in the skulls of several kinds of living creatures, which _sutures_ were most curiously shap’d in the manner of leaves, and every one of them in the same Shell, exactly one like another, which I was able to discover plainly enough with my naked eye, but more perfectly and distinctly with my _Microscope_; all these sutures, by breaking some of these stones, I found to be the _termini_, or boundings of certain _diaphragms_, or partitions, which seem’d to divide the cavity of the Shell into a multitude of very proportionate and regular _cells_ or _caverns_, these _Diaphragms_, in many of them, I found very perfect and compleat, of a very distinct substance from that which fill’d the cavities, and exactly of the same kind with that which covered the outside, being for the most part whitish, or _mother of pearl_ colour’d.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00594", "bookId": 15491, "start": 442583, "end": 443388, "sha256": "e5950b2cff015542f2dfee46e3f9c507c83b9a27bcf8a046d3964b5ffd143718", "text": "As for the cavities between those _Diaphragms_, I found some of them fill’d with Marle, and others with several kinds of stones, others, for the most part hollow, onely the whole cavity was usually covered over with a kind of _tartareous petrify’d_ substance, which stuck about the sides, and was there shot into very curious regular Figures, just as _Tartar_, or other dissolv’d Salts are observ’d to stick and _crystallize_ about the sides of the containing Vessels; or like those little _Diamants_ which I before observed to have covered the vaulted cavity of a Flint; others had these cavities all lin’d with a kind of _metalline_ or _marchasite-like_ substance, which with a _Microscope_ I could as plainly see most curiously and regularly figured, as I had done those in a Flint.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00595", "bookId": 15491, "start": 443392, "end": 447913, "sha256": "7f3b1fadeade7d8081ed9709ddd59f7472f1408cbffb77b065c2bda4f8455bb0", "text": "From all which, and several other particulars which I observ’d, I cannot but think, that all these, and most other kinds of stony bodies which are found thus strangely figured, do owe their formation and figuration, not to any kind of _Plastick virtue_ inherent in the earth, but to the Shells of certain Shel-fishes, which, either by some Deluge, Inundation, Earthquake, or some such other means, came to be thrown to that place, and there to be fill’d with some kind of Mudd or Clay, or _petrifying_ Water, or some other substance, which in tract of time has been settled together and hardned in those shelly moulds into those shaped substances we now find them; that the great and thin end of these Shells by that Earthquake, or what ever other extraordinary cause it was that brought them thither, was broken off; and that many others were otherwise broken, bruised and disfigured; that these Shells which are thus _spirallied_ and separated with _Diaphragmes_, were some kind of _Nautili_ or _Porcelane shells_; and that others were shells of _Cockles_, _Muscles_, _Periwincles_, _Scolops_, &c. of various sorts; that these Shells in many, from the particular nature of the containing or enclos’d Earth, or some other cause, have in tract of time rotted and mouldred away, and onely left their impressions, both on the containing and contained substances; and so left them pretty loose one within another, so that they may be easily separated by a knock or two of a Hammer. That others of these Shells, according to the nature of the substances adjacent to them, have, by a long continuance in that posture, been _petrify’d_ and turn’d into the nature of stone, just as I even now observ’d several sorts of Wood to be. That oftentimes the Shell may be found with one kind of substance within, and quite another without; having, perhaps, been fill’d in one place, and afterwards translated to another, which I have very frequently observ’d in _Cockle_, _Muscle_, _Periwincle_, and other shells, which I have found by the Sea side. Nay, further, that some parts of the same Shell may be fill’d in one place, and some other caverns in another, and others in a third, or a fourth, or a fifth place, for so many differing substances have I found in one of these _petrify’d_ Shells, and perhaps all these differing from the encompassing earth or stone; the means how all which varieties may be caus’d, I think, will not be difficult to conceive, to any one that has taken notice of those Shells, which are commonly found on the Sea shore: And he that shall throughly examine several kinds of such curiously form’d stones, will (I am very apt to think) find reason to suppose their generation or formation to be ascribable to some such accidents as I have mention’d, and not to any _Plastick virtue_: For it seems to me quite contrary to the infinite prudence of Nature, which is observable in all its works and productions, to design every thing to a determinate end, and for the attaining of that end, makes use of such ways as are (as farr as the knowledge of man has yet been able to reach) altogether consonant, and most agreeable to man’s reason, and of no way or means that does contradict, or is contrary to humane Ratiocination; whence it has a long time been a general observation and _maxime_, that _Nature does nothing in vain_; It seems, I say, contrary to that great Wisdom of Nature, that these prettily shap’d bodies should have all those curious Figures and contrivances (which many of them are adorn’d and contriv’d with) generated or wrought by a _Plastick virtue_, for no higher end, then onely to exhibite such a form; which he that shall throughly consider all the circumstances of such kind of Figur’d bodies, will, I think, have great reason to believe, though, I confess, one cannot presently be able to find out what Nature’s designs are. It were therefore very desirable, that a good collection of such kind of figur’d stones were collected; and as many particulars, circumstances, and informations collected with them as could be obtained, that from such a History of Observations well rang’d, examin’d and digested, the true original or production of all those kinds of stones might be perfectly and surely known; such as are _Thunder-stones_, _Lapides Stellares_, _Lapides Judaici_, and multitudes of other, whereof mention is made in _Aldonandus_, _Wormius_, and other Writers of Minerals.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00596", "bookId": 15491, "start": 447924, "end": 447957, "sha256": "92bf9343d426ee004c3cb7caa3f283036b2f3626f071d4807d38518427facd12", "text": "* * * * *", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00597", "bookId": 15491, "start": 447963, "end": 448086, "sha256": "60bdd3cc94d064bc325d88109e483465c7373f937fafb31d22121e16597f49c6", "text": "Observ. XVIII. _Of the _Schematisme_ or _Texture_ of _Cork_, and of the Cells and Pores of some other such frothy Bodies._", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00598", "bookId": 15491, "start": 448090, "end": 449165, "sha256": "7fdd28df9e35fb3adc1db3609de23de5d64db13c90657dcf6b073a98e4655687", "text": "I took a good clear piece of Cork, and with a Pen-knife sharpen’d as keen as a Razor, I cut a piece of it off, and thereby left the surface of it exceeding smooth, then examining it very diligently with a _Microscope_, me thought I could perceive it to appear a little porous; but I could not so plainly distinguish them, as to be sure that they were pores, much less what Figure they were of: But judging from the lightness and yielding quality of the Cork, that certainly the texture could not be so curious, but that possibly, if I could use some further diligence, I might find it to be discernable with a _Microscope_, I with the same sharp Penknife, cut off from the former smooth surface an exceeding thin piece of it, and placing it on a black object Plate, because it was it self a white body, and casting the light on it with a deep _plano convex Glass_, I could exceeding plainly perceive it to be all perforated and porous, much like a Honey-comb, but that the pores of it were not regular; yet it was not unlike a Honey-comb in these particulars.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00599", "bookId": 15491, "start": 449169, "end": 449609, "sha256": "9542f334a6f3bbdd915f17a84b925467db584baa3414ecb5058f604d2fe062b4", "text": "First, in that it had a very little solid substance, in comparison of the empty cavity that was contain’d between, as does more manifestly appear by the Figure A and B of the XI. _Scheme_, for the _Interstitia_, or walls (as I may so call them) or partitions of those pores were neer as thin in proportion to their pores, as those thin films of Wax in a Honey-comb (which enclose and constitute the _sexangular celts_) are to theirs.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00600", "bookId": 15491, "start": 449613, "end": 449875, "sha256": "7ac6f0c599b1f35c1745fab785c7e01fe8f52464268c7aa02880eb1657eb38c2", "text": "Next, in that these pores, or cells, were not very deep, but consisted of a great many little Boxes, separated out of one continued long pore, by certain _Diaphragms_, as is visible by the Figure B, which represents a sight of those pores split the long-ways.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00601", "bookId": 15491, "start": 449879, "end": 450243, "sha256": "28c5a3d15979866f37aebe426d67f7c21ae0ad12e4bb764df60ab08e34ab32fb", "text": "I no sooner discern’d these (which were indeed the first _microscopical_ pores I ever saw, and perhaps, that were ever seen, for I had not met with any Writer or Person, that had made any mention of them before this) but me thought I had with the discovery of them, presently hinted to me the true and intelligible reason of all the _Phænomena_ of Cork; As,", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00602", "bookId": 15491, "start": 450247, "end": 450594, "sha256": "0ac950cc69889c0e7f32ac7765d8b4b6fcda92d86576e2addf98724a06cbe087", "text": "First, if I enquir’d why it was so exceeding light a body? my _Microscope_ could presently inform me that here was the same reason evident that there is found for the lightness of froth, an empty Honey-comb, Wool, a Spunge, a Pumice-stone, or the like; namely, a very small quantity of a solid body, extended into exceeding large dimensions.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00603", "bookId": 15491, "start": 450598, "end": 451550, "sha256": "5d141c7344c8be77f2847413586874864763596843085f69385ea065dcceb53d", "text": "Next, it seem’d nothing more difficult to give an intelligible reason, why Cork is a body so very unapt to suck and drink in Water, and consequently preserves it self, floating on the top of Water, though left on it never so long: and why it is able to stop and hold air in a Bottle, though it be there very much condens’d and consequently presses very strongly to get a passage out, without suffering the least bubble to pass through its substance. For, as to the first, since our _Microscope_ informs us that the substance of Cork is altogether fill’d with Air, and that that Air is perfectly enclosed in little Boxes or Cells distinct from one another. It seems very plain, why neither the Water, nor any other Air can easily insinuate it self into them, since there is already within them an _intus existens_, and consequently, why the pieces of Cork become so good floats for Nets, and stopples for Viols, or other close Vessels.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00604", "bookId": 15491, "start": 451554, "end": 452726, "sha256": "b1e5ea26ccd59230d7a953f9992965a4dd94c0f80abec8df9477e5e6f95cb434", "text": "And thirdly, if we enquire why Cork has such a springiness and swelling nature when compress’d? and how it comes to suffer so great a compression, or seeming penetration of dimensions, so as to be made a substance as heavie again and more, bulk for bulk, as it was before compression, and yet suffer’d to return, is found to extend it self again into the same space? Our _Microscope_ will easily inform us, that the whole mass consists of an infinite company of small Boxes or Bladders of Air, which is a substance of a springy nature, and that will suffer a considerable condensation (as I have several times found by divers trials, by which I have most evidently condens’d it into less then a twentieth part of its usual dimensions neer the Earth, and that with no other strength then that of my hands without any kind of forcing Engine, such as Racks, Leavers, Wheels, Pullies, or the like, but this onely by and by) and besides, it seems very probable that those very films or sides of the pores, have in them a springing quality, as almost all other kind of Vegetable substances have, so as to help to restore themselves to their former position.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00605", "bookId": 15491, "start": 452730, "end": 453468, "sha256": "68a5b89d6eb50ab53c3327c23e7ce6cefc38a2c7be0690da09086d6990e7c50a", "text": "And could we so easily and certainly discover the _Schematisme_ and _Texture_ even of these films, and of several other bodies, as we can these of Cork; there seems no probable reason to the contrary, but that we might as readily render the true reason of all their _Phænomena_; as namely, what were the cause of the springiness, and toughness of some, both as to their flexibility and restitution. What, of the friability or brittleness of some others, and the like; but till such time as our _Microscope_, or some other means, enable us to discover the true _Schematism_ and _Texture_ of all kinds of bodies, we must grope, as it were, in the dark, and onely ghess at the true reasons of things by similitudes and comparisons.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00606", "bookId": 15491, "start": 453472, "end": 455562, "sha256": "58bd6f91b38e326490ab97dc8c82ee58154da209bc552e3db5981d694328a2e4", "text": "But, to return to our Observation. I told several lines of these pores, and found that there were usually about threescore of these small Cells placed end-ways in the eighteenth part of an Inch in length, whence I concluded there must be neer eleven hundred of them, or somewhat more then a thousand in the length of an Inch, and therefore in a square Inch above a Million, or 1166400. and in a Cubick Inch, above twelve hundred Millions, or 1259712000. a thing almost incredible, did not our _Microscope_ assure us of it by ocular demonstration; nay, did it not discover to us the pores of a body, which were they _diaphragm’d_, like those of Cork, would afford us in one Cubick Inch, more then ten times as many little Cells, as is evident in several charr’d Vegetables; so prodigiously curious are the works of Nature, that even these conspicuous pores of bodies, which seem to be the channels or pipes through which the _Succus nutritius_, or natural juices of Vegetables are convey’d, and seem to correspond to the veins, arteries and other Vessels in sensible creatures, that these pores I say, which seem to be the Vessels of nutrition to the vastest body in the World, are yet so exceeding small, that the _Atoms_ which _Epicurus_ fancy’d would go neer to prove too bigg to enter them, much more to constitute a fluid body in them. And how infinitely smaller then must be the Vessels of a Mite, or the pores of one of those little Vegetables I have discovered to grow on the back side of a Rose-leaf, and shall anon more fully describe, whose bulk is many millions of times less then the bulk of the small shrub it grows on; and even that shrub, many millions of times less in bulk then several trees (that have heretofore grown in _England_, and are this day flourishing in other hotter Climates, as we are very credibly inform’d) if at least the pores of this small Vegetable should keep any such proportion to the body of it, as we have found these pores of other Vegetables to do to their bulk. But of these pores I have said more elsewhere.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00607", "bookId": 15491, "start": 455566, "end": 456272, "sha256": "1b42a4d8f96fe3038b06e41eb97389e2c229926fd2077b8a89d930d7def210c9", "text": "To proceed then, Cork seems to be by the transverse constitution of the pores, a kind of _Fungus_ or Mushrome, for the pores lie like so many Rays tending from the center, or pith of the tree, outwards; so that if you cut off a piece from a board of Cork transversly, to the flat of it, you will, as it were, split the pores, and they will appear just as they are express’d in the Figure B of the XI. _Scheme_. But if you shave off a very thin piece from this board, parallel to the plain of it, you will cut all the pores transversly, and they will appear almost as they are express’d in the Figure A, save onely the solid _Interstitia_ will not appear so thick as they are there represented.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00608", "bookId": 15491, "start": 456276, "end": 457887, "sha256": "6c11f2c7f3c2ff52c9a9b0fabfd5ea59a85e63466c2f6d5952be86d0d8273998", "text": "So that Cork seems to suck its nourishment from the subjacent bark of the Tree immediately, and to be a kind of excrescence, or a substance distinct from the substances of the entire Tree, something _analogus_ to the Mushrome, or Moss on other Trees, or to the hairs on Animals. And having enquir’d into the History of Cork, I find it reckoned as an excrescency of the bark of a certain Tree, which is distinct from the two barks that lie within it, which are common also to other trees; That ’tis some time before the Cork that covers the young and tender sprouts comes to be discernable; That it cracks, flaws, and cleaves into many great chaps, the bark underneath remaining entire; That it may be separated and remov’d from the Tree, and yet the two under-barks (such as are also common to that with other Trees) not at all injur’d, but rather helped and freed from an external injury. Thus _Jonstonus_ in _Dendrologia_, speaking _de Subere_, says, _Arbor est procera, Lignum est robustum, dempto cortice in aquis non fluitat, Cortice in orbem detracto juvatur, crascescens enim præstringit & strangulat, intra triennium iterum repletur: Caudex ubi adolescit crassus, cortex superior densus carnosus, duos digitos crassus, scaber, rimosus, & qui nisi detrahatur dehiscit, alioque subnascente expellitur, interior qui subest novellus ita rubet ut arbor minio picta videatur_. Which Histories, if well consider’d, and the tree, substance, and manner of growing, if well examin’d, would, I am very apt to believe, much confirm this my conjecture about the origination of Cork.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00609", "bookId": 15491, "start": 457891, "end": 458438, "sha256": "9e12d00477fbe3be753aaca0887eb340e6eee6920e5f9563e72d479075502bd6", "text": "Nor is this kind of Texture peculiar to Cork onely; for upon examination with my _Microscope_, I have found that the pith of an Elder, or almost any other Tree, the inner pulp or pith of the Cany hollow stalks of several other Vegetables: as of Fennel, Carrets, Daucus, Bur-docks, Teasels, Fearn, some kinds of Reeds, &c. have much such a kind of _Schematisme_, as I have lately shewn that of Cork, save onely that here the pores are rang’d the long-ways, or the same ways with the length of the Cane, whereas in Cork they are transverse.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00610", "bookId": 15491, "start": 458442, "end": 459241, "sha256": "915a32f06fe25bf3f011e8bce58e5bcda0216fca05e3096cdd046b6cccfdec20", "text": "The pith also that fills that part of the stalk of a Feather that is above the Quil, has much such a kind of texture, save onely that which way soever I set this light substance, the pores seem’d to be cut transversly; so that I ghess this pith which fills the Feather, not to consist of abundance of long pores separated with Diaphragms, as Cork does, but to be a kind of solid or hardned froth, or a _congeries_ of very small bubbles consolidated in that form, into a pretty stiff as well as tough concrete, and that each Cavern, Bubble, or Cell, is distinctly separate from any of the rest, without any kind of hole in the encompassing films, so that I could no more blow through a piece of this kinde of substance, then I could through a piece of Cork, or the sound pith of an Elder.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00611", "bookId": 15491, "start": 459245, "end": 459902, "sha256": "0a0fbc6b2ca2643bc3c5a0b0062daa30344c9d6a47bab7abf6a1f5435578e3ad", "text": "But though I could not with my _Microscope_, nor with my breath, nor any other way I have yet try’d, discover a passage out of one of those cavities into another, yet I cannot thence conclude, that therefore there are none such, by which the _Succus nutritius_, or appropriate juices of Vegetables, may pass through them; for, in several of those Vegetables, whil’st green, I have with my _Microscope_, plainly enough discover’d these Cells or Poles fill’d with juices, and by degrees sweating them out; as I have also observed in green Wood all those long _Microscopical_ pores which appear in Charcoal perfectly empty of any thing but Air.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00612", "bookId": 15491, "start": 459906, "end": 460666, "sha256": "b76363045cc0467363b9c43973b286129dafb5e1249a466bd74c8e0d25730f36", "text": "Now, though I have with great diligence endeavoured to find whether there be any such thing in those _Microscopical_ pores of Wood or Piths, as the _Valves_ in the heart, veins, and other passages of Animals, that open and give passage to the contain’d fluid juices one way, and shut themselves, and impede the passage of such liquors back again, yet have I not hitherto been able to say any thing positive in it; though, me thinks, it seems very probable, that Nature has in these passages, as well as in those of Animal bodies, very many appropriated Instruments and contrivances, whereby to bring her designs and end to pass, which ’tis not improbable, but that some diligent Observer, if help’d with better _Microscopes_, may in time detect.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00613", "bookId": 15491, "start": 460670, "end": 461303, "sha256": "f93b92671a8c63f1432a0c780a9451d624c6d3449952bbdfca98c11478f005e0", "text": "And that this may be so, seems with great probability to be argued from the strange _Phænomena_ of sensitive Plants, wherein Nature seems to perform several Animal actions with the same _Schematism_ or _Orginization_ that is common to all Vegetables, as may appear by some no less instructive then curious Observations that were made by divers Eminent Members of the _Royal Society_ on some of these kind of Plants, whereof an account was delivered in to them by the most Ingenious and Excellent _Physician_, Doctor _Clark_, which, having that liberty granted me by that most Illustrious Society, I have hereunto adjoyn’d.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00614", "bookId": 15491, "start": 461307, "end": 461562, "sha256": "ce77286b16fd30074ac4e5a6c6455f91e4f9bfcb5b1ce0169024a1baa52a8e66", "text": "_Observations on the _Humble_ and _Sensible Plants_ in _M Chiffin’s_ Garden in Saint _James_’s Park, made _August_ the _9th, 1661_._ _Present, the_ Lord _Brouncker_, Sr. _Robert Moray_, Dr. _Wilkins_, Mr. _Evelin_, Dr. _Henshaw_, _and_ Dr. _Clark_.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00615", "bookId": 15491, "start": 461570, "end": 462009, "sha256": "101ca0880db4a052ddc2a5aa7e3438a48b41bcf132bbc814fdadb30886d03c87", "text": "There are four Plants, two of which are little shrub Plants, with a little short stock, about an Inch above the ground, from whence are spread several sticky branches, round, streight, and smooth in the distances between the Sprouts, but just under the Sprouts there are two sharp thorny prickles, broad in the letting on, as in the Bramble, one just under the Sprout, the other on the opposite side of the branch.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00616", "bookId": 15491, "start": 462017, "end": 462312, "sha256": "6505a49efe53eb97d419816f35764569bddd6d81c6c473d62de46e7fa9260e36", "text": "[14]The distances betwixt the Sprouts are usually something more then an Inch, and many upon a Branch, according to its length, and they grew so, that if the lower Sprout be on the left side of the Branch, the next above is on the right, and so to the end, not sprouting by pairs.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00617", "bookId": 15491, "start": 462320, "end": 462653, "sha256": "8393ca2c50c2fcad35de5794640ee5e7f2fc9fa31937ffb81be92aae502642bd", "text": "At the end of each Sprout are generally four sprigs, two at the Extremity, and one on each side, just under it. At the first sprouting of these from the Branch to the Sprig where the leaves grow, they are full of little short white hairs, which wear off as the leaves grow, and then they are smooth as the Branch.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00618", "bookId": 15491, "start": 462661, "end": 463371, "sha256": "d07a997e9355acdd55faed9b1952f488798ca76917a1e6ee225ffc81b585cab0", "text": "Upon each of these sprigs, are, for the most part, eleven pair of leaves, neatly set into the uppermost part of the little sprig, exactly one against another, as it were in little _articulations_, such as Anatomists call _Enarthrosis_, where the round head of a Bone is received into another fitted for its motion; and standing very fitly to shut themselves and touch, the pairs just above them closing somewhat upon them, as in the shut sprig; so is the little round _Pedunculus_ of this leaf fitted into a little cavity of the sprig, visible to the eye in a sprig new pluck’d, or in a sprig withered on the Branch, from which the leaves easily fall by touching.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00619", "bookId": 15491, "start": 463379, "end": 463925, "sha256": "8160b3cce436014858c3a409fb4a27a8ba102eb8bdb9f0d151d807f2a61ed1d0", "text": "The leaf being almost an oblong square, and set into the _Pedunculus_, at one of the lower corners, receiveth from that not onely a _Spine_, as I may call it, which, passing through the leaf, divides it so length-ways that the outer-side is broader then the inner next the sprig, but little _fibres_ passing obliquely towards the opposite broader side, seem to make it here a little muscular, and fitted to move the whole leaf, which, together with the whole sprig, are set full with little short whitish hairs.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00620", "bookId": 15491, "start": 463933, "end": 464278, "sha256": "28657d43d07fd2a432347a9bc2856157d5a2e6de8b4247d69c4a2d030097e71c", "text": "One of these Plants, whose branch seem’d to be older and more grown then the other, onely the tender Sprouts of it, after the leaves are shut, fall and hang down; of the other, the whole branches fall to the ground, if the Sun shine very warm, upon the first taking off the Glass, which I therefore call the _humble Plant_.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00621", "bookId": 15491, "start": 464286, "end": 464716, "sha256": "71db23f24c2be3c7c8980859dbcb42553e849e70312afdf4a8149a858130cf82", "text": "The other two, which do never fall, nor do any of their branches flag and hang down, shut not their leaves, but upon somewhat a hard stroke; the stalks seem to grow up from a root, and appear more _herbaceous_, they are round and smooth, without any prickle, the Sprouts from them have several pairs of sprigs, with much less leaves then the other on them, and have on each sprig generally seventeen pair.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00622", "bookId": 15491, "start": 464724, "end": 464890, "sha256": "bd599d72c7f4630fc3dbf77ffc673cc94e361fa02c64610e7619a9e83e00e64c", "text": "Upon touching any of the sprigs with leaves on, all the leaves on that sprig contracting themselves by pairs, joyned their upper superficies close together.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00623", "bookId": 15491, "start": 464898, "end": 465610, "sha256": "a896450e82422fd31da867c8f5669a331fce602b6d96b72fcfb7c4dbb0b9c471", "text": "Upon the dropping a drop of _Aqua fortis_ on the sprig betwixt the leaves, ff all the leaves above shut presently, those below by pairs successively after, and by the lower leaves of the other branches, ll, kk, &c. and so every pair successively, with some little distance of time betwixt, to the top of each sprig, and so they continu’d shut all the time we were there. But I returning the next day, and several days since, found all the leaves dilated again on two of the sprigs; but from ff, where the _Aqua fortis_ had dropped upwards, dead and withered; but those below on the same sprig, green, and closing upon the touch, and are so to this day, _August_ 14.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00624", "bookId": 15491, "start": 465618, "end": 466055, "sha256": "d2c4fd6710e9e20f6641d0d17c162aa83228dec293687a5e37fdbbdb32866485", "text": "With a pair of Scissers, as suddenly as it could be done, one of the leaves bb was clipped off in the middle, upon which that pair, and the pair above, closed presently, after a little interval, dd, then ee, and so the rest of the pairs, to the bottom of the sprig, and then the motion began in the lower pairs, ll, on the other sprigs, and so shut them by pairs upwards, though not with such distinct distances.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00625", "bookId": 15491, "start": 466063, "end": 466496, "sha256": "b574f9c752d7fea713b1bb170ff34d85bae5d1994d45452913fa6613eaf39d75", "text": "Under a pretty large branch with its sprigs on, there lying a large Shell betwixt two and three Inches below it, there was rubbed on a strong scented oyl, after a little time all the leaves on that sprig were shut, and so they continued all the time of our stay there, but at my returne the next day, I found the position of the Shell alter’d, and the leaves expanded as before, and closing upon the touch.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00626", "bookId": 15491, "start": 466504, "end": 466625, "sha256": "5e76d872f7568d02c5845d957cc82bc9d01426b4d9bdb2ecdd0d203dfb2dad0e", "text": "Upon the application of the Sun-beams by a Burning-glass, the more _humble Plant_ fell, the other shut their leaves.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00627", "bookId": 15491, "start": 466633, "end": 466825, "sha256": "06902ba60c46ac47827e5bab00e2ae7a77e1e052276687ae1e7788b8b9f861c1", "text": "We could not so apply the smoak of _Sulpher_, as to have any visible effect from that, at two or three times trial; but on another trial, the smoak touching the leaves, it succeeded.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00628", "bookId": 15491, "start": 466833, "end": 466913, "sha256": "16939b9ba9b3785eabedf9f5355a4a91a54ac79edd8c1327535a48da8c4a72af", "text": "The _humble Plant_ fell upon taking off the Glass wherewith it was covered.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00629", "bookId": 15491, "start": 466921, "end": 467202, "sha256": "0f9086a05950c7f0a72fdb5f4bc30310063c59d507ce40efd0aaf1e8288b91ba", "text": "Cutting off one of the little Sprouts, two or three drops of liquor were thrust out of the part from whence that was cut, very cleer, and pellucid, of a bright greenish colour, tasting at first a little bitterish, but after leaving a licorish-like taste in my mouth.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00630", "bookId": 15491, "start": 467210, "end": 467484, "sha256": "f3d3b11d0a11b6b29faa5bb69face2f990c51fcae0dfb1355bf7a8d9983a9e87", "text": "Since, going two or three times when it was cold, I took the Glasses from the more _humble Plant_, and it did not fall as formerly, but shut its leaves onely. But coming afterwards, when the Sun shone very warm, as soon as it was taken off, it fell as before.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00631", "bookId": 15491, "start": 467492, "end": 468016, "sha256": "b872321bb39ca7a09d455ece1a84d77cd69215ed2a045b2f94429f9b248c73c2", "text": "Since I pluck’d off another sprig, whose leaves were all shut, and had been so some time, thinking to observe the liquor should come from that I had broken off, but finding none, though with pressing, to come, I, as dexterously as I could, pull’d off one whose leaves were expanded, and then had upon the shutting of the leaves, a little of the mention’d liquor, from the end of the sprig I had broken from the Plant. And this twice successively, as often almost as I durst rob the Plant.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00632", "bookId": 15491, "start": 468024, "end": 468237, "sha256": "01359f3b3ba241c83c0e2e1d14390ce5e0e35919847dee408c5054f269dcb7eb", "text": "But my curiosity carrying me yet further, I cut off one of the harder branches of the stronger Plant, and there came of the liquor, both from that I had cut, and that I had cut it from, without pressure.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00633", "bookId": 15491, "start": 468245, "end": 469626, "sha256": "5899dca96ac5dcdb93a47ef21d54839d03d5426ee0c5407aa8b705975fe45d27", "text": "Which made me think, that the motion of this Plant upon touching, might be from this, that there being a constant _intercourse_ betwixt every part of this Plant and its root, either by a _circulation_ of this liquor, or a constant pressing of the subtiler parts of it to every extremity of the Plant. Upon every pressure, from whatsoever it proceeds, greater then that which keeps it up, the subtile parts of this liquor are thrust downwards, towards its _articulations_ of the leaves, where, not having room presently to get into the sprig, the little round _pedunculus_, from whence the _Spine_ and those oblique _Fibres_ I mentioned rise, being dilated, the _Spine_ and _Fibres_ (being continued from it) must be contracted and shortned, and so draw the leaf upwards to joyn with its fellow in the same condition with it self, where, being closed, they are held together by the implications of the little whitish hair, as well as by the still retreating liquor, which distending the _Fibres_ that are continued lower to the branch and root, shorten them above; and when the liquor is so much forced from the Sprout, whose _Fibres_ are yet tender, and not able to support themselves, but by that tensness which the liquor filling their _interstices_ gives them, the Sprout hangs and flags.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00634", "bookId": 15491, "start": 469634, "end": 470211, "sha256": "a307b20237e4258986a36b42e25a1296f55a40b09c1b4f6039bbdfc011c47c35", "text": "But, perhaps, he that had the ability and leisure to give you the exact _Anatomy_ of this pretty Plant, to shew you its _Fibres_, and visible _Canales_, through which this fine liquor circulateth, or is moved, and had the faculty of better and more copiously expressing his Observations and conceptions, such a one would easily from the motion of this liquor, solve all the _Phænomena_, and would not fear to affirm, that it is no obscure sensation this Plant hath. But I have said too much, I humbly submit, and am ready to stand corrected.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00635", "bookId": 15491, "start": 470215, "end": 471099, "sha256": "0b2212494adb1be08f5dda89afc4ddc27c6e64661967fe00f7c99d36a1b4bb89", "text": "I have not yet made so full and satisfactory Observations as I desire on this Plant, which seems to be a Subject that will afford abundance of information. But as farr as I have had opportunity to examine it, I have discovered with my _Microscope_ very curious structures and contrivances; but designing much more accurate examinations and trials, both with my _Microscope_, and otherwise, as soon as the season will permit, I shall not till then add any thing of what I have already taken notice of; but as farr as I have yet observ’d, I judge the motion of it to proceed from causes very differing from those by which Gut-strings, or Lute-strings, the beard of a wilde _Oat_, or the beard of the Seeds of _Geranium_, _Moscatum_, or _Musk-grass_ and other kinds of _Cranes-bill_, move themselves. Of which I shall add more in the subsequent Observations on those bodies.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00636", "bookId": 15491, "start": 471110, "end": 471143, "sha256": "92bf9343d426ee004c3cb7caa3f283036b2f3626f071d4807d38518427facd12", "text": "* * * * *", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00637", "bookId": 15491, "start": 471149, "end": 471292, "sha256": "02cb2744c940e41b25e1c9da54c20697d656980997cd8cc668c567b296cc496f", "text": "Observ. XIX. _Of a _Plant_ growing in the blighted or yellow specks of _Damask-rose-leaves_, _Bramble-leaves_, and some other kind of leaves._", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00638", "bookId": 15491, "start": 471296, "end": 471927, "sha256": "d42875238f4dbb76eaa56c27acda99c656fb09373ef232cc3d6baeb4fcfab675", "text": "I have for several years together, in the Moneths of _June_, _July_, _August_, and _September_ (when any of the green leaves of _Roses_ begin to dry and grow yellow) observ’d many of them, especially the leaves of the old shrubs of _Damask Roses_, all bespecked with yellow stains; and the undersides just against them, to have little yellow hillocks of a gummous substance, and several of them to have small black spots in the midst of those yellow ones, which, to the naked eye, appear’d no bigger then the point of a Pin, or the smallest black spot or tittle of Ink one is able to make with a very sharp pointed Pen.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00639", "bookId": 15491, "start": 471931, "end": 472571, "sha256": "43cf654fea78c20ef5d65e37e2bee87127ef3482bedb545f871bdad5bb1a82c5", "text": "Examining these with a _Microscope_, I was able plainly to distinguish, up and down the surface, several small yellow knobs, of a kind of yellowish red gummy substance, out of which I perceiv’d there sprung multitudes of little cases or black bodies like Seed-cods, and those of them that were quite without the hillock of Gumm, disclos’d themselves to grow out of it with a small Straw-colour’d and transparent stem, the which seed and stem appear’d very like those of common Moss (which I elsewhere describe) but that they were abundantly less, many hundreds of them being not able to equalize one single seed Cod of Moss.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00640", "bookId": 15491, "start": 472575, "end": 472996, "sha256": "a46303ae9fdddc02b0501b16bacacbbf75d0fc5e699b22ed51f3ebc94a80bcbb", "text": "I have often doubted whether they were the seed Cods of some little Plant, or some kind of small Buds, or the Eggs of some very small Insect, they appear’d of a dark brownish red, some almost quite black, and of a Figure much resembling the seed-cod of Moss, but their stalks on which they grew were of a very fine transparent substance, almost like the stalk of mould, but that they seem’d somewhat more yellow.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00641", "bookId": 15491, "start": 473000, "end": 473777, "sha256": "feb22a52ee206425dd64b52aefda00c268782d353bdd4155b3d71df35cd6a328", "text": "That which makes me to suppose them to be Vegetables, is for that I perceiv’d many of those hillocks bare or destitute, as if those bodies lay yet conceal’d, as G. In others of them, they were just springing out of their gummy hillocks, which all seem’d to shoot directly outwards, as at A. In others, as at B, I found them just gotten out, with very little or no stalk, and the Cods of an indifferent cize; but in others, as C, I found them begin to have little short stalks, or stems; in others, as D, those stems were grown bigger, and larger; and in others, as at E, F, H, I, K, L, &c. those stems and Cods were grown a great deal bigger, and the stalks were more bulky about the root, and very much taper’d towards the top, as at F and L is most visible.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00642", "bookId": 15491, "start": 473781, "end": 474289, "sha256": "a01c410621f667b2209cce34274d9b6fa22291e68d5bee504e02c10b14b312fe", "text": "I did not find that any of them had any seed in them, or that any of them were hollow, but as they grew bigger and bigger, I found those heads or Cods begin to turn their tops towards their roots, in the same manner as I had observ’d that of Moss to do; so that in all likelihood, Nature did intend in that posture, what she does in the like seed-cods of greater bulk, that is, that the seed, when ripe, should be shaken out and dispersed at the end of it, as we find in Columbine Cods, and the like.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00643", "bookId": 15491, "start": 474293, "end": 474617, "sha256": "e857ecd361137cd6889945a462ec5bc02a314643ee92befbf3a02cfb10264c6f", "text": "The whole Oval OOOO in the second _Figure_ of the 12. _Scheme_ represents a small part of a Rose-leaf, about the bigness of the little Oval in the hillock, C, marked with the Figure X. in which I have not particularly observ’d all the other forms of the surface of the Rose-leaf, as being little to my present purpose.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00644", "bookId": 15491, "start": 474621, "end": 475225, "sha256": "dc5624b6877e39bdaa93fa4c24a95aa2c843f82c465812167ce690a08073959d", "text": "Now, if these Cods have a seed in them so proportion’d to the Cod, as thole of _Pinks_, and _Carnations_, and _Columbines_, and the like, how unimaginably small must each of those seeds necessarily be, for the whole length of one of the largest of those Cods was not ¹⁄₅₀₀ part of an Inch; some not above ¹⁄₁₀₀₀, and therefore certainly, very many thousand of them would be unable to make a bulk that should be visible to the naked eye; and if each of these contain the Rudiments of a young Plant of the same kind, what must we say of the pores and constituent parts of that?", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00645", "bookId": 15491, "start": 475229, "end": 475532, "sha256": "75449cf492414f3a0852610e5cda87d0c369a6b0ed4366f8727b382ab79e1814", "text": "The generation of this Plant seems in part, ascribable to a kind of _Mildew_ or _Blight_, whereby the parts of the leaves grow scabby, or putrify’d, as it were, so as that the moisture breaks out in little scabs or spots, which, as I said before, look like little knobs of a red gummous substance.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00646", "bookId": 15491, "start": 475536, "end": 476288, "sha256": "78bc82c9e8b498f2fb7c593b95bbad25e41ae7c957fb29b7510f12857c097864", "text": "From this putrify’d scab breaks out this little Vegetable; which may be somewhat like a _Mould_ or _Moss_; and may have its _equivocal_ generation much after the same manner as I have supposed _Moss_ or _Mould_ to have, and to be a more simple and uncompounded kind of vegetation, which is set a moving by the _putrefactive_ and _fermentative_ heat, joyn’d with that of the ambient aerial, when (by the putrifaction and decay of some other parts of the vegetable, that for a while staid its progress) it is unfetter’d and left at liberty to move in its former course, but by reason of its _regulators_, moves and acts after quite another manner then it did when a _coagent_ in the more compounded _machine_ of the more perfect Vegetable.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00647", "bookId": 15491, "start": 476292, "end": 476572, "sha256": "bec839a6ce956d7ef78f0bfc606532a5c420cd3e96dbde92718f99f769c1cb81", "text": "And from this very same Principle, I imagine the _Misleto_ of Oaks, Thorns, Appletrees, and other Trees, to have its original: It seldom or never growing on any of those Trees, till they begin to wax decrepid, and decay with age, and are pester’d with many other infirmities.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00648", "bookId": 15491, "start": 476576, "end": 477180, "sha256": "2853b9be15bcaaac6120a86d479b55a3b759f874e1b15b319e67121f869ee804", "text": "Hither also may be referr’d those multitudes and varieties of _Mushroms_, such as that, call’d _Jews-ears_, all sorts of _gray_ and _green_ Mosses, &c. which infest all kind of Trees, shrubs, and the like, especially when they come to any bigness. And this we see to be very much the method of Nature throughout its operations, _putrifactive Vegetables_ very often producing a Vegetable of a much less compounded nature, and of a much inferiour tribe; and _putrefactive_ animal substances degenerating into some kind of animal production of a much inferiour rank, and of a more simple nature.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00649", "bookId": 15491, "start": 477184, "end": 477711, "sha256": "089be83860882eb966191290cea7f6faff67ed1f615275863a6eeba0706269d8", "text": "Thus we find the humours and substances of the body, upon _putrifaction_, to produce strange kinds of moving Vermine: _the putrifaction_ of the slimes and juices of the Stomack and Guts, produce Worms almost like Earth-worms, the Wheals in childrens hands produce a little Worm, call’d a _Wheal-worm_: The bloud and milk, and other humours, produce other kinds of Worms, at least, if we may believe what is deliver’d to us by very famous Authors; though, I confess, I have not yet been able to discover such my self.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00650", "bookId": 15491, "start": 477715, "end": 480007, "sha256": "9c3308af4af965ee08c430bf2ac6fbcd0a9aac6e8104446fc72c8d0f09fb56b0", "text": "And whereas it may seem strange that _Vinegar_, _Meal_, musty _Casks_, &c. are observ’d to breed their differing kinds of Insects, or living creatures, whereas they being Vegetable substances, seem to be of an inferiour kind, and so unable to produce a creature more noble, or of a more compounded nature then they themselves are of, and so without some concurrent seminal principle, may be thought utterly unfit for such an operation; I must add, that we cannot presently positively say, there are no animal substances, either mediately, as by the soil or fatning of the Plant from whence they sprung, or more immediately, by the real mixture or composition of such substances, join’d with them; or perchance some kind of Insect, in such places where such kind of _putrifying_ or _fermenting_ bodies are, may, by a certain instinct of nature, eject some sort of seminal principle, which cooperating with various kinds of _putrifying_ substances, may produce various kinds of Insects, or Animate bodies: For we find in most sorts of those lower degrees of Animate bodies, that the _putrifying_ substances on which these Eggs, Seeds, or seminal principles are cast by the Insect, become, as it were, the _Matrices_ or Wombs that conduce very much to their generation, and may perchance also to their variation and alteration, much after the same manner, as, by strange and unnatural copulations, several new kinds of Animals are produc’d, as _Mules_, and the like, which are usually call’d Monstrous, because a little unusual, though many of them have all their principal parts as perfectly shap’d and adapted for their peculiar uses, as any of the most perfect Animals. If therefore the _putrifying_ body, on which any kind of seminal or vital principle chances to be cast, become somewhat more then meerly a nursing and fostering helper in the generation and production of any kind of Animate body, the more neer it approaches the true nature of a Womb, the more power will it have on the by-blow it incloses. But of this somewhat more in the description of the _Water-gnat_. Perhaps some more accurate Enquiries and Observations about these matters might bring the Question to some certainty, which would be of no small concern in Natural Philosophy.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00651", "bookId": 15491, "start": 480011, "end": 481599, "sha256": "63c409b5b78c6c143d234479ff7e0b2cc10e535f21eedaaa920a80b1cbb6ac5d", "text": "But that _putrifying_ animal substances may produce animals of an inferior kind, I see not any so very great a difficulty, but that one may, without much absurdity, admit: For as there may be multitudes of contrivances that go to the making up of one compleat Animate body; so, That some of those _coadjutors_, in the perfect existence and life of it, may be vitiated, and the life of the whole destroyed, and yet several of the constituting contrivances remain intire, I cannot think it beyond imagination or possibility; no more then that a like accidental process, as I have elswhere hinted, may also be supposed to explicate the method of Nature in the _Metamorphosis_ of Plants. And though the difference between a Plant and an Animal be very great, yet I have not hitherto met with any so _cogent_ an Argument, as to make me positive in affirming these two to be altogether _Heterogeneous_ and of quite differing kinds of Nature: And besides, as there are many _Zoophyts_, and sensitive Plants (divers of which I have seen, which are of a middle nature, and seem to be Natures transition from one degree to another, which may be observ’d in all her other passages, wherein she is very seldom observ’d to leap from one step to another) so have we, in some Authors, Instances of Plants turning into Animals, and Animals into Plants, and the like; and some other very strange (because unheeded) proceedings of Nature; something of which kind may be met with, in the description of the _Water-Gnat_, though it be not altogether so direct to the present purpose.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00652", "bookId": 15491, "start": 481603, "end": 484682, "sha256": "5558d5c70722ea43f2efc8b6134657e40d7e02444fd84ce09d3fdc10c00ed1a6", "text": "But to refer this Discourse of Animals to their proper places, I shall add, that though one should suppose, or it should be prov’d by Observations; that several of these kinds of Plants are accidentally produc’d by a casual _putrifaction_, I see not any great reason to question, but that, notwithstanding its own production was as ’twere casual, yet it may germinate and produce seed, and by it propagate its own, that is, a new Species. For we do not know, but that the Omnipotent and All-wise Creator might as directly design the structure of such a Vegetable, or such an Animal to be produc’d out of such or such a _putrifaction_ or change of this or that body, towards the constitution or structure of which, he knew it necessary, or thought it fit to make it an ingredient; as that the digestion or moderate heating of an Egg, either by the Female, or the Sun, or the heat of the Fire, or the like, should produce this or that Bird; or that _Putrifactive_ and warm steams should, out of the blowings, as they call them, that is, the Eggs of a Flie, produce a living Magot, and that, by degrees, be turn’d into an _Aurelia_, and that, by a longer and a proportion’d heat, be _transmuted_ into a Fly. Nor need we therefore to suppose it the more imperfect in its kind, then the more compounded Vegetable or Animal of which it is a part; for he might as compleatly furnish it with all kinds of contrivances necessary for its own existence, and the propagation of its own Species, and yet make it a part of a more compounded body: as a Clock-maker might make a Set of Chimes to be a part of a Clock, and yet, when the watch part or striking part are taken away, and the hindrances of its motion remov’d, this chiming part may go as accurately, and strike its tune as exactly, as if it were still a part of the compounded _Automaton_. So, though the original cause, or seminal principle from which this minute Plant on Rose leaves did spring; were, before the corruption caus’d by the Mill-dew, a component part of the leaf on which it grew, and did serve as a _coagent_ in the production and constitution of it, yet might it be so consummate, as to produce a seed which might have a power of propagating the same species: the works of the Creator seeming of such an excellency, that though they are unable to help to the perfecting of the more compounded existence of the greater Plant or Animal, they may have notwithstanding an ability of acting singly upon their own internal principle, so as to produce a Vegetable body, though of a less compounded nature, and to proceed so farr in the method of other Vegetables, as to bear flowers and seeds, which may be capable of propagating the like. So that the little cases which appear to grow on the top of the slender stalks, may, for ought I know, though I should suppose them to spring from the perverting of the usual course of the parent Vegetable, contain a seed, which, being scatter’d on other leaves of the same Plant, may produce a Plant of much the same kind.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00653", "bookId": 15491, "start": 484686, "end": 485129, "sha256": "fba59deda64657b0a7c9b63db39abb8cb8fe6b8d249caac852180fa51067e9b3", "text": "Nor are Damask-Rose leaves the onely leaves that produce these kinds of Vegetable sproutings; for I have observ’d them also in several other kinds of Rose leaves, and on the leaves of several sorts of Briers, and on Bramble leaves they are oftentimes to be found in very great clusters; so that I have found in one cluster, three, four, or five hundred of them, making a very conspicuous black spot or scab on the back side of the leaf.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00654", "bookId": 15491, "start": 485140, "end": 485173, "sha256": "92bf9343d426ee004c3cb7caa3f283036b2f3626f071d4807d38518427facd12", "text": "* * * * *", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00655", "bookId": 15491, "start": 485179, "end": 485281, "sha256": "87cf7ac2b4540f284e6133801e82ea14a8d1e99719773c87552332febddb9546", "text": "Observ. XX. _Of _blue Mould_, and of the first Principles of Vegetation arising from _Putrefaction_._", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00656", "bookId": 15491, "start": 485285, "end": 487992, "sha256": "a923eaaddc9a7df4c2395d8fcae085ddd3b82ad89522e3b08481d94b858d4fc9", "text": "The Blue and White and several kinds of hairy mouldy spots, which are observable upon divers kinds of _putrify’d_ bodies, whether Animal substances, or Vegetable, such as the skin, raw or dress’d, flesh, bloud, humours, milk, green Cheese, &c. or rotten sappy Wood, or Herbs, Leaves, Barks, Roots, &c. of Plants, are all of them nothing else but several kinds of small and variously figur’d Mushroms, which, from convenient materials in those _putrifying_ bodies, are, by the concurrent heat of the Air, excited to a certain kind of vegetation, which will not be unworthy our more serious speculation and examination, as I shall by and by shew. But, first, I must premise a short description of this _Specimen_, which I have added of this Tribe, in the first Figure of the XII. _Scheme_, which is nothing else but the appearance of a small white spot of hairy mould, multitudes of which I found to bespeck & whiten over the red covers of a small book, which, it seems, were of Sheeps skin, that being more apt to gather mould, even in a dry and clean room, then other leathers. These spots appear’d, through a good _Microscope_, to be a very pretty shap’d Vegetative body, which, from almost the same part of the Leather, shot out multitudes of small long cylindrical and transparent stalks, not exactly streight, but a little bended with the weight of a round and white knob that grew on the top of each of them; many of these knobs I observ’d to be very round, and of a smooth surface, such as A, A, &c. others smooth likewise, but a little oblong, as B; several of them a little broken, or cloven with chops at the top, as C; others flitter’d as ’twere, or flown all to pieces, as D, D. The whole substance of these pretty bodies was of a very tender constitution, much like the substance of the softer kind of common white Mushroms, for by touching them with a Pin, I found them to be brused and torn; they seem’d each of them to have a distinct root of their own; for though they grew neer together in a cluster, yet I could perceive each stem to rise out of a distinct part or pore of the Leather; some of these were small and short, as seeming to have been but newly sprung up, of these the balls were for the most part round, others were bigger, and taller, as being perhaps of a longer growth, and of these, for the most part, the heads were broken, and some much wasted, as E; what these heads contain’d I could not perceive; whether they were knobs and flowers, or seed cases, I am not able to say, but they seem’d most likely to be of the same nature with those that grow on Mushroms, which they did, some of them, not a little resemble.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00657", "bookId": 15491, "start": 487996, "end": 488125, "sha256": "b4013de49ecb41ad1d632fe6b7e8a05b36824735c5a7f0722e923df7569b9afd", "text": "Both their smell and taste, which are active enough to make a sensible impression upon those organs, are unpleasant and noisome.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00658", "bookId": 15491, "start": 488129, "end": 488536, "sha256": "252b65861063811ca5b4ace7bd7e20bf0b50a1f8f90d2767e2274e0c8d7e953d", "text": "I could not find that they would so quickly be destroy’d by the actual flame of a Candle, as at first sight of them I conceived they would be, but they remain’d intire after I had past that part of the Leather on which they stuck three or four times through the flame of a Candle; so that, it seems they are not very apt to take fire, no more then the common white Mushroms are when they are sappy.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00659", "bookId": 15491, "start": 488540, "end": 489355, "sha256": "106833487f2d9a3879acd3e630b8c8ecdba5a590502b9d9fc29806885e76e18f", "text": "There are a multitude of other shapes, of which these _Microscopical_ Mushroms are figur’d, which would have been a long Work to have described, and would not have suited so well with my design in this Treatise, onely, amongst the rest, I must not forget to take notice of one that was a little like to, or resembled, a Spunge, consisting of a multitude of little Ramifications almost as that body does, which indeed seems to be a kind of Water-Mushrom, of a very pretty texture, as I else-where manifest. And a second, which I must not omit, because often mingled, and neer adjoining to these I have describ’d, and this appear’d much like a Thicket of bushes, or brambles, very much branch’d, and extended, some of them, to a great length, in proportion to their Diameter, like creeping brambles.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00660", "bookId": 15491, "start": 489359, "end": 490471, "sha256": "26393f0fe8ad0c690b7fe890f1b4c60c55b66b37a01dc4275bb0c8bc52bc362d", "text": "The manner of the growth and formation of this kind of Vegetable, is the third head of Enquiry, which, had I time, I should follow: the figure and method of Generation in this concrete seeming to me, next after the Enquiry into the formation, figuration; or chrystalization of Salts, to be the most simple, plain, and easie; and it seems to be a _medium_ through which he must necessarily pass, that would with any likelihood investigate the _forma informans_ of Vegetables: for as I think that he shall find it a very difficult task, who undertakes to discover the form of Saline crystallizations, without the consideration and prescience of the nature and reason of a Globular form, and as difficult to explicate this configuration of Mushroms, without the previous consideration of the form of Salts; so will the enquiry into the forms of Vegetables be no less, if not much more difficult, without the fore-knowledge of the forms of Mushroms, these several Enquiries having no less dependance one upon another then any select number of Propositions in Mathematical Elements may be made to have.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00661", "bookId": 15491, "start": 490475, "end": 490929, "sha256": "bcbb02cd9f9e75cbd39ddee9be34faf5c18df34dae21ab430a93195127c534a7", "text": "Nor do I imagine that the skips from the one to another will be found very great, if beginning from fluidity, or body without any form, we descend gradually, till we arrive at the highest form of a bruite Animal’s Soul, making the steps or foundations of our Enquiry, _Fluidity_, _Orbiculation_, _Fixation_, _Angulization_, or _Crystallization Germination_ or _Ebullition_, _Vegetation_, _Plantanimation_, _Animation_, _Sensation_, _Imagination_.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00662", "bookId": 15491, "start": 490933, "end": 491019, "sha256": "0e70e8bef8b76a1ffa01600300fbe2294913e502b67b36528dfc0355c83b0bc6", "text": "Now, that we may the better proceed in our Enquiry, It will be requisite to consider:", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00663", "bookId": 15491, "start": 491023, "end": 492206, "sha256": "ed9b4808aee26d6987b102fa6832ff9648f1fba6275849dcd5324d9d91f398ce", "text": "First, that Mould and Mushroms require no seminal property, but the former may be produc’d at any time from any kind of _putrifying_ Animal, or Vegetable Substance, as Flesh, &c. kept moist and warm, and the latter, if what _Mathiolus_ relates be true, of making them by Art, are as much within our command, of which Matter take the _Epitomie_ which Mr. _Parkinson_ has deliver’d in his _Herbal_, in his Chapter of _Mushroms_, because I have not _Mathiolus_ now by me: _Unto these Mushroms_ (saith he) _may also be adjoyn’d those which are made of Art (whereof _Mathiolus_ makes mention) that grow naturally among certain stones in _Naples_, and that the stones being digg’d up, and carried to _Rome_, and other places, where they set them in their Wine Cellars, covering them with a little Earth, and sprinkling a little warm water thereon, would within four days produce Mushroms fit to be eaten, at what time one will: As also that Mushroms may be made to grow at the foot of a wilde _Poplar Tree_, within four days after, warm water wherein some leaves have been dissolv’d shall be pour’d into the Root (which must be slit) and the stock above ground._", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00664", "bookId": 15491, "start": 492210, "end": 492757, "sha256": "016d9d657162ffcb29036229715b717723daf37465cd3037bfeb1380b0ef1763", "text": "Next, that as Mushroms may be generated without seed, so does it not appear that they have any such thing as seed in any part of them; for having considered several kinds of them, I could never find any thing in them that I could with any probability ghess to be the seed of it, so that it does not as yet appear (that I know of) that Mushroms may be generated from a seed, but they rather seem to depend merely upon a convenient constitution of the matter out of which they are made, and a concurrence of either natural or artificial heat.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00665", "bookId": 15491, "start": 492761, "end": 493742, "sha256": "c46fcae2d77b9cbe7476e2ce727a3b7467db3fc849f6324f2ad235f7ee423016", "text": "Thirdly, that by several bodies (as Salts and Metals both in Water and in the air, and by several kinds of sublimations in the Air) actuated and guided with a congruous heat, there may be produc’d several kinds of bodies as curiously, if not of a more compos’d Figure; several kinds of rising or Ebulliating Figures seem to manifest; as witness the shooting in the Rectification of spirits of _Urine_, _Hart-horn_, _Bloud_, &c. witness also the curious branches of evaporated dissolutions, some of them against the sides of the containing Jar: others standing up, or growing an end, out of the bottom, of which I have taken notice of a very great variety. But above all the rest, it is a very pretty kind of Germination which is afforded us in the Silver Tree, the manner of making which with Mercury and Silver, is well known to the Chymists, in which there is an Ebullition or Germination, very much like this of Mushroms, if I have been rightly inform’d of it.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00666", "bookId": 15491, "start": 493746, "end": 494450, "sha256": "659e6d6d4927915303086f65ff4da5d351117995d06c86834c1813f18bf3a178", "text": "Fourthly, I have very often taken notice of, and also observ’d with a _Microscope_, certain excrescencies or Ebullitions in the snuff of a Candle, which, partly from the sticking of the smoaky particles as they are carryed upwards by the current of the rarify’d Air and flame, and partly also from a kind of Germination or Ebullition of some actuated unctuous parts which creep along and filter through some small string of the Week, are formed into pretty round and uniform heads, very much resembling the form of hooded Mushroms, which, being by any means expos’d to the fresh Air, or that air which encompasses the flame, they are presently lick’d up and devour’d by it, and vanish.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00667", "bookId": 15491, "start": 494454, "end": 494526, "sha256": "7df27b8013f8470973e6b9d63e8d208f98b4ed6468ec87c723e03a0cc8e12fac", "text": "The reason of which _Phænomenon_ seems to me, to be no other then this:", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00668", "bookId": 15491, "start": 494530, "end": 496587, "sha256": "6b485f7c993eb946f1cea6af4092d2abbab8e6e42ab722a188dd2c0f31cde3ea", "text": "That when a convenient thread of the Week is so bent out by the sides of the snuff that are about half an Inch or more, remov’d above the bottom, or lowest part of the flame, and that this part be wholly included in the flame; the Oyl (for the reason of filtration, which I have elsewhere rendred) being continualy driven up the snuff is driven likewise into this ragged bended-end, and this being remov’d a good distance, as half an Inch or more, above the bottom of the flame, the parts of the air that passes by it, are already, almost satiated with the dissolution of the boiling unctuous steams that issued out below, and therefore are not onely glutted, that is, can dissolve no more then what they are already acting upon, but they carry up with them abundance of unctuous and sooty particles, which meeting with that rag of the Week, that is plentifully fill’d with Oyl, and onely spends it as fast as it evaporates, and not at all by dissolution or burning, by means of these steamy parts of the filtrated Oyl issuing out at the sides of this ragg, and being inclos’d with an air that is already satiated and cannot prey upon them nor burn them, the ascending sooty particles are stay’d about it and fix’d, so as that about the end of that ragg or filament of the snuff, whence the greatest part of the steams issue, there is conglobated or fix’d a round and pretty uniform cap, much resembling the head of a Mushrom, which, if it be of any great bigness, you may observe that its underside will be bigger then that which is above the ragg or stem of it; for the Oyl that is brought into it by filtration, being by the bulk of the cap a little shelter’d from the heat of the flame, does by that means issue as much out beneath from the stalk or downwards, as it does upwards, and by reason of the great access of the adventitious smoak from beneath, it increases most that way. That this may be the true reason of this _Phænomenon_, I could produce many Arguments and Experiments to make it probable: As,", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00669", "bookId": 15491, "start": 496591, "end": 496871, "sha256": "237b0bf36dc668ce1d0e2ecacecc85db69ebac58949148cb69bdc31093ea37d9", "text": "First, that the _Filtration_ carries the Oyl to the top of the Week, at least as high as these raggs, is visible to one that will observe the snuff of a burning Candle with a _Microscope_, where he may see an Ebullition or bubbling of the Oyl, as high as the snuff looks black.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00670", "bookId": 15491, "start": 496875, "end": 497069, "sha256": "afd32db17de94977e1838d015322a3c6352fb80219483ee34fb1851e6f67d980", "text": "Next, that it does steam away more then burn; I could tell you of the dim burning of a Candle, the longer the snuff be which arises from the abundance of vapours out of the higher parts of it.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00671", "bookId": 15491, "start": 497073, "end": 497426, "sha256": "a70cd4fe4600dde0d112185ac680f569afce5cf3afb111f61f3a4ae72ba275b7", "text": "And, thirdly, that in the middle of the flame of the Candle, neer the top of the snuff, the fire or dissolving principle is nothing neer so strong, as neer the bottom and out edges of the flame, which may be observ’d by the burning asunder of a thread, that will first break in those parts that the edges of the flame touch, and not in the middle.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00672", "bookId": 15491, "start": 497430, "end": 497839, "sha256": "9e29bdfaea31851f7ab8e8a48487546ae7c0d6202ee4181919e722fd55dc1cf6", "text": "And I could add several Observables that I have taken notice of in the flame of a Lamp actuated with Bellows, and very many others that confirm me in my opinion, but that it is not so much to my present purpose, which is onely to consider this concreet in the snuff of a Candle, so farr as it has any resemblance of a Mushrom, to the consideration of which, that I may return, I say, we may also observe:", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00673", "bookId": 15491, "start": 497843, "end": 500195, "sha256": "4a6aba253de7f2a694e30a168b1e13420fa55495e1c16c5f1fb5bd53559ec11d", "text": "In the fifth place, that the droppings or trillings of Lapidescent waters in Vaults under ground, seem to constitute a kind of _petrify’d_ body, form’d almost like some kind of Mushroms inverted, in so much that I have seen some knobb’d a little at the lower end, though for the most part, indeed they are otherwise shap’d, and taper’d towards the end; the generation of which seems to be from no other reason but this, that the water by soaking through the earth and Lime (for I ghess that substance to add much to it _petrifying_ quality) does so impregnate it self with stony particles, that hanging in drops in the roof of the Vault, by reason that the soaking of the water is but slow, it becomes expos’d to the Air, and thereby the outward part of the drop by degrees grows hard, by reason that the water gradually evaporating the stony particles neer the outsides of the drop begin to touch, and by degrees, to dry and grow closer together, and at length constitute a crust or shell about the drop; and this soaking by degrees, being more and more supply’d, the drop grows longer and longer, and the sides harden thicker and thicker into a Quill or Cane, and at length, that hollow or pith becomes almost stop’d up, and solid: afterwards the soaking of the _petrifying_ water, finding no longer a passage through the middle, bursts out, and trickles down the outside, and as the water evaporates, leaves new superinduc’d shells, which more and more swell the bulk of those Iceicles, and because of the great supply from the Vault, of _petrifying_ wafer, those bodies grow bigger and bigger next to the Vault, and taper or sharpen towards the point; for the access from the arch of the Vault being but very slow, and consequently the water being spread very thinly over the surface of the Iceicle, the water begins to settle before it can reach to the bottom, or corner end of it; whence, if you break one of these, you would almost imagine it a stick of Wood _petrify’d_, it having so pretty a resemblance of pith and grain, and if you look on the outside of a piece, or of one whole, you would think no less, both from its vegetable roundness and tapering form; but whereas all Vegetables are observ’d to shoot and grow perpendicularly upwards, this does shoot or propend directly downwards.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00674", "bookId": 15491, "start": 500199, "end": 500393, "sha256": "b0d4a11ba08caa38c0ccfb0fa5e61595b8e97f7d0ebd93f5dcb8d1ff15d48aee", "text": "By which last Observables, we see that there may be a very pretty body shap’d and concreeted by Mechanical principles, without the least shew or probability of any other seminal _formatrix_.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00675", "bookId": 15491, "start": 500397, "end": 501034, "sha256": "af1fdc0e5f774da58df3a342c3a110cec63fdfbe6b0d23394d208490172a91c6", "text": "And since we find that the great reason of the _Phænomena_ of this pretty _petrifaction_, are to be reduc’d from the gravity of a fluid and pretty volatil body impregnated with stony particles, why may not the _Phænomena_ of Ebullition or Germination be in part possibly enough deduc’d from the levity of an impregnated liquor, which therefore perpendicularly ascending by degrees, evaporates and leaves the more solid and fix’d parts behind in the form of a Mushrom, which is yet further diversify’d and specificated by the forms of the parts that impregnated the liquor, and compose or help to constitute the Mushrom.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00676", "bookId": 15491, "start": 501038, "end": 501603, "sha256": "3830bd3a5f67bad7fda4be48c7113db4d43575e6b7ae1a5b7638ad7d88b5c318", "text": "That the foremention’d Figures of growing Salts, and the Silver Tree, are from this principle, I could very easily manifest, but that I have not now a convenient opportunity of following it, nor have I made a sufficient number of Experiments and Observations to propound, explicate, and prove so usefull a _Theory_ as this of Mushroms: for, though the contrary principle to that of _petrify’d_ Iceicles may be in part a cause, yet I cannot but think, that there is somewhat a more complicated cause, though yet Mechanical, and possible to be explain’d.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00677", "bookId": 15491, "start": 501607, "end": 502795, "sha256": "06c229ab35829fc2b7020677142c8f412f0d1b6ead3f9289ae650a03782a3572", "text": "We therefore have further to enquire of it, what makes it to be such a liquor, and to ascend, whether the heat of the Sun and Air, or whether that _firmentiation_ and _putrifaction_, or both together; as also whether there be not a third or fourth; whether a Saline principle be not a considerable agent in this business also as well as heat; whether also a fixation, precipitation or settling of certain parts out of the aerial menstruum may not be also a considerable coadjutor in the business. Since we find that many pretty beards or _stiriæ_ of the particles of Silver may be precipitated upon a piece of Brass put into a _solution_ of Silver very much diluted with fair water, which look not unlike a kind of mould or hoar upon that piece of metal; and the hoar frost looks like a kind of mould; and whether there may not be several others that do concurr to the production of a Mushrom, having not yet had sufficient time to prosecute according to my desires, I must refer this to a better opportunity of my own, or leave and recommend it to the more diligent enquiry and examination of such as can be masters both of leisure and conveniencies for such an Enquiry.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00678", "bookId": 15491, "start": 502799, "end": 503553, "sha256": "f231095f9958507d0e3c834124550aa2c7c46a67314026713ac7a7f0f47d2055", "text": "And in the mean time, I must conclude, that as far as I have been able to look into the nature of this Primary kind of life and vegetation, I cannot find the least probable argument to perswade me there is any other concurrent cause then such as is purely Mechanical, and that the effects or productions are as necessary upon the concurrence of those causes as that a Ship, when the Sails are hoist up, and the Rudder is set to such a position, should, when the Wind blows, be mov’d in such a way or course to that or t’other place; Or, as that the brused Watch, which I mention in the description of Moss, should, when those parts which hindred its motion were fallen away, begin to move, but after quite another manner then it did before.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00679", "bookId": 15491, "start": 503564, "end": 503597, "sha256": "92bf9343d426ee004c3cb7caa3f283036b2f3626f071d4807d38518427facd12", "text": "* * * * *", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00680", "bookId": 15491, "start": 503603, "end": 503675, "sha256": "add8d1f0b2b8102cb7168cea0e8367ecd37f9fc8c0f335b62905cdfb51825deb", "text": "Observ. XXI. _Of _Moss_, and several other small vegetative Substances._", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00681", "bookId": 15491, "start": 503679, "end": 504937, "sha256": "193fab12bc1fffa7e987ba69b9066f4d2d5f1562d5ae233978422b64c573aff7", "text": "Moss is a Plant, that the wisest of Kings thought neither unworthy his speculation, nor his Pen, and though amongst Plants it be in bulk one of the smallest, yet it is not the least considerable: For, as to its shape, it may compare for the beauty of it with any Plant that grows, and bears a much bigger breadth; it has a root almost like a seedy Parsnep, furnish’d with small strings and suckers, which are all of them finely branch’d, like those of the roots of much bigger Vegetables; out of this springs the stem or body of the Plant, which is somewhat _Quadrangular_, rather then _Cylindrical_, most curiously _fluted_ or strung with small creases, which run, for the most part, _parallel_ the whole stem; on the sides of this are close and thick set, a multitude of fair, large, well-shap’d leaves, some of them of a rounder, others of a longer shape, according as they are younger or older when pluck’d; as I ghess by this, that those Plants that had the stalks growing from the top of them, had their leaves of a much longer shape, all the surface of each side of which, is curiously cover’d with a multitude of little oblong transparent bodies, in the manner as you see it express’d in the leaf B, in the XIII. _Scheme_.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00682", "bookId": 15491, "start": 504941, "end": 506995, "sha256": "ef67f672bbf635d0df275d904c336616dab4f6933dc2be68cbba6f971aab71b2", "text": "This Plant, when young and springing up, does much resemble a Housleek, having thick leaves, almost like that, and seems to be somwhat of kin to it in other particulars; also from the top of the leaves, there shoots out a small white and transparent hair, or thorn: This stem, in time, come to shoot out into a long, round and even stalk, which by cutting transversly, when dry, I manifestly found to be a stiff, hard, and hollow Cane, or Reed, without any kind of knot, or stop, from its bottom, where the leaves encompass’d it, to the top, on which there grows a large seed case, A, cover’d with a thin, and more whitish skin, B, terminated in a long thorny top, which at first covers all the Case, and by degrees, as that swells, the skin cleaves, and at length falls off, with its thorny top and all (which is a part of it) and leaves the seed Case to ripen, and by degrees, to shatter out its seed at a place underneath this cap, B, which before the seed is ripe, appears like a flat barr’d button, without any hole in the middle; but as it ripens, the button grows bigger, and a hole appears in the middle of it, E, out of which, in all probability, the seed falls: For as it ripens by a provision of Nature, that end of this Case turns downward after the same manner as the ears of Wheat and Barley usually do; and opening several of these dry red Cases, F, I found them to be quite hollow, without anything at all in them; whereas when I cut them asunder with a sharp Pen-knife when green, I found in the middle of this great Case, another smaller round Case, between which two, the _interstices_ were fill’d with multitudes of stringie _fibres_, which seem’d to suspend the lesser Case in the middle of the other, which (as farr as I was able to discern) seem’d full of exceeding small white seeds, much like the seed-bagg in the knop of a Carnation, after the flowers have been two or three days, or a week, fallen off; but this I could not so perfectly discern, and therefore cannot positively affirm it.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00683", "bookId": 15491, "start": 506999, "end": 507285, "sha256": "38dc2c98668d27ca8b08302db3e2cffc52d70a5b9f59a1387a8cf7c5a8e1f673", "text": "After the seed was fallen away, I found both the Case, Stalk, and Plant, all grow red and wither, and from other parts of the root continually to spring new branches or slips, which by degrees increased, and grew as bigg as the former, seeded, ripen’d, shatter’d, and wither’d.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00684", "bookId": 15491, "start": 507289, "end": 507556, "sha256": "47c97801d5e146d259bbfb29b75b512abda890f19cc3643a0690abad959103c0", "text": "I could not find that it observ’d any particular seasons for these several kinds of growth, but rather found it to be springing, mature, ripe, seedy, and wither’d at all times of the year; But I found it most to flourish and increase in warm and moist weather.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00685", "bookId": 15491, "start": 507560, "end": 507829, "sha256": "de9637b26ea580bf958062d9d8369c6a1d1091f979638ca821a796c883f14f84", "text": "It gathers its nourishments, for the most part, out of some _Lapidescent_, or other substance corrupted or chang’d from its former texture, or substantial form; for I have found it to grow on the rotten parts of Stone, of Bricks, of Wood, of Bones, of Leather, &c.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00686", "bookId": 15491, "start": 507833, "end": 508168, "sha256": "6c50648579255bce973ad306cb00328fcc12a0ebf180944dcb46d1ed4b44ad9c", "text": "It oft grows on the barks of several Trees, spreading it self, sometimes from the ground upwards, and sometimes from some chink or cleft of the bark of the Tree, which has some _putrify’d_ substance in it, but this seems of a distinct kind from that which I observ’d to grow on _putrify’d_ inanimate bodies, and rotten earth.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00687", "bookId": 15491, "start": 508172, "end": 508405, "sha256": "53059266d3fbbde4ee6abbefa75ff8c86e8b9febc90f74bc83d33c0373c1580a", "text": "There are also great varieties of other kinds of Mosses, which grow on Trees, and several other Plants, of which I shall here make no mention, nor of the Moss growing on the skull of a dead man, which much resembles that of Trees.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00688", "bookId": 15491, "start": 508409, "end": 509215, "sha256": "b0b1385343aeb8d511f2e55ccc7870cc762891aa286296c6fab20d5ef3c3fdbb", "text": "Whether this Plant does sometimes originally spring or rise out of corruption, without any disseminated seed, I have not yet made trials enough to be very much, either positive or negative; for as it seems very hard to conceive how the seed should be generally dispers’d into all parts where there is a corruption begun, unless we may rationally suppose, that this seed being so exceeding small, and consequently exceeding light, is thereby taken up, and carried to and fro in the Air into every place, and by the falling drops of rain is wash’d down out of it, and so dispers’d into all places, and there onely takes root and propagates, where it finds a convenient soil or matrix for it to thrive in; so if we will have it to proceed from corruption, it is not less difficult to conceive,", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00689", "bookId": 15491, "start": 509219, "end": 509709, "sha256": "e805fe529738365bc588382791b2abd0a596bb9bd877385d20e0cd3a5cd02dbd", "text": "First, how the corruption of any Vegetable, much less of any Stone or Brick, should be the Parent of so curiously figur’d, and so perfect a Plant as this is. But here indeed, I cannot but add, that it seems rather to be a product of the Rain in those bodies where it is stay’d, then of the very bodies themselves, since I have found it growing on Marble, and Flint, but always the _Microscope_, if not the naked eye, would discover some little hole of Dirt in which it was rooted.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00690", "bookId": 15491, "start": 509713, "end": 510691, "sha256": "58630e19ebd4012df5bb14d4fbfc6539116b04c13f2907748a609c9cc379bada", "text": "Next, how the corruption of each of those exceedingly differing bodies should all conspire to the production of the same Plant, that is, that Stones, Bricks, Wood, or vegetable substances, and Bones, Leather, Horns, or animate substances, unless we may with some plausibleness say, that Air and Water are the coadjutors, or _menstruums_, all kinds of _putrifactions_, and that thereby the bodies (though whil’st they retain’d their substantial forms, were of exceeding differing natures, yet) since they are dissolv’d and mixt into another, they may be very _Homogeneous_, they being almost resolv’d again into Air, Water, and Earth; retaining, perhaps, one part of their vegetative faculty yet entire, which meeting with congruous assistants, such as the heat of the Air, and the fluidity of the Water, and such like coadjutors and conveniences, acquires a certain vegetation for a time, wholly differing perhaps from that kind of vegetation it had before.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00691", "bookId": 15491, "start": 510695, "end": 510755, "sha256": "8c4888aeaefcd0d42c711f2d10668ff126578866d3d7a0a57457171d7e41d177", "text": "To explain my meaning a little better by a gross Similitude:", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00692", "bookId": 15491, "start": 510759, "end": 512922, "sha256": "dcf52f8f38e5d7f67df7b6565de0748d7477b66aa6124c68a8d48d62e14baf4d", "text": "Suppose a curious piece of Clock-work, that had had several motions and contrivances in it, which, when in order, would all have mov’d in their design’d methods and Periods. We will further suppose, by some means, that this Clock comes to be broken, brused, or otherwise disordered, so that several parts of it being dislocated, are impeded, and so stand still, and not onely hinder its own progressive motion, and produce not the effect which they were design’d for, but because the other parts also have a dependence upon them, put a stop to their motion likewise; and so the whole Instrument becomes unserviceable, and not fit for any use. This Instrument afterwards, by some shaking and tumbling, and throwing up and down, comes to have several of its parts shaken out, and several of its curious motions, and contrivances, and particles all fallen asunder; here a Pin falls out, and there a Pillar, and here a Wheel, and there a Hammer, and a Spring, and the like, and among the rest, away falls those parts also which were brused and disorder’d, and had all this while impeded the motion of all the rest; hereupon several of those other motions that yet remain, whole springs were not quite run down, being now at liberty, begin each of them to move, thus or thus, but quite after another method then before, there being many regulating parts and the like, fallen away and lost. Upon this, the Owner, who chances to hear and observe some of these effects, being ignorant of the Watch-makers Art, wonders what is betid his Clock, and presently imagines that some Artist has been at work, and has set his Clock in order, and made a new kind of Instrument of it, but upon examining circumstances, he finds there was no such matter, but that the casual slipping out of a Pin had made several parts of his Clock fall to pieces, and that thereby the obstacle that all this while hindred his Clock, together with other usefull parts were fallen out, and so his Clock was set at liberty. And upon winding up those springs again when run down, he finds his Clock to go, but quite after another manner then it was wont heretofore.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00693", "bookId": 15491, "start": 512926, "end": 513695, "sha256": "11152969096a6282d473e63001a4d2cc969272f537945cc966f10e1a13aa0729", "text": "And thus may it be perhaps in the business of Moss, and Mould, and Mushroms, and several other spontaneous kinds of vegetations, which may be caus’d by a vegetative principle, which was a coadjutor to the life and growth of the greater Vegetable, and was by the destroying of the life of it stopt and impeded in performing its office; but afterwards, upon a further corruption of several parts that had all the while impeded it, the heat of the Sun winding up, as it were, the spring, sets it again into a vegetative motion, and this being single, and not at all regulated as it was before (when a part of that greater _machine_ the pristine vegetable) is mov’d after quite a differing manner, and produces effects very differing from those it did before.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00694", "bookId": 15491, "start": 513699, "end": 515263, "sha256": "a0bf0993aab8b5653d6221d5a38fce021c9f3f11a4392dbe43fb1492afed9c4e", "text": "But this I propound onely as a conjecture, not that I am more enclin’d to this _Hypothesis_ then the seminal, which upon good reason I ghess to be Mechanical also, as I may elsewhere more fully shew: But because I may, by this, hint a possible way how this appearance may be solv’d; supposing we should be driven to confess from certain Experiments and Observations made, that such or such Vegetables were produc’d out of the corruption of another, without any concurrent seminal principle (as I have given some reason to suppose, in the description of a _Microscopical_ Mushrome) without derogating at all from the infinite wisdom of the Creator. For this accidental production, as I may call it, does manifest as much, if not very much more, of the excellency of his contrivance as any thing in the more perfect vegetative bodies of the world, even as the accidental motion of the _Automaton_ does make the owner see, that there was much more contrivance in it then at first he imagin’d. But of this I have added more in the description of Mould, and the Vegetables on Rose leaves, &c. those being much more likely to have their original from such a cause then this which I have here described, in the 13. _Scheme_, which indeed I cannot conceive otherwise of, then as of a most perfect Vegetable, wanting nothing of the perfections of the most conspicuous and vastest Vegetables of the world, and to be of a rank so high, as that it may very properly be reckon’d with the tall Cedar of _Lebanon_, as that Kingly Botanist has done.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00695", "bookId": 15491, "start": 515267, "end": 516858, "sha256": "7056208f67ce78fb5585bcbda9f728e801562b8db74999fc4313f7e3211131b5", "text": "We know there may be as much curiosity of contrivance, and excellency of form in a very small Pocket-clock, that takes not up an Inch square of room, as there may be in a Church-clock that fills a whole room; And I know not whether all the contrivances and _Mechanisms_ requisite to a perfect Vegetable, may not be crowded into an exceedingly less room then this of Moss, as I have heard of a striking Watch so small, that it serv’d for a Pendant in a Ladies ear; and I have already given you the description of a Plant growing on Rose leaves, that is abundantly smaller then Moss; insomuch, that neer 1000. of them would hardly make the bigness of one single Plant of Moss. And by comparing the bulk of Moss, with the bulk of the biggest kind of Vegetable we meet with in Story (of which kind we find in some hotter climates, as _Guine_, and _Brasile_, the stock or body of some Trees to be twenty foot in Diameter, whereas the body or stem of Moss, for the most part, is not above one sixtieth part of an Inch) we shall find that the bulk of the one will exceed the bulk of the other, no less then 2985984 Millions, or 2985984000000, and supposing the production on a Rose leaf to be a Plant, we shall have of those _Indian_ Plants to exceed a production of the same Vegetable kingdom no less then 1000 times the former number; so prodigiously various are the works of the Creator, and so All-sufficient is he to perform what to man would seem unpossible, they being both alike easie to him, even as one day, and a thousand years are to him as one and the same time.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00696", "bookId": 15491, "start": 516862, "end": 517514, "sha256": "1151656a729c8e9aabfd1737574efa71020cdd80dce9f46917b0455a5d23355a", "text": "I have taken notice of such an infinite variety of those smaller kinds of vegetations, that should I have described every one of them, they would almost have fill’d a Volume, and prov’d bigg enough to have made a new Herbal, such multitudes are there to be found in moist hot weather, especially in the Summer time, on all kind of putrifying substances, which, whether they do more properly belong to the _Classis_ of _Mushrooms_, or _Moulds_, or _Mosses_, I shall not now dispute, there being some that seem more properly of one kind, others of another, their colours and magnitudes being as much differing as their Figures and substances.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00697", "bookId": 15491, "start": 517518, "end": 518084, "sha256": "896ca90f04aa65d5db70d09e48ce8c182b137eadf9375baa250d6f33ec37de06", "text": "Nay, I have observ’d, that putting fair Water (whether Rain-water or Pump-water, or _May-dew_ or Snow-water, it was almost all one) I have often observ’d, I say, that this Water would, with a little standing, tarnish and cover all about the sides of the Glass that lay under water, with a lovely green; but though I have often endeavour’d to discover with my _Microscope_ whether this green were like Moss, or long striped Sea-weed, or any other peculiar form, yet so ill and imperfect are our _Microscopes_, that I could not certainly discriminate any.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00698", "bookId": 15491, "start": 518088, "end": 518747, "sha256": "2cee1a9ac89b487996105b82d92ecf8cdf1435854bbc6bbd71be19b29b39fee7", "text": "Growing Trees also, and any kinds of Woods, Stones, Bones, &c. that have been long expos’d to the Air and Rain, will be all over cover’d with a greenish scurff, which will very much foul and green any kind of cloaths that are rubb’d against it; viewing this, I could not certainly perceive in many parts of it any determinate form, though in many I could perceive a Bed as ’twere of young Moss, but in other parts it look’d almost like green bushes, and very confus’d, but always of what ever irregular Figures the parts appear’d of, they were always green, and seem’d to be either some Vegetable, or to have some vegetating principle.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00699", "bookId": 15491, "start": 518758, "end": 518791, "sha256": "92bf9343d426ee004c3cb7caa3f283036b2f3626f071d4807d38518427facd12", "text": "* * * * *", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00700", "bookId": 15491, "start": 518797, "end": 518878, "sha256": "c6edfbcccaa8e73b8ea145ecca7a7d6ec0ce63441b1e54eef8aa60e043ba5a7f", "text": "Observ. XXII. _Of common _Sponges_, and several other _Spongie_ fibrous bodies._", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00701", "bookId": 15491, "start": 518882, "end": 519696, "sha256": "0baeb955455138886bec39daffe4d572849bc58b91687eab4a535487cdd3f1a4", "text": "A Sponge is commonly reckon’d among the _Zoophyts_, or Plant Animals; and the _texture_ of it, which the _Microscope_ discovers, seems to confirm it; for it is of a form whereof I never observ’d any other Vegetable, and indeed, it seems impossible that any should be of it, for it consists of an infinite number of small short _fibres_, or nervous parts, much of the same bigness, curiously jointed or contex’d together in the form of a Net, as is more plainly manifest by the little Draught which I have added, in the third _Figure_ of the IX. _Scheme_, of a piece of it, which you may perceive represents a confus’d heap of the fibrous parts curiously jointed and implicated. The joints are, for the most part, where three _fibres_ onely meet, for I have very seldom met with any that had four.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00702", "bookId": 15491, "start": 519700, "end": 520261, "sha256": "8b5fb21ccdb77bf9ad5b24f28b08d939ce418fe3ebbf7817522a78ccef7e6ef7", "text": "At these joints there is no one of the three that seems to be the stock whereon the other grow, but each of the _fibres_ are, for the most part, of an equal bigness, and seem each of them to have an equal share in the joint; the _fibres_ are all of them much about the same bigness, not smaller towards the top of the Sponge, and bigger neerer the bottom or root, as is usuall in Plants, the length of each between the joints, is very irregular and different; the distance between some two joints, being ten or twelve times more then between some others.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00703", "bookId": 15491, "start": 520265, "end": 520456, "sha256": "06f0260bb7869bd3777c8e1782fb24e4827c18b8716b40a3a3ebd0925e24f393", "text": "Nor are the joints regular, and of an _equitriagonal Figure_, but, for the most part, the three _fibres_ so meet, that they compose three angles very differing all of them from one another.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00704", "bookId": 15491, "start": 520460, "end": 520778, "sha256": "09948c6096b9133dccf3a727cb425a00a3f9296d87e0c3c85d6dba3e525e0634", "text": "The meshes likewise, and holes of this reticulated body, are not less various and irregular: some _bilateral_, others _trilateral_, and _quadrilateral_ Figures; nay, I have observ’d some meshes to have 5, 6, 7, 8, or 9. sides, and some to have onely one, so exceeding various is the _Lusus Naturæ_ in this body.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00705", "bookId": 15491, "start": 520782, "end": 521211, "sha256": "15db487c0f367a1afd19582be1b345069318bbbb8f704fb055783a911045cdc6", "text": "As to the outward appearance of this Vegetative body, they are so usuall everywhere, that I need not describe them, consisting of a soft and porous substance, representing a Lock, sometimes a fleece of Wool; but it has besides these small _microscopical_ pores which lie between the _fibres_, a multitude of round pores or holes, which, from the top of it, pierce into the body, and sometimes go quite through to the bottom.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00706", "bookId": 15491, "start": 521215, "end": 521655, "sha256": "5d94c0e34468379fb1a1ee55d8dda0a933b30950b54c72911d9fddc92fe2c78c", "text": "I have observ’d many of these Sponges, to have included likewise in the midst of their fibrous contextures, pretty large friable stones, which must either have been inclos’d whil’st this Vegetable was in formation, or generated in those places after it was perfectly shap’d. The later of which seems the more improbable, because I did not find that any of these stony substances were perforated with the _fibres_ of the Sponge.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00707", "bookId": 15491, "start": 521659, "end": 524442, "sha256": "c2eed86cf16bb2d6998ac68771ec884710da97244e78be47f17b6f607ce66aa7", "text": "I have never seen nor been enform’d of the true manner of the growing of Sponges on the Rock; whether they are found to increase from little to great, like Vegetables, that is, part after part, or like Animals, all parts equally growing together; or whether they be _matrices_ or feed-baggs of any kind of Fishes, or some kind of watry Insect; or whether they are at any times more soft and tender, or of another nature and texture, which things, if I knew how, I should much desire to be informed of: but from a cursory view that I at first made with my _Microscope_, and some other trials, I supposed it to be some Animal substance cast out, and fastned upon the Rocks in the form of a froth, or _congeries_ of bubbles, like that which I have often observ’d on Rosemary, and other Plants (wherein is included a little Insect) that all the little films which divide these bubbles one from another, did presently, almost after the substance began to grow a little harder, break, and leave onely the thread behind, which might be, as ’twere, the angle or thread between the bubbles, that the great holes or pores observable in these Sponges were made by the eruption of the included _Heterogeneous_ substance (whether air, or some other body, for many other fluid bodies will do the same thing) which breaking out of the lesser, were collected into very large bubbles, and so might make their way out of the Sponge, and in their passage might leave a round cavity; and if it were large, might carry up with it the adjacent bubbles, which may be perceiv’d at the outside of the Sponge, if it be first throughly wetted, and sufferr’d to plump itself into its natural form, or be then wrung dry, and suffer’d to expand it self again, which it will freely do whil’st moist: for when it has thus plump’d it self into its natural shape and dimensions, ’tis obvious enough that the mouths of the larger holes have a kind of lip or rising round about them, but the other smaller pores have little or none. It may further be found, that each of these great pores has many other small pores below, that are united unto it, and help to constitute it, almost like so many rivulets or small streams that contribute to the maintenance of a large River. Nor from this _Hypothesis_ would it have been difficult to explicate, how those little branches of _Coral_, smal _Stones_, _shells_, and the like, come to be included by these frothy bodies: But this indeed was but a conjecture; and upon a more accurate enquiry into the form of it with the _Microscope_, it seems not to be the true origine of them; for whereas Sponges have onely three arms which join together at each knot, if they had been generated from bubbles they must have had four.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00708", "bookId": 15491, "start": 524446, "end": 526711, "sha256": "d27fc4437edc49ca47f0572ac8badbe359663383941c4832ea836a6c0344c9fd", "text": "But that they are Animal Substances, the _Chymical_ examination of them seems to manifest, they affording a volatil Salt and spirit, like _Harts-Horn_, as does also their great strength and toughness, and their smell when burn’d in the Fire or a Candle, which has a kind of fleshy sent, not much unlike to hair. And having since examin’d several Authors concerning them, among others; I find this account given by _Bellonius_, in the XI. _Chap._ of his 2d Book, _De Aquatilibus_. _Spongiæ recentes_, says he, _à siccis longe diversæ, scopulis aquæ marinæ ad duos vel tres cubitos, nonnunquam quatuor tantum digitos immersis, ut fungi arboribus adhærent, sordido quodam succo aut mucosa potius sanie ræfertæ, usque adeò fœtida, ut vel eminus nauseam excitet, continetur autem iis cavernis, quas inanes in siccis & lotis Spongiis cernimus: Putris pulmonis modo nigræ conspiciuntur, verùm quæ in sublimi aquæ nascuntur multo magis opaca nigredine suffusæ sunt. Vivere quidem Spongias adhærendo _Aristoteles_ censet: absolute vero minime: sensumque aliquem habere, vel eo argumento (inquit) credantur, quod difficillime abstrahantur, nisi clanculum agatur: Atq; ad avulsoris accessum ita contrahantur, ut eas evellere difficile sit, quod idem etiam faciunt quoties flatus tempestatésque urgent. Puto autem illis succum sordidum quem supra diximus carnis loco à natura attributum fuisse: atque meatibus latioribus tanquam intestinis aut interaneis uti. Cæterum pars ea quæ Spongiæ cautibus adhærent est tanquam folii petiolus, à quo veluti collum quoddam gracile incipit: quod deinde in latitudinem diffusum capitis globum facit. Recentibus nihil est fistulosum, hæsitantque tanquam radicibus. Superne omnes propemodum meatus concreti latent: inferne verò quaterni aut quini patent, per quos eas sugere existimamus_. From which Description, they seem to be a kind of Plant-Animal that adheres to a Rock, and these small _fibres_ or threads which we have described, seem to have been the Vessels which (’tis very probable) were very much bigger whil’st the _Interstitia_ were fill’d (as he affirms) with a mucous, pulpy or fleshy substance; but upon the drying were shrunk into the bigness they now appear.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00709", "bookId": 15491, "start": 526715, "end": 528501, "sha256": "c3f640c5d76bb570b7a7b4264d1d81c5c27c34c8e8b5e6d3e3e87595d0b91e3b", "text": "The texture of it is such, that I have not yet met with any other body in the world that has the like, but onely one of a larger sort of Sponge (which is preserv’d in the _Museum Harveanum_ belonging to the most Illustrious and most learned Society of the _Physicians_ of _London_) which is of a horney, or rather of a _petrify’d_ substance. And of this indeed, the texture and make is exactly the same with common Sponges, but onely that both the holes and the _fibres_, or texture of it is exceedingly much bigger, for some of the holes were above an Inch and half over, and the _fibres_ and _texture_ of it was bigg enough to be distinguished easily with ones eye, but conspicuously with an ordinary single _Microscope_. And these indeed, seem’d to have been the habitation of some Animal; and examining _Aristotle_, I find a very consonant account hereunto, namely, that he had known a certain little Animal, call’d _Pinnothera_, like a Spider, to be bred in those caverns of a Sponge, from within which, by opening and closing those holes, he insnares and catches the little Fishes; and in another place he says, That ’tis very confidently reported, that there are certain Moths or Worms that reside in the cavities of a Sponge, and are there nourished: Notwithstanding all which Histories, I think it well worth the enquiring into the History and nature of a Sponge, it seeming to promise some information of the Vessels in Animal substances, which (by reason of the solidity of the interserted flesh that is not easily remov’d, without destroying also those interspers’d Vessels) are hitherto undiscover’d; whereas here in a Sponge, the _Parenchyma_, it seems, is but a kind of mucous gelly, which is very easily and clearly wash’d away.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00710", "bookId": 15491, "start": 528505, "end": 529102, "sha256": "6e35d685a6db48417085b60b0312a153ad31edbdc1360eb128adf9ab2f025d6d", "text": "The reason that makes me imagine, that there may probably be some such texture in Animal substances, is, that examining the texture of the filaments of tann’d Leather, I find it to be much of the same nature and strength of a Sponge; and with my _Microscope_, I have observ’d many such joints and knobs, as I have described in Sponges, the _fibres_ also in the hollow of several sorts of Bones, after the Marrow has been remov’d, I have found somewhat to resemble this texture, though, I confess, I never yet found any texture exactly the same, nor any for curiosity comparable to it.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00711", "bookId": 15491, "start": 529106, "end": 529279, "sha256": "deddf4563b27d35cfecdf2db1fd728b44c7f00e8f28ba7c9a0d456ba0f85879b", "text": "The filaments of it are much smaller then those of Silk, and through the _Microscope_ appear very neer as transparent, nay, some parts of them I have observ’d much more.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00712", "bookId": 15491, "start": 529283, "end": 531381, "sha256": "75bb36f7e7d69a937b69ce37cc69e1c8f7565e3fcf09394197d66defab06ef7b", "text": "Having examin’d also several kinds of Mushroms, I finde their texture to be somewhat of this kind, that is, to consist of an infinite company of small filaments, every way contex’d and woven together, so as to make a kind of cloth, and more particularly, examining a piece of Touch-wood (which is a kind _Jews-ear_, or Mushrom, growing here in _England_ also, on several sorts of Trees, such as Elders, Maples, Willows, &c. and is commonly call’d by the name of _Spunk_; but that we meet with to be sold in Shops, is brought from beyond Seas) I found it to be made of an exceeding delicate texture: For the substance of it feels, and looks to the naked eye, and may be stretch’d any way, exactly like a very fine piece of _Chamois_ Leather, or wash’d Leather, but it is of somewhat a browner hew, and nothing neer so strong; but examining it with my _Microscope_, I found it of somewhat another make then any kind of Leather; for whereas both _Chamois_, and all other kinds of Leather I have yet view’d, consist of an infinite company of filaments, somewhat like bushes interwoven one within another, that is, of bigger parts or stems, as it were, and smaller branchings that grow out of them; or like a heap of Ropes ends, where each of the larger Ropes by degrees seem to split or untwist, into many smaller Cords, and each of those Cords into smaller Lines, and those Lines into Threads, &c. and these strangely intangled, or interwoven one within another: The texture of this Touch-wood seems more like that of a Lock or a Fleece of Wool, for it consists of an infinite number of small filaments, all of them, as farr as I could perceive, of the same bigness like those of a Sponge, but that the _filaments_ of this were not a twentieth part of the bigness of those of a Sponge; and I could not so plainly perceive their joints, or their manner of interweaving, though, as farr as I was able to discern with that _Microscope_ I had, I suppose it to have some kind of resemblance, but the joints are nothing neer so thick, nor without much trouble visible.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00713", "bookId": 15491, "start": 531385, "end": 532081, "sha256": "ee6b2a57ee27c16653384a8e707798c527978612cf45ab6343d8def383dab579", "text": "The filaments I could plainly enough perceive to be even, round, cylindrical, transparent bodies, and to cross each other every way, that is, there were not more seem’d to lie _horizontally_ then _perpendicularly_ and thwartway, so that it is somewhat difficult to conceive how they should grow in that manner. By tearing off a small piece of it, and looking on the ragged edge, I could among several of those _fibres_ perceive small joints, that is, one of those hairs split into two, each of the same bigness with the other out of which they seem’d to grow, but having not lately had an opportunity of examining their manner of growth, I cannot positively affirm any thing of them.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00714", "bookId": 15491, "start": 532085, "end": 532316, "sha256": "7bab302c7782b96a396b47e4d547a0198eb2da268f64f15940f9ea965196aab2", "text": "But to proceed, The swelling of Sponges upon wetting, and the rising of the Water in it above the surface of the Water that it touches, are both from the same cause, of which an account is already given in the sixth Observation.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00715", "bookId": 15491, "start": 532320, "end": 532619, "sha256": "485b76df4796050d7e6269a7d0285f89b81979a8f94951dd08b8888af0b91956", "text": "The substance of them indeed, has so many excellent properties, scarce to be met with in any other body in the world, that I have often wondered that so little use is made of it, and those onely vile and sordid; certainly, if it were well consider’d, it would afford much greater conveniencies.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00716", "bookId": 15491, "start": 532623, "end": 533575, "sha256": "e4fb613a8fd58169fa1253bf1155aa477142c37a202572c75709200acd8ddae9", "text": "That use which the Divers are said to make of it, seems, if true, very strange, but having made trial of it my self, by dipping a small piece of it in very good Sallet-oyl, and putting it in my mouth, and then keeping my mouth and nose under water, I could not find any such thing; for I was as soon out of breath as if I had had no Sponge, nor could I fetch my breath without taking in water at my mouth; but I am very apt to think, that were there a contrivance whereby the expir’d air might be forc’d to pass through a wet or oyly Sponge before it were again inspir’d, it might much cleanse, and strain away from the Air divers fuliginous and other noisome steams, and the dipping of it in certain liquors might, perhaps, so renew that property in the Air which it loses in the Lungs, by being breath’d, that one square foot of Air might last a man for respiration much longer, perhaps, then ten will now serve him of common Air.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00717", "bookId": 15491, "start": 533586, "end": 533619, "sha256": "92bf9343d426ee004c3cb7caa3f283036b2f3626f071d4807d38518427facd12", "text": "* * * * *", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00718", "bookId": 15491, "start": 533625, "end": 533680, "sha256": "26bfd3fa39a0dc7f9ea6cc33ea113f4cf220ade37663b4e678c496bb232cb1f2", "text": "Observ. XXIII. _Of the curious texture of _Sea-weeds_._", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00719", "bookId": 15491, "start": 533684, "end": 535719, "sha256": "ac569bdb98712fa3a198e00ae066b500ae2d11ae03826375917ae40cdd42bcff", "text": "For curiosity and beauty, I have not among all the Plants or Vegetables I have yet observ’d, seen any one comparable to this Sea-weed I have here describ’d, of which I am able to say very little more then what is represented by the second _Figure_ of the ninth _Scheme_: Namely, that it is a Plant which grows upon the Rocks under the water, and increases and spreads it self into a great tuft, which is not onely handsomely branch’d into several leaves, but the whole surface of the Plant is cover’d over with a most curious kind of carv’d work, which consists of a texture much resembling a Honey-comb; for the whole surface on both sides is cover’d over with a multitude of very small holes, being no bigger then so many holes made with the point of a small Pinn, and rang’d in the neatest and most delicate order imaginable, they being plac’d in the manner of a _Quincunx_, or very much like the rows of the eyes of a Fly, the rows or orders being very regular, which way soever they are observ’d: what the texture was, as it appear’d through a pretty bigg Magnifying _Microscope_, I have here adjoin’d in the first _Figure_ of the 14. _Scheme._ which round Area ABCD represents a part of the surface about one eighth part of an Inch in Diameter: Those little holes, which to the eye look’d round, like so many little spots, here appear’d very regularly shap’d holes, representing almost the shape of the sole of a round toed shoe, the hinder part of which, is, as it were, trod on or cover’d by the toe of that next below it; these holes seem’d wall’d about with a very thin and transparent substance, looking of a pale straw-colour; from the edge of which, against the middle of each hole, were sprouted out four small transparent straw-colour’d Thorns, which seem’d to protect and cover those cavities, from either side two; neer the root of this Plant, were sprouted out several small branches of a kind of bastard _Coralline_, curiously branch’d, though small.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00720", "bookId": 15491, "start": 535723, "end": 536930, "sha256": "8689d4443d66e25c7c543d7a637781f67089e45798c3c8e488953d3ecd496a39", "text": "And to confirm this, having lately the opportunity of viewing the large Plant (if I may so call it) of a Sponge _petrify’d_, of which I made mention in the last Observation, I found, that each of the Branches or Figures of it, did, by the range of its pores, exhibit just such a texture, the rows of pores crossing one another, much after the manner as the rows of eyes do which are describ’d in the 26. _Scheme_: _Coralline_ also, and several sorts of white _Coral_, I have with a _Microscope_ observ’d very curiously shap’d. And I doubt not, but that he that shall observe these several kinds of Plants that grow upon Rocks, which the Sea sometimes overflows, and those heaps of others which are vomited out of it upon the shore, may find multitudes of little Plants, and other bodies, which like this will afford very beautifull objects for the _Microscope_; and this _Specimen_ here is adjoin’d onely to excite their curiosities who have opportunity of observing to examine and collect what they find worthy their notice; for the Sea, among terrestrial bodies, is also a _prolifick_ mother, and affords as many Instances of _spontaneous_ generations as either the Air or Earth.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00721", "bookId": 15491, "start": 536941, "end": 536974, "sha256": "92bf9343d426ee004c3cb7caa3f283036b2f3626f071d4807d38518427facd12", "text": "* * * * *", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00722", "bookId": 15491, "start": 536980, "end": 537044, "sha256": "7138dd9ffc174119d9f27d6845faca0c8199cd3ae54b56efabb6c516fa172695", "text": "Observ. XXIV. _Of the surfaces of _Rosemary_, and other leaves._", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00723", "bookId": 15491, "start": 537048, "end": 537385, "sha256": "728c40014d45e891a8772bc84b9ca4483909334e5d24afd24f7dfed4d120f1d5", "text": "This which is delineated within the circle of the second _Figure_ of the 14. _Scheme_, is a small part of the back or under side of a leaf of Rosemary, which I did not therefore make choice of because it had any thing peculiar which was not observable with a _Microscope_ in several other Plants, but because it exhibits at one view,", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00724", "bookId": 15491, "start": 537389, "end": 538088, "sha256": "2985a85f9a20a3b346fc591a608de649f62d73ec22bf7587a1aa9043b7a56478", "text": "First, a smooth and shining surface, namely, AB, which is a part of the upper side of the leaf, that by a kind of hem or doubling of the leaf appears on this side. There are multitudes of leaves, whose surfaces are like this smooth, and as it were quilted, which look like a curious quilted bagg of green Silk, or like a Bladder, or some such pliable transparent substance, full stuffed out with a green juice or liquor; the surface of Rue, or Herbgrass, is polish’d, and all over indented, or pitted, like the Silk-worm’s Egg, which I shall anon describe; the smooth surfaces of other Plants are otherwise quilted, Nature in this, as it were, expressing her Needle-work, or imbroidery.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00725", "bookId": 15491, "start": 538092, "end": 539261, "sha256": "a5a5eb4950731927a80a7aa5a02962fc9ff26662f4c07283debac1c3d3cb3c7e", "text": "Next a downy or bushy surface, such as is all the under side almost, appearing through the _Microscope_ much like a thicket of bushes, and with this kind of Down or Hair the leaves and stalks of multitudes of Vegetables are covered; and there seems to be as great a variety in the shape, bulk, and manner of the growing of these secundary Plants, as I may call them (they being, as it were, a Plant growing out of a Plant, or somewhat like the hairs of Animals) as there is to be found amongst small shrubs that compose bushes; but for the most part, they consist of small transparent parts, some of which grow in the shape of small Needles or Bodkins, as on the Thistle, Cowag-ecod and Nettle; others in the form of Cat’s claws, as in Cliders, the beards of Barley, the edges of several sorts of Grass and Reeds, &c. in other, as Coltsfoot, Rose-campion, Aps, Poplar, Willow, and almost all other downy Plants, they grow in the form of bushes very much diversify’d in each particular Plant, That which I have before in the 19. Observation noted on Rose leaves, is of a quite differing kind, and seems indeed a real Vegetable, distinct from the leaf.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00726", "bookId": 15491, "start": 539265, "end": 540362, "sha256": "40399654dd4b3fa8642a89eab27370245a3559c3640596ab4f1cc76a9a2d4421", "text": "Thirdly, among these small bushes are observable an infinite company of small round Balls, exactly Globular, and very much resembling Pearls, namely, CCCC, of these there maybe multitudes observ’d in Sage, and several other Plants, which I suppose was the reason why _Athanasius Kircher_ supposed them to be all cover’d with Spiders Eggs, or young Spiders, which indeed is nothing else but some kind of gummous exsudation, which is always much of the same bigness. At first sight of these, I confess, I imagin’d that they might have been some kind of _matrices_, or nourishing receptacles for some small Insect, just as I have found Oak-apples, and multitudes of such other large excrescencies on the leaves and other parts of Trees and shrubs to be for Flyes, and divers other Insects, but observing them to be there all the year, and scarce at all to change their magnitude, that conjecture seem’d not so probable. But what ever be the use of it, it affords a very pleasant object through the _Microscope_, and may, perhaps, upon further examination, prove very luciferous.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00727", "bookId": 15491, "start": 540373, "end": 540406, "sha256": "92bf9343d426ee004c3cb7caa3f283036b2f3626f071d4807d38518427facd12", "text": "* * * * *", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00728", "bookId": 15491, "start": 540412, "end": 540506, "sha256": "82590ae51b88277c9b5e8e7edbd697b8776d24f2700b267f92beaeed1bbac6ee", "text": "Observ. XXV. _Of the stinging points and juice of _Nettles_, and some other venomous Plants._", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00729", "bookId": 15491, "start": 540510, "end": 541296, "sha256": "e4a1e086021146c12b404f549f6d6e4b147640e9c81cd0213cefb5a58870c77d", "text": "A Nettle is a Plant so well known to every one, as to what the appearance of it is to the naked eye, that it needs no description; and there are very few that have not felt as well as seen it; and therefore it will be no news to tell that a gentle and slight touch of the skin by a Nettle, does oftentime, not onely create very sensible and acute pain, much like that of a burn or scald, but often also very angry and hard swellings and inflamations of the parts, such as will presently rise, and continue swoln divers hours. These observations, I say, are common enough; but how the pain is so suddenly created, and by what means continued, augmented for a time, and afterwards diminish’d, and at length quite exstinguish’d, has not, that I know, been explain’d by any.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00730", "bookId": 15491, "start": 541300, "end": 541988, "sha256": "642fe413f4604f69b3cfb0e3395268c03a0c548761ab16226f5e0495f8cf3e8f", "text": "And here we must have recourse to our _Microscope_, and that will, if almost any part of the Plant be looked on, shew us the whole surface of it very thick set with turn-Pikes, or sharp Needles, of the shape of those represented in the 15. _Scheme_ and first _Figure_ by AB, which are visible also to the naked eye; each of which consists of two parts very distinct for shape, and differing also in quality from one another. For the part A, is shaped very much like a round Bodkin, from B tapering till it end in a very sharp point; it is of substance very hard and stiff, exceedingly transparent and cleer, and, as I by many trials certainly found, is hollow from top to bottom.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00731", "bookId": 15491, "start": 541992, "end": 543868, "sha256": "0df00000a2746001e1c87e0c13f94fffb315cee349d8a1fff484d6882911c7bd", "text": "This I found by this Experiment, I had a very convenient _Microscope_ with a single Glass which drew about half an Inch, this I had fastned into a little frame, almost like a pair of Spectacles, which I placed before mine eyes, and so holding the leaf of a Nettle at a convenient distance from my eye, I did first, with the thrusting of several of these bristles into my skin, perceive that presently after I had thrust them in I felt the burning pain begin; next I observ’d in divers of them, that upon thrusting my finger against their tops, the Bodkin (if I may so call it) did not in the least bend, but I could perceive moving up and down within it a certain liquor, which upon thrusting the Bodkin against its basis, or bagg B, I could perceive to rise towards the top, and upon taking away my hand, I could see it again subside, and shrink into the bagg; this I did very often, and saw this _Phænomenon_ as plain as I could ever see a parcel of water ascend and descend in a pipe of Glass. But the basis underneath these Bodkins on which they were fast, were made of a more pliable substance, and looked almost like a little bagg of green Leather, or rather resembled the shape and surface of a wilde Cucumber, or _cucumeris asinini_, and I could plainly perceive them to be certain little baggs, bladders, or receptacles full of water, or as I ghess, the liquor of the Plant, which was poisonous, and those small Bodkins were but the Syringe-pipes, or Glyster-pipes, which first made way into the skin, and then served to convey that poisonous juice, upon the pressing of those little baggs, into the interior and sensible parts of the skin, which being so discharg’d, does corrode, or, as it were, burn that part of the skin it touches; and this pain will sometimes last very long, according as the impression is made deeper or stronger.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00732", "bookId": 15491, "start": 543872, "end": 544518, "sha256": "7ab70ae17d5762be889aee401f16618516f1e977d0fdc211dcef491056cfeea4", "text": "The other parts of the leaf or surface of the Nettle, have very little considerable, but what is common to most of these kinds of Plants, as the ruggedness or indenting, and hairiness, and other roughnesses of the surface or outside of the Plant, of which I may say more in another place. As I shall likewise of certain little pretty cleer Balls or Apples which I have observed to stick to the sides of these leaves, both on the upper and under side, very much like the small Apples which I have often observ’d to grow on the leaves of an Oak call’d _Oak-apples_ which are nothing but the _Matrices_ of an Infect, as I elsewhere shew.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00733", "bookId": 15491, "start": 544522, "end": 545643, "sha256": "00eca1df2d363ef511992073e95835651d8c857dd03aa0f1190d5f466112c814", "text": "The chief thing therefore is, how this Plant comes, by so slight a touch, to create so great a pain; and the reason of this seems to be nothing else, but the corrosive penetrant liquor contain’d in the small baggs or bladders, upon which grow out those sharp Syringe-pipes, as I before noted; and very consonant to this, is the reason of the pain created by the sting of a Bee, Wasp, &c. as I elsewhere shew: For by the Dart, which is likewise a pipe, is made a deep passage into the skin, and then by the anger of the Fly, is his gally poisonous liquor injected; which being admitted among the sensible parts, and so mix’d with the humours or _stagnating_ juices of that part, does create an Ebullition perhaps, or _effervescens_, as is usually observ’d in the mingling of two differing _Chymical saline_ liquors, by which means the parts become swell’d, hard, and very painfull; for thereby the nervous and sensible parts are not onely stretch’d and strain’d beyond their natural _tone_, but are also prick’d, perhaps, or corroded by the pungent and incongruous parts of the intruded liquor.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00734", "bookId": 15491, "start": 545647, "end": 546671, "sha256": "e73c13516d54592f8fcf714cadeb9cb74fff372af93c66bda9250ed6db439897", "text": "And this seems to be the reason, why _Aqua fortis_, and other _saline_ liquors, if they come to touch the sensitive parts, as in a cut of the skin, or the like, do so violently and intollerably _excruciate_ and torment the Patient. And ’tis not unlikely, but the Inventors of that Diabolical practice of poisoning the points of Arrows and Ponyards, might receive their first hint from some such Instance in natural contrivances, as this of the Nettle: for the ground why such poison’d weapons kill so infallibly as they do, seems no other then this of our Nettle’s stinging; for the Ponyard or Dart makes a passage or entrance into the sensitive or vital parts of the body, whereby the contagious substance comes to be dissolv’d by, and mix’d with the fluid parts or humours of the body, and by that means spreads it self by degrees into the whole liquid part of the body, in the same manner, as a few grains of Salt, put into a great quantity of Water, will by degrees diffuse it self over the whole.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00735", "bookId": 15491, "start": 546675, "end": 547169, "sha256": "e6d35360a0925afe27f0019c5e0bae4eaafef04ffff0e9214d5bf853ab3d6902", "text": "And this I take to be the reason of killing of Toads, Frogs, Effs, and several Fishes, by strewing Salt on their backs (which Experiment was shewn to the _Royal Society_ by a very ingenious Gentleman, and a worthy Member of it) for those creatures having always a continual exsudation, as it were, of slimy and watry parts, sweating out of the pores of their skin, the _saline_ particles, by that means obtain a _vehicle_, which conveys them into the internal and vital parts of the body.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00736", "bookId": 15491, "start": 547173, "end": 548271, "sha256": "ca133d680d04c5d0dd4029e4c72cf82bea16b5e2cd25098f5b7ef60e32df5ad7", "text": "This seems also to be the reason why bathing in Mineral waters are such soveraign remedies for multitudes of distempers, especially chronical; for the liquid & warm _vehicles_ of the Mineral particles, which are known to be in very considerable quantities in those healing baths, by the body’s long stay in them, do by degrees steep and insinuate themselves into the pores and parts of the skin, and thereby those Mineral particles have their ways and passages open’d to penetrate into the inner parts, and mingle themselves with the _stagnant_ juices of the several parts; besides, many of those offensive parts which were united with those _stagnant_ juices, and which were contrary to the natural constitution of the parts, and so become irksome and painfull to the body, but could not be discharged, because Nature had made no provision for such accidental mischiefs, are, by means of this soaking, and filling the pores of the skin with a liquor, afforded a passage through that liquor that fills the pores into the ambient fluid, and thereby the body comes to be discharged.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00737", "bookId": 15491, "start": 548275, "end": 549313, "sha256": "a04ca3960cf2666a6098f8c535845298e56be296ca3705bb3e37801a9b2e192e", "text": "So that ’tis very evident, there may be a good as well as an evil application of this Principle. And the ingenious Invention of that Excellent person, Doctor _Wren_ of injecting liquors into the veins of an Animal, seems to be reducible to this head: I cannot stay, nor is this a fit place, to mention the several Experiments made of this kind by the most incomparable Mr. _Boyle_, the multitudes made by the lately mention’d _Physician_ Doctor _Clark_, the History whereof, as he has been pleas’d to communicate to the _Royal Society_, so he may perhaps be prevail’d with to make publique himself: But I shall rather hint, that certainly, if this Principle were well consider’d, there might, besides the further improving of Bathing and Syringing into the veins, be thought on several ways, whereby several obstinate distempers of a humane body, such as the Gout, Dropsie, Stone, &c. might be master’d, and expell’d; and good men might make as good a use of it, as evil men have made a perverse and Diabolical.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00738", "bookId": 15491, "start": 549317, "end": 551207, "sha256": "43b2bb6dcceb3a7f17d67b988ea92333081f16c035f0b8715f2a999a489ed19a", "text": "And that the filling of the pores of the skin with some fluid _vehicle_, is of no small efficacy towards the preparing a passage for several kinds of penetrant juices, and other dissoluble bodies, to insinuate themselves within the skin, and into the sensitive parts of the body, may be, I think, prov’d by an Instance given us by _Bellonius_, in the 26. _Chapter_ of the second Book of his _Observations_, which containing a very remarkable Story I have here transcrib’d: _Cum Chamæleonis nigri radices_ (says he) _apud Pagum quendam Livadochorio nuncupatum erui curaremus, plurimi Græci & Turcæ spectatum venerunt quid erueremus, eas vero frustulatim secabamus, & filo trajiciebamus ut facilius exsiccari possent. Turcæ in eo negotio occupatos nos videntes, similiter eas radices tractare & secare voluerunt: at cum summus esset æstus, & omnes sudore maderent, quicunque eam radicem manibus tractaverant sudoremque absterserant, aut faciem digitis scalpserant, tantam pruriginem iis locis quos attigerant postea senserunt, ut aduri viderentur. Chamæleonis enim nigri radix ea virtute pollet, ut cuti applicata ipsam adeo inflammet, ut nec squillæ, nec urticæ ullæ centesima parte ita adurent: At prurigo non adeo celeriter sese prodit. Post unam aut alteram porro horam, singuli variis faciei locis cutem adeo inflammatam habere cæpimus ut tota sanguinea videretur, atque quo magis eam confricabamus, tanto magis excitabatur prurigo. Fonti assidebamus sub platano, atque initio pro ludicro habebamus & ridebamus: at tandem illi plurimum indignati sunt, & nisi asseverassemus nunquam expertos tali virtute eam plantam pollere, haud dubie male nos multassent, Attamen nostra excusatio fuit ab illis facilitus accepta, cum eodem incommodo nos affectos conspicerent. Mirum sane quod in tantillo radice tam ingentem efficaciam nostro malo experti sumus._", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00739", "bookId": 15491, "start": 551211, "end": 551620, "sha256": "c6d0b9383a4de99cab679073c2e426019aa9f417ace7de4114afbb1deed01ce7", "text": "By which observation of his, it seems manifest, that their being all cover’d with sweat who gather’d and cut this root of the black _Chameleon_ Thistle, was the great reason why they suffer’d that inconvenience, for it seems the like circumstance had not been before that noted, nor do I find any mention of such a property belonging to this Vegetable in any of the Herbals I have at present by me.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00740", "bookId": 15491, "start": 551624, "end": 552195, "sha256": "28e021d22273878015f0635913371dbc2b2319f895b67456466968fdeb7bcded", "text": "I could give very many Observations which I have made of this kind, whereby I have found that the best way to get a body to be insinuated into the substance or insensible pores of another, is first, to find a fluid _vehicle_ that has some congruity, both to the body to be insinuated, and to the body into whose pores you would have the other convey’d. And in this Principle lies the great mystery of staining several sorts of bodies, as Marble, Woods, Bones, &c. and of Dying Silks, Cloaths, Wools, Feathers, &c. But these being digressions, I shall proceed to:", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00741", "bookId": 15491, "start": 552206, "end": 552239, "sha256": "92bf9343d426ee004c3cb7caa3f283036b2f3626f071d4807d38518427facd12", "text": "* * * * *", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00742", "bookId": 15491, "start": 552245, "end": 552315, "sha256": "72f2043d94df25928bf4ba0196ea8978efb3ac7882c0d8e10fd9a15d43362049", "text": "Observ. XXVI. _Of _Cowage_, and the itching operation of some bodies._", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00743", "bookId": 15491, "start": 552319, "end": 553436, "sha256": "53a9761901907b0901674241e47879c3b955b1a0330ef6f9360c2b815951bd99", "text": "There is a certain Down of a Plant, brought from the _East-Indies_, call’d commonly, though very improperly, _Cow-itch_, the reason of which mistake is manifest enough from the description of it, which Mr. _Parkinson_ sets down in his _Herbal_, Tribe XI. Chap. 2. _Phasiolus siliqua hirsuta; The hairy Kidney-bean, called in _Zurratte_ where it grows, Couhage: We have had_ (says he) _another of this kind brought us out of the _East-Indies_, which being planted was in shew like the former, but came not to perfection, the unkindly season not suffering it to shew the flower; but of the Cods that were brought, some were smaller, shorter, and rounder then the Garden kind; others much longer, and many growing together, as it were in clusters, and cover’d all over with a brown short hairiness, so fine, that if any of it be rubb’d, or fall on the back of ones hand, or other tender parts of the skin, it will cause a kind of itching, but not strong, nor long induring, but passing quickly away, without either danger or harm; the Beans were smaller then ordinary, and of a black shining colour._", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00744", "bookId": 15491, "start": 553440, "end": 554675, "sha256": "8e780a6d495048527809841b46ad9297bda7fb000aa4efd150461ba13c95d4db", "text": "Having one of these Cods given me by a Sea-Captain, who had frequented those parts, I found it to be a small Cod, about three Inches long, much like a short Cod of _French Beans_, which had six Beans in it, the whole surface of it was cover’d over with a very thick and shining brown Down or Hair, which was very fine, and for its bigness stiff; taking some of this Down, and rubbing it on the back of my hand, I found very little or no trouble, only I was sensible that several of these little downy parts with rubbing did penetrate, and were sunk, or stuck pretty deep into my skin. After I had thus rubb’d it for a pretty while, I felt very little or no pain, in so much that I doubted, whether it were the true Couhage; but whil’st I was considering; I found the Down begin to make my hand itch, and in some places to smart again, much like the stinging of a Flea or Gnat, and this continued a pretty while, so that by degrees I found my skin to be swell’d with little red pustules, and to look as if it had been itchie. But suffering it without rubbing or scratching, the itching tickling pain quickly grew languid, and within an hour I felt nothing at all, and the little _protuberancies_ were vanish’d.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00745", "bookId": 15491, "start": 554679, "end": 555560, "sha256": "b6f31cad3246b2d4fc24dc38f1123bfbfa5cd74f24882171c639e0ca37669d6f", "text": "The cause of which odd _Phænomenon_, I suppose to be much the same with that of the stinging of a Nettle, for by the _Microscope_, I discover’d this Down to consist of a multitude of small and slender conical bodies, much resembling Needles or Bodkins, such as are represented by AB. CD. EF. of the first Figure of the XVI. _Scheme_; that their ends AAA, were very sharp, and the substance of them stiff and hard, much like the substance of several kinds of Thorns and crooks growing on Trees. And though they appear’d very cleer and transparent, yet I could not perceive whether they were hollow or not, but to me they appear’d like solid transparent bodies, without any cavity in them; whether, though they might not be a kind of Cane, fill’d with some transparent liquor which was hardned (because the Cod which I had was very dry) I was not able to examine.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00746", "bookId": 15491, "start": 555564, "end": 556275, "sha256": "085822bbdf73eb25727ee8b83f568641884a16202e98232b81117febb1362618", "text": "Now, being such stiff, sharp bodies, it is easie to conceive, how with rubbing they might easily be thrust into the tender parts of the skin, and there, by reason of their exceeding fineness and driness, not create any considerable trouble or pain, till by remaining in those places moistned with the humours of the body, some caustick part sticking on them, or residing within them might be dissolv’d and mix’d with the ambient juices of that place, and thereby those _fibres_ and tender parts adjoyning become affected, and as it were corroded by it; whence, while that action lasts, the pains created are pretty sharp and pungent, though small, which is the essential property of an itching one.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00747", "bookId": 15491, "start": 556279, "end": 556613, "sha256": "890d99de27c5a1cef876d6b5c6e2b26625d2173b307ecf2fd740d52157ad6e0a", "text": "That the pain also caused by the stinging of a Flea, a Gnat, a Flie, a Wasp, and the like, proceeds much from the very same cause, I elsewhere in their proper places endeavour to manifest. The stinging also of shred Hors-hair, which in meriment is often strew’d between the sheets of a Bed, seems to proceed from the same cause.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00748", "bookId": 15491, "start": 556624, "end": 556657, "sha256": "92bf9343d426ee004c3cb7caa3f283036b2f3626f071d4807d38518427facd12", "text": "* * * * *", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00749", "bookId": 15491, "start": 556663, "end": 556838, "sha256": "6d7ec441987fbd9700ed5161d76aa37b73667bcde6b4da2bc0c212bf053642ba", "text": "Observ. XXVII. _Of the _Beard_ of a wilde _Oat_, and the use that may be made of it for exhibiting always to the Eye the temperature of the Air, as to driness and moisture._", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00750", "bookId": 15491, "start": 556842, "end": 557667, "sha256": "799c65499ea115e7d8c7cea9d231228aef451e0fe201a22f764273507423d30c", "text": "This Beard of a wild _Oat_, is a body of a very curious structure, though to the naked Eye it appears very slight, and inconsiderable, it being only a small black or brown Beard or Bristle, which grows out of the side of the inner Husk that covers the Grain of a wild _Oat_; the whole length of it, when put in Water, so that it may extend it self to its full length, is not above an Inch and a half, and for the most part somewhat shorter, but when the Grain is ripe, and very dry, which is usually in the Moneths of _July_, and _August_, this Beard is bent somewhat below the middle, namely, about ⅖ from the bottom of it, almost to a right Angle, and the under part of it is wreath’d lik a With; the substance of it is very brittle when dry, and it will very easily be broken from the husk on which it grows.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00751", "bookId": 15491, "start": 557671, "end": 558049, "sha256": "c9e2a67289feefa7ff81d42d7bc67e721b859d56c76f910bd6edaa2eca2d34bd", "text": "If you take one of these Grains, and wet the Beard in Water, you will presently see the small bended top to turn and move round, as if it were sensible; and by degrees, if it be continued wet enough, the joint or knee will streighten it self; and if it be suffer’d to dry again, it will by degrees move round another way, and at length bend again into its former posture.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00752", "bookId": 15491, "start": 558053, "end": 558419, "sha256": "b9bc760ca503d3a18b488c6d506e4837a6267527469848b7247726c11ced9463", "text": "If it be view’d with an ordinary single _Microscope_, it will appear like a small wreath’d Sprig, with two clefts; and if wet as before, and then look’d on with this _Microscope_, it will appear to unwreath it self, and by degrees, to streighten its knee, and the two clefts will become streight, and almost on opposite sides of the small cylindrical body.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00753", "bookId": 15491, "start": 558423, "end": 558674, "sha256": "25e3dbe9cdec80ec619e0cdcd8ba2ebfa6c9c8e793c50c0697937b23fd4c6497", "text": "If it be continued to be look’d on a little longer with a _Microscope_, it will within a little while begin to wreath it self again, and soon after return to its former posture, bending it self again neer the middle, into a kind of knee or angle.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00754", "bookId": 15491, "start": 558678, "end": 559753, "sha256": "2164922a817daf0c75bd90d6c3a5b9f459ba5ba4771e216cdc9667d7b97519bf", "text": "Several of those bodies I examin’d with larger _Microscopes_, and there found them much of the make of those two long wreath’d cylinders delineated in the second Figure of the 15. _Scheme_, which two cylinders represent the wreathed part broken into two pieces, whereof the end AB is to be suppos’d to have join’d to the end CD, so that EACF does represent the whole wreath’d part of the Beard, and EG a small piece of the upper part of the Beard which is beyond the knee, which as I had not room to insert, so was it not very considerable, either for its form, or any known property; but the under or wreathed part is notable for both: As to its form, it appear’d, if it were look’d on side-ways, almost like a Willow, or a small tapering rod of _Hazel_, the lower or bigger half of which onely, is twisted round several times, in some three, in others more, in others less, according to the bigness and maturity of the Grain on which it grew, and according to the driness and moisture of the ambient Air, as I shall shew more at large by and by.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00755", "bookId": 15491, "start": 559757, "end": 560508, "sha256": "fed69359ffec43d3ac063a161d8e666f0814a56f8f10214b054b08df3b6405f9", "text": "The whole outward Superficies of this Cylindrical body is curiously adorned or fluted with little channels, and interjacent ridges, or little _protuberances_ between them, which run the whole length of the Beard, and are streight where the Beard is not twisted, and wreath’d where it is, just after the same manner: each of those sides is beset pretty thick with small Bristes or Thorns, somewhat in form resembling that of _Porcupines_ Quills, such as _aaaaa_ in the Figure; all whose points are directed like so many Turn-pikes towards the small end or top of the Beard, which is the reason, why, if you endeavour to draw the Beard between your fingers the contrary way, you will find it to stick, and grate, as it were, against the skin.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00756", "bookId": 15491, "start": 560512, "end": 561129, "sha256": "2a84c6265c0e3caa9a98746199d6ac06b9088d1a16f0e026dabedc81ce3057f0", "text": "The proportion of these small conical bodies _aaaaa_ to that whereon they grow, the Figure will sufficiently shew, as also their manner of growing, their thickness, and nearness to each other, as, that towards the root or bottom of the Beard, they are more thin, and much shorter, insomuch that there is usually left between the top of the one, and the bottom of that next above it, more then the length of one of them, and that towards the top of the Beard they grow more thick and close (though there be fewer ridges) so that the root, and almost half the upper are hid by the tops of those next below them.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00757", "bookId": 15491, "start": 561133, "end": 562722, "sha256": "82e5cc63db335ec5e7a53bdfe688bdfb57bd77e55d7677fb685f4c5d23732748", "text": "I could not perceive any _transverse_ pores, unless the whole wreath’d part were separated and cleft, in those little channels, by the wreathing into so many little strings as there were ridges, which was very difficult to determine; but there were in the wreathed part two very conspicuous channels or clefts, which were continued from the bottom F to the elbow EH or all along the part which was wreath’d, which seem’d to divide the wreath’d Cylinder into two parts, a bigger and a less; the bigger was that which was at the _convex_ side of the knee, namely, on the side A, and was wreath’d by OOOOO; this, as it seem’d the broader, so did it also the longer, the other PPPPP, which was usually purs’d or wrinckled in the bending of the knee, as about E, seem’d both the shorter and narrower, so that at first I thought the wreathing and unwreathing of the Beard might have been caus’d by the shrinking or swelling of that part; but upon further examination, I found that the clefts, KK, LL, were stuft up with a kind of Spongie substance, which, for the most part, was very conspicuous neer the knee, as in the cleft KK, when the Beard was dry; upon the discovery of which, I began to think, that it was upon the swelling of this porous pith upon the access of moisture or water that the Beard, being made longer in the midst, was streightned, and by the shrinking or subsiding of the parts of that Spongie substance together, when the water or moisture was exhal’d or dried, the pith or middle parts growing shorter, the whole became twisted.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00758", "bookId": 15491, "start": 562726, "end": 563222, "sha256": "43602c86c35ca207d86cb3bff6b928c8bcc216e1d2aceb64d423fb21b49d7eb7", "text": "But this I cannot be positive in, for upon cutting the wreath’d part in many places transversly, I was not so well satisfy’d with the shape and manner of the pores of the pith; for looking on these transverse Sections with a very good _Microscope_, I found that the ends of those transverse Sections appear’d much of the manner of the third Figure of the 15. _scheme_ ABCFE, and the middle of pith CC, seem’d very full of pores indeed, but all of them seem’d to run the long-ways.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00759", "bookId": 15491, "start": 563226, "end": 563636, "sha256": "8a0e0c74c949adff1d4719105d22cd4d0be9c1b5935b688f8f09298cbd0d782e", "text": "This Figure plainly enough shews in what manner those clefts, K and L divided the wreath’d Cylinder into two unequal parts, and also of what kind of substance the whole body consists; for by cutting the same Beard in many places, with transverse Sections, I found much the same appearance with this express’d; so that those pores seem to run, as in most other such Cany bodies, the whole length of it.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00760", "bookId": 15491, "start": 563640, "end": 563897, "sha256": "fbe1398d36597c73bbbaa635ef097b093c1b4ffe29c3996064f12b485113efcb", "text": "The clefts of this body KK, and LL, seem’d (as is also express’d in the Figure) to wind very oddly in the inner part of the wreath, and in some parts of them, they seem’d stuffed, as it were, with that Spongie substance, which I just now described.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00761", "bookId": 15491, "start": 563901, "end": 564418, "sha256": "61d2e0ed5a2e9be23eb4266b6ed31a132e8d1b4b25efe1ea39d8211d21642f55", "text": "This so oddly constituted Vegetable substance, is first (that I have met with) taken notice of by _Baptista Porta_, in his _Natural Magick_, as a thing known to children and Juglers, and it has been call’d by some of those last named persons, the better to cover their cheat, the Legg of an _Arabian Spider_, or the Legg of an inchanted _Egyptian fly_, and has been used by them to make a small Index, Cross, or the like, to move round upon the wetting of it with a drop of Water, and muttering certain words.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00762", "bookId": 15491, "start": 564422, "end": 564696, "sha256": "6136cac9e0af41d8a7134b6d30eb6da0ec9be2306b3a4202656cf50661e0cc33", "text": "But the use that has been made of it, for the discovery of the various constitutions of the Air, as to driness and moistness, is incomparably beyond any other, for this it does to admiration: The manner of contriving it so, as to perform this great effect, is onely thus:", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00763", "bookId": 15491, "start": 564700, "end": 566027, "sha256": "35cf682f9748b0d6da8d848c5b517c5acf63d98ecddb99f33a20768f39ea5f48", "text": "Provide a good large Box of Ivory, about four Inches over, and of what depth you shall judge convenient (according to your intention of making use of one, two, three, or more of these small Beards, ordered in the manner which I shall by and by describe) let all the sides of this Box be turned of Basket-work (which here in _London_ is easily enough procur’d) full of holes, in the manner almost of a Lettice, the bigger, or more the holes are, the better, that so the Air may have the more free passage to the inclosed Beard, and may the more easily pass through the Instrument; it will be better yet, though not altogether so handsom, if insteed of the Basket-work on the sides of the Box, the bottom and top of the Box be join’d together onely with three or four small Pillars, after the manner represented in the 4. Figure of the 15. _Scheme_. Or, if you intend to make use of many of these small Beards join’d together, you may have a small long Case of Ivory, whose sides are turn’d of Basket-work, full of holes, which may be screw’d on to the underside of a broad Plate of Ivory, on the other side of which is to be made the divided Ring or Circle, to which divisions the pointing of the Hand or Index, which is moved by the conjoin’d Beard, may shew all the _Minute_ variations of the Air.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00764", "bookId": 15491, "start": 566031, "end": 567137, "sha256": "0378887eb77d934522803a4c0537c0c531b6a023846f7418e74db1c2f1c8785b", "text": "There may be multitudes of other ways for contriving this small Instrument, so as to produce this effect, which any one may, according to his peculiar use, and the exigency of his present occasion, easily enough contrive and take, on which I shall not therefore insist. The whole manner of making any one of them is thus: Having your Box or frame AABB, fitly adapted for the free passage of the Air through it, in the midst of the bottom BBB, you must have a very small hole C, into which the lower end of the Beard is to be fix’d, the upper end of which Beard ab, is to pass through a small hole of a Plate, or top AA, if you make use onely of a single one, and on the top of it e, is to be fix’d a small and very light _Index_ fg, made of a very thin sliver of a Reed or Cane; but if you make use of two or more Beards, they must be fix’d and bound together, either with a very fine piece of Silk, or with a very small touch of hard Wax, or Glew, which is better, and the _Index_ fg, is to be fix’d on the top of the second, third, or fourth in the same manner as on the single one.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00765", "bookId": 15491, "start": 567141, "end": 568750, "sha256": "e7f08008dd11fd1c2348ce4e59ee7954424ff2c707582268a248f819bfd2cfa9", "text": "Now, because that in every of these contrivances, the _Index_ fg, will with some temperatures of Air, move two, three, or more times round, which without some other contrivance then this, will be difficult to distinguish, therefore I thought of this Expedient: The _Index_ or _Hand_ fg, being rais’d a pretty way above the surface of the Plate AA, fix in at a little distance from the middle of it a small Pin h, so as almost to touch the surface of the Plate AA, and then in any convenient place of the surface of the Plate, fix a small Pin, on which put on a small piece of Paper, or thin Pastboard, Vellom, or Parchment, made of a convenient cize, and shap’d in the manner of that in the Figure express’d by ik, so that having a convenient number of teeth every turn or return of the Pin h, may move this small indented Circle, a tooth forward or backwards, by which means the teeth of the Circle, being mark’d, it will be thereby very easie to know certainly, how much variation any change of weather will make upon the small wreath’d body. In the making of this Secundary Circle of Vellom, or the like, great care is to be had, that it be made exceeding light, and to move very easily, for otherwise a small variation will spoil the whole operation. The Box may be made of Brass, Silver, Iron, or any other substance, if care be taken to make it open enough, to let the Air have a sufficiently free access to the Beard. The _Index_ also may be various ways contrived, so as to shew both the number of the revolutions it makes, and the _Minute_ divisions of each revolution.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00766", "bookId": 15491, "start": 568754, "end": 569303, "sha256": "3e5c66c0b1f2234b9a09111b81fbd76277d1667e861a6d53242fa1336a43f0db", "text": "I have made several trials and Instruments for discovering the driness and moisture of the Air with this little wreath’d body, and find it to vary exceeding sensibly with the least change in the constitution of the Air, as to driness and moisture, so that with one breathing upon it, I have made it untwist a whole bout, and the _Index_ or _Hand_ has shew’d or pointed to various divisions on the upper Face or Ring of the Instrument, according as it was carried neerer and neerer to the fire, or as the heat of the Sun increased upon it.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00767", "bookId": 15491, "start": 569307, "end": 570149, "sha256": "9dbf19d16bf4dedbfe10c1682aaf65cb9de2f19854f707bac06284e3d01cf1a8", "text": "Other trials I have made with Gut-strings, but find them nothing neer so sensible, though they also may be so contriv’d as to exhibit the changes of the Air, as to driness and moisture, both by their stretching and shrinking in length, and also by their wreathing and unwreathing themselves; but these are nothing neer so exact or so tender, for their varying property will in a little time change very much. But there are several other Vegetable substances that are much more sensible then even this Beard of a wilde _Oat_; such I have found the Beard of the seed of Musk-grass, or _Geranium moschatum_, and those of other kinds of _Cranes-bil_ seeds, and the like. But always the smaller the wreathing substance be, the more sensible is it of the mutations of the Air, a conjecture at the reason of which I shall by and by add.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00768", "bookId": 15491, "start": 570153, "end": 570653, "sha256": "264f0779fd08990d7611d017970af6d3cb98e58e175d8bb6cb70b53e3a06a2e7", "text": "The lower end of this wreath’d Cylinder being stuck upright in a little soft Wax, so that the bended part or _Index_ of it lay _horizontal_, I have observ’d it always with moisture to unwreath it self from the East (For instance) by the South to the West, and so by the North to the East again, moving with the Sun (as we commonly say) and with heat and drouth to re-twist; and wreath it self the contrary way, namely, from the East, (for instance) by the North to the West, and so onwards.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00769", "bookId": 15491, "start": 570657, "end": 571560, "sha256": "3b8948db1edb1c1e059c0236a0d86f2924fb4a2c61409f35f4dee3143273a9f1", "text": "The cause of all which _Phænomena_, seems to be the differing texture of the parts of these bodies, each of them (especially the Beard of a wilde _Oat_, and of _Mosk-grass_ seed) seeming to have two kind of substances, one that is very porous, loose, and spongie, into which the watry steams of the Air may be very easily forced, which will be thereby swell’d and extended in its dimensions, just as we may observe all kind of Vegetable substance upon steeping in water to swell and grow bigger and longer. And a second that is more hard and close, into which the water can very little, or not at all penetrate, this therefore retaining always very neer the same dimensions, and the other stretching and shrinking, according as there is more or less moisture or water in its pores, by reason of the make and shape of the parts, the whole body must necessarily unwreath and wreath it self.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00770", "bookId": 15491, "start": 571564, "end": 571929, "sha256": "9344f9ea225c1f6370be227b1464fb393a2e1ff536a546951bab1231d649a188", "text": "And upon this Principle, it is very easie to make several sorts of contrivances that should thus wreath and unwreath themselves, either by heat and cold, or by driness and moisture, or by any greater or less force, from whatever cause it proceed, whether from gravity or weight, or from wind which is motion of the Air, or from some springing body, or the like.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00771", "bookId": 15491, "start": 571933, "end": 572743, "sha256": "a543c3cd124360e4721a9e8b3b0b11240202b5943f583382b500e2b15a67d476", "text": "This, had I time, I should enlarge much more upon; for it seems to me to be the very first footstep of _Sensation_, and Animate motion, the most plain, simple, and obvious contrivance that Nature has made use of to produce a motion; next to that of Rarefaction and Condensation by heat and cold. And were this Principle very well examin’d, I am very apt to think, it would afford us a very great help to find out the _Mechanism_ of the Muscles, which indeed, as farr as I have hitherto been able to examine, seems to me not so very perplex as one might imagine, especially upon the examination which I made of the Muscles of _Crabs_, _Lobsters_, and several sorts of large Shell-fish, and comparing my Observations on them, with the circumstances I observ’d in the muscles of terrestrial Animals.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00772", "bookId": 15491, "start": 572747, "end": 573711, "sha256": "90fd63c65faaf441612a2a8e1c9257d15b6b88da1fb55dd1c8263ea0dcf46df6", "text": "Now, as in this Instance of the Beard of a wilde _Oat_, we see there is nothing else requisite to make it wreath and unwreath it self, and to streighten and bend its knee, then onely a little breath of moist or dry Air, or a small _atome_ almost of water or liquor, and a little heat to make it again evaporate, for, by holding this Beard, plac’d and fix’d as I before directed, neer a Fire, and dipping the tip of a small shred of Paper in well rectify’d spirit of Wine, and then touching the wreath’d _Cylindrical_ part, you may perceive it to untwist it self; and presently again, upon the _avolation_ of the spirit, by the great heat, it will re-twist it self, and thus will it move forward and backwards as oft as you repeat the touching it with the spirit of Wine; so may, perhaps, the shrinking and relaxing of the muscles be by the influx and evaporation of some kind of liquor or juice. But of this Enquiry I shall add more elsewhere.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00773", "bookId": 15491, "start": 573722, "end": 573755, "sha256": "92bf9343d426ee004c3cb7caa3f283036b2f3626f071d4807d38518427facd12", "text": "* * * * *", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00774", "bookId": 15491, "start": 573761, "end": 573835, "sha256": "cd96c8eb8781219a254dfe36cc9a0cbc382e7cdc0f7adf3fd8b88132aed160dd", "text": "Observ. XXVIII. _Of the Seeds of _Venus_ looking-glass, or _Corn_ Violet._", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00775", "bookId": 15491, "start": 573839, "end": 574470, "sha256": "accf32081182b6fb5e2dc342d845f74fbc49fa522b3d462a1779783ac10a1214", "text": "From the Leaves, and Downs, and Beards of Plants, we come at last to the Seeds; and here indeed seems to be the Cabinet of Nature, wherein are laid up its Jewels. The providence of Nature about Vegetables, is in no part manifested more, then in the various contrivances about the seed, nor indeed is there in any part of the Vegetable so curious carvings, and beautifull adornments, as about the seed; this in the larger sorts of seeds is most evident to the eye; nor is it lest manifest through the _Microscope_, in those seeds whose shape and structure, by reason of their smalness, the eye is hardly able to distinguish.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00776", "bookId": 15491, "start": 574474, "end": 574956, "sha256": "bc1f87f8d627599aa8324b3d5aaf10ec385c195629a4966dc66a1214f5dce2b6", "text": "Of these there are multitudes, many of which I have observ’d through a _Microscope_, and find, that they do, for the most part, every one afford exceeding pleasant and beautifull objects. For besides those that have various kinds of carv’d surfaces, there are other that have smooth and perfectly polish’d surfaces, others a downy hairy surface; some are cover’d onely with a skin, others with a kind of shell, others with both, as is observable also in greater seeds.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00777", "bookId": 15491, "start": 574960, "end": 575599, "sha256": "22b8353dbb10ce6430a71a5d69f8bea8d562cb9bdc4d32aa9b92ab5a7dfd5552", "text": "Of these seeds I have onely described four sorts which may serve as a _specimen_ of what the inquisitive observers are likely to find among the rest. The first of these seeds which are described in the 17. _Scheme_, are those of Corn-Violets, the seed is very small, black, and shining, and, to the naked eye, looks almost like a very small Flea; But through the _Microscope_, it appears a large body, cover’d with a tough thick and bright reflecting skin very irregularly shrunk and pitted, insomuch that it is almost an impossibility to find two of them wrinkled alike, so great a variety may there be even in this little seed.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00778", "bookId": 15491, "start": 575603, "end": 576070, "sha256": "8efd6b841fedc3992fee3c8664326d8955b0f48e4f2ff628ceeedd9a8520cda4", "text": "This, though it appear’d one of the most promising seeds for beauty to the naked eye, yet through the _Microscope_ it appear’d but a rude misshapen seed, which I therefore drew, that I might thereby manifest how unable we are by the naked eye to judge of beauteous or less curious _microscopical_ Objects; cutting some of them in sunder, I observ’d them to be fill’d with a greenish yellow pulp, and to have a very thick husk, in proportion to the pulp.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00779", "bookId": 15491, "start": 576081, "end": 576114, "sha256": "92bf9343d426ee004c3cb7caa3f283036b2f3626f071d4807d38518427facd12", "text": "* * * * *", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00780", "bookId": 15491, "start": 576120, "end": 576159, "sha256": "a3ab15e643960c5552f532f0b88f9d66af9da8d1ab39152d5ccfdce73d1d5690", "text": "Observ. XXIX. _Of the Seeds of _Tyme_._", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00781", "bookId": 15491, "start": 576163, "end": 577069, "sha256": "ddc2aa42b9ebd9eef179a1589019a8dfab4c60c0e2710ef70f6b57ddb1c5f741", "text": "These pretty fruits here represented, in the 18. _Scheme_, are nothing else, but nine several seeds of Tyme; they are all of them in differing posture, both as to the eye and the light; nor are they all of them exactly of the same shape, there being a great variety both in the bulk and figure of each seed; but they all agreed in this, that being look’d on with a _Microscope_, they each of them exactly resembled a Lemmon or Orange dry’d; and this both in shape and colour. Some of them are a little rounder, of the shape of an Orange, as A and B, they have each of them a very conspicuous part by which they were join’d to their little stalk, and one of them had a little piece of stalk remaining on; the opposite side of the seed, you may perceive very plainly by the Figure, is very copped and prominent, as is very usual in Lemmons; which prominencies are express’d in D, E and F.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00782", "bookId": 15491, "start": 577073, "end": 577729, "sha256": "998e50b437d4c61459c0f7d725d5f97de94ce1e0b685e370600e8a3ead16f925", "text": "They seem’d each of them a little creas’d or wrinckled, but E was very conspicuously furrow’d, as if the inward make of this seed had been somewhat like that of a Lemmon also, but upon dividing several seeds with a very sharp Pen-knife, and examining them afterward, I found their make to be in nothing but bulk differing from that of Peas, that is, to have a pretty thick coat, and all the rest an indifferent white pulp, which seem’d very close; so that it seems Nature does not very much alter her method in the manner of inclosing and preserving the vital Principle in the seed, in these very small grains, from that of Beans, Peas, &c.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00783", "bookId": 15491, "start": 577733, "end": 581163, "sha256": "3f8f6e26848a1878726e6d22ce46acb10a7add6d181776b087744e94d8371f49", "text": "The Grain affords a very pretty Object for the _Microscope_, namely, a Dish of Lemmons plac’d in a very little room; should a Lemmon or Nut be proportionably magnify’d to what this seed of Tyme is, it would make it appear as bigg as a large Hay-reek and it would be no great wonder to see _Homers Iliads_, and _Homer_ and all, cramm’d into such a Nutshell. We may perceive even in these small Grains, as well as in greater, how curious and carefull Nature is in preserving the seminal principle of Vegetable bodies, in what delicate, strong and most convenient Cabinets she lays them and closes them in a pulp for their safer protection from outward dangers, and for the supply of convenient alimental juice, when the heat of the Sun begins to animate and move these little _automatons_ or Engines; as if she would, from the ornaments wherewith she has deckt these Cabinets, hint to us, that in them she has laid up her Jewels and Master-pieces. And this, if we are but diligent in observing, we shall find her method throughout. There is no curiosity in the Elemental kingdom, if I may so call the bodies of Air, Water, Earth, that are comparable in form to those of Minerals, Air and Water having no form at all, unless a potentiality to be form’d into Globules; and the clods and parcels of Earth are all irregular, whereas in Minerals she does begin to _Geometrize_, and practise, as ’twere, the first principles of _Mechanicks_, shaping them of plain regular figures, as triangles, squares, &c. and _tetraedrons_, cubes, &c. But none of their forms are comparable to the more compounded ones of Vegetables; For here she goes a step further, forming them both of more complicated shapes, and adding also multitudes of curious Mechanick contrivances in their structure; for whereas in Vegetables there was no determinate number of the leaves or branches, nor no exactly certain figure of leaves, or flowers, or seeds, in Animals all those things are exactly defin’d and determin’d; and whereever there is either an excess or defect of those determinate parts or limbs, there has been some impediment that has spoil’d the principle which was most regular: Here we shall find, not onely most curiously compounded shapes, but most stupendious Mechanisms and contrivances, here the ornaments are in the highest perfection, nothing in all the Vegetable kingdom that is comparable to the deckings of a Peacock; nay, to the curiosity of any feather, as I elsewhere shew; nor to that of the smallest and most despicable Fly. But I must not stay on these speculations, though perhaps it were very well worth while for one that had leisure, to see what Information may be learn’d of the nature, or use, or virtues of bodies, by their several forms and various excellencies and properties. Who knows but _Adam_ might from some such contemplation, give names to all creatures? If at least his names had any significancy in them of the creatures nature on which he impos’d it; as many (upon what grounds I know not) have suppos’d: And who knows, but the Creator may, in those characters, have written and engraven many of his most mysterious designs and counsels, and given man a capacity, which, assisted with diligence and industry, may be able to read and understand them. But not to multiply my digression more then I can the time, I will proceed to the next, which is,", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00784", "bookId": 15491, "start": 581174, "end": 581207, "sha256": "92bf9343d426ee004c3cb7caa3f283036b2f3626f071d4807d38518427facd12", "text": "* * * * *", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00785", "bookId": 15491, "start": 581213, "end": 581252, "sha256": "9e866783f297d9ef94b7ac7ed6650704385f70578cb4fae0639619c8912f372e", "text": "Observ. XXX. _Of the Seeds of _Poppy_._", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00786", "bookId": 15491, "start": 581256, "end": 583509, "sha256": "3078bfd111f4532c4de76d8529450c7726e25527c359c2c07ad2aa519a4a5cc4", "text": "The small seeds of Poppy, which are described in the 19. _Scheme_, both for their smalness, multiplicity and prettiness, as also for their admirable soporifick quality, deserve to be taken notice of among the other _microscopical_ seeds of Vegetables: For first, though they grow in a Case or Hive oftentimes bigger then one of these Pictures of the _microscopical_ appearance, yet are they for the most part so very little, that they exceed not the bulk of a small Nitt, being not above ¹⁄₃₂ part of an Inch in Diameter, whereas the Diameter of the Hive of them oftentimes exceeds two Inches, so that it is capable of containing near two hundred thousand, and so in all likelihood does contain a vast quantity, though perhaps not that number. Next, for their prettiness, they may be compar’d to any _microscopical_ seed I have yet seen; for they are of a dark brownish red colour, curiously Honey-comb’d all over with a very pretty variety of Net-work, or a small kind of imbosment of very orderly rais’d ridges, the surface of them looking not unlike the inside of a Beev’s stomack. But that which makes it most considerable of all, is, the medicinal virtues of it, which are such as are not afforded us by any Mineral preparation; and that is for the procuring of sleep, a thing as necessary to the well-being of a creature as his meat, and that which refreshes both the voluntary and rational faculties, which, whil’st this affection has seis’d the body, are for the most part unmov’d, and at rest. And, methinks, Nature does seem to hint some very notable virtue or excellency in this Plant from the curiosity it has bestow’d upon it. First, in its flower, it is of the highest scarlet-Dye, which is indeed the prime and chiefest colour, and has been in all Ages of the world most highly esteem’d: Next, it has as much curiosity shew’d also in the husk or case of the seed, as any one Plant I have yet met withall; and thirdly, the very seeds themselves, the _Microscope_ discovers to be very curiously shap’d bodies; and lastly, Nature has taken such abundant care for the propagation of it, that one single seed grown into a Plant, is capable of bringing some hundred thousands of seeds.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00787", "bookId": 15491, "start": 583513, "end": 584464, "sha256": "977edd2f4e6f92fd717b841f975bf9741bdbb6d797367c0cc3a462f78bdc23d1", "text": "It were very worthy some able man’s enquiry whether the intention of Nature, as to the secundary end of Animal and Vegetable substances might not be found out by some such characters and notable impressions as these, or from divers other circumstances, as the figure, colour, place, time of flourishing, springing and fading, duration, taste, smell, &c. For if such there are (as an able _Physician_ upon good grounds has given me cause to believe) we might then, insteed of studying Herbals (where so little is deliver’d of the virtues of a Plant, and less of truth) have recourse to the Book of Nature it self, and there find the most natural, usefull, and most effectual and specifick Medicines, of which we have amongst Vegetables, two very noble Instances to incourage such a hope, the one of the _Jesuite powder_ for the cure of _intermitting Feavers_, and the other of the juice of _Poppy_ for the curing the defect of sleeping.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00788", "bookId": 15491, "start": 584475, "end": 584508, "sha256": "92bf9343d426ee004c3cb7caa3f283036b2f3626f071d4807d38518427facd12", "text": "* * * * *", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00789", "bookId": 15491, "start": 584514, "end": 584549, "sha256": "28fcadda410fe7962e4fb6dc380c21eeb22cfe30e57b95b5c5e8f5f5d2e01ad3", "text": "Observ. XXXI. _Of _Purslane-seed_._", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00790", "bookId": 15491, "start": 584553, "end": 585692, "sha256": "55b42896d4d9061fa8e078aa2b0e4a45e194d372583ce03a3e96cd485ed488af", "text": "The Seeds of _Purslane_ seem of very notable shapes, appearing through the _Microscope_ shap’d somewhat like a _nautilus_ or _Porcelane_ shell, as may be seen in the XX. _Scheme_, it being a small body, coyl’d round in the manner of a Spiral, at the greater end whereof, which represents the mouth or orifice of the Shell, there is left a little white transparent substance, like a skin, represented by BBBB, which seems to have been the place whereunto the stem was join’d. The whole surface of this _Coclea_ or Shell, is cover’d over with abundance of little _prominencies_ or buttons very orderly rang’d into Spiral rows, the shape of each of which seem’d much to resemble a Wart upon a mans hand. The order, variety, and curiosity in the shape of this little seed, makes it a very pleasant object for the _Microscope_, one of them being cut asunder with a very sharp Penknife, discover’d this carved Casket to be of a brownish red, and somewhat transparent substance, and manifested the inside to be fill’d with a whitish green substance or pulp, the Bed wherein the seminal principle lies _invelop’d_.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00791", "bookId": 15491, "start": 585696, "end": 586690, "sha256": "90c283777ae4cec77e8e52faed28da61db4bcfc7c1fb97a45338f0adefb28be1", "text": "There are multitudes of other seeds which in shape represent or imitate the forms of divers other sorts of Shells: as the seed of _Scurvy-grass_ very much resembles the make of a _Concha Venerea_, a kind of Purcelane Shell; others represent several sorts of larger fruits, sweat Marjerome and Pot-marjerome represent Olives. Carret seeds are like a cleft of a Coco-Nut Husk, others are like Artificial things, as Succory seeds are like a Quiver full of Arrows, the seeds of _Amaranthus_ are of an exceeding lovely shape, somewhat like an Eye: The skin of the black and shrivled seeds of Onyons and Leeks, are all over knobbed like a Seals skin. Sorrel has a pretty black shining three-square seed, which is picked at both ends with three ridges, that are bent the whole length of it. It were almost endless to reckon up the several shapes, they are so many and so various; Leaving them therefore to the curious observer, I shall proceed to the Observations on the parts of Animals.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00792", "bookId": 15491, "start": 586701, "end": 586734, "sha256": "92bf9343d426ee004c3cb7caa3f283036b2f3626f071d4807d38518427facd12", "text": "* * * * *", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00793", "bookId": 15491, "start": 586740, "end": 586833, "sha256": "fdb53d5830872fb24dcf52baed2e3cbfb6c09abe3bf5910356e63c17054cb097", "text": "Observ. XXXII. _Of the Figure of several sorts of _Hair_, and of the texture of the _skin_._", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00794", "bookId": 15491, "start": 586837, "end": 586941, "sha256": "52098b627123556ab87c37bbe96c53883d94a5e30d269947be9ea4773bdc6378", "text": "Viewing some of the Hairs of my Head with a very good _Microscope_, I took notice of these particulars:", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00795", "bookId": 15491, "start": 586945, "end": 587216, "sha256": "e45f57d5626db7535d024e42f5bbedac4829f5904139170fd9840b0e2286b7d3", "text": "1. That they were, for the most part, _Cylindrical_, some of them were somewhat _Prismatical_, but generally they were very neer round, such as are represented in the second Figure of the 5. _Scheme_, by the _Cylinders_ EEE. nor could I find any that had sharp angles.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00796", "bookId": 15491, "start": 587220, "end": 587310, "sha256": "a20dd2ea91ef3040cdd90824034a8a47b0c2b0e6275406e74e7abb9209d3287e", "text": "2. That that part which was next the top, was bigger then that which was neerer the root.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00797", "bookId": 15491, "start": 587314, "end": 587532, "sha256": "fd7563f921ef39ac1d7936b3a00679bfe3c6063eae82cc5b58436ba93d12fc0b", "text": "3. That they were all along from end to end transparent, though not very cleer, the end next the root appearing like a black transparent piece of Horn, the end next the top more brown, somewhat like transparent Horn.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00798", "bookId": 15491, "start": 587536, "end": 587726, "sha256": "7a147d5300d0022eb5c5bd9daab30ae86fd8676d052656895f801b0098ea5d44", "text": "4. That the root of the Hairs were pretty smooth, tapering inwards, almost like a Parsneb; nor could I find that it had any filaments, or any other vessels, such as the _fibres_ of Plants.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00799", "bookId": 15491, "start": 587730, "end": 587934, "sha256": "dd1dc83853d96b733e6ec72442065643174bce63a8310ab3f6ac9b8fc682d0d8", "text": "5. That the top when split (which is common in long Hair) appear’d like the end of a stick, beaten till it be all flitter’d, there being not onely two splinters, but sometimes half a score and more.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00800", "bookId": 15491, "start": 587938, "end": 588234, "sha256": "099bf8499bad8e2008e2bc9afc314bd75f24089b460abac2d21407e5c43690ea", "text": "6. That they were all, as farr as I was able to find, solid _Cylindrical_ bodies, not pervious, like a Cane or Bulrush; nor could I find that they had any Pith, or distinction of Rind, or the like, such as I had observ’d in Horse-hairs, the Bristles of a Cat, the _Indian_ Deer’s Hair, &c.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00801", "bookId": 15491, "start": 588238, "end": 588286, "sha256": "c935da55c388d26f480c8b8a6b503614b4bee21e5481ddcb1a0e45258b53d642", "text": "_Observations on several other sorts of _Hair_._", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00802", "bookId": 15491, "start": 588290, "end": 588948, "sha256": "fb3a8f8701f42255112b33dabaad4ae51c42122d60a8d0fb91aa079702e77a6a", "text": "For the Brisles of a Hogg, I found them to be first a hard transparent horny substance, without the least appearance of pores or holes in it; and this I try’d with the greatest care I was able, cutting many of them with a very sharp Razor, so that they appear’d, even in the Glass, to have a pretty smooth surface, but somewhat waved by the sawing to and fro of the Razor, as is visible in the end of the _Prismatical_ body A of the same Figure; and then making trials with causing the light to be cast on them all the various ways I could think of, that was likely to make the pores appear, if there had been any, I was not able to discover any.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00803", "bookId": 15491, "start": 588952, "end": 589247, "sha256": "da59a0c1ca70b7a10427deb3bbe89fcace967d3491335b678a5ac2eeb5f44afd", "text": "Next, the Figure of the Brisles was very various, neither perfectly round, nor sharp edg’d, but _Prismatical_, with divers sides, and round angles, as appears in the Figure A. The bending of them in any part where they before appear’d cleer, would all flaw them, and make them look white.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00804", "bookId": 15491, "start": 589251, "end": 589709, "sha256": "28b5f09a9fd9e5addb0a624732f025764e06ade677344473869c4c54c7082765", "text": "The Mustacheos of a Cat (part of one of which is represented by the short _Cylinder_ B of the same Figure) seem’d to have, all of them that I observ’d, a large pith in the middle, like the pith of an Elder, whose texture was so close, that I was not able to discover the least sign of pores; and those parts which seem to be pores, as they appear’d in one position to the light, in another I could find a manifest reflection to be cast from them.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00805", "bookId": 15491, "start": 589713, "end": 589984, "sha256": "9c6b1d2ddd01ef33c063c058c4c17c248e171cf1dc176d25c51f5b34694a98c3", "text": "This I instance in, to hint that it is not safe to conclude any thing to be positively this or that, though it appear never so plain and likely when look’d on with a _Microscope_ in one posture, before the same be examin’d by placing it in several other positions.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00806", "bookId": 15491, "start": 589988, "end": 590157, "sha256": "3f64df46ae79b6e20a35c6b20d9e3751482014d7b5ac85fb8e46222395615552", "text": "And this I take to be the reason why many have believed and asserted the Hairs of a man’s head to be hollow, and like so many small pipes perforated from end to end.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00807", "bookId": 15491, "start": 590161, "end": 590534, "sha256": "48ce538b8c9c8fe46bdc6158c7c77fef4c047efdba41e5bd14ae5e22e7452bcb", "text": "Now, though I grant that by an _Analogie_ one may suppose them so, and from the _Polonian_ disease one may believe them such, yet I think we have not the least encouragement to either from the _Microscope_, much less positively to assert them such. And perhaps the very essence of the _Plica Polonica_ may be the hairs growing hollow, and of an unnatural constitution.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00808", "bookId": 15491, "start": 590538, "end": 593381, "sha256": "07f74385c00e7bd224bcc1ee2891375891eb12febe9d8dc6379e94e215cf4081", "text": "And as for the _Analogie_, though I am apt enough to think that the hairs of several Animals may be perforated somewhat like a Cane, or at least have a kind of pith in them, first, because they seem as ’twere a kind of Vegetable growing on an Animal, which growing, they say, remains a long while after the Animal is dead, and therefore should like other Vegetables have a pith; and secondly, because Horns and Feathers, and Porcupine’s Quils, and Cats Brisles, and the long hairs of Horses, which come very neer the nature of a mans hair, seem all of them to have a kind of pith, and some of them to be porous, yet I think it not (in these cases, where we have such helps for the sense as the _Microscope_ affords) safe concluding or building on more then we sensibly know, since we may, with examining, find that Nature does in the make of the same kind of substance, often vary her method in framing of it: Instances enough to confirm this we may find in the Horns of several creatures: as what a vast difference is there between the Horns of an Oxe, and those of some sorts of Staggs as to their shape? and even in the hairs of several creatures, we find a vast difference, as the hair of a man’s head seems, as I said before, long, _Cylindrical_ and sometime a little _Prismatical_, solid or impervious, and very small; the hair of an _Indian_ Deer (a part of the middle of which is described in the third Figure of the fifth _Scheme_, marked with F) is bigger in compass through all the middle of it, then the Bristle of an Hogg, but the end of it is smaller then the hair of any kind of Animal (as may be seen by the Figure G) the whole belly of it, which is about two or three Inches long, looks to the eye like a thread of course Canvass, that has been newly unwreath’d, it being all wav’d or bended to and fro, much after that manner, but through the _Microscope_, it appears all perforated from side to side, and Spongie, like a small kind of spongy Coral, which is often found upon the _English_ shores; but though I cut it transversly, I could not perceive that it had any pores that ran the long way of the hair: the long hairs of Horses CC and D, seem _Cylindrical_ and somewhat pithy; the Bristles of a Cat B, are conical and pithy: the Quils of Porcupines and Hedghoggs, being cut transversly, have a whitish pith, in the manner of a Starr, or Spur-rowel: Piggs-hair (A) is somewhat _triagonal_, and seems to have neither pith nor pore: And other kinds of hair have quite a differing structure and form. And therefore I think it no way agreeable to a true natural Historian, to pretend to be so sharp-sighted, as to see what a preconceiv’d _Hypothesis_ tells them should be there, where another man, though perhaps as seeing, but not forestall’d, can discover no such matter.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00809", "bookId": 15491, "start": 593385, "end": 596950, "sha256": "9f622bd1d5be6d75af2b5a95d385c21f2b01a7351c279ce6dd91b6b6584ee068", "text": "But to proceed; I observ’d several kind of hairs that had been Dyed, and found them to be a kind of horny _Cylinder_, being of much about the transparency of a pretty cleer piece of Oxe horn; these appear’d quite throughout ting’d with the colours they exhibited. And ’tis likely, that those hairs being boyl’d or steep’d in those very hot ting’d liquors in the Dye-fat, And the substance of the hair being much like that of an Oxes Horn, the penetrant liquor does so far mollifie and soften the substance, that it sinks into the very center of it, and so the ting’d parts come to be mix’d and united with the very body of the hair, and do not (as some have thought) only stick on upon the outward surface. And this, the boiling of Horn will make more probable; for we shall find by that action, that the water will insinuate it self to a pretty depth within the surface of it, especially if this penetrancy of the water be much helped by the Salts that are usually mix’d with the Dying liquors. Now, whereas Silk may be dyed or ting’d into all kind of colours without boiling or dipping into hot liquors, I ghess the reason to be two-fold: First, because the filaments, or small cylinders of Silk, are abundantly smaller and finer, and so have a much less depth to be penetrated then most kind of hairs; and next, because the substance or matter of Silk, is much more like a Glew then the substance of Hair is. And that I have reason to suppose: First, because when it is spun or drawn out of the Worm, it is a perfect glutinous substance, and very easily sticks and cleaves to any adjacent body, as I have several times observed, both in Silk-worms and Spiders. Next, because that I find that water does easily dissolve and mollifie the substance again, which is evident from their manner of ordering those bottoms or pods of the Silk-worm before they are able to unwind them. It is no great wonder therefore, if those Dyes or ting’d liquors do very quickly mollifie and tinge the surfaces of so small and so glutinous a body. And we need not wonder that the colours appear so lovely in the one, and so dull in the other, if we view but the ting’d cylinders of both kinds with a good _Microscope_; for whereas the substance of Hair, at best, is but a dirty duskish white somewhat transparent, the filaments of Silk have a most lovely transparency and cleerness, the difference between those two being not much less then that between a piece of Horn, and a piece of Crystal; the one yielding a bright and vivid reflection from the concave side of the cylinder, that is, from the concave surface of the Air that incompasses the back-part of the cylinder; the other yielding a dull and perturb’d reflection from the several _Heterogeneous_ parts that compose it. And this difference will be manifest enough to the eye, if you get a couple of small Cylinders, the smaller of Crystal Glass, the other of Horn, and then varnishing them over very thinly with some transparent colour, which will represent to the naked eye much the same kind of object which is represented to it from the filaments of Silk and Hair by the help of the _Microscope_. Now, since the threads of Silk and Serge are made up of a great number of these filaments, we may henceforth cease to wonder at the difference. From much the same reason proceeds the vivid and lovely colours of Feathers, wherein they very farr exceed the natural as well as Artificial colours of hair, of which I shall say more in its proper place.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00810", "bookId": 15491, "start": 596954, "end": 598159, "sha256": "fbe78f5ea9cf3f751ef59127831755e39b4a99774d81523cf776d953ca25bee8", "text": "The Teguments indeed of creatures are all of them adapted to the peculiar use and convenience of that Animal which they inwrap; and very much also for the ornament and beauty of it, as will be most evident to any one that shall attentively consider the various kinds of cloathings wherewith most creatures are by Nature invested and cover’d. Thus I have observed, that the hair or furr of those Northern white Bears that inhabite the colder Regions, is exceeding thick and warm: the like have I observ’d of the hair of a _Greenland_ Deer, which being brought alive to _London_, I had the opportunity of viewing; its hair was so exceeding thick, long and soft, that I could hardly with my hand, grasp or take hold of his skin, and it seem’d so exceeding warm, as I had never met with any before. And as for the ornamentative use of them, it is most evident in a multitude of creatures, not onely for colour, as the Leopards, Cats, Rhein Deer, _&c._ but for the shape, as in Horses manes, Cats beards, and several other of the greater sort of terrestrial Animals, but is much more conspicuous, in the Vestments of Fishes, Birds, Insects, of which I shall by and by give some Instances.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00811", "bookId": 15491, "start": 598163, "end": 598809, "sha256": "722e7e46cc2c4bb4a36c1d0bc4d3048f530a8b3eb2ac433d441cae23d27dd3aa", "text": "As for the skin, the _Microscope_ discovers as great a difference between the texture of those several kinds of Animals, as it does between their hairs; but all that I have yet taken notice of, when tann’d or dress’d, are of a Spongie nature, and seem to be constituted of an infinite company of small long _fibres_ or hairs, which look not unlike a heap of Tow or Okum; every of which _fibres_ seem to have been some part of a Muscle, and probably, whil’st the Animal was alive, might have its distinct function, and serve for the contraction and relaxation of the skin, and for the stretching and shrinking of it this or that way.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00812", "bookId": 15491, "start": 598813, "end": 600314, "sha256": "c14cb0f2c8a7f2531abb5f87d52111d4eb411c8405ee200e7f7ae5d2e2add417", "text": "And indeed, without such a kind of texture as this, which is very like that of _Spunk_ it would seem very strange, how any body so strong as the skin of an Animal usually is, and so close as it seems, whil’st the Animal is living, should be able to suffer so great an extension any ways, without at all hurting or dilacerating any part of it. But, since we are inform’d by the _Microscope_, that it consists of a great many small filaments, which are implicated, or intangled one within another, almost no otherwise then the hairs in a lock of Wool, or the flakes in a heap of Tow, though not altogether so loose, but the filaments are here and there twisted, as ’twere, or interwoven, and here and there they join and unite with one another, so as indeed the whole skin seems to be but one piece, we need not much wonder: And though these _fibres_ appear not through a _Microscope_ exactly jointed and contex’d, as in Sponge; yet, as I formerly hinted, I am apt to think, that could we find some way of discovering the texture of it, whil’st it invests the living Animal, or had some very easie way of separating the pulp or intercurrent juices, such as in all probability fill those _Interstitia_, without dilacerating, brusing, or otherwise spoiling the texture of it (as it seems to be very much by the ways of tanning and dressing now us’d) we might discover a much more curious texture then I have hitherto been able to find; perhaps somewhat like that of Sponges.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00813", "bookId": 15491, "start": 600318, "end": 600977, "sha256": "5e7e46b4a3ffd32eb7eb071ab229ff0d35c3b518da0f35512408e21013e07aff", "text": "That of _Chamoise_ Leather is indeed very much like that of _Spunk_, save onely that the _filaments_ seem nothing neer so even and round, nor altogether so small, nor has it so curious joints as _Spunk_ has, some of which I have lately discover’d like those of a Sponge, and perhaps all these three bodies may be of the same kind of substance, though two of them indeed are commonly accounted Vegetable (which, whether they be so or no, I shall not now dispute) But this seems common to all three, that they undergo a tanning or dressing, whereby the interspers’d juices are wasted and wash’d away before the texture of them can be discover’d.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00814", "bookId": 15491, "start": 600981, "end": 601237, "sha256": "f0fba7bda75ce6ff1a042b77ed0d8819dd94b962ef9a4419acf6bf4e8bc8c79b", "text": "What their way is of dressing, or curing Sponges, I confess, I cannot learn; but the way of dressing _Spunk_, is, by boiling it a good while in a strong _Lixivium_, and then beating it very well; and the manner of dressing Leather is sufficiently known.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00815", "bookId": 15491, "start": 601241, "end": 601613, "sha256": "6c20dab0626283f54cda12d8764885ac8c2257803735c05f529a90c470c03e08", "text": "It were indeed extremely desirable, if such a way could be found whereby the _Parenchyma_ or flesh of the Muscles, and several other parts of the body, might be wash’d, or wafted clean away, without vitiating the form of the _fibrous_ parts or vessells of it, for hereby the texture of those parts, by the help of a good _Microscope_, might be most accurately found.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00816", "bookId": 15491, "start": 601617, "end": 602413, "sha256": "2821716aadd982c85f5e200ee3efb13c2f0498a904ac822f07d556c6c4667c03", "text": "But to digress no further, we may, from this discovery of the _Microscope_, plainly enough understand how the skin, though it looks so close as it does, comes to give a passage to so vast a quantity of _excrementitious_ substances, as the diligent _Sanctorius_ has excellently observed it to do, in his _medicina statica_; for it seems very probable, from the texture after dressing, that there are an infinite of pores that every way pierce it, and that those pores are onely fill’d with some kind of juice, or some very pulpy soft substance, and thereby the steams may almost as easily find a passage through such a fluid _vehicle_ as the vaporous bubbles which are generated at the bottom of a Kettle of hot water do find a passage through that fluid _medium_ into the ambient Air.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00817", "bookId": 15491, "start": 602417, "end": 603072, "sha256": "0f05819f179c90186845680c53a04dac54561a0e70fa15d5aace9e49c6531e99", "text": "Nor is the skin of animals only thus pervious, but even those of vegetables also seem to be the same; for otherwise I cannot conceive why, if two sprigs of Rosemary (for Instance) be taken as exactly alike in all particulars as can be, and the one be set with the bottom in a Glass of water, and the other be set just without the Glass, but in the Air onely, though you stop the lower end of that in the Air very carefully with Wax, yet shall it presently almost wither, whereas the other that seems to have a supply from the subjacent water by its small pipes, or _microscopical_ pores, preserves its greenness for many days, and sometimes weeks.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00818", "bookId": 15491, "start": 603076, "end": 603654, "sha256": "6b8048989f3811103fa0aca9d36f12cf1f5d8e79112aec808da4eaafc8d1f4c0", "text": "Now, this to me, seems not likely to proceed from any other cause then the _avolation_ of the juice through the skin; for by the Wax, all those other pores of the stem are very firmly and closely stop’d up. And from the more or less porousness of the skins or rinds of Vegetables may, perhaps, be somewhat of the reason given, why they keep longer green, or sooner wither; for we may observe by the bladdering and craking of the leaves of Bays, Holly, Laurel, &c. that their skins are very close, and do not suffer so free a passage through them of the included juices.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00819", "bookId": 15491, "start": 603658, "end": 604396, "sha256": "dc6e2fc681dfa32469be623f3527ef018dbe24c32126c0f5f31adfd63f623ddc", "text": "But of this, and of the Experiment of the Rosemary, I shall elsewhere more fully consider, seeming to me an extreme luciferous Experiment, such as seems indeed very plainly to prove the _Schematism_ or structure of Vegetables altogether _mechanical_, and as necessary, that (water and warmth being apply’d to the bottom of the sprig of a Plant) some of it should be carried upwards into the stem, and thence distributed into the leaves, as that the water of the _Thames_ covering the bottom of the Mills at the Bridge foot of _London_, and by the ebbing and flowing of it, passing strongly by them, should have some part of it convey’d to the Cesterns above, and thence into several houses and Cesterns up and down the City.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00820", "bookId": 15491, "start": 604407, "end": 604440, "sha256": "92bf9343d426ee004c3cb7caa3f283036b2f3626f071d4807d38518427facd12", "text": "* * * * *", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00821", "bookId": 15491, "start": 604446, "end": 604510, "sha256": "9d2d124e1959fd427e4140278972d2bc23f20760952f0db9f31c2957b90f20c4", "text": "Observ. XXXIII. _Of the _Scales_ of a _Soal_, and other Fishes._", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00822", "bookId": 15491, "start": 604514, "end": 605899, "sha256": "ce8006ab5f4f869b58e528039120079c4fa1ba211ad331f1ca8d2ec5bf153d7a", "text": "Having hinted somewhat of the skin and covering of terrestrial Animals, I shall next add an Observation I made on the skin and Scales of a _Soal_, a small Fish, commonly enough known; and here in Fishes, as well as other Animals, Nature follows its usual method, framing all parts so, as that they are both usefull and ornamental in all its composures, mingling _utile_ and _dulce_ together; and both these designs it seems to follow, though our unassisted senses are not able to perceive them: This is not onely manifest in the covering of this Fish, but in multitudes of others, which it would be too long to enumerate, witness particularly that small Sand Shell, which I mention’d in the XI. Observation, and infinite other small Shells and Scales, divers of which I have view’d. This skin I view’d, was flead from a pretty large _Soal_, and then expanded and dry’d, the inside of it, when dry, to the naked eye, look’d very like a piece of Canvass, but the _Microscope_ discover’d that texture to be nothing else, but the inner ends of those curious Scolop’d Scales I, I, I, in the second _Figure_ of the XXI. _Scheme_, namely, the part of GGGG (of the larger representation of a single Scale, in the first _Figure_ of the same _Scheme_) which on the back side, through an ordinary single Magnifying Glass, look’d not unlike the Tyles on an house.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00823", "bookId": 15491, "start": 605903, "end": 606768, "sha256": "5566b3dcc44e9d02001e4dfb3fc79e3442734cbfc8e57d4e8b4d1f9fae983e01", "text": "The outside of it, to the naked eye, exhibited nothing more of ornament, save the usual order of ranging the Scales into a _triagonal_ form, onely the edges seem’d a little to shine, the finger being rubb’d from the tail-wards towards the head, the Scales seem’d to stay and raze it; But through an ordinary Magnifying glass, it exhibited a most curiously carved and adorned surface, such as is visible in the second _Figure_, each of those (formerly almost imperceptible) Scales appearing much of the shape I, I, I, that is, they were round, and protuberant, and somewhat shap’d like a Scolop, the whole Scale being creas’d with curiously wav’d and indented ridges, with proportionable furrows between; each of which was terminated with a very sharp transparent bony substance, which, like so many small Turnpikes, seem’d to arm the edges.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00824", "bookId": 15491, "start": 606772, "end": 607523, "sha256": "634fc97bc87567499d5fc6c380e14d6635931c5472d290df64061b63410f572e", "text": "The back part KKK was the skin into which each of these Scales were very deeply fix’d, in the curious regular order, visible in the second _Figure_. The length and shape of the part of the Scale which was buried by the skin, is evidenced by the first _Figure_; which is the representation of one of them pluck’d out and view’d through a good _Microscope_, namely, the part LFGGFL, wherein is also more plainly to be seen, the manner of carving of the scolopt part of every particular Scale, how each ridge or barr EEE is alternately hollowed or engraven, and how every gutter between them is terminated with very transparent and hard pointed spikes, and how every other of these, as AAAA, are much longer then the interjacent ones, DDD.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00825", "bookId": 15491, "start": 607527, "end": 607897, "sha256": "c264b779d854969a08f3b7886b780628eb6b22f8fc65fd21c3983118ad04b3d9", "text": "The texture or form also of the hidden part appears, namely, the middle part, GGG, seems to consist of a great number of small quills or pipes, by which, perhaps, the whole may be nourished; and the side parts FF consist of a more fibrous texture, though indeed the whole Scale seem’d to be of a very tough gristly substance like the larger Scales of other Fishes.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00826", "bookId": 15491, "start": 607901, "end": 608436, "sha256": "09b36bbbbfd7bb965a0cbc5dd495641720e61d01961a44fc8dff449d13ca1c6e", "text": "The Scales of the skin of a Dog-fish (which is us’d by such as work in Wood, for the smoothing of their work, and consists plainly enough to the naked eye, of a great number off small horny points) through the _Microscope_ appear’d each of them curiously ridg’d, and very neatly carved; and indeed, you can hardly look on the scales of any Fish, but you may discover abundance of curiosity and beautifying; and not only in these Fishes, but in the shells and crusts or armour of most sorts of _Marine_ Animals so invested.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00827", "bookId": 15491, "start": 608447, "end": 608480, "sha256": "92bf9343d426ee004c3cb7caa3f283036b2f3626f071d4807d38518427facd12", "text": "* * * * *", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00828", "bookId": 15491, "start": 608486, "end": 608525, "sha256": "a96b3968b9350a0ee08675dba6c0acba532bed4633f1e08b92f3d1d453570110", "text": "Observ. XXXIV. _Of the Sting of a Bee._", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00829", "bookId": 15491, "start": 608529, "end": 608977, "sha256": "d5058703ca03a75bc4f70265353e2c3f614c80c04942a7db654d9855ad7c3960", "text": "The Sting of a _Bee_, delineated in the second Figure of the XVI. _Scheme_, seems to be a weapon of offence, and is as great an Instance, that Nature did really intend revenge as any, and that first, because there seems to be no other use of it. Secondly, by reason of its admirable shape, seeming to be purposely shap’d for that very end. Thirdly, from the virulency of the liquor it ejects, and the sad effects and symptoms that follow it.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00830", "bookId": 15491, "start": 608981, "end": 610253, "sha256": "29fc08681f5dfa7066e7f207d23ae6f03c15f416817fd437beafc457c13f4d88", "text": "But whatever be the use of it, certain it is, that the structure of it is very admirable; what it appears to the naked eye, I need not describe, the thing being known almost to every one, but it appears through the _Microscope_, to consist of two parts, the one a sheath, without a chape or top, shap’d almost like the Holster of a Pistol, beginning at d, and ending at b, this sheath I could most plainly perceive to be hollow, and to contain in it, both a Sword or Dart, and the poisonous liquor that causes the pain. The sheath or case seem’d to have several joints or settings together, marked by fghiklmno, it was arm’d moreover neer the top, with several crooks or forks (pqrst) on one side, and (pqrstu) on the other, each of which seem’d like so many Thorns growing on a briar, or rather like so many Cat’s Claws; for the crooks themselves seem’d to be little sharp transparent points or claws, growing out of little _protuberancies_ on the side of the sheath, which, by observing the Figure diligently, is easie enough to be perceiv’d; and from several particulars, I suppose the Animal has a power of displaying them, and shutting them in again as it pleases, as a Cat does its claws, or as an Adder or Viper can its teeth or fangs.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00831", "bookId": 15491, "start": 610257, "end": 610935, "sha256": "4e4717c98e8263ceefeae16647dcf4ded72ae61658e243cdcf48aad815b10086", "text": "The other part of the Sting was the Sword, as I may so call it, which is sheath’d, as it were, in it, the top of which ab appears quite through at the smaller end, just as if the chape of the sheath of a Sword were lost, and the end of it appear’d beyond the Scabbard; the end of this Dart(a) was very sharp, and it was arm’d likewise with the like Tenter-hooks or claws with those of the sheath, such as (vxy, xyzz) these crooks, I am very apt to think, can be clos’d up also, or laid flat to the sides of the Sword when it is drawn into the Scabbard, as I have several times observ’d it to be, and can be spred again or extended when ever the Animal pleases.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00832", "bookId": 15491, "start": 610939, "end": 613392, "sha256": "44d0ffbaf2ef2dd27fc2f51ba04d16bfc3af23be5d0331e33c5b8626e3c17736", "text": "The consideration of which very pretty structure, has hinted to me, that certainly the use of these claws seems to be very considerable, as to the main end of this Instrument, for the drawing in, and holding the sting in the flesh; for the point being very sharp, the top of the Sting or Dagger (ab) is very easily thrust into an Animal’s body, which being once entred, the Bee, by endeavouring to pull it into the sheath, draws (by reason of the crooks (vxy) and (xyzz) which lay hold of the skin on either side) the top of the sheath (tsrv) into the skin after it, and the crooks t, s, and r, v, being entred, when the Bee endeavours to thrust out the top of the sting out of the sheath again, they lay hold of the skin on either side, and do not onely keep the sheath from sliding back, but helps the top inwards, and thus, by an alternate and successive retracting and emitting of the Sting in and out of the sheath, the little enraged creature by degrees makes his revengfull weapon pierce the toughest and thickest Hides of his enemies, in so much that some few of these stout and resolute soldiers with these little engines, do often put to flight a huge masty Bear, one of their deadly enemies, and thereby shew the world how much more considerable in Warr a few skilfull Engineers and resolute soldiers politickly order’d, that know how to manage such engines, are, then a vast unweildy rude force, that confides in, and acts onely by, its strength. But (to proceed) that he thus gets in his Sting into the skin, I conjecture, because, when I have observ’d this creature living, I have found it to move the Sting thus, to and fro, and thereby also, perhaps, does, as ’twere, pump or force out the poisonous liquor, and make it hang at the end of the sheath about b in a drop. The crooks, I suppose also to be the cause why these angry creatures, hastily removing themselves from their revenge, do often leave these weapons behind them, sheath’d, as ’twere, in the flesh, and, by that means, cause the painfull symptoms to be greater, and more lasting, which are very probably caus’d, partly by the piercing and tearing of the skin by the Sting, but chiefly by the corrosive and poisonous liquor that is by this Syringe-pipe convey’d among the sensitive parts thereof and thereby more easily gnaws and corrodes those tender _fibres_: As I have shewed in the description of a Nettle and of Cowhage.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00833", "bookId": 15491, "start": 613403, "end": 613436, "sha256": "92bf9343d426ee004c3cb7caa3f283036b2f3626f071d4807d38518427facd12", "text": "* * * * *", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00834", "bookId": 15491, "start": 613442, "end": 613517, "sha256": "008cad6a00470565f3b9721320c5743b50e1e8ef832ebc16601293e2ca17a8e3", "text": "Observ. XXXV. _Of the contexture and shape of the particles of _Feathers_._", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00835", "bookId": 15491, "start": 613521, "end": 613714, "sha256": "aca392e4e8a11119c2eb2cade9096a06692e49db151b484edd3a7a8a78733420", "text": "Examining several sorts of _Feathers_, I took notice of these particulars in all sorts of wing-Feathers, especially in those which serv’d for the beating of the air in the action of flying.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00836", "bookId": 15491, "start": 613718, "end": 614167, "sha256": "f400478a184aad767150fa78e6416d87599a8fc57ba1f81b71b4daaf40931993", "text": "That the outward surface of the Quill and Stem was of a very hard, stiff, and horny substance, which is obvious enough, and that the part above the Quill was fill’d with a very white and light pith, and, with the _Microscope_, I found this pith to be nothing else, but a kind of natural _congeries_ of small bubbles, the films of which seem to be of the same substance with that of the Quill, that is, of a stiff transparent horny substance.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00837", "bookId": 15491, "start": 614171, "end": 615097, "sha256": "4dea5cb35d3694e11797a1bf47dec676d292163c9fda01a8da592f0ccd67844c", "text": "Which particular seems to me, very worthy a more serious consideration; For here we may observe Nature, as ’twere, put to its shifts, to make a substance, which shall be both light enough, and very stiff and strong, without varying from its own establish’d principles, which we may observe to be such, that very strong bodies are for the most part very heavie also, a strength of the parts usually requiring a density, and a density a gravity; and therefore should Nature have made a body so broad and so strong as a Feather, almost, any other way then what it has taken, the gravity of it must necessarily have many times exceeded this; for this pith seems to be like so many stops or cross pieces in a long optical tube, which do very much contribute to the strength of the whole, the pores of which were such, as that they seem’d not to have any communication with one another, as I have elsewhere hinted.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00838", "bookId": 15491, "start": 615101, "end": 616301, "sha256": "c549097e0e4b7e04c2206150df5bb0bdc3ac7ed679f4ace1bd37dad7cbe5e31c", "text": "But the Mechanism of Nature is usually so excellent, that one and the same substance is adapted to serve for many ends. For the chief use of this, indeed, seems to be for the supply of nourishment to the downy or feathery part of the stem; for ’tis obvious enough in all sorts of Feathers, that ’tis plac’d just under the roots of the branches that grow out of either side of the quill or stalk, and is exactly shap’d according to the ranking of those branches, coming no lower into the quill, then just the beginning of the downy branches, and growing onely on the under side of the quill where those branches do so. Now, in a ripe Feather (as one may call it) it seems difficult to conceive how the _Succus nutritius_ should be convey’d to this pith; for it cannot, I think, be well imagin’d to pass through the substance of the quill, since, having examin’d it with the greatest diligence I was able, I could not find the least appearance of pores; but he that shall well examine an unripe or pinn’d Feather, will plainly enough perceive the Vessel for the conveyance of it to be the thin filmy pith (as ’tis call’d) which passes through the middle of the quill.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00839", "bookId": 15491, "start": 616305, "end": 618281, "sha256": "dcdb9664956946c5554517328cfcbd491e6394183d061c8fc1445f63a447f70e", "text": "As for the make and contexture of the Down it self, it is indeed very rare and admirable, and such as I can hardly believe, that the like is to be discover’d in any other body in the world; for there is hardly a large Feather in the wing of a Bird, but contains neer a million of distinct parts, and every one of them shap’d in a most regular & admirable form, adapted to a particular Design: For examining a middle ciz’d Goose-quill, I easily enough found with my naked eye, that the main stem of it contain’d about 300. longer and more Downy branchings upon one side, and as many on the other of more stiff but somewhat shorter branchings. Many of these long and downy branchings, examining with an ordinary _Microscope_, I found divers of them to contain neer 1200. small leaves (as I may call them, such as EF of the first Figure of the 22. _Scheme_) and as many stalks on the other side, such as IK of the same Figure, each of the leaves or branchings, EF, seem’d to be divided into about sixteen or eighteen small joints, as may be seen plainly enough in the Figure, out of most of which there seem to grow small long _fibres_, such as are express’d in the Figure, each of them very proportionably shap’d according to its position, or place on the stalk EF; those on the under side of it, namely, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, &c. being much longer then those directly opposite to them on the upper; and divers of them, such as 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, &c. were terminated with small crooks, much resembling those small crooks, which are visible enough to the naked eye, in the seed-buttons of Bur-docks. The stalks likewise, IK on the other side, seem’d divided into neer as many small knotted joints, but without any appearance of strings or crooks, each of them about the middle K, seem’d divided into two parts by a kind of fork, one side of which, namely, KL, was extended neer the length of KI, the other, M, was very short.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00840", "bookId": 15491, "start": 618285, "end": 618534, "sha256": "270ef7455d35924055b3a09a635633ce26cf4dfdee6af1f5dc3ec18e6459565b", "text": "The transverse Sections of the stems of these branchings, manifested the shape or figure of it to be much like INOE, which consisted of a horny skin or covering, and a white seemingly frothy pith, much like the make of the main stem of a Feather.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00841", "bookId": 15491, "start": 618538, "end": 618859, "sha256": "c531d2044f99e232c6be33f6300e2ca2aa4d41f9be802641aa214360bfa02326", "text": "The use of this strange kind of form, is indeed more admirable then all the rest, and such as deserves to be much more seriously examin’d and consider’d, then I have hitherto found time or ability to do; for certainly, it may very much instruct us in the nature of the Air, especially as to some properties of it.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00842", "bookId": 15491, "start": 618863, "end": 620773, "sha256": "c1fe055931b80a3fbbdfd5da89f6850be4df893346c9263e9da47471d0c57c54", "text": "The stems of the Downy branches INOE, being rang’d in the order visible enough to the naked eye, at the distance of IF, or somewhat more, the _collateral_ stalks and leaves (if I may so call those bodies I newly described) are so rang’d, that the leaves or hairy stalks of the one side lie at top, or are incumbent on the stalks of the other, and cross each other, much after the manner express’d in the second Figure of the 22. _Scheme_, by which means every of those little hooked _fibres_ of the leaved stalk get between the naked stalks, and the stalks being full of knots, and a prety way dis-join’d, so as that the _fibres_ can easily get between them, the two parts are so closely and admirably woven together, that it is able to impede, for the greatest part, the transcursion of the Air; and though they are so exceeding small, as that the thickness of one of these stalks amounts not to a 500. part of an Inch, yet do they compose so strong a texture, as, notwithstanding the exceeding quick and violent beating of them against the Air, by the strength of the Birds wing, they firmly hold together. And it argues an admirable providence of Nature in the contrivance and fabrick of them; for their texture is such, that though by any external injury the parts of them are violently disjoyn’d, so as that the leaves and stalks touch not one another, and consequently several of these rents would impede the Bird’s flying; yet, for the most part, of themselves they readily re-join and re-contex themselves, and are easily by the Birds stroking the Feather, or drawing it through its Bill, all of them settled and woven into their former and natural posture; for there are such an infinite company of those small _fibres_ in the under side of the leaves, and most of them have such little crooks at their ends, that they readily catch and hold the stalks they touch.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00843", "bookId": 15491, "start": 620777, "end": 622060, "sha256": "b94f873494d3397d1cc598c6cca20395c8739d3dd7cc56efecde12248c2d7745", "text": "From which strange contexture, it seems rational to suppose that there is a certain kind of mesh or hole so small, that the Air will not very easily pass through it, as I hinted also in the sixth Observation about small Glass Canes, for otherwise it seems probable, that Nature would have drawn over some kind of thin film which should have covered all those almost square meshes or holes, there seeming through the _Microscope_ to be more then half of the surface of the Feather which is open and visibly pervious; which conjecture will yet seem more probable from the texture of the brushie wings of the _Tinea argentea_, or white Feather wing’d moth, which I shall anone describe. But Nature, that knows best its own laws, and the several properties of bodies, knows also best how to adapt and fit them to her designed ends, and whoso would know those properties, must endeavour to trace Nature in its working, and to see what course she observes. And this I suppose will be no inconsiderable advantage which the _Schematisms_ and Structures of Animate bodies will afford the diligent enquirer, namely, most sure and excellent instructions, both as to the practical part of _Mechanicks_ and to the _Theory_ and knowledge of the nature of the bodies and motions.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00844", "bookId": 15491, "start": 622071, "end": 622104, "sha256": "92bf9343d426ee004c3cb7caa3f283036b2f3626f071d4807d38518427facd12", "text": "* * * * *", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00845", "bookId": 15491, "start": 622110, "end": 622197, "sha256": "0309cbded4c2618f705388b0d16b558ad8c4c15685d7859e28cd30f7d0ec805d", "text": "Observ. XXXVI. _Of _Peacocks_, _Ducks_, and other _Feathers_ of changeable colours._", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00846", "bookId": 15491, "start": 622201, "end": 623698, "sha256": "c73de4f2ac32ad19f481fdcac1d2a6c0fdc807c610ef62ad6ad67a311ffc7c4b", "text": "The parts of the Feathers of this glorious Bird appear, through the _Microscope_, no less gaudy then do the whole Feathers; for, as to the naked eye ’tis evident that the stem or quill of each Feather in the tail sends out multitudes of _Lateral_ branches, such as AB in the third Figure of the 22. _Scheme_ represents a small part of about ¹⁄₃₂ part of an Inch long, and each of the _lateral_ branches emit multitudes of little sprigs, threads or hairs on either side of them, such as CD, CD, CD, so each of those threads in the _Microscope_ appears a large long body, consisting of a multitude of bright reflecting parts, whose Figure ’tis no easie matter to determine, as he that examines it shall find; for every new position of it to the light makes it perfectly seem of another form and shape, and nothing what it appear’d a little before; nay, it appear’d very differing ofttimes from so seemingly inconsiderable a circumstance, that the interposing of ones hand between the light and it, makes a very great change, and the opening or shutting a Casement and the like, very much diversifies the appearance. And though, by examining the form of it very many ways, which would be tedious here to enumerate, I suppose I have discover’d the true Figure of it, yet oftentimes, upon looking on it in another posture, I have almost thought my former observations deficient, though indeed, upon further examination, I have found even those also to confirm them.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00847", "bookId": 15491, "start": 623702, "end": 625020, "sha256": "01dc09b41a0289ef45504c640e336d152eb6277c2572aa9c2338246a4753bea1", "text": "These threads therefore I find to be a _congeries_ of small _Laminæ_ or plates, as eeeee, &c. each of them shap’d much like this of abcd, in the fourth _Figure_, the part ac being a ridge, prominency, or stem, and b and d the corners of two small thin Plates that grow unto the small stalk in the middle, so that they make a kind of little feather; each of these Plates lie one close to another, almost like a company of sloping ridge or gutter Tyles; they grow on each side of the stalk opposite to one another, by two and two, from top to bottom, in the manner express’d in the fifth Figure, the tops of the lower covering the roots of the next above them; the under side of each of these laminated bodies, is of a very dark and opacous substance, and suffers very few Rays to be trajected, but reflects them all toward that side from whence they come, much like the foil of a Looking-glass; but their upper sides seem to me to consist of a multitude of thin plated bodies, which are exceeding thin, and lie very close together, and thereby, like mother of Pearl shells, do not onely reflect a very brisk light, but tinge that light in a most curious manner; and by means of various positions, in respect of the light, they reflect back now one colour, and then another, and those most vividly.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00848", "bookId": 15491, "start": 625024, "end": 625573, "sha256": "8c85a88c5272faf817b2213ceaa75690a96d24a73278ea18487a2f47e7ec47a9", "text": "Now, that these colours are onely _fantastical_ ones, that is, such as arise immediately from the refractions of the light, I found by this, that water wetting these colour’d parts, destroy’d their colours, which seem’d to proceed from the alteration of the reflection and refraction. Now, though I was not able to see those hairs at all transparent by a common light, yet by looking on them against the Sun, I found them to be ting’d with a darkish red colour, nothing a-kin to the curious and lovely greens and blues they exhibited.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00849", "bookId": 15491, "start": 625577, "end": 626386, "sha256": "57b037c808ebfed17adae2748a9cb16ba2a862dbddd5283cf424ccf2c0273dbe", "text": "What the reason of colour seems to be in such thin plated bodies, I have elsewhere shewn. But how water cast upon those threads destroys their colours, I suppose to be perform’d thus; The water falling upon these plated bodies from its having a greater congruity to Feathers then the Air, insinuates it self between those Plates, and so extrudes the strong reflecting Air, whence both these parts grow more transparent, as the _Microscope_ informs, and colourless also, at best retaining a very faint and dull colour. But this wet being wasted away by the continual evaporations and steams that pass through them from the Peacock, whil’st that Bird is yet alive, the colours again appear in their former luster, the _interstitia_ of these Plates being fill’d with the strongly reflecting Air.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00850", "bookId": 15491, "start": 626390, "end": 628396, "sha256": "2407bc190047ece8e08f8b2387ba89c77cc05ff6b175f276e4f5a75e767e70bd", "text": "The beauteous and vivid colours of the Feathers of this Bird, being found to proceed from the curious and exceeding smalness and fineness of the reflecting parts, we have here the reason given us of all those gauderies in the apparel of other Birds also, and how they come to exceed the colours of all other kinds of Animals, besides Insects; for since (as we here, and elsewhere also shew) the vividness of a colour, depends upon the fineness and transparency of the reflecting and refracting parts; and since our _Microscope_ discovers to us, that the component parts of feathers are such, and that the hairs of Animals are otherwise; and since we find also by the Experiment of that Noble and most Excellent Person I formerly named; that the difference between Silk and Flax, as to its colour, is nothing else (for Flax reduc’d to a very great fineness of parts, both white and colour’d, appears as white and as vivid as any Silk, but loses that brightness and its Silken aspect as soon as it is twisted into thread, by reason that the component parts, though very small and fine, are yet pliable flakes, and not cylinders, and thence, by twisting, become united into one opacous body, whereas the threads of Silk and Feathers retain their lustre, by preserving their cylindrical form intire without mixing; so that each reflected and refracted beam that composes the gloss of Silk, preserves its own property of modulating the light intire); And since we find the same confirm’d by many other Experiments elsewhere mentioned, I think we may safely conclude this for an Axiome, that wheresoever we meet with transparent bodies, spun out into very fine parts, either cleer, or any ways ting’d, the colours resulting from such a _composition_ must necessarily be very glorious, vivid, and cleer, like those of Silk and Feathers. This may perhaps hint some usefull way of making other bodies, besides Silk, be susceptible of bright tinctures, but of this onely by the by.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00851", "bookId": 15491, "start": 628400, "end": 628577, "sha256": "bd155b5b00c3c10bf51b52346c605b058745331192125755c94e2472e634f644", "text": "The changeable colour’d Feathers also of Ducks, and several other Birds, I have found by examination with my _Microscope_, to proceed from much the same causes and textures.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00852", "bookId": 15491, "start": 628588, "end": 628621, "sha256": "92bf9343d426ee004c3cb7caa3f283036b2f3626f071d4807d38518427facd12", "text": "* * * * *", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00853", "bookId": 15491, "start": 628627, "end": 628697, "sha256": "60cda853d09557bd26806d01c5d1bddaf24d2e20dad5add12f286dc5c791fac3", "text": "Observ. XXXVII. _Of the Feet of _Flies_, and several other _Insects_._", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00854", "bookId": 15491, "start": 628701, "end": 629972, "sha256": "54492afe1df6436c2863ddb94b9bb7a328960477a598b1bf30c0ac7d2b901a31", "text": "The foot of a Fly (delineated in the first _Figure_ of the 23. _Scheme_, which represents three joints, the two Tallons, and the two Pattens in a flat posture; and in the second _Figure_ of the same _Scheme_, which represents onely one joint, the Tallons and Pattens in another posture) is of a most admirable and curious contrivance, for by this the Flies are inabled to walk against the sides of Glass, perpendicularly upwards, and to contain themselves in that posture as long as they please; nay, to walk and suspend themselves against the under surface of many bodies, as the ceiling of a room, or the like, and this with as great a seeming facility and firmness, as if they were a kind of _Antipodes_, and had a _tendency_ upwards, as we are sure they have the contrary, which they also evidently discover, in that they cannot make themselves so light, as to stick or suspend themselves on the under surface of a Glass well polish’d and cleans’d; their suspension therefore is wholly to be ascrib’d to some Mechanical contrivance in their feet; which, what it is, we shall in brief explain, by shewing, that its Mechanism consists principally in two parts, that is, first its two Claws, or Tallons, and secondly, two Palms, Pattens, or Soles.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00855", "bookId": 15491, "start": 629976, "end": 631033, "sha256": "50a22a4c1cb241b7b263546ecf25391dfb9ead344cf18211992292fd67c207c9", "text": "The two Tallons are very large, in proportion to the foot, and handsomely shap’d in the manner describ’d in the _Figures_, by AB, and AC, the bigger part of them from A to _dd_, is all hairy, or brisled, but toward the top, at C and B smooth, the tops or points, which seem very sharp turning downwards and inwards, are each of them mov’d on a joint at A, by which the Fly is able to open or shut them at pleasure, so that the points B and C being entered in any pores, and the Fly endeavouring to shut them, the Claws not onely draw one against another, and so fasten each other, but they draw the whole foot, GGADD forward, so that on a soft footing, the tenters or points GGGG, (whereof a Fly has about ten in each foot, to wit, two in every joint) run into the pores, if they find any, or at least make their way; and this is sensible to the naked eye, in the feet of a _Chafer_, which, if he be suffer’d to creep over the hand, or any other part of the skin of ones body, does make his steps as sensible to the touch as the sight.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00856", "bookId": 15491, "start": 631037, "end": 631405, "sha256": "27f65f2b8515a56e22ca6b9bdd9b74b13830e182abf5d67461a908416f5fd547", "text": "But this contrivance, as it often fails the _Chafer_, when he walks on hard and close bodies, so would it also our Fly, though he be a much lesser, and nimbler creature, and therefore Nature has furnish’d his foot with another _additament_ much more curious and admirable, and that is, with a couple of Palms, Pattens or Soles DD, the structure of which is this:", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00857", "bookId": 15491, "start": 631409, "end": 632518, "sha256": "474747c556b5e08878119740119b86d54a35cbea57c87a7a78de6dd9e2043b3c", "text": "From the bottom or under part of the last joint of his foot, K, arise two small thin plated horny substances, each consisting of two flat pieces, DD, which seem to be flexible, like the covers of a Book, about FF, by which means, the plains of the two sides EE, do not always lie in the same plain, but may be sometimes shut closer, and so each of them may take a little hold themselves on a body; but that is not all, for the under sides of these Soles are all beset with small brisles, or tenters, like the Wire teeth of a Card used for working Wool, the points of all which tend forwards, hence the two Tallons drawing the feet forwards, as I before hinted, and these being applied to the surface of the body with all the points looking the contrary way, that is, forwards and outwards, if there be any irregularity or yielding in the surface of the body, the Fly suspends it self very firmly and easily, without the access or need of any such Sponges fill’d with an imaginary _gluten_, as many have, for want of good Glasses, perhaps, or a troublesome and diligent examination, suppos’d.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00858", "bookId": 15491, "start": 632522, "end": 632878, "sha256": "7e78a0df25bedaf00299711b0841a0e428b8a7205058c5e38e95fa34b5c0d98c", "text": "Now, that the Fly is able to walk on Glass, proceeds partly from some ruggedness of the surface: and chiefly from a kind of tarnish, or dirty smoaky substance, which adheres to the surface of that very hard body; and though the pointed parts cannot penetrate the substance of Glass, yet may they find pores enough in the tarnish, or at least make them.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00859", "bookId": 15491, "start": 632882, "end": 633521, "sha256": "eb4ff9b5f5d6d8521dfd047663f82c3345c31b56c140cc899b2f04217fece750", "text": "This Structure I somewhat the more diligently survey’d, because I could not well comprehend, how, if there were such a glutinous matter in those supposed Sponges, as most (that have observ’d that Object in a _Microscope_) have hitherto believ’d, how, I say, the Fly could so readily unglew and loosen its feet: and, because I have not found any other creature to have a contrivance any ways like it, and chiefly, that we might not be cast upon unintelligible explications of the _Phænomena_ of Nature, at least others then the true ones, where our senses were able to furnish us with an intelligible, rationall and true one.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00860", "bookId": 15491, "start": 633525, "end": 634001, "sha256": "16b536d17ffa942303c6dcad47eb9e89a90c98b8c9af930cbefa40d3fde622bc", "text": "Somewhat a like contrivance to this of Flies shall we find in most other Animals, such as all kinds of Flies and case-wing’d creatures; nay, in a Flea, an Animal abundantly smaller then this Fly. Other creatures, as Mites, the Land-Crab, &c. have onely one small very sharp Tallon at the end of each of their legs, which all drawing towards the center or middle of their body, inable these exceeding light bodies to suspend and fasten themselves to almost any surface.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00861", "bookId": 15491, "start": 634005, "end": 635331, "sha256": "ceb1c21bfdd7e9293faedc475cf185db9763d41f4dd0364db8f8b37126d90f27", "text": "Which how they are able to do, will not seem strange, if we consider, first, how little body there is in one of these creatures compar’d to their superficies, or outside, their thickness, perhaps, oftentimes, not amounting to the hundredth part of an Inch: Next, the strength and agility of these creatures compar’d to their bulk, being, proportionable to their bulk, perhaps, an hundred times stronger then an Horse or Man. And thirdly, if we consider that Nature does always appropriate the instruments, so as they are the most fit and convenient to perform their offices, and the most simple and plain that possibly can be; this we may see further verify’d also in the foot of a Louse which is very much differing from those I have been describing, but more convenient and necessary for the place of its habitation, each of his leggs being footed with a couple of small claws which he can open or shut at pleasure, shap’d almost like the claws of a Lobster or Crab, but with appropriated contrivances for his peculiar use, which being to move its body to and fro upon the hairs of the creature it inhabits, Nature has furnish’d one of its claws with joints, almost like the joints of a man’s fingers, so as thereby it is able to encompass or grasp a hair as firmly as a man can a stick or rope.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00862", "bookId": 15491, "start": 635335, "end": 635567, "sha256": "4bd17e8f782766bd9c4919a336b85364b60739b1e0a121574d45d281d5122c18", "text": "Nor, is there a less admirable and wonderfull _Mechanism_ in the foot of a Spider, whereby he is able to spin, weave, and climb, or run on his curious transparent clew, of which I shall say more in the description of that Animal.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00863", "bookId": 15491, "start": 635571, "end": 636132, "sha256": "c4544c907bcf9ee79f74aa89cf595ebc342b0b7b29fa1d4548d01fa439908cef", "text": "And to conclude, we shall in all things find, that Nature does not onely work Mechanically, but by such excellent and most compendious, as well as stupendious contrivances, that it were impossible for all the reason in the world to find out any contrivance to do the same thing that should have more convenient properties. And can any be so sottish, as to think all those things the productions of chance? Certainly, either their Ratiocination must be extremely depraved, or they did never attentively consider and contemplate the Works of the Al-mighty.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00864", "bookId": 15491, "start": 636143, "end": 636176, "sha256": "92bf9343d426ee004c3cb7caa3f283036b2f3626f071d4807d38518427facd12", "text": "* * * * *", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00865", "bookId": 15491, "start": 636182, "end": 636253, "sha256": "097c849828cec061bd95d1350d894d711f78a6f03d31e41050ec73564017ae46", "text": "Observ. XXXVIII. _Of the Structure and motion of the Wings of _Flies_._", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00866", "bookId": 15491, "start": 636257, "end": 640654, "sha256": "26f367235ba0ad1b62e5827f8d6a34296eda1e85ccc18605db2bebdd0fd652d7", "text": "The Wings of all kinds of Insects, are, for the most part, very beautifull Objects, and afford no less pleasing an Object to the mind to speculate upon, then to the eye to behold. This of the blue Fly, among the rest, wants not its peculiar ornaments and contrivances; it grows out of the _Thorax_, or middle part of the body of a Fly, and is seated a little beyond the center of gravity in the body towards the head, but that _Excentricly_ is curiously balanc’d; first, by the expanded _Area_ of the wings which lies all more backwards then the root, by the motion of them, whereby the center of their vibration is much more backwards towards the tail of the Fly then the root of the wing is. What the vibrative motion of the wings is, and after what manner they are moved, I have endeavoured by many trials to find out: And first for the manner of their motion, I endeavoured to observe several of those kind of small spinning Flies, which will naturally suspend themselves, as it were, pois’d and steady in one place of the air, without rising or falling, or moving forwards or backwards; for by looking down on those, I could by a kind of faint shadow, perceive the utmost extremes of the vibrative motion of their wings, which shadow, whil’st they so endeavoured to suspend themselves, was not very long, but when they endeavour’d to flie forwards, it was somewhat longer; next, I tried it, by fixing the leggs of a Fly upon the top of the stalk of a feather, with Glew, Wax, &c. and then making it endeavour to flie away; for being thereby able to view it in any posture, I collected that the motion of the wing was after this manner. The extreme limits of the vibrations were usually somewhat about the length of the body distant from one another, oftentimes shorter, and sometimes also longer; that the formost limit was usually a little above the back, and the hinder somwhat beneath the belly; between which two limits, if one may ghess by the sound, the wing seem’d to be mov’d forwards and backwards with an equal velocity: And if one may (from the shadow or faint representation the wings afforded, and from the consideration of the nature of the thing) ghess at the posture or manner of the wings moving between them, it seem’d to be this: The wing being suppos’d placed in the upmost limit, seems to be put so that the plain of it lies almost _horizontal_, but onely the forepart does dip a little, or is somewhat more deprest; in this position is the wing vibrated or mov’d to the lower limit, being almost arrived at the lower limit, the hinder part of the wing moving somewhat faster then the former, the _Area_ of the wing begins to dip behind, and in that posture seems it to be mov’d to the upper limit back again, and thence back again in the first posture, the former part of the _Area_ dipping again, as it is moved downwards by means of the quicker motion of the main stem which terminates or edges the forepart of the wing. And these vibrations or motions to and fro between the two limits seem so swift, that ’tis very probable (from the sound it affords, if it be compar’d with the vibration of a musical string, tun’d unison to it) it makes many hundreds, if not some thousands of vibrations in a second minute of time. And, if we may be allow’d to ghess by the sound, the wing of a Bee is yet more swift, for the tone is much more acute, and that, in all likelihood, proceeds from the exceeding swift beating of the air by the small wing. And it seems the more likely too, because the wing of a Bee is less in proportion to its body, then the other wing to the body of a Fly; so that for ought I know, it may be one of the quickest vibrating _spontaneous_ motions of any in the world; and though perhaps there may be many Flies in other places that afford a yet more shrill note with their wings, yet ’tis most probable that the quickest vibrating _spontaneous_ motion is to be found in the wing of some creature. Now, if we consider the exceeding quickness of these Animal spirits that must cause these motions, we cannot chuse but admire the exceeding vividness of the governing faculty or _Anima_ of the Insect, which is able to dispose and regulate so the motive faculties, as to cause every peculiar organ, not onely to move or act so quick, but to do it also so regularly.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00867", "bookId": 15491, "start": 640658, "end": 642105, "sha256": "0bb5f3f6bee1010e8698a01da3f74865f1a5d1f9bc8819f603bb6b38f7ba8abb", "text": "Whil’st I was examining and considering the curious _Mechanism_ of the wings, I observ’d that under the wings of most kind of Flies, Bees, &c. there were plac’d certain _pendulums_ or extended drops (as I may so call them from their resembling motion and figure) for they much resembled a long hanging drop of some transparent viscous liquor; and I observed them constantly to move just before the wings of the Fly began to move, so that at the first sight I could not but ghess, that there was some excellent use, as to the regulation of the motion of the wing, and did phancy, that it might be something like the handle of a Cock, which by vibrating to and fro, might, as ’twere, open and shut the Cock, and thereby give a passage to the determinate influences into the Muscles; afterwards, upon some other trials, I suppos’d that they might be for some use in respiration, which for many reasons I suppose those Animals to use, and, me thought, it was not very improbable, but that they might have convenient passages under the wings for the emitting, at least, of the air, if not admitting, as in the gills of Fishes is most evident; or, perhaps, this _Pendulum_ might be somewhat like the staff to a Pump, whereby these creatures might exercise their _Analogous_ lungs, and not only draw in, but force out, the air they live by: but these were but conjectures, and upon further examination seem’d less probable.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00868", "bookId": 15491, "start": 642109, "end": 643061, "sha256": "4cd19082472c4c7e6fc67e0dab25815c5df34e7913d22fa6220a2039a8931b1b", "text": "The fabrick of the wing, as it appears through a moderately magnifying _Microscope_, seems to be a body consisting of two parts, as is visible in the 4. _Figure_ of the 23. _Scheme_; and by the 2. _Figure_ of the 26. _Scheme_; the one is a quilly or finny substance, consisting of several long, slender and variously bended quills or wires, something resembling the veins of leaves; these are, as ’twere, the finns or quills which stiffen the whole _Area_, and keep the other part distended, which is a very thin transparent skin or membrane variously folded, and platted, but not very regularly, and is besides exceeding thickly bestuck with innumerable small bristles, which are onely perceptible by the bigger magnifying _Microscope_, and not with that neither, but with a very convenient augmentation of sky-light projected on the Object with a burning Glass, as I have elsewhere shew’d, or by looking through it against the light.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00869", "bookId": 15491, "start": 643065, "end": 643787, "sha256": "68c60e75c04611898e9dd5fe38639f3d65c14eb87fe7bc44852ce591f618c3aa", "text": "In steed of these small hairs, in several other Flies, there are infinite of small Feathers, which cover both the under and upper sides of this thin film as in almost all the sorts of Butterflies and Moths: and those small parts are not onely shap’d very much like the feathers of Birds, but like those variegated with all the variety of curious bright and vivid colours imaginable; and those feathers are likewise so admirably and delicately rang’d, as to compose very fine flourishings and ornamental paintings, like _Turkie_ and _Persian_ Carpets, but of far more surpassing beauty, as is evident enough to the naked eye, in the painted wings of Butterflies, but much more through an ordinary _Microscope_.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00870", "bookId": 15491, "start": 643791, "end": 644057, "sha256": "7a0c6e73d1ab443beb7c7f9a74f5f588377febadfa8dd0dc0d148c1818b4b735", "text": "Intermingled likewise with these hairs, may be perceived multitudes of little pits, or black spots, in the extended membrane, which seem to be the root of the hairs that grow on the other side; these two bodies seem dispers’d over the whole surface of the wing.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00871", "bookId": 15491, "start": 644061, "end": 645090, "sha256": "33da97efbe1465dc7b6bd9ae4298334255d88f49b6fccee9eac4465ded786539", "text": "The hairs are best perceiv’d, by looking through it against the light, or, by laying the wing upon a very white piece of Paper, in a convenient light, for thereby every little hair most manifestly appears; a _Specimen_ of which you may observe drawn in the fourth _Figure_ of the 23. _Scheme_, AB, CD, EF whereof represent some parts of the bones or quills of the wing, each of which you may perceive to be cover’d over with a multitude of scales, or bristles, the former AB, is the biggest stem of all the wing, and may be properly enough call’d the cut-air, it being that which terminates and stiffens the formost edge of the wing; the fore-edge of this is arm’d with a multitude of little brisles, or Tenter-hooks, in some standing regular and in order, in others not; all the points of which are directed from the body towards the tip of the wing, nor is this edge onely thus fring’d, but even all the whole edge of the wing is covered with a small fringe, consisting of short and more slender brisles.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00872", "bookId": 15491, "start": 645094, "end": 645402, "sha256": "80c91a396745bbd86b244a260db1b2f259d08aab529d949a9f09bc3ab7448da6", "text": "This Subject, had I time, would afford excellent matter for the contemplation of the nature of wings and of flying, but, because I may, perhaps, get a more convenient time to prosecute that speculation, and recollect several Observations that I have made of that particular. I shall at present proceed to", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00873", "bookId": 15491, "start": 645413, "end": 645446, "sha256": "92bf9343d426ee004c3cb7caa3f283036b2f3626f071d4807d38518427facd12", "text": "* * * * *", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00874", "bookId": 15491, "start": 645452, "end": 645545, "sha256": "5c8e97fd558fa8032cdd3226f8d061d2a8b8a5b391fe79411e0e0ac6d5d4b726", "text": "Observ. XXXIX. _Of the Eyes and Head of a _Grey drone-Fly_, and of several other creatures._", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00875", "bookId": 15491, "start": 645549, "end": 646467, "sha256": "e355b0d6b95c4679a5973141b5c5cc6dcc17ed035ca250bf39803d50dd5dfd83", "text": "I took a large grey _Drone-Fly_, that had a large head, but a small and slender body in proportion to it, and cutting off its head, I fix’d it with the forepart or face upwards upon my Object Plate (this I made choice of rather then the head of a great blue Fly, because my enquiry being now about the eyes, I found this Fly to have, first the biggest clusters of eyes in proportion to his head, of any small kind of Fly that I have yet seen, it being somewhat inclining towards the make of the large _Dragon-Flies_. Next, because there is a greater variety in the knobs or balls of each cluster, then is of any small Fly.) Then examining it according to my usual manner, by varying the degrees of light, and altering its position to each kinde of light, I drew that representation of it which is delineated in the 24. _Scheme_, and found these things to be as plain and evident, as notable and pleasant.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00876", "bookId": 15491, "start": 646471, "end": 647406, "sha256": "72913043b59245f478e70521a4a0441407af3d0254f0e49a2dc4d787dab7da5c", "text": "_First_, that the greatest part of the face, nay, of the head, was nothing else but two large and _protuberant_ bunches, or _prominent_ parts, ABCDEA, the surface of each of which was all cover’d over, or shap’d into a multitude of small _Hemispheres_, plac’d in a _triagonal_ order, that being the closest and most compacted, and in that order, rang’d over the whole surface of the eye in very lovely rows, between each of which, as is necessary, were left long and regular trenches, the bottoms of every of which, were perfectly intire and not at all perforated or drill’d through, which I most certainly was assured of, by the regularly reflected Image of certain Objects which I mov’d to and fro between the head and the light. And by examining the _Cornea_ or outward skin, after I had stript it off from the several substances that lay within it, and by looking both upon the inside and against the light.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00877", "bookId": 15491, "start": 647410, "end": 647801, "sha256": "d46df1c5eaa9351dfc2891fd5f1591a625b03831d80a2b950594fe39fb406a87", "text": "_Next_, that of those multitudes of _Hemispheres_, there were observable two degrees of bigness, the half of them that were lowermost, and look’d toward the ground or their own leggs, namely, CDE, CDE being a pretty deal smaller then the other, namely, ABCE, ABCE, that look’d upward, and side-ways, or foreright, and backward, which variety I have not found in any other small Fly.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00878", "bookId": 15491, "start": 647805, "end": 648810, "sha256": "4809a3f5d1427afd5596cd6e29e360a2ad8c4ef2b84f4177cafc5cf4ded851d4", "text": "_Thirdly_, that every one of these _Hemispheres_, as they seem’d to be pretty neer the true shape of a _Hemisphere_, so was the surface exceeding smooth and regular, reflecting as exact, regular, and perfect an Image of any Object from the surface of them, as a small Ball of Quick-silver of that bigness would do, but nothing neer so vivid, the reflection from these being very languid, much like the reflection from the outside of Water, Glass, Crystal, &c. In so much that in each of these _Hemispheres_, I have been able to discover a Land-scape of those things which lay before my window, one thing of which was a large Tree, whose trunk and top I could plainly discover, as I could also the parts of my window, and my hand and fingers, if I held it between the Window and the Object; a small draught of nineteen of which, as they appear’d in the bigger Magnifying-glass to reflect the Image of the two windows of my Chamber, are delineated in the third _Figure_ of the 23. _Scheme_.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00879", "bookId": 15491, "start": 648814, "end": 649329, "sha256": "fac6ad017e3087c5d2ef2912b060d3141d408c5806159853e974735fa6b997fe", "text": "_Fourthly_, that these rows were so dispos’d, that there was no quarter visible from his head that there was not some of these _Hemispheres_ directed against, so that a Fly may be truly said to have _an eye every way_, and to be really _circumspect_. And it was further observable, that that way where the trunk of his body did hinder his prospect backward, these _protuberances_ were elevated, as it were, above the plain of his shoulders and back, so that he was able to see backwards also over his back.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00880", "bookId": 15491, "start": 649333, "end": 650654, "sha256": "b250632d36d295786631c25a1b435e46fd65653c99ee5087b0511360b7b276ce", "text": "_Fifthly_, in living Flies, I have observ’d, that when any small mote or dust, which flies up and down the air, chances to light upon any part of these knobs, as it is sure to stick firmly to it and not fall, though through the _Microscope_ it appears like a large stone or stick (which one would admire, especially since it is no ways probable that there is any wet or glutinous matter upon these _Hemispheres_, but I hope I shall render the reason in another place) so the Fly presently makes use of his two fore-feet in stead of eye-lids, with which, as with two Brooms or Brushes, they being all bestuck with Brisles, he often sweeps or brushes off what ever hinders the prospect of any of his _Hemispheres_, and then, to free his leggs from that dirt, he rubs them one against another, the pointed Brisles or Tenters of which looking both one way, the rubbing of them to and fro one against another, does cleanse them in the same manner as I have observ’d those that Card Wool, to cleanse their Cards, by placing their Cards, so as the teeth of both look the same way, and then rubbing them one against another. In the very same manner do they brush and cleanse their bodies and wings, as I shall by and by shew; other creatures have other contrivances for the cleansing and cleering their eyes.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00881", "bookId": 15491, "start": 650658, "end": 651308, "sha256": "b4efdb35067ec6ad30cc53afc7bbac728e7b44878208104d30dd53c70b19e769", "text": "_Sixthly_ that the number of the _Pearls_ or _Hemispheres_ in the clusters of this Fly, was neer 14000. which I judged by numbering certain rows of them several ways, and casting up the whole content, accounting each cluster to contain about seven thousand Pearls, three thousand of which were of a size, and consequently the rows not so thick, and the foure thousand I accounted to be the number of the smaller Pearls next the feet and _proboscis_. Other Animals I observ’d to have yet a greater number, as the _Dragon-Fly_ or _Adderbolt_: And others to have a much less company, as an _Ant_, &c. and several other small Flies and Insects.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00882", "bookId": 15491, "start": 651312, "end": 652407, "sha256": "ab82d6e1cb3c3f9bdd900fe2e8ffb53f6fd8aeaba40719fc268d35c70abf752a", "text": "_Seventhly_, that the order of these eies or _Hemispheres_ was altogether curious and admirable, they being plac’d in all kind of Flies, and _aerial_ animals, in a most curious and regular ordination of triangular rows, in which order they are rang’d the neerest together that possibly they can, and consequently leave the least pits or trenches between them. But in _Shrimps_, _Crawfishes_, _Lobsters_, and such kinds of _Crustaceous_ water Animals, I have yet observ’d them rang’d in a quadrangular order, the rows cutting each other at right angles, which as it admits of a less number of Pearls in equal surfaces; so have those creatures a recompence made them, by having their eyes a little movable in their heads, which the other altogether want. So infinitely wise and provident do we find all the Dispensations in Nature, that certainly _Epicurus_, and his followers, must very little have consider’d them, who ascrib’d those things to the production of chance, that wil, to a more attentive considerer, appear the products of the highest Wisdom and Providence.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00883", "bookId": 15491, "start": 652411, "end": 652486, "sha256": "e3e7c0b9996882436e5849b536ca8ad1fd65185de20f98f14bf381925bbce2e8", "text": "Upon the Anatomy or Dissection of the Head, I observ’d these particulars:", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00884", "bookId": 15491, "start": 652490, "end": 653100, "sha256": "830eff05a3596313b15dffe69a16e92a9783644336e29f8ec4a496abf6d0260c", "text": "First, that this outward skin, like the _Cornea_ of the eyes of the greater Animals, was both flexible and transparent, and seem’d, through the _Microscope_ perfectly to resemble the very substance of the _Cornea_ of a man’s eye; for having cut out the cluster, and remov’d the dark and _mucous_ stuff that is subjacent to it, I could see it transparent like a thin piece of skin, having as many cavities in the inside of it, and rang’d in the same order as it had _protuberances_ on the outside, and this propriety, I found the same in all the Animals that had it, whether Flies or Shell-Fish.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00885", "bookId": 15491, "start": 653104, "end": 653287, "sha256": "33685e59709d4226ea44be743bc50ba2f2df70b36b21381e0e5246787b521d11", "text": "Secondly, I found that all Animals that I have observ’d with those kind of eyes; have within this _Cornea_, a certain cleer liquor or juice, though in a very little quantity, and,", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00886", "bookId": 15491, "start": 653291, "end": 653856, "sha256": "9a0a6d546ab077ad6dcc1a76a2190500d34f6f62573a650acd38a27981cf962a", "text": "I observ’d thirdly, that within that cleer liquor, they had a kind of dark _mucous_ lining, which was all spread round within the cavity of the clutter, and seem’d very neer adjoining to it, the colour of which, in some Flies, was grey; in others, black, in others red; in others, of a mix’d colour; in others, spotted; and that the whole clusters, when look’d on whilst the Animal was living, or but newly kill’d, appear’d of the same colour that this coat (as I may so call it) appear’d of, when that outward skin, or _Cornea_, was remov’d.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00887", "bookId": 15491, "start": 653860, "end": 654197, "sha256": "46933dbea9d1f127ea471160cf2e73dcf17e49cae03e8a2676efeae4918c2770", "text": "Fourthly, that the rest of the capacity of the clusters was in some, as in Dragon Flies, &c. hollow, or empty; in others fill’d with some kind of substance; in blue Flies, with a reddish musculous substance, with _fibres_ tending from the center or bottom outwards; and divers other, with various and differing kinds of substances.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00888", "bookId": 15491, "start": 654201, "end": 654443, "sha256": "ca0db9c0ff9c8134d4d7f0d723cdcad374c4167c9ffc360cd5d127591e44a53d", "text": "That this curious contrivance is the organ of sight to all those various _Crustaceous_ Animals, which are furnish’d with it, I think we need not doubt, if we consider but the several congruities it has with the eyes of greater creatures.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00889", "bookId": 15491, "start": 654447, "end": 654823, "sha256": "de863f5dd2da561774b876adba9b6a0ccca48cb741d4879b77ce84521efcd779", "text": "As first, that it is furnish’d with a _Cornea_, with a _transparent humour_, and with a _uvea_ or _retina_, that the Figure of each of the small _Hemispheres_ are very _Spherical_, exactly polish’d, and most vivid, lively and plump, when the Animal is living, as in greater Animals, and in like manner dull, flaccid, and irregular, or shrunk, when the Animal is dead.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00890", "bookId": 15491, "start": 654827, "end": 654969, "sha256": "dac4341eb21fceb826d44a932bd67d05003f9aa2f1c4c3ded46183184f2c36c0", "text": "Next, that those creatures that are furnish’d with it, have no other organs that have any resemblance to the known eyes of other creatures.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00891", "bookId": 15491, "start": 654973, "end": 656985, "sha256": "51cde89ae999daeca46a0f48642cd972aa492506ae2beb504235905f81de512f", "text": "Thirdly, that those which they call the eyes of Crabs, Lobsters, Shrimps, and the like, and are really so, are _Hemispher’d_, almost in the same manner as these of Flies are. And that they really are so, I have very often try’d, by cutting off these little movable knobs, and putting the creature again into the water, that it would swim to and fro, and move up and down as well as before, but would often hit it self against the rocks or stones; and though I put my hand just before its head, it would not at all start or fly back till I touch’d it, whereas whil’st those were remaining, it would start back, and avoid my hand or a stick at a good distance before it touch’d it. And if in _crustaceous_ Sea-animals, then it seems very probable also, that these knobs are the eyes in _crustaceous_ Insects, which are also of the same kind, onely in a higher and more active Element; this the conformity or congruity of many other parts common to either of them, will strongly argue, their _crustaceous_ armour, their number of leggs, which are six, beside the two great claws, which answer to the wings in Insects; and in all kind of Spiders, as also in many other Insects that want wings, we shall find the compleat number of them, and not onely the number, but the very shape, figure, joints, and claws of Lobsters and Crabs, as is evident in Scorpions and Spiders, as is visible in the second _Figure_ of the 31. _Scheme_, and in the little Mite-worm, which I call a Land-crab, describ’d in the second Figure of the 33. _Scheme_, but in their manner of generation being oviparous, &c. And it were very worthy observation, whether there be not some kinds of transformation and metamorphosis in the several states of _crustaceous_ water-animals, as there is in several sorts of Insects; for if such could be met with, the progress of the variations would be much more conspicuous in those larger Animals, then they can be in any kind of Insects our colder Climate affords.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00892", "bookId": 15491, "start": 656989, "end": 657186, "sha256": "7de0b28844058a476d3d6cf6a7957d590bbc7f4193d8fe1a4fa48e7939e32d2c", "text": "These being their eyes, it affords us a very pretty Speculation to contemplate their manner of vision, which, as it is very differing from that of _biocular_ Animals, so is it not less admirable.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00893", "bookId": 15491, "start": 657190, "end": 659952, "sha256": "f1a3f8950caaf56995161452b2982f21aa7930d6f0a845bfe4543cbec344a5d5", "text": "That each of these Pearls or _Hemispheres_ is a perfect eye, I think we need not doubt, if we consider onely the outside or figure of any one of them, for they being each of them cover’d with a transparent protuberant _Cornea_, and containing a liquor within them, resembling the watry or glassie humours of the eye, must necessarily refract all the parallel Rays that fall on them out of the air, into a point not farr distant within them, where (in all probability) the _Retina_ of the eye is placed, and that opacous, dark, and mucous inward coat that (I formerly shew’d) I found to subtend the concave part of the cluster is very likely to be that _tunicle_ or coat, it appearing through the _Microscope_ to be plac’d a little more than a Diameter of those Pearls below or within the _tunica cornea_. And if so, then is there in all probability, a little Picture or Image of the objects without, painted or made at the bottom of the _Retina_ against every one of those Pearls, so that there are as many impressions on the _Retina_ or opacous skin, as there are Pearls or _Hemispheres_ on the cluster. But because it is impossible for any protuberant surface whatsoever, whether _sphærial_ or other, so to refract the Rays that come from farr remote _lateral_ points of any Object as to collect them again, and unite them each in a distinct point, and that onely those Rays which come from some point that lies in the _Axis_ of the Figure produc’d, are so accurately refracted to one and the same point again, and that the _lateral_ Rays, the further they are remov’d, the more imperfect is their refracted confluence; It follows therefore, that onely the Picture of those parts of the external objects that lie in, or neer, the _Axis_ of each _Hemisphere_, are discernably painted or made on the _Retina_ of each _Hemisphere_, and that therefore each of them can distinctly sensate or see onely those parts which are very neer perpendicularly oppos’d to it, or lie in or neer its optick _Axis_. Now, though there may be by each of these eye-pearls, a representation to the Animal of a whole _Hemisphere_ in the same manner as in a man’s eye there is a picture or sensation in the _Retina_ of all the objects lying almost in an _Hemisphere_; yet, as in a man’s eye also, there are but some very few points which liyng in, or neer, the optick _Axis_ are distinctly discern’d: So there may be multitudes of Pictures made of an Object in the several Pearls, and yet but one, or some very few that are distinct; The representation of any object that is made in any other Pearl, but that which is directly, or very neer directly, oppos’d, being altogether confus’d and unable to produce a distinct vision.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00894", "bookId": 15491, "start": 659956, "end": 660754, "sha256": "469978f8356677ccfd8fab99eb86f7c86f2e070aadfab2993d90c00dabe84868", "text": "So that we see, that though it has pleas’d the All-wise Creator, to indue this creature with such multitudes of eyes, yet has he not indued it with the faculty of seeing more then another creature; for whereas this cannot move his head, at least can move it very little, without moving his whole body, _biocular_ creatures can in an instant (or _the twinkling of an eye_, which, being very quick, is vulgarly used in the same signification) move their eyes so as to direct the optick _Axis_ to any point; nor is it probable, that they are able to see attentively at one time more then one Physical point; for though there be a distinct Image made in every eye, yet ’tis very likely, that the observing faculty is only imploy’d about some one object for which they have most concern.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00895", "bookId": 15491, "start": 660758, "end": 661949, "sha256": "5d2304cee6ce9d0b1b85528847ea35ec35b03a1a27914164753949628a6c6159", "text": "Now, as we accurately distinguish the site or position of an Object by the motion of the Muscles of the eye requisite to put the optick Line in a direct position, and confusedly by the position of the imperfect Picture of the object at the bottom of the eye; so are these _crustaceous_ creatures able to judge confusedly of the position of objects by the Picture or impression made at the bottom of the opposite Pearl, and distinctly by the removal of the attentive or observing faculty, from one Pearl to another, but what this faculty is, as it requires another place, so a much deeper speculation. Now, because it were impossible, even with this multitude of eye-balls, to see any object distinct (for as I hinted before, onely those parts that lay in, or very neer, the optick Lines could be so) the Infinitely wise Creator has not left the creature without a power of moving the head a little in _Aerial crustaceous_ animals, and the very eyes also in _crustaceous_ Sea-animals; so that by these means they are inabled to direct some optick line or other against any object, and by that means they have the visive faculty as compleat as any Animal that can move its eyes.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00896", "bookId": 15491, "start": 661953, "end": 663255, "sha256": "a2f361aa8a968f31512aa46241160cf64453e4558eec73a1b42589611d830f3b", "text": "Distances of Objects also, ’tis very likely they distinguish, partly by the consonant impressions made in some two convenient Pearls, one in each cluster; for, according as those congruous impressions affect, two Pearls neerer approach’d to each other, the neerer is the Object, and the farther they are distant, the more distant is the Object: partly also by the alteration of each Pearl, requisite to make the Sensation or Picture perfect; for ’tis impossible that the Pictures of two Objects, variously distant, can be perfectly painted, or made on the same _Retina_ or bottom of the eye not altered, as will be very evident to any one that shall attentively consider the nature of refraction. Now, whether this alteration may be in the Figure of the _Cornea_, in the motion of access or recess of the _Retina_ towards the _Cornea_, or in the alteration of a crystalline humour, if such there be, I pretend not to determine; though I think we need not doubt, but that there may be as much curiosity of contrivance and structure in every one of these Pearls, as in the eye of a Whale or Elephant, and the almighty’s _Fiat_ could as easily cause the existence of the one as the other; and as one day and a thousand years are the same with him, so may one eye and ten thousand.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00897", "bookId": 15491, "start": 663259, "end": 664483, "sha256": "438cf656a7a371cb5e1776cc42251603436c41637434df11009a88bed258bee9", "text": "This we may be sure of, that the filaments or sensative parts of the _Retina_ must be most exceedingly curious and minute, since the whole Picture it self is such; what must needs the component parts be of that _Retina_, which distinguishes the part of an object’s Picture that must be many millions of millions less then that in a man’s eye? And how exceeding curious and subtile must the component parts of the _medium_ that conveys light be, when we find the instrument made for its reception or refraction to be so exceedingly small? we may, I think, from this speculation be sufficiently discouraged from hoping to discover by any optick or other instrument the determinate bulk of the parts of the _medium_ that conveys the pulse of light, since we find that there is not less accurateness shewn in the Figure and polish of those exceedingly minute lenticular surfaces, then in those more large and conspicuous surfaces of our own eyes. And yet can I not doubt, but that there is a determinate bulk of those parts, since I find them unable to enter between the parts of Mercury, which being in motion, must necessarily have pores, as I shall elsewhere shew, and here pass by, as being a digression.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00898", "bookId": 15491, "start": 664487, "end": 664655, "sha256": "9d5d22baad15f1c463231ef9a2c52aa0d6f86fe7117c7b8bdb8b23f550711ec1", "text": "As concerning the horns FF, the feelers or smellers, GG, the _Proboscis_ HH, and I, the hairs and brisles, KK, I shall indeavour to describe in the 42. _Observation_.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00899", "bookId": 15491, "start": 664666, "end": 664699, "sha256": "92bf9343d426ee004c3cb7caa3f283036b2f3626f071d4807d38518427facd12", "text": "* * * * *", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00900", "bookId": 15491, "start": 664705, "end": 664745, "sha256": "3785510829be6059ebfcc87ef87e83784238e451b3b6fb7d912ec344f0c7d1ee", "text": "Observ. XL. _Of the Teeth of a _Snail_._", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00901", "bookId": 15491, "start": 664749, "end": 666615, "sha256": "d6b256f60f84447137a1dbbfade4ccbbc63aeff22f559e41ad5871826287f9ee", "text": "I have little more to add of the Teeth of a Snail, besides the Picture of it, which is represented in the first _Figure_ of the 25. _Scheme_, save that his bended body, ABCDEF, which seem’d fashioned very much like a row of small teeth, orderly plac’d in the Gums, and looks as if it were divided into several smaller and greater black teeth, was nothing but one small bended hard bone, which was plac’d in the upper jaw of the mouth of a House-Snail, with which I observ’d this very Snail to feed on the leaves of a Rose-tree, and to bite out pretty large and half round bits, not unlike the Figure of a (C) nor very much differing from it in bigness, the upper part ABCD of this bone, I found to be much whiter, and to grow out of the upper chap of the Snail, GGG, and not to be any thing neer so much creas’d as the lower and blacker part of it HIIHKKH which was exactly shap’d like teeth, the bone growing thinner, or tapering to an edge towards KKK. It seem’d to have nine teeth, or prominent parts IK, IK, IF, &c. which were join’d together by the thinner interpos’d parts of the bone. The Animal to which these teeth belong, is a very _anomalous_ creature, and seems of a kind quite distinct from any other terrestrial Animal or Insect, the Anatomy whereof exceedingly differing from what has been hitherto given of it I should have inserted, but that it will be more proper in another place. I have never met with any kind of Animal whose teeth are all join’d in one, save onely that I lately observ’d, that all the teeth of a Rhinocerot, which grow on either side of its mouth, are join’d into one large bone, the weight of one of which I found to be neer eleven pound _Haverdupois_. So that it seems one of the biggest sort of terrestrial Animals, as well as one of the smallest, has his teeth thus shap’d.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00902", "bookId": 15491, "start": 666626, "end": 666659, "sha256": "92bf9343d426ee004c3cb7caa3f283036b2f3626f071d4807d38518427facd12", "text": "* * * * *", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00903", "bookId": 15491, "start": 666665, "end": 666727, "sha256": "5c930d9d49983b24dd059977bfba49f0b0bf1f7daeb31ce648e401b85b8f936a", "text": "Observ. XLI. _Of the Eggs of _Silk-worms_, and other Insects._", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00904", "bookId": 15491, "start": 666731, "end": 670049, "sha256": "e71069076e9aadc5fe3fbb8e580de7ac60113a265720ccd543c545ad1398ad61", "text": "The Eggs of Silk-worms (one of which I have describ’d in the second _Figure_ of 25. _Scheme_) afford a pretty Object for a _Microscope_ that magnifies very much, especially if it be bright weather, and the light of a window be cast or collected on it by a deep _Convex glass_, or Water-ball. For then the whole surface of the Shell may be perceiv’d all cover’d over with exceeding small pits or cavities with interposed edges, almost in the manner of the surface of a Poppy-seed, but that these holes are not an hundredth part scarce of their bigness; the Shell, when the young ones were hatch’d (which I found an easie thing to do, if the Eggs were kept in a warm place) appear’d no thicker in proportion to its bulk, then that of an Hen’s or Goos’s Egg is to its bulk, and all the Shell appear’d very white (which seem’d to proceed from its transparency) whence all those pittings did almost vanish, so that they could not, without much difficulty, be discern’d, the inside of the Shell seem’d to be lin’d also with a kind of thin film, not unlike (keeping the proportion to its Shell) that with which the shell of an Hen-egg is lin’d; and the shell it self seem’d like common Egg-shells; very brittle, and crack’d. In divers other of these Eggs I could plainly enough, through the shell, perceive the small Insect lie coyled round the edges of the shell. The shape of the Egg it self, the Figure pretty well represents (though by default of the Graver it does not appear so rounded, and lying above the Paper, as it were, as it ought to do) that is, it was for the most part pretty oval end-ways, somewhat like an Egg, but the other way it was a little flatted on two opposite sides. Divers of these Eggs, as is common to most others, I found to be barren, or addle, for they never afforded any young ones. And those I usually found much whiter then the other that were prolifick. The Eggs of other kinds of Oviparous Insects I have found to be perfectly round every way, like so many Globules, of this sort I have observ’d some sorts of Spiders Eggs; and chancing the last Summer to inclose a very large and curiously painted Butterfly in a Box, intending to examine its gaudery with my _Microscope_, I found within a day or two after I inclos’d her, almost all the inner surface of the Box cover’d over with an infinite of exactly round Eggs, which were stuck very fast to the sides of it, and in so exactly regular and close an order, that made me call to mind my _Hypothesis_, which I had formerly thought on for the making out of all the regular Figures of Salt, which I have elsewhere hinted; for here I found all of them rang’d into a most exact _triagonal_ order, much after the manner as the _Hemispheres_ are place on the eye of a Fly; all which Eggs I found after a little time to be hatch’d, and out of them to come a multitude of small Worms, very much resembling young Silk-worms, leaving all their thin hollow shells behind them, sticking on the Box in their _triagonal_ posture; these I found with the _Microscope_ to have much such a substance as the Silk-worms Eggs, but could not perceive them pitted. And indeed, there is as great a variety in the shape of the Eggs of Oviparous Insects as among those of Birds.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00905", "bookId": 15491, "start": 670053, "end": 670438, "sha256": "f3b18115594e5bd1b69bb5368b652d895180d1fc831f75561673ec8e56484b00", "text": "Of these Eggs, a large and lusty Fly will at one time lay neer four or five hundred, so that the increase of these kind of Insects must needs be very prodigious, were they not prey’d on by multitudes of Birds, and destroy’d by Frosts and Rains; and hence ’tis those hotter Climates between the _Tropicks_ are infested with such multitudes of Locusts, and such other Vermine.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00906", "bookId": 15491, "start": 670449, "end": 670482, "sha256": "92bf9343d426ee004c3cb7caa3f283036b2f3626f071d4807d38518427facd12", "text": "* * * * *", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00907", "bookId": 15491, "start": 670488, "end": 670520, "sha256": "387fc193a466e5d0fd309da6bbcbda376fc8c5a712d417164c66bc893c046369", "text": "Observ. XLII. _Of a blue _Fly_._", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00908", "bookId": 15491, "start": 670524, "end": 670833, "sha256": "7d28fe47ebfa24b85fb721f19ae9cac1e4b064ecaa0b984f2c9799fbdc49e1f8", "text": "This kind of Fly, whereof a _Microscopical_ Picture is delineated in the first _Figure_ of the 26. _Scheme_, is a very beautifull creature, and has many things about it very notable; divers of which I have already partly describ’d, namely, the feet, wings, eyes, and head, in the preceding Observations.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00909", "bookId": 15491, "start": 670837, "end": 671050, "sha256": "f3f8d81a897bdc6b8eb843c98cf2a8db89675705e018ca4d1c43df1fe6d04475", "text": "And though the head before describ’d be that of a grey _Drone-Fly_, yet for the main it is very agreeable to this. The things wherein they differ most, will be easily enough found by the following particulars:", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00910", "bookId": 15491, "start": 671054, "end": 671174, "sha256": "bbeaa0d2f40f3cf2ba0ec57c5afe2a2310363635387151d6c14396f26f14c562", "text": "First, the clusters of eyes of this Fly, are very much smaller then those of the _Dron-Fly_, in proportion to the head.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00911", "bookId": 15491, "start": 671178, "end": 671342, "sha256": "30d4b3b3a8a48b4e42bb7428fde772f73f50517ee4f6f69af725f07cb7f1de73", "text": "And next, all the eyes of each cluster seem’d much of the same bigness one with another, not differing as the other, but rang’d in the same _triagonal_ order.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00912", "bookId": 15491, "start": 671346, "end": 671675, "sha256": "acd6331fb7bb28d90260c3b59fa1379c7a507b478d5b2ff932b03f616092a321", "text": "Thirdly, between these two clusters, there was a scaly prominent _front_ B, which was arm’d and adorn’d with large tapering sharp black brisles, which growing out in rows on either side, were so bent toward each other neer the top, as to make a kind of arched arbour of Brisles, which almost cover’d the former _front_.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00913", "bookId": 15491, "start": 671679, "end": 671988, "sha256": "dbaeea6fa36be2100c54762ddd77c684b28fee321e41d0803db64fe9f3628ef1", "text": "Fourthly, at the end of this Arch, about the middle of the face, on a prominent part C, grew two small oblong bodies, DD, which through a _Microscope_ look’d not unlike the Pendants in Lillies, these seem’d to be jointed on to two small parts at C, each of which seem’d again jointed into the front.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00914", "bookId": 15491, "start": 671992, "end": 672291, "sha256": "45889776cfdae96a22b42cd1c32f1e3b8f72a2fa417a18f38b7df90dd20eb10d", "text": "Fifthly, out of the upper part and outsides of these horns (as I may call them, from the Figure they are of, in the 24. _Scheme_, where they are marked with FF) there grows a single feather, or brushy Brisle, EE, somewhat of the same kind with the tufts of a Gnat, which I have before described.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00915", "bookId": 15491, "start": 672295, "end": 672768, "sha256": "eabb321f7b472569bc0b29c591141869c57be967559f7df1a7f5b0098e5f0635", "text": "What the use of these kind of horned and tufted bodies should be, I cannot well imagine, unless they serve for smelling or hearing, though how they are adapted for either, it seems very difficult to describe: they are in almost every several kind of Flies of so various a shape; though certainly they are some very essential part of the head, and have some very notable office assign’d them by Nature, since in all Insects they are to be found in one or other form.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00916", "bookId": 15491, "start": 672772, "end": 673613, "sha256": "af5baf303a25ec77eb8d75c5ed8884894e32acaa99de9540b406f30d6adc76c7", "text": "Sixthly, at the under part of the face FF, were several of the former sort of bended Brisles, and below all, the mouth, out of the middle of which, grew the _proboscis_ GHI, which, by means of several joints, whereof it seem’d to consist, the Fly was able to move to and fro, and thrust it in and out as it pleas’d; the end of this hollow body (which was all over cover’d with small short hairs or brisles) was, as ’twere, bent at H, and the outer or formost side of the bended part HI, slit, as it were, into two chaps, HI, HI, all the outside of which where cover’d with hairs, and pretty large brisles; these he could, like two chaps, very readily open and shut, and when he seem’d to suck any thing from the surface of a body, he would spread abroad those chaps, and apply the hollow part of them very close to it.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00917", "bookId": 15491, "start": 673617, "end": 673963, "sha256": "cb032a98f49e1fe0b4252e14fc5fbf46e463e53ce9a9da59cdf7f429dbcd48fe", "text": "From either side of the _Proboscis_, within the mouth, grew two other small horns, or fingers, KK, which were hairy, but small in this Figure; but of another shape, and bigger in proportion, in the 24. _Scheme_, where they are marked with GG, which two indeed seem’d a kind of smellers, but whether so or not, I cannot positively determine.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00918", "bookId": 15491, "start": 673967, "end": 674747, "sha256": "b219ea379d2e105b13b1507be69e0f0b9e92812c09d23927e544a9e13f403562", "text": "The _Thorax_ or middle part of this Fly, was cas’d, both above and beneath, with a very firm crust of armour, the upper part more round, and covered over with long _conical_ brisles, all whose ends pointed backwards; out of the hinder and under part of this grew out in a cluster six leggs, three of which are apparent in the Figure, the other three were hid by the body plac’d in that posture. The leggs were all much of the same make, being all of them cover’d with a strong hairy scale or shel, just like the legs of a Crab or Lobster, and the contrivance of the joints seem’d much the same, each legg seem’d made up of eight parts, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, to the eighth or last of which, grew the soles and claws, described before in the 38. _Observation_.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00919", "bookId": 15491, "start": 674751, "end": 675661, "sha256": "993bb140e14e69d3107af96b49ee3c4aec9d04908ef39a6b94e42f5930757d31", "text": "Out of the upper part of this trunk grew the two wings, which I mention’d in the 38. _Observation_, consisting of a film, extended on certain small stiff wires or bones: these in a blue Fly, were much longer then the body, but in other kind of Flies they are of very differing proportions to the body. These films, in many Flies, were so thin, that, like several other plated bodies (mention’d in the ninth _Observation_) they afforded all varieties of fantastical or transient colours (the reason of which I have here endeavoured to explain) they seem’d to receive their nourishment from the stalks or wires, which seem’d to be hollow, and neer the upper part of the wing LL several of them seem’d jointed, the shape of which will sufficiently appear by the black lines in the second Figure of the 26. _Scheme_, which is a delineation of one of those wings expanded directly to the eyes.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00920", "bookId": 15491, "start": 675665, "end": 675982, "sha256": "0d92b9d8ec83de6354fb61e943268665c0ca3aad9ff855588625d5ffc9ad7006", "text": "All the hinder part of its body is cover’d with a most curious blue shining armour, looking exactly like a polish’d piece of steel brought to that blue colour by annealing, all which armour is very thick bestuck with abundance of tapering brisles, such as grow on its back, as is visible enough by the Figure.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00921", "bookId": 15491, "start": 675986, "end": 677131, "sha256": "9746a574b0c9c8d5ce349c111182bfbfc8f890d8c6d03afd5525d95b903f8328", "text": "Nor was the inside of this creature less beautifull then its outside, for cutting off a part of the belly, and then viewing it, to see if I could discover any Vessels, such as are to be found in a greater Animals, and even in Snails exceeding manifestly, I found, much beyond my expectation, that there were abundance of branchings of Milk-white vessels, no less curious then the branchings of veins and arteries in bigger terrestrial Animals, in one of which, I found two notable branches, joining their two main stocks, as it were, into one common _ductus_; now, to what veins or arteries these Vessells were _analogus_, whether to the _vena porta_, or the _meseraick vessells_, or the like, or indeed, whether they were veins and arteries, or _vasa lactea_, properly so called, I am not hitherto able to determine, having not yet made sufficient enquiry; but in all particulars, there seems not to be any thing less of curious contrivance in these Insects, then in those larger terrestrial Animals, for I had never seen any more curious branchings of Vessels, then those I observ’d in two or three of these Flies thus opened.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00922", "bookId": 15491, "start": 677135, "end": 677478, "sha256": "427247186d32d99f955ca96798aed15af8eb171394f9dafc8b4140c12cff8cb2", "text": "It is a creature active and nimble, so as there are very few creatures like it, whether bigger or smaller, in so much, that it will scape and avoid a small body, though coming on it exceeding swiftly, and if it sees any thing approaching it, which it fears, it presently squats down, as it were, that it may be the more ready for its rise.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00923", "bookId": 15491, "start": 677482, "end": 677936, "sha256": "8259c79a1c0d4ca2d82772357a725a965ea82a5ff01db8523d3cc95e334a688e", "text": "Nor is it less hardy in the Winter, then active in the Summer, induring all the Frosts, and surviving till the next Summer, notwithstanding the bitter cold of our Climate; nay, this creature will indure to be frozen, and yet not be destroy’d, for I have taken one of them out of the Snow whereon it has been frozen almost white, with the Ice about it, and yet by thawing it gently by the warmth of a fire, it has quickly reviv’d and flown about.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00924", "bookId": 15491, "start": 677940, "end": 678620, "sha256": "3a0bf26bd6ba1f18655eb6e2e025999fa879fe2e7567495f2e9acf0ee439f5ca", "text": "This kind of Fly seems by the steams or taste of fermenting and putrifying meat (which it often kisses, as ’twere, with its _proboscis_ as it trips over it) to be stimulated or excited to eject its Eggs or Seed on it, perhaps, from the same reason as Dogs, Cats, and many other brute creatures are excited to their particular lusts, by the smell of their females, when by Nature prepared for generation; the males seeming by those kind of smells, or other incitations, to be as much necessitated thereto, as _Aqua Regis_ strongly impregnated with a solution of Gold, is forced to precipitate it by the affusion of spirit of _Urine_, or a solution of _Salt_ of _Tartar_.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00925", "bookId": 15491, "start": 678624, "end": 679046, "sha256": "847d95d8e04c5e85871421380c345027448b72bad2febc55e5428816cab423c8", "text": "One of these put in spirit of _Wine_, was very quickly seemingly kill’d, and both its eys and mouth began to look very red, but upon the taking of it out, and suffering it to lie three or four hours, and heating it with the Sun beams cast through a Burning-glass, it again reviv’d, seeming, as it were, to have been all the intermediate time, but dead drunk, and after certain hours to grow fresh again and sober.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00926", "bookId": 15491, "start": 679057, "end": 679090, "sha256": "92bf9343d426ee004c3cb7caa3f283036b2f3626f071d4807d38518427facd12", "text": "* * * * *", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00927", "bookId": 15491, "start": 679096, "end": 679145, "sha256": "9bc69fedf2a730bf46d6537456d79e31b464f852327668afa28fa52d760e7979", "text": "Observ. XLIII. _Of the _Water Insect_ or _Gnat_._", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00928", "bookId": 15491, "start": 679149, "end": 679612, "sha256": "09817c6150485068146ca0c75573be119752eacf3b3697fd028b2b2d880fba4a", "text": "This little creature, described in the first _Figure_ of the 27. _Scheme_, was a small scaled or crusted Animal, which I have often observ’d to be generated in Rain-water; I have also observ’d it both in Pond and River-water. It is suppos’d by some, to deduce its first original from the putrifaction of Rain-water, in which, if it have stood any time open to the air, you shall seldom miss, all the Summer long, of store of them frisking too and fro.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00929", "bookId": 15491, "start": 679616, "end": 680457, "sha256": "4923f92752257a2a73a1afe534ac53135d71df2a7a9d6a275b5717b09dd8afa6", "text": "’Tis a creature, wholly differing in shape from any I ever observ’d; nor is its motion less strange: It has a very large head, in proportion to its body, all covered with a shell, like other _testaceous_ Animals, but it differs in this, that it has, up and down several parts of it, several tufts of hairs, or brisles, plac’d in the order express’d in the Figure; It has two horns, which seem’d almost like the horns of an Oxe, inverted, and, as neer as I could guess, were hollow, with tufts of brisles, likewise at the top; these horns they could move easily this or that way, and might, perchance, be their nostrils. It has a pretty large mouth, which seem’d contriv’d much like those of Crabs and Lobsters, by which, I have often observ’d them to feed on water, or some imperceptible nutritive substance in it.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00930", "bookId": 15491, "start": 680461, "end": 681506, "sha256": "212429e056d4d45859e44096b7b07253a475ab51e1ce80b6c428d93ddc804693", "text": "I could perceive, through the transparent shell, while the Animal surviv’d, several motions in the head, thorax, and belly, very distinctly, of differing kinds which I may, perhaps, elsewhere endeavour more accurately to examine, and to shew of how great benefit the use of a _Microscope_ may be for the discovery of Nature’s course in the operations perform’d in Animal bodies, by which we have the opportunity of observing her through these delicate and pellucid teguments of the bodies of Insects acting according to her usual course and way, undisturbed, whereas, when we endeavour to pry into her secrets by breaking open the doors upon her, and dissecting and mangling creatures whil’st there is life yet within them, we find her indeed at work, but put into such disorder by the violence offer’d, as it may easily be imagin’d, how differing a thing we should find, if we could, as we can with a _Microscope_ in these smaller creatures, quietly peep in at the windows, without frighting her out of her usual byas.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00931", "bookId": 15491, "start": 681510, "end": 683491, "sha256": "4129e1dae897b118cc9b37960421b41cb3e791a10d0a346b7d1f3d570d12213c", "text": "The form of the whole creature, as it appear’d in the _Microscope_, may, without troubling you with more descriptions, be plainly enough perceiv’d by the _Scheme_, the hinder part or belly consisting of eight several jointed parts, namely, ABCDEFGH, of the first _Figure_, from the midst of each of which, on either side issued out three or four small brisles or hairs, I, I, I, I, I, the tail was divided into two parts of very differing make; one of them, namely, K, having many tufts of hair or brisles, which seem’d to serve both for the finns and tail, for the Oars and Ruder of this little creature, wherewith it was able, by frisking and bending its body nimbly to and fro, to move himself any whither, and to skull and steer himself as he pleas’d, the other part, L, seem’d to be, as ’twere, the ninth division of his belly, and had many single brisles on either side. From the end V, of which, through the whole belly, there was a kind of Gut of a darker colour, MMM, wherein, by certain _Peristaltick_ motions there was a kind of black substance mov’d upwards and downwards through it from the orbicular part of it, N, (which seem’d the _Ventricle_, or stomach) to the tail V, and so back again, which _peristaltick_ motion I have observ’d also in a Louse, a Gnat, and several other kinds of transparent body’d Flies. The _Thorax_ or chest of this creature OOOO, was thick and short, and pretty transparent, for through it I could see the white heart (which is the colour also of the bloud in these, and most other Insects) to beat, and several other kind of motions. It was bestuck and adorn’d up and down with several tufts of brisles, such as are pointed out by P, P, P, P, the head Q was likewise bestuck with several of those tufts, SSS; it was broad and short, had two black eyes, TT, which I could not perceive at all pearl’d, as they afterwards appear’d, and two small horns, RR, such as I formerly describ’d.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00932", "bookId": 15491, "start": 683495, "end": 684592, "sha256": "2cea28bfc36ce6f9d98e012c424dcfdfcbe748bb8405f8a9663f67c9fddd6511", "text": "Both its motion and rest is very strange, and pleasant, and differing from those of most other creatures I have observ’d; for, where it ceases from moving its body, the tail of it seeming much lighter then the rest of its body, and a little lighter then the water it swims in, presently boys it up to the top of the water, where it hangs suspended with the head always downward; and like our _Antipodes_, if they do by a frisk get below that superficies, they presently ascend again unto it, if they cease moving, until they tread, as it were, under that superficies with their tails; the hanging of these in this posture, put me in mind of a certain creature I have seen in _London_, that was brought out of _America_, which would very firmly suspend it self by the tail, with the head downwards, and was said to keep in that posture, with her young ones in her false belly, which is a Purse, provided by Nature for the production, nutrition, and preservation of her young ones, which is described by _Piso_ in the 24. Chapter of the fifth Book of his Natural History of _Brasil_.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00933", "bookId": 15491, "start": 684596, "end": 685072, "sha256": "f296030986e539e2d821dd88e7cbed052a4b1a9e28eef5b912bc93e218b8cb5e", "text": "The motion of it was with the tail forwards, drawing its self backwards, by the striking to and fro of that tuft which grew out of one of the stumps of its tail. It had another motion, which was more sutable to that of other creatures, and that is, with the head forward; for by the moving of his chaps (if I may so call the parts of his mouth) it was able to move it self downwards very gently towards the bottom, and did, as ’twere, eat up its way through the water.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00934", "bookId": 15491, "start": 685076, "end": 686386, "sha256": "9addc2c97a7ae1e221fa36a99d998554841936321a90120397761b1a3a956f20", "text": "But that which was most observable in this creature, was, its Metamorphosis or change; for having kept several of these Animals in a Glass of Rain-water, in which they were produc’d, I found, after about a fortnight or three weeks keeping, that several of them flew away in Gnats, leaving their husks behind them in the water floating under the surface, the place where these Animals were wont to reside, whil’st they were inhabitants of the water: this made me more diligently to watch them, to see if I could find them at the time of their transformation; and not long after, I observ’d several of them to be changed into an unusual shape, wholly differing from that they were of before, their head and body being grown much bigger and deeper, but not broader, and their belly, or hinder part smaller, and coyl’d, about this great body much of the fashion represented by the prick’d line in the second _Figure_ of the 27. _Scheme_, the head and horns now swam uppermost, and the whole bulk of the body seem’d to be grown much lighter; for when by my frighting of it, it would by frisking out of its tail (in the manner express’d in the Figure by BC) sink it self below the surface towards the bottom; the body would more swiftly re-ascend, then when it was in its former shape.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00935", "bookId": 15491, "start": 686390, "end": 687532, "sha256": "a3b58ae93c19e8710e87fcdfbc092dfc22475a93fb05a0913090037c5df2032b", "text": "I still marked its progress from time to time, and found its body still to grow bigger and bigger, Nature, as it were, fitting and accoutring it for the lighter Element, of which it was now going to be an inhabitant; for, by observing one of these with my _Microscope_, I found the eyes of it to be altogether differing from what they seem’d before, appearing now all over pearl’d or knobb’d, like the eyes of Gnats, as is visible in the second _Figure_ by A. At length, I saw part of this creature to swim above, and part beneath the surface of the water, below which though it would quickly plunge it self if I by any means frighted it, and presently re-ascend into its former posture; after a little longer expectation, I found that the head and body of a Gnat, began to appear and stand cleer above the surface, and by degrees it drew out its leggs, first the two formost, then the other, at length its whole body perfect and entire appear’d out of the husk (which it left in the water) standing on its leggs upon the top of the water, and by degrees it began to move, and after flew about the Glass a perfect Gnat.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00936", "bookId": 15491, "start": 687536, "end": 687964, "sha256": "93860ac8f9fbf74ba4a0a6e475014dfde1c053959b366ff5fdd76c3c26a5cd3e", "text": "I have been the more particular, and large in the relation of the transformation of divers of these little Animals which I observ’d, because I have not found that any Authour has observ’d the like, and because the thing it self is so strange and heterogeneous from the usual progress of other Animals, that I judge it may not onely be pleasant, but very usefull and necessary towards the compleating of Natural History.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00937", "bookId": 15491, "start": 687968, "end": 689528, "sha256": "4a6644c06c07cab5253b06ef4c913a47511cb467f9ce188af05da6951a9738c3", "text": "There is indeed in _Piso_, a very odd History, which this relation may make the more probable; and that is in the 2. Chapter of the 4. Book of his Natural History of _Brasil_, where he says, _Porro præter tot documenta fertilitatis circa vegetabilia & sensitiva marina telluris æmula, accidit & illud, quod paucis à Paranambucensi milliaribus, piscatoris uncum citra intentionem contingat infigi vadis petrosis, & loco piscis spongia, coralla, aliasque arbusculas marinas capi. Inter hæc inusitatæ formæ prodit spongiosa arbuscula sesquipedis longitudinis, brevioribus radicibus, lapideis nitens vadis, & rupibus infixa, erigiturque in corpus spongiosum molle oblongum rotundum turbinatum: intus miris cancellis & alveis fabricatum, extus autem tenaci glutine instar Apum propolis undique vestitum, ostio satis patulo & profundo in summitate relicto, sicut ex altera iconum probe depicta videre licet _(see the third and fourth _Figures_ of the 27. _Scheme_.)_ Ita ut Apiarium marinum vere dixeris; primo enim intuitu è Mare ad Terram delatum, vermiculis scatebat cæruleis parvis, qui mox à calore solis in Muscas, vel Apes potius, easq; exiguas & nigras transformebantur, circumvolantesque evanescebant, ita ut de eorum mellificatione nihil certi conspici datum fuerit, cum tamen cærosa materia propolis Apumque cellæ manifeste apparerent, atque ipsa mellis qualiscunque substantia proculdubio urinatoribus patebit, ubi curiosius inquisiverint hæc apiaria, eaque in natali solo & salo diversis temporibus penitius lustrarint_.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00938", "bookId": 15491, "start": 689532, "end": 690872, "sha256": "83010f7dba9bf737e231e5ace9db2838e61a19ba489265ac7c5c95a7b3d125ca", "text": "Which History contains things sufficiently strange to be consider’d, as whether the husk were a Plant, growing at the bottom of the Sea before, of it self, out of whose putrifaction might be generated these strange kind of Magots; or whether the seed of certain Bees, sinking to the bottom, might there naturally form it self that vegetable hive, and take root; or, whether it might not be placed there by some diving Fly; or, whether it might not be some peculiar propriety of that Plant, whereby it might ripen or form its vegetable juice into an Animal substance; or, whether it may not be of the nature of a Sponge, or rather a Sponge of the nature of this, according to some of those relations and conjectures I formerly made of that body, is a matter very difficult to be determined. But indeed, in this description, the Excellent _Piso_ has not been sufficiently particular in the setting down the whole process, as it were to be wish’d: There are indeed very odd progresses in the production of several kinds of Insects, which are not less instructive then pleasant, several of which, the diligent _Goedartius_ has carefully observ’d and recorded, but among all his Observations, he has none like this, though that of the _Hemerobius_ be somewhat of this kind, which is added as an Appendix by _Johannes Mey_.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00939", "bookId": 15491, "start": 690876, "end": 692394, "sha256": "1de9341616e0d9f6f9d1e79a28c609f911f27b6786b43c488547caf87809c45a", "text": "I have, for my own particular, besides several of those mention’d by him, observ’d divers other circumstances, perhaps, not much taken notice of, though very common, which do indeed afford us a very _coercive_ argument to admire the goodness and providence of the infinitely wise Creator in his most excellent contrivances and dispensations. I have observ’d, at several times of the Summer, that many of the leaves of divers Plants have been spotted, or, as it were scabbed, and looking on the undersides of those of them that have been but a little irregular, I have perceiv’d them to be sprinkled with divers sorts of little Eggs, which letting alone, I have found by degrees to grow bigger, and become little Worms with leggs, but still to keep their former places, and those places of the leaves, of their own accords, to be grown very protuberant upwards, and very hollow, and arched underneath, whereby those young creatures are, as it were, shelter’d and housed from external injury; divers leaves I have observ’d to grow and swell so farr, as at length perfectly to inclose the Animal, which, by other observations I have made, I ghess to contain it, and become, as it were a womb to it, so long, till it be fit and prepar’d to be translated into another state, at what time, like (what they say of) Vipers, they gnaw their way through the womb that bred them; divers of these kinds I have met with upon Goosberry leaves, Rose-tree leaves, Willow leaves, and many other kinds.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00940", "bookId": 15491, "start": 692398, "end": 692976, "sha256": "cc693b2ff5e711795d7408c30126399e95827f9ef061bef0047a10ee3bcf429c", "text": "There are often to be found upon Rose-trees and Brier bushes, little red tufts, which are certain knobs or excrescencies, growing out from the Rind, or barks of those kinds of Plants, they are cover’d with strange kinds of threads or red hairs, which feel very soft, and look not unpleasantly. In most of these, if it has no hole in it, you shall find certain little Worms, which I suppose to be the causes of their production; for when that Worm has eat its way through, they, having performed what they were design’d by Nature to do, by degrees die and wither away.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00941", "bookId": 15491, "start": 692980, "end": 693603, "sha256": "58e5ec01695231ccb60b6aad82b2dc74b96201c033dd0d23e31b9055ce169c6e", "text": "Now, the manner of their production, I suppose to be thus, that the Alwise Creator has as well implanted in every creature a faculty of knowing what place is convenient for the hatching, nutrition, and preservation of their Eggs and of-springs whereby they are stimulated and directed to convenient places, which become, as ’twere the wombs that perform those offices: As he has also suited and adapted a property to those places wherby they grow and inclose those seeds, and having inclosed them, provide a convenient nourishment for them, but as soon as they have done the office of a womb, they die and wither.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00942", "bookId": 15491, "start": 693607, "end": 693838, "sha256": "925ed253f9d5a2f28f39ebda290af1de46f2836272f20422cb58e274f7f3ef4e", "text": "The progress of inclosure I have often observ’d in leaves, which in those places where those seeds have been cast, have by degrees swell’d and inclos’d them, so perfectly round, as not to leave any perceptible passage out.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00943", "bookId": 15491, "start": 693842, "end": 694664, "sha256": "dc2282cf99abd9e5781a916707b4e2991fd4080de8161a615167ee7211515b02", "text": "From this same cause, I suppose that Galls, Oak-apples, and several other productions of that kind, upon the branches and leaves of Trees, have their original, for if you open any of them, when almost ripe, you shall find a little Worm in them. Thus, if you open never so many dry Galls, you shall find either a hole whereby the Worm has eat its passage out, or if you find no passage, you may, by breaking or cutting the Gall, find in the middle of it a small cavity, and in it a small body, which does plainly enough yet retain a shape, to manifest it once to have been a Worm, though it dy’d by a too early separation from the Oak on which it grew, its navel-string, as ’twere, being broken off from the leaf or branch by which the Globular body that invelop’d it, received its nourishment from the Oak.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00944", "bookId": 15491, "start": 694668, "end": 696654, "sha256": "56a379bf7a46f22b494622c32673a99d4341b697a4e5dd142c0c78f523bcf7bb", "text": "And indeed, if we consider the great care of the Creator in the dispensations of his providences for the propagation and increase of the race, not onely of all kind of Animals, but even of Vegetables, we cannot chuse but admire and adore him for his Excellencies, but we shall leave off to admire the creature, or to wonder at the strange kind of acting in several Animals, which seem to favour so much of reason; it seeming to me most manifest, that those are but actings according to their structures, and such operations as such bodies, so compos’d, must necessarily, when there are such and such circumstances concurring, perform: thus, when we find Flies swarming, about any piece of flesh that does begin a little to ferment; Butterflies about Colworts, and several other leaves, which will serve to hatch and nourish their young; Gnats, and several other Flies about the Waters, and marishy places, or any other creatures, seeking and placing their Seeds in convenient repositories, we may, if we attentively consider and examine it, find that there are circumstances sufficient, upon the supposals of the excellent contrivance of their machine, to excite and force them to act after such or such a manner; those steams that rise from these several places may, perhaps, set several parts of these little Animals at work, even as in the contrivance of killing a Fox or Wolf with a Gun, the moving of a string, is the death of the Animal; for the Beast, by moving the flesh that is laid to entrap him, pulls the string which moves the trigger, and that lets go the Cock which on the steel strikes certain sparks of fire which kindle the powder in the pann, and that presently flies into the barrel, where the powder catching fire rarifies and drives out the bullet which kills the Animal; in all which actions, there is nothing of intention or ratiocination to be ascrib’d either to the Animal or Engine, but all to the ingeniousness of the contriver.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00945", "bookId": 15491, "start": 696658, "end": 697249, "sha256": "699194b98b8586e140e3b01a30f6da682ad8d06411ade985027b248d9d22321f", "text": "But to return to the more immediate consideration of our Gnat: We have in it an Instance, not usual or common, of a very strange _amphibious_ creature, that being a creature that inhabits the Air, does yet produce a creature, that for some time lives in the water as a Fish, though afterward (which is as strange) it becomes an inhabitant of the Air, like its Sire, in the form of a Fly. And this, methinks, does prompt me to propose certain conjectures, as Queries, having not yet had sufficient opportunity and leisure to answer them my self from my own Experiments or Observations.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00946", "bookId": 15491, "start": 697253, "end": 698163, "sha256": "d25a37d8ca5e9f1fd9d32aac1d00339cb3155d931e118997e888396417b353eb", "text": "And the first is, Whether all those things that we suppose to be bred from corruption and putrifaction, may not be rationally suppos’d to have their origination as natural as these Gnats, who, ’tis very probable, were first dropt into this Water, in the form of Eggs. Those Seeds or Eggs must certainly be very small, which so small a creature as a Gnat yields, and therefore, we need not wonder that we find not the Eggs themselves, some of the younger of them, which I have observ’d, having not exceeded a tenth part of the bulk they have afterwards come to; and next, I have observed some of those little ones which must have been generated after the Water was inclosed in the Bottle, and therefore most probably from Eggs, whereas those creatures have been suppos’d to be bred of the corruption of the Water, there being not formerly known any probable way how they should be generated.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00947", "bookId": 15491, "start": 698167, "end": 698642, "sha256": "a30514572f3fdf11d397fdc98a41f0687e2a9764170999802e7bebb7f99ea4c2", "text": "A second is, whether these Eggs are immediately dropt into the Water by the Gnats themselves, or, mediately, are brought down by the falling rain; for it seems not very improbable, but that those small seeds of Gnats may (being, perhaps, of so light a nature, and having so great a proportion of surface to so small a bulk of body) be ejected into the Air, and so, perhaps, carried for a good while too and fro in it, till by the drops of Rain it be wash’d out of it.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00948", "bookId": 15491, "start": 698646, "end": 698939, "sha256": "f787af6902a055f9e1f4871e75b79b69965eb19dce9d1472f5b0f1f450ff3dde", "text": "A third is, whether multitudes of those other little creatures that are found to inhabit the Water for some time, do not, at certain times, take wing and fly into the Air, others dive and hide themselves in the Earth, and so contribute to the increase both of the one and the other Element.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00949", "bookId": 15491, "start": 698950, "end": 698983, "sha256": "92bf9343d426ee004c3cb7caa3f283036b2f3626f071d4807d38518427facd12", "text": "* * * * *", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00950", "bookId": 15491, "start": 698987, "end": 699000, "sha256": "57391ac6c41fb171be942bede1a356e89099a146e7bd565c2dd8626c2214cf68", "text": "_Postscript._", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00951", "bookId": 15491, "start": 699004, "end": 701404, "sha256": "6cdcb368052d10b321739c8b6634208357fb95efb1c030295282c65954552681", "text": "A good while since the writing of this Description, I was presented by Doctor _Peter Ball_, an ingenious Member of the _Royal Society_, with a little Paper of Nuts, which he told me was sent him from a Brother of his out of the Countrey, from _Mamhead_ in _Devonshire_, some of them were loose, having been, as I suppose, broken off, others were still growing fast on upon the sides of a stick, which seem’d by the bark, pliableness of it, and by certain strings that grew out of it, to be some piece of the root of a Tree; they were all of them dry’d, and a little shrivell’d, others more round, of a brown colour; their shape was much like a Figg, but very much smaller, some being about the bigness of a Bay-berry, others, and the biggest, of a Hazel-Nut. Some of these that had no hole in them, I carefully opened with my Knife, and found in them a good large round white Maggot, almost as bigg as a small Pea, which seem’d shap’d like other Maggots, but shorter. I could not find them to move, though I ghess’d them to be alive, because upon pricking them with a Pinn, there would issue out a great deal of white _mucous_ matter, which seem’d to be from a voluntary contraction of their skin; their husk or matrix consisted of three Coats, like the barks of Trees, the outermost being more rough and spongie, and the thickest, the middlemost more close, hard, white, and thin, the innermost very thin, seeming almost like the skin within an Egg’s shell. The two outermost had root in the branch or stick, but the innermost had no stem or process, but was onely a skin that cover’d the cavity of the Nut. All the Nuts that had no holes eaten in them, I found to contain these Maggots, but all that had holes, I found empty, the Maggots, it seems, having eaten their way through, taken wings and flown away, as this following account (which I receiv’d in writing from the same person, as it was sent him by his Brother) manifests. _In a moorish black Peaty mould, with some small veins of whitish yellow Sands, upon occasion of digging a hole two or three foot deep, at the head of a Pond or Pool, to set a Tree in, at that depth, were found, about the end of _October 1663._ in those very veins of Sand, those Buttons or Nuts, sticking to a little loose stick, that is, not belonging to any live Tree, and some of them also free by themselves._", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00952", "bookId": 15491, "start": 701408, "end": 701684, "sha256": "3c5ef481740e7855b974711f3234d4b3db6cac51881235408efee6be6309e508", "text": "_Four or five of which being then open’d, some were found to contain live Insects come to perfection, most like to flying _Ants_, if not the same; in others, Insects, yet imperfect, having but the head and wings form’d, the rest remaining a soft white pulpy substance._", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00953", "bookId": 15491, "start": 701688, "end": 703165, "sha256": "714e1ace8fff0e0782f2477c8b706cdcece89bf6b812a74c0dcda3aee72b67c1", "text": "Now, as this furnishes us with one odd History more, very agreeable to what I before hinted, so I doubt not, but were men diligent observers, they might meet with multitudes of the same kind, both in the Earth and in the Water, and in the Air, on Trees, Plants, and other Vegetables, all places and things being, as it were, _animarum plena_. And I have often, with wonder and pleasure, in the Spring and Summer time, look’d close to, and diligently on, common Garden mould, and in a very small parcel of it, found such multitudes and diversities of little _reptiles_, some in husks, others onely creepers, many wing’d, and ready for the Air; divers husks or habitations left behind empty. Now, if the Earth of our cold Climate be so fertile of animate bodies, what may we think of the fat Earth of hotter Climates? Certainly, the Sun may there, by its activity, cause as great a parcel of Earth to fly on wings in the Air, as it does of Water in steams and vapours. And what swarms must we suppose to be sent out of those plentifull inundations of water which are poured down by the sluces of Rain in such vast quantities? So that we need not much wonder at those innumerable clouds of Locusts with which _Africa_, and other hot countries are so pestred, since in those places are found all the convenient causes of their production, namely, genitors, or Parents, concurrent receptacles or matrixes, and a sufficient degree of natural heat and moisture.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00954", "bookId": 15491, "start": 703169, "end": 704990, "sha256": "fd557dbc58b00749d20270208269ae8e4da7020808553459b84f5f203c82d207", "text": "I was going to annex a little draught of the Figure of those Nuts sent out of _Devonshire_, but chancing to examine Mr. _Parkinson_’s Herbal for something else, and particularly about Galls and Oak-apples, I found among no less then 24. several kinds of excrescencies of the Oak, which I doubt not, but upon examination, will be all found to be the _matrixes_ of so many several kinds of Insects; I having observ’d many of them my self to be so, among 24. several kinds, I say, I found one described and Figur’d directly like that which I had by me, the _Scheme_ is there to be seen, the description, because but short, I have here adjoin’d _Theatri Botanici trib. 16. Chap. 2. There groweth at the roots of old Oaks in the Spring-time, and sometimes also in the very heat of Summer, a peculiar kind of Mushrom or Excrescence, call’d _Uva Quercina_, swelling out of the Earth, many growing one close unto another, of the fashion of a Grape, and therefore took the name, the _Oak-Grape_, and is of a Purplish colour on the outside, and white within like Milk, and in the end of Summer becometh hard and woody._ Whether this be the very same kind, I cannot affirm, but both the Picture and Description come very neer to that I have, but that he seems not to take notice of the hollowness or Worm, for which ’tis most observable. And therefore ’tis very likely, if men did but take notice, they might find very many differing Species of these Nuts, _Ovaries_, or _Matrixes_, and all of them to have much the same designation and office. And I have very lately found several kinds of Excrescencies on Trees and Shrubs, which having endured the Winter, upon opening them, I found most of them to contain little Worms, but dead, those things that contain’d them being wither’d and dry.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00955", "bookId": 15491, "start": 705001, "end": 705034, "sha256": "92bf9343d426ee004c3cb7caa3f283036b2f3626f071d4807d38518427facd12", "text": "* * * * *", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00956", "bookId": 15491, "start": 705040, "end": 705095, "sha256": "90f10984b685d0da580d577d5ce449f285c2a8825c873a1913bfeb37e7830963", "text": "Observ. XLIV. _Of the tufted or Brush-horn’d _Gnat_._", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00957", "bookId": 15491, "start": 705099, "end": 706536, "sha256": "23422e01030236a2e27c880ff7e105664643a4bca1ce337e2b8ccadec2128658", "text": "This little creature was one of those multitudes that fill our _English_ air all the time that warm weather lasts, and is exactly of the shape of that I observ’d to be generated and hatch’d out of those little Insects that wriggle up and down in Rain-water. But, though many were of this form, yet I observ’d others to be of quite other kinds; nor were all of this or the other kind generated out of Water Insects; for whereas I observ’d that those that proceeded from those Insects were at their full growth, I have also found multitudes of the same shape, but much smaller and tenderer seeming to be very young ones, creep up and down upon the leaves of Trees, and flying up and down in small clusters, in places very remote from water; and this Spring, I observ’d one day, when the Wind was very calm, and the afternoon very fair, and pretty warm, though it had for a long time been very cold weather, and the wind continued still in the East, several small swarms of them playing to and fro in little clouds in the Sun, each of which were not a tenth part of the bigness of one of these I here have delineated, though very much of the same shape, which makes me ghess, that each of these swarms might be the of-spring of one onely Gnat, which had been hoorded up in some safe repository all this Winter by some provident Parent, and were now, by the warmth of the Spring-air, hatch’d into little Flies.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00958", "bookId": 15491, "start": 706540, "end": 707860, "sha256": "494cbf287c7c60ec023959f033e57c5d7a1caa7568f4b921ca12c79b75c11163", "text": "And indeed, so various, and seemingly irregular are the generations or productions of Insects, that he that shall carefully and diligently observe the several methods of Nature therein, will have infinitely cause further to admire the wisdom and providence of the Creator; for not onely the same kind of creature may be produc’d from several kinds of ways, but the very same creature may produce several kinds: For, as divers Watches may be made out of several materials, which may yet have all the same appearance, and move after the same manner, that is, shew the hour equally true, the one as the other, and out of the same kind of matter, like Watches, may be wrought differing ways; and, as one and the same Watch may, by being diversly agitated, or mov’d, by this or that agent, or after this or that manner, produce a quite contrary effect: So may it be with these most curious Engines of Insect’s bodies; the All-wise God of Nature, may have so ordered and disposed the little _Automatons_, that when nourished, acted, or enlivened by this cause, they produce one kind of effect, or animate shape, when by another they act quite another way, and another Animal is produc’d. So may he so order several materials, as to make them, by several kinds of methods, produce similar _Automatons_.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00959", "bookId": 15491, "start": 707864, "end": 709116, "sha256": "be6579ff6864aa5a99a44734d6587ccc76590d80399e1d46d93b8d1676561917", "text": "But to come to the Description of this Insect, as it appears through a _Microscope_, of which a representation is made in the 28. _Scheme_. Its head A, is exceeding small, in proportion to its body, consisting of two clusters of pearl’d eyes BB, on each side of its head, whose pearls or eye-balls are curiously rang’d like those of other Flies; between these, in the forehead of it, there are plac’d upon two small black balls, CC, two long jointed horns, tapering towards the top, much resembling the long horns of Lobsters, each of whose stems or quills, DD, were brisled or brushed with multitudes of small stiff hairs, issuing out every way from the several joints, like the strings or sproutings of the herb _Horse-tail_, which is oft observ’d to grow among Corn, and for the whole shape, it does very much resemble those _brushy Vegetables_; besides these, there are two other jointed and brisled horns, or feelers, EE, in the forepart of the head, and a _proboscis_, F, underneath, which in some Gnats are very long, streight hollow pipes, by which these creatures are able to drill and penetrate the skin, and thence, through those pipes suck so much bloud as to stuff their bellies so full till they be ready to burst.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00960", "bookId": 15491, "start": 709120, "end": 710440, "sha256": "afaba2f0472dc7b5476f0790aedfa7fba46a35956015528db183e13e75db280e", "text": "This small head, with its appurtenances, is fastned on by a short neck, G, to the middle of the _thorax_, which is large, and seems cased with a strong black shel, HIK, out of the under part of which, issue six long and slender legs, LLLLLL, shap’d just like the legs of Flies, but spun or drawn out longer and slenderer, which could not be express’d in the Figure, because of their great length; and from the upper part, two oblong, but slender transparent wings, MM, shaped somewhat like those of a Fly, underneath each of which, as I have observ’d also in divers sorts of Flies, and other kinds of Gnats, was placed a small body, N, much resembling a drop of some transparent glutinous substance, hardned or cool’d, as it was almost ready to fall, for it has a round knob at the end, which by degrees grows slenderer into a small stem, and neer the insertion under the wing, this stem again grows bigger; these little _Pendulums_, I may so call them, the little creature vibrates to and fro very quick when it moves its wings, and I have sometimes observ’d it to move them also, whil’st the wing lay still, but always their motion seem’d to further the motion of the wing ready to follow; of what use they are, as to the moving of the wing, or otherwise, I have not now time to examine.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00961", "bookId": 15491, "start": 710444, "end": 711214, "sha256": "abed08538f861b72021e1fa53d6948a8cba9174c185b252bec60da5ee18e2ebf", "text": "Its belly was large, as it is usually in all Insects, and extended into nine lengths or partitions, each of which was cover’d with round armed rings or shells; six of which, OPQRST were transparent, and divers kinds of _Peristaltick_ motions might be very easily perceiv’d, whil’st the Animal was alive, but especially a small cleer white part V, seemed to beat like the heart of a larger Animal. The last three divisios, WXY, were cover’d with black and opacous shells. To conclude, take this creature altogether, and for beauty and curious contrivances, it may be compared with the largest Animal upon the Earth. Nor doth the Alwise Creator seem to have shewn less care and providence in the fabrick of it, then in those which seem most considerable.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00962", "bookId": 15491, "start": 711225, "end": 711258, "sha256": "92bf9343d426ee004c3cb7caa3f283036b2f3626f071d4807d38518427facd12", "text": "* * * * *", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00963", "bookId": 15491, "start": 711264, "end": 711326, "sha256": "c5fbd100741bd867db924bda9686b8578764646a4461f6c97a781bc653add550", "text": "Observ. XLV. _Of the great Belly’d _Gnat_ or female _Gnat_._", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00964", "bookId": 15491, "start": 711330, "end": 711755, "sha256": "655628f739448e1777429894369ea5d4fcfc32ea19fcd5d8a7bc6da7d54ddf1f", "text": "The second Gnat, delineated in the twenty ninth _Scheme_, is of a very differing shape from the former; but yet of this sort also, I found several of the Gnats, that were generated out of the Water Insect: the wings of this, were much larger then those of the other, and the belly much bigger, shorter and of an other shape; and, from several particulars, I ghest it to be the Female Gnat, and the former to be the Male.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00965", "bookId": 15491, "start": 711759, "end": 712472, "sha256": "c7794362a6d486566b8900ba81d7f98fcb9c750123edc81bc9c97dbacdf569b9", "text": "The _thorax_ of this, was much like that of the other, having a very strong and ridged back-piece, which went also on either side of its leggs; about the wings there were several joynted pieces of Armor, which seem’d curiously and conveniently contriv’d, for the promoting and strengthning the motion of the wings: its head was much differing from the other, being much bigger and neater shap’d, and the horns that grew out between his eyes on two little balls, were of a very differing shape from the tufts of the other Gnat, these having but a few knots or joynts, and each of those but a few, and those short and strong, brisles. The formost horns or feelers, were like those of the former Gnat.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00966", "bookId": 15491, "start": 712476, "end": 713058, "sha256": "a8422020d5ebf2c71e8d9733032c15bd291ae4f387aaa634d57ecdfc54de3163", "text": "One of these Gnats I have suffer’d to pierce the skin of my hand, with its _proboscis_, and thence to draw out as much blood as to fill its belly as full as it could hold, making it appear very red and transparent; and this without any further pain, then whilst it was sinking in its _proboscis_, as it is also in the stinging of Fleas: a good argument, that these creatures do not wound the skin, and suck the blood out of enmity and revenge, but for meer necessity, and to satisfy their hunger. By what means this creature is able to suck, we shall shew in another place.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00967", "bookId": 15491, "start": 713069, "end": 713102, "sha256": "92bf9343d426ee004c3cb7caa3f283036b2f3626f071d4807d38518427facd12", "text": "* * * * *", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00968", "bookId": 15491, "start": 713108, "end": 713180, "sha256": "4a6d8cca0336e5544a2970c418b3d5601f0dbece7c16be0823339b6456276ed7", "text": "Observ. XLVI. _Of the white featherwing’d _Moth_ or _Tinea Argentea_._", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00969", "bookId": 15491, "start": 713184, "end": 713950, "sha256": "da44ad374a0bdbfb18ca8024e889e91feba5c2698f3e90e13b35ecefb205146e", "text": "This white long wing’d Moth, which is delineated in the 30. _Scheme_; afforded a lovely object both to the naked Eye, and through a _Microscope_: to the Eye it appear’d a small Milk-white Fly with four white Wings, the two formost somewhat longer then the two hindermost, and the two shorter about half an Inch long, each of which four Wings seem’d to consist of two small long Feathers, very curiously tufted, or haired on each side, with purely white, and exceedingly fine and small Haires, proportion’d to the stalks or stems, out of which they grew, much like the tufts of a long wing-feather of some Bird, and their stalks or stems were, like those, bended backwards and downwards, as may be plainly seen by the draughts of them in the Figure.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00970", "bookId": 15491, "start": 713954, "end": 714497, "sha256": "11be4dcd1227f74a9f7ee71e03b13048aa93fb1f6cec5e12b27657b9a412e7a8", "text": "Observing one of these in my _Microscope_, I found, in the first place, that all the Body, Legs, Horns and the Stalks of the Wings, were covered over with various kinds of curious white Feathers, which did, with handling or touching, easily rubb off and fly about, in so much that looking on my Fingers, with which I had handled this Moth, and perceiving on them little white specks, I found by my _Microscope_, that they were several of the small Feathers of this little creature, that stuck up and down in the _rugosities_ of my Skin.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00971", "bookId": 15491, "start": 714501, "end": 714678, "sha256": "3683984e7c9a9253a8a6bbfb928776ed30abaa68e185e6deec1695acb26dc334", "text": "Next, I found that underneath these Feathers, the pretty Insect was covered all over with a crusted Shell, like other of those Animals, but with one much thinner and tenderer.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00972", "bookId": 15491, "start": 714682, "end": 714821, "sha256": "8e620dcac5528656f3bdb30a7938309b4533204ff99a4cae523a8ecaadb2ac88", "text": "Thirdly, I found, as in Birds also is notable, it had differing and appropriate kinds of Feathers, that covered several parts of its body.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00973", "bookId": 15491, "start": 714825, "end": 718660, "sha256": "f83113a705dd3ebf9ef24bb3b35da4b70c710a1b4aab35bf6e76c518745eb8c4", "text": "Fourthly, surveying the parts of its body, with a more accurate and better Magnifying _Microscope_, I found that the tufts or haires of its Wings were nothing else but a congeries, or thick set cluster of small _vimina_ or twiggs, resembling a small twigg of Birch, stript or whitened, with which Brushes are usually made, to beat out or brush off the dust from Cloth and Hangings. Every one of the twiggs or branches that composed the Brush of the Feathers, appeared in this bigger Magnifying Glass (of which EF which represents ¹⁄₂₄ part of an Inch, is the scale, as G is of the lesser, which is only ⅓) like the figure D. The Feathers also that covered a part of his Body, and were interspersed among the brush of his Wings, I found, in the bigger Magnifying Glass, of the shape A, consisting of a stalk or stem in the middle, and a seeming tuftedness or brushy part on each side. The Feathers that cover’d most part of his Body and the stalk of his wings, were, in the same _Microscope_, much of the figure B, appearing of the shape of a small Feather, and seemed tufted: those which covered the Horns and small parts of the Leggs, through the same _Microscope_, appear’d of the shape C. Whether the tufts of any or all of these small Feathers, consisted of such component particles as the Feathers of Birds, I much doubt, because I find that Nature does not alwaies keep, or operate after the same method, in smaller and bigger creatures. And of this, we have particular Instances in the Wings of several creatures. For whereas, in Birds of all kinds, it composes each of the Feathers of which its Wing consists, of such an exceeding curious and most admirable and stupendious texture, as I else-where shew, in the Observations on a Feather; we find it to alter its method quite, in the fabrick of the Wings of these minute creatures, composing some of thin extended membranes or skins, such as the Wings of Dragon-flys; in others, those skins are all over-grown, or pretty thick bestuck, with short brisles, as in Flesh-flies; in others, those filmes are covered, both on the upper and under side, with small Feathers, plac’d almost like the tyles on a House, and are curiously rang’d and adorn’d with most lively colours, as is observable in Butter-flies, and several kinds of Moths; In others, instead of their films, Nature has provided nothing, but a matter of half a score stalks (if I well remember the number; for I have not lately met with any of these flys, and did not, when I first observ’d them, take sufficient notice of divers particulars) and each of these stalks, with a few single branchings on each side, resembling much the branched back-bone of a Herring or the like Fish, or a thin hair’d Peacocks feather, the top or the eye being broken off. With a few of these on either side (which it was able to shut up or expand at pleasure, much like a Fann, or rather like the posture of the feathers in a wing, which ly all one under another, when shut, and by the side of each other, when expanded) this pretty little grey Moth (for such was the creature I observ’d, thus wing’d) could very nimbly, and as it seem’d very easily move its _corpuscle_, through the Air, from place to place. Other Insects have their wings cas’d, or cover’d over, with certain hollow shells, shap’d almost like those hollow Trayes, in which Butchers carry meat, whose hollow sides being turn’d downwards, do not only secure their folded wings from injury of the earth, in which most of those creatures reside, but whilst they fly, serves as a help to sustain and bear them up. And these are observable in _Scarabees_ and a multitude of other terrestrial _crustaceous_ Insects; in which we may yet further observe a particular providence of Nature.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00974", "bookId": 15491, "start": 718664, "end": 720026, "sha256": "d5c6be99fdf968b08563065bd9a767e0fa9dfcb15eb258ac86d342dbbf490a5d", "text": "Now in all these kinds of wings, we observe this particular, as a thing most worthy remark; that where ever a wing consists of discontinued parts, the Pores or _interstitia_ between those parts are very seldom, either much bigger, or much smaller, then these which we here find between the particles of these brushes, so that it should seem to intimate, that the parts of the Air are such, that they will not easily or readily, if at all, pass through these Pores, so that they seem to be strainers fine enough to hinder the particles of the Air (whether hinder’d by their bulk, or by their _agitation_, _circulation_, _rotation_ or _undulation_, I shall not here determine) from getting through them, and, by that means, serve the Animal as well, if not better, then if they were little films. I say, if not better, because I have observ’d that all those creatures, that have film’d wings, move them aboundantly quicker and more strongly, such as all kind of Flies and _Scarabees_ and Batts, then such as have their wings covered with feathers, as Butter-flies and Birds, or twiggs, as Moths, which have each of them a much slower motion of their wings; That little ruggedness perhaps of their wings helping them somewhat, by taking better hold of the parts of the Air, or not suffering them so easily to pass by, any other way then one.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00975", "bookId": 15491, "start": 720030, "end": 720830, "sha256": "56791e2a78dfdcee73afa561586940e906fdd8d1ba591f8fb7424fbc64fd2d93", "text": "But what ever be the reason of it, ’tis most evident, that the smooth wing’d Insects, have the strongest Muscles or movent parts of their wings, and the other much weaker; and this very Insect, we are now describing, had a very small _thorax_ or middle part of his body, if compar’d to the length and number of his wings; which therefore, as he mov’d them very slowly, so must he move them very weakly. And this last propriety do we find somewhat observ’d also in bigger kind of Flying creatures, Birds; so that we see that the Wisdom and Providence of the All-wise Creator, is not less shewn in these small despicable creatures, Flies and Moths, which we have branded with a name of ignominy, calling them Vermine, then in those greater and more remarkable animate bodies, Birds.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00976", "bookId": 15491, "start": 720834, "end": 721601, "sha256": "b3b19c0383333575b62b8884f41a26c9250963f0022c82217a3f0242f941e67e", "text": "I cannot here stand to add any thing about the nature of flying, though, perhaps, on another occasion, I may say something on that subject, it being such as may deserve a much more accurate examination and scrutiny then it has hitherto met with; For to me there seems nothing wanting to make a man able to fly, but what may be easily enough supply’d from the Mechanicks hitherto known, save onely the want of strength, which the Muscles of a man seem utterly uncapable of, by reason of their smalness and texture, but how even strength also may be mechanically made, and an artificial Muscle so contriv’d, that thereby a man shall be able to exert what strength he pleases, and to regulate it also to his own mind, I may elsewhere endeavour to manifest.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00977", "bookId": 15491, "start": 721612, "end": 721645, "sha256": "92bf9343d426ee004c3cb7caa3f283036b2f3626f071d4807d38518427facd12", "text": "* * * * *", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00978", "bookId": 15491, "start": 721651, "end": 721720, "sha256": "64a65486710067e008cf9fb549611778b3d0ccbbf797dc61f81099b3cab5668d", "text": "Observ. XLVII. _Of the _Shepherd Spider_, or long-legg’d _Spider_._", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00979", "bookId": 15491, "start": 721724, "end": 722722, "sha256": "ed5475a7698fd7eac42f68a8eabb9d5232bcc5cf87aea70dd6990e76660bcfa9", "text": "The Carter, Shepherd Spider, or long-legg’d Spider, has, for two particularities, very few similar creatures that I have met with, the first, which is discoverable onely by the _Microscope_, and is in the first and second _Figures_ of the 31. _Scheme_, plainly describ’d, is the curious contrivance of his eyes, of which (differing from most other Spiders) he has onely two, and those plac’d upon the top of a small pillar or hillock, rising out of the middle of the top of its back, or rather the crown of its head, for they were fix’d on the very top of this pillar (which is about the heighth of one of the transverse Diameters of the eye, and look’d on in another posture, appear’d much of the shape, BCD.) The two eyes, BB, were placed back to back, with the transparent parts, or the pupils, looking towards either side, but somewhat more forward then backwards. C was the column or neck on which they stood, and D the crown of the head out of which that neck sprung.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00980", "bookId": 15491, "start": 722726, "end": 723920, "sha256": "b621ee73173c74b4070a778f168d2badb1d3fd390d6e41c40e7d5f204a0e7034", "text": "These eyes, to appearance, seem’d to be of the very same structure with that of larger _binocular_ creatures, seeming to have a very smooth and very protuberant _Cornea_, and in the midst of it to have a very black pupil, incompassed about with a kind of grey _Iris_, as appears by the _Figure_; whether it were able to move these eyes to and fro, I have not observ’d, but ’tis not very likely he should, the pillar or neck C, seeming to be cover’d and stiffen’d with a crusty shell; but Nature, in probability, has supply’d that defect, by making the _Cornea_ so very protuberant, and setting it so cleer above the shadowing or obstructing of its prospect by the body, that ’tis likely each eye may perceive, though not see distinctly, almost a _Hemisphere_, whence having so small and round a body plac’d upon such long leggs, it is quickly able so to wind, and turn it, as to see any thing distinct. This creature, as do all other Spiders I have yet examin’d, does very much differ from most other Insects in the Figure of its eyes; for I cannot, with my best _Microscope_, discover its eyes to be any ways knobb’d or pearl’d like those of other Insects.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00981", "bookId": 15491, "start": 723924, "end": 725980, "sha256": "3b34009cc30289324c0b0f1cd5795a41be479c48a2cb4f62c38404a516af5a26", "text": "The second Peculiarity which is obvious to the eye, is also very remarkable, and that is the prodigious length of its leggs, in proportion to its small round body, each legg of this I drew, being above sixteen times the length of its whole body, and there are some which have them yet longer, and others that seem of the same kind, that have them a great deal shorter; the eight leggs are each of them jointed, just like those of a Crab, but every of the parts are spun out prodigiously longer in proportion; each of these leggs are terminated in a small case or shell, shap’d almost like that of a Musle-shell, as is evident in the third _Figure_ of the same _Scheme_ (that represents the appearance ot the under part or belly of the creature) by the shape of the protuberant _conical_ body, IIII, &c. These are as ’twere plac’d or fasten’d on to the protuberant body of the Insect, which is to be suppos’d very high at M, making a kind of blunt cone whereof M is to be suppos’d the _Apex_, about which greater cone of the body, the smaller cones of the leggs are plac’d, each of them almost reaching to the top in so admirable a manner, as does not a little manifest the wisdom of Nature in the contrivance; for these long Leavers (as I may so call them) of the legs, having not the advantage of a long end on the other side of the _hypomochlion_ or centers on which the parts of the leggs move, must necessarily require a vast strength to move them, and keep the body ballanc’d and suspended, in so much, that if we should suppose a man’s body suspended by such a contrivance, an hundred and fifty times the strength of a man would not keep the body from falling on the breast. To supply therefore each of these leggs with its proper strength, Nature has allow’d to each a large Chest or Cell, in which is included a very large and strong Muscle, and thereby this little Animal is not onely able to suspend its body upon less then these eight, but to move it very swiftly over the tops of grass and leaves.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00982", "bookId": 15491, "start": 725984, "end": 727695, "sha256": "f6d83d6a2cafa81567948b37d41a8edc2122d0a350791e3687b335aff309a261", "text": "Nor are these eight leggs so prodigiously long, but the ninth, and tenth, which are the two claws, KK, are as short, and serve in steed of a _proboscis_, for those seem’d very little longer then his mouth; each of them had three parts, but very short, the joints KK, which represented the third, being longer then both the other. This creature, seems (which I have several times with pleasure observ’d) to throw its body upon the prey, insteed of its hands, not unlike a hunting Spider, which leaps like a Cat at a Mouse. The whole Fabrick was a very pretty one, and could I have dissected it, I doubt not but I should have found as many singularities within it as without, perhaps, for the most part, not unlike the parts of a Crab, which this little creature does in many things, very much resemble; the curiosity of whose contrivance, I have in another place examin’d. I omit the description of the horns, AA, of the mouth, LL, which seem’d like that of a Crab; the speckledness of his shell, which proceeded from a kind of feathers or hairs, and the hairiness of his leggs, his large _thorax_ and little belly, and the like, they being manifested by the Figure; and shall onely take notice that the three parts of the body, namely, the head, breast, and belly, are in this creature strangely confus’d, so that ’tis difficult to determine which is which, as they are also in a Crab; and indeed, this seems to be nothing else, but an Air-crab, being made more light and nimble, proportionable to the _medium_ wherein it resides; and as Air seems to have but one thousandth part of the body of Water, so does this Spider seem not to be a thousandth part of the bulk of a Crab.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00983", "bookId": 15491, "start": 727706, "end": 727739, "sha256": "92bf9343d426ee004c3cb7caa3f283036b2f3626f071d4807d38518427facd12", "text": "* * * * *", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00984", "bookId": 15491, "start": 727745, "end": 727826, "sha256": "8aaa1a7bf6eee3170e761e7640f55275f7e2596cc1364a40fcbeee9b9963c727", "text": "Observ. XLVIII. _Of the hunting _Spider_, and several other sorts of _Spiders_._", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00985", "bookId": 15491, "start": 727830, "end": 729055, "sha256": "6e6aa0b38a9e6f7a81e11be59c4081fca2b771b9944b941ae660b84a4a087c85", "text": "The hunting Spider is a small grey Spider, prettily bespeck’d with black spots all over its body, which the _Microscope_ discovers to be a kind of feathers like those on Butterflies wings, or the body of the white Moth I lately describ’d. Its gate is very nimble by fits, sometimes running, and sometimes leaping, like a Grashopper almost, then standing still, and setting it self on its hinder leggs, it will very nimbly turn its body, and look round it self every way: It has six very conspicuous eyes, two looking directly forwards, plac’d just before; two other, on either side of those, looking forward and side-ways; and two other about the middle of the top of its back or head, which look backwards and side-wards; these seem’d to be the biggest. The surface of them all was very black, sphærical, purely polish’d, reflecting a very cleer and distinct Image of all the ambient objects, such as a window, a man’s hand, a white Paper, or the like. Some other properties of this Spider, observ’d by the most accomplish’d Mr. _Evelyn_, in his travels in _Italy_, are most emphatically set forth in the History hereunto annexed, which he was pleas’d upon my desire to send me in writing.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00986", "bookId": 15491, "start": 729063, "end": 729381, "sha256": "9619752aa05129101f4f3496d83fe556d07237e59ba4ea92ece8f8de38bfcd16", "text": "Of all the sorts of Insects, there is none has afforded me more divertisements then the _Venatores_, which are a sort of _Lupi_, that have their Denns in the rugged walls, and crevices of our houses; a small brown and delicately spotted kind of Spiders, whose hinder leggs are longer then the rest.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00987", "bookId": 15491, "start": 729389, "end": 731793, "sha256": "509871ba91b39f3961a882b85b09f90b1be2c534aaca031fff9a654fdf4a4ce1", "text": "Such I did frequently observe at _Rome_, which espying a Fly at three or four yards distance, upon the Balcony (where I stood) would not make directly to her, but craul under the Rail, till being arriv’d to the _Antipodes_, it would steal up, seldom missing its aim; but if it chanced to want any thing of being perfectly opposite, would at first peep, immediately slide down again, till taking better notice, it would come the next time exactly upon the Fly’s back: But, if this hapn’d not to be within a competent leap, then would this Insect move so softly, as the very shadow of the Gnomon seem’d not to be more imperceptible, unless the Fly mov’d; and then would the Spider move also in the same proportion, keeping that just time with her motion, as if the same Soul had animated both those little bodies; and whether it were forwards, backwards, or to either side, without at all turning her body, like a well mannag’d Horse: But, if the capricious Fly took wing, and pitch’d upon another place behind our Huntress, then would the Spider whirle its body so nimbly about, as nothing could be imagin’d more swift; by which means, she always kept the head towards her prey, though to appearance, as immovable, as if it had been a Nail driven into the Wood, till by that indiscernable progress (being arriv’d within the sphere of her reach) she made a fatal leap (swift as Lightning) upon the Fly, catching him in the pole, where she never quitted hold till her belly was full, and then carried the remainder home. I have beheld them instructing their young ones, how to hunt, which they would sometimes discipline for not well observing; but, when any of the old ones did (as sometimes) miss a leap, they would run out of the field, and hide them in their crannies, as asham’d, and haply not be seen abroad for four or five hours after; for so long have I watched the nature of this strange Insect, the contemplation of whose so wonderfull sagacity and address has amaz’d me; nor do I find in any chase whatsoever, more cunning and Stratagem observ’d: I have found some of these Spiders in my Garden, when the weather (towards the Spring) is very hot, but they are nothing so eager of hunting as they are in _Italy_.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00988", "bookId": 15491, "start": 731797, "end": 732669, "sha256": "1a3aa688fc1bae11f85046c4fca5107fbea0545016fffe93f971ccc0ee857191", "text": "There are multitudes of other sorts of Spiders, whose eyes, and most other parts and properties, are so exceedingly different both from those I have describ’d, and from one another, that it would be almost endless, at least too long for my present Essay, to describe them, as some with six eyes, plac’d in quite another order; others with eight eyes; others with fewer, and some with more. They all seem to be creatures of prey, and to feed on other small Insects, but their ways of catching them seem very differing: the Shepherd Spider by running on his prey; the Hunting Spider by leaping on it, other sorts weave Nets, or Cobwebs, whereby they ensnare them, Nature having both fitted them with materials and tools, and taught them how to work and weave their Nets, and to lie perdue, and to watch diligently to run on any Fly, as soon as ever entangled.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00989", "bookId": 15491, "start": 732673, "end": 733712, "sha256": "db80539001f9622598cf0b3436e09669d3c1a894e7338fc5deb3b5e4cb07e3c6", "text": "Their thread or web seems to be spun out of some viscous kind of excrement, lying in their belly, which, though soft when drawn out, is, presently by reason of its smallness, hardned and dried by the ambient Air. Examining several of which with my _Microscope_, I found them to appear much like white Hors-hair, or some such transparent horny substance, and to be of very differing magnitudes; some appearing as bigg as a Pigg’s brisle, others equal to a Horss-hair; other no bigger then a man’s hair; others yet smaller and finer. I observ’d further, that the radiating chords of the web were much bigger, and smoother then those that were woven round, which seem’d smaller, and all over knotted or pearl’d, with small transparent Globules, not unlike small Crystal Beads or seed Pearls, thin strung on a Clew of Silk; which, whether they were so spun by the Spider, or by the adventitious moisture of a fogg (which I have observ’d to cover all these filaments with such Crystalline Beads) I will not now dispute.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00990", "bookId": 15491, "start": 733716, "end": 733994, "sha256": "cd9f3394678aa1f199b2b9c31c11af48c1639fc083d85bf7b763d1c89f6b1288", "text": "These threads were some of them so small, that I could very plainly, with the _Microscope_, discover the same consecutions of colours as in a _Prisme_, and they seem’d to proceed from the same cause with those colours which I have already describ’d in thin plated bodies.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00991", "bookId": 15491, "start": 733998, "end": 734617, "sha256": "3486103bcc77307362f552d2a288f69e5662dfa4cfae3f014d3fc75f1b73feb3", "text": "Much resembling a Cobweb, or a confus’d lock of these Cylinders, is a certain white substance which, after a fogg, may be observ’d to fly up and down the Air; catching several of these, and examining them with my _Microscope_, I found them to be much of the same form, looking most like to a flake of Worsted prepar’d to be spun, though by what means they should be generated, or produc’d, is not easily imagined: they were of the same weight, or very little heavier then the Air; and ’tis not unlikely, but that those great white clouds, that appear all the Summer time, may be of the same substance.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00992", "bookId": 15491, "start": 734628, "end": 734661, "sha256": "92bf9343d426ee004c3cb7caa3f283036b2f3626f071d4807d38518427facd12", "text": "* * * * *", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00993", "bookId": 15491, "start": 734667, "end": 734708, "sha256": "96298fc2a0adb15cfd1b8fe3a1b1cac78a085d8ecf8ebf52c8d1ad00e125ddc6", "text": "Observ. XLIX. _Of an _Ant_ or _Pismire_._", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00994", "bookId": 15491, "start": 734712, "end": 736738, "sha256": "7d96de12bf2434d3c70df3e1c9d15183e4ca1b6db09a9c25b6088b884cb1ca52", "text": "This was a creature, more troublesome to be drawn, then any of the rest, for I could not, for a good while, think of a way to make it suffer its body to ly quiet in a natural posture; but whil’st it was alive, if its feet were fetter’d in Wax or Glew, it would so twist and wind its body, that I could not any wayes get a good view of it; and if I killed it, its body was so little, that I did often spoil the shape of it, before I could throughly view it: for this is the nature of these minute Bodies, that as soon, almost, as ever their life is destroy’d, their parts immediately shrivel, and lose their beauty; and so is it also with small Plants, as I instanced before, in the description of Moss. And thence also is the reason of the variations in the beards of wild Oats, and in those of Musk-grass seed, that their bodies, being exceeding small, those small variations which are made in the surfaces of all bodies, almost upon every change of Air, especially if the body be porous, do here become sensible, where the whole body is so small, that it is almost nothing but surface; for as in vegetable substances, I see no great reason to think, that the moisture of the Aire (that, sticking to a wreath’d beard, does make it untwist) should evaporate, or exhale away, any faster then the moisture of other bodies, but rather that the avolation from, or access of moisture to, the surfaces of bodies being much the same, those bodies become most sensible of it, which have the least proportion of body to their surface. So is it also with Animal substances; the dead body of an Ant, or such little creature, does almost instantly shrivel and dry, and your object shall be quite another thing, before you can half delineate it, which proceeds not from the extraordinary exhalation, but from the small proportion of body and juices, to the usual drying of bodies in the Air, especially if warm. For which inconvenience, where I could not otherwise remove it, I thought of this expedient.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00995", "bookId": 15491, "start": 736742, "end": 737619, "sha256": "76f8ccecf2128623e54fb6ed70a7a95a7a919177e4848ceb9bbe62189dddcce5", "text": "I took the creature, I had design’d to delineate, and put it into a drop of very well rectified spirit of Wine, this I found would presently dispatch, as it were, the Animal, and being taken out of it, and lay’d on a paper, the spirit of Wine would immediately fly away, and leave the Animal dry, in its natural posture, or at least, in a constitution, that it might easily with a pin be plac’d, in what posture you desired to draw it, and the limbs would so remain, without either moving, or shriveling. And thus I dealt with this Ant, which I have here delineated, which was one of many, of a very large kind, that inhabited under the Roots of a Tree, from whence they would sally out in great parties, and make most grievous havock of the Flowers and Fruits, in the ambient Garden, and return back again very expertly, by the same wayes and paths they went.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00996", "bookId": 15491, "start": 737623, "end": 738582, "sha256": "62b2f11f34323fbe065e4baa133b2e85bc7b1d37fef3bb806e9ad4d6d3ee12a2", "text": "It was more then half the bigness of an Earwig, of a dark brown, or reddish colour, with long legs, on the hinder of which it would stand up, and raise its head as high as it could above the ground, that it might stare the further about it, just after the same manner as I have also observ’d a hunting Spider to do: and putting my finger towards them, they have at first all run towards it, till almost at it; and then they would stand round about it, at a certain distance, and smell, as it were, and consider whether they should any of them venture any further, till one more bold then the rest venturing to climb it, all the rest, if I would have suffered them, would have immediately followed: many such other seemingly rational actions I have observ’d in this little Vermine with much pleasure, which would be too long to be here related; those that desire more of them may satisfie their curiosity in _Ligons_ History of the _Barbadoes_.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00997", "bookId": 15491, "start": 738586, "end": 740043, "sha256": "8fc4d69f4ef6b31e1dc3794a5348fe68c250869f392d6aa22f9693b6e53fd802", "text": "Having insnar’d several of these into a small Box, I made choice of the tallest grown among them, and separating it from the rest, I gave it a Gill of Brandy, or Spirit of Wine, which after a while e’en knock’d him down dead drunk, so that he became moveless, though at first putting in he struggled for a pretty while very much, till at last, certain bubbles issuing out of its mouth, it ceased to move; this (because I had before found them quickly to recover again, if they were taken out presently) I suffered to lye above an hour in the Spirit; and after I had taken it out, and put its body and legs into a natural posture, remained moveless about an hour; but then, upon a sudden, as if it had been awaken out of a drunken sleep, it suddenly reviv’d and ran away; being caught, and serv’d as before, he for a while continued struggling and striving, till at last there issued several bubbles out of its mouth, and then, _tanquam animam expirasset_, he remained moveless for a good while; but at length again recovering, it was again redipt, and suffered to lye some hours in the Spirit; notwithstanding which, after it had layen dry some three or four hours, it again recovered life and motion: Which kind of Experiments, if prosecuted, which they highly deserve, seem to me of no inconsiderable use towards the invention of the _Latent Scheme_, (as the Noble _Verulam_ calls it) or the hidden, unknown Texture of Bodies.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00998", "bookId": 15491, "start": 740047, "end": 741251, "sha256": "f4a5bc6578ef12b2c155341844f28fdb57a5bb069fc6edb85f315d3e0dcaf109", "text": "Of what Figure this Creature appear’d through the _Microscope_, the 32. _Scheme_ (though not so carefully graven as it ought) will represent to the eye, namely, That it had a large head AA, at the upper end of which were two protuberant eyes, pearl’d like those of a Fly, but smaller BB; out of the Nose, or foremost part, issued two horns CC, of a shape sufficiently differing from those of a blew Fly, though indeed they seem to be both the same kind of Organ, and to serve for a kind of smelling; beyond these were two indented jaws DD, which he open’d side-wayes, and was able to gape them asunder very wide; and the ends of them being armed with teeth, which meeting went between each other, it was able to grasp and hold a heavy body, three or four times the bulk and weight of its own body: It had only six legs, shap’d like those of a Fly, which, as I shewed before, is an Argument that it is a winged Insect, and though I could not perceive any sign of them in the middle part of its body (which seem’d to consist of three joints or pieces EFG, out of which sprung two legs), yet ’tis known that there are of them that have long wings, and fly up and down in the air.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B00999", "bookId": 15491, "start": 741255, "end": 741546, "sha256": "a8b6c81349a6382d2b5c9e4dd7f533024a390bf31c7d2975ed58f8890846663a", "text": "The third and last part of its body III was bigger and larger then the other two, unto which it was joyn’d by a very small middle, and had a kind of loose shell, or another distinct part of its body H, which seem’d to be interpos’d, and to keep the _thorax_ and belly from touching.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01000", "bookId": 15491, "start": 741550, "end": 741804, "sha256": "7030b90fda392c77bc6ee63ed814ee63d049d546c2808ca46308339a82046ae6", "text": "The whole body was cas’d over with a very strong armour, and the belly III was covered likewise with multitudes of small white shining brisles; the legs, horns, head, and middle parts of its body were bestuck with hairs also, but smaller and darker.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01001", "bookId": 15491, "start": 741815, "end": 741848, "sha256": "92bf9343d426ee004c3cb7caa3f283036b2f3626f071d4807d38518427facd12", "text": "* * * * *", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01002", "bookId": 15491, "start": 741854, "end": 741890, "sha256": "17342ddc0716c8ecf636977b1666b7966912635dbd10a650bad092c5e381f4c7", "text": "Observ. L. _Of the wandring _Mite_._", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01003", "bookId": 15491, "start": 741894, "end": 742477, "sha256": "258da8a868b393bd7794bea7e28a4a03b510705ccd49c632263f29abb1b774df", "text": "In _September_ and _October, 1661._ I observ’d in _Oxford_ several of these little pretty Creatures to wander to and fro, and often to travel over the plains of my Window. And in _September_ and _October, 1663._ I observ’d likewise several of these very same Creatures traversing a window at _London_, and looking without the window upon the subjacent wall, I found whole flocks of the same kind running to and fro among the small groves and thickets of green moss, and upon the curiously spreading vegetable blew or yellow moss, which is a kind of a Mushrome or Jews-ear.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01004", "bookId": 15491, "start": 742481, "end": 742964, "sha256": "3f313a37e68a7a53baa7740cf5c429ccfe9007cf68ee2d987c667f99e9a0fb09", "text": "These Creatures to the naked eye seemed to be a kind of black Mite, but much nimbler and stronger then the ordinary Cheese-Mites; but examining them in a _Microscope_, I found them to be a very fine crusted or shell’d Insect, much like that represented in the first Figure of the three and thirtieth _Scheme_, with a protuberant oval shell A, indented or pitted with an abundance of small pits, all covered over with little white brisles, whose points all directed backwards.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01005", "bookId": 15491, "start": 742968, "end": 743354, "sha256": "179b9c49d8ca0e1f29ad0b28bf2733a5a77ac88a993c7b532f4da71b3e0e4f14", "text": "It had eight legs, each of them provided with a very sharp tallon, or claw at the end, which this little Animal, in its going, fastned into the pores of the body over which it went. Each of these legs were bestuck in every joynt of them with multitudes of small hairs, or (if we respect the proportion they bore to the bigness of the leg) turnpikes, all pointing towards the claws.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01006", "bookId": 15491, "start": 743358, "end": 744152, "sha256": "a17a8ad49513fc613a21a8a61a237d66ae4fdde5bce0fc03cdd552bcf0f56a07", "text": "The _Thorax_, or middle parts of the body of this Creature, was exceeding small, in respect both of the head and belly, it being nothing but that part which was covered by the two shells BB, though it seem’d to grow thicker underneath: And indeed, if we consider the great variety Nature uses in proportioning the three parts of the body, (the _Head_, _Thorax_, and _Belly_) we shall not wonder at the small proportion of this _Thorax_, nor at the vaster bulk of the belly, for could we exactly anatomise this little Creature, and observe the particular designs of each part, we should doubtless, as we do in all her more manageable and tractable fabricks, find much more reason to admire the excellency of her contrivance and workmanship, then to wonder, it was not made otherwise.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01007", "bookId": 15491, "start": 744156, "end": 744892, "sha256": "63d9f4443b785b5edf4e409d45e437a071170b23282d116cf89db0c203245a8d", "text": "The head of this little Insect was shap’d somewhat like a Mite’s, that is, it had a long snout, in the manner of a Hogs, with a knobbed ridge running along the middle of it, which was bestuck on either side with many small brisles, all pointing forward, and two very large pikes or horns, which rose from the top of the head, just over each eye, and pointed forward also. It had two pretty large black eyes on either side of the head EE, from one of which I could see a very bright reflection of the window, which made me ghess, that the _Cornea_ of it was smooth, like those of bigger Insects. Its motion was pretty quick and strong, it being able very easily to tumble a stone or clod four times as big as its whole body.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01008", "bookId": 15491, "start": 744896, "end": 745668, "sha256": "096732c638286a47aae82143ba531cb86704f10f7f449df1292b06d8baed1258", "text": "At the same time and place, and divers times since, I have observed with my _Microscope_, another little Insect, which, though I have not annexed the picture of, may be worth noting, for its exceeding nimbleness as well as smalness; it was as small as a Mite, with a body deep and ridged, almost like a Flea; it had eight blood-red legs, not very long, but slender; and two horns or feelers before. Its motion was so exceeding quick, that I have often lost sight of one I have observed with my naked eye; and though, when it was not frighted, I was able to follow the motions of some with my _Microscope_; yet if it were never so little startled, it posted away with such speed, and turn’d and winded it self so quick, that I should presently lose sight of it.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01009", "bookId": 15491, "start": 745672, "end": 747446, "sha256": "0cb4ae8c510fd49c28d9f5db327daf2f198f81abd1e0c0f8a591e7cd9c79ffb9", "text": "When I first observ’d the former of these Insects, or Mites, I began to conjecture, that certainly I had found out the vagabond Parents of those Mites we find in Cheeses, Meal, Corn, Seeds, musty Barrels, musty Leather, &c. these little Creatures, wandring to and fro every whither, might perhaps, as they were invited hither and thither by the musty steams of several putrifying bodies, make their invasions upon those new and pleasing territories, and there spending the remainder of their life, which might be perhaps a day, or thereabouts, in very plentiful and riotous living, might leave their offspring behind them, which by the change of the soil and Country they now inhabite, might be quite alter’d from the hew of their _primogenitors_, and, like _Mores_ translated into Northern _European_ Climates, after a little time, change both their skin and shape. And this seems yet more probable in these Insects, because that the soil or body they inhabit, seems to be almost half their parent, for it not only hatches and brings those little eggs, or seminal principles, to perfection, but seems to augment and nourish them also before they are hatch’d or shaped; for it is obvious enough to be observ’d, that the eggs of many other Insects, and particularly of Mites, are increas’d in bulk after they are laid out of the bodies of the Insects, and plump’d sometimes into many times their former bigness, so that the bodies they are laid in being, as it were, half their mothers, we shall not wonder that it should have such an active power to change their forms. We find by relations how much the _Negro_ Women do besmeer the of-spring of the _Spaniard_, bringing forth neither white-skinn’d nor black, but tawny hided _Mulattos_.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01010", "bookId": 15491, "start": 747450, "end": 748466, "sha256": "b8ff7c0178f62c777865a4bd6e540d595d4735724ef213a4e705a00242aee7a0", "text": "Now, though I propound this as probable, I have not yet been so farr certify’d by Observations as to conclude any thing, either positively or negatively, concerning it. Perhaps, some more lucky diligence may please the curious Inquirer with the discovery of this, to be a truth, which I now conjecture, and may thereby give him a satisfactory account of the cause of those creatures, whose original seems yet so obscure, and may give him cause to believe, that many other animate beings, that seem also to be the mere product of putrifaction, may be innobled with a Pedigree as antient as the first creation, and farr exceed the greatest beings in their numerous Genealogies. But on the other side, if it should be found that these, or any other animate body, have no immediate similar Parent, I have in another place set down a conjectural _Hypothesis_ whereby those _Phænomena_ may likely enough be solv’d, wherein the infinite wisdom and providence of the Creator is no less rare and wonderfull.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01011", "bookId": 15491, "start": 748477, "end": 748510, "sha256": "92bf9343d426ee004c3cb7caa3f283036b2f3626f071d4807d38518427facd12", "text": "* * * * *", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01012", "bookId": 15491, "start": 748516, "end": 748556, "sha256": "25c2f7825eb3cb44c1027ed5b38d7ea23e9b96f9e9a66f3c04a1cca170cd38f5", "text": "Observ. LI. _Of the _Crab-like_ Insect._", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01013", "bookId": 15491, "start": 748560, "end": 750308, "sha256": "4123581e322e433587218d00823e8dd2a5ed4efcd0c99a2afc153879ed3bdde9", "text": "Reading one day in _Septemb._ I chanced to observe a very smal creature creep over the Book I was reading, very slowly; having a _Microscope_ by me, I observ’d it to be a creature of a very unusual form, and that not less notable; such as is describ’d in the second _Figure_ of the 33. _Scheme_. It was about the bigness of a large Mite, or somewhat longer, it had ten legs, eight of which, AAAA, were topt with very sharp claws, and were those upon which he walk’d, seeming shap’d much like those of a Crab, which in many other things also this little creature resembled; for the two other claws, BB, which were the formost of all the ten, and seem’d to grow out of his head, like the horns of other Animals, were exactly form’d in the manner of Crabs or Lobsters claws, for they were shap’d and jointed much like those represented in the _Scheme_ and the ends of them were furnish’d with a pair of claws or pincers, CC, which this little animal did open and shut at pleasure: It seem’d to make use of those two horns or claws both for feelers and holders; for in its motion it carried these aloft extended before, moving them to and fro, just as a man blindfolded would do his hands when he is fearfull of running against a wall, and if I put a hair to it, it would readily take hold of it with these claws, and seem to hold it fast. Now, though these horns seem’d to serve him for two uses, namely, for feeling and holding; yet he seem’d neither blind, having two small black spots, DD, which by the make of them, and the bright reflection from them seem’d to be his eyes, nor did it want other hands, having another pair of claws, EE, very neer plac’d to its mouth, and seem’d adjoining to it.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01014", "bookId": 15491, "start": 750312, "end": 750919, "sha256": "caf2ca208507e4d1b32efa822302ef22b0cf368005f6c29046d28b2e7ede258a", "text": "The whole body was cased over with armour-shells, as is usuall in all those kinds of _crustaceous_ creatures, especially about their bellies, and seem’d of three kinds, the head F seem’d cover’d with a kind of scaly shell, the _thorax_ with two smooth shells, or Rings, GG, and the belly with eight knobb’d ones. I could not certainly find whether it had under these last shells any wings, but I suspect the contrary; for I have not found any wing’d Insect with eight leggs, two of those leggs being always converted into wings, and, for the most part, those that have but six, have wings.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01015", "bookId": 15491, "start": 750923, "end": 752013, "sha256": "091931fb0a511161ea8429949fc942d222ace6a3ddc2544fcfa8794ca2b6e307", "text": "This creature, though I could never meet with more then one of them, and so could not make so many examinations of it as otherwise I would, I did notwithstanding, by reason of the great curiosity that appear’d to me in its shape, delineate it, to shew that, in all likelihood, Nature had crouded together into this very minute Insect, as many, and as excellent contrivances, as into the body of a very large Crab, which exceeds it in bulk, perhaps, some Millions of times; for as to all the apparent parts, there is a greater rather then a less multiplicity of parts, each legg has as many parts, and as many joints as a Crabs, nay, and as many hairs or brisles; and the like may be in all the other visible parts; and ’tis very likely, that the internal curiosities are not less excellent: It being a general rule in Nature’s proceedings, that where she begins to display any excellency, if the subject be further search’d into, it will manifest, that there is not less curiosity in those parts which our single eye cannot reach, then in those which are more obvious.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01016", "bookId": 15491, "start": 752024, "end": 752057, "sha256": "92bf9343d426ee004c3cb7caa3f283036b2f3626f071d4807d38518427facd12", "text": "* * * * *", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01017", "bookId": 15491, "start": 752063, "end": 752121, "sha256": "ab1f24d8b747432a20479b16feb891c6591ceae7f7ff632fe65a8c1f6272c5b1", "text": "Observ. LII. _Of the small Silver-colour’d _Book-worm_._", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01018", "bookId": 15491, "start": 752125, "end": 752951, "sha256": "74d96ba8b0102ac84f14905e72ea44a3cb9e4a1b2a085d69c2af6b3cbf28ffd5", "text": "As among greater Animals there are many that are scaled, both for ornament and defence, so are there not wanting such also among the lesser bodies of Insects, whereof this little creature gives us an Instance. It is a small white Silver-shining Worm or Moth, which I found much conversant among Books and Papers, and is suppos’d to be that which corrodes and eats holes through the leaves and covers; it appears to the naked eye, a small glittering Pearl-colour’d Moth, which upon the removing of Books and Papers in the Summer, is often observ’d very nimbly to scud, and pack away to some lurking cranney, where it may the better protect itself from any appearing dangers. Its head appears bigg and blunt, and its body tapers from it towards the tail, smaller and smaller, being shap’d almost like a Carret.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01019", "bookId": 15491, "start": 752955, "end": 753442, "sha256": "49268750a888760ae6353759138d82888831e991b77fe74e8f66551931bfb720", "text": "This the _Microscopical_ appearance will more plainly manifest, which exhibits, in the third _Figure_ of the 33. _Scheme_, a conical body, divided into fourteen several partitions, being the appearance of so many several shels, or shields that cover the whole body, every of these shells are again cover’d or tiled over with a multitude of thin transparent scales, which, from the multiplicity of their reflecting surfaces, make the whole Animal appear of a perfect Pearl-colour.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01020", "bookId": 15491, "start": 753446, "end": 755345, "sha256": "b667ab7ecb176f9f9e61405cbc023221195f772745e7000aaae0158cc208c6a0", "text": "Which, by the way, may hint us the reason of that so much admired appearance of those so highly esteem’d bodies, as also of the like in mother of Pearl shells, and in multitudes of other shelly Sea-substances; for they each of them consisting of an infinite number of very thin shells or laminated orbiculations, cause such multitudes of reflections, that the compositions of them together with the reflections of others that are so thin as to afford colours (of which I elsewhere give the reason) gives a very pleasant reflection of light. And that this is the true cause, seems likely, first, because all those so appearing bodies are compounded of multitudes of plated substances. And next that, by ordering any trasparent substance after this manner, the like _Phænomena_ may be produc’d; this will be made very obvious by the blowing of Glass into exceeding thin shells, and then breaking them into scales, which any lamp-worker will presently do; for a good quantity of these scales, laid in a heap together, have much the same resemblance of Pearls. Another way, not less instructive and pleasant, is a way which I have several times done, which is by working and tossing, as ’twere, a parcel of pure crystalline glass whilst it is kept glowing hot in the blown flame of a Lamp, for, by that means, that purely transparent body will be so divided into an infinite number of plates, or small strings, with interpos’d aerial plates and _fibres_, that from the multiplicity of the reflections from each of those internal surfaces, it may be drawn out into curious Pearl-like or Silver wire, which though small, will yet be opacous; the same thing I have done with a composition of red _Colophon_ and _Turpentine_, and a little Bee’s Wax, and may be done likewise with Birdlime, and such like glutinous and transparent bodies: But to return to our description.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01021", "bookId": 15491, "start": 755349, "end": 756645, "sha256": "4c2b1340b37c1ebae3ed795e343ef7d40489006a729d77a3fc5b823a0515630c", "text": "The small blunt head of this Insect was furnish’d on either side of it with a cluster of eyes, each of which seem’d to contain but a very few, in comparison of what I had observ’d the clusters of other Insects to abound with; each of these clusters were beset with a row of small brisles, much like the _cilia_ or hairs on the eye-lids, and, perhaps, they serv’d for the same purpose. It had two long horns before, which were streight, and tapering towards the top, curiously ring’d or knobb’d, and brisled much like the Marsh Weed, call’d Horse-tail, or Cats-tail, having at each knot a fring’d Girdle, as I may so call it, of smaller hairs, and several bigger and larger brisles, here and there dispers’d among them: besides these, it had two shorter horns, or feelers, which were knotted and fring’d, just as the former, but wanted brisles, and were blunt at the ends; the hinder part of the creature was terminated with three tails, in every particular resembling the two longer horns that grew out of the head: The leggs of it were scal’d and hair’d much like the rest, but are not express’d in this _Figure_, the Moth being intangled all in Glew, and so the leggs of this appear’d not through the Glass which looked perpendicularly upon the back.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01022", "bookId": 15491, "start": 756649, "end": 757135, "sha256": "cb961b28e7532b5a38736c1384addc3cf5f08f4631cd856e4dca96f670d86f94", "text": "This Animal probably feeds upon the Paper and covers of Books, and perforates in them several small round holes, finding, perhaps, a convenient nourishment in those husks of Hemp and Flax, which have pass’d through so many scourings, washings, dressings and dryings, as the parts of old Paper must necessarily have suffer’d; the digestive faculty, it seems, of these little creatures being able yet further to work upon those stubborn parts, and reduce them into another form.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01023", "bookId": 15491, "start": 757139, "end": 757844, "sha256": "2bafedaa4ce6d65bc40874806e423ac23a19beff7d0b9e2e7d26e6dc61876343", "text": "And indeed, when I consider what a heap of Saw-dust or chips this little creature (which is one of the teeth of Time) conveys into its intrals, I cannot chuse but remember and admire the excellent contrivance of Nature, in placing in Animals such a fire, as is continually nourished and supply’d by the materials convey’d into the stomach, and _fomented_ by the bellows of the lungs; and in so contriving the most admirable fabrick of Animals, as to make the very spending and wasting of that fire, to be instrumental to the procuring and collecting more materials to augment and cherish it self, which indeed seems to be the principal end of all the contrivances observable in bruit Animals.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01024", "bookId": 15491, "start": 757855, "end": 757888, "sha256": "92bf9343d426ee004c3cb7caa3f283036b2f3626f071d4807d38518427facd12", "text": "* * * * *", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01025", "bookId": 15491, "start": 757894, "end": 757922, "sha256": "3d7f32e6b841cf03299656d1ca2d1768dadde153bd9eeecdb12725e92882fe38", "text": "Observ. LIII. _Of a _Flea_._", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01026", "bookId": 15491, "start": 757926, "end": 758043, "sha256": "5f571fb6d9ba07bcaa8321238683cbe7d25df88fb22b358bc18d964cd3d9c689", "text": "The strength and beauty of this small creature, had it no other relation at all to man, would deserve a description.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01027", "bookId": 15491, "start": 758047, "end": 759044, "sha256": "6a1500d3d31b46376477eb0d5cc0aaf79d2ba3542bc4a440116c8aa0182cabab", "text": "For its strength, the _Microscope_ is able to make no greater discoveries of it then the naked eye, but onely the curious contrivance of its leggs and joints, for the exerting that strength, is very plainly manifested, such as no other creature, I have yet observ’d, has any thing like it; for the joints of it are so adapted, that he can, as ’twere, fold them short one within another, and suddenly stretch, or spring them out to their whole length, that is, of the fore-leggs, the part A, of the 34. _Scheme_, lies within B, and B within C, parallel to, or side by side each other; but the parts of the two next, lie quite contrary, that is, D without E, and E without F, but parallel also; but the parts of the hinder leggs, G, H and I, bend one within another, like the parts of a double jointed Ruler, or like the foot, legg and thigh of a man; these six leggs he clitches up altogether, and when he leaps, springs them all out, and thereby exerts his whole strength at once.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01028", "bookId": 15491, "start": 759048, "end": 760680, "sha256": "724d292ecc7bcb023241792ff48874532b18912abd65d67d8400d53a2bf39525", "text": "But, as for the beauty of it, the _Microscope_ manifests it to be all over adorn’d with a curiously polish’d suit of _sable_ Armour, neatly jointed, and beset with multitudes of sharp pinns, shap’d almost like Porcupine’s Quills, or bright conical Steel-bodkins; the head is on either side beautify’d with a quick and round black eye K, behind each of which also appears a small cavity, L, in which he seems to move to and fro a certain thin film beset with many small transparent hairs, which probably may be his ears; in the forepart of his head, between the two fore-leggs, he has two small long jointed feelers, or rather smellers, MM, which have four joints, and are hairy, like those of several other creatures; between these, it has a small _proboscis_, or _probe_, NNO, that seems to consist of a tube NN, and a tongue or sucker O, which I have perceiv’d him to slip in and out. Besides these, it has also two chaps or biters PP, which are somewhat like those of an Ant, but I could not perceive them tooth’d; these were shap’d very like the blades of a pair of round top’d Scizers, and were opened and shut just after the same manner; with these Instruments does this little busie Creature bite and pierce the skin, and suck out the blood of an Animal, leaving the skin inflamed with a small round red spot. These parts are very difficult to be discovered, because, for the most part, they lye covered between the fore-legs. There are many other particulars, which, being more obvious, and affording no great matter of information, I shall pass by, and refer the Reader to the Figure.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01029", "bookId": 15491, "start": 760691, "end": 760724, "sha256": "92bf9343d426ee004c3cb7caa3f283036b2f3626f071d4807d38518427facd12", "text": "* * * * *", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01030", "bookId": 15491, "start": 760730, "end": 760756, "sha256": "b0995aad22383b02efca30f57b4237f71488f697aa98466dfb434b2f7a25b84a", "text": "Observ. LIV. _Of a Louse._", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01031", "bookId": 15491, "start": 760760, "end": 765767, "sha256": "99591ed37cc601008a7f46736bc44e6f61f3ae2f02c70224352b75add8afb09d", "text": "This is a Creature so officious, that ’twill be known to every one at one time or other, so busie, and so impudent, that it will be intruding it self in every ones company, and so proud and aspiring withall, that it fears not to trample on the best, and affects nothing so much as a Crown; feeds and lives very high, and that makes it so saucy, as to pull any one by the ears that comes in its way, and will never be quiet till it has drawn blood: it is troubled at nothing so much as at a man that scratches his head, as knowing that man is plotting and contriving some mischief against it, and that makes it oftentime sculk into some meaner and lower place, and run behind a mans back, though it go very much against the hair; which ill conditions of it having made it better known then trusted, would exempt me from making any further description of it, did not my faithful _Mercury_, my _Microscope_, bring me other information of it. For this has discovered to me, by means of a very bright light cast on it, that it is a Creature of a very odd shape; it has a head shap’d like that exprest in 35. _Scheme_ marked with A, which seems almost Conical, but is a little flatted on the upper and under sides, at the biggest part of which, on either side behind the head (as it were, being the place where other Creatures ears stand) are placed its two black shining goggle eyes BB, looking backwards, and fenced round with several small _cilia_, or hairs that incompass it, so that it seems this Creature has no very good foresight: It does not seem to have any eye-lids, and therefore perhaps its eyes were so placed, that it might the better cleanse them with its fore-legs; and perhaps this may be the reason, why they so much avoid and run from the light behind them, for being made to live in the shady and dark recesses of the hair, and thence probably their eye having a great aperture, the open and clear light, especially that of the Sun, must needs very much offend them; to secure these eyes from receiving any injury from the hairs through which it passes, it has two horns that grow before it, in the place where one would have thought the eyes should be; each of these CC hath four joynts, which are fringed, as ’twere, with small brisles, from which to the tip of its snout D, the head seems very round and tapering, ending in a very sharp nose D, which seems to have a small hole, and to be the passage through which he sucks the blood. Now whereas if it be plac’d on its back, with its belly upwards, as it is in the 35. _Scheme_, it seems in several Positions to have a resemblance of chaps, or jaws, as is represented in the Figure by EE, yet in other postures those dark strokes disappear; and having kept several of them in a box for two or three dayes, so that for all that time they had nothing to feed on, I found, upon letting one creep on my hand, that it immediately fell to sucking, and did neither seem to thrust its nose very deep into the skin, nor to open any kind of mouth, but I could plainly perceive a small current of blood, which came directly from its snout, and past into its belly; and about A there seem’d a contrivance, somewhat resembling a Pump, pair of Bellows, or Heart, for by a very swift _systole_ and _diastole_ the blood seem’d drawn from the nose, and forced into the body. It did not seem at all, though I viewed it a good while as it was sucking, to thrust more of its nose into the skin then the very snout D, nor did it cause the least discernable pain, and yet the blood seem’d to run through its head very quick and freely, so that it seems there is no part of the skin but the blood is dispers’d into, nay, even into the _cuticula_; for had it thrust its whole nose in from D to CC, it would not have amounted to the supposed thickness of that _tegument_, the length of the nose being not more then a three hundredth part of an inch. It has six legs, covered with a very transparent shell, and joynted exactly like a Crab’s, or Lobster’s; each leg is divided into six parts by these joynts, and those have here and there several small hairs; and at the end of each leg it has two claws, very properly adapted for its peculiar use, being thereby inabled to walk very securely both on the skin and hair; and indeed this contrivance of the feet is very curious, and could not be made more commodiously and compendiously, for performing both these requisite motions, of walking and climbing up the hair of a mans head, then it is: for, by having the lesser claw (a) set so much short of the bigger (b) when it walks on the skin the shorter touches not, and then the feet are the same with those of a Mite, and several other small Insects, but by means of the small joynts of the longer claw it can bend it round, and so with both claws take hold of a hair, in the manner represented in the Figure, the long transparent Cylinder FFF, being a Man’s hair held by it.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01032", "bookId": 15491, "start": 765771, "end": 766468, "sha256": "535187b2f8c31ff401b53040b209c992efd9bdd5e33eee38100c7265cb0716e7", "text": "The _Thorax_ seem’d cas’d with another kind of substance then the belly, namely, with a thin transparent horny substance, which upon the fasting of the Creature did not grow flaccid; through this I could plainly see the blood, suck’d from my hand, to be variously distributed, and mov’d to and fro; and about G there seem’d a pretty big white substance, which seem’d to be moved within its _thorax_; besides, there appear’d very many small milk-white vessels, which crost over the breast between the legs, out of which, on either side, were many small branchings, these seem’d to be the veins and arteries, for that which is analogus to blood in all Insects is milk-white.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01033", "bookId": 15491, "start": 766472, "end": 768358, "sha256": "69500fb4ee4c166103b09edb6780a25fbb0e0f1beaddb5d1ac2ae4cbb803a3d8", "text": "The belly is covered with a transparent substance likewise, but more resembling a skin then a shell, for ’tis grain’d all over the belly just like the skin in the palms of a man’s hand, and when the belly is empty, grows very flaccid and wrinkled; at the upper end of this is placed the stomach HH, and perhaps also the white spot II may be the liver or _pancreas_, which, by the _peristalick_ motion of the guts, is a little mov’d to and fro, not with a _systole_ and _diastole_, but rather with a thronging or justling motion. Viewing one of these Creatures, after it had fasted two dayes, all the hinder part was lank and flaccid, and the white spot II hardly mov’d, most of the white branchings disappear’d, and most also of the redness or sucked blood in the guts, the _peristaltick_ motion of which was scarce discernable; but upon the suffering it to suck, it presently fill’d the skin of the belly, and of the six scolop’d embosments on either side, as full as it could be stuft, the stomach and guts were as full as they could hold; the _peristaltick_ motion of the gut grew quick, and the justling motion of II accordingly; multitudes of milk-white vessels seem’d quickly filled, and turgid, which were perhaps the veins and arteries and the Creature was so greedy, that though it could not contain more, yet it continued sucking as fast as ever, and as fast emptying it self behind: the digestion of this Creature must needs be very quick, for though I perceiv’d the blood thicker and blacker when suck’d, yet, when in the guts, it was of a very lovely ruby colour, and that part of it, which was digested into the veins, seemed white; whence it appears, that a further digestion of blood may make it milk, at least of a resembling colour: What is else observable in the figure of this Creature, may be seen by the 35. _Scheme_.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01034", "bookId": 15491, "start": 768369, "end": 768402, "sha256": "92bf9343d426ee004c3cb7caa3f283036b2f3626f071d4807d38518427facd12", "text": "* * * * *", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01035", "bookId": 15491, "start": 768408, "end": 768433, "sha256": "752c64c86ce3cd5fbb395176b6951de54c035d693f2876cfe2002d44a0faf38d", "text": "Observ. LV. _Of _Mites_._", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01036", "bookId": 15491, "start": 768437, "end": 769114, "sha256": "8a21c8ee2744791fb6949454850c31fbeeebf20bdcfe9990f8db5efd8ead881e", "text": "The least of _Reptiles_ I have hitherto met with, is a Mite, a Creature whereof there are some so very small, that the sharpest sight, unassisted with Glasses, is not able to discern them, though, being white of themselves, they move on a black and smooth surface; and the Eggs, out of which these Creatures seem to be hatch’d, are yet smaller, those being usually not above a four or five hundredth part of a well grown Mite, and those well grown Mites not much above one hundredth of an inch in thickness; so that according to this reckoning there may be no less then a million of well grown Mites contain’d in a cubick inch, and five hundred times as many Eggs.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01037", "bookId": 15491, "start": 769118, "end": 769922, "sha256": "9df4701528ed89c65e3c36be57dc932e3528f81a1baaa2b4a8ac2d3ecb49f442", "text": "Notwithstanding which minuteness a good _Microscope_ discovers those small movable specks to be very prettily shap’d Insects, each of them furnished with eight well shap’d and proportion’d legs, which are each of them joynted or bendable in eight several places, or joynts, each of which is covered, for the most part, with a very transparent shell, and the lower end of the shell of each joynt is fringed with several small hairs; the contrivance of the joynts seems the very same with that of Crabs and Lobsters legs, and like those also, they are each of them terminated with a very sharp claw or point; four of these legs are so placed, that they seem to draw forwards, the other four are placed in a quite contrary position, thereby to keep the body backwards when there is occasion.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01038", "bookId": 15491, "start": 769926, "end": 771380, "sha256": "ea64e5261c92111d59d8d7a95f5b46fcdad90be3a0d73a0d536b9698ca192b09", "text": "[15]The body, as in other larger Insects, consists of three regions or parts; the hinder or belly A, seems covered with one intire shell, the middle, or chest, seems divided into two shells BC. which running one within the other, the Mite is able to shrink in and thrust out as it finds occasion, as it can also the snout D. The whole body is pretty transparent, so that being look’d on against the light, divers motions within its body may be perceived; as also all the parts are much more plainly delineable, then in other postures, to the light. The shell, especially that which covers the back, is curiously polisht, so that ’tis easie to see, as in a _convex_ Looking-glass, or _foliated_ Glass-ball, the picture of all the objects round about; up and down, in several parts of its body, it has several small long white hairs growing out of its shell, which are often longer then the whole body, and are represented too short in the first and second Figures; they seem all pretty straight and pliable, save only two upon the forepart of its body, which seem to be the horns, as may be seen in the Figures; the first whereof is a prospect of a smaller sort of Mites (which are usually more plump) as it was _passant_ to and fro; the second is the prospect of one fixt on its tail (by means of a little mouth-glew rub’d on the object plate) exhibiting the manner of the growing of the legs, together with their several joynts.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01039", "bookId": 15491, "start": 771384, "end": 772146, "sha256": "c81eb4f5c7fce1376b846bf7ec4cf8ab50f4b0dcdc3fb4735a777c8692529017", "text": "This Creature is very much diversify’d in shape, colour, and divers other properties, according to the nature of the substance out of which it seems to be ingendred and nourished, being in one substance more long, in another more round, in some more hairy, in others more smooth, in this nimble, in that slow, here pale and whiter, there browner, blacker, more transparent, &c. I have observed it to be resident almost on all kinds of substances that are mouldy, or putrifying, and have seen it very nimbly meshing through the thickets of mould, and sometimes to lye _dormant_ underneath them; and ’tis not unlikely, but that it may feed on that vegetating substance, _spontaneous Vegetables_ seeming a food proper enough for _spontaneous Animals_,", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01040", "bookId": 15491, "start": 772150, "end": 773428, "sha256": "478845ee82b03eae3cbe1cc01c7aad48457e3789caa675006a2679243b9195a6", "text": "But whether indeed this Creature, or any other, be such or not, I cannot positively, from any Experiment, or Observation, I have yet made, determine. But, as I formerly hinted, it seems probable, that some kind of wandring Mite may sow, as ’twere, the first seeds, or lay the first eggs, in those places, which Nature has instructed them to know convenient for the hatching and nourishing their young; and though perhaps the prime Parent might be of a shape very differing from what the offspring, after a little while, by reason of the substance they feed on, or the Region (as ’twere) they inhabite; yet perhaps even one of these alter’d progeny, wandering again from its native soil, and lighting on by chance the same place from whence its prime Parent came, and there settling, and planting, may produce a generation of Mites of the same shapes and properties with the first wandring Mite: And from some such accidents as these, I am very apt to think, the most sorts of Animals, generally accounted _spontaneous_, have their _origination_, and all those various sorts of Mites, that are to be met with up and down in divers putrifying substances, may perhaps be all of the same kind, and have sprung from one and the same sort of Mites at the first.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01041", "bookId": 15491, "start": 773439, "end": 773472, "sha256": "92bf9343d426ee004c3cb7caa3f283036b2f3626f071d4807d38518427facd12", "text": "* * * * *", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01042", "bookId": 15491, "start": 773478, "end": 773533, "sha256": "3b471aa93ac208d8be3928107218ef0fe8bf8aa1cdddb22eb5e2d642e8f567da", "text": "Observ. LVI. _Of a small Creature hatch’d on a Vine._", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01043", "bookId": 15491, "start": 773537, "end": 775461, "sha256": "d7448b87b2171eab8844b81ec6380d3ed43fb8fd174951d5f1b1541cdb29aa2e", "text": "There is, almost all the Spring and Summer time, a certain small, round, white Cobweb, as ’twere, about the bigness of a Pea, which sticks very close and fast to the stocks of Vines nayl’d against a warm wall: being attentively viewed, they seem cover’d, upon the upper side of them, with a small husk, not unlike the scale, or shell of a Wood-louse, or Hog-louse, a small Insect usually found about rotten wood, which upon touching presently rouls it self into the form of a peppercorn: Separating several of these from the stock, I found them, with my _Microscope_, to consist of a shell, which now seemed more likely to be the husk of one of these Insects: And the fur seem’d a kind of cobweb, consisting of abundance of small filaments, or sleaves of cobwebs. In the midst of this, if they were not hatch’d, and run away before, the time of which hatching was usually about the latter end of _June_, or beginning of _July_, I have often found abundance of small brown Eggs, such as A and B in the second Figure of the 36. _Scheme_, much about the bigness of Mites Eggs; and at other times, multitudes of small Insects, shaped exactly like that in the third Figure marked with X. Its head large, almost half the bigness of its body, which is usual in the _fœtus_ of most Creatures. It had two small black eyes _aa_, and two small long joynted and brisled horns _bb_. The hinder part of its body seem’d to consist of nine scales, and the last ended in a forked tayl, much like that of a _Cutio_, or Wood-louse, out of which grew two long hairs; they ran to and fro very swiftly, and were much of the bigness of a common Mite, but some of them less: The longest of them seem’d not the hundredth part of an inch, and the Eggs usually not above half as much. They seemed to have six legs, which were not visible in this I have here delineated, by reason they were drawn under its body.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01044", "bookId": 15491, "start": 775465, "end": 776104, "sha256": "509d9697612ad573da1aed8f9d6c0df03d864c350ab354c9158bcb1f13339a04", "text": "If these Minute creatures were _Wood-lice_ (as indeed from their own shape and from the frame, the skin, or shell, that grows on them, one may with great probability ghess) it affords us an Instance, whereof perhaps there are not many like in Nature, and that is, of the prodigious increase of these Creatures, after they are hatch’d and run about; for a common Wood-louse, of about half an inch long, is no less then a hundred and twenty five thousand times bigger then one of these, which though indeed it seems very strange, yet I have observed the young ones of some Spiders have almost kept the same proportion to their Dam.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01045", "bookId": 15491, "start": 776108, "end": 776921, "sha256": "6fb4dc3d5b78319829b83fe293a3f2cba5982f385094b33f2308ab73e7c65953", "text": "This, methinks, if it be so, does in the next place hint a Quæry, which may perhaps deserve a little further examination: And that is, Whether there be not many of those minute Creatures, such as Mites, and the like, which, though they are commonly thought of otherwise, are only the _pully_, or young ones, of much bigger Insects, and not the generating, or parent _Insect_, that has layd those Eggs; for having many times observ’d those Eggs, which usually are found in great abundance where Mites are found, it seems something strange, that so small an Animal should have an Egg so big in proportion to its body. Though on the other side, I must confess, that having kept divers of those Mites inclosed in a box for a good while, I did not find them very much augmented beyond their usual bigness.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01046", "bookId": 15491, "start": 776925, "end": 777867, "sha256": "766f7960673e8862a89cf885f8ab63397a483cfe452efe4b31dddb81e75704c6", "text": "What the husk and cobweb of this little white substance should be, I cannot imagine, unless it be, that the old one, when impregnated with Eggs, should there stay, and fix it self on the Vine, and dye, and all the body by degrees should rot, save only the husk, and the Eggs in the body: And the heat, or fire, as it were, of the approaching Sun-beams should vivifie those Relicts of the corrupted Parent, and out of the ashes, as ’twere, (as it is fabled of the _Phœnix_) should raise a new _offspring_ for the perpetuation of the _Species_. Nor will the cobweb, as it were, in which these Eggs are inclos’d, make much against this Conjecture; for we may, by those cobwebs that are carried up and down the Air after a Fog (which with my _Microscope_ I have discovered to be made up of an infinite company of small filaments or threads) learn, that such a texture of body may be otherwise made then by the spinning of a Worm.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01047", "bookId": 15491, "start": 777878, "end": 777911, "sha256": "92bf9343d426ee004c3cb7caa3f283036b2f3626f071d4807d38518427facd12", "text": "* * * * *", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01048", "bookId": 15491, "start": 777917, "end": 777958, "sha256": "8cb9826687ea3802cb551daad679103f4a4f3183ebc8c2f97527ecaf835e1742", "text": "Observ. LVII. _Of the _Eels_ in Vinegar._", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01049", "bookId": 15491, "start": 777962, "end": 778699, "sha256": "c1ad11a3f8ba56c28fedd827ff445da92f0c23e3c94a5d54e4956332f3c7f216", "text": "Of these small Eels, which are to be found in divers sorts of Vinegar, I have little to add besides their Picture, which you may find drawn in the third Figure of the 25. _Scheme_: That is, they were shaped much like an Eel, save only that their nose A, (which was a little more opacous then the rest of their body) was a little sharper, and longer, in proportion to their body, and the wrigling motion of their body seem’d to be onely upwards and downwards, whereas that of Eels is onely side-wayes: They seem’d to have a more opacous part about B, which might, perhaps, be their Gills; it seeming always the same proportionate distant from their nose, from which, to the tip of their tail, C, their body seem’d to taper.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01050", "bookId": 15491, "start": 778703, "end": 778997, "sha256": "25d517bc214197740dc9e3b5561f38a9dd398e1069964082040efec2000e46cb", "text": "Taking several of these out of their Pond of Vinegar, by the net of a small piece of filtring Paper, and laying them on a black smooth Glass plate, I found that they could wriggle and winde their body, as much almost as a Snake, which made me doubt, whether they were a kind of Eal or Leech.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01051", "bookId": 15491, "start": 779001, "end": 779420, "sha256": "0bd311e3fd07546e3741b05f2f223fa53b72aeedf14b4c0fab30b07ad7b98427", "text": "I shall add no other observations made on this minute Animal, being prevented herein by many excellent ones already publish’d by the ingenious, Doctor _Power_, among his _Microscopical_ Observations, save onely that a quantity of Vinegar repleat with them being included in a small Viol, and stop’d very close from the ambient air, all the included Worms in a very short time died, as if they had been stifled.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01052", "bookId": 15491, "start": 779424, "end": 780766, "sha256": "e2f36b8b11ff6e9b4f5452bbfd1f46247c751525379df588bd988985724ec202", "text": "And that their motion seems (contrary to what we may observe in the motion of all other Infects) exceeding slow. But the reason of it seems plain, for being to move to and fro after that manner which they do, by waving onely, or wrigling their body; the tenacity, or glutinousness, and the density or resistance of the fluid _medium_ becomes so exceeding sensible to their extremely minute bodies, that it is to me indeed a greater wonder that they move them so fast as they do, then that they move them no faster. For what a vastly greater proportion have they of their superficies to their bulk, then Eels or other larger Fishes, and next, the tenacity and density of the liquor being much the same to be moved, both by the one and the other, the resistance or impediment thence arising to the motions made through it, must be almost infinitely greater to the small one then to the great. This we find experimentally verify’d in the Air, which though a _medium_ a thousand times more rarify’d then the water, the resistance of it to motions made through it, is yet so sensible to very minute bodies, that a Down-feather (the least of whose parts seem yet bigger then these Eels, and many of them almost incomparably bigger, such as the quill and stalk) is suspended by it, and carried to and fro as if it had no weight.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01053", "bookId": 15491, "start": 780777, "end": 780810, "sha256": "92bf9343d426ee004c3cb7caa3f283036b2f3626f071d4807d38518427facd12", "text": "* * * * *", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01054", "bookId": 15491, "start": 780816, "end": 781036, "sha256": "3cfd98dc101ffc1d23337e6f76a930c3b2127da33c419e222d8af80fa0d96190", "text": "Observ. LVIII. _Of a new Property in the _Air_, and several other transparent _Mediums_ nam’d _Inflection_, whereby very many considerable _Phænomena_ are attempted to be solv’d, and divers other uses are hinted._", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01055", "bookId": 15491, "start": 781040, "end": 784654, "sha256": "d10d49f8a43a627f02233329b3b70e5c94b40ac8ebd1abf4a735dbfa2fd259d0", "text": "Since the Invention (and perfecting in some measure) of _Telescopes_, it has been observ’d by several, that the Sun and Moon neer the Horizon, are disfigur’d (losing that exactly-smooth terminating circular limb, which they are observ’d to have when situated neerer the Zenith) and are bounded with an edge every way (especially upon the right and left sides) ragged and indented like a Saw: which inequality of their limbs, I have further observ’d, not to remain always the same, but to be continually chang’d by a kind of fluctuating motion, not unlike that of the waves of the Sea, so as that part of the limb, which was but even now nick’d or indented in, is now protuberant, and will presently be sinking again; neither is this all but the whole body of the Luminaries, do in the _Telescope_, seem to be depress’d and flatted, the upper, and more especially the under side appearing neerer to the middle then really they are, and the right and left appearing more remote: whence the whole _Area_ seems to be terminated by a kind of Oval. It is further observ’d, that the body, for the most part, appears red, or of some colour approaching neer unto it, as some kind of yellow; and this I have always mark’d, that the more the limb is flatted or ovalled, the more red does the body appear, though not always the contrary. It is further observable, that both fix’d Stars and Planets, the neerer they appear to the Horizon, the more red and dull they look, and the more they are observ’d to twinkle; in so much, that I have seen the Dog-starr to vibrate so strong and bright a radiation of light, as almost to dazle my eyes, and presently, almost to disappear. It is also observable, that those bright scintillations neer the Horizon, are not by much so quick and sudden in their consecutions of one another, as the nimbler twinklings of Stars neerer the Zenith. This is also notable, that the Starrs neer the Horizon, are twinkled with several colours; so as sometimes to appear red, sometimes more yellow, and sometimes blue, and this when the Starr is a pretty way elevated above the Horizon. I have further, very often seen some of the small Starrs of the fifth or sixth magnitude, at certain times to disappear for a small moment of time, and again appear more conspicuous, and with a greater luster. I have several times, with my naked eye, seen many smaller Starrs, such as may be call’d of the seventh or eighth magnitude to appear for a short space, and then vanish, which, by directing a small _Telescope_ towards that part they appear’d and disappear’d in; I could presently find to be indeed small Starrs so situate, as I had seen them with my naked eye, and to appear twinkling like the ordinary visible Stars; nay, in examining some very notable parts of the Heaven, with a three foot Tube, me thought I now and then, in several parts of the constellation, could perceive little twinklings of Starrs, making a very short kind of apparition, and presently vanishing, but noting diligently the places where they thus seem’d to play at boe-peep, I made use of a very good twelve foot Tube, and with that it was not uneasie to see those, and several other degrees of smaller Starrs, and some smaller yet, that seem’d again to appear and disappear, and these also by giving the same Object-glass a much bigger aperture, I could plainly and constantly see appear in their former places; so that I have observ’d some twelve several magnitudes of Starrs less then those of the six magnitudes commonly recounted in the Globes.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01056", "bookId": 15491, "start": 784658, "end": 785202, "sha256": "2ffa076a87057b5bc4c56169478594e78d0987ef8245d7f78194e7020312bd57", "text": "It has been observ’d and confirm’d by the accuratest Observations of the best of our modern Astronomers, that all the Luminous bodies appear above the Horizon, when they really are below it. So that the Sun and Moon have both been seen above the Horizon, whil’st the Moon has been in an Eclipse. I shall not here instance in the great refractions, that the tops of high mountains, seen at a distance, have been found to have; all which seem to argue the Horizontal refraction, much greater then it is hitherto generally believ’d.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01057", "bookId": 15491, "start": 785206, "end": 786738, "sha256": "f4fc5b8433ba027c5403efdfe09281b125cbab97438b99d8dfbf885d23f18b1f", "text": "I have further taken notice, that not onely the Sun, Moon and Starrs, and high tops of mountains have suffer’d these kinds of refraction, but Trees, and several bright Objects on the ground: I have often taken notice of the twinkling of the reflections of the Sun from a Glass-window at a good distance, and of a Candle in the night, but that is not so conspicuous, and in observing the setting Sun, I have often taken notice of the tremulation of the Trees and Bushes, as well as of the edges of the Sun. Divers of these _Phænomena_ have been taken notice of by several, who have given several reasons of them, but I have not yet met with any altogether satisfactory, though some of their conjectures have been partly true, but partly also false. Setting my self therfore upon the inquiry of these _Phænomena_, I first endeavour’d to be very diligent in taking notice of the several particulars and circumstances observable in them; and next, in making divers particular Experiments, that might cleer some doubts, and serve to determine, confirm, and illustrate the true and adæquate cause of each; and upon the whole, I find much reason to think, that the true cause of all these _Phænomena_ is from the _inflection_, or _multiplicate refraction_ of those Rays of light within the body of the _Atmosphere_, and that it does not proceed from a _refraction_ caus’d by any terminating _superficies_ of the Air above, nor from any such exactly defin’d _superficies_ within the body of the _Atmosphere_.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01058", "bookId": 15491, "start": 786742, "end": 786798, "sha256": "a65afc711b3296e4dbaed1fa64b366a599a03e1f8d87b634f30c1d6bac7caa57", "text": "This Conclusion is grounded upon these two Propositions:", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01059", "bookId": 15491, "start": 786802, "end": 787034, "sha256": "2bfe155b2a47985b2d55ce446b4e9b3d88f396074e15c858b0e21c8d8bf14282", "text": "First, that a _medium_, whose parts are unequally _dense_, and mov’d by various motions and transpositions as to one another, will produce all these visible effects upon the Rays of light, without any other _coefficient_ cause.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01060", "bookId": 15491, "start": 787038, "end": 787241, "sha256": "50ef91f087bf858bebccfd63960798e6fd6748f131026cf245ca477580d47298", "text": "Secondly, that there is in the Air or _Atmosphere_ such a variety in the constituent parts of it, both as to their _density_ and _rarity_, and as to their divers mutations and positions one to another.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01061", "bookId": 15491, "start": 787245, "end": 787751, "sha256": "37fc255885910e0e463b8b49b0e57912e3c148cc9a118504051cb3f02ec39621", "text": "By _Density_ and _Rarity_, I understand a property of a transparent body, that does either more or less refract a Ray of light (coming obliquely upon its superficies out of a third _medium_) toward its perpendicular: As I call Glass a more dense body then Water, and Water a more rare body then Glass, because of the refractions (more or less deflecting towards the perpendicular) that are made in them, of a Ray of light out of the Air that has the same inclination upon either of their superficies.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01062", "bookId": 15491, "start": 787755, "end": 788327, "sha256": "0bc530dc28426f6d0e3a636e5a234db556e13e58aaf3410f5e06fcc015603626", "text": "So as to the business of Refraction, spirit of Wine is a more _dense_ body then Water, it having been found by an accurate Instrument that measures the angles of Refractions to Minutes that for the same refracted angle of 30°.00′. in both those _Mediums_, the angle of incidence in Water was but 41°.35′. but the angle of the incidence in the trial with spirit of Wine was 42°.45′. But as to gravity, Water is a more _dense_ body then spirit of Wine, for the proportion of the same Water, to the same very well rectify’d spirit of Wine was, as 21. to 19.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01063", "bookId": 15491, "start": 788331, "end": 788699, "sha256": "86f6b8ad09103c0011a09c9b6ad47962e718839548d3faecce6851cb078e2bae", "text": "So as to Refraction, Water is more Dense then Ice; for I have found by a most certain Experiment, which I exhibited before divers illustrious Persons of the _Royal Society_, that the Refraction of Water was greater then that of Ice, though some considerable Authors have affirm’d the contrary, and though the Ice be a very hard, and the Water a very fluid body.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01064", "bookId": 15491, "start": 788703, "end": 790302, "sha256": "a57b127fda70068d6f66dce420dda73e228cbd29f4614cc3eedc568052de10c7", "text": "That the former of the two preceding Propositions is true, may be manifested by several Experiments; As first, if you take any two liquors differing from one another in density, but yet such as will readily mix: as Salt Water, or Brine, & Fresh; almost any kind of Salt dissolv’d in Water, and filtrated, so that it be cleer, spirit of Wine and Water; nay, spirit of Wine, and spirit of Wine, one more highly rectify’d then the other, and very many other liquors; if (I say) you take any two of these liquors, and mixing them in a Glass Viol, against one side of which you have fix’d or glued a small round piece of Paper, and shaking them well together (so that the parts of them may be somewhat disturb’d and move up and down) you endeavour to see that round piece of Paper through the body of the liquors, you shall plainly perceive the Figure to wave, and to be indented much after the same manner as the limb of the Sun through a _Telescope_ seems to be, save onely that the mutations here, are much quicker. And if, in steed of this bigger Circle, you take a very small spot, and fasten and view it as the former, you will find it to appear much like the twinkling of the Starrs, though much quicker: which two _Phænomena_, (for I shall take notice of no more at present, though I could instance in multitudes of others) must necessarily be caus’d by an _inflection_ of the Rays within the terminating superficies of the compounded _medium_, since the surfaces of the transparent body through which the Rays pass to the eye, are not at all altered or chang’d.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01065", "bookId": 15491, "start": 790306, "end": 791441, "sha256": "ec6bf65f3998a88dae8f9488bd034578b0243c5376f7446e3edf86c7a8b4b32e", "text": "This _inflection_ (if I may so call it) I imagine to be nothing else, but a _multiplicate refraction_, caused by the unequal _density_ of the constituent parts of the _medium_, whereby the motion, action or progress of the Ray of light is hindred from proceeding in a streight line, and _inflected_ or _deflected_ by a _curve_. Now, that it is a _curve_ line is manifest by this Experiment: I took a Box, such as ADGE, in the first _Figure_ of the 37. _Scheme_, whose sides ABCD, and EFGH, were made of two smooth flat plates of Glass, then filling it half full with a very strong solution of Salt, I filled the other half with very fair fresh water, then exposing the opacous side, DHGC, to the Sun, I observ’d both the _refraction_ and _inflection_ of the Sun beams, ID & KH, and marking as exactly as I could, the points, P, N, O, M, by which the Ray, KH, passed through the compounded _medium_, I found them to be in a _curve_ line; for the parts of the _medium_ being continually more dense the neerer they were to the bottom, the Ray _pf_ was continually more and more deflected downwards from the streight line.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01066", "bookId": 15491, "start": 791445, "end": 792262, "sha256": "f309395bdd146ddd56625372e317973837543ace29c2a370ca32fc673a3f82aa", "text": "This Inflection may be mechanically explained, either by Monsieur _Des Cartes_ principles by conceiving the Globuls of the third Element to find less and less resistance against that side of them which is downwards, or by a way, which I have further explicated in the Inquisition about Colours, to be from an obliquation of the pulse of light, whence the under part is continually promoted, and consequently refracted towards the perpendicular, which cuts the Orbs at right angles. What the particular Figure of the _Curve line_, describ’d by this way of light, is, I shall not now stand to examine, especially since there may be so many sorts of it as there may be varieties of the Positions of the _intermediate_ degrees of _density_ and _rarity_ between the bottom and the top of the inflecting Medium.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01067", "bookId": 15491, "start": 792266, "end": 792755, "sha256": "be9fdb0a9e28ca9f99ee981edd36b8a809ebfef1b4d5a2e6cb07e13296ac78d1", "text": "I could produce many more Examples and Experiments, to illustrate and prove this first Proposition, _viz._ that there is such a constitution of some bodies as will cause inflection. As not to mention those I have observ’d in _Horn_, _Tortoise-Shell_, _transparent Gums_, and _resinous Substances_: The _veins_ of Glass, nay, of melted _Crystal_, found, and much complained of by Glass-grinders, and others, might sufficiently demonstrate the truth of it to any diligent Observator.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01068", "bookId": 15491, "start": 792759, "end": 793186, "sha256": "9d158d36e8658901ba08bdc367a52e1f51c6749959750fd64e0fb44442baceb4", "text": "But that, I presume, I have by this Example given proof sufficient (_viz. ocular demonstration_) to evince, that there is such a modulation, or bending of the rayes of light, as I have call’d _inflection_, differing both from _reflection_, and _refraction_ (since they are both made in the superficies, this only in the middle); and likewise, that this is able or sufficient to produce the effects I have ascribed to it.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01069", "bookId": 15491, "start": 793190, "end": 793405, "sha256": "c36bc162223e6f3d46b081ee23c5a7e77b37010ca2c8ab63ce0bc0bfc712da5b", "text": "It remains therefore to shew, that there is such a property in the Air, and that it is sufficient to produce all the above mentioned _Phænomena_, and therefore may be the principal, if not the only cause of them.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01070", "bookId": 15491, "start": 793409, "end": 793903, "sha256": "edd9e8873c5dc103808efb47eeac7412a26fd291e1d35dcac935176cf5de2592", "text": "First, That there is such a property, may be proved from this, that the parts of the Air are some of them more condens’d, others more rarified, either by the differing heat, or differing pressure it sustains, or by the somewhat heterogeneous vapours interspers’d through it. For as the Air is more or less rarified, so does it more or less refract a ray of light (that comes out of a denser medium) from the perpendicular. This you may find true, if you make tryal of this Experiment.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01071", "bookId": 15491, "start": 793907, "end": 794419, "sha256": "c224d13a0f39dba15bd2d92f85b7c8f4382d6b3b04507d239de1be4908bb9665", "text": "Take a small Glass-bubble, made in the form of that in the second Figure of the 37. _Scheme_, and by heating the Glass very hot, and thereby very much rarifying the included Air, or, which is better, by rarifying a small quantity of water, included in it, into vapours, which will expel the most part, if not all the Air, and then sealing up the small neck of it, and letting it cool, you may find, if you place it in a convenient Instrument, that there will be a manifest difference, as to the refraction.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01072", "bookId": 15491, "start": 794423, "end": 795631, "sha256": "448a2b8f85bef1e858d601ead6be8600812c70416f76ab02d9d26c4c3d8227f7", "text": "As if in this second Figure you suppose A to represent a small sight or hole, through which the eye looks upon an object, as C, through the Glass-bubble B, and the second sight L; all which remain exactly fixt in their several places, the object C being so cized and placed, that it may just seem to touch the upper and under edge of the hole L: and so all of it be seen through the small Glass-ball of rarified Air; then by breaking off the small seal’d neck of the Bubble (without at all stirring the sights, object, or glass) and admitting the external Air, you will find your self unable to see the utmost ends of the object; but the terminating rayes AE and AD (which were before refracted to G and F by the rarified Air) will proceed almost directly to I and H; which alteration of the rayes (seeing there is no other alteration made in the Organ by which the Experiment is tryed, save only the admission, or exclusion of the condens’d Air) must necessarily be caused by the variation of the _medium_ contain’d in the Glass B; the greatest difficulty in the making of which Experiment, is from the uneven surfaces of the bubble, which will represent an uneven image of the object.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01073", "bookId": 15491, "start": 795635, "end": 796320, "sha256": "e97edbd34e0896a26979fe028321b69fb83600e15b9aeabd41a89aa1cda4980e", "text": "Now, that there is such a difference of the upper and under parts of the Air is clear enough evinc’d from the late improvement of the _Torricellian_ Experiment, which has been tryed at the tops and feet of Mountains; and may be further illustrated, and inquired into, by a means, which some whiles since I thought of, and us’d, for the finding by what degrees the Air passes from such a degree of Density to such a degree of Rarity. And another, for the finding what pressure was requisite to make it pass from such a degree of Rarefaction to a determinate Density: Which Experiments, because they may be useful to illustrate the present Inquiry, I shall briefly describe.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01074", "bookId": 15491, "start": 796324, "end": 797389, "sha256": "a99891baec8dce3a76611ce0fb681cad89c2adf232a3314a29e3a9ba5ce1ccaa", "text": "[16] I took then a small Glass-pipe AB, about the bigness of a Swans quill, and about four foot long, which was very equally drawn, so that, as far as I could perceive, no one part was bigger then another: This Tube (being open at both ends) I fitted into another small Tube DE, that had a small bore just big enough to contain the small Pipe, and this was seal’d up at one, and open at the other, end; about which open end I fastned a small wooden box C with cement, so that filling the bigger Tube, and part of the box, with Quicksilver, I could thrust the smaller Tube into it, till it were all covered with the Quicksilver: Having thus done, I fastned my bigger Tube against the side of a wall, that it might stand the steadier, and plunging the small Tube cleer under the _Mercury_ in the box, I stopt the upper end of it very fast with cement, then lifting up the small Tube, I drew it up by a small pully, and a string that I had fastned to the top of the Room, and found the height of the _Mercurial Cylinder_ to be about twenty nine inches.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01075", "bookId": 15491, "start": 797393, "end": 797963, "sha256": "8665069e953a304f104f100c7a77342f9315d2f1ca1e1fd7fea6c2a2b8c25082", "text": "Then letting down the Tube again, I opened the top, and then thrust down the small Tube, till I perceived the Quicksilver to rise within it to a mark that I had plac’d just an inch from the top; and immediately clapping on a small piece of cement that I had kept warm, I with a hot Iron seal’d up the top very fast, then letting it cool (that both the cement might grow hard, and more especially, that the Air might come to its temper, natural for the Day I try’d the Experiment in) I observ’d diligently, and found the included Air to be exactly an Inch.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01076", "bookId": 15491, "start": 797967, "end": 798612, "sha256": "1be6626d38a850be821e9686118ee486faab1ba3ce4cfafce875a07a46285d05", "text": "Here you are to take notice, that after the Air is seal’d up, the top of the Tube is not to be elevated above the superficies of the Quicksilver in the box, till the surface of that within the Tube be equal to it, for the Quicksilver (as I have elsewhere prov’d) being more heterogeneous to the Glass then the Air, will not naturally rise up so high within the small Pipe, as the superficies of the _Mercury_ in the box, and therefore you are to observe, how much below the outward superficies of the _Mercury_ in the box, that of the same in the Tube does stand, when the top being open, free ingress is admitted to the outward Air.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01077", "bookId": 15491, "start": 798616, "end": 800398, "sha256": "5a5d69428bf8d2dd0a4e14abed5f1945145f50bcd87dd9b0fe2ab88b7817e5c8", "text": "Having thus done, I permitted the _Cylinder_, or small Pipe, to rise out of the box, till I found the surface of the Quicksilver in the Pipe to be two inches above that in the box, and found the Air to have expanded it self but one sixteenth part of an inch; then drawing up the small pipe, till I found the height of the Quicksilver within to be four inches above that without, I observed the Air to be expanded only ⅐ of an inch more then it was at first, and to take up the room of 1⅐ inch: then I raised the Tube till the Cylinder was six inches high, and found the Air to take up 1²⁄₉ inches of room in the Pipe; then to 8, 10, 12. &c. the expansion of the Air that I found to each of which Cylinders are set down in the following Table; where the first row signifies the height of the _Mercurial Cylinder_; the next, the expansion of the Air; the third, the pressure of the _Atmosphere_, or the highest _Cylinder_ of _Mercury_, which was then neer thirty inches: The last signifies the force of the Air so expanded, which is found by substracting the first row of numbers out of the third; for having found, that the outward Air would then keep up the Quicksilver to thirty inches, look whatever of that height is wanting must be attributed to the Elater of the Air depressing. And therefore having the Expansion in the second row, and the height of the subjacent _Cylinder_ of _Mercury_ in the first, and the greatest height of the _Cylinder_ of _Mercury_, which of it self counterballances the whole pressure of the _Atmosphere_; by substracting the numbers of the first row out of the numbers of the third, you will have the measure of the _Cylinders_ so deprest, and consequently the force of the Air, in the several Expansions, registred.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01078", "bookId": 15491, "start": 800404, "end": 802149, "sha256": "e686024b4aa06b28940853bbe7a05b3a058b2d7da9e42b986536177d58d441f0", "text": "The height of the The Expansion The height of The strength Cylinder of Mercury, of the Air. the Mercury of the Elater that, together with that counter- of the expanded the Elater of the ballanc’d the Air. included Air, Atmosphere. ballanced the pressure of the Atmosphere. ---------- ---------- ---------- ---------- 00 01 30 30 02 01¹⁄₁₆ 30 28 04 01⅐ 30 26 06 01²⁄₉ 30 24 08 01⅓ 30 22 10 01½ 30 20 12 01⅔ 30 18 14 01⅚ 30 16 16 02²⁄₂₇ 30 14 18 02⁴⁄₉ 30 12 20 03 30 10 22 03⁷⁄₉ 30 8 24 05⁷⁄₁₈ 30 6 25 06⅔ 30 5 26 08½ 30 4 26¼ 09½ 30 3¾ 26½ 10¾ 30 3½ 26¾ 13 30 3¼ 27 15½ 30 3", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01079", "bookId": 15491, "start": 802153, "end": 803249, "sha256": "6e0a7bb3219e6922fc7d04c9d2684a0f75e3ee665c18cac1edc5156715308d89", "text": "I had several other Tables of my Observations, and Calculations, which I then made; but it being above a twelve month since I made them; and by that means having forgot many circumstances and particulars, I was resolved to make them over once again, which I did _August_ the second 1661. with the very same Tube which I used the year before, when I first made the Experiment (for it being a very good one, I had carefully preserv’d it:) And after having tryed it over and over again; and being not well satisfied of some particulars, I, at last, having put all things in very good order, and being as attentive, and observant, as possibly I could, of every circumstance requisite to be taken notice of, did register my several Observations in this following Table. In the making of which, I did not exactly follow the method that I had used at first; but, having lately heard of Mr. _Townly_’s _Hypothesis_, I shap’d my course in such sort, as would be most convenient for the examination of that _Hypothesis_; the event of which you have in the latter part of the last Table.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01080", "bookId": 15491, "start": 803253, "end": 803384, "sha256": "632ff1ab74c3fb6854141c8764477f030518c88729afe85c3a096e6d1a700b0a", "text": "The other Experiment was, to find what degrees of force were requisite to compress, or condense, the Air into such or such a bulk.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01081", "bookId": 15491, "start": 803388, "end": 804252, "sha256": "35dcb3c747a7dd83f587882fb8ac9452be056db8ba5eedeabd266659e79873f9", "text": "The manner of proceeding therein was this: I took a Tube about five foot long, one of whose ends was sealed up, and bended in the form of a _Syphon_, much like that represented in the fourth Figure of the 37. _Scheme_, one side whereof AD, that was open at A, was about fifty inches long, the other side BC, shut at B, was not much above seven inches long, then placing it exactly perpendicular, I pour’d in a little Quicksilver, and found that the Air BC was 6⅞ inches, or very near to seven; then pouring in Quicksilver at the longer Tube, I continued filling of it till the Air in the shorter part of it was contracted into half the former dimensions, and found the height exactly nine and twenty inches; and by making several other tryals, in several other degrees of condensation of the Air, I found them exactly answer the former _Hypothesis_.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01082", "bookId": 15491, "start": 804256, "end": 805020, "sha256": "6d92730673c8eb115afa35b96f3c0de86b2cfb0122088202135861c98b0dd206", "text": "But having (by reason it was a good while since I first made) forgotten many particulars, and being much unsatisfied in others, I made the Experiment over again, and, from the several tryals, collected the former part of the following Table: Where in the row next the left hand 24. signifies the dimensions of the Air, sustaining only the pressure of the _Atmosphere_, which at that time was equal to a _Cylinder_ of _Mercury_ of nine and twenty inches: The next Figure above it (20) was the dimensions of the Air induring the first compression, made by a _Cylinder_ of _Mercury_ 5³⁄₁₆ high, to which the pressure of the _Atmosphere_ nine and twenty inches being added, the elastick strength of the Air so comprest will be found 34³⁄₁₆, &c.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01083", "bookId": 15491, "start": 805024, "end": 805156, "sha256": "191a85776731da39379273abeabcb7fac5e289c62a8642cd55366774f94e8d47", "text": "_A Table of the Elastick power of the Air, both Experimentally and Hypothetically calculated, according to its various Dimensions._", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01084", "bookId": 15491, "start": 805164, "end": 806894, "sha256": "fbf8dcabec9e9fe84bacb9eaea7ced5119e798c910e62d271b563d0de4ac3f36", "text": "The dimensions The height The Mercurial The sum or What they of the included of the Cylinder difference ought to Air. Mercurial added, or of these be according Cylinder taken from two to the counter- the former. Cylinders. Hypothesis. pois’d by the Atmosphere. ---------- ---------- ---------- ---------- ---------- 12 29 + 29 = 58 58 13 29 + 24¹¹⁄₁₆ = 53¹¹⁄₁₆ 53⁷⁄₁₃ 14 29 + 20³⁄₁₆ = 49³⁄₁₆ 49⁵⁄₇ 16 29 + 14 = 43 43½ 18 29 + 9⅛ = 38⅛ 38⅔ 20 29 + 5³⁄₁₆ = 34³⁄₁₆ 34⅘ 24 29 0 = 29 29 48 29 − 14⅝ = 14⅜ 14½ 96 29 − 22⅛ = 6⅞ 7²⁄₈ 192 29 − 25⅝ = 3⅜ 3⅝ 384 29 − 27²⁄₈ = 1⁶⁄₈ 1⁷⁄₁₆ 576 29 − 27⅞ = 1⅛ 1⁵⁄₂₄ 768 29 − 28⅛ = 0⅞ 0[7¼]⁄₈ 960 29 − 28⅜ = 0⅝ 0[5⅘]⁄₈ 1152 29 − 28⁷⁄₁₆ = 0⁹⁄₁₆ 0¹⁰⁄₁₆", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01085", "bookId": 15491, "start": 806898, "end": 811403, "sha256": "e5ee8a46309c1fb359b4b1303e02620f829eb202fd50e9267f51ef6b12930c74", "text": "From which Experiments, I think, we may safely conclude, that the Elater of the Air is reciprocal to its extension, or at least very neer. So that to apply it to our present purpose (which was indeed the chief cause of inventing these wayes of tryal) we will suppose a _Cylinder_ indefinitely extended upwards, [I say a _Cylinder_, not a piece of a _Cone_, because, as I may elsewhere shew in the Explication of Gravity, that _triplicate_ proportion of the shels of a Sphere, to their respective diameters, I suppose to be removed in this case by the decrease of the power of Gravity] and the pressure of the Air at the bottom of this _Cylinder_ to be strong enough to keep up a _Cylinder_ of _Mercury_ of thirty inches: Now because by the most accurate tryals of the most illustrious and incomparable Mr. _Boyle_, published in his deservedly famous Pneumatick Book, the weight of Quicksilver, to that of the Air here below, is found neer about as fourteen thousand to one: If we suppose the parts of the _Cylinder_ of the _Atmosphere_ to be every where of an equal density, we shall (as he there deduces) find it extended to the height of thirty five thousand feet, or seven miles: But because by these Experiments we have somewhat confirm’d the hypothesis of the reciprocal proportion of the Elaters to the Extensions we shall find, that by supposing this _Cylinder_ of the _Atmosphere_ divided into a thousand parts, each of which being equivalent to thirty five feet, or seven geometrical paces, that is, each of these divisions containing as much Air as is suppos’d in a _Cylinder_ neer the earth of equal diameter, and thirty five foot high, we shall find the lowermost to press against the surface of the Earth with the whole weight of the above mentioned thousand parts; the pressure of the bottom of the second against the top of the first to be 1000 − 1 = 999. of the third against the second to be 1000 − 2 = 998. of the fourth against the third to be 1000 − 3 = 997. of the uppermost against the 999. or that next below it, to be 1000 − 999 = 1. so that the extension of the lowermost next the Earth, will be to the extension of the next below the uppermost, as 1. to 999. for as the pressure sustained by the 999. is to the pressure sustain’d by the first, so is the extension of the first to the extension of the 999. so that, from this hypothetical calculation, we shall find the Air to be indefinitely extended: For if we suppose the whole thickness of the Air to be divided, as I just now instanced, into a thousand parts, and each of those under differing Dimensions, or Altitudes, to contain an equall quantity of Air, we shall find, that the first _Cylinder_, whose Base is supposed to lean on the Earth, will be found to be extended 35³⁵⁄₉₉₉ foot; the second equal Division, or _Cylinder_, whose _basis_ is supposed to lean on the top of the first, shall have its top extended higher by 35⁷⁰⁄₉₉₈ the third 35¹⁰⁵⁄₉₉₇ the fourth 35¹⁴⁰⁄₉₉₆ and so onward, each equal quantity of Air having its dimensions measured by 35. and some additional number exprest alwayes in the manner of a fraction, whose numerator is alway the number of the place multipli’d by 35. and whose denominator is alwayes the pressure of the _Atmosphere_ sustain’d by that part, so that by this means we may easily calculate the height of 999. divisions of those 1000. divisions, I suppos’d; whereas the uppermost may extend it self more then as high again, nay, perhaps indefinitely, or beyond the Moon; for the Elaters and Expansions being in reciprocal proportions, since we cannot yet find the _plus ultra_, beyond which the Air will not expand it self, we cannot determine the height of the Air: for since, as we have shewn, the proportion will be alway as the pressure sustain’d by any part is to 35. so 1000. to the expansion of that part; the multiplication or product therefore of the pressure, and expansion, that is, of the two extream proportionals, being alwayes equal to the product of the means, or 35000. it follows, since that Rectangle or Product may be made up of the multiplication of infinite diversities of numbers, that the height of the Air is also indefinite; for since (as far as I have yet been able to try) the Air seems capable of an indefinite Expansion, the pressure may be decreased in _infinitum_, and consequently its expansion upwards indefinite also.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01086", "bookId": 15491, "start": 811407, "end": 812209, "sha256": "6dd513630abebfcf6b05e9688dfea5a26ba6ed022f45a4ef7d395c1e675af0d8", "text": "There being therefore such a difference of density, and no Experiment yet known to prove a _Saltus_, or skipping from one degree of rarity to another much differing from it, that is, that an upper part of the Air should so much differ from that immediately _subjacent_ to it, as to make a distinct superficies, such as we observe between the Air and Water, &c. But it being more likely, that there is a continual increase of rarity in the parts of the Air, the further they are removed from the surface of the Earth: It will hence necessarily follow, that (as in the Experiment of the salt and fresh Water) the ray of Light passing obliquely through the Air also, which is of very different density, will be continually, and infinitely inflected, or bended, from a streight, or direct motion.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01087", "bookId": 15491, "start": 812213, "end": 812361, "sha256": "220a9840f9768db33ad23625b0b9b392e332b1017cacf1d7194d196a6c2e60b3", "text": "This granted, the reason of all the above recited _Phænomena_, concerning the appearance of the Celestial Bodies, will very easily be deduced. As,", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01088", "bookId": 15491, "start": 812365, "end": 812778, "sha256": "bb635e650c4c0fb26f98f2fbe9d3910b9f599881e57310504f8ba196c565992a", "text": "First, The redness of the Sun, Moon, and Stars, will be found to be caused by the inflection of the rays within the _Atmosphere_. That it is not really in or near the luminous bodies, will, I suppose, be very easily granted, seeing that this redness is observable in several places differing in Longitude, to be at the same time different, the setting and rising Sun of all parts being for the most part red:", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01089", "bookId": 15491, "start": 812782, "end": 813085, "sha256": "0bc97fbe6d88464a23f41a759da7aaa477f2b5124ac2b3c519ffcfa0b819aea6", "text": "And secondly, That it is not meerly the colour of the Air interpos’d, will, I suppose, without much more difficulty be yielded, seeing that we may observe a very great _interstitium_ of Air betwixt the Object, and the Eye, makes it appear of a dead blew, far enough differing from a red, or yellow.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01090", "bookId": 15491, "start": 813089, "end": 813255, "sha256": "500f14cc8f7421f65e4f8107cd9b395d3a939082f0eea122803af84717f8372e", "text": "But thirdly, That it proceeds from the refraction, or inflection, of the rays by the _Atmosphere_, this following Experiment will, I suppose, sufficiently manifest.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01091", "bookId": 15491, "start": 813259, "end": 816417, "sha256": "3ae6f37c120be214e55d0cb9b14a9072e7400e5ffb4383b04994b7204e0de60d", "text": "Take a sphærical Crystalline Viol, such as is describ’d in the fifth Figure ABCD, and, having fill’d it with pure clear Water, expose it to the Sun beams; then taking a piece of very fine _Venice_ Paper, apply it against that side of the Globe that is opposite to the Sun, as against the side BC, and you shall perceive a bright red Ring to appear, caus’d by the refraction of the Rays, AAAA, which is made by the Globe; in which Experiment, if the Glass and Water be very cleer, so that there be no Sands nor bubbles in the Glass, nor dirt in the Water, you shall not perceive any appearance of any other colour. To apply which Experiment, we may imagine the _Atmosphere_ to be a great transparent Globe, which being of a substance more dense then the other, or (which comes to the same) that has its parts more dense towards the middle, the Sun beams that are tangents, or next within the tangents of this Globe, will be refracted or inflected from their direct passage towards the center of the Globe, whence, according to the laws of refractions made in a triangular _Prism_, and the generation of colour set down in the description of Muscovi-glass there must necessarily appear a red colour in the _transitus_ or passage of those tangent Rays. To make this more plain, we will suppose (in the sixth _Figure_) ABCD, to represent the Globe of the _Atmosphere_, EFGH to represent the opacous Globe of the Earth, lying in the midst of it, neer to which, the parts of the Air, sustaining a very great pressure, are thereby very much condens’d, from whence those Rays that are by inflection made tangents to the Globe of the Earth, and those without them, that pass through the more condens’d part of the _Atmosphere_, as suppose between A and E, are by reason of the inequality of the _medium_, inflected towards the center, whereby there must necessarily be generated a red colour, as is more plainly shewn in the former cited place; hence whatsoever opacous bodies (as vapours, or the like) shall chance to be elevated into those parts, will reflect a red towards the eye; and therefore those evenings and mornings appear reddest, that have the most store of vapours and halituous substances exhaled to a convenient distance from the Earth; for thereby the inflection is made the greater, and thereby the colour also the more intense; and several of those exhalations being opacous, reflect several of those Rays, which, through an _Homogeneous_ transparent _medium_ would pass unseen; and therefore we see, that when there chances to be any clouds situated in those Regions they reflect a strong and vivid red. Now, though one great cause of the redness may be this inflection, yet I cannot wholly exclude the colour of the vapours themselves, which may have something of redness in them, they being partly nitrous; and partly fuliginous; both which steams tinge the Rays that pass through them, as is made evident by looking at bodies through the fumes of _Aqua fortis_ or spirit of _Nitre_ [as the newly mentioned Illustrious Person has demonstrated] and also through the smoak of a Fire or Chimney.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01092", "bookId": 15491, "start": 816421, "end": 816642, "sha256": "bf9163fd983280c491b66cac25ba208d29e1f0a0d3ac8edcbf4cf7b85841b5a1", "text": "Having therefore made it probable at least, that the morning and evening redness may partly proceed from this inflection or refraction of the Rays, we shall next shew how the Oval Figure will be likewise easily deduced.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01093", "bookId": 15491, "start": 816646, "end": 817682, "sha256": "956e225cc49f07d770df6ae00767a72d19e5f66aaa327a90e3e7dada1d060007", "text": "Suppose we therefore, EFGH in the sixth _Figure_ of the 37. _Scheme_, to represent the Earth; ABCD, the _Atmosphere_; EI, and EL, two Rays coming from the Sun, the one from the upper, the other from the neather Limb, these Rays, being by the _Atmosphere_ inflected, appear to the eye at E, as if they had come from the points, N and O; and because the Ray L has a greater inclination upon the inequality of the _Atmosphere_ then I, therefore must it suffer a greater inflection, and consequently be further elevated above its true place, then the Ray I, which has a less inclination, will be elevated above its true place; whence it will follow, that the lower side appearing neerer the upper then really it is, and the two _lateral_ sides, _viz._ the right and left side, suffering no sensible alteration from the inflection, at least what it does suffer, does rather increase the visible Diameter then diminish it, as I shall shew by and by, the Figure of the luminous body must necessarily appear somewhat _Elliptical_.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01094", "bookId": 15491, "start": 817686, "end": 818888, "sha256": "df2d29ef70bbae1d15a8a5c1cd45ef72fb28f2b3041f805b58e6621e93c09e5b", "text": "This will be more plain, if in the seventh _Figure_ of the 37. _Scheme_ we suppose AB to represent the sensible Horizon; CDEF, the body of the Sun really below it; GHIK, the same appearing above it, elevated by the inflection of the _Atmosphere_: For if, according to the best observation, we make the visible Diameter of the Sun to be about three or four and thirty minutes, and the Horizontal refraction according to _Ticho_ be thereabout, or somewhat more, the lower limb of the Sun E, will be elevated to I; but because, by his account, the point C will be elevated but 29. minutes, as having not so great an inclination upon the inequality of the Air, therefore IG, which will be the apparent refracted perpendicular Diameter of the Sun, will be less then CG, which is but 29. minutes, and consequently six or seven minutes shorter then the unrefracted apparent Diameter. The parts, D and F, will be likewise elevated to H and K, whose refraction, by reason of its inclination, will be bigger then that of the point C, though less then that of E; therefore will the semidiameter IL, be shorter then LG, and consequently the under side of the appearing Sun more flat then the upper.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01095", "bookId": 15491, "start": 818892, "end": 820025, "sha256": "5de85392fa703206547d8dd5c0f3f68aee6572e11cd35a63542fe9ee87d35f1f", "text": "Now, because the Rays from the right and left sides of the Sun, &c. have been observ’d by _Ricciolo_ and _Grimaldus_, to appear more distant one from another then really they are, though (by very many Observations that I have made for that purpose, with a very good _Telescope_, fitted with a divided Ruler) I could never perceive any great alteration, yet there being really some, it will not be amiss, to shew that this also proceeds from the refraction or inflection of the _Atmosphere_; and this will be manifest, if we consider the _Atmosphere_ as a transparent Globe, or at least a transparent shell, encompassing an opacous Globe, which, being more dense then the _medium_ encompassing it, refracts or inflects all the entring parallel Rays into a point or focus, so that wheresoever the Observator is plac’d within the _Atmosphere_, between the focus and the luminous body, the _lateral_ Rays must necessarily be more converg’d towards his eye by the refraction or inflection, then they would have been without it; and therefore the Horizontal Diameter of the luminous body must necessarily be augmented.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01096", "bookId": 15491, "start": 820029, "end": 820850, "sha256": "5f17e6e12376457a616757c8f25f4939971820b2b6f4edd96e2069f28e58c434", "text": "This might be more plainly manifest to the eye by the sixth _Figure_; but because it would be somwhat tedious, and the thing being obvious enough to be imagin’d by any one that attentively considers it, I shall rather omit it, and proceed to shew, that the mass of Air neer the surface of the Earth, consists, or is made up, of parcels, which do very much differ from one another in point of density and rarity; and consequently the Rays of light that pass through them will be variously inflected, here one way, and there another, according as they pass so or so through those differing parts; and those parts being always in motion, either upwards or downwards, or to the right or left, or in some way compounded of these, they do by this their motion inflect the Rays, now this way, and presently that way.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01097", "bookId": 15491, "start": 820854, "end": 821290, "sha256": "908f66a2c0feaa20b88178653a446a7c579a8339f75d1fa87385dced3a701d47", "text": "This irregular, unequal and unconstant inflection of the Rays of light, is the reason why the limb of the _Sun_, _Moon_, _Jupiter_, _Saturn_, _Mars_, and _Venus_, appear to wave or dance; and why the body of the Starrs appear to tremulate or twinkle, their bodies, by this means, being sometimes magnify’d, and sometimes diminished; sometimes elevated, otherwhiles depress’d; now thrown to the right hand, and then to the left.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01098", "bookId": 15491, "start": 821294, "end": 823335, "sha256": "94531dce00a755027114b6e40994f117ace79e514cfdb9903fb2d6fcea8fae24", "text": "And that there is such a property or unequal distribution of parts, is manifest from the various degrees of heat and cold that are found in the Air; from whence will follow a differing density and rarity, both as to quantity and refraction; and likewise from the vapours that are interpos’d, (which, by the way, I imagine, as to refraction or inflection, to do the same thing, as if they were rarify’d Air; and that those vapours that ascend, are both lighter, and less dense, then the ambient Air which boys them up; and that those which descend, are heavier and more dense) The first of these may be found true, if you take a good thick piece of Glass, and heating it pretty hot in the fire, lay it upon such another piece of Glass, or hang it in the open Air by a piece of Wire, then looking upon some far distant Object (such as a Steeple or Tree) so as the Rays from that Object pass directly over the Glass before they enter your eye, you shall find such a tremulation and wavering of the remote Object, as will very much offend your eye: The like tremulous motion you may observe to be caus’d by the ascending steams of Water, and the like. Now, from the first of these it is manifest, that from the rarifaction of the parts of the Air, by heat, there is caus’d a differing refraction, and from the ascension of the more rarify’d parts of the Air, which are thrust up by the colder, and therefore more condens’d and heavie, is caus’d an undulation or wavering of the Object; for I think, that there are very few will grant, that Glass, by as gentle a heat as may be endur’d by ones hand, should send forth any of its parts in steams or vapours, which does not seem to be much wasted by that violent fire of the green Glass-house; but, if yet it be doubted, let Experiment be further made with that body that is accounted, by Chymists and others, the most ponderous and fix’d in the world; for by heating of a piece of Gold, and proceeding in the same manner, you may find the same effects.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01099", "bookId": 15491, "start": 823339, "end": 824405, "sha256": "e120aa5854062cc932931506f624ccf47ed0605f5a68c15821e5c2131346a241", "text": "This trembling and shaking of the Rays, is more sensibly caus’d by an actual flame, or quick fire, or anything else heated glowing hot; as by a Candle, live Coal, red-hot Iron, or a piece of Silver, and the like: the same also appears very conspicuous, if you look at an Object betwixt which and your eye, the rising smoak of some Chimney is interpos’d; which brings into my mind what I had once the opportunity to observe, which was, the Sun rising to my eye just over a Chimney that sent forth a copious steam of smoak; and taking a short _Telescope_, which I had then by me, I observ’d the body of the Sun, though it was but just peep’d above the Horizon, to have its underside, not onely flatted, and press’d inward, as it usually is when neer the Earth; but to appear more protuberant downwards then if it had suffered no refraction at all; and besides all this, the whole body of the Sun appear’d to tremble or dance, and the edges or limb to be very ragged or indented, undulating or waving, much in the manner of a flag in the Wind.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01100", "bookId": 15491, "start": 824409, "end": 825207, "sha256": "02a112522d8a984a1ec849361465dad883bafa0d7477af063af2d38c538773c8", "text": "This I have likewise often observ’d in a hot Sunshiny Summer’s day, that looking on an Object over a hot stone, or dry hot earth, I have found the Object to be undulated or shaken, much after the same manner. And if you look upon any remote Object through a _Telescope_ (in a hot Summer’s day especially) you shall find it likewise to appear tremulous. And further, if there chance to blow any wind, or that the air between you and the Object be in a motion or current, whereby the parts of it, both rarify’d and condens’d, are swiftly remov’d towards the right or left, if then you observe the Horizontal ridge of a Hill far distant, through a very good _Telescope_, you shall find it to wave much like the Sea, and those waves will appear to pass the same way with the wind.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01101", "bookId": 15491, "start": 825211, "end": 825785, "sha256": "5cddd332b2cb9315d86674ca0a134eeb774c3b430dfabeee99f1ceb313df863f", "text": "From which, and many other Experiments, ’tis cleer that the lower Region of the Air, especially that part of it which lieth neerest to the Earth, has, for the most part, its constituent parcels variously agitated, either by heat or winds, by the first of which, some of them are made more rare, and so suffer a less refraction; others are interwoven, either with ascending or descending vapours; the former of which being more light, and so more rarify’d, have likewise a less refraction; the latter being more heavie, and consequently more dense, have a greater.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01102", "bookId": 15491, "start": 825789, "end": 827452, "sha256": "6f96f95d4ef15640e31ddb7bfb91844d0d4dc2a608096fc075ce0a46d448578f", "text": "Now, because that heat and cold are equally diffus’d every way; and that the further it is spread, the weaker it grows; hence it will follow, that the most part of the under Region of the Air will be made up of several kinds of _lentes_, some whereof will have the properties of _Convex_, others of _Concave_ _glasses_, which, that I may the more intelligibly make out, we will suppose in the eighth _Figure_ of the 37. _Scheme_, that A represents an ascending vapour, which, by reason of its being somewhat _Heterogeneous_ to the ambient Air, is thereby thrust into a kind of Globular form, not any where terminated, but gradually finished, that is, it is most rarify’d in the middle about A. somewhat more condens’d about BB, more then that about CC; yet further, about DD, almost of the same density with the ambient Air about EE;, and lastly, inclosed with the more dense Air FF, so that from A, to FF, there is a continual increase of density. The reason of which will be manifest, if we consider the rising vapour to be much warmer then the ambient heavie Air; for by the coldness of the ambient Air, the shell EE will be more refrigerated then DD, and that then CC, which will be yet more then BB, and that more then A; so that from F to A, there is a continual increase of heat, and consequently of rarity; from whence it will necessarily follow, that the Rays of light will be inflected or refracted in it, in the same manner as they would be in a _Concave-glase_; for the Rays _GKI_, _GKI_ will be inflected by _GKH_, _GKH_, which will easily follow from what I before explained concerning the inflection of the _Atmosphere_.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01103", "bookId": 15491, "start": 827456, "end": 828584, "sha256": "5e83340605211a254fa701ebb36e13115e5b56b1f39908c4bbab857358948402", "text": "On the other side, a descending vapour, or any part of the air included by an ascending vapour, will exhibit the same effects with a _Convex lens_; for, if we suppose, in the former Figure, the quite contrary constitution to that last describ’d; that is, the ambient Air FF being hotter then any part of that matter within any circle, therefore the coldest part must necessarily be A, as being farthest remov’d from the heat, all the intermediate spaces will be gradually discriminated by the continuall mixture of heat and cold, so that it will be hotter at EE, then DD, in DD then CC, in CC then BB, and in BB then A. From which, a like refraction and condensation will follow, and consequently a lesser or greater refraction, so that every included part will refract more then the including, by which means the Rays, GKI, GKI, coming from a Starr, or some remote Object, are so inflected, that they will again concurr and meet, in the point M. By the interposition therefore of this desending vapour the visible body of the Star, or other Object, is very much augmented, as by the former it was diminished.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01104", "bookId": 15491, "start": 828588, "end": 829004, "sha256": "6ddd8979cf9a5b486dbb71a9c3c7ac22fa08b5f81a99202c0570a2945ad9d683", "text": "From the quick consecutions of these two, one after another, between the Object and your eye, caused by their motion upwards or downwards, proceeding from their levity or gravity, or to the right or left, proceeding from the wind, a Starr may appear, now bigger, now less, then really it would otherwise without them; and this is that property of a Starr, which is commonly call’d twinkling, or scintillation.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01105", "bookId": 15491, "start": 829008, "end": 829726, "sha256": "1d0e99684de9047d426cda56e6af7afa793e80b866722610f2dfea57f548ce05", "text": "The reason why a Star will now appear of one colour, now of another, which for the most part happens when ’tis neer the Horizon, may very easily be deduc’d from its appearing now in the middle of the vapour, other whiles neer the edge; for if you look against the body of a Starr with a _Telescope_ that has a pretty deep _Convex_ Eye-glass, and so order it, that the Star may appear sometimes in one place, and sometimes in another of it; you may perceive this or that particular colour to be predominant in the apparent Figure of the Starr, according as it is more or less remote from the middle of the _Lens_. This I had here further explain’d, but that it does more properly belong to another place.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01106", "bookId": 15491, "start": 829730, "end": 829858, "sha256": "3670a1baa9dd796701fcd5ab0975e45a4a88901eada507c928d282c3351e8f78", "text": "I shall therefore onely add some few Quæries, which the consideration of these particulars hinted, and so finish this Section.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01107", "bookId": 15491, "start": 829862, "end": 831636, "sha256": "44010deb80e5706535d862bbdaa50dee2cf9e175e096c94038726e72f08d849a", "text": "And the first I shall propound is, Whether there may not be made an artificial transparent body of an exact Globular Figure that shall so inflect or refract all the Rays, that, coming from one point, fall upon any _Hemisphere_ of it; that every one of them may meet on the opposite side, and cross one another exactly in a point; and that it may do the like also with all the Rays that, coming from a _lateral_ point, fall upon any other _Hemisphere_; for if so, there were to be hoped a perfection of _Dioptricks_, and a transmigration into heaven, even whil’st we remain here upon earth in the flesh, and a descending or penetrating into the center and innermost recesses of the earth, and all earthly bodies; nay, it would open not onely a cranney, but a large window (as I may so speak) into the Shop of Nature, whereby we might be enabled to see both the tools and operators, and the very manner of the operation it self of Nature; this, could it be effected, would as farr surpass all other kind of perspectives as the vast extent of Heaven does the small point of the Earth, which distance it would immediately remove, and unite them, as ’twere, into one, at least, that there should appear no more distance between them then the length of the Tube, into the ends of which these Glasses should be inserted: Now, whether this may not be effected with parcels of Glass of several densities, I have sometimes proceeded so farr as to doubt (though in truth, as to the general, I have wholly despair’d of it) for I have often observ’d in Optical Glasses a very great variety of the parts, which are commonly called Veins; nay, some of them round enough (for they are for the most part, drawn out into strings) to constitute a kind of _lens_.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01108", "bookId": 15491, "start": 831640, "end": 832490, "sha256": "e4e0fd329597d2bf15fc6a1bdf5d176034b9c86a3eefc829d53aaf17618d6f22", "text": "This I should further proceed to hope, had any one been so inquisitive as to have found out the way of making any transparent body, either more dense or more rare, for then it might be possible to compose a Globule that should be more dense in the middle of it, then in any other part, and to compose the whole bulk, so as that there should be a continual gradual transition from one degree of density to another; such as should be found requisite for the desired inflection of the _transmigrating_ Rays; but of this enough at present, because I may say more of it when I set down my own Trials concerning the melioration of _Dioptricks_, where I shall enumerate with how many several substances I have made both _Microscopes_, and _Telescopes_, and by what and how many, ways: Let such as have leisure and opportunity farther consider it.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01109", "bookId": 15491, "start": 832494, "end": 832804, "sha256": "b4928033d9303d4a481044c945bdafb17a05015133d7685b1e0e629264c0ad9b", "text": "The next Quæry shall be, whether by the same collection of a more dense body then the other, or at least, of the denser part of the other, there might not be imagin’d a reason of the apparition of some new fix’d Stars, as those in the Swan, _Cassiope’s Charr_, _Serpentarius_, _Piscis_, _Cetus_, &c.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01110", "bookId": 15491, "start": 832808, "end": 832995, "sha256": "45b1f61d25c962ca847ae7690c1389b5768375685ce725239bb64df024ef4f4b", "text": "Thirdly, Whether it be possible to define the height of the _Atmosphere_ from this inflection of the Rays, or from the Quicksilver Experiment of the rarifaction or extension of the Air.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01111", "bookId": 15491, "start": 832999, "end": 833542, "sha256": "50b252053b0dd75d82ad27f2aff26a5e7ba2dbeaca9f29b88838423e946f9d7f", "text": "Fourthly, Whether the disparity between the upper and under Air be not sometimes so great, as to make a reflecting superficies; I have had several Observations which seem to have proceeded from some such cause, but it would be too long to relate and examine them. An Experiment, also somewhat analogous to this, I have made with Salt-water and Fresh, which two liquors, in most Positions, seem’d the same, and not to be separated by any determinate superficies, which separating surface yet in some other Positions did plainly appear.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01112", "bookId": 15491, "start": 833546, "end": 834188, "sha256": "cd4b32d461bba73eebc56ddcea930eccb7b1bc9158d827560a3f15b9858a7aeb", "text": "And if so, Whether the reason of the equal bounding or _terminus_ of the under parts of the clouds may not proceed from this cause; whether, secondly, the Reason of the apparition of many Suns may not be found out, by considering how the Rays of the Sun may so be reflected, as to describe a pretty true Image of the body, as we find them from any regular Superficies. Whether also this may not be found to cause the apparition of some of those _Parelii_, of counterfeit Suns, which appear coloured, by refracting the Rays so, as to make the body of the Sun appear in quite another place then really it is. But of this more elsewhere.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01113", "bookId": 15491, "start": 834192, "end": 834577, "sha256": "1164675524200ff78a43dd54f79d6abca6f75ffaa55579292fb3879ae187ae6b", "text": "5. Whether the _Phænomena_ of the Clouds may not be made out by this diversity of density in the upper and under parts of the Air, by supposing the Air above them to be much lighter then they themselves are, and they themselves to be yet lighter then that which is subjacent to them, many of them seeming to be the same substance with the Cobwebs that fly in the Air after a Fog.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01114", "bookId": 15491, "start": 834581, "end": 834732, "sha256": "dfcddb55f0bceda54383ac01c09c157022d31fb4acefb7dd422cf3842760e23a", "text": "Now that such a constitution of the Air and Clouds, if such there be, may be sufficient to perform this effect, may be confirm’d by this Experiment.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01115", "bookId": 15491, "start": 834736, "end": 835372, "sha256": "94eac77b7797b5fe0fb9bfe7482df64816b4d14caa5fc52adf1f8cd55fa075f3", "text": "Make as strong a Solution of Salt as you are able, then filling a Glass of some depth half full with it, fill the other half with fresh Water, and poyse a little Glass-bubble, so as that it may sink pretty quick in fresh Water, which take and put into the aforesaid Glass, and you shall find it to sink till it comes towards the middle, where it will remain fixt, without moving either upwards or downwards. And by a second Experiment, of poising such a bubble in water, whose upper part is warmer, and consequently lighter, then the under, which is colder and heavier; the manner of which follows in this next Quæry, which is,", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01116", "bookId": 15491, "start": 835376, "end": 837094, "sha256": "16a28ed8e69374af7d7c79499a62cc27d4521bd723da89f021393f6e6be100fe", "text": "6. Whether the rarifaction and condensation of Water be not made after the same manner, as those effects are produc’d in the Air by heat; for I once pois’d a seal’d up Glass-bubble so exactly, that never so small an addition would make it sink, and as small a detraction make it swim, which suffering to rest in that Vessel of Water for some time, I alwayes found it about noon to be at the bottom of the Water, and at night, and in the morning, at the top: Imagining this to proceed from the Rarifaction of the Water, caus’d by the heat, I made tryal, and found most true; for I was able at any time, either to depress, or raise it, by heat and cold; for if I let the Pipe stand for some time in cold water, I could easily raise the Bubble from the bottom, whither I had a little afore detruded it, by putting the same Pipe into warm Water. And this way I have been able, for a very considerable time, to keep a Bubble so poys’d in the Water, as that it should remain in the middle, and neither sink, nor swim: For gently heating the upper part of the Pipe with a Candle, Coal, or hot Iron, till I perceived the Bubble begin to descend, then forbearing, I have observed it to descend to such or such a station, and there to remain suspended for some hours, till the heat by degrees were quite vanished, when it would again ascend to its former place. This I have also often observed naturally performed by the heat of the Air, which being able to rarifie the upper parts of the Water sooner then the lower, by reason of its immediate contact, the heat of the Air has sometimes so slowly increased, that I have observed the Bubble to be some hours in passing between the top and bottom.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01117", "bookId": 15491, "start": 837098, "end": 839178, "sha256": "9d3d3f3a34dbe44280d536e4120f9eba4373037e86091f8989f152b16a5e0877", "text": "7. Whether the appearance of the _Pike_ of _Tenerif_, and several other high Mountains, at so much greater a distance then seems to agree with their respective heights, be not to be attributed to the _Curvature_ of the visual Ray, that is made by its passing obliquely through so differingly _Dense_ a Medium from the top to the eye very far distant in the Horizon: For since we have already, I hope, made it very probable, that there is such an _inflection_ of the Rays by the differing density of the parts of the Air; and since I have found, by several Experiments made on places comparatively not very high, and have yet found the pressure sustain’d by those parts of the Air at the top and bottom, and also their differing Expansions very considerable: Insomuch that I have found the pressure of the _Atmosphere_ lighter at the top of St. _Paul_’s Steeple in _London_ (which is about two hundred foot high) then at the bottom by a sixtieth or fiftieth part, and the expansion at the top greater then that at the bottom by neer about so much also; for the _Mercurial Cylinder_ at the bottom was about 39. inches, and at the top half an inch lower; the Air also included in the Weather-glass, that at the bottom fill’d only 155. spaces, at the top fill’d 158. though the heat at the top and bottom was found exactly the same with a scal’d _Thermometer_: I think it very rational to suppose, that the greatest Curvature of the Rays is made nearest the Earth, and that the inflection of the Rays, above 3. or 4. miles upwards, is very inconsiderable, and therefore that by this means such calculations of the height of Mountains, as are made from the distance they are visible in the Horizon, from the supposal that that Ray is a straight Line (that from the top of the Mountain is, as ’twere, a Tangent to the Horizon whence it is seen) which really is a _Curve_, is very erroneous. Whence, I suppose, proceeds the reason of the exceedingly differing Opinions and Assertions of several Authors, about the height of several very high Hills.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01118", "bookId": 15491, "start": 839182, "end": 840482, "sha256": "4eb0cfe1cfd913ff71fa1f7068a687daccf3b46afafa44f5433138816d9c2eb3", "text": "8. Whether this Inflection of the Air will not very much alter the supposed distances of the Planets, which seem to have a very great dependence upon the Hypothetical refraction or inflection of the Air, and that refraction upon the hypothetical height and density of the Air: For since (as I hope) I have here shewn the Air to be quite otherwise then has been hitherto suppos’d, by manifesting it to be, both of a vast, at least an uncertain, height, and of an unconstant and irregular density; It must necessarily follow, that its inflection must be varied accordingly: And therefore we may hence learn, upon what sure grounds all the Astronomers hitherto have built, who have calculated the distance of the Planets from their Horizontal _Parallax_; for since the Refraction and _Parallax_ are so nearly ally’d, that the one cannot be known without the other, especially by any wayes that have been yet attempted, how uncertain must the _Parallax_ be, when the Refraction is unknown? And how easie is it for Astronomers to assign what distance they please to the Planets, and defend them, when they have such a curious _subterfuge_ as that of Refraction, wherein a very little variation will allow them liberty enough to place the Celestial Bodies at what distance they please.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01119", "bookId": 15491, "start": 840486, "end": 842480, "sha256": "23afa31e8a0ffbbc32d6e6704ecc6a30e2df7f0460ef34c771e15949e1de88ed", "text": "If therefore we would come to any certainty in this point, we must go other wayes to work; and as I have here examined the height and refractive property of the Air by other wayes then are usual, so must we find the Parallax of the Planets by wayes not yet practiced; and to this end, I cannot imagine any better way, then the Observations of them by two persons at very far distant parts of the Earth, that lye as neer as may be under the same Meridian, or Degree of longitude, but differing as much in latitude, as there can be places conveniently found: These two persons, at certain appointed times, should (as near as could be) both at the same time, observe the way of the _Moon_, _Mars_, _Venus_, _Jupiter_, and _Saturn_, amongst the fixt Stars, with a good large _Telescope_, and making little Iconismes, or pictures, of the small fixed Stars, that appear to each of them to lye in or near the way of the Center of the Planet, and the exact measure of the apparent Diameter; from the comparing of such Observations together, we might certainly know the true distance, or Parallax, of the Planet. And having any one true Parallax of these Planets, we might very easily have the other by their apparent Diameters, which the _Telescope_ likewise affords us very accurately. And thence their motions might be much better known, and their Theories more exactly regulated. And for this purpose I know not any one place more convenient for such an Observation to be made in, then in the Island of St. _Helena_, upon the Coast of _Africk_, which lyes about sixteen degrees to the Southwards of the Line, and is very near, according to the latest Geographical Maps, in the same Meridian with _London_; for though they may not perhaps lye exactly in the same, yet their Observations, being ordered according to what I shall anon shew, it will not be difficult to find the true distance of the Planet. But were they both under the same Meridian, it would be much better.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01120", "bookId": 15491, "start": 842484, "end": 844625, "sha256": "a1c6a75152ef3d6e97248c39740a9b92a00a223d8cdff2be12b5ca9f6a0d1323", "text": "And because Observations may be much easier, and more accurately made with good _Telescopes_, then with any other Instruments, it will not, I suppose, seem impertinent to explain a little what wayes I judge most fit and convenient for that particular. Such therefore as shall be the Observators for this purpose, should be furnished with the best _Telescopes_ that can be had, the longer the better and more exact will their Observations be, though they are somewhat the more difficultly manag’d. These should be fitted with a _Rete_, or divided Scale, plac’d at such a distance within the Eye-glass, that they may be distinctly seen, which should be the measures of minutes and seconds; by this Instrument each Observator should, at certain prefixt times, observe the Moon, or other Planet, in, or very near, the Meridian; and because it may be very difficult to find two convenient stations that will happen to be just under the same Meridian, they shall, each of them, observe the way of the Planet, both for an hour before, and an hour after, it arrive at the Meridian; and by a line, or stroke, amongst the small fixed Stars, they shall denote out the way that each of them observ’d the Center of the Planet to be mov’d in for those two hours: These Observations each of them shall repeat for many dayes together, that both it may happen, that both of them may sometimes make their Observations together, and that from divers Experiments we may be the better assured of what certainty and exactness such kind of Observations are like to prove. And because many of the Stars which may happen to come within the compass of such an _Iconism_, or Map, may be such as are only visible through a good _Telescope_, whose Positions perhaps have not been noted, nor their longitudes, or latitudes, any where remarked; therefore each Observator should indeavour to insert some fixt Star, whose longitude, and latitude, is known; or with his _Telescope_ he shall find the Position of some notable _telescopical_ Star, inserted in his Map, to some known fixt Star, whose place in the _Zodiack_ is well defin’d.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01121", "bookId": 15491, "start": 844629, "end": 845910, "sha256": "9be075c8e3a838e6f3ac194d5f17378d4b47ccb5c461e628249e4a153f0e5ace", "text": "Having by this means found the true distance of the Moon, and having observed well the _apparent Diameter_ of it at that time with a good _Telescope_, it is easie enough, by one single Observation of the apparent Diameter of the Moon with a good Glass, to determine her distances in any other part of her _Orbit_, or _Dragon_, and consequently, some few Observations will tell us, whether she be mov’d in an _Ellipsis_, (which, by the way, may also be found, even now, though I think we are yet ignorant of her true distance) and next (which without such Observations, I think, we shall not be sure of) we may know exactly the bigness of that _Ellipsis_, or Circle, and her true velocity in each part, and thereby be much the better inabled to find out the true cause of all her Motions. And though, even now also, we may, by such Observations in one station, as here at _London_, observe the _apparent Diameter_ and motion of the Moon in her _Dragon_, and consequently be inabled to make a better ghess at the _Species_ or kind of Curve, in which she is mov’d, that is, whether it be sphærical, or _elliptical_, or neither, and with what proportional velocities she is carried in that Curve; yet till her true _Parallax_ be known, we cannot determine either.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01122", "bookId": 15491, "start": 845914, "end": 847227, "sha256": "2a2dad775c66021ceda18158ad9a17f67c966c18ace42f450bcf5888dbfb79da", "text": "Next, for the true distance of the Sun, the best way will be, by accurate Observations, made in both these forementioned stations, of some convenient Eclipse of the Sun, many of which may so happen, as to be seen by both; for the _Penumbra_ of the Moon may, if she be sixty Semidiameters distant from the Earth, and the Sun above seven thousand, extend to about seventy degrees on the Earth, and consequently be seen by Observators as far distant as _London_, and St. _Helena_, which are not full sixty nine degrees distant. And this would much more accurately, then any way that has been yet used, determine the Parallax, and distance, of the Sun; for as for the Horizontal Parallax I have already shewn it sufficiently uncertain; nor is the way of finding it by the Eclipse of the Moon any other then hypothetical; and that by the difference of the true and apparent quadrature of the Moon is not less uncertain, witness their Deductions from it, who have made use of it; for _Vendeline_ puts that difference to be but 4′.30″. whence he deduces a vast distance of the Sun, as I have before shewn. _Ricciolo_ makes it full 30′.00. but _Reinoldus_, and _Kircher_, no less then three degrees. And no wonder, for if we examine the _Theory_, we shall find it so complicated with uncertainties.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01123", "bookId": 15491, "start": 847231, "end": 847995, "sha256": "c0c09d5c3e63d82162cebd343fe021e6b3748fb47cf07df9290e3986b9b5d92c", "text": "First, From the irregular surface of the Moon, and from several Parallaxes, that unless the _Dichotomy_ happen in the _Nonagesimus_ of the _Ecliptick_, and that in the Meridian, &c. all which happen so very seldom, that it is almost impossible to make them otherwise then uncertainly. Besides, we are not yet certain, but that there may be somewhat about the Moon _analogus_ to the Air about the Earth, which may cause a refraction of the light of the Sun, and consequently make a great difference in the apparent _dichotomy_ of the Moon. Their way indeed is very rational and ingenious; and such as is much to be preferred before the way by the Horizontal Parallax, could all the uncertainties be remov’d, and were the true distance of the Moon known.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01124", "bookId": 15491, "start": 847999, "end": 848572, "sha256": "23f784de8b361c37495acdf4e5ec7a97f51647c9d0406537ae0eae49631c1331", "text": "But because we find by the Experiments of _Vendiline_, _Reinoldus_, &c. that Observations of this kind are very uncertain also: It were to be wisht, that such kind of Observations, made at two very distant stations, were promoted. And it is so much the more desirable, because, from what I have now shewn of the nature of the Air, it is evident, that the refraction may be very much greater then all the Astronomers hitherto have imagined it: And consequently, that the distance of the Moon, and other Planets, may be much lesse then what they have hitherto made it.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01125", "bookId": 15491, "start": 848576, "end": 848892, "sha256": "1c870033933255bccfb25f05565596b7fd3a32194d06aacaf7ff09503edcc658", "text": "For first, this Inflection, I have here propounded, will allow the shadow of the Earth to be much shorter then it can be made by the other _Hypothesis_ of refraction, and consequently, the Moon will not suffer an Eclipse, unless it comes very much nearer the Earth then the Astronomers hitherto have supposed it.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01126", "bookId": 15491, "start": 848896, "end": 850548, "sha256": "ee19b8e319e1c1258f1f813e420e559a01bb6d3528e219322b4c8f92a5285df1", "text": "Secondly, There will not in this _Hypothesis_ be any other shadow of the Earth, such as _Kepler_ supposes, and calls the _Penumbra_, which is the shadow of the refracting _Atmosphere_; for the bending of the Rays being altogether caus’d by _Inflection_, as I have already shewn, all that part which is ascribed by _Kepler_, and others after him, to the _Penumbra_, or dark part, which is without the _umbra terræ_, does clear vanish; for in this _Hypothesis_ there is no refracting surface of the Air, and consequently there can be no shadows, such as appear in the ninth Figure of the 37. _Scheme_, where let ABCD represent the Earth, and EFGH the _Atmosphere_, which according to _Keplers_ supposition, is like a Sphære of Water terminated with an exact surface EFGH, let the lines MF, LB, ID, KH, represent the Rays of the Sun; ’tis manifest, that all the Rayes between LB, and ID, will be reflected by the surface of the Earth BAD, and consequently, the conical space BOD would be dark and obscure; but, say the followers of _Kepler_, the Rays between MF, and LB, and between ID, and KH, falling on the _Atmosphere_, are refracted, both at their ingress and egress out of the _Atmosphere_, nearer towards the Axis of the sphærical shadow CO, and consequently, inlighten a great part of that former dark Cone, and shorten, and contract, its top to N. And because of this Reflection of these Rays, say they, there is superinduc’d another shell of a dark Cone FPH, whose Apex P is yet further distant from the Earth: By this _Penumbra_, say they, the Moon is Eclipsed, for it alwayes passes between the lines 12, and 34.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01127", "bookId": 15491, "start": 850552, "end": 851537, "sha256": "efb45a90f71fea3c501deb798e0113444e567b87b521430a5a38346b69a3d1af", "text": "To which I say, That if the Air be such, as I have newly shewn it to be, and consequently cause such an inflection of the Rays that fall into it, those dark _Penumbra’s_ FYZQ, HXVT, and ORPS, will all vanish. For if we suppose the Air indefinitely extended, and to be no where bounded with a determinate refracting surface, as I have shewn it uncapable of having, from the nature of it; it will follow, that the Moon will no where be totally obscured, but when it is below the Apex N, of the dark blunt Cone of the Earth’s shadow: Now, from the supposition, that the Sun is distant about seven thousand Diameters, the point N, according to calculation, being not above twenty five terrestrial Semidiameters from the Center of the Earth: It follows, that whensoever the Moon eclipsed is totally darkned, without affording any kind of light, it must be within twenty five Semidiameters of the Earth, and consequently much lower then any Astronomers have hitherto put it.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01128", "bookId": 15491, "start": 851541, "end": 851860, "sha256": "5788e79db0a8ceac3831a4ef88af2cc231f6600729de1b4f685653ba64acd725", "text": "This will seem much more consonant to the rest of the secundary Planets; for the highest of _Jupiter’s_ Moons is between twenty and thirty _Jovial Semidiameters_ distant from the Center of _Jupiter_; and the Moons of _Saturn_ much about the same number of _Saturnial Semidiameters_ from the Center of that Planet.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01129", "bookId": 15491, "start": 851864, "end": 851983, "sha256": "53a7333e402ceba618e540880767736b763744def4d10937306b60a1072e7534", "text": "But these are but conjectures also, and must be determin’d by such kind of Observations as I have newly mention’d.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01130", "bookId": 15491, "start": 851987, "end": 853344, "sha256": "b9db1913159dc504fdb1f96488da5331c593090a2181cc04a2a82714f3a292fe", "text": "Nor will it be difficult, by this _Hypothesis_, to salve all the appearances of Eclipses of the Moon, for in this _Hypothesis_ also, there will be on each side of the shadow of the Earth, a _Penumbra_, not caus’d by the Refraction of the Air, as in the _Hypothesis_ of _Kepler_; but by the faint inlightning of it by the Sun: For if, in the sixth Figure, we suppose ESQ, and GSR, to be the Rays that terminate the shadow from either side of the Earth; ESQ coming from the upper limb of the Sun, and GSR from the under; it will follow, that the shadow of the Earth, within those Rays, that is, the Cone GSE, will be totally dark. But the Sun being not a point, but a large _area_ of light, there will be a secondary dark Cone of shadow EPG, which will be caus’d by the earth’s hindring part of the Rays of the Sun from falling on the parts GPR, and EPQ, of which halved shadow, or _Penumbra_, that part will appear brightest which lyes nearest the terminating Rayes GP, and EP, and those darker that lye nearest to GS, and ES: when therefore the Moon appears quite dark in the middle of the Eclipse, she must be below S, that is, between S and F; when she appears lighter near the middle of the Eclipse, she must pass some where between RQ and S; and when she is alike light through the whole Eclipse, she must pass between RQ, and P.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01131", "bookId": 15491, "start": 853355, "end": 853388, "sha256": "92bf9343d426ee004c3cb7caa3f283036b2f3626f071d4807d38518427facd12", "text": "* * * * *", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01132", "bookId": 15491, "start": 853394, "end": 853473, "sha256": "395a8270a9d2bfef8f0fc863dcfe242a0fcf90ab7006213a855d5931af8529b3", "text": "Observ. LIX. _Of multitudes of small _Stars_ discoverable by the _Telescope_._", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01133", "bookId": 15491, "start": 853477, "end": 856896, "sha256": "bb4bbdab9c0f0c7a325cbc97a5ce4549557bfcc04ce3e4a37a6a60570c582cc1", "text": "Having, in the last Observation, premis’d some particulars observable in the _medium_, through which we must look upon _Cœlestial_ Objects, I shall here add one Observation of the Bodies themselves; and for a _specimen_ I have made choice of the _Pleiades_, or seven Stars, commonly so called (though in our time and Climate there appear no more then six to the naked eye) and this I did the rather, because the deservedly famous _Galileo_, having publisht a Picture of this _Asterisme_, was able, it seems, with his Glass to discover no more then thirty six, whereas with a pretty good twelve foot _Telescope_, by which I drew this 38 _Iconism_, I could very plainly discover seventy eight, placed in the order they are ranged in the Figure, and of as many differing Magnitudes as the _Asterisks_, wherewith they are Marked, do specifie; there being no less then fourteen several Magnitudes of those Stars, which are compris’d within the draught, the biggest whereof is not accounted greater then one of the third Magnitude; and indeed that account is much too big, if it be compared with other Stars of the third Magnitude, especially by the help of a _Telescope_; for then by it may be perceiv’d, that its splendor, to the naked eye, may be somewhat augmented by the three little Stars immediately above it, which are near adjoyning to it. The _Telescope_ also discovers a great variety, even in the bigness of those, commonly reckon’d, of the first, second, third, fourth, fifth, and sixth Magnitude; so that should they be distinguish’d thereby, those six Magnitudes would, at least, afford no less then thrice that number of Magnitudes, plainly enough distinguishable by their Magnitude, and brightness; so that a good twelve foot Glass would afford us no less then twenty five several Magnitudes. Nor are these all, but a longer Glass does yet further, both more nicely distinguish the Magnitudes of those already noted, and also discover several other of smaller Magnitudes, not discernable by the twelve foot Glass: Thus have I been able, with a good thirty six foot Glass, to discover many more Stars in the _Pleiades_ then are here delineated, and those of three or four distinct Magnitudes less then any of those spots of the fourteenth Magnitude. And by the twinkling of divers other places of this _Asterisme_, when the Sky was very clear, I am apt to think, that with longer Glasses, or such as would bear a bigger _aperture_, there might be discovered multitudes of other small Stars, yet inconspicuous. And indeed, for the discovery of small Stars, the bigger the _aperture_ be, the better adapted is the Glass; for though perhaps it does make the several specks more radiant, and glaring, yet by that means, uniting more Rays very near to one point, it does make many of those radiant points conspicuous, which, by putting on a less _aperture_, may be found to vanish; and therefore, both for the discovery of the fixt Star, and for finding the _Satellites_ of _Jupiter_, before it be out of the day, or twilight, I alwayes leave the Object-glass as clear without any _aperture_ as I can, and have thereby been able to discover the _Satellites_ a long while before; I was able to discern them, when the smaller _apertures_ were put on; and at other times, to see multitudes of other smaller Stars, which a smaller _aperture_ makes to disappear.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01134", "bookId": 15491, "start": 856900, "end": 857302, "sha256": "9814701fd7a5c700ad4768ea505f7f6717b0b8712259b4baea42159c8766c7b0", "text": "In that notable _Asterism_ also of the Sword of _Orion_, where the ingenious Monsieur _Hugens van Zulichem_ has discovered only three little Stars in a cluster, I have with a thirty six foot Glass, without any _aperture_ (the breadth of the Glass being about some three inches and a half) discover’d five, and the twinkling of divers others up and down in divers parts of that small milky Cloud.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01135", "bookId": 15491, "start": 857306, "end": 857601, "sha256": "5b6de41cef0fc9888e5906bd929ef54754a76ae7656fd47e3ce67b555b847fbb", "text": "So that ’tis not unlikely, but that the meliorating of _Telescopes_ will afford as great a variety of new Discoveries in the Heavens, as better _Microscopes_ would among small terrestrial Bodies, and both would give us infinite cause, more and more to admire the omnipotence of the Creator.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01136", "bookId": 15491, "start": 857612, "end": 857645, "sha256": "92bf9343d426ee004c3cb7caa3f283036b2f3626f071d4807d38518427facd12", "text": "* * * * *", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01137", "bookId": 15491, "start": 857651, "end": 857679, "sha256": "7e61b5344f50347645b37a31d18696ddf86fc73f723682e7aeb22bbec88e2270", "text": "Observ. LX. _Of the _Moon_._", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01138", "bookId": 15491, "start": 857683, "end": 859550, "sha256": "78a36e3a86ee360d0833d82e2bbac777c6d3fe648b507a48868fd46e0c513f8a", "text": "Having a pretty large corner of the Plate for the seven Starrs, void, for the filling it up, I have added one small _Specimen_ of the appearance of the parts of the Moon, by describing a small spot of it, which, though taken notice of, both by the Excellent _Hevelius_, and called _Mons Olympus_ (though I think somewhat improperly, being rather a vale) and represented by the Figure X. of the 38. _Scheme_, and also by the Learn’d _Ricciolus_, who calls it _Hipparchus_, and describes it by the Figure Y, yet how far short both of them come of the truth, may be somewhat perceiv’d by the draught, which I have here added of it, in the Figure Z, (which I drew by a thirty foot Glass, in _October_ 1664. just before the Moon was half inlightned) but much better by the Reader’s diligently observing it himself, at a convenient time, with a Glass of that length, and much better yet with one of threescore foot long, for through these it appears a very spacious Vale, incompassed with a ridge of Hills, not very high in comparison of many other in the Moon, nor yet very steep. The Vale it self ABCD, is much of the figure of a Pear, and from several appearances of it, seems to be some very fruitful place, that is, to have its surface all covered over with some kinds of vegetable substances; for in all positions of the light on it, it seems to give a much fainter reflection then the more barren tops of the incompassing Hills, and those a much fainter then divers other cragged, chalky, or rocky Mountains of the Moon. So that I am not unapt to think, that the Vale may have Vegetables _analogus_ to our Grass, Shrubs, and Trees; and most of these incompassing Hills may be covered with so thin a vegetable Coat, as we may observe the Hills with us to be, such as the short Sheep pasture which covers the Hills of _Salisbury_ Plains.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01139", "bookId": 15491, "start": 859554, "end": 860744, "sha256": "4313437ca61097a1bd7e21a2c7278df613f018e69da9ce7c1d0bc8b455326cbe", "text": "Up and down in several parts of this place here describ’d (as there are multitudes in other places all over the surface of the Moon) may be perceived several kinds of pits, which are shap’d almost like a dish, some bigger, some less, some shallower, some deeper, that is, they seem to be a hollow _Hemisphere_, incompassed with a round rising bank, as if the substance in the middle had been digg’d up, and thrown on either side. These seem to me to have been the effects of some motions within the body of the Moon, _analogus_ to our Earthquakes, by the eruption of which, as it has thrown up a brim, or ridge, round about, higher then the Ambient surface of the Moon, so has it left a hole, or depression, in the middle, proportionably lower; divers places resembling some of these, I have observ’d here in _England_, on the tops of some Hills, which might have been caus’d by some Earthquake in the younger dayes of the world. But that which does most incline me to this belief, is, first, the generality and diversity of the Magnitude of these pits all over the body of the Moon. Next, the two experimental wayes, by which I have made a representation of them.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01140", "bookId": 15491, "start": 860748, "end": 862323, "sha256": "4b6deb2ad6b6f5e01d49e734c3eba08edbe243a777a487339caaa00db825d81e", "text": "The first was with a very soft and well temper’d mixture of Tobacco-pipe clay and Water, into which, if I let fall any heavy body, as a Bullet, it would throw up the mixture round the place, which for a while would make a representation, not unlike these of the Moon; but considering the state and condition of the Moon, there seems not any probability to imagine, that it should proceed from any cause _analogus_ to this; for it would be difficult to imagine whence those bodies should come; and next, how the substance of the Moon should be so soft; but if a Bubble be blown under the surface of it, and suffer’d to rise, and break; or if a Bullet, or other body, sunk in it, be pull’d out from it, these departing bodies leave an impression on the surface of the mixture, exactly like these of the Moon, save that these also quickly subside and vanish. But the second, and most notable, representation was, what I observ’d in a pot of boyling Alabaster, for there that powder being by the eruption of vapours reduc’d to a kind of fluid consistence, if, whil’st it boyls, it be gently remov’d besides the fire, the Alabaster presently ceasing to boyl, the whole surface, especially that where some of the last Bubbles have risen, will appear all over covered with small pits, exactly shap’d like these of the Moon, and by holding a lighted Candle in a large dark Room, in divers positions to this surface, you may exactly represent all the _Phænomena_ of these pits in the Moon, according as they are more or less inlightned by the Sun.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01141", "bookId": 15491, "start": 862327, "end": 864628, "sha256": "5cf7691b7dd0f1ccf62881ec8420be6492519d2ff0f2ff1ca04432dec4ae81fb", "text": "And that there may have been in the Moon some such motion as this, which may have made these pits, will seem the more probable, if we suppose it like our Earth, for the Earthquakes here with us seem to proceed from some such cause, as the boyling of the pot of Alabaster, there seeming to be generated in the Earth from some subterraneous fires, or heat, great quantities of vapours, that is, of expanded aerial substances, which not presently finding a passage through the ambient parts of the Earth, do, as they are increased by the supplying and generating principles, and thereby (having not sufficient room to expand themselves) extreamly condens’d, at last overpower, with their _elastick_ properties, the resistence of the incompassing Earth, and lifting it up, or cleaving it, and so shattering of the parts of the Earth above it, do at length, where they find the parts of the Earth above them more loose, make their way upwards, and carrying a great part of the Earth before them, not only raise a small brim round about the place, out of which they break, but for the most part considerable high Hills and Mountains, and when they break from under the Sea, divers times, mountainous Islands; this seems confirm’d by the _Vulcans_ in several places of the Earth, the mouths of which, for the most part, are incompassed with a Hill of a considerable height, and the tops of those Hills, or Mountains, are usually shap’d very much like these pits, or dishes, of the Moon: Instances of this we have in the descriptions of _Ætna_ in _Sicily_, of _Hecla_ in _Iceland_, of _Tenerif_ in the _Canaries_, of the several _Vulcans_ in _New-Spain_, describ’d by _Gage_, and more especially in the eruption of late years in one of the _Canary_ Islands. In all of which there is not only a considerable high Hill raised about the mouth of the _Vulcan_, but, like the spots of the Moon, the top of those Hills are like a dish, or bason. And indeed, if one attentively consider the nature of the thing, one may find sufficient reason to judge, that it cannot be otherwise; for these eruptions, whether of fire, or smoak, alwayes raising great quantities of Earth before them, must necessarily, by the fall of those parts on either side, raise very considerable heaps.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01142", "bookId": 15491, "start": 864632, "end": 869291, "sha256": "324225304d391adb387a546025428ecc60a6a5b76e54539694ff25d045a7312b", "text": "Now, both from the figures of them, and from several other circumstances; these pits in the Moon seem to have been generated much after the same manner that the holes in Alabaster, and the _Vulcans_ of the Earth are made. For first, it is not improbable, but that the substance of the Moon may be very much like that of our Earth, that is, may consist of an earthy, sandy, or rocky substance, in several of its superficial parts, which parts being agitated, undermin’d, or heav’d up, by eruptions of vapours, may naturally be thrown into the same kind of figured holes, as the small dust, or powder of Alabaster. Next, it is not improbable, but that there may be generated, within the body of the Moon, divers such kind of internal fires and heats, as may produce such Exhalations; for since we can plainly enough discover with a _Telescope_, that there are multitudes of such kind of eruptions in the body of the Sun it self, which is accounted the most noble Ætherial body, certainly we need not be much scandaliz’d at such kind of alterations, or corruptions, in the body of this lower and less considerable part of the universe, the Moon, which is only secundary, or attendant, on the bigger, and more considerable body of the Earth. Thirdly, ’tis not unlikely, but that supposing such a sandy or mouldring substance to be there found, and supposing also a possibility of the generation of the internal _elastical_ body (whether you will call it air or vapours) ’tis not unlikely, I say, but that there is in the Moon a principle of gravitation, such as in the Earth. And to make this probable, I think, we need no better Argument, then the roundness, or globular Figure of the body of the Moon it self, which we may perceive very plainly by the _Telescope_, to be (bating the small inequality of the Hills and Vales in it, which are all of them likewise shap’d, or levelled, as it were, to answer to the center of the Moons body) perfectly of a Sphærical figure, that is, all the parts of it are so rang’d (bating the comparatively small ruggedness of the Hills and Dales) that the outmost bounds of them are equally distant from the Center of the Moon, and consequently, it is exceedingly probable also, that they are equidistant from the Center of gravitation; and indeed, the figure of the superficial parts of the Moon are so exactly shap’d, according as they should be, supposing it had a gravitating principle as the Earth has, that even the figure of those parts themselves is of sufficient efficacy to make the gravitation, and the other two suppositions probable: so that the other suppositions may be rather prov’d by this considerable Circumstance, or Observation, then this suppos’d Explication can by them; for he that shall attentively observe with an excellent _Telescope_, how all the Circumstances, notable in the shape of the superficial parts, are, as it were, exactly adapted to suit with such a principle, will, if he well considers the usual method of Nature in its other proceedings, find abundant argument to believe it to have really there also such a principle; for I could never observe, among all the mountainous or prominent parts of the Moon (whereof there is a huge variety) that any one part of it was plac’d in such a manner, that if there should be a gravitating, or attracting principle in the body of the Moon, it would make that part to fall, or be mov’d out of its visible posture. Next, the shape and position of the parts is such, that they all seem put into those very shapes they are in by a gravitating power: For first, there are but very few clifts, or very steep declivities in the ascent of these Mountains; for besides those Mountains, which are by _Hevelius_ call’d the _Apennine_ Mountains, and some other, which seem to border on the Seas of the Moon, and those only upon one side, as is common also in those Hills that are here on the Earth; there are very few that seem to have very steep ascents, but, for the most part, they are made very round, and much resemble the make of the Hills and Mountains also of the Earth; this may be partly perceived by the Hills incompassing this Vale, which I have here describ’d; and as on the Earth also, the middlemost of these Hills seems the highest, so is it obvious also, through a good _Telescope_, in those of the Moon; the Vales also in many are much shap’d like those of the Earth, and I am apt to think, that could we look upon the Earth from the Moon, with a good _Telescope_, we might easily enough perceive its surface to be very much like that of the Moon.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01143", "bookId": 15491, "start": 869295, "end": 870085, "sha256": "c94362196c2a1ad3e7e894624638c302d379219daadc9d73e701630e83574958", "text": "Now whereas in this small draught, (as there would be multitudes if the whole Moon were drawn after this manner) there are several little Ebullitions, or Dishes, even in the Vales themselves, and in the incompassing Hills also; this will, from this supposition, (which I have, I think, upon very good reason taken) be exceeding easily explicable; for, as I have several times also observ’d, in the surface of Alabaster so ordered, as I before describ’d, so may the later eruptions of vapours be even in the middle, or on the edges of the former; and other succeeding these also in time may be in the middle or edges of these, &c. of which there are Instances enough in divers parts of the body of the Moon, and by a boyling pot of Alabaster will be sufficiently exemplifi’d.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01144", "bookId": 15491, "start": 870089, "end": 871238, "sha256": "3e948cd943de32e97193392eb409bec9c98b3f7e9a8efce5c037923d750d7f60", "text": "To conclude therefore, it being very probable, that the Moon has a principle of gravitation, it affords an excellent distinguishing Instance in the search after the cause of gravitation, or attraction, to hint, that it does not depend upon the diurnal or turbinated motion of the Earth, as some have somewhat inconsiderately supposed and affirmed it to do; for if the Moon has an attractive principle, whereby it is not only shap’d round, but does firmly contain and hold all its parts united, though many of them seem as loose as the sand on the Earth, and that the Moon is not mov’d about its Center; then certainly the turbination cannot be the cause of the attraction of the Earth, and therefore some other principle must be thought of, that will agree with all the secundary as well as primary Planets. But this, I confess, is but a probability, and not a demonstration, which (from any Observation yet made) it seems hardly capable of, though how successful future indeavours (promoted by the meliorating of Glasses, and observing particular circumstances) may be in this, or any other, kind, must be with patience expected.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01145", "bookId": 15491, "start": 871249, "end": 871282, "sha256": "92bf9343d426ee004c3cb7caa3f283036b2f3626f071d4807d38518427facd12", "text": "* * * * *", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01146", "bookId": 15491, "start": 871288, "end": 871296, "sha256": "f129a44ceb0cd7f1d63c3ddd0a2f58f8afde34a43ae26199d98c1a082fa2ae7a", "text": "_FINIS._", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01147", "bookId": 15491, "start": 871307, "end": 871340, "sha256": "92bf9343d426ee004c3cb7caa3f283036b2f3626f071d4807d38518427facd12", "text": "* * * * *", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01148", "bookId": 15491, "start": 871346, "end": 871356, "sha256": "9f4939bd27bd8ee16d30b8cd044de466cfa355881d6f9004ed9b30136116327d", "text": "THE TABLE.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01149", "bookId": 15491, "start": 871360, "end": 871398, "sha256": "9281cf8ffc6f31230af9ea442d276c4e871ee0192b1194604df03bab0c259271", "text": "Observat. 1. Of the point of a Needle.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01150", "bookId": 15491, "start": 871402, "end": 871663, "sha256": "cc7abdb1ac13ac854f7467cdb0e8b221ee12d630c5152d282cdbb07b7aae511f", "text": "_A Description of it: what other Bodies have the sharpest points: of the ruggedness of polisht Metal. A description of a printed point. Of very small writing, and the use of it for secret intelligence: the cause of the coursness of printed lines and points._", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01151", "bookId": 15491, "start": 871667, "end": 871701, "sha256": "ac9c187f519f1189577941c7dbdc0439838733d9ee761615bda09c1e0b1c2dcd", "text": "Observ. 2. Of the Edge of a Razor.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01152", "bookId": 15491, "start": 871705, "end": 871812, "sha256": "e0236b200c5c644b9fcd7d91dc1f76a50dd621ef039b94deb405092a437022a2", "text": "_A description of it: the causes of its roughness: of the roughness of very well polisht Optick Glasses._.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01153", "bookId": 15491, "start": 871816, "end": 871839, "sha256": "b398e9051ace869e0fcbd137eeed140258a1e72be6d42ee4f3a469daeba56d6d", "text": "Obser. 3. Of fine Lawn.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01154", "bookId": 15491, "start": 871843, "end": 871994, "sha256": "6407c7b111047070a4395feec829926b73bc7badc3e67b2b43150447ef2bd0b8", "text": "_A description of it: A silken Flax mention’d, an attempt to explicate the _Phænomena_ of it, with a conjecture at the cause of the gloss of Silk._", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01155", "bookId": 15491, "start": 871998, "end": 872018, "sha256": "04fc3eaca8121882c12ee479716a3d7bc2b51b028cb6031e6f24b98ceb361c53", "text": "Observ. 4. Of Tabby.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01156", "bookId": 15491, "start": 872022, "end": 872303, "sha256": "e51590ba31f586002acd288b0eeb4f8081d564311c073f892ec42881a8a9d240", "text": "_A short description of it. A conjecture about the reason why Silk is so susceptible of vivid colours: and why Flax and Hair is not. A conjecture, that it may perhaps be possible to spin a kind of artificial Silk, out of some glutinous substance that may equalize natural Silk._", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01157", "bookId": 15491, "start": 872307, "end": 872337, "sha256": "537a5f2369a88654c4ac728ab6f28d64a3f5b1b3e6df07e656f0b7f729786a5e", "text": "Observ. 5. Of water’d Silks.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01158", "bookId": 15491, "start": 872341, "end": 872597, "sha256": "518d0b42d3f4ec93015f8b9010222b330e20806567791de25627666276b6e6fd", "text": "_The great unaccurateness of artificial works. A description of a piece of water’d Silk; an Explication of the cause of the _Phænomena_: the way by which that operation is perform’d: some other _Phænomena_ mention’d depending on the same cause._", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01159", "bookId": 15491, "start": 872601, "end": 872627, "sha256": "6fd490aadf0adbbdf53280962ec6f73560275e7f2b60071a008950490c739b6e", "text": "Observ. 6. Of Glass Canes.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01160", "bookId": 15491, "start": 872631, "end": 874586, "sha256": "545f04a54e6edcb6bee715c5c807bff13748899fa71f52003db2ce4447a0743d", "text": "_The exceeding smallness of some of these Bodies. By what means the hollowness of these small pipes was discover’d: several _Phænomena_ of it mention’d. An attempt to explicate them from the congruity and incongruity of Bodies: what those proprieties are. A hypothetical explication of fluidity: of the fluidity of the air, and several other _Phænomena_ of it: of congruity & incongruity; illustrated with several Experiments: what effects may be ascrib’d to these properties: an explication of the roundness of the surface of fluid Bodies: how the ingress of fluid bodies into a small hole of an heterogeneous body is hindred by incongruity; a multitude of _Phænomena_ explicable hereby. Several Quæries propounded; 1. Concerning the propagation of light through differing mediums. 2. Concerning Gravity. 3. Concerning the roundness of the Sun, Moon, and Planets. 4. Concerning the roundness of Fruits, Stones, and divers artificial Bodies. His Highness Prince _Rupert’s_ way of making Shot. Of the roundness of Hail. Of the grain of _Kettering_ Stone, and of the Sparks of fire. 5. Concerning springiness and tenacity. 6. Concerning the original of Fountains; several Histories and Experiments relating thereto. 7. Concerning the dissolution of Bodies in Liquors. 8. Concerning the universality of this Principle: what method was taken in making and applying experiments. The explication of filtration, and several other _Phænomena_; such as the motion of Bodies on the surface of Liquors; several Experiments mention’d to this purpose. Of the height to which the water may rise in these Pipes; and a conjecture about the juices of Vegetables, & the use of their pores. A further explication of Congruity: And an attempt of solving the _Phænomena_ of the strange Experiment of the suspension of the _Mercury_ at a much greater height then thirty inches. The efficacy of immediate contact, and the reason of it._", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01161", "bookId": 15491, "start": 874590, "end": 874616, "sha256": "cf809be11cf34bad4740b0a62ba369736e80354f7cc37eea394566884fa7de71", "text": "Observ. 7. Of Glass drops.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01162", "bookId": 15491, "start": 874620, "end": 876161, "sha256": "134ee2e1a13005043af826872b7c9ec3b7e05f16e1a242342fcf2e28cec4a0b7", "text": "_Several Experiments made with these small Bodies. The manner of the breaking and flawing of them, explicated by Figures. What other bodies will be flawed much in the same manner: some other tryals, and a description of the Drops themselves: some conjectures at the cause of the _Phænomena_, indeavoured to be made probable by several Arguments and Experiments. An Experiment of the expansion of Water by heat, and shrinking by cold: the like Proprieties suppos’d in Glass drops, and what effects proceed from them: the seven Propositions on which the conjectures are grounded. Experiments to shew, that bodies expand by heat. The manner of making _Thermometers_, and the Instrument for _graduating_ them. The manner of _graduating_ them, and their use: Other Experiments to prove the expansion of bodies by heat. Four experimental Arguments to prove the expansion of Glass by heat: further prov’d by the Experiment of boyling Alabaster; which is explicated. An explication of the contracting of heated Glass upon cooling. An explication how the parts of the Glass become bent by sudden cold, and how kept from extricating themselves by the contignation of the Glass drop; which is further explicated by another Experiment made with a hollow Glass ball: the reason of the flying asunder of the parts further explicated: that ’tis probable these bodies may have many flaws, though not visible, and why: how a gradual heating and cooling does put the parts of Glass, and other hardned bodies, into a looser texture._", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01163", "bookId": 15491, "start": 876165, "end": 876192, "sha256": "22c1acc3aab63e98b9779f87ef526013228f38af4645848c245b4314175276af", "text": "Observ. 8. Of Fiery Sparks.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01164", "bookId": 15491, "start": 876196, "end": 876621, "sha256": "e98e0f4edf505792ec0215db2a86177cea0f111df6dcc78fab30d6645f8c9710", "text": "_The occasion and manner of making this Experiment: divers Observations set down in order to the finding out the reasons: some conjectures concerning it, which are endeavoured to be explicated and confirm’d by several Experiments and Reasons: the _Hypothesis_ a little further explicated. Some Observations about the Globular Figure: and an Experiment of reducing the filings of Tin or Lead to exactly round Globules._", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01165", "bookId": 15491, "start": 876625, "end": 876659, "sha256": "a92a52ddcecca16b1ee3f7b10b1c0c284ee05eb022e8a70690e8ea33ce723d8f", "text": "Observ. 9. Of Fantastical Colours.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01166", "bookId": 15491, "start": 876663, "end": 879041, "sha256": "135653ef2475124b05146897790ca6b5758f7f88df848a66ff9688154a6203b9", "text": "_The texture of _Muscovy_ Glass; its Figures: what other Bodies are like it: that it exhibits several colours, and how: several Observations and Experiments about those colours: the reason why on this occasion the nature of colours is inquir’d into. A conjecture at the reason of these colours explicated by several Experiments and Reasons: First, by continual cleaving the Body till it become colour’d. Secondly, by producing all kinds of colours with two flat Plates of Glass. Thirdly, by blowing Glass so thin in the Lamp, till it produce the same effect. Fourthly, by doing the same with Bubbles of divers other transparent Bodies: the reasons of the colours on nealed Steel, where by the way the causes of the hardning and tempering of Steel, endeavour’d to be shewn and explicated by several Reasons and Experiments: the reason of the colours on Lead, Brass, Copper, Silver, &c. other Instances of such colour’d bodies in animal substances: several other distinguishing Observations. _Des Cartes Hypothesis_ of Colours examin’d. An _Hypothesis_ for the explication of light by motion, indeavoured to be explicated and determined by several Reasons and Experiments: three distinguishing Properties of the motion of light. The distinguishing Properties of a trasparent _Medium_ [that there seems to be no Experiment that proves the Instantaneous motion of light] the manner of the propagation of light through them. Of the _homogeniety_ and _heterogeniety_ of transparent _Mediums_, and what effects they cause on the Rayes of light, explicated by a Figure: an Examination of the refraction of the Rays by a plain Surface, which causes Colours. An Examination of the like effects produced by a spherical Surface: the use that may be made of these Experiments, for the examination of several _Hypotheses_ of Colours. _Des Cartes Hypothesis_ examin’d. Some Difficulties taken notice of in it. What seems most likely to be the cause of colour: that propriety is indeavoured to be shewn in a Glass ball: that the reflection is not necessary to produce Colours nor a double refraction: the _Hypothesis_ further examined, both in the _pellucid Medium_ and in the Eye. The definitions of Colours; and a further explication and examination of the Proprieties of _laminated_ Bodies; by what means they conduce to the production of Colours._", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01167", "bookId": 15491, "start": 879045, "end": 879078, "sha256": "7aa64f9cb4e75bcd979f0a09fcffad34e3fcc68a46bb234f66ee615e27f2d3f9", "text": "Observ. 10. Of Metalline Colours.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01168", "bookId": 15491, "start": 879082, "end": 880666, "sha256": "a1321c821001d18dae090fa16c39266b30774303ff50a4351f03705b155bdbcd", "text": "_That all Colours seem to be caus’d by refraction. An _Hypothesis_ consonant hereunto, explicated by Figures. How several Experiments, of the sudden changing of Colours by Chymical Liquors may be hereby explicated: how many wayes such Chymical Liquors may alter the colours of Bodies. Objections made against this _Hypothesis_ of two colours only, indeavoured to be answer’d, by several Reasons and Experiments. The reason why some Colours are capable of being diluted, others not: what those are: that probably the particles of most metalline Colours are transparent; for this several Arguments and Observations are recited: how Colours become incapable of diluting, explicated by a Similitude. An Instrument, by which one and the same coloured Liquor at once exhibited all the degrees of colours between the palest yellow and deepest red: as likewise another that exhibited all varieties of blues: several Experiments try’d with these Boxes. An Objection drawn from the nature of Painters colours answered: that diluting and whitening a colour are different operations; as are deepening and blackening: why some may be diluted by grinding, and some other by being tempered with Oyl: several Experiments for the explicating of some former Assertions: why Painters are forced to make use of many colours: what those colours are: and how mixt. The conclusion, that most coloured Bodies seem to consist of transparent particles: that all colours dissoluble in Liquors are capable of diluting: some of mixing, what a strange variety may thereby be produc’d._", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01169", "bookId": 15491, "start": 880670, "end": 880705, "sha256": "c5f089a34647eccc7505ae0fdef45666ce74fa76f958ebdadf68df6727f9f331", "text": "Observ. 11. Of the Figures of Sand.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01170", "bookId": 15491, "start": 880709, "end": 880804, "sha256": "b7d6eb30ebdf3f5d3c188e29998f303ad43bb9dacc1209f6343b2d6146e9f3f9", "text": "_Of the substances and shapes of common and other Sands: a description of a very small Shell._", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01171", "bookId": 15491, "start": 880808, "end": 880839, "sha256": "697eaab646cbfea83b843a9c898bb0d330199d17f444f4b9f1fb4b4aabb3c7ad", "text": "Observ. 12. Of Gravel in Urine.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01172", "bookId": 15491, "start": 880843, "end": 880935, "sha256": "1905af19814d963c4e1bda492867bebe0dd1855e4c9cfddf6499db9cee4f6d56", "text": "_A description of such Gravel, and some tryals made with it, and conjectures at its cause._", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01173", "bookId": 15491, "start": 880939, "end": 880972, "sha256": "54293525d3597b83e947e9ea6f329ee93184bcf18165f2cbf35d6f4a3254dcef", "text": "Obser. 13. Of Diamonds in Flints.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01174", "bookId": 15491, "start": 880976, "end": 881469, "sha256": "dbdfe05d0546abee146dc641d7ccdfe38bfadbea1c03f81e55b4eb621c4303fd", "text": "_A description and examination of some of them, explicated further by Cornish Diamonds: several Observations about reflection and refraction: and some deductions therefrom; as an explication of whiteness; that the Air has a stronger reflection then Water. How several Bodies may be made transparent: an explication of the _Phænomena_ of _Oculus Mundi_. Of the regular Geometrical Figures of several Bodies: an hypothetical explication mentioned: the method of prosecuting this inquiry._", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01175", "bookId": 15491, "start": 881473, "end": 881502, "sha256": "e4f35f8393afdacc697373f4904d52b80882aefb68a034919c88efa17f49ea51", "text": "Observ. 14. Of frozen Figure.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01176", "bookId": 15491, "start": 881506, "end": 881717, "sha256": "c2b26a08935fbe058e1962850bbad8403b2eca90e952995b28c7bb6089b4b81e", "text": "_The Figures of hoar Frost, and the Vortices on windows: several Observations on the branched Figures of Urine: the Figures of _Regulus Martis stellatus_, and of Fern. Of the Figures of Snow. Of frozen water._", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01177", "bookId": 15491, "start": 881721, "end": 881752, "sha256": "f62cd34e2fed2c301b578e0c7fe1a790f10ebf1e770eb46dfd0dc4583f34f65b", "text": "Observ. 15. Of Kettering-Stone.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01178", "bookId": 15491, "start": 881756, "end": 882317, "sha256": "f6afc55f3607a93be428ae327827d8379998ba9dccd7757db026dbf22a03326f", "text": "_A description of the Figure of the Particles, and of the Pores, and of the Contexture. Several Observations and Considerations thereupon: some Conjectures about the _medium_ and propagation of light, and the constitution of fluid and transparent Bodies. Several Experiments to prove the porousness of Marble, and some other Stones. An account of some Experiments to this purpose made on an _Oculus Mundi_: some other Considerations and Experiments about the porousness of Bodies: some other Considerations about the propagation of light and refraction._", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01179", "bookId": 15491, "start": 882321, "end": 882345, "sha256": "1ff523a9696d02a2c0491c8078c9df8ab04524a064611084cc5128e41bd52b8f", "text": "Observ. 16. Of Charcoal.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01180", "bookId": 15491, "start": 882349, "end": 882963, "sha256": "9ce77591ec199409d7cb2c3f1a674f266c6bc0dc5d58885eb16a032db794bf8e", "text": "_Of two sort of Pores to be found in all Woods and Vegetables; the shape of them; the number, thickness, manner and use of these Pores. An explication of the _Phænomena_ of Coals. The manner of charring Wood, or any other body. What part of Wood is combustible. An _Hypothesis_ of fire explicated in twelve particulars, wherein the Action of the Air, as a _Menstruum_ in the dissolution of all sulphureous bodies, is very particularly explicated, and some other Considerations about the Air proposed: the examination of a piece of _Lignum fossile_ sent from _Rome_, and some Conclusions thence deduc’d._", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01181", "bookId": 15491, "start": 882967, "end": 883016, "sha256": "8429f21167830f9a2431b95d0e551d6438c441ec6584853be1a420ef1a20dcdd", "text": "Observ. 17. Of Wood, and other Bodies, petrified.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01182", "bookId": 15491, "start": 883020, "end": 883392, "sha256": "1779c66a7f93cf1a2e650b373c14a622c9ecce5e544c92d9f3cfd4b997eb1728", "text": "_Several Observations of divers kinds of these substances. A more particular examination and explication of one very notable piece of petrified Wood; and some Conjectures about the cause of those productions: several Observations made on other petrified Bodies, as shells, &c. And some probable Conclusions thence deduc’d, about the original cause of those Bodies._", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01183", "bookId": 15491, "start": 883396, "end": 883447, "sha256": "4f6914221952f549829e47c5a0225f68880c6956d813a84b84a63ec43d2d6a80", "text": "Observ. 18. Of the Pores of Cork, and other Bodies.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01184", "bookId": 15491, "start": 883451, "end": 884036, "sha256": "13a0b063a09767c1974f2ec3a17fef07cef0ab87cf31ad3864d34c237468b8d3", "text": "_Several Observations and Considerations about the nature of Cork: the number of Pores in a cubical Inch, and several considerations about Pores. Several Experiments and Observations about the nature of Cork: the Texture and Pores of the Pith of an Elder, and several other Trees: of the Stalks of Burdocks, Teasels, Daisies, Carret, Fennel, Ferne, Reeds, &c. of the frothy texture of the Pith of a Feather: some Conjectures about the probability of values in these Pores. Argued also from the _Phænomena_ of sensible and humble Plant: some Observations on which are inserted._", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01185", "bookId": 15491, "start": 884040, "end": 884094, "sha256": "88d6ebf1fee7d07f000799edeef3324e63a593a5d80bb1b0ae0873f6df01a44e", "text": "Observ. 19. Of a Vegetable growing on blighted Leaves.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01186", "bookId": 15491, "start": 884098, "end": 884245, "sha256": "a642f5f1f1f13b70ec1e9f0ec9738185cfb334434eaa193103c5e39d36707278", "text": "_Several Observations and Examinations made of them: several Considerations about spontaneous generation arising from the putrefaction of Bodies._", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01187", "bookId": 15491, "start": 884249, "end": 884289, "sha256": "c0fee3496ee8fcb7e4e4c1cf98d5b859d63321a6d162c1375d036c3997ccfe8b", "text": "Observ. 20. Of Blew Mould and Mushromes.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01188", "bookId": 15491, "start": 884293, "end": 884887, "sha256": "0c1c5b804c078295b059dfe6bb975d01954813d29c458f1373a236e65b5e5da7", "text": "_The description of several kinds of Moulds. The method of proceeding in natural Inquiries. Several Considerations about the nature of Mould and Mushromes. 1. That they may be produc’d without seed. 2. That they seem to have none. 3. That Salts, &c. are shap’d into as curious figures without a seed. 4. Of a kind of Mushrome growing in a Candle: A more particular explication of this last sort of Mushromes. 5. Of the figure and manner of the production of petrified Iceicles: several deductions from these Considerations, about the nature of the vegetation of Mould and Mushromes._", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01189", "bookId": 15491, "start": 884891, "end": 884911, "sha256": "3bb6ae62ff6f8607d57032e2860127f587226d8a61125a67fbfd5dd0ab6d6c8e", "text": "Observ. 21. Of Moss.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01190", "bookId": 15491, "start": 884915, "end": 885411, "sha256": "6992563a4b42a93add1218a78fab134537e72ecd409965cf16481ed3538508e6", "text": "_The description of several sorts of Mosses; upon this occasion several Conjectures, about the manner of the production of these kinds of Bodies, are hinted, and some of them explicated by a Similitude taken from a piece of Clock-work, The vast difference of the bigness of vegetable Bodies; and the probability that the least may comprehend as curious contrivances as the greatest. Of multitudes of other Moulds, Mosses, and Mushromes, and other vegetating Principles, in Water, Wood, _&c.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01191", "bookId": 15491, "start": 885415, "end": 885464, "sha256": "88278ec29a2f198cb9f523f73f21786d1f5e9b912ef7b257e51d3d2af0272250", "text": "Observ. 22. Of Sponges, and other fibrous Bodies.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01192", "bookId": 15491, "start": 885468, "end": 885817, "sha256": "1319c50f08cc27783afce298c6775b283a786523fba80f40afdbd6f54a0d63b2", "text": "_Several Observations and Conjectures about the making of these Bodies, and several Histories out of Authors. Scarce any other Body hath such a texture; the fibrous texture of Leather, Spunk, &c. (which are there describ’d) come nearest to it That upon tryal with a piece of Spunge and Oyl the necessity of respiration could not be alter’d._", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01193", "bookId": 15491, "start": 885821, "end": 885857, "sha256": "351f4cee56990a24bf025e5bd8a961b25ce8ab7963ecc50dad8843a3bd2d5eb1", "text": "Observ. 23. Of the Form of Sea-weed.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01194", "bookId": 15491, "start": 885861, "end": 885992, "sha256": "9f5a4ae3d1b8b81262f661209c93e2f8fcfe685fbc130d88ca08f1b221e9fd49", "text": "_From the curiously shap’d Surface of this Sea-weed, and some others, is conjectured the possibility of multitudes of the like._", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01195", "bookId": 15491, "start": 885996, "end": 886039, "sha256": "607f2e3f48299e6e07dba417d209cd16ba57f3d2ed8cc24a4a8246b0880fe83e", "text": "Observ. 24. Of the Surfaces of some Leaves.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01196", "bookId": 15491, "start": 886043, "end": 886309, "sha256": "9f72b77c87c3dd945f56e3a2ab47cce0a09dc176e97cd6f29fcfabe42f4d45dc", "text": "_The description, 1. Of the bald Surfaces of Leaves. 2. Of the downy Surfaces of several others. 3. Of the gummous exsudation, or small transparent Pearls, discovered with a _Microscope_ in several others. An Instance of all which is afforded in a Rosemary Leaf._", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01197", "bookId": 15491, "start": 886313, "end": 886360, "sha256": "dbc04c8dadbac8f3d34ad6b4aec437bbcb9a5cd0a2d7766dd348220545195d86", "text": "Observ. 25. Of the stinging Points of a Nettle.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01198", "bookId": 15491, "start": 886364, "end": 886815, "sha256": "b95720c138ec29535d4122e34fe46bd5a678b9af8457e93f391567fa833e294a", "text": "_A description of the Needles and several other contrivances in the leaf of a Nettle: how the stinging pain is created: upon this several considerations about poysoning Darts are set down. An Experiment of killing Effs, and Fishes with Salt. Some conjectures at the efficacy of Baths; the use that may be made of injecting into the Veins. A very remarkable History out of _Bellonius_; and some Considerations about staining and dying of Bodies._", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01199", "bookId": 15491, "start": 886819, "end": 886841, "sha256": "c13f6852a89f81a10d877d19d5f1a718607069970c2bd545dab384df499fa9d7", "text": "Observ. 26. Of Cowage.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01200", "bookId": 15491, "start": 886845, "end": 886985, "sha256": "020d68183e8a9a7dce1d7e1c0b186a743e5110a5aadfea628dd7c284c95bed91", "text": "_The description of it out of _Parkinson_: an Experiment made of it: a description, and some conjectures at the cause of the _Phænomena_._", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01201", "bookId": 15491, "start": 886989, "end": 887028, "sha256": "f93365afbc87f1b047d337ff6eb69367a41fe59e86fbd1a79991cb805777ab51", "text": "Observ. 27. Of the Beard of a wild Oat.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01202", "bookId": 15491, "start": 887032, "end": 887209, "sha256": "15f0001bee31d4a3feef802891b75c37f7e4fba888381b962e14c970229a016a", "text": "_The description of its shape and properties: the manner of making a _Hygroscope_ with it; and a Conjecture at the causes of these motions, and of the motions of the Muscles._", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01203", "bookId": 15491, "start": 887213, "end": 887264, "sha256": "5d02d4e63fddc0a6fb41c57e2b23de376cfa61bd64889fcc8820852750607786", "text": "Observ. 28. Of the Seeds of _Venice_ Looking-glass.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01204", "bookId": 15491, "start": 887268, "end": 887294, "sha256": "8ed5142bf9c49f054f990eff7188afa32216c1719083acc0fc22283b855fbb0c", "text": "_The description of them._", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01205", "bookId": 15491, "start": 887298, "end": 887330, "sha256": "02d55ebf7942bc7fff52d5ec8b9d00094f95c5ba94715d5a97ced368b6cd0cde", "text": "Obser. 29. Of the Seeds of Time.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01206", "bookId": 15491, "start": 887334, "end": 887393, "sha256": "312453a165bc858232ca19e76455a42fbc2df01e3f3b526d2829749c6c88c925", "text": "_A description of them. A digression about Natures method._", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01207", "bookId": 15491, "start": 887397, "end": 887424, "sha256": "64cd8970845883ecbd038b424a89ecadc05e234e8201f1ddbdc20cd50caba209", "text": "Observ. 30. Of Poppy Seeds.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01208", "bookId": 15491, "start": 887428, "end": 887462, "sha256": "37687420b0d4ee9b544f1eeb257141e3d7741f3b912597e0490b5b91cf13e9a1", "text": "_The description and use of them._", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01209", "bookId": 15491, "start": 887466, "end": 887496, "sha256": "8695374fe206f60b15908e1e27fc68772d359332d4b61804b2c46ff7f69e6af5", "text": "Observ. 31. Of Purslane Seeds.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01210", "bookId": 15491, "start": 887500, "end": 887546, "sha256": "f7036249fcfdf2fb0f017711e74d8f60c01527aea919ebdb27cf6240f9481cfe", "text": "_A description of these and many other Seeds._", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01211", "bookId": 15491, "start": 887550, "end": 887570, "sha256": "60888c0cb83a9f93c0e9e863e270cf335554e14c9d9e625096c1ecc637aecfbf", "text": "Observ. 32. Of Hair.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01212", "bookId": 15491, "start": 887574, "end": 887880, "sha256": "dd100e105bb19710852a7b92c4f3ca06b95eec69bd6f1926f28dad75075fb29d", "text": "_The description of several sorts of Hair; their Figures and Textures: the reason of their colours, A description of the texture of the skin, and of Spunk and Sponges: by what passages and pores of the skin transpiration seems to be made. Experiments to prove the porousness of the skin of Vegetables._", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01213", "bookId": 15491, "start": 887884, "end": 887921, "sha256": "3c5f697c2c25ebd2c32b34bf75ea7581b8b04fa8d30542afce68c4144b00b6fa", "text": "Observ. 33. Of the Scales of a Soale.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01214", "bookId": 15491, "start": 887925, "end": 887965, "sha256": "6dd54c65817a1d8edb3367de59d7d0ace82f087c785e42126f16b77cc396b37f", "text": "_A description of their beauteous form._", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01215", "bookId": 15491, "start": 887969, "end": 888003, "sha256": "d290eaf7c163825ac660f8ef756d23a36303ecc2d0da9eb4955af684355e7b4f", "text": "Observ. 34. Of the Sting of a Bee.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01216", "bookId": 15491, "start": 888007, "end": 888057, "sha256": "2d4616c3b0302da11c83d72077fcd1315d9f09a01b24c6881c43db4b4cf4f17d", "text": "_A description of its shape, mechanisme, and use._", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01217", "bookId": 15491, "start": 888061, "end": 888085, "sha256": "a8469e1e1c39d530c3455be0c1942d1152ebe09ef2ba9d891e0dcc18954526d9", "text": "Observ. 35. Of Feathers.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01218", "bookId": 15491, "start": 888089, "end": 888186, "sha256": "7a785431b3d3ad80883d6a1686c7963c217d2b745fb513694fcefc647b25fa01", "text": "_A description of the shape and curious contexture of Feathers: and some conjectures thereupon._", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01219", "bookId": 15491, "start": 888190, "end": 888222, "sha256": "6bc29f0952f5aa39a665c629ba3339384d84acc7b8f62b6fa624b8b84f503559", "text": "Obser. 36. Of Peacocks Feathers.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01220", "bookId": 15491, "start": 888226, "end": 888339, "sha256": "f3e5dbd6339e82e87fc22152298e76de63b5ad03bb6c59fb27c3782168757f3c", "text": "_A description of their curious form and proprieties; with a conjecture at the cause of their variable colours._", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01221", "bookId": 15491, "start": 888343, "end": 888394, "sha256": "87b7f461138cf453105347f1f57291b97e474872f452620f02e05506bbaabd68", "text": "Obser. 37. Of the Feet of Flyes, and other Insects.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01222", "bookId": 15491, "start": 888398, "end": 888482, "sha256": "cf916ab38b357e5582782fe1b492ec9f2d06469ee939b9fb383933f5e3eb3a83", "text": "_A description of their figure, parts, and use; and some considerations thereupon._", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01223", "bookId": 15491, "start": 888486, "end": 888519, "sha256": "9f05a3d38ae363f5ee27b0ecbe972110c64edfbf032bbbab86b30a368149a25a", "text": "Obser. 38. Of the Wings of Flyes.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01224", "bookId": 15491, "start": 888523, "end": 888703, "sha256": "e5db9fce6ad489c4fc1e28093c8357b2d3cfb66a256aef6467be8a3b6dc166be", "text": "_After what manner and how swiftly the wings of Insects move. A description of the Pendulums under the wings, and their motion; the shape and structure of the parts of the wing._", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01225", "bookId": 15491, "start": 888707, "end": 888739, "sha256": "08639d082347efdf5bcfd699adb783f44e68ec659f55bee5529ffee0265ce8e4", "text": "Obser. 39. Of the Head of a Fly.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01226", "bookId": 15491, "start": 888743, "end": 889313, "sha256": "e691cc977accc4175a2de4c5c8291657209306ea38423d244cb088d2f0256ad4", "text": "_1. All the face of a Drone-fly is nothing almost but eyes. 2. Those are of two magnitudes. 3. They are Hemispheres, and very reflective and smooth. 4. Some directed towards every quarter. 5. How the fly cleanses them. 6. Their number. 7. Their order: divers particulars observ’d in the dissecting a head. That these are very probably the eyes of the Creature; argued from several Observations and Experiments, that Crabs, Lobsters, Shrimps, seem to be water Insects, and to be framed much like Air Insects. Several Considerations about their manner of vision._", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01227", "bookId": 15491, "start": 889317, "end": 889352, "sha256": "4be562446b29ce4afb2633474612f887bfcfacebbfaee1b1440e16fd628f854c", "text": "Obser. 40. Of the Teeth of a Snail.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01228", "bookId": 15491, "start": 889356, "end": 889384, "sha256": "76487ba265be56737d0c56d35a853c5f3484cb466e2f081b0702d705caf8871e", "text": "_A brief description of it._", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01229", "bookId": 15491, "start": 889388, "end": 889426, "sha256": "4ba7b6cec4d5eaa1f60a2ca9fbf62f03bda7f83209b810a1989ed5d3339cb221", "text": "Observ. 41. Of the Eggs of Silk-worms.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01230", "bookId": 15491, "start": 889430, "end": 889478, "sha256": "9e7aae09cde3bf493171c7ecf9fa4443f8bf1f79cbc8ae26aaa4868b4bec34e8", "text": "_Several Observables about the Eggs of Insects._", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01231", "bookId": 15491, "start": 889482, "end": 889508, "sha256": "79cac505c31563dffff74145355507d255c9c436bf8813959b3e1fe775b10988", "text": "Observ. 42. Of a blue Fly.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01232", "bookId": 15491, "start": 889512, "end": 889627, "sha256": "c459a957c3fc10af253b02537317badd75e6cbd78bc2889961a504d87fccf99e", "text": "_A description of its outward and inward parts. Its hardiness to indure freezing, and sleeping in Spirit of wine._", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01233", "bookId": 15491, "start": 889631, "end": 889661, "sha256": "ef12e11aa49dcb85444c98a577524ead39e4d73e983cb6e29157146439e6e967", "text": "Observ. 43. Of a water Insect.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01234", "bookId": 15491, "start": 889665, "end": 890208, "sha256": "c68333c33edddba55faeb81241021b1080eac1856b0c392d02018f2c3af9115e", "text": "_A description of its shape, transparency, motion, both internal and progressive, and transformation. A History somewhat _Analogus_ cited out of _Piso_. Several Observations about the various wayes of the generations of Insects: by what means they act so seemingly wisely and prudently. Several Quæries propounded. Postscript, containing a relation of another very odd way of the generation of Insects. An Observation about the fertility of the Earth of our Climate in producing Insects, and of divers other wayes of their generation._", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01235", "bookId": 15491, "start": 890212, "end": 890243, "sha256": "c1393493a925884ca48b90dd133ec759de869aa1f69c325b6a3b0108f0e893d0", "text": "Observ. 44. Of the tufted Gnat.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01236", "bookId": 15491, "start": 890247, "end": 890342, "sha256": "288138091b2ea02288c0897a410ff16b1abf01c78d3db4f1c59c72d619c0b1cd", "text": "_Several Observables about Insects, and a more particular description the parts of this Gnat._", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01237", "bookId": 15491, "start": 890346, "end": 890382, "sha256": "2547c905cf56c0c0e3b1759084818dde758ad2ef305c5ede9743e072dcbed719", "text": "Ob. 45. Of the great belly’d Gnat.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01238", "bookId": 15491, "start": 890386, "end": 890414, "sha256": "bc32028e49413872eb3157962b6395791772499b7713ecbeef2f21486c50cd6a", "text": "_A short description of it._", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01239", "bookId": 15491, "start": 890418, "end": 890445, "sha256": "df7ea94e96eaa5755042dc237d9ee9b2217c829665502013ed2a129c392978e9", "text": "Obser. 46. Of a white Moth.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01240", "bookId": 15491, "start": 890449, "end": 890604, "sha256": "c60f097001bf14d7d848c142a08104a87751da5f978dcc42883e86ae241e984c", "text": "_A description of the feathers and wings of this, and several other Insects. Divers Considerations about the wings, and the flying of Insects and Birds._", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01241", "bookId": 15491, "start": 890608, "end": 890640, "sha256": "b1ff0644d387f687b8fccafd6e073e858fba9ccf89d8c4d120b1edf1fa1fe365", "text": "Obs. 47. Of the Shepherd Spider.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01242", "bookId": 15491, "start": 890644, "end": 890933, "sha256": "53a3928acbf8f940817c8f045443b12e80ba66d686f97fca107340e8b21f375a", "text": "_A description of its Eyes: and the sockets of its long legs: and a Conjecture of the mechanical reason of its fabrick; together with a supposition, that ’tis not unlikely, but Spiders may have the make of their inward parts exactly like a Crab, which may be call’d a water Spider._", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01243", "bookId": 15491, "start": 890937, "end": 890970, "sha256": "350eed094856c5dcf45a5da7ba373fe6ad1a2f4aefc31d16a2d17b50ab133039", "text": "Obser. 48. Of the hunting Spider.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01244", "bookId": 15491, "start": 890974, "end": 891227, "sha256": "6ef53b0a32f960ee45fc3420702666fe6ba7252c1df6ba0166ac2efab013e853", "text": "_A short description of it; to which is annext an excellent History of it, made by Mr. _Evelyn_. Some further Observations on other Spiders, and their Webs, together with an examination of a white Substance flying up and down in the Air after a Fog._", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01245", "bookId": 15491, "start": 891231, "end": 891252, "sha256": "dae85cf40f86e3e2885cdc6d76cc4dd83a07e0725b46a79c9b0fa4a60ef85087", "text": "Obser. 49. Of an Ant.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01246", "bookId": 15491, "start": 891256, "end": 891524, "sha256": "d99685a087ff81f67e68b0612a82ad08062eda36783a57ee30acd71d0522702e", "text": "_That all small Bodies, both Vegetable and Animal, do quickly dry and wither. The best remedy I found to hinder it, and to make the Animal lye still to be observ’d. Several particulars related of the actions of this Creature and a short description of its parts._", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01247", "bookId": 15491, "start": 891528, "end": 891558, "sha256": "e144ddc06e0a62f4b1ea513ff383758489d0f63411c128cb71c5c045958d6dc3", "text": "Obs. 50. Of the wandring Mite.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01248", "bookId": 15491, "start": 891562, "end": 891697, "sha256": "f332dc9f00b742257610e9877770202a0c67b72149dcf09f964ecfcf01d4eca0", "text": "_A description of this Creature, and of another very small one, which usually bore it company. A Conjecture at the original of Mites._", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01249", "bookId": 15491, "start": 891701, "end": 891735, "sha256": "097984888895e3500c3e15094b3ca68d14dacf9cd7952e0f83ff46b0d328ca54", "text": "Observ. 51. Of a Crab-like Insect.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01250", "bookId": 15491, "start": 891739, "end": 891767, "sha256": "76487ba265be56737d0c56d35a853c5f3484cb466e2f081b0702d705caf8871e", "text": "_A brief description of it._", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01251", "bookId": 15491, "start": 891771, "end": 891798, "sha256": "ad0baa4059c05ede839eb7afd90662d93ccb0ab91edcbfd22d5af4d486497314", "text": "Observ. 52. Of a Book-worm.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01252", "bookId": 15491, "start": 891802, "end": 891965, "sha256": "633055781278e1fed43741b96577abde7ae0fb4d28cbaf011b83217536014551", "text": "_A description of it; where by the way is inserted a digression, experimentally explicating the _Phænomena_ of Pearl. A consideration of its digestive faculty._", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01253", "bookId": 15491, "start": 891969, "end": 891991, "sha256": "1cd43940a50d590cbd312c47362f2d437e6851a345126e7a9a6465b7398e759a", "text": "Observ. 53. Of a Flea.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01254", "bookId": 15491, "start": 891995, "end": 892023, "sha256": "bc32028e49413872eb3157962b6395791772499b7713ecbeef2f21486c50cd6a", "text": "_A short description of it._", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01255", "bookId": 15491, "start": 892027, "end": 892050, "sha256": "e8f047e120f830eef0f5b1672e8de6a43021940fe83d6991ac58f1e3727b6975", "text": "Observ. 54. Of a Louse.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01256", "bookId": 15491, "start": 892054, "end": 892115, "sha256": "5753a0f838aa2f4373dbd2a7cc5432c5fc268017285b4a54e1e91fbeaf16bee8", "text": "_A description of its parts, and some notable circumstances._", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01257", "bookId": 15491, "start": 892119, "end": 892140, "sha256": "1911c9b45274bf38ecffd4dcdccbc73f04df6397e104c8344f7d4f9033b394a9", "text": "Observ. 55. Of Mites.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01258", "bookId": 15491, "start": 892144, "end": 892330, "sha256": "1f81b762b35d5954d7be541179104c36ac6c6051b9a4dfa084b3fe9a4e360387", "text": "_The exceeding smalness of some Mites, and their Eggs. A description of the Mites of Cheese: and an intimation of the variety of forms in other Mites, with a Conjecture at the reason._", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01259", "bookId": 15491, "start": 892334, "end": 892362, "sha256": "7babf7d86da8399eb31bb9ee5fff31cbb67db0c014b6789a856d86801019f6b5", "text": "Ob. 56. Of small Vine-Mites.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01260", "bookId": 15491, "start": 892366, "end": 892525, "sha256": "3f02a4fd72249e841ba8bb1f15092d518e0ba1282bc3b57f4fb53bc969dd42f5", "text": "_A description of them; a ghess at their original; their exceeding smalness compar’d with that of a Wood-louse, from which they may be suppos’d to come._", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01261", "bookId": 15491, "start": 892529, "end": 892558, "sha256": "a2fae02566dc11ca51c2a7964d9c45b45dfb4d897af4532789ee43c4aafa7e2a", "text": "Observ. 57. Of Vinegar-worms.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01262", "bookId": 15491, "start": 892562, "end": 892629, "sha256": "ba0d6c3c4715e98de88c4ff50559a3e7059b3ddc707e98254317cfb97e8673bf", "text": "_A description of them, with some considerations on their motions._", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01263", "bookId": 15491, "start": 892633, "end": 892692, "sha256": "2afe85593ad0b8a17303accfe69b0285714b207052226f5cb53bca9220f117f7", "text": "Obs. 58. Of the Inflection of the Rays of Light in the Air.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01264", "bookId": 15491, "start": 892696, "end": 894233, "sha256": "a08d0ff22a0ccf9d9a23e7519fff4d44ef99d6f4a0ce134485c9dbfaaf6b4c60", "text": "_A short rehearsal of several _Phænomena_. An attempt to explicate them: the supposition founded on two Propositions, both which are indeavoured to be made out by several Experiments, What density and rarity is in respect of refraction: the refraction of Spirit of Wine compared with that of common Water: the refraction of Ice. An Experiment of making an Undulation of the Rays by the mixing of Liquors of differing density. The explication of _inflection_, mechanically and hypothetically: what Bodies have such an inflection. Several Experiments to shew that the Air has this propriety; that it proceeds from the differing density of the Air: that the upper and under part of the Air are of differing density: some Experiments to prove this. A Table of the strength of the spring of the Air, answering to each degree of extension; when first made, and when repeated. Another Experiment of compressing the Air. A Table of the strength of the Air, answering to each compression and expansion; from which the height of the Air may be suppos’d indefinite; to what degree the Air is rarifi’d at any distance above the Surface of the Earth: how, from this, Inflection is inferr’d; and several _Phænomena_ explain’d. That the Air near the Earth is compos’d of parts of differing density; made probable by several Experiments and Observations; how this propriety produces the effects of the waving and dancing of Bodies; and of the twinkling of the Stars. Several _Phænomena_ explicated. Some Quæries added._", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01265", "bookId": 15491, "start": 894237, "end": 894371, "sha256": "d8338da0c0c9f2b5ecf3b603f39002a1b228cb1ab8f0ba35dd3ff3348086d8a4", "text": "1. _Whether this Principle may not be made use of, for perfecting Optick Glasses? What might be hoped from it if it were to be done?_", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01266", "bookId": 15491, "start": 894375, "end": 894464, "sha256": "e58d164757ed9369842c9095a4789e19e3b426e860584f6171200ed6453867e2", "text": "2. _Whether from this Principle the apparition of some new Stars may not be explicated?_", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01267", "bookId": 15491, "start": 894468, "end": 894526, "sha256": "b5067a37c5716c71dddd23885f7288efb139acaeb6101e97104cca06822aa23b", "text": "3. _Whether the height of the Air may be defin’d by it?_", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01268", "bookId": 15491, "start": 894530, "end": 894682, "sha256": "12a4596451891333f3b1189cf287e70c66805f4724c5f94ad7a08eca9643a059", "text": "4. _Whether there may not sometimes be so great a disparity of density between the upper and under parts of the Air, as to make a reflecting Surface?_", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01269", "bookId": 15491, "start": 894686, "end": 894794, "sha256": "3fc1f955f5d2b23083cb4303c838c1bf4a0f7735aab2e73bcda3ba2a7ad114bb", "text": "5. _Whether, if so, this will not explicate the _Phænomena_ of the Clouds. An Experiment to this purpose?_", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01270", "bookId": 15491, "start": 894798, "end": 894972, "sha256": "8c7915ac3fdb413301150ccedc620ec57c66896d413c0c1266b392af93f3a469", "text": "7. _Whether the Rayes from the top of Mountains are not bended into Curve-lines by inflection? An Argument for it, taken from an Experiment made on St. _Paul_’s Steeple._", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01271", "bookId": 15491, "start": 894976, "end": 895574, "sha256": "84cfd4fef1e4b828b19ba23421afbb3c9d018682c7f4d10d7f7a9a1cfa939443", "text": "8. _Whether the distance of the Planets will not be more difficult to be found? What wayes are most likely to rectifie the distance of the Moon: the way of fitting _Telescopes_ for such Observations. How to make the Observations, and how from them to find the true distance of the Moon at any time. How the distance of the Sun may be found by two Observators. The way by the Dichotomy of the Moon uncertain. That the distance of the Moon may be less then it has been hitherto suppos’d. _Kepler_’s Supposition not so probable: the explication of the _Phænomena_ by another _Hypothesis_._", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01272", "bookId": 15491, "start": 895578, "end": 895608, "sha256": "2de5b7af5bdcda575d1e747f92b1b5dcff993b63d001dd88bbf1a768910b18d4", "text": "Observ. 59. Of the fixt Stars.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01273", "bookId": 15491, "start": 895612, "end": 896093, "sha256": "42f25f79e6a1cb9d4378c3efc2e85dbbd04b4b69b837cc6cd3792068536f3e9a", "text": "_Of the multitudes of Stars discoverable by the _Telescope_, and the variety of their magnitudes: 78. Stars distinguisht in the _Pleiades_: that there are degrees of bigness even in the Stars accounted of the same magnitude: the longer the Glasses are, and the bigger apertures they will indure, the more fit they are for these discoveries: that ’tis probable, longer Glasses would yet make greater discoveries. 5. Stars discover’d in the _Galaxie_ of _Orion_’s Sword._", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01274", "bookId": 15491, "start": 896097, "end": 896121, "sha256": "46d55033d2bf3de7081c4c767c98087e2dbf14bf6d83aa36f02d143829729253", "text": "Observ. 60. Of the Moon.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01275", "bookId": 15491, "start": 896125, "end": 897051, "sha256": "8b2941bcdb2b2e05c0db30a92c1b1e0d597830f48dae20c6d3a42a62efbef9e1", "text": "_A description of a Vale in the Moon; what call’d by _Hevelius_ and _Ricciolus_, and how describ’d by them: with what substances the hills of the Moon may be cover’d. A description of the pits of the Moon, and a conjecture at their cause: two Experiments that make it probable, that of the surface of boyl’d Alabaster dust seeming the most likely to be resembled by eruptions of vapours out of the body of the Moon: that Earthquakes seem to be generated much the same way, and their effects seem very similar. An Argument that there may be such variations in the Moon, because greater have been observ’d in the Sun: because the substance of the Moon and Earth seem much alike: and because ’tis probable the Moon has a gravitating principle: this is argued from several particulars. The reason why several pits are one within another. The use that may be made of this Instance of a gravity in the Moon._", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01276", "bookId": 15491, "start": 897062, "end": 897095, "sha256": "92bf9343d426ee004c3cb7caa3f283036b2f3626f071d4807d38518427facd12", "text": "* * * * *", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01277", "bookId": 15491, "start": 897101, "end": 897126, "sha256": "653bf2e4376a73f36ef526d5b03828a1f31b762901e0dfb6673d68c8577d45b5", "text": "[1] _Schem._ 2. _Fig._ 1.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01278", "bookId": 15491, "start": 897130, "end": 897153, "sha256": "acc616350a54d5b88821b50d437652b952386183d426a729de5b27b54e9f550b", "text": "[2] Diop. ch. 10. § 9.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01279", "bookId": 15491, "start": 897157, "end": 897182, "sha256": "4b984056473d6eb4a18a72284e068576596e85a7515d7930908166658c837eee", "text": "[3] _Schem._ 2. _Fig._ 2.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01280", "bookId": 15491, "start": 897186, "end": 897212, "sha256": "68a36281a1e63721d21e9540660c862d3526b6f2e99c0ad4981f904570372317", "text": "[4] _Schem._ 1.* _Fig._ 3.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01281", "bookId": 15491, "start": 897216, "end": 897241, "sha256": "9cd09fbb192418aee17b7ff2f5417f1e446a67524f93af9cee4a5641ead8faf4", "text": "[5] _Schem._ 3. _Fig._ 1.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01282", "bookId": 15491, "start": 897245, "end": 897270, "sha256": "48dca8816e709fc74440a8fee9d5a85b8a5d2f3ec141f766fbd1d5c48169e78d", "text": "[6] _Schem._ 3. _Fig._ 2.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01283", "bookId": 15491, "start": 897274, "end": 897289, "sha256": "c782c35818bdf6d29413661ca78a79287cf5b9a855298e97f82934a974c6f44f", "text": "[7] _Schem._ 4.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01284", "bookId": 15491, "start": 897293, "end": 897318, "sha256": "0ef6651c0ef79b6cfdfa43af309998c0305c231a31e3edfd1c5ff4c22be3d88b", "text": "[8] _Schem._ 4. _Fig._ 1.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01285", "bookId": 15491, "start": 897322, "end": 897347, "sha256": "d36709f59cb26db4efb75ee4e5fff310d3c0db1cf3a6c993d1147d52dd74cec1", "text": "[9] _Schem._ 6. _Fig._ 3.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01286", "bookId": 15491, "start": 897351, "end": 897377, "sha256": "9ded44de8096289d0ba37466ca2a3bf838fb6aef6be39b5e5c36970bd2a35e36", "text": "[10] _Schem._ 6. _Fig._ 3.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01287", "bookId": 15491, "start": 897381, "end": 897407, "sha256": "81f9554c7ab855add9a2c6fecba723bdb14b4a814b70abf1a9c184db23afa528", "text": "[11] _Schem._ 8. _Fig._ 1.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01288", "bookId": 15491, "start": 897411, "end": 897437, "sha256": "c1420563e88228978a86059bc29aa5c4c1c2065f8428261d5cb2349f11067f13", "text": "[12] _Schem._ 8. _Fig._ 2.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01289", "bookId": 15491, "start": 897441, "end": 897467, "sha256": "d67c3c937eff23a740a71c0067961773be6d3845821a239330635a24554bb1ae", "text": "[13] _Schem._ 9. _Fig._ 1.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG15491.B01290", "bookId": 15491, "start": 897475, "end": 897506, "sha256": "ad040eddf40985f18db2e454c189c6424d6c613957b5d8696b824145962dac8b", "text": "[14] See _Schem._ 11. _Fig._ 2.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; 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FOURTH AVENUE & 30TH STREET, NEW YORK 39 PATERNOSTER ROW, LONDON BOMBAY, CALCUTTA, AND MADRAS 1918", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00019", "bookId": 73755, "start": 1847, "end": 1919, "sha256": "5be59d365acb8d35446f682c6d314fffd5db5846ab8c6eb021e6bacd98a82aa0", "text": "------------------------------------------------------------------------", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00020", "bookId": 73755, "start": 1957, "end": 2023, "sha256": "dbd355f7f3488905a6870c809a2287ebbeb777bc6d570b49858d8cf5e7a78743", "text": "COPYRIGHT, 1918 BY LONGMANS, GREEN AND CO.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00021", "bookId": 73755, "start": 2033, "end": 2105, "sha256": "5be59d365acb8d35446f682c6d314fffd5db5846ab8c6eb021e6bacd98a82aa0", "text": "------------------------------------------------------------------------", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00022", "bookId": 73755, "start": 2147, "end": 2155, "sha256": "eabe6aca2f0dcdbddb32c8f06e6edfa1b78618efaf57d677950d443b91d99175", "text": "CONTENTS", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00023", "bookId": 73755, "start": 2227, "end": 2231, "sha256": "c62ae84fb20004173d3831696a1cd12030c795b06916f30e5ba192c932402571", "text": "PAGE", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00024", "bookId": 73755, "start": 2237, "end": 2305, "sha256": "0220b440e128b6af6cd51aea48b8fcfd1745e0abec8cbee10ce43b5ed01bbe97", "text": "INTRODUCTION 3", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00025", "bookId": 73755, "start": 2344, "end": 2397, "sha256": "180b93bb74694ee377d5143ffbe07a79c9463fee35a1e47a2cf64d150d2c6db8", "text": "PART I THE GROUP PRINCIPLE", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00026", "bookId": 73755, "start": 2409, "end": 2471, "sha256": "735c9fced7386a45aaa7a6f85240b98384a427806207ee3cb0d626eab7a9e661", "text": "I. THE GROUP AND THE NEW PSYCHOLOGY 19", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00027", "bookId": 73755, "start": 2482, "end": 2545, "sha256": "0eeaefa2df0dd528810bbe2b9a5dd2676a6298ecd49db7e8b477483e5dcb6cfc", "text": "II. THE GROUP PROCESS: THE COLLECTIVE IDEA 24", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00028", "bookId": 73755, "start": 2555, "end": 2670, "sha256": "185ee8bfc70db54fe925e608cb23a04fc2dca6297ad80d1a9f31dcdea46c4013", "text": "III. THE GROUP PROCESS: THE COLLECTIVE IDEA (_continued_) 33", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00029", "bookId": 73755, "start": 2681, "end": 2744, "sha256": "e9cbdd50537cf91c676eda2aac03172fc9b45039b00e253f4854b4512f9e3cf9", "text": "IV. THE GROUP PROCESS: THE COLLECTIVE FEELING 44", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00030", "bookId": 73755, "start": 2756, "end": 2818, "sha256": "66d62a4dc59def49ce81acdbc1e337e51081af3c193f6785d3ab01c0d0ca19d9", "text": "V. 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THE SELF-AND-OTHERS ILLUSION 79", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00037", "bookId": 73755, "start": 3272, "end": 3336, "sha256": "e4962baeb0bb157524d6a3742508ac64cc1a480bdccf7ccbb1a369f68b621215", "text": "XII. THE CROWD FALLACY 85", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00038", "bookId": 73755, "start": 3345, "end": 3410, "sha256": "f9d85432098e04e0747099c0a456470a0247100bbca81deeb72ee02abae8befd", "text": "XIII. THE SECRET OF PROGRESS 93", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00039", "bookId": 73755, "start": 3420, "end": 3484, "sha256": "4ff5fec9e34d3b7de0c4c5e8fa7ef586e749d19a6b8175ea47da0e086bffacfc", "text": "XIV. THE GROUP PRINCIPLE AT WORK 105", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00040", "bookId": 73755, "start": 3495, "end": 3558, "sha256": "fe3692514f941cb10b3fe1389a9c4a82271ccd3e5448de010356c4cf2388348d", "text": "XV. FROM CONTRACT TO COMMUNITY 122", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00041", "bookId": 73755, "start": 3596, "end": 3653, "sha256": "599460c160609cd4214ca4d1369af4590ef3c1630cc058b3199679a83fb013d3", "text": "PART II THE TRADITIONAL DEMOCRACY", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00042", "bookId": 73755, "start": 3663, "end": 3791, "sha256": "f973ba02d95d5fd57bb692f2448ebb7b04aaa0e4e6d3c791492346b538d87ae6", "text": "XVI. DEMOCRACY NOT “LIBERTY” AND “EQUALITY”: OUR POLITICAL DUALISM 137", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00043", "bookId": 73755, "start": 3800, "end": 3865, "sha256": "8ead00b2666b5807999f90f8b397def83c729d17f1ba6da36c6362c682219e9f", "text": "XVII. DEMOCRACY NOT THE MAJORITY: OUR POLITICAL FALLACY 142", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00044", "bookId": 73755, "start": 3873, "end": 3939, "sha256": "98c04e99b785d819a7c77268bc70d8ab9234d7979adbf41dd6d5f12b88eca09e", "text": "XVIII. DEMOCRACY NOT THE CROWD: OUR POPULAR DELUSION 148", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00045", "bookId": 73755, "start": 3949, "end": 4013, "sha256": "115ad51b993543dd53110e8d415971f32a5a55b6927e9cc2246964a3532bcead", "text": "XIX. THE TRUE DEMOCRACY 156", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00046", "bookId": 73755, "start": 4024, "end": 4087, "sha256": "7e131933cb160c934b68023756d1d680d5f839628f0e4fbd498de4c51f8ced36", "text": "XX. THE GROWTH OF DEMOCRACY IN AMERICA 162", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00047", "bookId": 73755, "start": 4097, "end": 4163, "sha256": "7e492503eb3c1f4e9d0b0331630e100cbb5557ebcb88e152c9082efaafb17280", "text": "XXI. AFTER DIRECT GOVERNMENT—WHAT? 174", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00048", "bookId": 73755, "start": 4201, "end": 4267, "sha256": "29db7168f752e8b0c3719742114caece88a9b2ce702f27756f3c9041649a47c8", "text": "PART III GROUP ORGANIZATION DEMOCRACY’S METHOD", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00049", "bookId": 73755, "start": 4294, "end": 4319, "sha256": "097b3f379242e8b5ed52758557c67afc61745d1b2b72de584c44942c102e3e76", "text": "1. THE NEIGHBORHOOD GROUP", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00050", "bookId": 73755, "start": 4328, "end": 4393, "sha256": "f772d069336cdad511f2c3ad0da71bafce6fddfc1fd0e1b069a719c4089b35c4", "text": "XXII. NEIGHBORHOOD NEEDS THE BASIS OF POLITICS 189", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00051", "bookId": 73755, "start": 4401, "end": 4467, "sha256": "8364943a06e6e669b4b8730a51ee3ad75639d83d491a372ee12abbd35cc8fc26", "text": "XXIII. AN INTEGRATED NEIGHBORHOOD 204", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00052", "bookId": 73755, "start": 4476, "end": 4619, "sha256": "13a6098586c4170ddf778b0409b1752f3f783bb1fe3eeb0534a8b24089b483f7", "text": "XXIV. NEIGHBORHOOD ORGANIZATION _vs._ PARTY ORGANIZATION: _The Will of the People_ 216", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00053", "bookId": 73755, "start": 4629, "end": 4771, "sha256": "c3faea6ecb7e06c0081d41ca303e8ef94d3760f7f1e52a18e872297d8a568c48", "text": "XXV. NEIGHBORHOOD ORGANIZATION _vs._ PARTY ORGANIZATION: _Leaders or Bosses?_ 227", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00054", "bookId": 73755, "start": 4780, "end": 4923, "sha256": "433f10b00d5a0f8630e947bb863752eae67dda4f8d1fcf3e09478510946b4ded", "text": "XXVI. NEIGHBORHOOD ORGANIZATION _vs._ PARTY ORGANIZATION: _A Responsible Neighborhood_ 232", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00055", "bookId": 73755, "start": 4931, "end": 4997, "sha256": "3a57d5f8657920e31da823fe35194727036b3bccbec36019cb1cd0179576744f", "text": "XXVII. FROM NEIGHBORHOOD TO NATION: THE UNIFYING STATE 245", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00056", "bookId": 73755, "start": 5024, "end": 5049, "sha256": "89bdc9627d7d9221ecb590fbe40cac418338fbb4c4d5c8526ad0f7c05e7b7606", "text": "2. THE OCCUPATIONAL GROUP", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00057", "bookId": 73755, "start": 5056, "end": 5123, "sha256": "596114e99fe3b128a8828c894a8b3a672a84314da844e14c09cd11a4cbd05b02", "text": "XXVIII. POLITICAL PLURALISM 258", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00058", "bookId": 73755, "start": 5132, "end": 5197, "sha256": "b73bca42dd827769f168d4b9d00266b61a4bae801f0142ab2352d3367fc39a01", "text": "XXIX. POLITICAL PLURALISM AND SOVEREIGNTY 271", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00059", "bookId": 73755, "start": 5207, "end": 5326, "sha256": "0384fd07ceec5e9b5381c7376d4856d9cba6866b0b357359ecd4630b4d850e1f", "text": "XXX. POLITICAL PLURALISM AND FUNCTIONALISM: _The Service State vs. The “Sovereign State”_ 288", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00060", "bookId": 73755, "start": 5335, "end": 5400, "sha256": "d150e80083f793518a00ddbbbd0914cd3dafdd66f9efca4b488fc76b0d8cc8f3", "text": "XXXI. POLITICAL PLURALISM AND THE TRUE FEDERAL STATE 296", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00061", "bookId": 73755, "start": 5408, "end": 5506, "sha256": "40d74b7a88c0e56b396e4704835848718cbb1d5181a30f383e10b688c8099827", "text": "XXXII. POLITICAL PLURALISM (_concluded_) 311", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00062", "bookId": 73755, "start": 5513, "end": 5580, "sha256": "00c693ddee867ae93c5586cb648cafc2c73f0a45b1f49d4d37b6a21f73fcd706", "text": "XXXIII. INCREASING RECOGNITION OF THE OCCUPATIONAL GROUP 320", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00063", "bookId": 73755, "start": 5618, "end": 5742, "sha256": "60904d83d7cb35e2c481a793cd8182b6f64501e0cecf75ab8bd131cf5c9e6b1d", "text": "PART IV THE DUAL ASPECT OF THE GROUP: A UNION OF INDIVIDUALS, AN INDIVIDUAL IN A LARGER UNION", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00064", "bookId": 73755, "start": 5750, "end": 5816, "sha256": "b268b9a938da2f0452339baa1bf94bb82589caf4a0de08c02e2734a9b0548d9c", "text": "XXXIV. THE MORAL STATE AND CREATIVE CITIZENSHIP 333", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00065", "bookId": 73755, "start": 5825, "end": 5890, "sha256": "5ae3f9fd7c21a23cd2d4d0827583619a5370cecd21bb242b9882475e68356f01", "text": "XXXV. THE WORLD STATE 344", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00066", "bookId": 73755, "start": 5928, "end": 5936, "sha256": "c7d7d0ad74ae42888b3524491d03621282b5c64962027fe533fda12d7640e5fb", "text": "APPENDIX", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00067", "bookId": 73755, "start": 5942, "end": 6010, "sha256": "1c68363e95f402e247632ca15b92de04f7988f735f2dffbfdf5c3a0d142d3e1f", "text": "THE TRAINING FOR THE NEW DEMOCRACY 363", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00068", "bookId": 73755, "start": 6014, "end": 6086, "sha256": "5be59d365acb8d35446f682c6d314fffd5db5846ab8c6eb021e6bacd98a82aa0", "text": "------------------------------------------------------------------------", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00069", "bookId": 73755, "start": 6125, "end": 6138, "sha256": "27657e3487ce876049f78b2f0dfea9d04932aaab8aecd1cc349f011d389f2b4b", "text": "THE NEW STATE", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00070", "bookId": 73755, "start": 6148, "end": 6220, "sha256": "5be59d365acb8d35446f682c6d314fffd5db5846ab8c6eb021e6bacd98a82aa0", "text": "------------------------------------------------------------------------", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00071", "bookId": 73755, "start": 6259, "end": 6272, "sha256": "27657e3487ce876049f78b2f0dfea9d04932aaab8aecd1cc349f011d389f2b4b", "text": "THE NEW STATE", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00072", "bookId": 73755, "start": 6306, "end": 6318, "sha256": "348348036267fa046df6956d6bff62c93c2f7b89c711056c6a8cdcab6dd4a8e7", "text": "INTRODUCTION", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00073", "bookId": 73755, "start": 6324, "end": 6683, "sha256": "17af1460e81ff011b1b4036fe353f78338dbea477754bb1f5ac854b60568d189", "text": "OUR political life is stagnating, capital and labor are virtually at war, the nations of Europe are at one another’s throats—because we have not yet learned how to live together. The twentieth century must find a new principle of association. Crowd philosophy, crowd government, crowd patriotism must go. The herd is no longer sufficient to enfold us.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00074", "bookId": 73755, "start": 6687, "end": 7014, "sha256": "bd8d4bcde092bc44859c95f846b31c64f93631920b29d59872c31328dfe9aab4", "text": "Group organization is to be the new method in politics, the basis of our future industrial system, the foundation of international order. Group organization will create the new world we are now blindly feeling after, for creative force comes from the group, creative power is evolved through the activity of the group life.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00075", "bookId": 73755, "start": 7018, "end": 7333, "sha256": "34879e62a90b1a9476c1d40d1f5384e78d46c4bbeb8b3ca78a3dbc660abfb5d6", "text": "We talk about the evils of democracy. We have not yet tried democracy. Party or “interests” govern us with some fiction of the “consent of the governed” which we say means democracy. We have not even a conception of what democracy means. That conception is yet to be forged out of the crude ore of life.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00076", "bookId": 73755, "start": 7337, "end": 7743, "sha256": "53b0e245d0504e590fb03e0b27f6e9ce0ae57bc143f756c40e0eb4f4805361c4", "text": "We talk about the tragedy of individualism. The individual we do not yet know, for we have no methods to release the powers of the individual. Our particularism—our _laissez-faire_, our every-man-for-his-own-interests—has little to do with true individualism, that is, with the individual as consciously responsible for the life from which he draws his breath and to which he contributes his all.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00077", "bookId": 73755, "start": 7747, "end": 8153, "sha256": "71510f8cea6a1603aa717f13263dae9745dcc28bf2ee5f63c8029894a374d2e2", "text": "Politics do not need to be “purified.” This thought is leading us astray. Politics must be vitalized by a new method. “Representative government,” party organization, majority rule, with all their excrescences, are dead-wood. In their stead must appear the organization of non-partisan groups for the begetting, the bringing into being, of common ideas, a common purpose and a collective will.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00078", "bookId": 73755, "start": 8157, "end": 8657, "sha256": "be86832e1ed986089663f6697618716956a5513ca13019d33cc11c76e42bd966", "text": "Government by the people must be more than the phrase. We are told—The people should do this, the people should do that, the people must be given control of foreign policy, etc. etc. But all this is wholly useless unless we provide the procedure within which the people _can_ do this or that. What does the “sovereign will” of the people amount to unless it has some way of operating? Or have we any “sovereign will?” There is little yet that is practical in “practical politics.”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00079", "bookId": 73755, "start": 8661, "end": 9232, "sha256": "9d3a16360e7b07d71cd68b1e681db0274ab665dc9878f2d68dfaad0d58406d59", "text": "But method must not connote mechanics to any mind. Many of us are more interested in the mechanism of life than in anything else. We keep on putting pennies in the slot from sheer delight in seeing something come out at the other end. All this must change. Machines, forms, images, moulds—all must be broken up and the way prepared for our plastic life to find plastic expression. The principle of democracy may be the underlying unity of men, the method of democracy must be that which allows the quickest response of our daily life to the common faith of men.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00080", "bookId": 73755, "start": 9236, "end": 9683, "sha256": "7b11b6f3b8ce7353e935e420692c165b51129d3e425f81ffb9166aabeb25f405", "text": "Are we capable of a new method? Can the inventive faculty of the American people be extended from mechanical things to political organization? There is no use denying that we are at a crisis in our history. Whether that crisis is to abound in acute moments which will largely wreck us, or whether we are going to be wise enough to make the necessary political and social adjustments—that is the crucial question which faces America to-day.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00081", "bookId": 73755, "start": 9687, "end": 10104, "sha256": "2109c3b0e205a8a1da1c8b75a238dd0bf3c098b8f72cdc26002a0fbdcc7e3c86", "text": "Representative government has failed. It has failed because it was not a method by which men could govern themselves. Direct government is now being proposed. But direct government will never succeed if (1) it is operated from within the party organization as at present, or (2) if it consists merely in counting all the votes in all the ballot-boxes. Ballot-box democracy is what this book is written to oppose.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00082", "bookId": 73755, "start": 10108, "end": 11918, "sha256": "4cb4333f693baa11348e2a38c300393e42debe889bf194ed62900bedcc9bdd7b", "text": "No government will be successful, no government will endure, which does not rest on the individual, and no government has yet found the individual. Up to the present moment we have never seen the individual. Yet the search for him has been the whole long striving of our Anglo-Saxon history. We sought him through the method of representation and failed to find him. We sought to reach him by extending the suffrage to every man and then to every woman and yet he eludes us. Direct government now seeks the individual; but as we have not found him by sending more men to the ballot-box, so we shall not find him by sending men more often to the ballot-box. Are our constitutional conventions to sit and congratulate themselves on their progressive ideas while they are condemning us to a new form of our old particularism? The ballot-box! How completely that has failed men, how completely it will fail women. Direct government as at present generally understood is a mere phantom of democracy. Democracy is not a sum in addition. Democracy is not brute numbers; it is a genuine union of true individuals. The question before the American people to-day is—How is that genuine union to be attained, how is the true individual to be discovered? The party has always ignored him; it wants merely a crowd, a preponderance of votes. The early reform associations had the same aim. Both wanted voters not men. It makes little difference whether we follow the boss or follow the good government associations, this is all herd life—“following the lead”—democracy means a wholly different kind of existence. To follow means to murder the individual, means to kill the only force in the world which can make the Perfect Society—democracy depends upon the creative power of every man.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00083", "bookId": 73755, "start": 11922, "end": 12329, "sha256": "df6ea1f619b1fcd22db1872dbca9dc4e29dd6ffc6902c1d229527342cd6fb2e6", "text": "We find the true man only through group organization. The potentialities of the individual remain potentialities until they are released by group life. Man discovers his true nature, gains his true freedom only through the group. Group organization must be the new method of politics because the modes by which the individual can be brought forth and made effective are the modes of practical politics.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00084", "bookId": 73755, "start": 12333, "end": 13913, "sha256": "36bf78d4992e0eacc919b07ca8d62a9e1579fffc059e9537fca7afa7d0415544", "text": "But who is the individual we have been seeking, who is the individual we are to find within the group? Certainly not the particularist individual. Every man to count as one? That was once our slogan. Now we have relegated it to a mechanical age. To-day we see that every man must count for infinitely more than one because he is not part of a whole, a cog in a machine, not even an organ in an organism, but from one point of view the whole itself. A man said to me the other day, “That is not democracy, that is mysticism.” But why mysticism? It is our daily life as lived from hour to hour. We join with one group of men at work, with another at play, another in our civic committee, another in our art club. Man’s life is one of manifold relatings. His vote at the polls must express not his particularist self, but the whole complex of his related life, must express as much of the whole as these multiple relations have brought into existence for him, through him. I find my expression of the whole-idea, the whole-will, through my group life. The group must always dictate the modes of activity for the individual. We must put clearly before us the true individual with his infinite relations, expressing his infinite relations, as the centre of politics, as the meaning of democracy. The first purpose of genuine politics is to make the vote of every man express the All at his special coign of outlook. In every man is the potentiality of such expression. To call it forth is the aim of all training, the end sought by all modes of real living.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00085", "bookId": 73755, "start": 13917, "end": 14827, "sha256": "bf2a193bf368e205308e2f6fdfef39465eb751c8af3cce6c8785050576a3dedf", "text": "Thus group organization releases us from the domination of mere numbers. Thus democracy transcends time and space, it can never be understood except as a spiritual force. Majority rule rests on numbers; democracy rests on the well-grounded assumption that society is neither a collection of units nor an organism but a network of human relations. Democracy is not worked out at the polling-booths; it is the bringing forth of a genuine collective will, one to which every single being must contribute the whole of his complex life, as one which every single being must express the whole of at one point. Thus the essence of democracy is creating. The technique of democracy is group organization. Many men despise politics because they see that politics manipulate, but make nothing. If politics are to be the highest activity of man, as they should be, they must be clearly understood as creative.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00086", "bookId": 73755, "start": 14831, "end": 15373, "sha256": "80103468d6b9daf1251347d335eff5cd8775a1ce4c2a38158ab5ce962aba27ae", "text": "What is there inherent in the group which gives it creative power? The activity which produces the true individual is at the same time interweaving him and others into a real whole. A genuine whole has creative force. Does this seem “mystical?” The power of our corporations depends upon this capability of men to interknit themselves into such genuine relations that a new personality is thereby evolved. This is the “real personality” of modern legal theory. Are our company directors and corporation lawyers usually mystics?", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00087", "bookId": 73755, "start": 15377, "end": 15749, "sha256": "9bcae4154e207462b594920e409cda4bff485dde7e13ee93045c54e5219ca875", "text": "The seeing of self as, with all other selves, creating, demands a new attitude and a new activity in man. The fallacy of self-and-others fades away and there is only self-in-and-through-others, only others so firmly rooted in the self and so fruitfully growing there that sundering is impossible. We must now enter upon modes of living commensurate with this thought.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00088", "bookId": 73755, "start": 15753, "end": 16134, "sha256": "75e9bfb1faa91e49765ef1086df6ea1e118b24997025faa3f4ea23a4261cb5e6", "text": "What American politics need to-day is positive principles. We do not want to “regulate” our trusts, to “restrain” our bosses. The measure of our progress is never what we give up, but what we add. It may be necessary to prune the garden, but we do not make a pile of the dead branches and take our guests to see them as evidence of the flourishing state of the garden.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00089", "bookId": 73755, "start": 16138, "end": 16577, "sha256": "1797b2e917ef8e724d9017a0a1d5d0c9d99bc51e5a26e18399f3209c1eec83ca", "text": "The group organization movement means the substitution of intention for accident, of organized purpose for scattered desire. It rests on the solid assumption that this is a man-made not a machine-made world, that men and women are capable of constructing their own life, and that not upon socialism or any rule or any order or any plan or any utopia can we rest our hearts, but only on the force of a united and creative citizenship.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00090", "bookId": 73755, "start": 16581, "end": 17451, "sha256": "2bbbfc093bbab333647b8ec4ba121b117dc4d787109c0ad08ffa97f24501d7ab", "text": "We are asking for group organization in order to leap at once from the region of theory, of which Americans are so fond, to a practical scheme of living. We hear a good deal of academic talk about “the functioning of the social mind”; what does it all amount to? We have no social mind yet, so we have no functioning of the social mind. We want the directive force of consciously integrated thought and will. All our ideas of conscious self-determination lead us to a new method: it is not merely that we must be allowed to govern ourselves, we must learn how to govern ourselves; it is not only that we must be given “free speech,” we must learn a speech that is free; we are not given rights, we create rights; it is not only that we must invent machinery to get a social will expressed, we must invent machinery that will get a social will created.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00091", "bookId": 73755, "start": 17455, "end": 18075, "sha256": "3ae1bf5704ca3132d333ce93f1ab1138bc739d7afa9ca36f5dbafbe425b01664", "text": "Politics have one task only—to create. To create? But what are politics to create? The state? The state is now discredited in many quarters. The extremists cry, “The state is dead, Down with the state.” And it is by no means the extremists alone who are saying that our present state has played us false and that therefore we are justified in abolishing it. An increasing number of men are thinking what one writer has put into words, “We have passed from the _régime_ of the state to that of the groups.” We must see if it is necessary to abolish the state in order to get the advantage of the group.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00092", "bookId": 73755, "start": 18079, "end": 18918, "sha256": "4646c5ed3ddb7b7e11674f0580c49536731f3d6c77c6297a60fc7f4b7df94078", "text": "Many trickles have gone to feed the stream of reaction against the state: (1) an economic and industrial progress which demands political recognition, which demands that labor have a share in political power, (2) the trend of philosophic thought towards pluralism and the whole anti-intellectualistic tendency, (3) a progressive legal theory of the “real personality” of groups, (4) a growing antagonism to the state because it is supposed to embody the crowd mind: our electorate is seen as a crowd hypnotized by the party leaders, big words, vague ideas and loose generalizations, (5) our life of rapidly increasing intercourse has made us see our voluntary associations as real and intimate, the state as something remote and foreign to us, and (6) the increasing alignment before the war of interests across state lines.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00093", "bookId": 73755, "start": 18922, "end": 19666, "sha256": "ba31ecfc05a41358c721b0c8b6a356522837f475f29beaff71e6d827fe3dc922", "text": "Every one of these reasons has force. Almost any one of these reasons is sufficient to turn political theory into new channels, seeking new currents of political life. Yet if our present state is taken from us and we are left with our multiple group life, we are at once confronted with many questions. Shall the new state be based on occupational groups or neighborhood groups? Shall they form a unifying or a plural state? Shall the group or the individual be the basis of politics? The pluralist gives us the group as the unit of politics, but most of the group theories of politics are as entirely particularistic as the old “individualistic” theories; our particularism is merely transferred from the individual to the group.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00094", "bookId": 73755, "start": 19670, "end": 20318, "sha256": "2b66453030765322e8719008ddc17e79afc680481070d91bc6532b512ece68a9", "text": "Pluralism is the most vital trend in political thought to-day, but there are many dangers lurking in pluralism as at present understood. The pluralists apotheosize the group; the average American, on the other hand, is afraid of the group because he thinks of it chiefly in the form of corporation and trust. Both make the same mistake: both isolate the group. The group _in relation_ must be the object of our study if that study is to be fruitful for politics. The pluralists have pointed out diversity but no pluralist has yet answered satisfactorily the question to which we must find an answer—What is to be done with this diversity?", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00095", "bookId": 73755, "start": 20322, "end": 20776, "sha256": "11528819f29ee1d4007648c3e5f90597dae5ba9f2f60487ba08bb851b4619079", "text": "Some of the pluralists tend to lose the individual in the group; others, to abandon the state for the group. But the individual, the group, the state—they are all there to be reckoned with—we cannot ignore or minimize any one. The relation of individual to group, of group to group, of individual and group to state—the part that labor is to have in the new state—these are the questions to the consideration of which this book is directed.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00096", "bookId": 73755, "start": 20780, "end": 21369, "sha256": "ede1fa29e35c59f7940698eb19957bf83e9f824a6452a9fd457463fc25173097", "text": "This book makes no attempt, however, to construct the new state, only to offer certain suggestions. But before the details of a new order are even hinted at, we must look far enough within for our practical suggestions to have value. In Part I we shall try to find the fundamental principles which must underlie the new state; in Part II we shall see how far they are expressed in present political forms; in Part III we shall consider how they can be expressed. When they are fully expressed, then we shall have the true Federal State, then we shall see appearing the World State.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00097", "bookId": 73755, "start": 21373, "end": 21956, "sha256": "ed85a399c25ea9339b1f598a1127132f517f65e32edc49b7422e7742a5114f65", "text": "To sum up this Introduction: The immediate problem of political science is to discover the method of self-government. Industrial democracy, the self-government of smaller nations, the “sovereignty” of an International League, our own political power,—how are these to be attained? Not by being “granted” or “conferred.” Genuine control, power, authority are always a growth. Self-government is a psychological process. It is with that psychological process that this book is largely concerned. To free the way for that process is the task of practical politics.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00098", "bookId": 73755, "start": 21960, "end": 22347, "sha256": "5ced3114852d76a099e391358100bf54bd0b8ee170e18e59523d59d92a1d3d48", "text": "New surges of life are pounding at circumference and centre; we must open the way for their entrance and onflow. To-day the individual is submerged, smothered, choked by the crowd fallacy, the herd theory. Free him from these, release his energies, and he with all other Freemen will work out quick, flexible, constantly changing forms which shall respond sensitively to every need.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00099", "bookId": 73755, "start": 22351, "end": 23310, "sha256": "220d3af044996fa29c8e8a2a02776d8c45fcbc12eeea7324e78f692ca9f0bcc3", "text": "Under our present system, social and economic changes necessary because of changing social and economic conditions cannot be brought about. The first reform needed in our political practice is to find some method by which the government shall continuously represent the people. No state can endure unless the political bond is being forever forged anew. The organization of men in small local groups gives opportunity for this continuous political activity which ceaselessly creates the state. Our government forms cannot be fossils from a dead age, but must be sensitive, mobile channels for the quick and quickening soul of the individual to flow to those larger confluences which finally bring forth the state. Thus every man _is_ the state at every moment, whether in daily toil or social intercourse, and thus the state itself, leading a myriad-membered life, is expressing itself as truly in its humblest citizen as in its supreme assembly.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00100", "bookId": 73755, "start": 23314, "end": 23548, "sha256": "ff8b023dce5045b984923bb981b48b51522d543ea480c9de9657a19cee1b4944", "text": "The principle of modern politics, the principle of creative citizenship, must predominantly and preëminently body itself and be acknowledged by every human being. Then will “practical politics” be for the first time practical.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00101", "bookId": 73755, "start": 23570, "end": 23603, "sha256": "92bf9343d426ee004c3cb7caa3f283036b2f3626f071d4807d38518427facd12", "text": "* * * * *", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00102", "bookId": 73755, "start": 23607, "end": 24365, "sha256": "e4054e4a0f1e4a1cb4550fa902802b7e12b38b12df7b473ef7eebc006bbed11d", "text": "A few words of explanation seem necessary. I have no bibliography simply because any list of references which I could give would necessarily be a partial one since much of this book has come by wireless. Besides all that is being written definitely of a new state, the air to-day is full of the tentative, the partial, the fragmentary thought, the isolated flash of insight from some genius, all of which is being turned to the solution of those problems which, from our waking to our sleeping, face us with their urgent demand. I am here trying to show the need of a wide and systematic study of these problems, not pretending to be able to solve them. Much interweaving of thought will be necessary before the form of the new state appears to us.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00103", "bookId": 73755, "start": 24369, "end": 24729, "sha256": "2dbc3ad0706e2c8e0b0ebbd49b45be8207d86cd8c58ee642ae5287dceebc9ae9", "text": "Moreover, I have not traced the strands of thought which have led us to our present ideas. That does not mean that I do not recognize the slow building up of these ideas or all our indebtedness to the thinkers of the past. I speak of principles as “new” which we all know were familiar to Aristotle or Kant and are new to-day only in their application.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00104", "bookId": 73755, "start": 24733, "end": 25573, "sha256": "f2fa710f086c6b7e58e67b922597bbec52df7ebca46d85c0d4cdde821ae8c353", "text": "The word new is so much used in the present day—New Freedom, New Democracy, New Society etc.—that it is perhaps well for us to remind ourselves what we mean by this word. We are using the word new partly in reaction to the selfishness of the nineteenth century, in reaction to a world which has culminated in this war, but more especially in the sense of the live, the real, in contrast to the inert, the dead. It is not a time distinction—the “new” (the vital) claims fellowship with all that is “new” (vital) in the past. When we speak of the “New” Freedom we mean all the reality and truth which have accumulated in all the conceptions of freedom up to the present moment. The “New” Society is the “Perfect Society.” The “New” Life is the Vita Nuova, “when spring came to the heart of Italy.”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00105", "bookId": 73755, "start": 25577, "end": 26410, "sha256": "babe28fe89b02c62da48abd1c702368ee481bb700e9632b0610466c7d2073f6e", "text": "It is I hope unnecessary to explain that in my frequent use of the term “the new psychology,” I am not referring to any definitely formulated body of thought; there are no writers who are expounding the new psychology as such. By the “new psychology” I mean something now in the making: I mean partly that group psychology which is receiving more attention and gaining more influence every day, and partly I mean simply that feeling out for a new conception of _modes of association_ which we see in law, economics, ethics, politics, and indeed in every department of thought. It is a short way of saying that we are now looking at things not as entities but in relation. When our modern jurists speak of the growing emphasis upon relation rather than upon contract—they are speaking of the “new psychology.”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00106", "bookId": 73755, "start": 26414, "end": 27713, "sha256": "87f6a87e209c613fd6b3eb020847cfdcca88adf46319c5c064d55cafa68d251e", "text": "There is, however, another and very important aspect of contemporary psychology closely connected with this one of relation. We are to-day seeking to understand the sources of human motives,[1] and then to free their channels so that these elemental springs of human activity (the fundamental instincts of man) shall not be dammed but flow forth in normal fashion, for normal man is constructive. A few years ago, for instance, we were satisfied merely to condemn sabotage and repudiation of law; now we are trying to discover the cause of this deviation from the normal in order to see if it can be removed. This necessity for the understanding of the nature and vital needs of men has not yet reached full self-consciousness, but appears in diverse forms: as the investigation of the I. W. W., as a study of “Human Nature in Politics,” an examination of “The Great Society,” as child-study, as Y. M. C. A. efforts to nourish all sides of men at the front, etc. etc. To-day the new psychology speaks in many voices. Soon we may hope for some unified formulation of all this varied and scattered utterance. Soon we may hope also that the connection will be made between this aspect of contemporary psychology and the group psychology upon which this book is mainly founded.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00107", "bookId": 73755, "start": 27717, "end": 28246, "sha256": "1ab3e4acf498fe35c405852b8186fe120a12962b0ce21f0ff4394c7318e25388", "text": "I wish to add my reason for giving quotations from many writers whose names I have not cited. This has been chiefly because often the sentence or phrase quoted taken away from all context does not give a fair idea of the writer’s complete thought, and I have used it not in an attempt to refute these writers, but merely as illustrating certain tendencies to which we are all more or less subject at present. Many of the writers with whom I have disagreed in some particular have been in the main my teachers and guides.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00108", "bookId": 73755, "start": 28250, "end": 28419, "sha256": "6376037dd7b40a29c4475f7f8a8a506407c25e1e8cdc3081bd21d174f96e449b", "text": "A certain amount of repetition has seemed necessary in order to look at the same idea from a number of angles and to make different applications of the same principle.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00109", "bookId": 73755, "start": 28423, "end": 29436, "sha256": "d65cb97cdfb8891b84fa02fa15eca691e0728f4d862848e5442344e96bc00892", "text": "From a few friends I have received much help. My thanks are especially due to my teacher and counsellor of many years, Miss Anna Boynton Thompson, who went over the first copy of the manuscript with me and gave to it the most careful consideration and criticism, offering constantly invaluable suggestion and advice; to her unflagging and most generous help the final form owes more than I can quite express. The inception of the book is due to my friends and fellow-workers, Mrs. Louis Brandeis, Mrs. Richard Cabot and Mr. Arthur Woodworth, as also much of its thought to the stimulus of “group” discussion with them. Mrs. Charles W. Mixter, Professor Albert Bushnell Hart, Professor H. A. Overstreet, Professor W. Ernest Hocking and Mr. Roscoe Pound have read the manuscript in full or in part and have given me many valuable suggestions. I owe to my friend, Miss Isobel L. Briggs, daily help, advice and encouragement in the development of the book, and the revision of manuscript and proofs.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00110", "bookId": 73755, "start": 29440, "end": 29445, "sha256": "73be087e93080f9e436892b7d182df66394bc79dbf5df119d9357df61b1ebbfb", "text": "-----", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00111", "bookId": 73755, "start": 29449, "end": 29460, "sha256": "9fa739c59a9805151cb0d1db55bc1cf2dce7f40bedd21255939094d5edeb1285", "text": "Footnote 1:", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00112", "bookId": 73755, "start": 29466, "end": 29507, "sha256": "1925f2ef6265d1b99a4da63d0df886ce9203514a0961ad78904c8a5d30ba0e55", "text": "See William McDougall, Social Psychology.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00113", "bookId": 73755, "start": 29511, "end": 29583, "sha256": "5be59d365acb8d35446f682c6d314fffd5db5846ab8c6eb021e6bacd98a82aa0", "text": "------------------------------------------------------------------------", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00114", "bookId": 73755, "start": 29626, "end": 29632, "sha256": "495768bd3d6957619d4fbe2457811a0483df9e815938bdd9fb195935ece1b264", "text": "PART I", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00115", "bookId": 73755, "start": 29662, "end": 29681, "sha256": "71ad37c4693eada43c55b8a738f6984ed0f0a0d85ba9422f1b6b3e8f87e4dc81", "text": "THE GROUP PRINCIPLE", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00116", "bookId": 73755, "start": 29691, "end": 29763, "sha256": "5be59d365acb8d35446f682c6d314fffd5db5846ab8c6eb021e6bacd98a82aa0", "text": "------------------------------------------------------------------------", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00117", "bookId": 73755, "start": 29808, "end": 29809, "sha256": "a83dd0ccbffe39d071cc317ddf6e97f5c6b1c87af91919271f9fa140b0508c6c", "text": "I", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00118", "bookId": 73755, "start": 29833, "end": 29865, "sha256": "cb786946d6e280f22d7d0d2338ca197672b838370297b8be3fcab7252326b97b", "text": "THE GROUP AND THE NEW PSYCHOLOGY", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00119", "bookId": 73755, "start": 29898, "end": 29912, "sha256": "cb963f8b7dd4be2e8d413c437052b98afad284e3de40cd420bdd246302a111ad", "text": "--------------", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00120", "bookId": 73755, "start": 29918, "end": 30721, "sha256": "8abfa8f484e9fd06106e140e171927fa1e96553d79c0cede0bea339bb7172f9d", "text": "POLITICS must have a technique based on an understanding of the laws of association, that is, based on a new and progressive social psychology. Politics alone should not escape all the modern tendency of scientific method, of analysis, of efficiency engineering. The study of democracy has been based largely on the study of institutions; it should be based on the study of how men behave together. We have to deal, not with institutions, or any mechanical thing, or with abstract ideas, or “man,” or anything but just men, ordinary men. The importance of the new psychology is that it acknowledges man as the centre and shaper of his universe. In his nature all institutions are latent and perforce must be adapted to this nature. Man not things must be the starting point of the future.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00121", "bookId": 73755, "start": 30725, "end": 31483, "sha256": "b054fa4ca7b683bfc11e778c1a80dd5d3ac6e0f5cf8ff3c06b07c58a52d3f6c8", "text": "But man in association, for no man lives to himself. And we must understand further that the laws of association are the laws of the group. We have long been trying to understand the relation of the individual to society; we are only just beginning to see that there is no “individual,” that there is no “society.” It is not strange, therefore, that our efforts have gone astray, that our thinking yields small returns for politics. The old psychology was based on the isolated individual as the unit, on the assumption that a man thinks, feels and judges independently. Now that we know that there is no such thing as a separate ego, that individuals are created by reciprocal interplay, our whole study of psychology is being transformed.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00122", "bookId": 73755, "start": 31487, "end": 32710, "sha256": "63a01b9e167caf1222c7bae2993db8a4ae3ad13345c0130a880fdfa674416bab", "text": "Likewise there is no “society” thought of vaguely as the mass of people we see around us. I am always in relation not to “society” but to some concrete group. When do we ever as a matter of fact think of “society”? Are we not always thinking of our part in our board of directors or college faculty, in the dinner party last night,[2] in our football team, our club, our political party, our trade-union, our church? Practically “society” is for every one of us a number of groups. The recognition of this constitutes a new step in sociology analogous to the contribution William James made in regard to the individual. James brought to popular recognition the truth that since man is a complex of experiences there are many selves in each one. So society as a complex of groups includes many social minds. The craving we have for union is satisfied by group life, groups and groups, groups ever widening, ever unifying, but always groups. We sometimes say that man is spiritually dependent upon society; what we are referring to is his psychic relation to his groups. The vital relation of the individual to the world is through his groups; they are the potent factors in shaping our lives.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00123", "bookId": 73755, "start": 32714, "end": 33665, "sha256": "e60155399ec874555d7f61d7bb6d81b4e23f2236e108004d59a886ac9f3fb063", "text": "Hence social psychology cannot be the application of the old individual psychology to a number of people. A few years ago I went to a lecture on “Social Psychology,” as the subject was announced. Not a word was said except on the nervous systems and other aspects of individual psychology, but at the last moment the lecturer told us that had there been time he would have applied what he had said to social conditions! It reminded me of our old acquaintance Silas Wegg who, when he wanted to know something about Chinese metaphysics, first looked up China in the encyclopedia and then metaphysics and put them together. The new psychology must take people with their inheritance, their “tendencies,” their environment, and then focus its attention on their interrelatings. The most careful laboratory work must be done to discover the conditions which make these interrelatings possible, which make these interrelatings fruitful.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00124", "bookId": 73755, "start": 33669, "end": 34128, "sha256": "edf313743892816bc2557e230cdbdb57f18e80cb0d60062d6c892382dd85c7d5", "text": "Some writers make “socially minded” tendencies on the part of individuals the subject of social psychology, but such tendencies belong still to the field of individual psychology. A social action is not an individual initiative with social application.[3] Neither is social psychology the determination of how far social factors determine the individual consciousness. Social psychology must concern itself primarily with the _interaction_ of minds.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00125", "bookId": 73755, "start": 34132, "end": 34632, "sha256": "e35066dfc13cfe6eb69cfcf8d401e12d957af0184e529e72e8c811df3106415f", "text": "Early psychology was based on the study of the individual; early sociology was based on the study of society. But there is no such thing as the “individual,” there is no such thing as “society”; there is only the group and the group-unit—the social individual. Social psychology must begin with an intensive study of the group, of the selective processes which go on within it, the differentiated reactions, the likenesses and unlikenesses, and the spiritual energy which unites them.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00126", "bookId": 73755, "start": 34636, "end": 35234, "sha256": "297ddf9f1935599287099cf28fd3e28bb35dc2935c8cead0beef1ed42ba4d852", "text": "The acceptance and the living of the new psychology will do away with all the progeny of particularistic psychology: consent of the governed, majority rule, external leadership, industrial wars, national wars etc. From the analysis of the group must come an understanding of collective thought and collective feeling, of the common will and concerted activity, of the true nature of freedom, the illusion of self-and-others, the essential unity of men, the real meaning of patriotism, and the whole secret of progress and of life as a genuine interpenetration which produces true community.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00127", "bookId": 73755, "start": 35238, "end": 36324, "sha256": "fc32c946b88b35b04c6113900f75abab84cca29a77689a6062b70d3d5e7cbead", "text": "All thinking men are demanding a new state. The question is—What form shall that state take? No one of us will be able to give an answer until we have studied men in association and have discovered the laws of association. This has not been done yet, but already we can see that a political science which is not based on a knowledge of the laws of association gained by a study of the group will soon seem the crudest kind of quackery. Syndicalism, in reaction to the so-called “metaphysical” foundation of politics, is based on “objective rights,” on function, on its conception of modes of association which shall emphasize the object of the associated and not the relation of the associated to one another. The new psychology goes a step further and sees these as one, but how can any of these things be discussed abstractly? Must we not first study men in association? Young men in the hum of actual life, practical politicians, the members of constitutional conventions, labor leaders—all these must base their work on the principles of group psychology.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00128", "bookId": 73755, "start": 36328, "end": 36843, "sha256": "5c2aa0fb397701d7fe6d52852b15214bfde71eff94101e6097f423f1fa4829a4", "text": "The fundamental reason for the study of group psychology is that no one can give us democracy, we must learn democracy. To be a democrat is not to decide on a certain form of human association, it is to learn how to live with other men. The whole labor movement is being kept back by people not knowing how to live together much more than by any deliberate refusal to grant justice. The trouble with syndicalism is that its success depends on group action and we know almost nothing of the laws of the group.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00129", "bookId": 73755, "start": 36847, "end": 38231, "sha256": "3864fcd558e8b1edce84d280e760d9a7710b2e4d65c84d25505f1031b83e12ec", "text": "I have used group in this book with the meaning of men associating under the law of interpenetration as opposed to the law of the crowd—suggestion and imitation. This may be considered an arbitrary definition, but of course I do not care about the names, I only want to emphasize the fact that men meet under two different sets of laws. Social psychology may include both group psychology and crowd psychology, but of these two group psychology is much the more important. For a good many years now we have been dominated by the crowd school, by the school which taught that people met together are governed by suggestion and imitation, and less notice has been taken of all the interplay which is the real social process that we have in a group but not in a crowd. How men behave in crowds, and the relation of the crowd conception of politics to democracy, will be considered in later chapters. While I recognize that men are more often at present under the laws of the crowd than of the group, I believe that progress depends on the group, and, therefore, that the group should be the basis of a progressive social psychology. The group process contains the secret of collective life, it is the key to democracy, it is the master lesson for every individual to learn, it is our chief hope for the political, the social, the international life of the future.[4]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00130", "bookId": 73755, "start": 38235, "end": 38240, "sha256": "73be087e93080f9e436892b7d182df66394bc79dbf5df119d9357df61b1ebbfb", "text": "-----", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00131", "bookId": 73755, "start": 38244, "end": 38255, "sha256": "bc01297f3fe799058db740dc16a058e8d73c1a9f0fe2de5467181669f69f5511", "text": "Footnote 2:", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00132", "bookId": 73755, "start": 38261, "end": 38400, "sha256": "6a664ae7e3275eebdeea4df0058c04cef2ff2dde3a3bf2c41d54b384b8cc2d91", "text": "Probably by no means a group, but tending in some instances in that direction, as in the discussion or conference dinners now so common.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00133", "bookId": 73755, "start": 38404, "end": 38415, "sha256": "d8e05cc58309b14ec4fb756cab6c72dbaa9cf3337b97a6468af2fec7c51b7833", "text": "Footnote 3:", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00134", "bookId": 73755, "start": 38421, "end": 38777, "sha256": "2a0b9784c83dcd0a2bc2e548457218f443656027acb528cf5e98242c1e6ea8b2", "text": "The old definition of the word social has been a tremendous drag on politics. Social policies are not policies for the good of the people but policies created by the people, etc. etc. We read in the work of a continental sociologist, “When a social will is born in the brain of a man,” but a social will never is born in the brain of a man.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00135", "bookId": 73755, "start": 38781, "end": 38792, "sha256": "f6e4235a4906dad9df476263688176413d7c75be07d9f25017bde439631848be", "text": "Footnote 4:", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00136", "bookId": 73755, "start": 38798, "end": 39056, "sha256": "4edd4bfa1a4a4a736191c07cad352c504fcb7e3f7e94af8fa8b64d9b6ef7018c", "text": "This is essentially the process by which sovereignty is created. Therefore chapters II-VI on The Group Process are the basis of the conception of sovereignty given in Part III and of the relation of that conception to the politics of reconstruction.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00137", "bookId": 73755, "start": 39060, "end": 39132, "sha256": "5be59d365acb8d35446f682c6d314fffd5db5846ab8c6eb021e6bacd98a82aa0", "text": "------------------------------------------------------------------------", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00138", "bookId": 73755, "start": 39177, "end": 39179, "sha256": "2e561ff2355c06484efc416619b5b7f7fc055acdb4e5b6db7a4bc0a5016b19e3", "text": "II", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00139", "bookId": 73755, "start": 39200, "end": 39238, "sha256": "9cb47bc0de30a0b7998fdca51e46b00eb0965a20a7570f57ff9a92c6e38f749d", "text": "THE GROUP PROCESS: THE COLLECTIVE IDEA", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00140", "bookId": 73755, "start": 39271, "end": 39285, "sha256": "cb963f8b7dd4be2e8d413c437052b98afad284e3de40cd420bdd246302a111ad", "text": "--------------", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00141", "bookId": 73755, "start": 39291, "end": 40177, "sha256": "a6e26823496982300c1a1b9c6cc07dcc5e3bca1559cd61a3ccc1897c7c9c7959", "text": "LET us begin at once to consider the group process. Perhaps the most familiar example of the evolving of a group idea is a committee meeting. The object of a committee meeting is first of all to create a common idea. I do not go to a committee meeting merely to give my own ideas. If that were all, I might write my fellow-members a letter. But neither do I go to learn other people’s ideas. If that were all, I might ask each to write me a letter. I go to a committee meeting in order that all together we may create a group idea, an idea which will be better than any one of our ideas alone, moreover which will be better than all of our ideas added together. For this group idea will not be produced by any process of addition, but by the interpenetration of us all. This subtle psychic process by which the resulting idea shapes itself is the process we want to study.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00142", "bookId": 73755, "start": 40181, "end": 41552, "sha256": "f4fa4e2c926c4022b4295ff239c0be02da47113704fbbea43f2ddb31b527a8b7", "text": "Let us imagine that you, I, A, B and C are in conference. Now what from our observation of groups will take place? Will you say something, and then I add a little something, and then A, and B, and C, until we have together built up, brick-wise, an idea, constructed some plan of action? Never. A has one idea, B another, C’s idea is something different from either, and so on, but we cannot add all these ideas to find the group idea. They will not add any more than apples and chairs will add. But we gradually find that our problem can be solved, not indeed by mechanical aggregation, but by the subtle process of the intermingling of all the different ideas of the group. A says something. Thereupon a thought arises in B’s mind. Is it B’s idea or A’s? Neither. It is a mingling of the two. We find that A’s idea, after having been presented to B and returned to A, has become slightly, or largely, different from what it was originally. In like manner it is affected by C and so on. But in the same way B’s idea has been affected by all the others, and not only does A’s idea feel the modifying influence of each of the others, but A’s ideas are affected by B’s relation to all the others, and A’s plus B’s are affected by all the others individually and collectively, and so on and on until the common idea springs into being.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00143", "bookId": 73755, "start": 41556, "end": 42210, "sha256": "46d2514fb8fe4fb301f5b5f8ecb2389accdfe268b411944b2b86f2f55ec8f964", "text": "We find in the end that it is not a question of my idea being supplemented by yours, but that there has been evolved a composite idea. But by the time we have reached this point we have become tremendously civilized people, for we have learned one of the most important lessons of life: we have learned to do that most wonderful thing, to say “I” representing a whole instead of “I” representing one of our separate selves. The course of action decided upon is what we all together want, and I see that it is better than what I had wanted alone. It is what _I_ now want. We have all experienced this at committee meetings or conferences.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00144", "bookId": 73755, "start": 42214, "end": 42905, "sha256": "234069cb0135ced0ac1abc53e4146eece5368fa40953df3af647ccc7a62dd0ba", "text": "We see therefore that we cannot view the content of the collective mind as a holiday procession, one part after another passing before our mental eyes; every part is bound up with every other part, every tendency is conditioned by every other tendency. It is like a game of tennis. A serves the ball to B. B returns the serve but his play is influenced as largely by the way the ball has been served to him as it is by his own method of return. A sends the ball back to B, but his return is made up of his own play plus the way in which the ball has been played to him by B plus his own original serve. Thus in the end does action and reaction become inextricably bound up together.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00145", "bookId": 73755, "start": 42909, "end": 43704, "sha256": "662656df4d3bd6ec993ddfbff31f0762152546e1683c150be9cb31210939779c", "text": "I have described briefly the group process. Let us consider what is required of the individual in order that the group idea shall be produced. First and foremost each is to do his part. But just here we have to get rid of some rather antiquated notions. The individual is not to facilitate agreement by courteously (!) waiving his own point of view. That is just a way of shirking. Nor may I say, “Others are able to plan this better than I.” Such an attitude is the result either of laziness or of a misconception. There are probably many present at the conference who could make wiser plans than I alone, but that is not the point, we have come together each to give something. I must not subordinate myself, I must affirm myself and give my full positive value to that meeting.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00146", "bookId": 73755, "start": 43708, "end": 44601, "sha256": "d72c9e7aa77fda97bba7bcd81c5b83eea5fc6d994ba1d172506028dac7b66549", "text": "And as the psychic coherence of the group can be obtained only by the full contribution of every member, so we see that a readiness to compromise must be no part of the individual’s attitude. Just so far as people think that the basis of working together is compromise or concession, just so far they do not understand the first principles of working together. Such people think that when they have reached an appreciation of the necessity of compromise they have reached a high plane of social development; they conceive themselves as nobly willing to sacrifice part of their desire, part of their idea, part of their will, in order to secure the undoubted benefit of concerted action. But compromise is still on the same plane as fighting. War will continue—between capital and labor, between nation and nation—until we relinquish the ideas of compromise and concession.[5]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00147", "bookId": 73755, "start": 44605, "end": 45326, "sha256": "e6a373e75ca0e9d797d2eec1153a6280c7eb9500e5601d54bf6b9382690acb1f", "text": "But at the same time that we offer fully what we have to give, we must be eager for what all others have to give. If I ought not to go to my group feeling that I must give up my own ideas in order to accept the opinions of others, neither ought I to go to force my ideas upon others. The “harmony” that comes from the domination of one man is not the kind we want. At a board of directors’ meeting once Mr. E. H. Harriman said, “Gentlemen, we must have coöperation. I insist upon it.” They “coöperated” and all his motions were put through. At the end of the meeting some one asked Mr. Harriman to define coöperation. “Oh, that’s simple,” he said, “do as I say and do it damned quick.”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00148", "bookId": 73755, "start": 45330, "end": 45675, "sha256": "85a80a72a92a5d11e934480ffb6dd8eb51e42bee15cb741b5e49bbc3a26f7560", "text": "There are many people who conscientiously go to their group thinking it their duty to impose their ideas upon others, but the time is coming soon when we are going to see that we have no more right to get our own way by persuading people than by bullying or bribing them. To take our full share in the synthesis is all that is legitimate.[6]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00149", "bookId": 73755, "start": 45679, "end": 46665, "sha256": "1b98a42464e9fe0169a14b50707cf1ddf974843f279d8fc34ab8ad00d9315c85", "text": "Thus the majority idea is not the group idea. Suppose I belong to a committee composed of five: of A, B, C, D and myself. According to the old theory of my duties as a committee member I might say, “A agrees with me, if I can get B to agree with me that will make a majority and I can carry my point.” That is, we five can then present this idea to the world as our group idea. But this is not a group idea, although it may be the best substitute we can get for the moment. To a genuine group idea every man must contribute what is in him to contribute. Thus even the passing of a unanimous vote by a group of five does not prove the existence of a group idea if two or three (or even one) out of indifference or laziness or prejudice, or shut-upness, or a misconception of their function, have not added their individual thought to the creation of the group thought. No member of a group which is to create can be passive. All must be active and constructively active.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00150", "bookId": 73755, "start": 46669, "end": 47323, "sha256": "7a301390d364a032e72aed802a04878601eb9ccb21a4bcd479125b0eb81327ef", "text": "It is not, however, to be constructively active merely to add a share: it must be a share which is related to and bound up with every other share. And it must be given in such a way that it fits in with what others are giving. Some one said to me the other day, “Don’t you think Mr. X talks better than anyone else in Boston?” Well the fact is that Mr. X talks so well that I can never talk with him. Everything he says has such a ring of finality, is such a rounding up of the whole question, that it leaves nothing more to be said on the subject. This is particularly the kind of thing to be avoided in a committee meeting or conference.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00151", "bookId": 73755, "start": 47327, "end": 47792, "sha256": "d61247d62651cc288667eb135c156bdbe8a7e774c650737b2e9bdeaf1146f1ee", "text": "There are many people, moreover, who want to score, to be brilliant, rather than to find agreement. Others come prepared with what they are going to say and either this has often been said long before they get a chance to speak, or, in any case, it allows no give-and-take, so they contribute nothing; when we really learn the process our ideas will be struck out by the interplay. To compare notes on what we have thought separately is not to think together.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00152", "bookId": 73755, "start": 47796, "end": 48787, "sha256": "2288fc1fe507e6af443ee78bd1cdfbfc3bdeef29c7615aab26839b03e8e80541", "text": "I asked a man once to join a committee I was organizing and he replied that he would be very glad to come and give his advice. I didn’t want him—and didn’t have him. I asked another man and he said he would like very much to come and learn but that he couldn’t contribute anything. I didn’t have him either—I hadn’t a school. Probably the last man thought he was being modest and, therefore, estimable. But what I wanted was to get a group of people who would deliberately work out a thing together. I should have liked very much to have the man who felt that he had advice to give if he had had also what we are now learning to call the social attitude, that is, that of a man willing to take his place in the group, no less and no more. This definition of social attitude is very different from our old one—the willingness to give; my friend who wanted to come and give advice had that, but that is a crude position compared with the one we are now advocating.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00153", "bookId": 73755, "start": 48791, "end": 49377, "sha256": "3c3fd76c408d6e7af9f4a526fa1964b61f8b01bd7720ed21c6e09a7d45fe5897", "text": "It is clear then that we do not go to our group—trade-union, city council, college faculty—to be passive and learn, and we do not go to push through something we have already decided we want. Each must discover and contribute that which distinguishes him from others, his difference. The only use for my difference is to join it with other differences. The unifying of opposites is the eternal process.[7] We must have an imagination which will leap from the particular to the universal. Our joy, our satisfaction, must always be in the more inclusive aspect of our problem.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00154", "bookId": 73755, "start": 49381, "end": 50296, "sha256": "ed638a159d365d1e799452065f1c381d7076fd315425aaae20b7ad03da9372a9", "text": "We can test our group in this way: do we come together to register the results of individual thought, to compare the results of individual thought in order to make selections therefrom, or do we come together to create a common idea? Whenever we have a real group something new _is_ actually created. We can now see therefore that the object of group life is not to find the best individual thought, but the collective thought. A committee meeting isn’t like a prize show aimed at calling out the best each can possibly produce and then the prize (the vote) awarded to the best of all these individual opinions. The object of a conference is not to get at a lot of different ideas, as is often thought, but just the opposite—to get at one idea. There is nothing rigid or fixed about thoughts, they are entirely plastic, and ready to yield themselves completely to their master—the group spirit.[8]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00155", "bookId": 73755, "start": 50300, "end": 51169, "sha256": "785e9667e786504bcba1b5586d68514ffb0162cee42f8120a7d0628305ae364b", "text": "I have given some of the conditions necessary for collective thinking. In every governing board—city councils, hospital and library trustees, the boards of colleges and churches, in business and industry, in directors’ meetings—no device should be neglected which will help to produce joint rather than individual thinking. But no one has yet given us a scientific analysis of the conditions necessary or how to fulfil them. We do not yet know, for instance, the best number to bring out the group idea, the number, that is, which will bring out as many differences as possible and yet form a whole or group. We cannot guess at it but only get it through scientific experiments. Much laboratory work has to be done. The numbers on Boards of Education, on Governors’ Commissions, should be determined by psychological as well as by political reasons.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00156", "bookId": 73755, "start": 51173, "end": 51452, "sha256": "370f53ff86796834f8bb27715227a1e85021310be96d5b4d0218ff3f88e8009f", "text": "Again it is said that private sessions are undemocratic. If they contribute to true collective thinking (instead of efforts to dazzle the gallery), then, in so far, they are democratic, for there is nothing in the world so democratic as the production of a genuine group will.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00157", "bookId": 73755, "start": 51456, "end": 51673, "sha256": "0ec92f8d595c6d10dab352dfe97261cd947174165e791a0322f1d87c3938f058", "text": "Mr. Gladstone must have appreciated the necessity of making conditions favorable to joint thinking, for I have been told that at important meetings of the Cabinet he planned beforehand where each member should sit.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00158", "bookId": 73755, "start": 51677, "end": 51937, "sha256": "c5e3b82084c5443c5eb9fe05b3f25052990bdcd223feef8cbe104f1e707bbffd", "text": "The members of a group are reciprocally conditioning forces none of which acts as it would act if any one member were different or absent. You can often see this in a board of directors: if one director leaves the room, every man becomes slightly different.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00159", "bookId": 73755, "start": 51941, "end": 53490, "sha256": "51140e15378e572f5adb12b88e1bebc285f6a19f9c3909aac720d1ce0a35ca82", "text": "When the conditions for collective thinking are more or less fulfilled, then the expansion of life will begin. Through my group I learn the secret of wholeness.[9] The inspiration of the group is proportionate to the degree in which we do actually identify ourselves with the whole and think that _we_ are doing this, not Mr. A and Mr. B and I, but we, the united we, the singular not the plural pronoun we. (We shall have to write a new grammar to meet the needs of the times, as non-Euclidean geometries are now being published.) Then we shall no longer have a feeling of individual triumph, but feel only elation that the group has accomplished something. Much of the evil of our political and social life comes from the fact that we crave personal recognition and personal satisfaction; as soon as our greatest satisfaction is group satisfaction, many of our present problems will disappear. When one thinks of one’s self as part of a group, it means keener moral perceptions, greater strength of will, more enthusiasm and zest in life. We shall enjoy living the social life when we understand it; the things which we do and achieve together will give us much greater happiness than the things we do and achieve by ourselves. It has been asked what, in peace, is going to take the place of those songs men sing as they march to battle which at the same time thrill and unite them. The songs which the hearts of men will sing as they go forward in life with one desire—the song of the common will, the social will of man.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00160", "bookId": 73755, "start": 53494, "end": 54144, "sha256": "29cf5bd91eb27bdf58588f5ba6bc2f49440bc7875975cfc0440fcdbef6a77deb", "text": "Men descend to meet? This is not my experience. The _laissez-aller_ which people allow themselves when alone disappears when they meet. Then they pull themselves together and give one another of their best. We see this again and again. Sometimes the ideal of the group stands quite visibly before us as one which none of us is quite living up to by himself. We feel it there, an impalpable, substantial thing in our midst. It raises us to the n^{th} power of action, it fires our minds and glows in our hearts and fulfils and actuates itself no less, but rather on this very account, because it has been generated only by our being together.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00161", "bookId": 73755, "start": 54148, "end": 54153, "sha256": "73be087e93080f9e436892b7d182df66394bc79dbf5df119d9357df61b1ebbfb", "text": "-----", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00162", "bookId": 73755, "start": 54157, "end": 54168, "sha256": "4a0172df89c1a1d0064bbd0006a2eda1d2fc217da9b08b8ee200adb64d28161e", "text": "Footnote 5:", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00163", "bookId": 73755, "start": 54174, "end": 54616, "sha256": "731c410cca58364e75b9b88ae558d050e57d4fca1ed545e819fc5ec6836a19e1", "text": "This is the heart of the latest ethical teaching based on the most progressive psychology: between two apparently conflicting courses of action, _a_ and _b_, _a_ is not to be followed and _b_ suppressed, nor _b_ followed and _a_ suppressed, nor must a compromise between the two be sought, but the process must always be one of integration. Our progress is measured by our ability to proceed from integration to integration.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00164", "bookId": 73755, "start": 54620, "end": 54631, "sha256": "15ad014a2bd1ab779fad9bac8c004f00053087c2b1ec94c74c86dadda0cc1dc8", "text": "Footnote 6:", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00165", "bookId": 73755, "start": 54637, "end": 55003, "sha256": "ddf704ee594525378d06138d67c04ef3250aff359102cf7a491408b753dc68f7", "text": "This statement may be misunderstood unless there is borne in mind at the same time: (1) the necessity for the keenest individual thinking as the basis of group thinking, and (2) that every man should maintain his point of view until it has found its place in the group thought, that is, until he has been neither overruled nor absorbed but integrated.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00166", "bookId": 73755, "start": 55007, "end": 55018, "sha256": "82c228cc6b407984e76969cccee9f81629c9cf32d529371363303bf6d716f574", "text": "Footnote 7:", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00167", "bookId": 73755, "start": 55024, "end": 55219, "sha256": "4f6a185cea0d46de484174c130751142d1ef2a758b3ee98f5084aaa7e767b29f", "text": "We must not of course confuse the type of unifying spoken of here (an integration), which is a psychological process, with the “reconciliation of opposites,” which is a logical process.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00168", "bookId": 73755, "start": 55223, "end": 55234, "sha256": "0f87315f0e0cdd83b4ae06182c01614344a03279244a4a17228a189c2c181eb7", "text": "Footnote 8:", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00169", "bookId": 73755, "start": 55240, "end": 55410, "sha256": "00694d5894b93bf0b0759a76ba78d123e7d9115f9bc608b25a8a2b7f0790de94", "text": "I am sometimes told that mine is a counsel of perfection only to be realized in the millenium, but we cannot take even the first step until we have chosen our path.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00170", "bookId": 73755, "start": 55414, "end": 55425, "sha256": "cdaa6399c5de853289908feecb5b57a874c4ded10f4561f0b45f9e86874acda9", "text": "Footnote 9:", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00171", "bookId": 73755, "start": 55431, "end": 55602, "sha256": "4286d6fa4045d4215f277c4b2956f602aa98c3625321d39c0623a7d972578b02", "text": "The break in the English Cabinet in 1915, which led to the coalition Cabinet, came when both Kitchener and Churchill tried to substitute individual for group action.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00172", "bookId": 73755, "start": 55606, "end": 55678, "sha256": "5be59d365acb8d35446f682c6d314fffd5db5846ab8c6eb021e6bacd98a82aa0", "text": "------------------------------------------------------------------------", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00173", "bookId": 73755, "start": 55722, "end": 55725, "sha256": "399dbc8659309a249da966067c99d646aca9aa7868a5962559b64f15f5e99005", "text": "III", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00174", "bookId": 73755, "start": 55746, "end": 55827, "sha256": "967e234abc88ede368f280c44377f030736de2e76b7970043df715dd23350cac", "text": "THE GROUP PROCESS: THE COLLECTIVE IDEA (CONTINUED)", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00175", "bookId": 73755, "start": 55860, "end": 55874, "sha256": "cb963f8b7dd4be2e8d413c437052b98afad284e3de40cd420bdd246302a111ad", "text": "--------------", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00176", "bookId": 73755, "start": 55880, "end": 56234, "sha256": "7f4633f4003163aed0329ccb4a4be058c52495528e26ecb8c9942ae4971a9f30", "text": "WHAT then is the essence of the group process by which are evolved the collective thought and the collective will? It is an acting and reacting, a single and identical process which brings out differences and integrates them into a unity. The complex reciprocal action, the intricate interweavings of the members of the group, is the social process.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00177", "bookId": 73755, "start": 56238, "end": 56769, "sha256": "e4c988c4ed597e51c510b5a0f7a35ed034c3701bef41663ce602cf77d5ca682f", "text": "We see now that the process of the many becoming one is not a metaphysical or mystical idea; psychological analysis shows us how we can at the same moment be the self and the other, it shows how we can be forever apart and forever united. It is by the group process that the transfiguration of the external into the spiritual takes place, that is, that what seems a series becomes a whole. The essence of society is difference, related difference. “Give me your difference” is the cry of society to-day to every man.[10]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00178", "bookId": 73755, "start": 56773, "end": 57086, "sha256": "b6be212530c14a5d79ce6f34004479ca112cc17b602a37501099d4826cb9f9f0", "text": "But the older sociology made the social mind the consciousness of likeness. This likeness was accounted for by two theories chiefly: the imitation theory and the like-response-to-like-stimuli theory. It is necessary to consider these briefly, for they have been gnawing at the roots of all our political life.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00179", "bookId": 73755, "start": 57090, "end": 57532, "sha256": "b48e270789e795ffebc926b5adfff54d9fa39ccf79e18492f029bbb8024d6f8c", "text": "To say that the social process is that merely of the spread of similarities is to ignore the real nature of the collective thought, the collective will. Individual ideas do not become social ideas when communicated. The difference between them is one of kind. A collective thought is one evolved by a collective process. The essential feature of a common thought is not that it is held in common but that it has been produced in common.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00180", "bookId": 73755, "start": 57536, "end": 57875, "sha256": "6de20ee0fdd3fa10d28e2b0c575527e0f4f0fcb40c06149abfd3c3ab88575051", "text": "Likewise if every member of a group has the same thought, that is not a group idea: when all respond simultaneously to the same stimulus, it cannot be assumed that this is in obedience to a collective will. When all the men in a street run round the corner to see a procession, it is not because they are moved by a collective thought.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00181", "bookId": 73755, "start": 57879, "end": 58278, "sha256": "497510191456d991f20f584f0637b64a7db25fae81ccbb00f6a07afbd9e0ca91", "text": "Imitation indeed has a place in the collective life, it is one of the various means of coadaptation between men, but it is only a part and a part which has been fatally overemphasized.[11] It is one of the fruits of particularism. “Imitation” has been made the bridge to span the gap between the individual and society, but we see now that there is no gap, therefore no bridge is necessary.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00182", "bookId": 73755, "start": 58282, "end": 59211, "sha256": "12bb3e65b6dd8366fa4990f7be241a42e5803dee98316b8a5d9b315e7dffa8cf", "text": "The core of the social process is not likeness, but the harmonizing of difference through interpenetration.[12] But to be more accurate, similarity and difference can not be opposed in this external way—they have a vital connection. Similarities and differences make up the differentiated reactions of the group; that is what constitutes their importance, not their likeness or unlikeness as such. I react to a stimulus: that reaction may represent a likeness or an unlikeness. Society is the unity of these differentiated reactions. In other words the process is not that merely of accepting or rejecting, it is bound up in the interknitting. In that continuous coördinating which constitutes the social process both similarity and difference have a place. Unity is brought about by the reciprocal adaptings of the reactions of individuals, and this reciprocal adapting is based on both agreement and difference.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00183", "bookId": 73755, "start": 59215, "end": 60244, "sha256": "e0b86d834918a4a724fcdb46e1ae5cae1e55069d2189359059e7fe5383840039", "text": "To push our analysis a little further, we must distinguish between the given similarity and the achieved similarity. The common at any moment is always the given: it has come from heredity, biological influences, suggestion and imitation, and the previous workings of the law of interpenetration. All the accumulated effect of these is seen in our habits of thinking, our modes of living. But we cannot rest in the common. The surge of life sweeps through the given similarity, the common ground, and breaks it up into a thousand differences. This tumultuous, irresistible flow of life is our existence: the unity, the common, is but for an instant, it flows on to new differings which adjust themselves anew in fuller, more varied, richer synthesis. The moment when similarity achieves itself as a composite of working, seething forces, it throws out its myriad new differings. The torrent flows into a pool, works, ferments, and then rushes forth until all is again gathered into the new pool of its own unifying.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00184", "bookId": 73755, "start": 60248, "end": 60497, "sha256": "5b823aab7e78463060d4a41cfef1fddc4444d19bc99dcc58147126dd4ffc0d98", "text": "This is the process of evolution. Social progress is to be sure coadapting, but coadapting means always that the fresh unity becomes the pole of a fresh difference leading to again new unities which lead to broader and broader fields of activity.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00185", "bookId": 73755, "start": 60501, "end": 61320, "sha256": "7bd7f13eb0b0a603623d2cb1b05e56099867036aaafa3b8b185c6eeba77f75fd", "text": "Thus no one of course undertakes to deny the obvious fact that in order to have a society a certain amount of similarity must exist. In one sense society rests on likeness: the likeness between men is deeper than their difference. We could not have an enemy unless there was much in common between us. With my friend all the aims that we share unite us. In a given society the members have the same interests, the same ends, in the main, and seek a common fulfilment. Differences are always grounded in an underlying similarity. But all this kind of “similarity” isn’t worth mentioning because we _have_ it. The very fact that it is common to us all condemns it from the point of view of progress. Progress does not depend upon the similarity which we _find_ but upon the similarity which we _achieve_.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00186", "bookId": 73755, "start": 61324, "end": 62380, "sha256": "6c222a44565bb8396ca032a9e2b8b508277a8a67abc0336f1bc6a57687a3bd5e", "text": "The new psychology, therefore, gives us individual responsibility as the central fact of life because it demands that we grow our own like-mindedness. To-day we are basing all our hopes not on the given likeness but the created unity. To rest in the given likeness would be to annihilate social progress. The organization of industry and the settlement of international relations must come under the domination of this law. The Allies are fighting to-day with one impulse, one desire, one aim, but at the peace table many differences will arise between them. The progress of the whole world at that moment will depend upon the “similarity” we can create. This “similarity” will consist of all we now hold in common and also, of the utmost importance for the continuance of civilization, upon our ability to unify our differences. If we go to that peace table with the idea that the new world is to be based on that community of interest and aim which now animates us, the disillusion will be great, the result an overwhelming failure.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00187", "bookId": 73755, "start": 62384, "end": 62958, "sha256": "77152cc04840722acb7109e368d1df4bd5e9e932f6705f0e1ec6e447e491a608", "text": "Let us henceforth, therefore, use the word unifying instead of similarity to represent the basis of association. And let us clearly understand that unifying is a process involving the continuous activity of every man. To await “variation-giving” individuals would be to make life a mere chance. We cannot wait for new ideas to appear among us, we must ourselves produce them. This makes possible the endless creation of new social values. The old like-minded theory is too fortuitous, too passive and too negative to attract us; creating is the divine adventure.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00188", "bookId": 73755, "start": 62962, "end": 63364, "sha256": "9ae5b9a77822e726eb3fb2cdbc5dd5529993aa3f695c8566c1e7a296da47feff", "text": "Let us imagine a group of people whom we know. If we find the life of that group consisting chiefly of imitation, we see that it involves no activity of the real self but crushes and smothers it. Imitation condemns the human race. Even if up to the present moment imitation has been a large factor in man’s development, from this moment on such a smothering of all the forces of life must cease.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00189", "bookId": 73755, "start": 63368, "end": 64504, "sha256": "11aee4d3d6d0fd50a7c894ffca0247fd4d20402253f5eae27f7f2523d4354a0d", "text": "If we have, however, among this group “like-response,” that is if there spring up like thoughts and feelings, we find a more dignified and worthy life—fellowship claims us with all its joys and its enlargement of our single self. But there is no progress here. We give ourselves up to the passive enjoyment of that already existing. We have found our kindred and it comforts us. How much greater enhancement comes from that life foreshadowed by the new psychology where each one is to go forth from his group a richer being because each one has taken and put into its right membership all the vital differences of all the others. The like-mindedness which the new psychology demands is the like-mindedness which is brought about by the enlargement of each by the inflowing of every other one. Then I go forth a new creature. But to what do I go forth? Always to a new group, a new “society.” There is no end to this process. A new being springs forth from every fresh contact. My nature opens and opens to thousands of new influences. I feel countless new births. Such is the glory of our common every-day life.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00190", "bookId": 73755, "start": 64508, "end": 64606, "sha256": "661893ad066c106bc3eb5e776bf206240eb2679e4b163724de6ba24c94debf5a", "text": "Imitation is for the shirkers, like-mindedness for the comfort lovers, unifying for the creators.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00191", "bookId": 73755, "start": 64610, "end": 64944, "sha256": "5d5ee1febeade1007f8a30f83d7d23cf4833c5a6bcd6b2be6a84d356723bba0e", "text": "The lesson of the new psychology is then: Never settle down within the theory you have chosen, the cause you have embraced; know that another theory, another cause exists, and seek that. The enhancement of life is not for the comfort-lover. As soon as you succeed—real success means something arising to overthrow your security.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00192", "bookId": 73755, "start": 64948, "end": 65709, "sha256": "5341a6a261e95aa71c2bcaa2e9137be5b1f44b0962a172fb4928cd033e621235", "text": "In all the discussion of “similarity” too much importance has been put upon analogies from the animal world.[13] We are told, for instance, and important conclusions are drawn in regard to human society, that the gregarious instinct of any animal receives satisfaction only through the presence of animals similar to itself, and that the closer the similarity the greater the satisfaction. True certainly for animals, but it is this fact which keeps them mere animals. As far as the irrational elements of life give way to the rational, interpenetration becomes the law of association. Man’s biological inheritance is not his only life. And the progress of man means that this inheritance shall occupy a less and less important place relatively.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00193", "bookId": 73755, "start": 65713, "end": 66905, "sha256": "1fe81d8c3a3d7953cd9e78bba4b88dcf007b8489df556226553c6670c60418d4", "text": "It has been necessary to consider the similarity theory, I have said, because it has eaten its way into all our thought.[14] Many people to-day seem to think that progress depends upon a number of people all speaking loudly together. The other day a woman said to me that she didn’t like the _Survey_ because it has on one page a letter from a conservative New York banker and on another some radical proposal for the reconstruction of society; she said she preferred a paper which took one idea and hammered away on that. This is poor psychology. It is the same reasoning which makes people think that certain kindred souls should come together, and then by a certain intensified thinking and living together some noble product will emerge for the benefit of the world. Such association is based on a wrong principle. However various the reasons given for the non-success of such experiments as Brook Farm, certain religious associations, and certain artistic and literary groups who have tried to live together, the truth is that most of them have died simply of non-nutrition. The bond created had not within it the variety which the human soul needs for its nourishment.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00194", "bookId": 73755, "start": 66909, "end": 67890, "sha256": "f3845e5bcbead4dd8f530a1b4c7e6e4a4d01e2a7ff7766f96ec746ca0a528d16", "text": "Unity, not uniformity, must be our aim. We attain unity only through variety. Differences must be integrated, not annihilated, nor absorbed.[15] Anarchy means unorganized, unrelated difference; coördinated, unified difference belongs to our ideal of a perfect social order. We don’t want to avoid our adversary but to “agree with him quickly”; we must, however, learn the technique of agreeing. As long as we think of difference as that which divides us, we shall dislike it; when we think of it as that which unites us, we shall cherish it. Instead of shutting out what is different, we should welcome it because it is different and through its difference will make a richer content of life. The ignoring of differences is the most fatal mistake in politics or industry or international life: every difference that is swept up into a bigger conception feeds and enriches society; every difference which is ignored feeds _on_ society and eventually corrupts it.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00195", "bookId": 73755, "start": 67894, "end": 68575, "sha256": "856b0e24d17d5182c9755629eff222416180fec606115e6c89f4bfbd33111f25", "text": "Heterogeneity, not homogeneity, I repeat, makes unity. Indeed as we go from groups of the lower types to groups of the higher types, we go from those with many resemblances to those with more and more striking differences. The higher the degree of social organization the more it is based on a very wide diversity among its members. The people who think that London is the most civilized spot in the world give as evidence that it is the only city in which you can eat a bun on a street corner without being noticed. In London, in other words, difference is expected of us. In Boston you cannot eat a bun on the street corner, at least not without unpleasant consequences.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00196", "bookId": 73755, "start": 68579, "end": 68915, "sha256": "953def1e9f1febfdc4b8ce998ddb20b17e6269737b129f828465a54ab42d6f98", "text": "Give _your_ difference, welcome _my_ difference, unify _all_ difference in the larger whole—such is the law of growth. The unifying of difference is the eternal process of life—the creative synthesis, the highest act of creation, the at-onement. The implications of this conception when we come to define democracy are profound.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00197", "bookId": 73755, "start": 68919, "end": 70683, "sha256": "2e13cef2b72bfccef4313fe0701b856320353b6cd98cfb8cc87f2228c08ac202", "text": "And throughout our participation in the group process we must be ever on our guard that we do not confuse differences and antagonisms, that diversity does not arouse hostility. Suppose a friend says something with which I do not agree. It may be that instantly I feel antagonistic, feel as if we were on opposite sides, and my emotions are at once tinged with some of the enmity which being on opposite sides usually brings. Our relations become slightly strained, we change the subject as soon as possible, etc. But suppose we were really civilized beings, then we should think: “How interesting this is, this idea has evidently a larger content than I realized; if my friend and I can unify this material, we shall separate with a larger idea than either of us had before.” If my friend and I are always trying to find the things upon which we agree, what is the use of our meeting? Because the consciousness of agreement makes us happy? It is a shallow happiness, only felt by people too superficial or too shut-up or too vain to feel that richer joy which comes from having taken part in an act of creation—created a new thought by the uniting of differences. A friendship based on likenesses and agreements alone is a superficial matter enough. The deep and lasting friendship is one capable of recognizing and dealing with all the fundamental differences that must exist between any two individuals, one capable therefore of such an enrichment of our personalities that together we shall mount to new heights of understanding and endeavor. Some one ought to write an essay on the dangers to the soul of congeniality. Pleasant little glows of feeling can never be fanned into the fire which becomes the driving force of progress.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00198", "bookId": 73755, "start": 70687, "end": 71071, "sha256": "1ac10221ae46966c8c63d69e4aae8562a3817d2b83da95e8dce5cff2266c6ad8", "text": "In trying to explain the social process I may have seemed to over emphasize difference as difference. Difference as difference is non-existent. There is only difference which carries within itself the power of unifying. It is this latent power which we must forever and ever call forth. Difference in itself is not a vital force, but what accompanies it is—the unifying spirit.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00199", "bookId": 73755, "start": 71075, "end": 72348, "sha256": "7a9aa92803e959ed2ef238702fa4cccf1165d351e91313cbcd3e12facc08b528", "text": "Throughout my description of the group process I have taken committee-meetings, conferences etc. for illustration, but really the object of every associating with others, of every conversation with friends, in fact, should be to try to bring out a bigger thought than any one alone could contribute. How different our dinner parties would be if we could do this. And I mean without too labored an effort, but merely by recognizing certain elementary rules of the game. Creation is always possible when people meet; this is the wonderful interest of life. But it depends upon us so to manage our meetings that there shall be some result, not just a frittering away of energy, unguided because not understood. All our private life is to be public life. This does not mean that we cannot sit with a friend by our fireside; it does mean that, private and gay as that hour may be, at the same time that very intimacy and lightness must in its way be serving the common cause, not in any fanciful sense, but because there is always the consciousness of my most private concerns as tributary to the larger life of men. But words are misleading: I do not mean that we are always to be thinking about it—it must be such an abiding sense that we never think of it.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00200", "bookId": 73755, "start": 72352, "end": 73223, "sha256": "0b3a1f7886f6b85e9103c0bb2ef3b2a64d504b2d10fa5e24ea46897787bc5163", "text": "Thus the new psychology teaches us that the core of the group process is creating. The essential value of the new psychology is that it carries enfolded within it the obligation upon every man to live the New Life. In no other system of thought has the Command been so clear, so insistent, so compelling. Every individual is necessary to the whole. On the other hand, every member participates in that power of a whole which is so much greater than the addition of its separate forces. The increased strength which comes to me when I work with others is not a numerical thing, is not because I feel that ten of us have ten times the strength of one. It is because all together we have struck out a new power in the universe. Ten of us may have ten, or a hundred, or a thousand times the strength of one—or rather you cannot measure it mathematically at all.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00201", "bookId": 73755, "start": 73227, "end": 73780, "sha256": "f436896471f36a903d3ebd45b856315f403422efd5d87dcb499c7e680cf8b7f4", "text": "The law of the group is not arbitrary but intrinsic. Nothing is more practical for our daily lives than an understanding of this. The group-spirit is the pillar of cloud by day and of fire by night—it is our infallible guide—it is the Spirit of democracy. It has all our love and all our devotion, but this comes only when we have to some extent identified ourselves with It, or rather perhaps identified It with all our common, every-day lives. We can never dominate another or be dominated by another; the group-spirit is always our master.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00202", "bookId": 73755, "start": 73784, "end": 73789, "sha256": "73be087e93080f9e436892b7d182df66394bc79dbf5df119d9357df61b1ebbfb", "text": "-----", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00203", "bookId": 73755, "start": 73793, "end": 73805, "sha256": "d8a3c4f5813d2891ff03fa71075ba69d096747c8126dd8862eb3d3ab75f1db38", "text": "Footnote 10:", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00204", "bookId": 73755, "start": 73811, "end": 73899, "sha256": "f159535d053a2e85c7a98628f2784e3d3d32d9de149d037dadc1cf968d72e358", "text": "Free speech is not an “individual” right; society needs every man’s difference.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00205", "bookId": 73755, "start": 73903, "end": 73915, "sha256": "0e72cff49dd42118d9778eef81a1e4f16ff60c077999d0b5d1b79c1afafca0d0", "text": "Footnote 11:", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00206", "bookId": 73755, "start": 73921, "end": 74362, "sha256": "e3dc225ed64dbc97c22c7517252b636430c935fb6c28cc3bfde17c72b7f94dad", "text": "It has been overemphasized in two ways: first, many of the writers on imitation ignore the fact that the other law of association, that of interpenetrating, is also in operation in our social life, as well as the fact that it has always been the fundamental law of existence; secondly, they speak as if it were _necessary_ for human beings to be under the law of imitation, not that it is merely a stage in our development.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00207", "bookId": 73755, "start": 74366, "end": 74378, "sha256": "d0787db6a2f485f603ad2c8292c9a7b727a39b75437bd4e2e2a0858def3c51d6", "text": "Footnote 12:", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00208", "bookId": 73755, "start": 74384, "end": 74688, "sha256": "fba94aef5b409642c211328323df9ccc7c9862abc96da5cb123bb7bf90263bbf", "text": "This is the alpha and omega of philosophical teaching: Heraclitus said, “Nature desires eagerly opposites and out of them it completes its harmony, not out of similars.” And James, twenty-four hundred years later, has given his testimony that the process of life is to “compenetrate.”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00209", "bookId": 73755, "start": 74692, "end": 74704, "sha256": "f3574bab8e3c017f3a9ed1bb23e9c13778e738c7c6cf256a81fb662d09447bfa", "text": "Footnote 13:", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00210", "bookId": 73755, "start": 74710, "end": 74827, "sha256": "e4ebcb5a88624dc4461c3c92a1e1e49d178034ec277c5bb6fed2ae595bbf8d80", "text": "Also the group-units of early societies are studied to the exclusion of group-units within modern complex society.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00211", "bookId": 73755, "start": 74831, "end": 74843, "sha256": "27ea8d597a6b201370207ecdaee5b4a1959a49043d5c3220621584d3e2749f40", "text": "Footnote 14:", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00212", "bookId": 73755, "start": 74849, "end": 75075, "sha256": "369052532f9f4393f0b1a09c1e02ce7615903ea3596d7dafcec56b18562b1451", "text": "Even some of our most advanced thinking, which repudiates the like-minded theory and takes pains to prove that imitation is not an instinct, nevertheless falls into some of the errors implicit in the imitation theory.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00213", "bookId": 73755, "start": 75079, "end": 75091, "sha256": "21e7e32a1dc09de7e91ff8332ae2ae5ede874859b9ae71f1b8d7aa2707e19293", "text": "Footnote 15:", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00214", "bookId": 73755, "start": 75097, "end": 75746, "sha256": "a97ed61a3684535ed0011827caf0a565812c2ca1312b70fc04cc610c9adbbe1e", "text": "When we come in Part III to consider the group process in relation to certain political methods now being proposed, we shall find that part of the present disagreement of opinion is verbal. I therefore give here a list of words which can be used to describe the genuine social process and a list which gives exactly the wrong idea of it. Good words: integrate, interpenetrate, interpermeate, compenetrate, compound, harmonize, correlate, coördinate, interweave, reciprocally relate or adapt or adjust, etc. Bad words: fuse, melt, amalgamate, assimilate, weld, dissolve, absorb, reconcile (if used in Hegelian sense), etc.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00215", "bookId": 73755, "start": 75750, "end": 75822, "sha256": "5be59d365acb8d35446f682c6d314fffd5db5846ab8c6eb021e6bacd98a82aa0", "text": "------------------------------------------------------------------------", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00216", "bookId": 73755, "start": 75867, "end": 75869, "sha256": "2c65a48513a36d846e69232a88c404b4d44b99d846cd1fc598b08e95c0a75b9a", "text": "IV", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00217", "bookId": 73755, "start": 75888, "end": 75929, "sha256": "4b103c484638d836f50411f8ca8c8022751a2abfeea3f4aa01babdc177d591a3", "text": "THE GROUP PROCESS: THE COLLECTIVE FEELING", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00218", "bookId": 73755, "start": 75962, "end": 75976, "sha256": "cb963f8b7dd4be2e8d413c437052b98afad284e3de40cd420bdd246302a111ad", "text": "--------------", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00219", "bookId": 73755, "start": 75982, "end": 77320, "sha256": "bc387a2564ba3945edf31d773afae7ec5d3c3e3a2b2b6c93a69c2f7a361493c8", "text": "THE unification of thought, however, is only a part of the social process. We must consider, besides, the unification of feeling, affection, emotion, desire, aspiration—all that we are. The relation of the feelings to the development of the group has yet to be sufficiently studied. The analysis of the group process is beginning to show us the origin and nature of the true sympathy. The group process is a rational process. We can no longer therefore think of sympathy as “contagion of feeling” based on man’s “inherited gregarious instinct.” But equally sympathy cannot belong to the next stage in our development—the particularistic. Particularistic psychology, which gave us ego and alter, gave us sympathy going across from one isolated being to another. Now we begin with the group. We see in the self-unifying of the group process, and all the myriad unfoldings involved, the central and all-germinating activity of life. The group creates. In the group, we have seen, is formed the collective idea, “similarity” is there achieved, sympathy too is born within the group—it springs forever from interrelation. The emotions I feel when apart belong to the phantom ego; only from the group comes the genuine feeling _with_—the true sympathy, the vital sympathy, the just and balanced sympathy.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00220", "bookId": 73755, "start": 77324, "end": 78095, "sha256": "9fdc16a22b1163b95308780f7ae1c0575aa5c9a99327d1eaeacbff4288cac6d2", "text": "From this new understanding of sympathy as essentially involved in the group process, as part of the generating activity of the group, we learn two lessons: that sympathy cannot antedate the group process, and that it must not be confused with altruism. It had been thought until recently by many writers that sympathy came before the social process. Evidences were collected among animals of the “desire to help” other members of the same species, and the conclusion drawn that sympathy exists and that the result is “mutual aid.” But sympathy cannot antedate the activity. We do not however now say that there is an “instinct” to help and then that sympathy is the result of the helping; the feeling and the activity are involved one in the other.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00221", "bookId": 73755, "start": 78099, "end": 78780, "sha256": "d95d7c372a2e48eb19a45a74924b17dbb2c4115555733d039c240764144442c9", "text": "It is asked, Was Bentham right in making the desire for individual happiness the driving force of society, or was Comte right in saying that love for our fellow creatures is as “natural” a feeling as self-interest? Many such questions, which have long perplexed us, will be answered by a progressive social psychology. The reason we have found it difficult to answer such questions is because we have thought of egoistic or altruistic feelings as preëxisting; we have studied action to see what precedent characteristics it indicated. But when we begin to see that men possess no characteristics apart from the unifying process, then it is the process we shall study.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00222", "bookId": 73755, "start": 78784, "end": 79648, "sha256": "30ab1ce800c636b676671a4140d78efad4c86992457c1c3c13eb73980817cfe1", "text": "Secondly, we can no longer confuse sympathy and altruism. Sympathy, born of our union, rises above both egoism and altruism. We see now that a classification of ego feelings and alter feelings is not enough, that there are always whole feelings to be accounted for, that true sympathy is sense of community, consciousness of oneness. I am touched by a story of want and suffering, I send a check, denying myself what I have eagerly desired in order to do so,—is that sympathy? It is the old particularistic sympathy, but it is not the sympathy which is a group product, which has come from the actual intermingling of myself with those who are in want and suffering. It may be that I do more harm than good with my check because I do not really know what the situation demands. The sympathy which springs up within the group is a productive sympathy.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00223", "bookId": 73755, "start": 79652, "end": 80100, "sha256": "85290dad89deae516eb721b23256d9ce7ac77a44f268bd4f44aefbf1e1775847", "text": "But, objects a friend, if I meet a tramp who has been drinking whiskey, I can feel only pity for him, I can have no sense of oneness. Yes, the tramp and I are bound together by a thousand invisible bonds. He is a part of that society for which I am responsible. I have not been doing my entire duty; because of that a society has been built up which makes it possible for that tramp to exist and for whiskey drinking to be his chief pleasure.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00224", "bookId": 73755, "start": 80104, "end": 82066, "sha256": "5bd866a108884b101be853d2016384bd5bab81fda5733bd3a0ae65795fa13c1c", "text": "A good illustration of both the errors mentioned—making sympathy antedate the group process and the confusion of sympathy and altruism—we see frequently in the discussion of coöperation in the business world. The question often asked, “Does modern coöperation depend upon self-interest or upon sympathy?” is entirely misleading as regards the real nature of sympathy. Suppose six manufacturers meet to discuss some form of union. There was a time when we should have been told that if each man were guided entirely by what would benefit his own plant, trusting the other five to be equally interested each in his own, thereby the interest of all would be evolved. Then there came a time when many thinkers denied this and said, “Coöperation cannot exist without some feeling of altruism; every one of those manufacturers must go to the meeting with the feeling that the interests of the other five should be considered as well as his own; he must be guided as much by sympathy as by self-interest.” But our new psychology teaches us that what these men need most is not altruistic feelings, but a consciousness of themselves as a new unit and a realization of the needs of that unit. The process of forming this new unit generates such realization which is sympathy. This true sympathy, therefore, is not a vague sentiment they bring with them; it springs from their meeting to be in its turn a vital factor in their meeting. The needs of that new unit may be so different from that of any one of the manufacturers alone that altruistic feelings might be wasted! The new ethics will never preach alter feelings but whole feelings. Sympathy is a whole feeling; it is a recognition of oneness. Perhaps the new psychology has no more interesting task than to define for us that true sympathy which is now being born in a society which is shedding its particularistic garments and clothing itself in the mantle of wholeness.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00225", "bookId": 73755, "start": 82070, "end": 82876, "sha256": "a8e1cf48839e7f862e5529732dc19c6e47ae850e215a831814626c1c7c5fa7af", "text": "To sum up: sympathy is not pity, it is not benevolence, it is one of the goals of the future, it cannot be actualized until we can think and feel together. At present we confuse it with altruism and all the particularist progeny, but sympathy is always a group product; benevolence, philanthropy, tenderness, fervor, ardor, pity, may be possible to me alone, but sympathy is not possible alone. The particularist stage has been necessary to our development, but we stand now on the threshold of another age: we see there humanity consciously generating its own activity, its own purpose and all that it needs for the accomplishment of that purpose. We must now fit ourselves to cross that threshold. Our faces have turned to a new world; to train our footsteps to follow the way is now our task.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00226", "bookId": 73755, "start": 82880, "end": 83400, "sha256": "951b6d0d610d486457959280f4dbaa4d62c4d4c56a959760215daade3e659256", "text": "This means that we must live the group life. This is the solution of our problems, national and international. Employers and employed cannot be exhorted to feel sympathy one for the other; true sympathy will come only by creating a community or group of employers and employed. Through the group you find the details, the filling-out of Kant’s universal law. Kant’s categorical imperative is general, is empty; it is only a blank check. But through the life of the group we learn the content of universal law.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00227", "bookId": 73755, "start": 83404, "end": 83476, "sha256": "5be59d365acb8d35446f682c6d314fffd5db5846ab8c6eb021e6bacd98a82aa0", "text": "------------------------------------------------------------------------", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00228", "bookId": 73755, "start": 83521, "end": 83522, "sha256": "de5a6f78116eca62d7fc5ce159d23ae6b889b365a1739ad2cf36f925a140d0cc", "text": "V", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00229", "bookId": 73755, "start": 83543, "end": 83581, "sha256": "3520a60b3b466eba13a5b593bea15ebce30430e19347dfdca254eb831305932f", "text": "THE GROUP PROCESS: THE COLLECTIVE WILL", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00230", "bookId": 73755, "start": 83614, "end": 83628, "sha256": "cb963f8b7dd4be2e8d413c437052b98afad284e3de40cd420bdd246302a111ad", "text": "--------------", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00231", "bookId": 73755, "start": 83634, "end": 84117, "sha256": "278b7a271b8f1dfbc5e38a60810a535fba1dc040ab9ae32ef48cea0988298102", "text": "FROM the group process arise social understanding and true sympathy. At the same moment appears the social will which is the creative will. Many writers are laying stress on the _possibilities_ of the collective will; what I wish to emphasize is the necessity of _creating_ the collective will. Many people talk as if the collective will were lying round loose to be caught up whenever we like, but the fact is we must go to our group and see that it is brought into existence.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00232", "bookId": 73755, "start": 84121, "end": 84978, "sha256": "7dd6a4e7944c507885337c4e357d052d927d4de706f5814bec0d10bf6a67477b", "text": "Moreover, we go to our group to learn the process. We sometimes hear the advantages of collective planning spoken of as if an act of Congress or Parliament could substitute collective for individual planning! But it is only by doing the deed that we shall learn this doctrine. We learn how to create the common will in our groups, and we learn here not only the process but its value. When I can see that agreement with my neighbor for larger ends than either of us is pursuing alone is of the same essence as capital and labor learning to think together, as Germany and the Allies evolving a common will, then I am ready to become a part of the world process. To learn how to evolve the social will day by day with my neighbors and fellow-workers is what the world is demanding of me to-day. This is getting into the inner workshop of democracy.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00233", "bookId": 73755, "start": 84982, "end": 85841, "sha256": "6b604fd1b775f1ea170a0a67f8d6db0b572798e31d60ca1aa641535ba2efeaae", "text": "Until we learn this lesson war cannot stop, no constructive work can be done. The very essence and substance of democracy is the creating of the collective will. Without this activity the forms of democracy are useless, and the aims of democracy are always unfulfilled. Without this activity both political and industrial democracy must be a chaotic, stagnating, self-stultifying assemblage. Many of the solutions offered to-day for our social problems are vitiated by their mechanical nature, by assuming that if society were given a new form, the socialistic for instance, what we desire would follow. But this assumption is not true. The deeper truth, perhaps the deepest, is that _the will to will the common will_ is the core, the germinating centre of that large, still larger, ever larger life which we are coming to call the true democracy.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00234", "bookId": 73755, "start": 85845, "end": 85917, "sha256": "5be59d365acb8d35446f682c6d314fffd5db5846ab8c6eb021e6bacd98a82aa0", "text": "------------------------------------------------------------------------", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00235", "bookId": 73755, "start": 85962, "end": 85964, "sha256": "dc7b94e12cffc1d23c55f1f9bf77857827d2148f12a8f010df361e3b2db05533", "text": "VI", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00236", "bookId": 73755, "start": 85988, "end": 86019, "sha256": "993ba42cfa0c53174b8727a05aa8c1d97a1a58e74b8af5e4149912ab605bdba8", "text": "THE UNITY OF THE SOCIAL PROCESS", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00237", "bookId": 73755, "start": 86052, "end": 86066, "sha256": "cb963f8b7dd4be2e8d413c437052b98afad284e3de40cd420bdd246302a111ad", "text": "--------------", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00238", "bookId": 73755, "start": 86072, "end": 86778, "sha256": "9d2c13bb094c602c447c74d71b915b25381af163e34d4732ba67429cc55c254a", "text": "WE have seen that the common idea and the common will are born together in the social process. One does not lead to the other, each is involved in the other. But the collective thought and the collective will are not yet complete, they are hardly an embryo. They carry indeed within themselves their own momentum, but they complete themselves only through activity in the world of affairs, of work, of government. This conception does away with the whole discussion, into which much ardor has gone, of the priority of thought or action in the social life. There is no order. The union of thought and will and activity by which the clearer will is generated, the social process, is a perfect unity.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00239", "bookId": 73755, "start": 86782, "end": 87257, "sha256": "f71e6fb02f45f29f248741cf52d1e653f220810a8a2967f34e83a5feae84d599", "text": "We see this in our daily life where we do not finish our thought, construct our will, and then begin our actualizing. Not only the actualizing goes on at the same time, but its reactions help us to shape our thought, to energize our will. We have to digest our social experience, but we have to have social experience before we can digest it. We must learn and build and learn again through the building, or we must build and learn and build again through the learning.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00240", "bookId": 73755, "start": 87261, "end": 88439, "sha256": "bc329b76cf7f94331806ecd8f1cb34c32343309fb9b9d93045cb92637925d1ce", "text": "We sit around the council table not blank pages but made up of all our past experiences. Then we evolve a so-called common will, then we take it into the concrete world to see if it will work. In so far as it does work, it proves itself; in so far as it does not, it generates the necessary idea to make it “common.” Then again we test and so on and so on. In our work always new and necessary modifications arise which again in actualizing _themselves_, again modify themselves. This is the process of the generation of the common will. First it appears as an ideal, secondly it works itself out in the material sphere of life, thereby generating itself in a new form and so on forever and ever. All is a-making. This is the process of creating the absolute or Good Will. To elevate General Welfare into our divinity makes a golden calf of it, erects it as something external to ourselves with an absolute nature of its own, whereas it is the ever new adjusting of ever new relatings to one another. The common will never finds perfection but is always seeking it. Progress is an infinite advance towards the infinitely receding goal of infinite perfection.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00241", "bookId": 73755, "start": 88443, "end": 89224, "sha256": "c8083733b186c30fe96d22ad1fae1fbb7ece626acda99301442aeb9d1a80d464", "text": "How important this principle is will appear later when we apply these ideas to politics. Democratic ideals will never advance unless we are given the opportunity of constantly embodying them in action, which action will react on our ideals. Thought and will go out into the concrete world in order to generate their own complete form. This gives us both the principle and the method of democracy. A democratic community is one in which the common will is being gradually created by the civic activity of its citizens. The test of democracy is the fulness with which this is being done. The practical thought for our political life is that the collective will exists only through its self-actualizing and self-creating in new and larger and more perfectly adjusted forms.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00242", "bookId": 73755, "start": 89228, "end": 89432, "sha256": "1580a87c1c90845bf8222bd330d9584db4a61a92b392aaffdbf9b800cfe4473d", "text": "Thus the unity of the social process becomes clear to us. We now gain a conception of “right,” of purpose, of loyalty to that purpose, not as particularistic ideas but as arising within the process.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00243", "bookId": 73755, "start": 89471, "end": 89476, "sha256": "c4ce3c7ad82c8235da21fae8ea48e071a10e7b1c6df6a9e5b4603852d8b3001c", "text": "RIGHT", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00244", "bookId": 73755, "start": 89480, "end": 89788, "sha256": "f3594cc45dbe7f39c89d7cd559a5640b0a3004fed60d90f97c81bd968b0a9a23", "text": "We are evolving now a system of ethics which has three conceptions in regard to right, conscience and duty which are different from much of our former ethical teaching: (1) we do not follow right, we create right, (2) there is no private conscience, (3) my duty is never to “others” but to the whole.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00245", "bookId": 73755, "start": 89792, "end": 91007, "sha256": "3bcfedcaddf26fa1c89829f0aab6e5596c20db424a934939cfce00d097b0f80a", "text": "First, we do not follow right merely, we create right. It is often thought vaguely that our ideals are all there, shining and splendid, and we have only to apply them. But the truth is that we have to create our ideals. No ideal is worth while which does not grow from our actual life. Some people seem to keep their ideals all carefully packed away from dust and air, but arranged alphabetically so that they can get at them quickly in need. But we can never take out a past ideal for a present need. The ideal which is to be used for our life must come out from that very life itself. The only way our past ideals can help us is in moulding the life which produces the present ideal; we have no further use for them. But we do not discard them: we have built them into the present—we have used them up as the cocoon is used up in making the silk. It has been sometimes taught that given the same situation, the individual must repeat the same behavior. But the situation is never the same, the individual is never the same; such a conception has nothing to do with life. We cannot do our duty in the old sense, that is of following a crystallized ideal, because our duty is new at every moment.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00246", "bookId": 73755, "start": 91011, "end": 91828, "sha256": "111948d6345334771ed4ff395143865259518bc031b4983b545874cc85604235", "text": "Moreover, the knowledge of what is due the whole is revealed within the life of the whole. This is above everything else what a progressive ethics must teach—not faithfulness to duty merely, but faithfulness to the life which evolves duty. Indeed “following our duty” often means mental and moral atrophy. Man cannot live by tabus; that means stagnation. But as one tabu after another is disappearing, the call is upon us deliberately to build our own moral life. Our ethical sense will surely starve on predigested food. It is we by our acts who progressively construct the moral universe; to follow some preconceived body of law—that is not for responsible moral beings. In so far as we obey old standards without interpenetrating them with the actual world, we are abdicating our creative power.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00247", "bookId": 73755, "start": 91832, "end": 92238, "sha256": "fd72eb93c16743dfa9b3b8b579e0614a6ef5c3b91939d6172e706f093df5678f", "text": "Further, the group in its distributive aspect is bringing such new elements into the here and now that life is wholly changed, and the ethical commands therein involved are different, and therefore the task of the group is to discover the new formulation which these new elements demand. The moral law thus gathers to itself all the richness of science, of art, of all the fulness of our daily living.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00248", "bookId": 73755, "start": 92242, "end": 93014, "sha256": "bc29dc32ae5dc77967608df7f798b22ded18f86514c3430917d400ec2f9f6885", "text": "The group consciousness of right thus developed becomes our daily imperative. No mandate from without has power over us. There are many forms of the fallacy that the governing and the governed can be two different bodies, and this one of conforming to standards which we have not created must be recognized as such before we can have any sound foundation for society. When the ought is not a mandate from without, it is no longer a prohibition but a self-expression. As the social consciousness develops, ought will be swallowed up in will. We are some time truly to see our life as positive, not negative, as made up of continuous willing, not of restraints and prohibition. Morality is not the refraining from doing certain things—it is a constructive force.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00249", "bookId": 73755, "start": 93018, "end": 93739, "sha256": "bb171e33c8ad968ddb106814ee2ccd13b338c84f1c9c647a1d17d731f2e4e88e", "text": "So in the education of our young people it is not enough to teach them their “duty,” somehow there must be created for them to live in a world of high purpose to which their own psychic energies will instinctively respond. The craving for self-expression, self-realization, must see quite naturally for its field of operation the community. This is the secret of education: when the waters of our life are part of the sea of human endeavor, duty will be a difficult word for our young people to understand; it is a glorious consciousness we want, not a painstaking conscience. It is ourselves soaked with the highest, not a Puritanical straining to fulfil an external obligation, which will redeem the world.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00250", "bookId": 73755, "start": 93743, "end": 94489, "sha256": "d8f8253c2b51d094731b37faa3bf4a3916a4ceb503959d1062cbd8cd8004ca17", "text": "Education therefore is not chiefly to teach children a mass of things which have been true up to the present moment; moreover it is not to teach them to learn about life as fast as it is made, not even to interpret life, but above and beyond everything, to create life for themselves. Hence education should be largely the training in making choices. The aim of all proper training is not rigid adherence to a crystallized right (since in ethics, economics or politics there is no crystallized right), but the power to make a new choice at every moment. And the greatest lesson of all is to know that every moment _is_ new. “Man lives in the dawn forever. Life is beginning and nothing else but beginning. It begins ever-lastingly.”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00251", "bookId": 73755, "start": 94493, "end": 94747, "sha256": "23f6ae4df089fe09250f03bcb0b0b3cbbd003d5d16708b4b19b8a6f12078b3dd", "text": "We must breed through the group process the kind of man who is not fossilized by habit, but whose eye is intent on the present situation, the present moment, present values, and can decide on the forms which will best express them in the actual world.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00252", "bookId": 73755, "start": 94751, "end": 95295, "sha256": "233384ba7f4a3b0703bdf262b76ad3365dd49932e32d13eaf027633d38a03741", "text": "To sum up this point: morality is never static; it advances as life advances. You cannot hang your ideals up on pegs and take down no. 2 for certain emergencies and no. 4 for others. _The true test of our morality is not the rigidity with which we adhere to standard, but the loyalty we show to the life which constructs standards._ The test of our morality is whether we are living not to follow but to create ideals, whether we are pouring our life into our visions only to receive it back with its miraculous enhancement for new uses.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00253", "bookId": 73755, "start": 95299, "end": 96194, "sha256": "50c1d86dcca9d96a5259a6b61b1a5c6ea001bca1a2151b5c8933c62795f3cff2", "text": "Secondly, I have said that the conception of right as a group product, as coming from the ceaseless interplay of men, shows us that there is no such thing as an individual conscience in the sense in which the term is often used. As we are to obey no ideals dictated by others or the past, it is equally important that we obey no ideal set up by our unrelated self. To obey the moral law is to obey the social ideal. The social ideal is born, grows and shapes itself through the associated life. The individual cannot alone decide what is right or wrong. We can have no true moral judgment except as we live our life with others. It is said, “Every man is subject only to his own conscience.” But what is my conscience? Has it not been produced by my time, my country, my associates? To make a conscience by myself would be as difficult as to try to make a language by myself.[16]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00254", "bookId": 73755, "start": 96198, "end": 97786, "sha256": "b14c88cfe5648c0055368cd66b56190fb5ec8ba75ba8fa33b0837120c5f7297c", "text": "It is sometimes said, on the other hand, “The individual must yield his right to judge for himself; let the majority judge.” But the individual is not for a moment to yield his right to judge for himself; he can judge better for himself if he joins with others in evolving a synthesized judgment. Our individual conscience is not absorbed into a national conscience; our individual conscience must be incorporated in a national conscience as one of its constituent members.[17] Those of us who are not wholly in sympathy with the conscientious objectors do not think that they should yield to the majority. When we say that their point of view is too particularistic, we do not mean that they should give up the dictates of their own conscience to a collective conscience. But we mean that they should ask themselves whether their conscience is a freak, a purely personal, conscience, or a properly evolved conscience. That is, have they tried, not to saturate themselves with our collective ideals, but to take their part in evolving collective standards by freely giving and taking. Have they lived the life which makes possible the fullest interplay of their own ideas with all the forces of their time? Before they range themselves against society they must ask themselves if they have taken the opportunities offered them to help form the ideas which they are opposing. I do not say that there is no social value in heresy, I only ask the conscientious objectors to ask themselves whether they are claiming the “individual rights” we have long outgrown.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00255", "bookId": 73755, "start": 97790, "end": 98134, "sha256": "823235e51b79bd87df204391d340cdc84e3cbc07b7377b44d546f2534966d04d", "text": "What we want is a related conscience, a conscience that is intimately related to the consciences of other men and to all the spiritual environment of our time, to all the progressive forces of our age. The particularistic tendency has had its day in law, in politics, in international relations and as a guiding tendency in our daily lives.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00256", "bookId": 73755, "start": 98138, "end": 99093, "sha256": "f923c1cc6c9400f359d4fb8febd34bcb0442228458453625cd075ac11117fa32", "text": "We have seen that a clearer conception to-day of the unity of the social process shows us: first, that we are not merely to follow but to create “right,” secondly, that there is no private conscience, and third, that my duty is never to “others” but to the whole. We no longer make a distinction between selfishness and altruism.[18] An act done for our own benefit may be social and one done for another may not be. Some twenty or thirty years ago our “individual” system of ethics began to be widely condemned and we have been hearing a great deal of “social” ethics. But this so-called “social” ethics has meant only my duty to “others.” There is now emerging an idea of ethics entirely different from the altruistic school, based not on the duty of isolated beings to one another, but on integrated individuals acting as a whole, evolving whole-ideas, working for whole-ideals. The new consciousness is of a whole.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00257", "bookId": 73755, "start": 99131, "end": 99138, "sha256": "d31a37ad49bdf13660937d96cbcc9f1e2b29886fc362314a866f66c6ff622aa9", "text": "PURPOSE", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00258", "bookId": 73755, "start": 99142, "end": 99977, "sha256": "86f3ca840f8550e78726de9564c2f49b7eb368f447356d9dcdd598555684efc8", "text": "As right appears with that interrelating, germinating activity which we call the social process, so purpose also is generated by the same process. The goal of evolution most obviously must evolve itself. How self-contradictory is the idea that evolution is the world-process and yet that some other power has made the goal for it to reach. The truth is that the same process which creates all else creates the very purpose. That purpose is involved in the process, not prior to process, has far wider reaching consequences than can be taken up here. The whole philosophy of cause and effect must be rewritten. If the infinite task is the evolution of the whole, if our finite tasks are wholes of varying degrees of scope and perfection, the notion of causality must have an entirely different place in our system of thought.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00259", "bookId": 73755, "start": 99981, "end": 100510, "sha256": "08facc272f06a0030764f24a23eab007132fcc9d15cd483785dbf9ac7f5c7d6c", "text": "The question is often asked, “What is the proposed unity of European nations after the war to be for?” This question implies that the alliance will be a mere method of accomplishing certain purposes, whereas it is the union which is the important thing. With the union the purpose comes into being, and with its every step forward, the purpose changes. No one would say that the aims of the Allies to-day are the same as in 1914, or even as in April, 1917. As the alliance develops, the purpose steadily shapes itself.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00260", "bookId": 73755, "start": 100514, "end": 100961, "sha256": "d3747057359a085d80877a5cf639ad388c22a8df487deead3f02705eb8d33856", "text": "Every teleological view will be given up when we see that purpose is not “preëxistent,” but involved in the unifying act which is the life process. It is man’s part to create purpose and to actualize it. From the point of view of man we are just in the dawn of self-consciousness, and his purpose is dimly revealing itself to him. The life-force wells up in us for expression—to direct it is the privilege of self-consciousness.[19]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00261", "bookId": 73755, "start": 100999, "end": 101006, "sha256": "bdee87aa425a7e9d5a15b34b89f5b2f2599cbd224e10f14464c718bce486ce1e", "text": "LOYALTY", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00262", "bookId": 73755, "start": 101010, "end": 101434, "sha256": "25738f5cb5e716fcde66f875aa9cba2959ab48f63d1ae0550224ac1d7cb8e1d9", "text": "As this true purpose evolves itself, loyalty springs into being. Loyalty is awakened through and by the very process which creates the group. The same process which organizes the group energizes it. We cannot “will” to be loyal. Our task is not to “find” causes to awaken our loyalty, but to live our life fully and loyalty issues. A cause has no part in us or we in it if we have fortuitously to “find” it.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00263", "bookId": 73755, "start": 101438, "end": 102230, "sha256": "71565e500140f1518076c78cace89270ab43bb9ef6fa4d35366e044f686a292e", "text": "Thus we see that we do not love the Beloved Community because it is lovable—the same process which makes it lovable produces our love for it. Moreover it is not enough to love the Beloved Community, we must find out how to create it. It is not there for us to accept or reject—it exists only through us. Loyalty to a collective will which we have not created and of which we are, therefore, not an integral part, is slavery. We belong to our community just in so far as we are helping to make that community; then loyalty follows, then love follows. Loyalty means the consciousness of oneness, the full realization that we succeed or fail, live or die, are saved or damned together. The only unity or community is one we have made of ourselves, by ourselves, for ourselves.[20]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00264", "bookId": 73755, "start": 102234, "end": 102922, "sha256": "fc5ef372fb838fe5c86568552dea4acba98cf2b8d611a0263c952380243e0daf", "text": "Thus the social process is one all-inclusive, Self-sufficing process. The vital impulse which is produced by all the reciprocally interacting influences of the group is also itself the generating and the vivifying power. Social unity is not a sterile conception but an active force. It is a double process—the activity which goes to make the unity and the activity which flows from the unity. There is no better example of centripetal and centrifugal force. All the forces which are stored up in the unity flow forth eternally in activity. We create the common will and feel the spiritual energy which flows into us from the purpose we have made, for the purpose which we seek.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00265", "bookId": 73755, "start": 102926, "end": 102931, "sha256": "73be087e93080f9e436892b7d182df66394bc79dbf5df119d9357df61b1ebbfb", "text": "-----", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00266", "bookId": 73755, "start": 102935, "end": 102947, "sha256": "6ba5956fe2f13eeb8d7746fea5ce0bdfef3ab120b4197af1d6f649926dbc2440", "text": "Footnote 16:", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00267", "bookId": 73755, "start": 102953, "end": 103434, "sha256": "3a9f5b364ad4ae3dd42e6f4ccebdca333c3509382880c51b3b0fba8cfb00b65c", "text": "This does not, however, put us with those biologists who make conscience a “gregarious instinct” and—would seem to be willing to keep it there. This is the insidious herd fallacy which crops up constantly in every kind of place. We may to-day partake largely of the nature of the herd, our conscience may be to some extent a herd conscience, but such is not the end of man for it is not the true nature of man—man does not find his expression in the herd.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00268", "bookId": 73755, "start": 103438, "end": 103450, "sha256": "e58e1fa8937a637a9d8b36e282054b3f3dc6cc0a6a1c999c46e1e31bd2647c7a", "text": "Footnote 17:", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00269", "bookId": 73755, "start": 103456, "end": 103569, "sha256": "b131537544a8bd706abaedcf08848e0b79b2bd924c94deb06e0b2bf797aeb6f1", "text": "To a misunderstanding of this point are due some of the fallacies of the political pluralists (see ch. XXXII).", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00270", "bookId": 73755, "start": 103573, "end": 103585, "sha256": "439ecf9db695dc09a39ce156880e4f25c313c40f64c3fbd520a81571d3a92dfe", "text": "Footnote 18:", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00271", "bookId": 73755, "start": 103591, "end": 103601, "sha256": "8d1144cc055c3014bc13e29cde6ee6c3c8bb1ca0d7de7b595bc55e2ef816bd0b", "text": "See p. 45.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00272", "bookId": 73755, "start": 103605, "end": 103617, "sha256": "7ec4f5e177bdcb99eee385b0ac602cee30a2d180fc8ba56c0a9ed6c6aef7215e", "text": "Footnote 19:", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00273", "bookId": 73755, "start": 103623, "end": 104549, "sha256": "4efbe655356eaf1732f6e34ca37699df2dd4dd073057e52cf7e217c50ba686ac", "text": "This view of purpose is not necessarily antagonistic to the “interest” school of sociology, but we may perhaps look forward to a new and deeper analysis of self-interest. And the view here put forward is not incompatible with the “objective” theory of association (see ch. XXIX) nor with the teleological school of jurisprudence (see ch. XV), it merely emphasizes another point of view—a point of view which tends to synthesize the “subjective” and “objective” theories of law. But those jurists who say that a group is governed by its purpose and leave the matter there are making a thing-in-itself of the purpose; we are governed by the purpose, yes, but we are all the time evolving the purpose. Modern jurists wish a dynamic theory of law—only such a conception of purpose as is revealed by group psychology will give value to a teleological school of jurisprudence.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00274", "bookId": 73755, "start": 104553, "end": 104565, "sha256": "3ffad953c86fc35c64bd7869d5297987a0e7e4ef1c4e72e13bb20001bf3fdb5b", "text": "Footnote 20:", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00275", "bookId": 73755, "start": 104571, "end": 104799, "sha256": "8ab209ca71b391e154278705b382d25fc461579a97a06aa8e92c425eb74e6096", "text": "In a relation even of two I am not faithful to the other person but to my conception of the relation in the whole. Loyalty is always to the group idea not to the group-personnel. This must change our idea of patriotism.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00276", "bookId": 73755, "start": 104803, "end": 104875, "sha256": "5be59d365acb8d35446f682c6d314fffd5db5846ab8c6eb021e6bacd98a82aa0", "text": "------------------------------------------------------------------------", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00277", "bookId": 73755, "start": 104919, "end": 104922, "sha256": "41bea372966c972f437fa98bac0e5b2d46f7a5f8609bc7fb1eedf1b8c3f055a5", "text": "VII", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00278", "bookId": 73755, "start": 104955, "end": 104969, "sha256": "e3602c92307d45fb2076d8e0640f200017b974f72d5b94c4ab9630d017657ce2", "text": "THE INDIVIDUAL", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00279", "bookId": 73755, "start": 105002, "end": 105016, "sha256": "cb963f8b7dd4be2e8d413c437052b98afad284e3de40cd420bdd246302a111ad", "text": "--------------", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00280", "bookId": 73755, "start": 105022, "end": 105559, "sha256": "a1331d571e72a04d12de184169362f8ff3694c85d6a799409fc2045cafa39ee1", "text": "AS the collective idea and the collective will, right and purpose, are born within the all-sufficing social process, so here too the individual finds the wellspring of his life. The visible form in which this interplay of relations appears is society and the individual. A man is a point in the social process rather than a unit in that process, a point where forming forces meet straightway to disentangle themselves and stream forth again. In the language of the day man is at the same time a social factor and a social product.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00281", "bookId": 73755, "start": 105563, "end": 106082, "sha256": "ae055645505b185270e60123b389eafb1a445ddd73542e57d45416a9dc32da78", "text": "People often talk of the social mind as if it were an abstract conception, as if only the individual were real, concrete. The two are equally real. Or rather the only reality is the relating of one to the other which creates both. Our sundering is as artificial and late an act as the sundering of consciousness into subject and object. The only reality is the interpenetrating of the two into experience. Late intellectualism abstracts for practical purposes the ego from the world, the individual from society.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00282", "bookId": 73755, "start": 106086, "end": 106777, "sha256": "4c31d46804b3948f1f26829d4c8c6963c1bddd6709a38255279a7cda606e1994", "text": "But there is no way of separating individuals, they coalesce and coalesce, they are “confluent,” to use the expression of James, who tells us that the chasm between men is an individualistic fiction, that we are surrounded by fringes, that these overlap and that by means of these I join with others. It is as in Norway when the colors of the sunset and the dawn are mingling, when to-day and to-morrow are at the point of breaking, or of uniting, and one does not know to which one belongs, to the yesterday which is fading or the coming hour—perhaps this is something like the relation of one to another: to the onlookers from another planet our colors might seem to mingle.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00283", "bookId": 73755, "start": 106781, "end": 107499, "sha256": "c0c4ffd3b26d68320e8fbf264c1954c83d89b48ff06b8297ac4cdc0f7f755cfb", "text": "The truth about the individual and society has been already implied, but it may be justifiable to develop the idea further because of the paramount importance for all our future development of a clear understanding of the individual. Our nineteenth-century legal theory (individual rights, contract, “a man can do what he likes with his own,” etc.) was based on the conception of the separate individual.[21] We can have no sound legal doctrine, and hence no social or political progress, until the fallacy of this idea is fully recognized. The new state must rest on a true conception of the individual. Let us ask ourselves therefore for a further definition of individuality than that already implied.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00284", "bookId": 73755, "start": 107503, "end": 108729, "sha256": "04e45cd0c457699b6467a73327627e2e19d57a2484dc3123a251efea18c0d731", "text": "The individual is the unification of a multiplied variety of reactions. But the individual does not react to society. The interplay constitutes both society on the one hand and individuality on the other: individuality and society are evolving together from this constant and complex action and reaction. Or, more accurately, the relation of the individual to society is not action and reaction, but infinite interactions by which both individual and society are forever a-making: we cannot say if we would be exact that the individual acts upon and is acted upon, because that way of expressing it implies that he is a definite, given, finished entity, and would keep him apart merely as an agent of the acting and being acted on. We cannot put the individual on one side and society on the other, we must understand the complete interrelation of the two. Each has no value, no existence without the other. The individual is created by the social process and is daily nourished by that process. There is no such thing as a self-made man. What we think we possess as individuals is what is stored up from society, is the subsoil of social life. We soak up and soak up and soak up our environment all the time.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00285", "bookId": 73755, "start": 108733, "end": 108875, "sha256": "c8248f9b28fc89526098d8652bad2b04dc86712b13058887132515d98f6ec1e7", "text": "Of what then does the individuality of a man consist? Of his relation to the whole, not (1) of his apartness nor (2) of his difference alone.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00286", "bookId": 73755, "start": 108879, "end": 109547, "sha256": "0d8f5b2a906e782ff681b7eaa5a01f7ca6e9f4b9ec135c18f8dce849e230a50d", "text": "Of course the mistake which is often made in thinking of the individual is that of confusing the physical with the real individual. The physical individual is seen to be apart and therefore apartness is assumed of the psychic or real individual. We think of Edward Fitzgerald as a recluse, that he got his development by being alone, that he was largely outside the influences of society. But imagine Fitzgerald’s life with his books. It undoubtedly did not suit his nature to mix freely with other people in bodily presence, but what a constant and vivid living with others his life really was. How closely he was in vital contact with the thoughts of men.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00287", "bookId": 73755, "start": 109551, "end": 110083, "sha256": "4758441e24acda506d47ab6f4fcb14547f45a67da09d9c8c3018c1cc2f4dae01", "text": "We must bear in mind that the social spirit itself may impose apartness on a man; the method of uniting with others is not always that of visible, tangible groups. The pioneer spirit is the creative spirit even if it seems to take men apart to fulfil its dictates. On the other hand the solitary man is not necessarily the man who lives alone; he may be one who lives constantly with others in all the complexity of modern city life, but who is so shut-up or so set upon his own ideas that he makes no real union with others.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00288", "bookId": 73755, "start": 110087, "end": 110456, "sha256": "837f117ff05852be6a0b25d47f5f900745d9307ce65e9f1119c1903bec3319bd", "text": "Individuality is the capacity for union. The measure of individuality is the depth and breadth of true relation. I am an individual not as far as I am apart from, but as far as I am a part of other men. Evil is non-relation. The source of our strength is the central supply. You may as well break a branch off the tree and expect it to live. Non-relation is death.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00289", "bookId": 73755, "start": 110460, "end": 111764, "sha256": "1a56dbc53871ab42730de76d9b32bd9f1c2fac4e6d220bae1b7a0132503f71b9", "text": "I have said that individuality consists neither of the separateness of one man from the other, nor of the differences of one man from the other. The second statement is challenged more often than the first. This comes from some confusion of ideas. My individuality is difference springing into view as relating itself with other differences. The act of relating is the creating act. It is vicious intellectualism to say, “Before you relate you must have things to relate, therefore the differences are more elemental: there are (1) differences which (2) unite, therefore uniting is secondary.” The only fact, the only truth, is the creative activity which appears as the great complex we call humanity. The activity of creating is all. It is only by _being_ this activity that we grasp it. To view it from the outside, to dissect it into its different elements, to lay these elements on the dissecting table as so many different individuals, is to kill the life and feed the fancy with dead images, empty, sterile concepts. But let us set about relating ourselves to our community in fruitful fashion, and we shall see that our individuality is bodying itself forth in stronger and stronger fashion, our difference shaping itself in exact conformity with the need of the work we do.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00290", "bookId": 73755, "start": 111768, "end": 113164, "sha256": "5b30164568784221e182f028651544f1bc4874d72773e6485f9463285fe2d90f", "text": "For we must remember when we say that the essence of individuality is the relating of self to other difference, that difference is not something static, something given, that it also is involved in the world of becoming. This is what experience teaches me—that society needs my difference, not as an absolute, but just so much difference as will relate me. Differences develop within the social process and are united through the social process. Difference which is not capable of relation is eccentricity. Eccentricity, caprice, put me outside, bring anarchy; true spontaneity, originality, belong not to chaos but to system. But spontaneity must be coördinated; irrelevancy produces nothing, is insanity. It is not my uniqueness which makes me of value to the whole but my power of relating. The nut and the screw form a perfect combination not because they are different, but because they exactly fit into each other and together can perform a function which neither could perform alone, or which neither could perform half of alone or any part of alone. It is not that the significance of the nut and screw is increased by their coming together, they have no significance at all unless they do come together. The fact that they have to be different to enter into any fruitful relation with each other is a matter of derivative importance—derived from the work they do.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00291", "bookId": 73755, "start": 113168, "end": 113799, "sha256": "e34c61d68e5de38234b02351f209c23c31e4aaeada0fcae2e9d1a3c15291acbd", "text": "Another illustration is that of the specialist. It is not a knowledge of his specialty which makes an expert of service to society, but his insight into the relation of his specialty to the whole. Thus it implies not less but more relation, because the entire value of that specialization is that it is part of something. Instead of isolating him and giving him a narrower life, it gives him at once a broader life because it binds him more irrevocably to the whole. But the whole works both ways: the specialist not only contributes to the whole, but all his relations to the whole are embodied in his own particular work.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00292", "bookId": 73755, "start": 113803, "end": 114155, "sha256": "f8e61538fb76c0412fb5e9cdb4f1a25d071c17c167f5126b63b8ec30d05274b8", "text": "Thus difference is only a part of the life process. To exaggerate this part led to the excessive and arrogant individualism of the nineteenth century. It behooves us children of the twentieth century to search diligently after the law of unity that we may effectively marshal and range under its dominating sway all the varying diversities of life.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00293", "bookId": 73755, "start": 114159, "end": 115231, "sha256": "dcf9f5a9a462768c0e6d1ad8e9c4d4b8fa6a19ab61db689202e87afe71fdbdde", "text": "Our definition of individuality must now be “finding my place in the whole”: “my place” gives you the individual, “the whole” gives you society, but by connecting them, by saying “my place in the whole,” we get a fruitful synthesis. I have tried hard to get away from any mechanical system and yet it is difficult to find words which do not seem to bind. I am now afraid of this expression—my place in the whole. It has a rigid, unyielding sound, as if I were a cog in a machine. But my place is not a definite portion of space and time. The people who believe in their “place” in this sense can always photograph their “places.” But my place is a matter of infinite relation, and of infinitely changing relation, so that it can never be captured. It is neither the anarchy of particularism nor the rigidity of the German machine. To know my place is not to know my niche, not to know whether I am cog no. 3 or cog no. 4; it is to be alive at every instant at every finger tip to every contact and to be conscious of those contacts.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00294", "bookId": 73755, "start": 115235, "end": 115304, "sha256": "457ef40126d75d74edecfb4312be2994fe6a40702f187c9ac3331489e74b6696", "text": "We see now that the individual both seeks the whole and is the whole.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00295", "bookId": 73755, "start": 115308, "end": 116372, "sha256": "41cea31c100d9ac6b6a3c0b9645b41420cae891799a6162207e02513e8a96aa7", "text": "First, the individual, biology tells us, is never complete, completeness spells death; social psychology is beginning to show us that man advances towards completeness not by further aggregations to himself, but by further and further relatings of self to other men. We are always reaching forth for union; most, perhaps all, our desires have this motive. The spirit craves totality, this is the motor of social progress; the process of getting it is not by adding more and more to ourselves, but by offering more and more of ourselves. Not appropriation but contribution is the law of growth. What our special contribution is, it is for us to discover. More and more to release the potentialities of the individual means the more and more progressive organization of society if at the same time we are learning how to coördinate all the variations. The individual in wishing for more wholeness does not ask for a chaotic mass, but for the orderly wholeness which we call unity. The test of our vitality is our power of synthesis, of life synthesis.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00296", "bookId": 73755, "start": 116376, "end": 117259, "sha256": "5b781001bf113f186bed3d9e0cb364badd93cbb04794903148c42488ba76acf2", "text": "But although we say that the individual is never complete, it is also true that the individual is a being who, because his function is relating and his relatings are infinite, is in himself the whole of society. It is not that the whole is divided up into pieces; the individual is the whole at one point. This is the incarnation: it is the whole flowing into me, transfusing, suffusing me. The fulness, bigness of my life is not measured by the amount I do, nor the number of people I meet, but how far the whole is expressed through me. This is the reason why unifying gives me a sense of life and more unifying gives me a sense of more life—there is more of the whole and of me. My worth to society is not how valuable a part I am. I am not unique in the world because I am different from any one else, but because I am a whole seen from a special point of view.[22]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00297", "bookId": 73755, "start": 117263, "end": 118298, "sha256": "84520bcfd71c9e5d322dfc13233345c34006e08ad8254c36f02ed961821afb5d", "text": "That the relation of each to the whole is dynamic and not static is perhaps the most profound truth which recent years have brought us.[23] We now see that when I give my share I give always far more than my share, such are the infinite complexities, the fulness and fruitfulness of the interrelatings. I contribute to society my mite, and then society contains not just that much more nourishment, but as much more as the loaves and fishes which fed the multitude outnumbered the original seven and two. My contribution meets some particular need not because it can be measured off against that need, but because my contribution by means of all the cross currents of life always has so much more than itself to offer. When I withhold my contribution, therefore, I am withholding far more than my personal share. When I fail some one or some cause, I have not failed just that person, just that cause, but the whole world is thereby crippled. This thought gives an added solemnity to the sense of personal responsibility.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00298", "bookId": 73755, "start": 118302, "end": 120138, "sha256": "e4e3a1bb4a751ea90510d1348526a1c8e1c9f5617d377394e66630db8a124b4a", "text": "To sum up: individuality is a matter primarily neither of apartness nor of difference, but of each finding his own activity in the whole. In the many times a day that we think of ourselves it is not one time in a thousand that we think of our eccentricities, we are thinking indirectly of those qualities which join us to others: we think of the work we are doing with others and what is expected of us, the people we are going to play with when work is over and the part we are going to take in that play, the committee meeting we are going to attend and what we are going to do there. Every distinct act of the ego is an affirmation of that amount of separateness which makes for perfect union. Every affirmation of the ego establishes my relation with all the rest of the universe. It is one and the same act which establishes my individuality and gives me my place in society. Thus an individual is one who is being created by society, whose daily breath is drawn _from_ society, whose life is spent _for_ society. When we recognize society as self-unfolding, self-unifying activity, we shall hold ourselves open to its influence, letting the Light stream into us, not from an outside source, but from the whole of which we are a living part. It is eternally due us that that whole should feed and nourish and sustain us at every moment, but it cannot do this unless at every moment we are creating it. This perfect interplay is Life. To speak of the “limitations of the individual” is blasphemy and suicide. The spirit of the whole is incarnate in every part. “For I am persuaded that neither death, nor life, nor angels, nor principalities, nor powers, nor things present, nor things to come, nor height, nor depth, nor any other creature, shall be able to separate”—the individual from society.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00299", "bookId": 73755, "start": 120142, "end": 120147, "sha256": "73be087e93080f9e436892b7d182df66394bc79dbf5df119d9357df61b1ebbfb", "text": "-----", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00300", "bookId": 73755, "start": 120151, "end": 120163, "sha256": "531a0624f772b96b9d30dc8bc886dc9e0fa848e0dc2cb4964b64e29fa3d7ef09", "text": "Footnote 21:", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00301", "bookId": 73755, "start": 120169, "end": 120214, "sha256": "9a7f983c1140f3a32912bbaa6f976797b06a1c90e78a89ddb79bb7347eb97ce8", "text": "See ch. XV, “From Contract to Community.”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00302", "bookId": 73755, "start": 120218, "end": 120230, "sha256": "ce497a608a980337b4718c25c24d9dc9ea930652f502b1e9358e63897a916abd", "text": "Footnote 22:", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00303", "bookId": 73755, "start": 120236, "end": 120403, "sha256": "281c4a1e1439bc03e9c3299134c1343b3fc24f506eeeb1e12c753e33249c0c95", "text": "This is the principle of the vote in a democracy (see ch. XXI). This must not, however, be confused with the old Hegelianism (see ch. XXIX on “Sovereignty”).", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00304", "bookId": 73755, "start": 120407, "end": 120419, "sha256": "46106eb1f5120adacc539cee8cdca34cefc844fba5a2a233b2e0647890e034e8", "text": "Footnote 23:", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00305", "bookId": 73755, "start": 120425, "end": 120707, "sha256": "3c77365cc5b907f3ed1df491f3625adc811f556840f63b7e4b01e6ae31248ac1", "text": "In art this is what impressionism has meant. In the era before impressionism art was in a static phase, that is, artists were working at fixed relations. The “balance” of modern artists does not suggest fixedness, but relation subject directly to the laws of the whole.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00306", "bookId": 73755, "start": 120711, "end": 120783, "sha256": "5be59d365acb8d35446f682c6d314fffd5db5846ab8c6eb021e6bacd98a82aa0", "text": "------------------------------------------------------------------------", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00307", "bookId": 73755, "start": 120827, "end": 120831, "sha256": "2e1a3a69796bfe6fab63b81b55ed913f1597459886f62a1d2824fd100eba871c", "text": "VIII", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00308", "bookId": 73755, "start": 120861, "end": 120881, "sha256": "8e657e3bbc33b54575f0d72c6fe48336c51d3266d383d57f682dde1e05e636ee", "text": "WHO IS THE FREE MAN?", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00309", "bookId": 73755, "start": 120914, "end": 120928, "sha256": "cb963f8b7dd4be2e8d413c437052b98afad284e3de40cd420bdd246302a111ad", "text": "--------------", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00310", "bookId": 73755, "start": 120934, "end": 121753, "sha256": "d02e76863568e4994cfcc6e9091471b62ae6da4322e935383a849d3da65071cc", "text": "THE idea of liberty long current was that the solitary man was the free man, that the man outside society possessed freedom but that in society he had to sacrifice as much of his liberty as interfered with the liberty of others. Rousseau’s effort was to find a form of society in which all should be as free as “before.” According to some of our contemporary thinkers liberty is what belongs to the individual or variation-giving-one. But this tells only half the tale. Freedom is the harmonious, unimpeded working of the law of one’s own nature. The true nature of every man is found only in the whole. A man is ideally free only so far as he is interpermeated by every other human being; he gains his freedom through a perfect and complete relationship because thereby he achieves his whole nature.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00311", "bookId": 73755, "start": 121757, "end": 122951, "sha256": "7d18e26ffa02994e75c6185bea7751f0c162169d4ee5bb2b5cbc99ebeeecfdc1", "text": "Hence free-will is not caprice or whim or a partial wish or a momentary desire. On the contrary freedom means exactly the liberation from the tyranny of such particularist impulses. When the whole-will has supreme dominion in the heart of man, then there is freedom. The mandate of our real Self is our liberty. The essence of freedom is not irrelevant spontaneity but the fulness of relation. We do not curtail our liberty by joining with others; we find it and increase all our capacity for life through the interweaving of willings. It is only in a complex state of society that any large degree of freedom is possible, because nothing else can supply the many opportunities necessary to work out freedom. The social process is a completely Self-sufficing process. Free-will is one of its implications. I am free for two reasons: (1) I am not dominated by the whole because I _am_ the whole; (2) I am not dominated by “others” because we have the genuine social process only when I do not control others or they me, but all intermingle to produce the collective thought and the collective will. I am free when I am functioning here in time and space as the creative will.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00312", "bookId": 73755, "start": 122955, "end": 123115, "sha256": "6b503f4633c93fb88c366ebddf72ece19b3e6b0d948097366d0deb29b08edc27", "text": "There is no extra-Will: that is the vital lesson for us to learn. There is no Will except as we act. Let us _be_ the Will. Thereby do we become the Free-Will.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00313", "bookId": 73755, "start": 123119, "end": 123715, "sha256": "9e28f97e282b6b1286c57da54a8bcd6e47409406eed0f14004a9bbd25a9405fa", "text": "Perhaps the most superficial of all views is that free-will consists in choice when an alternative is presented. But freedom by our definition is obedience to the law of one’s nature. My nature is of the whole: I am free, therefore, only when I choose that term in the alternative which the whole commands. I am not free when I am making choices, I am not free when my acts are not “determined,” for in a sense they always are determined (freedom and determinism have not this kind of opposition). I am free when I am creating. I am determined _through_ my will, not in spite of it.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00314", "bookId": 73755, "start": 123719, "end": 124558, "sha256": "5fdec43e6c88a8eb7fdf3d1b44a41acade2cd7d2acc4e77f83267d6068da218a", "text": "Freedom then is the identifying of the individual will with the whole will—the supreme activity of life. Free the spirit of man and then we can trust the spirit of man, and is not the very essence of this freeing of the spirit of man the process of taking him from the self-I to the group-I? That we are free only through the social order, only as fast as we identify ourselves with the whole, implies practically that to gain our freedom we must take part in all the life around us: join groups, enter into many social relations, and begin to win freedom for ourselves. When we are the group in feeling, thought and will, we are free: it does what it wishes through us—that is our liberty. In a democracy the training of every child from the cradle—in nursery, school, at play—must be a training in group consciousness.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00315", "bookId": 73755, "start": 124562, "end": 124991, "sha256": "1a30a83020a85c28337adf8e1dda410a031a2509418c2e8ca6a313134e19962b", "text": "Then we shall have the spontaneous activity of freedom. Let us not be martyrs. Let us not give up bread and coal that the ends of the Great War may be won, with the feeling of a restricted life, but with the feeling that we have gained thereby a fuller life. Let us joyously do the work of the world because we are the world. Such is the _élan de vie_, the joy of high activity, which leaps forward with force, in freedom.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00316", "bookId": 73755, "start": 124995, "end": 125764, "sha256": "e5ca35b9721626556ff224a410c3bd0821b0f91cf8e1099b799265dff11346b2", "text": "We have to begin to-day to live the life which will give us our freedom. Savants and plain men have affirmed the freedom of the will, but at the same time most of us, even while loudly claiming our freedom, have felt bound. While determinism has many theoretical adherents, it has many more practical ones; we have considered ourselves bound in thousands of ways—by tradition, by religion, by natural law, by inertia and ignorance, etc., etc. We have said God is free but man is not free. That we are not free has been the most deadening fallacy to which man has ever submitted. No outside power indeed can make us free. No document of our forefathers can “declare” us “independent.” No one can ever give us freedom, but we can win it for ourselves.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00317", "bookId": 73755, "start": 125768, "end": 126715, "sha256": "dba70ed7d7af040fffa42b04018ddcbea50c833cb3f213bfe973395f793567b1", "text": "It is often thought that when some restraint is taken away from us we are freer than before, but this is childish. Some women-suffragists talk of women as “enslaved” and advocate their emancipation by the method of giving them the vote. But the vote will not make women free. Freedom is always a thing to be attained. And we must remember too that freedom is not a static condition. As it is not something possessed “originally,” and as it is not something which can be given to us, so also it is not something won once for all. It is in our power to win our freedom, but it must be won anew at every moment, literally every moment. People think of themselves as not free because they think of themselves as obeying some external law, but the truth is _we_ are the law-makers. My freedom is my share in creating, my part in the creative responsibility. The heart of our freedom is the impelling power of the will of the whole.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00318", "bookId": 73755, "start": 126719, "end": 126787, "sha256": "afccdb600776cf206c3ff525515906d1087d1080e1e909929953ecd9b5144266", "text": "Who then are free? Those who _win_ their freedom through fellowship.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00319", "bookId": 73755, "start": 126791, "end": 126863, "sha256": "5be59d365acb8d35446f682c6d314fffd5db5846ab8c6eb021e6bacd98a82aa0", "text": "------------------------------------------------------------------------", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00320", "bookId": 73755, "start": 126908, "end": 126910, "sha256": "5eb1f0f9433a0b6f61dd40a6c4369a77cbeaa0a98402d5b4f1add182dd7f4e23", "text": "IX", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00321", "bookId": 73755, "start": 126939, "end": 126960, "sha256": "91a13a698d3ee22fd39277470eeadb27263d32800dbd9e284171bb2f473d997c", "text": "THE NEW INDIVIDUALISM", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00322", "bookId": 73755, "start": 126993, "end": 127007, "sha256": "cb963f8b7dd4be2e8d413c437052b98afad284e3de40cd420bdd246302a111ad", "text": "--------------", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00323", "bookId": 73755, "start": 127013, "end": 127976, "sha256": "4e52f140ea2315edae56b7f788291138b2dee2bce907cdb317730b0484ce3390", "text": "THE new freedom is to be founded on the new individualism. Many people in their zeal for a “socialized” life are denouncing “individualism.” But individualism is the latest social movement. We must guard against the danger of thinking that the individual is less important because the collective aspect of life has aroused our ardor and won our devotion. Collectivism is no short cut to do away with the necessity of individual achievement; it means the greatest burden possible on every man. The development of a truly social life takes place at the same time that the freedom and power and efficiency of its members develop. The individual on the other hand can never make his individuality effective until he is given collective scope for his activity. We sometimes hear it said that the strong man does not like combination, but in fact the stronger the man the more he sees coöperation with others as the fitting field for his strength.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00324", "bookId": 73755, "start": 127980, "end": 129171, "sha256": "26ea4968c00e3ca8b49b7097c047a0c1436f7d1d0f2bf0dd17a98237d05e78b6", "text": "But we must learn the method of a real coöperation. We cannot have any genuine collectivism until we have learned how to evolve the collective thought and the collective will. This can be done only by every one taking part. The fact that the state owns the means of production may be a good or a poor measure, but it is not necessarily collectivism or a true socialism. The wish for socialism is a longing for the ideal state, but it is embraced often by impatient people who want to take a short cut to the ideal state. That state must be grown—its branches will widen as its roots spread. The socialization of property must not precede the socialization of the will. If it does, then the only difference between socialism and our present order will be substituting one machine for another. We see more and more collectivism coming: so far as it keeps pace with the socialization of the will, it is good; so far as it does not, it is purely mechanical. Some people’s idea of socialism is inventing a machine to grind out your duties for you. But every man must do his work for himself. Not socialization of property, but socialization of the will is the true socialism.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00325", "bookId": 73755, "start": 129175, "end": 129942, "sha256": "b957f9c044e3193ec05dbf1c0b6ca6269ce2b99a7619b05e4394818eef25ae97", "text": "The main aim in the reconstruction of society must be to get all that every man has to give, to bring the submerged millions into light and activity. Those of us who are basing all our faith on the constructive vision of a collective society are giving the fullest value to the individual that has ever been given, are preaching individual value as the basis of democracy, individual affirmation as its process, and individual responsibility as its motor force. True individualism has been the one thing lacking either in motive or actuality in a so-called individualistic age, but then it has not been an individualistic but a particularistic age. True individualism is this moment piercing through the soil of our new understanding of the collective life.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00326", "bookId": 73755, "start": 129946, "end": 130018, "sha256": "5be59d365acb8d35446f682c6d314fffd5db5846ab8c6eb021e6bacd98a82aa0", "text": "------------------------------------------------------------------------", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00327", "bookId": 73755, "start": 130063, "end": 130064, "sha256": "4b68ab3847feda7d6c62c1fbcbeebfa35eab7351ed5e78f4ddadea5df64b8015", "text": "X", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00328", "bookId": 73755, "start": 130100, "end": 130107, "sha256": "3e2dda2d0bc92bd20bd1b5ffeedad239b366f6716b52c0f05f2848dda66bf237", "text": "SOCIETY", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00329", "bookId": 73755, "start": 130140, "end": 130154, "sha256": "cb963f8b7dd4be2e8d413c437052b98afad284e3de40cd420bdd246302a111ad", "text": "--------------", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00330", "bookId": 73755, "start": 130160, "end": 130580, "sha256": "8f61f30958ca6955ff9aa12752f1639050099928965e4cdf3f059d343ee563d2", "text": "WE have seen that the interpenetrating of psychic forces creates at the same time individuals and society, that, therefore, the individual is not a unit but a centre of forces (both centripetal and centrifugal), and consequently society is not a collection of units but a complex of radiating and converging, crossing and recrossing energies. In other words we are learning to think of society as a psychic process.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00331", "bookId": 73755, "start": 130584, "end": 130762, "sha256": "ad3823b487c20e4767d25ea6a3eccf1b92967e94184bece069823d585ced4e28", "text": "This conception must replace the old and wholly erroneous idea of society as a collection of units, and the later and only less misleading theory of society as an organism.[24]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00332", "bookId": 73755, "start": 130766, "end": 131105, "sha256": "40dcad38dd9a02c9f4fc187576f92b7f27bb8075be3f2826f85061274148f3c0", "text": "The old individualism with all the political fallacies it produced—social contract of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, majority rule of the nineteenth, etc.—was based on the idea of developed individuals first existing and then coming together to form society. But the basis of society is not numbers: it is psychic power.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00333", "bookId": 73755, "start": 131109, "end": 131292, "sha256": "93e86addbb2a317728481474e572d2efe2114b32ab3686a08265b9720eac83d7", "text": "The organic theory of society has so much to recommend it to superficial thinking that we must examine it carefully to find its fatal defects. But let us first recognize its merits.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00334", "bookId": 73755, "start": 131296, "end": 131579, "sha256": "b642d0cdd0b4ceaeb6afa54f457bcc9cb133b9254c669013767029676e613fc6", "text": "Most obviously, an organic whole has a spatial and temporal individuality of its own, and it is composed of parts each with its individuality yet which could not exist apart from the whole. An organism means unity, each one his own place, every one dependent upon every one else.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00335", "bookId": 73755, "start": 131583, "end": 132219, "sha256": "331317c823335324de1917e48e1a6a3ebae19e16b8a7f916d5686f530c610378", "text": "Next, this unity, this interrelating of parts, is the essential characteristic. It is always in unstable equilibrium, always shifting, varying, and thereby changing the individual at every moment. But it is always produced and maintained by the individual himself. No external force brings it forth. The central life, the total life, of this self-developing, self-perpetuating being is involved in the process. Hence biologists do not expect to understand the body by a study of the separate cells as isolated units: it is the organic connection which unites the separate processes which they recognize as the fundamental fact.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00336", "bookId": 73755, "start": 132223, "end": 132817, "sha256": "5501406818040bd345202af10865e9adfb7d03f4b38ea549bd8f6e3ed2dc478d", "text": "This interrelating holds good of society when we view it externally. Society too can be understood only by the study of its flux of relations, of all the intricate reciprocities which go to make the unifying. Reciprocal ordering—subordinating, superordinating, coördinating—purposeful self-unifyings, best describe the social process. Led by James, who has shown us the individual as a self-unifying centre, we now find the same kind of activity going on in society, in the social mind. And this interrelating, this unity as unity, is what gives to society its authority and power.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00337", "bookId": 73755, "start": 132821, "end": 132917, "sha256": "3e8b3ba2f7bc7da37e204c4f5f154048f909e72d7d62bbfadbfcd9df7ad09f9f", "text": "Thus the term organism is valuable as a metaphor, but it has not strict psychological accuracy.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00338", "bookId": 73755, "start": 132921, "end": 133683, "sha256": "881767a169d725cb6c2b48cc72009b7349777dc7534ec7ad650b0e46f32b9a67", "text": "There is this world-wide difference between the self-interrelatings of society and of the bodily organism: the social bond is a psychic relation and we cannot express it in biological terms or in any terms of physical force. If we could, if “functional combination” could mean a psychological relation as well as a physiological, then the terms “functional” and “organic” might be accepted. But they denote a different universe from that of thought. For psychical self-unitings knit infinitely more closely and in a wholly different way. They are freed from the limitations of time and space. Minds can blend, yet in the blending preserve each its own identity. They transfuse one another while being each its own essential and unique self.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00339", "bookId": 73755, "start": 133687, "end": 134032, "sha256": "fed71937d27dc87423bda7a4f168bb16b0bff1068bd898d41e3308cfb2748b23", "text": "It follows that while the cell of the organism has only one function, the individual may have manifold and multiform functions: he enters with one function into a certain group of people this morning and with another function into another group this afternoon, because his free soul can freely knit itself with a new group at any moment.[25]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00340", "bookId": 73755, "start": 134036, "end": 134799, "sha256": "88ef506744c2f3cac3a5c6362554f4a67c9396c937a5fbf96da3f123d2eb4723", "text": "This self-detaching, self-attaching freedom of the individual saves us from the danger to democracy which lurks in the organic theory. No man is forced to serve as the running foot or the lifting hand. Each at any moment can place himself where his nature calls. Certain continental sociologists are wholly unjustified in building their hierarchy where one man or group of men is the sensorium, others the hewers and carriers, etc. It is exactly this despotic and hopeless system of caste from which the true democracy frees man. He follows the call of his spirit and relates himself where he belongs to-day, and through this relating gains the increment of power which knits him anew where he now belongs and so continually as the wind of spirit blows.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00341", "bookId": 73755, "start": 134803, "end": 135483, "sha256": "c5cbd4e301f1d8a0e37218af81d20420ca0855f3a494c7a50ab36548f3bb5931", "text": "Moreover in society every individual may be a complete expression of the whole in a way impossible for the parts of a physical organism.[26] When each part is itself potentially the whole, when the whole can live completely in every member, then we have a true society, and we must view it as a rushing of life—onrush, outrush, inrush—as a mobile, elastic, incalculable, Protean energy seeking fitting form for itself. This ideal society is the divine goal towards which life is an infinite progress. Such conception of society must be visibly before us to the exclusion of all other theories when we ask ourselves later what the vote means in the true democracy.[27]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00342", "bookId": 73755, "start": 135487, "end": 135492, "sha256": "73be087e93080f9e436892b7d182df66394bc79dbf5df119d9357df61b1ebbfb", "text": "-----", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00343", "bookId": 73755, "start": 135496, "end": 135508, "sha256": "7122e9501bce81bafb2132a74c9d5d8dce9705829856868103f73343e7e7e2df", "text": "Footnote 24:", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00344", "bookId": 73755, "start": 135514, "end": 135625, "sha256": "b55870fe70f0882d1b851cd14caea659652f3e5f7a7363dc00900a0e610d3e45", "text": "I speak of it as later because the biological analogy was different from the organism of mediæval doctrine.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00345", "bookId": 73755, "start": 135629, "end": 135641, "sha256": "910503312f7f454cae2d2e8993aa6dbf31fb02d4d0ef7b4d99cb1a455ea216c9", "text": "Footnote 25:", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00346", "bookId": 73755, "start": 135647, "end": 135704, "sha256": "01236be677e90d86b61cf96bdb90dac899870e9e4adade69769903f68857d8c0", "text": "See ch. XXX, “Political Pluralism and Functionalism.”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00347", "bookId": 73755, "start": 135708, "end": 135720, "sha256": "32a6c5c0ebc380758a32b1e79d0bc995c23e5d2484becdcae254732dea332f37", "text": "Footnote 26:", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00348", "bookId": 73755, "start": 135726, "end": 135736, "sha256": "d5f8bd46e289189be3cd55521c9bec4cb381bcdf54ad3e64c97a4e99902ed6bf", "text": "See p. 66.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00349", "bookId": 73755, "start": 135740, "end": 135752, "sha256": "014ff512a29a573ff3b1179f51fd2579c150670f77186d0e6956235bd90047a6", "text": "Footnote 27:", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00350", "bookId": 73755, "start": 135758, "end": 136147, "sha256": "b4178bebbed0c6f112254876a9096b3a25a3e8d3667a7fb35ad99b7c8e84bd33", "text": "See ch. XXI. I have been told that the distinction between the organic and the psychic theory of society is merely academic. But no one should frame amendments on the initiative and referendum without this distinction; no one without it can judge wisely the various schemes now being proposed for occupational representation—something every one of us will have soon to do.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00351", "bookId": 73755, "start": 136151, "end": 136223, "sha256": "5be59d365acb8d35446f682c6d314fffd5db5846ab8c6eb021e6bacd98a82aa0", "text": "------------------------------------------------------------------------", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00352", "bookId": 73755, "start": 136268, "end": 136270, "sha256": "281317f5a54d671f07e300e15e5ca271bc8a5ecee2acbb642ecf8f0c21f0ceeb", "text": "XI", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00353", "bookId": 73755, "start": 136296, "end": 136324, "sha256": "ef2987202143a1849c9d7ce65a674139b4b05699d3192bd4f1253f71a16e9943", "text": "THE SELF-AND-OTHERS ILLUSION", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00354", "bookId": 73755, "start": 136357, "end": 136371, "sha256": "cb963f8b7dd4be2e8d413c437052b98afad284e3de40cd420bdd246302a111ad", "text": "--------------", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00355", "bookId": 73755, "start": 136377, "end": 137373, "sha256": "d5b0f5fbe600e92bba1c83c602c6c5a8de3dbf7a18e877517a1c0573bbbd515e", "text": "IT is now evident that self and others are merely different points of view of one and the same experience, two aspects of one thought. Neither of these partial aspects can hold us, we seek always that which includes self and others. To recognize the community principle in everything we do should be our aim, never to work with individuals as individuals. If I go to have a talk with a mother about her daughter, I cannot appeal to the mother, the daughter, or my own wishes, only to that higher creation which we three make when we come together. In that way only will spiritual power be generated. Every decision of the future is to be based not on my needs or yours, nor on a compromise between them or an addition of them, but on the recognition of the community between us. The community may be my household and I, my employees and I, but it is only the dictate of the whole which can be binding on the whole. This principle we can take as a searchlight to turn on all our life.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00356", "bookId": 73755, "start": 137377, "end": 138657, "sha256": "dfe7729e60d111ecd94da792e56c59b7f9de08895661ce8d42c204d390c1491c", "text": "It is the lack of understanding of this principle which works much havoc among us. When we watch men in the lobbies at Washington working for their state and their town as against the interests of the United States, do we sometimes think, “These men have learnt loyalty and service to a small unit, but not yet to a large one?” If this thought does come to us, we are probably doing those men more than justice. The man who tries to get something in the River and Harbor appropriation for his town, whether or not it needs it as much as other places, is pretty sure back in his own town to be working not for that but for his own pocket. It is not because America is too big for him to think of, that he might perhaps think of Ohio or Millfield, it is just because he cannot think of Ohio or Millfield. There he thinks of how this or the other local development, rise in land values etc., is going to benefit himself; when he is in Washington he thinks of what is going to benefit Millfield. But the man who works hardest and most truly for Millfield and Ohio will probably when he comes to Washington work most truly for the interests, not of Millfield and Ohio, but of the United States, because he has learned the first lesson of life—to think in wholes.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00357", "bookId": 73755, "start": 138661, "end": 139668, "sha256": "ea2416328bb2412a20cc03b615aad5d81130619b75609caac5d343cfb3a6fdc0", "text": "The expressions social and socially-minded, which should refer to a consciousness of the whole, are often confused with altruism. We read of “the socialized character of modern industry.” There is a good deal of altruism in modern industry, but little that is socialized yet. The men who provide rest rooms, baths, lectures, and recreation facilities for their employees, do not by so doing prove themselves to be socially-minded; they are altruistically-minded, and this is involved in the old individualism.[28] Moreover, in our attempts at social legislation we have been appealing chiefly to the altruism of people: women and children ought not to be overworked, it is cruel not to have machinery safeguarded, etc. But our growing sense of unity is fast bringing us to a realization that all these things are for the good of ourselves too, for the entire community. And the war is rapidly opening our eyes to this human solidarity: we now see health, for instance, as a national asset.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00358", "bookId": 73755, "start": 139672, "end": 140617, "sha256": "54758708512bf5db4d3e6a1bf37716ff450e3d18cc04deae11cfbb2755062252", "text": "All of us are being slowly, very slowly, purged of our particularistic desires. The egotistic satisfaction of giving things away is going to be replaced by the joy of owning things together. As our lives become more and more intricately interwoven, more and more I come to suffer not merely when I am undergoing personal suffering, more and more I come to desire not only when I am feeling personal desires. This used to be considered a fantastic idea not to be grasped by the plain man, but every day the plain man is coming more and more to feel this, every day the “claims” of others are becoming My desires. “Justice” is being replaced by understanding. There are many people to-day who feel as keenly the fact of child labor as if these children were their own. I vote for prohibition, even although it does not in the least touch me, because it does touch very closely the Me of which I am now coming into realization.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00359", "bookId": 73755, "start": 140621, "end": 140932, "sha256": "37c4648a300869ea0c8c958bb17ef55a49247816472ff9555d8f8063fbd5e010", "text": "The identification of self and others we see in the fact that we cannot keep ourselves “good” in an evil world any more than we can keep ourselves well in a world of disease. The method of moral hygiene as of physical hygiene is social coöperation. We do not walk into the Kingdom of Heaven one by one.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00360", "bookId": 73755, "start": 140936, "end": 141566, "sha256": "04b91e2f0b679dfafc56cbc3066c3531845152f51a44ad831b6271a2d1a3f509", "text": "The exposition of the self-and-others fallacy has transformed the idea of self-interest. Our interests are inextricably interwoven. The question is not what is best for me or for you, but for all of us. My interests are not less important to the world than yours; your interests are not less important to the world than mine. If the “altruistic” man is not a humbug, that is, if he really thinks his affairs of less importance to the world than those of others, then there is certainly something the matter with his life. He must raise his life to a point where it is of as much value to the world as any one’s else.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00361", "bookId": 73755, "start": 141570, "end": 142397, "sha256": "242b77852039747c71bad1ce83e588a04316d63d49be3bc25af8e832369249da", "text": "The self-and-others fallacy has led directly to a conception which has wrought much harm among us, namely, the identification of “others” with “society” which leads the self outside society and brings us to one of the most harmful of dualisms. The reason we are slow to understand the matter of the subordination of the individual to society is because we usually think of it as meaning the subordination of the individual to “others,” whereas it does not at all, it means the subordination of the individual to the whole of which he himself is a part. Such subordination is an act of assertion; it is fraught with active power and force; it affirms and accomplishes. We are often told to “surrender our individuality.” To _claim_ our individuality is the one essential claim we have on the universe.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00362", "bookId": 73755, "start": 142401, "end": 142863, "sha256": "78ab015a620daad2f8e3b347d15ab026b34c36b40c899516671126b83d9babfd", "text": "We give up self when we are too sluggish for the heroic life. For our self is after all the greatest bother we ever know, and the idea of giving it up is a comfortable thought for sluggish people, a narcotic for the difficulties of life. But it is a cowardly way out. The strong attitude is to face that torment, our self, to take it with all its implications, all its obligations, all its responsibilities, and be ourselves to the fullest degree possible.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00363", "bookId": 73755, "start": 142867, "end": 143846, "sha256": "c29aede57a4ba96fb46787cac449b1cd98e3c05cc7bf14e26cdf64b6251b503f", "text": "I do not mean to imply, however, that unselfishness has become obsolete. With our new social ideal there is going to be a far greater demand on our capacity for sacrifice than ever before, but self-sacrifice now means for us self-fulfilment. We have now a vision of society where service is indeed our daily portion, but our conception of service has entirely changed. The other day it was stated that the old idea of democracy was a society in which every man had the right to pursue his own ends, while the new idea was based on the assumption that every man should serve his fellow-men. But I do not believe that man should “serve his fellow-men”; if we started on that task what awful prigs we should become. Moreover, as we see that the only efficient people are the servers, much of the connotation of humility has gone out of the word service! Moreover, if service is such a very desirable thing, then every one must have an equal opportunity for service.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00364", "bookId": 73755, "start": 143850, "end": 144849, "sha256": "6168f677c8d6eeca1c800ca8fff6d2fd3e232ee8130cb4572e55f66aa57fdf2e", "text": "We have had a wrong idea of individualism which has made those who had more strength, education, time, money, power, feel that they must do for those who had less. In the individualism we see coming, all our efforts will be bent to making it possible for every man to depend upon himself instead of depending upon others. So _noblesse oblige_ is really egoistic. It is what I owe to myself to do to others. _Noblesse oblige_ has had a splendid use in the world, but it is somewhat worn out now simply because we are rapidly getting away from the selfish point of view. I don’t do things now because my position or my standing or my religion or _my_ anything else demands it, nor because others need it, but because it is a whole-imperative, that is, a social imperative. We cannot transcend self by means of others, but only through the synthesis of self and others. Wholeness is an irresistible force compelling every member. The consciousness of this is the wellspring of our power.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00365", "bookId": 73755, "start": 144853, "end": 145353, "sha256": "bf6e07f0420eaa3cf39127b15ea9d44b7d7f753dc701ecc998f1270fb903efee", "text": "An English writer says that we get leadership from the fact that men are capable of being moved to such service by the feeling of altruism; he attributes public spirit to love, pity, compassion and sensitiveness to suffering. This is no doubt largely true at the present moment, but public spirit will sometime mean, as it does to-day in many instances, the recognition that it is not merely that my city, my nation needs me, but that I need it as the larger sphere of a larger self-expression.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00366", "bookId": 73755, "start": 145357, "end": 146184, "sha256": "9c56699c20c9b2009fda9a810b2b74b9b906e2599a1bd69b92a4cd260fc01439", "text": "I remember some years ago a Boston girl just entering social work, fresh from college, with all the ardor and enthusiasm of youth and having been taught the ideals of service to others. She was talking to me about her future and said that she was sorry family circumstances obliged her to work in Boston instead of New York, there was so much more to reform in New York! She seemed really afraid that justice and morality had reached such a point with us that she might not be afforded sufficient scope for her zeal. It was amusing, but think of the irony of it: that girl had been taught such a view of life that her happiness, her outlet, her self-expression, depended actually on there being plenty of misery and wretchedness for her to change; there would be no scope for her in a harmonious, well-ordered world.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00367", "bookId": 73755, "start": 146188, "end": 146794, "sha256": "9e21af58852611a1b82395c92308522acaad7aa909aef5235de31e36f5ee5eac", "text": "The self-and-others theory of society is then wrong. We have seen that the Perfect Society is the complete interrelating of an infinite number of selves knowing themselves as one Self. We see that we are dependent on the whole, while seeing that we are one with it in creating it. We are separate that we may belong, that we may greatly produce. Our separateness, our individual initiative, are the very factors which accomplish our true unity with men. We shall see in the chapter on “Political Pluralism” that “irreducible pluralism” and the self-unifying principle are not contradictory.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00368", "bookId": 73755, "start": 146798, "end": 146803, "sha256": "73be087e93080f9e436892b7d182df66394bc79dbf5df119d9357df61b1ebbfb", "text": "-----", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00369", "bookId": 73755, "start": 146807, "end": 146819, "sha256": "9bb8f540796b2cea8e674a20ba96984ad285d8876861c2064bbe4f8ed36a30a2", "text": "Footnote 28:", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00370", "bookId": 73755, "start": 146825, "end": 147019, "sha256": "986e83e58822343dd6b9ea6189faeaa57feaaa9407c403394b7725f03c0edfe1", "text": "It must be remembered, however, that these welfare arrangements are often accompanied by truly social motives, and experiments looking towards a more democratic organization of industries.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00371", "bookId": 73755, "start": 147023, "end": 147095, "sha256": "5be59d365acb8d35446f682c6d314fffd5db5846ab8c6eb021e6bacd98a82aa0", "text": "------------------------------------------------------------------------", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00372", "bookId": 73755, "start": 147139, "end": 147142, "sha256": "89e979f628851dde99311432f4027093fc5f1ff992b926339a76a512f68a2a6d", "text": "XII", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00373", "bookId": 73755, "start": 147173, "end": 147190, "sha256": "bae7b80fa4f20c76bb645425263975715ea79b6f0437c364e339d41c4917f6cd", "text": "THE CROWD FALLACY", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00374", "bookId": 73755, "start": 147223, "end": 147237, "sha256": "cb963f8b7dd4be2e8d413c437052b98afad284e3de40cd420bdd246302a111ad", "text": "--------------", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00375", "bookId": 73755, "start": 147243, "end": 148362, "sha256": "62c2c5ac726de82579ebdd6c145562b07da404b1b7af4d105108047bf2e2fee1", "text": "MANY people are ready to accept the truth that association is the law of life. But in consequence of an acceptance of this theory with only a partial understanding of it, many people to-day are advocating the life of the crowd. The words society, crowd, and group are often used interchangeably for a number of people together. One writer says, “The real things are breathed forth from multitudes ... the real forces of to-day are group forces.” Or we read of “the gregarious or group life,” or “man is social because he is suggestible,” or, “man is social because he likes to be with a crowd.” But we do not find group forces in multitudes: the crowd and the group represent entirely different modes of association. Crowd action is the outcome of agreement based on concurrence of emotion rather than of thought, or if on the latter, then on a concurrence produced by becoming aware of similarities, not by a slow and gradual creating of unity. It is a crowd emotion if we all shout “God save the King.” Suggestibility, feeling, impulse—this is usually the order in the crowd mind.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00376", "bookId": 73755, "start": 148366, "end": 149070, "sha256": "c1fb9fd8e453027243ea2da4c7155b528837ac8c48fd823c9adf3aadd58bc8d5", "text": "I know a little boy of five who came home from school one day and said with much impressiveness, “Do you know whose birthday it is to-morrow?” “No,” said his mother, “whose?” “Ab’m Lincoln’s,” was the reply. “Who is he?” said the mother. With a grave face and an awed voice the child replied, “He freed the slates!” and then added, “I don’t know whether they were the big kind like mine or the little kind like Nancy’s.” But his emotion was apparently as great, his sentiment as sincere, as if he had understood what Lincoln had done for his country. This is a good example of crowd suggestion because thought was in this case inhibited by contagious emotion.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00377", "bookId": 73755, "start": 149074, "end": 150639, "sha256": "92580a32ef16556e60497847d25b56320645cc0dee7ab32a573ad90d58cea0dd", "text": "Suggestion is the law of the crowd, interpenetration of the group. When we study a crowd we see how quickly B takes A’s ideas and also C and D and E; when we study a group we see that the ideas of A often arouse in B exactly opposite ones. Moreover, the crowd often deadens thought because it wants immediate action, which means an unthinking unanimity not a genuine collective thought.[29] The group on the other hand stimulates thought. There are no “differences” in the crowd mind. Each person is swept away and does not stop to find out his own difference. In crowds we have unison, in groups harmony. We want the single voice but not the single note; that is the secret of the group. The enthusiasm and unanimity of a mass-meeting may warm an inexperienced heart, but the experienced know that this unanimity is largely superficial and is based on the spread of similar ideas, not the unifying of differences. A crowd does not distinguish between fervor and wisdom; a group usually does. We do not try to be eloquent when we appear before a board or a commission; we try merely to be convincing. Before a group it is self-control, restraint, discipline which we need, we don’t “let ourselves go”; before a crowd I am sorry to say we usually do. Many of us nowadays resent being used as part of a crowd; the moment we hear eloquence we are on the defensive. The essential evil of crowds is that they do not allow choice, and choice is necessary for progress. A crowd is an undifferentiated mass; a group is an articulated whole.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00378", "bookId": 73755, "start": 150643, "end": 151457, "sha256": "54d1668596aa048c89ed58844d6ab5f5d25e25c281370b8daf9b629a559092e7", "text": "It is often difficult to determine whether a number of people met together are a crowd or a group (that is, a true society), yet it is a distinction necessary for us to make if we would understand their action. It is not in the least a question of numbers: it is obvious that according to our present definition a group is not a small number of people and a crowd a large number. If someone cries “Fire,” and you and I run to the window, then you and I are a crowd. The difference between a group and a crowd is not one of degree but of kind. I have seen it stated in a sociological treatise that in any deliberative assembly there is a tendency for the wisest thought to prevail. This assumes that “any deliberative assembly” is more like a group than a crowd—a very pleasant thing to assume!", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00379", "bookId": 73755, "start": 151461, "end": 151739, "sha256": "2c12b9f20d8c10b3cd5cba6a562bc0a981bb8dc8ff8c5ab0b2761d99d515a028", "text": "Some writers seem to think that the difference between a crowd and a not-crowd is the difference between organized and unorganized, and the example is given of laborers unorganized as a crowd and of a trade-union as a not-crowd. But a trade-union can be and often is a crowd.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00380", "bookId": 73755, "start": 151743, "end": 152288, "sha256": "c4360f8ce3a2203eca3908f943ea472d06d17a46532d571e855ad45f489945d8", "text": "We have distinguished between the crowd and the group; it is also necessary to distinguish between the crowd and the mob. Often the crowd or mass is confused with the mob. The examples given of the mass or crowd mind are usually a lynching-party, the panic-stricken audience in a theatre fire, the mobs of the French Revolution. But all these are very different from a mass of people merely acting under the same suggestion, so different that we need different names for them. We might for the moment call one a crowd and the other a mob.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00381", "bookId": 73755, "start": 152292, "end": 153262, "sha256": "0114d4c00674b584e28dc2db3265fd625a2e957e227035b5477c54043f6c7c17", "text": "An unfortunate stigma has often attached itself to the crowd mind because of this tendency to think of the crowd mind as always exhibiting itself in inferior ways. Mass enthusiasm, it is true, may lead to riots, but also it may lead to heroic deeds. People talk much of the panic of a crowd, but every soldier knows that men are brave, too, in a mass. Students have often studied what they called the mass mind when it was under the stress of great nervous strain and at a high pitch of excitement, and then have said the mass acts thus and so. It has been thought legitimate to draw conclusions concerning the nature of the mass mind from an hysterical mob. It has been assumed that a crowd was necessarily, as a crowd, in a condition of hysteria. It has often been taken for granted that a crowd _is_ a pathological condition. And color has been given to this theory by the fact that we owe much of our knowledge of the laws of suggestion to pathologists.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00382", "bookId": 73755, "start": 153266, "end": 154316, "sha256": "bdcdc1d8aa303c0a4a8c47cec40ed6ccb289b6a48c1c0d9863ebb77bd385c35c", "text": "But the laws of the mass can be studied in ordinary collections of people who are not abnormally excited, who are not subjects for pathologists. The laws of the mass as of the mob are, it is true, the laws of suggestion and imitation, but the mob is such an extreme case of the mass that it is necessary to make some distinction between them. Emotion in the crowd as in the mob is intensified by the consciousness that others are sharing it, but the mob is this crowd emotion carried to an extreme. As normal suggestibility is the law of the mass, so abnormal suggestibility is the law of the mob. In abnormal suggestibility the controlling act of the will is absent, but in normal suggestibility you have the will in control and using its power of choice over the material offered by suggestion. Moreover, it must be remembered that emotional disturbance is not always the cause of the condition of suggestibility: the will may lose its ascendancy from other causes than excitement; suggestibility often comes from exhaustion or habit.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00383", "bookId": 73755, "start": 154320, "end": 154670, "sha256": "f848c14101ea0502d25725eae559cf1896679837bcecb0f333da86748b63d5cd", "text": "The fact is we know little of this subject. Billy Sunday and the Salvation Army, political bosses and labor agitators, know how to handle crowds, but the rest of us can deal with individuals better than with the mass; we have taken courses in first-aid to the injured, but we have not yet learned what to do in a street riot or a financial panic.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00384", "bookId": 73755, "start": 154674, "end": 155469, "sha256": "ee56f6f4dd2ef5697a977706a10f4951eae5c9e9cf05cbc490be1bca6eaae96c", "text": "Besides the group and the crowd and the mob, there is also the herd. The satisfaction of the gregarious instinct must not be confused with the emotion of the crowd or the true sense of oneness in the group. Some writers draw analogies from the relation of the individual to the herd to apply to the relation of man to society; such analogies lead to false patriotism and wars. The example of the wild ox temporarily separated from his herd and rushing back to the “comfort of its fellowship” has adorned many a different tale. The “comfort” of feeling ourselves in the herd has been given as the counterpart of spiritual communion, but are we seeking the “comfort” of fellowship or the creative agonies of fellowship? The latter we find not in herd life, but in group life.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00385", "bookId": 73755, "start": 155473, "end": 155878, "sha256": "62e4f549750baa04f653b38e67ca3ae226d6229c273192b406fa5effd4b0ea1c", "text": "Then besides the group, the crowd, the mob, the herd, there are numbers as mere numbers. When we are a lot of people with different purposes we are simply wearied, not stimulated. At a bazaar, for instance, far from feeling satisfaction in your fellow-creatures, you often loathe them. Here you are not swayed by one emotion, as in a crowd, nor unified by some intermingling of thought as in a group.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00386", "bookId": 73755, "start": 155882, "end": 156485, "sha256": "e22d58420713b4f707c50374360bf276f961091203021f6b0d9647eaceee1a25", "text": "It must be understood that I do not wish to make any arbitrary dictum in regard to distinctions between the crowd and the herd, the crowd and mere numbers, etc. I merely wish to point out that the subject has not yet received sufficient study. What is it we feel at the midnight mass of the Madeleine? It is not merely the one thought which animates all; it is largely the great mass of people who are feeling the one thought. But many considerations and unanswered questions leap to our mind just here. All this is an interesting field for the further study and close analysis of psychologists.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00387", "bookId": 73755, "start": 156489, "end": 157955, "sha256": "0898b729b06ff768bfbd03884b7fcf68f03e1e7ac1ac1990211d885552324ba2", "text": "We must not, however, think from these distinctions that man as member of a group and man as member of a crowd, as one of a herd or of a mob or of a mere assemblage, is subject to entirely different laws which never mingle; there are all the various shadings and minglings of these which we see in such varied associations as business corporation, family, committee, political meeting, trade-union etc. Our herd traditions show in our group life; there is something of the crowd in all groups and there is something of the group in many crowds, as in a legislative assembly. Only further study will teach us to distinguish how much herd instinct and how much group conviction contribute to our ideas and feelings at any one time and what the tendencies are when these clash. Only further study will show us how to secure the advantages of the crowd without suffering from its disadvantages. We have all felt that there was much that was valuable in that emotional thrill which brings us into a vaster realm although not a coördinated realm; we have all rejoiced in the quickened heart-beat, the sense of brotherhood, the love of humanity, the renewed courage which have sometimes come to us when we were with many people. Perhaps the ideal group will combine the advantages of the mass and the group proper: will give us collective thought, the creative will and at the same time the inspiration for renewed effort and sustained self-discipline.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00388", "bookId": 73755, "start": 157959, "end": 158698, "sha256": "388c51ff23e65a28801199cfa6fd8ad9b2b56977a1acfe39b04302f0daea8f06", "text": "Crowd association has, however, received more study than group association because as a matter of fact there is at present so much more of the former than of the latter. But we need not only a psychology which looks at us as we are, but a psychology which points the way to that which we may become. What our advanced thinkers are now doing is to evolve this new psychology. Conscious evolution means giving less and less place to herd instinct and more to the group imperative. We are emerging from our gregarious condition and are now to enter on the rational way of living by scanning our relations to one another, instead of bluntly feeling them, and so adjusting them that unimpeded progress on this higher plane is secured.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00389", "bookId": 73755, "start": 158702, "end": 160133, "sha256": "6c52e32685d6ed8961665c6f7a2ccc26b1035bcb7538c853bda26257133e2b63", "text": "And now that association is increasing so rapidly on every hand, it is necessary that we see to it that this shall be group association, not crowd association. In the business world our large enterprises are governed by boards, not by one man: one group (corporation) deals with another group (corporation). Hospitals, libraries, colleges, are governed by boards, trustees, faculties. We have committees of arbitration, boards of partial management (labor agreements) composed of representatives of employers and employed. Many forms of coöperation are being tried: some one must analyze the psychological process of the generation of coöperative activity. All this means a study of group psychology. In the political world there is a growing tendency to put the administrative part of government more and more into the hands of commissions. Moreover, we have not legislatures swayed by oratory and other forms of mass suggestion, but committee government. Of course legislative committees do not try to get the group idea, they are largely controlled by partisan and financial interests, but at any rate they are not governed wholly by suggestion. In the philanthropic world we no longer deal with individuals: we form a committee or association to deal with individuals or with groups of individuals. The number of associations of every kind for every purpose increases daily. Hence we must study the group.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00390", "bookId": 73755, "start": 160137, "end": 160142, "sha256": "73be087e93080f9e436892b7d182df66394bc79dbf5df119d9357df61b1ebbfb", "text": "-----", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00391", "bookId": 73755, "start": 160146, "end": 160158, "sha256": "3de82d43a881ff60c8550d4d54a5682a7a5ddbb02d59d261786bce71b9d123f2", "text": "Footnote 29:", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00392", "bookId": 73755, "start": 160164, "end": 160534, "sha256": "020e3a195d267430b86d1c5784c3c767d684675d598bbad7b78d1426a1512ac9", "text": "A good example of the crowd fallacy is the syndicalist theory that the vote should be taken in a meeting of strikers not by ballot but by acclamation or show of hands. The idea is that in an open meeting enthusiasm passes from one to another and that, therefore, you can thus get the collective will which you could not get by every man voting one by one.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00393", "bookId": 73755, "start": 160538, "end": 160610, "sha256": "5be59d365acb8d35446f682c6d314fffd5db5846ab8c6eb021e6bacd98a82aa0", "text": "------------------------------------------------------------------------", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00394", "bookId": 73755, "start": 160654, "end": 160658, "sha256": "1665cfc1eab3813746e0bd3af7c03d8f69978ba7cf3da5302850d6528496343c", "text": "XIII", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00395", "bookId": 73755, "start": 160687, "end": 160709, "sha256": "a5067607d409253e4b1f2e1d33cd3ca6c1be4b54dffa57b95ddb77a718d7249f", "text": "THE SECRET OF PROGRESS", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00396", "bookId": 73755, "start": 160742, "end": 160756, "sha256": "cb963f8b7dd4be2e8d413c437052b98afad284e3de40cd420bdd246302a111ad", "text": "--------------", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00397", "bookId": 73755, "start": 160762, "end": 161159, "sha256": "fe73ab4c5b5e6e69906829210e8709853a658fd413bad79cd9dfbf6a226805ec", "text": "I HAVE said that the essence of the social process is the creating of ever new values through the interplay of all the forces of life. But I have also tried to show that these forces must be organized; from confusion nothing is born. The spiritual order grows up within us as fast as we make new correlations. Chaos, disorder, destruction, come everywhere from refusing the syntheses of life.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00398", "bookId": 73755, "start": 161163, "end": 161426, "sha256": "0f796e4bef45a434b479119deb4cda98ed5e356897474c15db12ab79d30006e7", "text": "The task of coadaptation is unending, whether it means getting on with a difficult member of my family, playing the game at school or college, doing my part in my business, my city, or whether it means Germany and the Allies living together on the same planet.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00399", "bookId": 73755, "start": 161430, "end": 161870, "sha256": "873cae1c2fce3be3cacfa4c639281b57479223df19a084f9a7c5701baaf5777d", "text": "Nietzsche thought that the man who showed the most force was the most virtuous. Now we say that all this brute energy is merely the given, that the life-process is the unifying of the given—he who shows the unifying power in greatest degree is the superman. Progress is not determined then by economic conditions, by physical conditions nor by biological factors solely, but more especially by our capacity for genuine coöperation.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00400", "bookId": 73755, "start": 161874, "end": 162150, "sha256": "1a3fe61e7d04ff71768a0ba7c7428347f5bd83a0a3cf38e3c7f67d314e3316ca", "text": "This idea of progress clear-cuts some long-established notions. We see now the truth and the fallacy in the assertions (1) that social evolution depends upon individual progress with imitation by the crowd, (2) that evolution means struggle and the survival of the fittest.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00401", "bookId": 73755, "start": 162154, "end": 162396, "sha256": "622c1bc194b3930973dd786f64f8905e2fec168327313b38676d86f5ad9e44c0", "text": "For some years the generally accepted theory of the social process was that the individual invents, society spreads. We have already examined one half of this theory; let us look at the other half—the idea that the individual originates.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00402", "bookId": 73755, "start": 162400, "end": 163831, "sha256": "56b24a702e51fe9d2e7bb37a8d8df77000db3ced9cfb2c229f0304780272be93", "text": "If a man comes forward with an idea, what do we mean by saying that he is more “original” than his fellows? So far as the quality of originality can be described, do we not mean that his capacity for saturation is greater, his connection with the psychic reservoir more direct, so that some group finds in him its most complete interpreter? Or even if it is quite evident that in a particular instance a particular individual has not derived his idea from the group of which he is at the moment a member, but has brought it to the group, none of us believes that that idea arose spontaneously in his mind independent of all previous association. This individual has belonged to many other groups, has discussed with many men, or even if he has lived his life apart he has read newspapers and magazines, books and letters, and has mingled his ideas with those he has found there. Thus the “individual” idea he brings to a group is not really an “individual” idea; it is the result of the process of interpenetration, but by bringing it to a new group and soaking it in that the interpenetration becomes more complex. The group idea he takes away is now his individual idea so far as any new group is concerned, and in fact it becomes an active agent in his progress and the progress of society only by meeting a new group. Our life is more and more stagnant in proportion as we refuse the group life.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00403", "bookId": 73755, "start": 163835, "end": 164040, "sha256": "aa0b66f4c4b790822312d1c1e9d05f433d5ce755a251ee17f96ad71e2c7046d1", "text": "According to the old theory, the individual proposes, society accepts or rejects; the individual is forever walking up to society to be embraced or rejected—it sounds like some game but is hardly life.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00404", "bookId": 73755, "start": 164044, "end": 164924, "sha256": "06cae63c900397cfa4923f74dad2dac8a1ccc60d05c4917eee9dd0faeab0b90a", "text": "There is an interesting theory current which is the direct outcome of the fallacy that the individual originates and society imitates, namely, the great man theory. While it seems absurd in this age to be combating the idea of special creation, yet it is something very like this that one comes up against sometimes in the discussion of this theory. The question is often asked, “Does the great man produce his environment or is he the product of his environment?” Although for my purpose I may seem to emphasize the other side of things, not for a moment do I wish to belittle the inestimable value of genius. But the fact of course is that great men make their environment and are made by their environment. There wells up in the individual a fountain of power, but this fountain has risen underground and is richly fed by all the streams of the common life.[30]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00405", "bookId": 73755, "start": 164928, "end": 166028, "sha256": "d210d362b403d26951d0e32c71f906506e74485e65c0dfb7300f69eecfc804e8", "text": "I have spoken of fallacies in the individual invention theory and in the struggle theory. But I am using the word struggle as synonymous with strife, opposition, war; effort, striving, the ceaseless labor of adjustment will always be ours, but these two ideas represent opposite poles of existence. In the true theory of evolution struggle has indeed always been adaptation. For many years the “strongest” man has been to science the being with the greatest number of points of union, the “fittest” has been the one with the greatest power of coöperation. Darwin we all know believed that the cause of the advance of civilization was in the social habits of man. Our latest biologists tell us that “mutual aid” has from the first been a strong factor in evolution, that the animal species in which the practice of “mutual aid”[31] has attained the greatest development are invariably the most numerous and the most prosperous. We no longer think of the animal world as necessarily a world of strife; in many of its forms we find not strife but coördinated activities.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00406", "bookId": 73755, "start": 166032, "end": 166724, "sha256": "e1478fe384b5dd81d6416012f40c1f613be9858c7f447b9dfb3b8bbac10e60e7", "text": "But to too many people struggle suggests conquest and domination; it implies necessarily victors and vanquished. Some sociologists call the dissimilar elements of a group the struggle elements, and the similar elements the unifying elements. But this is a false distinction which will, as long as persisted in, continue the war between classes and between nations. The test of our progress is neither our likenesses nor our unlikenesses, but what we are going to do with our unlikenesses. Shall I fight whatever is different from me or find the higher synthesis? The progress of society is measured by its power to unite into a living, generating whole its self-yielding differences.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00407", "bookId": 73755, "start": 166728, "end": 167279, "sha256": "9980ea5dc89e48f10afaa0b6a71384b3141e4c93e9d7967859dd9b2d8ab5ad3e", "text": "Moreover, we think now of the survival of groups rather than of individuals. For the survival of the group the stronger members must not crush the weaker but cherish them, because the spiritual and social strength which will come from the latter course makes a stronger group than the mere brute strength of a number of “strong” individuals. That is, the strength of the group does not depend on the greatest number of strong men, but on the strength of the bond between them, that is, on the amount of solidarity, on the best organization.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00408", "bookId": 73755, "start": 167283, "end": 167904, "sha256": "b58436a39edde1c9a64f8cc7dd541b1ceacbbc0c425da89b5e598fcd1407425e", "text": "But it might be said, “You still evidently believe in struggle, only you make the group instead of the individual the unit.” No, the progress of man must consist in extending the group, in belonging to many groups, in the relation of these groups. If we accept life as endless battle, then we shall always have the strong overcoming the weak, either strong individuals conquering the weak, or a strong group a weak group, or a strong nation a weak nation. But synthesis is the principle of life, the method of social progress. Men have developed not through struggle but through learning how to live together.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00409", "bookId": 73755, "start": 167908, "end": 168977, "sha256": "4d4c85dee932db435f2bd9552d512479042b58d406ed2082c3802bf82af1708a", "text": "Lately the struggle theory has been transferred from the physical to the intellectual world. Many writers who see society as a continuous conflict think its highest form is discussion. One of these says, “Not for a moment would I deny that fighting is better carried on by the pen than by the sword, but some sort of fighting will be necessary to the end of the world.” No, as long as we think of discussion as a struggle, as an opportunity for “argument,” there will be all the usual evil consequences of the struggle theory. But all this is superficial. If struggle is unavailing, it is unavailing all along the line. It is not intellectual struggle that marks the line of progress, but any signs of finding another method than struggle. Two neighbors quarrelling in words are little more developed than two men fighting a duel. We must learn to think of discussion not as a struggle but as experiment in coöperation. We must learn coöperative thinking, intellectual team-work. There is a secret here which is going to revolutionize the world.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00410", "bookId": 73755, "start": 168981, "end": 169428, "sha256": "d774437ab555be92ffa1e5609b145678462dd0edc25249f749ab0670e82a59d8", "text": "Perhaps the most profound reason against struggle is that it always erects a thing-in-itself. If I “fight” Mr. X, that means that I think of Mr. X as incapable of change—that either he or I must prevail, must conquer. When I realize fully that there are no things-in-themselves, struggle simply fades away; then I know that Mr. X and I are two flowing streams of activity which must meet for larger ends than either could pursue alone.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00411", "bookId": 73755, "start": 169432, "end": 169685, "sha256": "1797cedec0f6967485de2c3febb57a45b760f41d408fc83fc5d718285fe90b47", "text": "Is Germany the last stronghold of the old theory of evolution, is she the last being in a modern world to assert herself as a thing-in-itself? President Wilson’s contribution to this war is that he refuses to look upon Germany as a thing-in-itself.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00412", "bookId": 73755, "start": 169689, "end": 171182, "sha256": "d2ec98b34b3fbbebf2bf980bf066624d64e39ab4ea974086fea7d2465b5c5c9b", "text": "The idea of adaptation to environment has been so closely connected with the “struggle for existence” theory that some people do not seem to realize that in giving up the latter, the former still has force, although with a somewhat different connotation. We now feel not only that adaptation to environment is compatible with coöperation, but that coöperation is the basis of adaptation to environment. But our true environment is psychic, and as science teaches adaptation to the physical, so group psychology will teach the secret of membership in the psychic environment, will teach the branch to know its vine, where its own inner sources of life are revealed to it. Then we shall understand that environment is not a hard and rigid something external to us, always working upon us, whose influence we cannot escape. Not only have self and environment acted and reacted upon each other, but the action and reaction go on every moment; both self and environment are always in the making. The individual who has been affected by his environment acts on an environment which has been affected by individuals. We shall need an understanding of this for all our constructive work: it is not that formative influences work on a dead mass of inertia, but formative influences work on an environment which has already responded to initiatives, and these initiatives have been affected by the responses. We cannot be practical politicians without fully understanding this.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00413", "bookId": 73755, "start": 171186, "end": 172142, "sha256": "656f3f4ccb5b917f913a0d98f34daa3172375299dc84e2e71ba43386316ff774", "text": "Progress then must be through the group process. Progress implies respect for the creative process not the created thing; the created thing is forever and forever being left behind us. The greatest blow to a hide-bound conservatism would be the understanding that life is creative at every moment. What the hard-shelled conservative always forgets is that what he really admires in the past is those very moments when men have strongly and rudely broken with tradition, burst bonds, and created something. True conservatism and true progressivism are not two opposites: conservatives dislike “change,” yet they as well as progressives want to grow; progressives dislike to “stand pat,” yet they as well as conservatives want to preserve what is good in the present. But conservatives often make the mistake of thinking they can go on living on their spiritual capital; progressives are often too prone not to fund their capital at all.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00414", "bookId": 73755, "start": 172146, "end": 172964, "sha256": "404e0e35ec1d17c96bb3f936d12037e3c721635236d0daed456ece0d39c40438", "text": "What we must get away from is “the hell of rigid things.” There is a living life of the people. And it must flow directly through our government and our institutions, expressing itself anew at every moment. We are not fossils petrified in our social strata. _We are alive._ This is the first lesson for us to learn. That very word means change and change, growth and growth. To live gloriously is to change undauntedly—our ideals must evolve from day to day, and it is upon those who can fearlessly embrace the doctrine of “becoming” that the life of the future waits. All is growing; we must recognize this and free the way for the growth. We must unclose our spiritual sources, we must allow no mechanism to come between our spiritual sources and our life. The _élan vital_ must have free play.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00415", "bookId": 73755, "start": 172968, "end": 173335, "sha256": "1921bb339535bda84ae41127b74f3ec9518aba41c30e17e8c6ca024d7be86eb3", "text": "Democracy must be conceived as a process, not a goal. We do not want rigid institutions, however good. We need no “body of truth” of any kind, but the will to will, which means the power to make our own government, our own institutions, our own expanding truth. _We progress, not from one institution to another, but from a lesser to a greater will to will._", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00416", "bookId": 73755, "start": 173339, "end": 173849, "sha256": "df5696c7c414c8534f30452e160f679f47b660bf491e8db2074b642e267e92dd", "text": "We know now that there are no immutable goals—there is only a way, a process, by which we shall, like gods, create our own ends at any moment—crystallize just enough to be of use and then flow on again. The flow of life and we the flow: this is the truth. Life is not a matter of desirable objects here and there; the stream flows on and he who waits with his object is left with a corpse. Man is equal to life at every moment, but he must live for _life_ and not for the _things_ life has produced.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00417", "bookId": 73755, "start": 173853, "end": 174193, "sha256": "a362f0374a65057fb3c170a56eb244bbbbb2004e60f0ca71d9f68a486e0c3637", "text": "Yet while it is true that life can never be formalized or formulated, that life is movement, change, onwardness, this does not mean that we must give up the abiding. The unchangeable and the unchanging are both included in the idea of growth.[32] Stability is neither rigidity nor sterility: it is the perpetual power of bringing forth.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00418", "bookId": 73755, "start": 174197, "end": 174623, "sha256": "00e434ca34ac0e9894af3fdb4a4dd8e028ebe5a28f46c0ed2d2f4b4adfb74f41", "text": "Writers are always fixing dates for the dividing line between the ancient and the modern world, or between the mediæval and the modern world. Soon the beginning of modern times, of modern thought, will, I believe, be dated at the moment when men began to look at a plastic world, at a life constantly changing, at institutions as only temporary crystallizations of life forces, of right as evolving, of men as becoming.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00419", "bookId": 73755, "start": 174627, "end": 175144, "sha256": "77d3b6202120e4162ce491d91606f15a482a9f16e879577887e3d15c89cf998b", "text": "The real work of every man is then to build. The challenge is upon us. This is the task to which all valiant souls must set themselves. We are to rise from one mastery to another. We are to be no longer satisfied with the pace of a merely fortuitous progress. We must know now that we are coworkers with every process of creation, that our function is as important as the power which keeps the stars in their orbits. We are creators here and now. We are not in the anteroom of our real life. This is real life.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00420", "bookId": 73755, "start": 175148, "end": 175823, "sha256": "041b2b32f7963fb86a4f14c04b47a471cedbf1e754fa3a38d05a045ed7a14f7c", "text": "We cannot, however, mould our lives each by himself; but within every individual is the power of joining himself fundamentally and vitally to other lives, and out of this vital union comes the creative power. Revelation, if we want it to be continuous, must be through the community bond. No _individual_ can change the disorder and iniquity of this world. No chaotic _mass_ of men and women can do it. Conscious _group_ creation is to be the social and political force of the future. Our aim must be to live consciously in more and more group relations and to make each group a means of creating. It is the group which will teach us that we are not puppets of fate.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00421", "bookId": 73755, "start": 175827, "end": 176834, "sha256": "504583a0aad2e062fd7f739b03186cc5582807f0c7e911efc79aae9713ac179b", "text": "Then will men and women spend their time in trivial or evil ways when they discover that they can make a world to their liking? We are sometimes told that young men and women working all day under the present very trying industrial conditions live in our great cities a round of gaiety at night. Go and look at them. It is a depressing sight. A tragedy is a tragedy and has its own nobility, but this farce of a city population enjoying itself at night is a pitiful spectacle. Go to clubs, go to dances, go to theatres or moving-pictures, and the mass of our young people look indifferent and more or less bored—they have _not_ found the joy of life. Play, as useless idling, does not give us joy. Work, as drudgery, does not give us joy. Only creating gives us joy. When we see that we are absolute masters of our life, that in every operation, however humble, we are working out the fundamental laws of being, then we shall walk to our daily work as the soldiers march to the Marseillaise.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00422", "bookId": 73755, "start": 176838, "end": 177673, "sha256": "305a575f5b245fcb8c061c5aed205091cb20b04002fe853ab322d5c00b5c16e5", "text": "We know what happened on that lonely island in a distant sea when the young Prince came to the people of the Kingdom of Cards, who had always lived by Rules, and taught them to live by their Ichcha, their will. Images became men and women, rules gave place to wills, the caste of the Court cards was lost, a mechanism changed into life. The inhabitants of the Kingdom of Cards, who had never thought, who had never made a decision, learned the royal power of choosing for themselves. Regulations were abandoned, and the startling discovery was made that _they could walk in any direction they chose_. This is what we need to learn—that we can walk in any direction we choose. We are not a pack of cards to be put here and there, to go always in rows, to totter and fall when we are not propped up. We must obey our Ichcha.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00423", "bookId": 73755, "start": 177677, "end": 178477, "sha256": "92017241db7dd06fe3bb077574fcc7d4dd820f6efacb2eb8d616427a31fbb552", "text": "Already the change has begun. I have said that we are beginning to recognize this power—there are many indications that we are beginning to live this power. We are no longer willing to leave human affairs to “natural” control: we do not want war because it is “natural” to fight; we do not want a haphazard population at the dictates of “nature.” We no longer believe that sickness and poverty are sent by God; people are being taught that they need not be sick, that it is largely in their own hands, their own collective hands (social hygiene etc.). Modern charity is not aimed at relieving individual poverty, but at freeing the individual from the particular enslavement which has produced his poverty, in freeing society from the causes which produce poverty at all.[33]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00424", "bookId": 73755, "start": 178481, "end": 179770, "sha256": "3e46539ee741dc1b803bfd545eed4d1a84796552834cc60640ac36ada68d229d", "text": "Our once-honored blind forces are more and more losing their mastery over us. We are at this moment, however, in a difficult transition period. We are “freer” than ever before; the trouble is we do not know what to do with this freedom. It is easy to live the moral, the “social,” life when it consists in following a path carefully marked out for us, but the task given us to-day is to revalue all the world values, to steer straight on and on into the unknown—a gallant forth-faring indeed. But conscious evolution, the endless process of a perfect coördinating, demands vital people. War is the easy way: we take to war because we have not enough vitality for the far more difficult job of agreeing. So also that kind of religion which consists of contemplation of other-worldliness is the easy way, and we take to that when we have not enough vitality deliberately to direct our life and construct our world. It takes more spiritual energy to express the group spirit than the particularist spirit. This is its glory as well as its difficulty. We have to be higher order of beings to do it—we become higher order of beings by doing it. And so the progress goes on forever: it means life forever in the making, and the creative responsibility of every man.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00425", "bookId": 73755, "start": 179774, "end": 180708, "sha256": "8722024ee65da1c17680c84ea5dac57fa12d7e5ba9b7c5df613ee9be36390cde", "text": "Conscious evolution is the key to that larger view of democracy which we are embracing to-day. The key? Every man sharing in the creative process _is_ democracy; this is our politics and our religion. People are always inquiring into their relation to God. God is the moving force of the world, the ever-continuing creating where men are the co-creators. “_Chaque homme fait dieu, un peu, avec sa vie_,” as one of the most illumined of the younger French poets says.[34] Man and God are correlates of that mighty movement which is Humanity self-creating. God is the perpetual Call to our self-fulfilling. We, by sharing in the life-process which binds all together in an active, working unity are all the time sharing in the making of the Universe. This thought calls forth everything heroic that is in us; every power of which we are capable must be gathered to this glorious destiny. This is the True Democracy.[35]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00426", "bookId": 73755, "start": 180712, "end": 180717, "sha256": "73be087e93080f9e436892b7d182df66394bc79dbf5df119d9357df61b1ebbfb", "text": "-----", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00427", "bookId": 73755, "start": 180721, "end": 180733, "sha256": "7324dc2bcf892e2c177388a0375dae72d99a7fba8fc397b71553329e0fc5769b", "text": "Footnote 30:", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00428", "bookId": 73755, "start": 180739, "end": 180822, "sha256": "15c4fa4f4fca101ed8f71f12474b0622c853a848ebf12a09b5f7e0ef28dfe980", "text": "It is unfortunate to be obliged to treat this important point with such brevity.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00429", "bookId": 73755, "start": 180826, "end": 180838, "sha256": "2370c9a2ec9902011ccaa0d53883b7f5e27466e8dadb7f45c6d8203bc05bc799", "text": "Footnote 31:", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00430", "bookId": 73755, "start": 180844, "end": 181186, "sha256": "0761c572bb20a3d5b070073820fc4ad6fe7ddd9d66c7c1c4e44ba29c97bcb00d", "text": "The expressions “mutual aid” and “animal coöperation” have, however, a slightly misleading connotation; mutual adaptation, coördinated activities, come nearer the truth. It is confusing to take the words and phrases we use of men in the conscious stage and transfer them to the world of animals in the unconscious stage.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00431", "bookId": 73755, "start": 181190, "end": 181202, "sha256": "8ea041d4456ab050c80221fd9ea0104e9ed9f0722b79ba2a6f0eae0d80dedf19", "text": "Footnote 32:", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00432", "bookId": 73755, "start": 181208, "end": 181289, "sha256": "135588ed9c4c3e518783ee1b0d1d65733d760d20e3e0fd4de47560387ba04f52", "text": "It is because of this profound truth that we must always respect conservatism.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00433", "bookId": 73755, "start": 181293, "end": 181305, "sha256": "58288c1fe6df803d5ad3609327a542ab45da6457bb74eacbf381cec3ee9ee040", "text": "Footnote 33:", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00434", "bookId": 73755, "start": 181311, "end": 181451, "sha256": "78960c033ee6154c005de7cd69670873d37c7fd025e3112d531d4a28bfe3f65f", "text": "The claim of the individual to a larger share in government and to a share in the control of industry will be taken up in later chapters.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00435", "bookId": 73755, "start": 181455, "end": 181467, "sha256": "f8dfae8c7b3e98c707a19aa95914cb4a7cc29ce1536373099f495069dc2d5847", "text": "Footnote 34:", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00436", "bookId": 73755, "start": 181473, "end": 181707, "sha256": "19830ed53a4a6b170d95ae32714fb5cf784bde6ec5d6391657a21222576a20b4", "text": "“Ce que Nait” is the title of a volume of poems by Arcos, and that which is being born through all the activity of our common life is God. It is of the “naissance” and “croissance” of God that Arcos loves to sing.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00437", "bookId": 73755, "start": 181711, "end": 181723, "sha256": "c4d320573bf6a1c10fc42a8b6387a309159a104b4f356eb178caafa185a5222d", "text": "Footnote 35:", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00438", "bookId": 73755, "start": 181729, "end": 182019, "sha256": "9f07430a5f818538084a3b3cbbbb4155ff7fbeae047361a92a2a9b166533693b", "text": "I have said that we gain creative power through the group. Those who feel enthralled by material conditions, and to whom it seems an irony to be told that they are “creators,” will demand something more specific. Concrete methods of group organization are given in Part III.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00439", "bookId": 73755, "start": 182023, "end": 182095, "sha256": "5be59d365acb8d35446f682c6d314fffd5db5846ab8c6eb021e6bacd98a82aa0", "text": "------------------------------------------------------------------------", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00440", "bookId": 73755, "start": 182139, "end": 182142, "sha256": "4b2c561c6b0bc18c8acb8f47266efe27090b040bd582bd6e91b9fc8c536c8fdf", "text": "XIV", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00441", "bookId": 73755, "start": 182168, "end": 182195, "sha256": "de77bd030e375dca044561ec765f95f6be7e2345a0431decfb6476ad85c2f0e7", "text": "THE GROUP PRINCIPLE AT WORK", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00442", "bookId": 73755, "start": 182228, "end": 182242, "sha256": "cb963f8b7dd4be2e8d413c437052b98afad284e3de40cd420bdd246302a111ad", "text": "--------------", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00443", "bookId": 73755, "start": 182248, "end": 182597, "sha256": "6de223285cc694d83a71b549d12ad2e6145f09702396f5b5c719ef58663f6608", "text": "OUR rate of progress, then, and the degree in which we actualize the perfect democracy, depend upon our understanding that man has the power of creating, and that he gets this power through his capacity to join with others to form a real whole, a living group. Let us see, therefore, what signs are visible to-day of the group principle at work.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00444", "bookId": 73755, "start": 182601, "end": 183307, "sha256": "e1cb2dc8e1a98bcf9ee928abbd2b811d1e3a6be5ba65fddbf6773c8cbef2a646", "text": "First, our whole idea of education is rapidly changing. The chief aim of education now is to fit the child into the life of the community; we do not think of his “individual” development except as contributing to that. Or it would be nearer the truth to say that we recognize that his individual development is essentially just that. The method of accomplishing this is chiefly through (1) the introduction of group class-room work in the place of individual recitations, (2) the addition of vocational subjects to the curriculum and the establishment of vocational schools, and (3) the organizing of vocational guidance departments and placement bureaus in connection with the public schools.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00445", "bookId": 73755, "start": 183311, "end": 183859, "sha256": "1064b926c7f266260e8493674862284e3ff66f08898e1696139f0b4754dc7678", "text": "In many of the large cities of the United States the public schools have a vocational guidance department, and it is not considered that the schools have done their duty by the child until they have helped him to choose his life occupation, have trained him in some degree for it, and have actually found him a job, that is, fitted him into the community. It is becoming gradually accepted that this is a function of the state, and several of our states are considering the appropriation of funds for the carrying on of such departments.[36]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00446", "bookId": 73755, "start": 183863, "end": 184166, "sha256": "c4a9bccb87362024fc6100d5d4af19a1283a4ff8ce5b8002db74cdcc50d6c4af", "text": "The further idea of education as a continuous process, that it stops neither at 14 nor 21 nor 60, that a man should be related to his community not only through services rendered and benefits received but by a steady process of preparation for his social and civic life, will be discussed later.[37]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00447", "bookId": 73755, "start": 184170, "end": 184435, "sha256": "567ff78c55b57730a46b9201c4c2692028199b79d3ad5cfafe5edf340036ab53", "text": "The chief object of medical social service is to put people into harmonious and fruitful relation, not only because illness has temporarily withdrawn certain people from the community, but because it is often some lack of adaptation which has caused the illness.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00448", "bookId": 73755, "start": 184439, "end": 185487, "sha256": "f610b9559d9086ded5fed4c900e6bf3d07abb9baf21539db151c142095de3d2e", "text": "Our different immigration theories show clearly the growth of the community idea. First came the idea of amalgamation: our primary duty to all people coming to America was to assimilate them as quickly and as thoroughly as possible. Then people reacted against the melting-pot theory and said, “No, we want all the Italians have to offer, all the Syrians can give us; the richness of these different civilizations must not be engulfed in ours.” So separate colonies were advocated, separate organizations were encouraged. Many articles were written and speeches made to spread this thought. But now a third idea is emerging—the community idea. We do not want Swedes and Poles to be lost in an undifferentiated whole, but equally we do not want all the evils of the separatist method; we are trying to get an articulated whole. We want all these different peoples to be part of a true community—giving all they have to give and receiving equally. Only by a mutual permeation of ideals shall we enrich their lives and they ours.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00449", "bookId": 73755, "start": 185491, "end": 185753, "sha256": "782d604a7c336bacb6e5fe6216618de8c9215650e5b3034a1451ca425b494e3b", "text": "Again our present treatment of crime shows the community principle in two ways: (1) the idea of community responsibility for crime is spreading rapidly; (2) we are fast outgrowing the idea of punishing criminals merely, our object is to fit them into society.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00450", "bookId": 73755, "start": 185757, "end": 186663, "sha256": "218a58d9d7718e291f4f9f9dab8ae62ec788dbedf338ef48820437a22847830e", "text": "First, the growing idea of community responsibility for crime. We read in an account of the new penology that “Crime in the last analysis is not to be overcome after arrest but before,” that crime will be abolished by a change of environment and that “environment is transformed by child labor laws and the protection of children, by housing laws and improved sanitation, by the prevention of tuberculosis and other diseases, by health-giving recreational facilities, by security of employment, by insurance against the fatalities of industry and the financial burdens of death and disease, by suitable vocational training, by all that adds to the content of human life and gives us higher and keener motives to self-control, strenuous exertion and thrift.” We of course do not exonerate the individual from responsibility, but it must be shared by the whole society in which he lives.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00451", "bookId": 73755, "start": 186667, "end": 187526, "sha256": "b8a2930ccddd94c21de055b719d559b1d8dcf5de6d604cbcbced7be88aee28ee", "text": "Secondly, the old idea of justice was punishment, a relic of personal revenge; this punishment took the form of confinement, of keeping the man outside society. The new idea is exactly the opposite: it is to join him to society by finding out just what part he is best fitted to play in society and training him for it. A former Commissioner of Corrections in New York told me that a number of people, including several judges, were looking forward to the time very soon being ripe for making the “punishment” of a crime the doing some piece of social service in order to fit the criminal into the social order. One man who had shown in his crime marked organizing ability had been sent to oversee the reclaiming of some large tracts of abandoned farm land, and this had worked so well that a number of judges wished to try similar experiments.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00452", "bookId": 73755, "start": 187530, "end": 188235, "sha256": "1c97965cbd58ea07019af67fa15e69c6b0d5ea9a9628714e82316ca60b6dbdb4", "text": "Thus criminals are coming to be shown that their crime has not been against individuals but against society, that it has divorced them from their community and that the object of their imprisonment is that they may learn how to unite themselves to their community. The colony system means that they must learn to live in a community _by_ living in a community. This is the object of Mr. William George’s “Social Sanitarium,” where the men are to live in a graded series of farm villages, govern themselves, support themselves and also their families as far as possible, and pass from “village” to “village” on their way towards the society from which their crime has separated them.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00453", "bookId": 73755, "start": 188239, "end": 189168, "sha256": "3392dde744971a1bd6918f3a02ecb210e16d04dabeeb9f7e2bfd815271981b5b", "text": "This same principle, to make the life while under punishment a preparation for community life, underlay the work of Mr. Osborne at Sing Sing. Through his Mutual Welfare League he tried to develop a feeling of responsibility to the community, a feeling first of all that there was a community within the prison. All the men knew gang loyalty; it was Mr. Osborne’s aim to build upon this. He thought they could not feel responsibility to a community outside when they left unless they learnt community consciousness inside. He did not provide recreation for them solely for the sake of recreation; he did not allow them self-government because of any abstract idea of the justice of self-government; he tried to bring the men of Sing Sing to a realization of a community, to a sense of responsibility to a community. The two men who escaped from Sing Sing in 1916 and voluntarily returned had learned this lesson.[38]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00454", "bookId": 73755, "start": 189172, "end": 189548, "sha256": "ffa487c1ae7272bd5b0c12bcdaaff72fa693a785d0880b81070f37a79d355095", "text": "Both these principles—community responsibility for crime and the necessity of fitting the offender into the community life—underlie the work of the juvenile court. The probation officer’s duty is not exhausted by knitting the child again into worthy relations; he must try to see that community life shall touch children on all sides in a helpful not a harmful way.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00455", "bookId": 73755, "start": 189552, "end": 190411, "sha256": "c01ec7a314902da7b88da086754a1049ccd2951d2fe5fa978afdb00093bb874c", "text": "A future task for the juvenile court is to organize groups back of the child as part of the system of probation. All our experience is showing us the value of using the group incentive. The approval or blame of our fellow-men is an urgent factor in our lives; a man can stand any sort of condemnation better than that of his club. It was the idea of community punishment which was such an interesting part of the “Little Commonwealth” which Mr. Homer Lane established near Detroit for boys and girls on probation. If a boy did not work he was not punished for it, he did not even go without food, but the whole commonwealth had to pay for it out of their earnings. The whole moral pressure of the community was thus brought to bear upon that boy to do his share of the work—an incentive which Mr. Lane found more powerful than any punishment.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00456", "bookId": 73755, "start": 190415, "end": 190772, "sha256": "4a43991e570d033780993207654c6748c3f86615e067881bc0c2e0f4e9dccb58", "text": "A colonel of the American army says that fewer offenses are committed in our army than in the Continental armies, not because human nature is different in America but because our methods of army discipline are different: the custom in our army is to punish a company for the offense of an individual; the company, therefore, looks after its own members.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00457", "bookId": 73755, "start": 190776, "end": 191839, "sha256": "ae4d537e416a06b4ca2bd5eefcc7a0b4c31e56ca2bc481ccf64722eba57aa4c6", "text": "The procedure of our courts also shows signs of change in the direction of the recognition of the group principle. Until recently we have had in our courts two lawyers, each upholding his side: this means a real struggle, there is no effort at unifying, one or the other must win; the judge is a sort of umpire. But the Reconciliation Court of Cleveland (and some other western cities) marks a long step in advance. This does away with lawyers each arguing one side; the judge deals directly with the disputants, trying to make them see that a harmonizing of their differences is possible. In our municipal courts, to be sure, the principal function of the judge has long been not to punish but to take those measures which will place the individual again in his group, but this applies only to criminal cases, whereas the Reconciliation Court of Cleveland, following the practice of the conciliation courts of certain continental countries,[39] deals with civil cases. The part of the judge in our juvenile courts is too well known to need mention.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00458", "bookId": 73755, "start": 191843, "end": 192043, "sha256": "d76c5acfee8fb8366f00228c8a733e25d3123bc2a3e83998a76e7f37eaae09b9", "text": "In a jury I suppose we have always had an example of the group idea in practical life. Here there is no question of counting up similar ideas—there must be one idea and the effort is to seek that.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00459", "bookId": 73755, "start": 192047, "end": 192432, "sha256": "dbeaa1a78853e392493c670a25250e9cc6bb02151ab24e51e42651195afb02d5", "text": "In our legislatures and legislative committees we get little integrated thought because of their party organization; even among members of the same party on a committee there are many causes at work to prevent the genuine interplay we should have. The governors’ commissions, on the other hand, hear both sides, call in many experts and try to arrive at some composite judgment.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00460", "bookId": 73755, "start": 192436, "end": 193906, "sha256": "a7db20f5e7b1049472a94ba2d320edc913badd3034f819289ceee8dbc0e45a31", "text": "Nowhere has our social atomism been more apparent than in our lack of city-planning: (1) we have had many beautiful single buildings, but no plan for the whole city; (2) and more important, we could not get any general plan for our cities accepted because the individual property owner (this was called individualism!) must be protected against the community. City-planning includes not only plans for a beautiful city but for all its daily needs—streets, traffic regulations, housing, schools, industry, transportation, recreational facilities; we cannot secure these things while property owners are being protected in their “rights.” The angry protest which goes up from real estate owners when it is proposed to regulate the height of buildings we have heard in all our cities. The struggle for enough light and air in tenements has been fought step by step. The “right” claimed was the right of every man to do what he liked with his own property. Now we are beginning to recognize the error of this, and to see that it is not a state of individualism but of anarchy that our new building laws are trying to do away with. No real estate owner is to be allowed to do that with his own property which will not fit into a general plan for the beauty and efficiency of the city. The key-note of the new city-planning is adaptation, adaptation of means to end and of part to part. This does not stifle individual initiative, but directs it.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00461", "bookId": 73755, "start": 193910, "end": 194857, "sha256": "ee2af02c7cfa36cacba70304c81c67f63700455af228080ef5fcc618c9b6417d", "text": "And the interesting point for us here is that the real estate men themselves are now beginning to see that particularistic building has actually hurt real estate interests. The “Report of the Advisory Council of the Real Estate Interests of New York City” admits that “light, air and access, the chief factors in fixing rentable values, had been impaired by high buildings and by the proximity of inappropriate or nuisance buildings and uses.” It is impossible to talk ten minutes with real estate men to-day without noticing how entirely changed their attitude has been in the last ten or twenty years. Moralists used to tell us that the only path of progress was to make people willing to give up their own interests for the sake of others. But this is not what our real estate men are doing. They are coming to see that their interests are in the long run coincident with the interests of all the other members of the city.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00462", "bookId": 73755, "start": 194861, "end": 197243, "sha256": "006ec00c1af65e9b8632b32d117a446ead10dfa5e049187794dd2bcf30f2c47e", "text": "The growing recognition of the group principle in the business world is particularly interesting to us. The present development of business methods shows us that the old argument about coöperation and competition is not fruitful. Coöperation and competition are being taken up into a larger synthesis. We are just entering on an era of collective living. “Cut-throat” competition is beginning to go out of fashion. What the world needs to-day is a coöperative mind. The business world is never again to be directed by individual intelligences, but by intelligences interacting and ceaselessly influencing one another. Every mental act of the big business man is entirely different from the mental acts of the man of the last century managing his own competitive business. There is of course competition between our large firms, but the coöperation between them is coming to occupy a larger and larger place relatively. We see this in the arrangement between most of our large printers in Boston not to outbid one another, in those trades which join to establish apprentice schools, in the coöperative credit system, worked out so carefully in some of the western cities as almost to eliminate bad debts, in the regular conferences between the business managers of the large department stores, in our new Employment Managers’ associations in Boston and elsewhere, in the whole spirit of our progressive Chambers of Commerce. When our large stores “compete” to give the highest class goods and best quality service, and meet in conference to make this “competition” effective, then competition itself becomes a kind of coöperation! There are now between thirty and forty associations in this country organized on the open-price plan. The Leather Belting Exchange, an excellent example of “coöperative competition,” was organized in 1915. Some of its avowed objects are: standardization of grades of leather, promotion of use of leather belting by scientific investigation of its possible uses, uniform contract system, uniform system of cost accounting, daily charts of sales, monthly statistical reports, collection and distribution of information relative to cost of raw material and to methods and cost of manufacturing and distribution.[40] How vastly different a spirit from that which used to animate the business world!", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00463", "bookId": 73755, "start": 197247, "end": 198214, "sha256": "e1a37b9b9c8e900d7547b4f38482d134b4517289dac64ad898e13e76d17348b1", "text": "Modern business, therefore, needs above all men who can unite, not merely men who can unite without friction, but who can turn their union to account. The successful business man of to-day is the man of trained coöperative intelligence. The world as well as the psychologist places a higher value on the man who can take part in collective thinking and concerted action, and has higher positions to offer him in the business and political field. The secretary of a Commission investigates a subject, is clever in mastering details, in drawing conclusions and in presenting them, perhaps far cleverer in these respects than any member of the Commission. But the chairman of the Commission must have another and higher power—the power of uniting these conclusions with the conclusions of others, the power of using this material to evolve with others plans for action. This means a more developed individual and brings a higher price in the open market.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00464", "bookId": 73755, "start": 198218, "end": 198448, "sha256": "d81637dd7b9efe2c4a819f7ed7fa16f6645aa63ea73166ff978a4df2af40b743", "text": "Another illustration of the group principle in the business world is that a corporation is obliged by law to act in joint meeting, that is, it cannot get the vote of its members by letter and then act according to the majority.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00465", "bookId": 73755, "start": 198452, "end": 198938, "sha256": "9a973cc78c9847d28e0bc4bf5a48005083b8111ed860b7ba790d03fb93702ad2", "text": "But more important than any of the illustrations yet given is the application of the group principle to the relations of capital and labor. People are at last beginning to see that industrial organization must be based on the community idea. If we do not want to be dominated by the special interests of the capital-power, it is equally evident that we do not want to be dominated by the special interests of the labor-power. The interests of capital and labor must be united.[41]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00466", "bookId": 73755, "start": 198942, "end": 200092, "sha256": "759c279e3b94eb8bd4802cdab66a87d997c480324f6a77f3e795db0b88041d0a", "text": "Even collective bargaining is only a milestone on the way to the full application of the group principle. It recognizes the union, it recognizes that some adjustment between the interests of capital and labor is possible, but it is still “bargaining,” still an adjustment between two warring bodies, it still rests on the two pillars of concession and compromise. We see now the false psychology underlying compromise and concession. Their practical futility has long been evident: whenever any difference is “settled” by concession, that difference pops up again in some other form. Nothing will ever truly settle differences but synthesis. No wonder the syndicalists label the “compromises” made between “antagonistic interests” as insincere. In a way all compromise is insincere, and real harmony can be obtained only by an integration of “antagonistic” interests which can take place only when we understand the method. The error of the syndicalists is in thinking that compromise is the only method; their fundamental error is in thinking that different interests are necessarily “antagonistic” interests.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00467", "bookId": 73755, "start": 200096, "end": 200928, "sha256": "de65c410ad522e75e7bdfaf41d5c9407f422f4fd0a2b27759130f59301dc224d", "text": "Compromise is accepted not only as inevitable and as entirely proper, but as the most significant fact of human association, by those economists who belong to that school of “group sociologists” which sees present society as made up of warring groups, ideal society as made up of groups in equilibrium. Not only, I believe, is conflict and compromise not the true social process, but also it is not, even at present, the most significant, although usually the largest, part of the social process. The integrating of ideas which comes partly from direct interpenetration, and partly from that indirect interpenetration which is the consequence of the overlapping membership of groups, I see going on very largely in the groups to which I belong, and is surely an interesting sign-post to future methods of association.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00468", "bookId": 73755, "start": 200932, "end": 201407, "sha256": "05baeab6c61807d2c68795a90d57d58158af849cc9a3521a75f3d0636452ef17", "text": "The weakness of Arbitration and Conciliation Boards, with their “impartial” member, is that they tend to mere compromise even when they are not openly negotiations between two warring parties.[42] It is probable from what we see on all sides that the more “concessions” we make, the less “peace” we shall get. Compulsory Arbitration in New Zealand has not succeeded as well as was hoped just because it has not found the community between capital and labor.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00469", "bookId": 73755, "start": 201411, "end": 202052, "sha256": "0c920aec3baf6790914d8410b102444d1f400096ca9bc2768ad9261e7f0874cb", "text": "The latest development of collective bargaining, the Trade Agreement,[43] with more or less permanent boards of representatives from employers and workers, brings us nearer true community than we have yet found in industrial relations. The history of these Agreements in England and America is fruitful study. One of the best known in America is Mr. Justice Brandeis’ protocol scheme in 1910 for the garment industries of New York, which provided for an industrial court composed of employers and employed to which all disagreements should be brought, and for six years this prevented strikes in the needle trades of New York.[44]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00470", "bookId": 73755, "start": 202056, "end": 202970, "sha256": "2d4588c573297625bcb67f32557a29bfe3ba8c75edcf185fbde157959d828ce4", "text": "One of the most interesting of the Trade Agreements to be found in the Bulletins of the National Labor Department, and one which can be studied over a long term of years, is that between the Stove Founders’ National Defence Association (employers) and the Iron Moulders’ Union of North America. It is not only that the permanent organ of “conference” (employers and employees represented) has brought peace to the stove industry after forty years of disastrous strikes and lockouts, but that question after question has been decided not by the side which the market rendered strongest at the moment seizing its advantage, but by a real harmonizing of interest. A good illustration is the treatment of the question of who should pay for the bad castings: that was not decided at once as a matter of superior strength or of compromise, but after many months a basis of mutual advantage was found.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00471", "bookId": 73755, "start": 202974, "end": 203630, "sha256": "94b539d63d3b2e8dd43e0191eb08b84cc0ee2abf3a8025214b245a97cf6ca3fd", "text": "For some years Trade Agreements have been coming to include more and more points; not wages and hours alone, but many questions of shop management, discipline etc. are now included. Moreover it has been seen over and over again that the knowledge gained through joint conference is the knowledge needed for joint control: the workmen ought to know the cost of production and of transportation, the relative value of different processes of production, the state of the market, the conditions governing the production and marketing of the competing product etc.; the employer must know the real conditions of labor and the laborer’s point of view.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00472", "bookId": 73755, "start": 203634, "end": 204925, "sha256": "7a7eebf49d7d0276c6e6670f7e6be1a2a0dd7dd8f19f296714af960ad1518e69", "text": "The fundamental weakness of collective bargaining is that while it provides machinery for adjustment of grievances, while it looks forward to all the conceivable emergencies which may arise to cause disagreement between labor and capital, and seeks methods to meet these, it does not give labor a direct share in industrial control. In the collective _bargain wages_ and the conditions of employment are usually determined by the relative _bargaining_ strength of the workers and employers of the industrial group. Not bargaining in any form, not negotiation, is the key to industrial peace and prosperity; the collective contract must in time go the way of the individual contract. Community is the key-word for all relations of the new state. Labor unions have long been seeking their “rights,” have looked on the differences between capital and labor as a fight, and have sought an advantageous position from which to carry on the fight: this attitude has influenced their whole internal organization. They quite as much as capital must recognize that this attitude must be given up. If we want harmony between labor and capital, we must make labor and capital into one group: we must have an integration of interests and motives, of standards and ideals of justice.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00473", "bookId": 73755, "start": 204929, "end": 205541, "sha256": "85885f672874e45adbde4fd21c4d5ce71f758a353e53292f99e3f23077517487", "text": "It is a mistake to think that social progress is to depend upon anything happening to the working people: some say that they are to be given more material goods and all will be well; some think they are to be given more “education” and the world will be saved. It is equally a mistake to think that what we need is the conversion to “unselfishness” of the capitalist class. Those who advocate profit-sharing are not helping us. The quarrel between capital and labor can never be settled on material grounds. The crux of that quarrel is not profits and wages—it is the joint control of industry.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00474", "bookId": 73755, "start": 205545, "end": 206690, "sha256": "149c64a75734ee1f0dfc7828d86b8c85d9088b8428ba6a125544b16c13baa063", "text": "There has been an increasing tendency of recent years for employers to take their employees into their councils. This ranges from mere “advisory” boards, which are consulted chiefly concerning grievances, through the joint committees for safety, health, standardization, wages etc., to real share in the management.[45] But even in the lowest form of this new kind of coöperation we may notice two points: the advisory boards are usually representative bodies elected by the employees, and they are consulted as a whole, not individually. The flaw in these advisory boards is not so much, as is often thought, because the management still keeps all the power in its own hands, as that the company officials do not sit with these boards in joint consultation. There is, however, much variety of method. In some shops advisory committees meet with the company officials. Some companies put many more important questions concerning conditions of employment before these bodies than other companies would think practical. A few employers have even given up the right to discharge—dismissal must be decided by fellow-employees.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00475", "bookId": 73755, "start": 206694, "end": 207258, "sha256": "4274a7af10a3471538acce6fde13f8b2e83506c254a473c6ef2b08d3b66d7e29", "text": "Usually the management keeps the final power in its own hands. This is not so, however, in the case of Wm. Filene Son’s Co., Boston, which has gone further than any other plant in co-management. Here the employees have the right by a two-thirds vote to change, initiate, or amend any rule that affects the discipline or working conditions of the employees of the store, and such vote becomes at once operative even against the veto of the management. Further, out of eleven members of the board of directors, four are representatives of the employees.[46]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00476", "bookId": 73755, "start": 207262, "end": 208287, "sha256": "3050f72f7c8079bb015b3b3b948b49f943ae111c964e4588ca137579769066ea", "text": "The great advantage of company officials and workers acting together on boards or committees (workshop committees, discipline boards, advisory councils, boards of directors, etc.) is the same as that of the regular joint conferences of the Trade Agreement: employers and employed can thus learn to function together and prepare the way for joint control. Workshop committees should be encouraged, not so much because they remove grievances etc., as because in the joint workshop committee, managers and workers are learning to act together. Industrial democracy is a process, a growth. The joint control of industry may be established by some fiat, but it will not be the genuine thing until the _process_ of joint control is learned. To be sure, the workshop committees which are independent of the management are often considered the best for the workers because they can thus keep themselves free to maintain and fight for their own particular interests, but this is exactly, I think, what should be avoided.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00477", "bookId": 73755, "start": 208291, "end": 209854, "sha256": "572b647ce7fdd506644b0b98fd3de079087bd6becf7963b7084ebf6caa6a786f", "text": "The labor question is—Is the war between capital and labor to be terminated by fight and conquest or by learning how to function together? I face fully the fact that many supporters of labor believe in what they call the “frank” recognition that the interests of capital and labor are “antagonistic.” I believe that the end of the wars of nations and of the war between labor and capital will come in exactly the same way: by making the nations into one group, by making capital and labor into one group. Then we shall learn to distinguish between true and apparent interests, or rather, between long-run and immediate interests; then we shall give up the notion of “antagonisms,” which belong to a static world, and see only difference—that is, that which is capable of integration. This is not an idealistic treatment of the labor problem. Increase of wages and reduction in cost of production were once considered an irreconciliable antagonism—now their concurrence is a matter of common experience. If the hope of that concurrence had been abandoned as visionary or idealistic, we should be sadly off to-day. Many people are now making a distinction, however, between production and distribution in this respect: in the former the interests of capital and labor are the same, it is said, but not in the latter. When that reorganization of the business world, which it is no longer utopian to think of, is further actualized, then in distribution too we shall be able to see the coincident interests of labor and capital.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00478", "bookId": 73755, "start": 209858, "end": 210296, "sha256": "18766338ca335fd81b679aae9eb098df38ffc60d08ef6237c9c178b643637af2", "text": "As the most hopeful sign in the present treatment of industrial questions is the recognition that man with his fundamental instincts and needs is the very centre and heart of the labor problem, so the most hopeful sign that we shall fully utilize the constructive powers which will be released by this psychological approach to industrial problems, is the gradually increasing share of the workman in the actual control of industry.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00479", "bookId": 73755, "start": 210300, "end": 211556, "sha256": "356442165c2564281dcaa452b7a781d81b08c433adb35cad32ae10eb2635225d", "text": "The recognition of community rather than of individuals or class, the very marked getting away from the attitude of pitting labor interests against the interests of capital, is the most striking thing from our point of view about the famous report formulated by a sub-committee of the British Labor Party in the autumn of 1917. In every one of the four “Pillars” of the new social order this stands out as the most dominant feature. In explaining the first, The Universal Enforcement of the National Minimum, it is explicitly stated that this is not to protect individuals or a class, but to “safeguard” the “community” against the “insidious degradation of the standard of life.” The second, The Democratic Control of Industry, proposes national ownership and administration of the railways, canals and mines and “other main industries ... as opportunity offers,” with “a steadily increasing participation of the organized workers in the management,” the extension of municipal enterprise to housing and town planning, public libraries, music and recreation, and the fixing of prices. This “Pillar,” too, we are told, is not a class measure, but is “to safeguard the interests of the community as a whole.”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00480", "bookId": 73755, "start": 211560, "end": 212447, "sha256": "f9e97b24ccdcb18b1039e3ca55b0d747376b36d005d07d092ec0513896a5b60e", "text": "Under the heading, “Revolution in National Finance,” the third “Pillar,” it is again definitely stated and moreover convincingly shown that this is not “in the interests of wage-earners alone.” Under “The Surplus Wealth for the Common Good,” the fourth “Pillar,” it is stated that the surplus wealth shall be used for what “the community day by day needs for the perpetual improvement and increase of its various enterprises,” “for scientific investigation and original research in every branch of knowledge,” and for “the promotion of music, literature and fine arts.” “It is in the proposal for this appropriation of every surplus for the common good—in the vision of its resolute use for the building up of the community as a whole ... that the Labor Party ... most distinctively marks itself off from the older political parties.”[47]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00481", "bookId": 73755, "start": 212451, "end": 212456, "sha256": "73be087e93080f9e436892b7d182df66394bc79dbf5df119d9357df61b1ebbfb", "text": "-----", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00482", "bookId": 73755, "start": 212460, "end": 212472, "sha256": "ca63e22e8bfed91d004a9cf6829ec6f7fb231ae093beccbc2a78f63bf07cb730", "text": "Footnote 36:", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00483", "bookId": 73755, "start": 212478, "end": 212639, "sha256": "61c9d45db1e5d7f6a712ba5141480eef323416bfc2316e28b57b0d82d2ed33e0", "text": "It is interesting to notice that Miss Lathrop’s whole conception of the Children’s Bureau is that it is to fit children into the life of the community.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00484", "bookId": 73755, "start": 212643, "end": 212655, "sha256": "7f4497afdea6b79a73cbd2337a83c6d0dfaba5412fd34de7914fc9ab9883e414", "text": "Footnote 37:", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00485", "bookId": 73755, "start": 212661, "end": 212674, "sha256": "3a96d0fc17232b4f0ab7187072933fce29d6d5a36ceff6254fde27041fddebbc", "text": "See Appendix.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00486", "bookId": 73755, "start": 212678, "end": 212690, "sha256": "4ce3590cb639c3f08e773e9fa935f6313518231e6e14e4244035bffaf981bf1b", "text": "Footnote 38:", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00487", "bookId": 73755, "start": 212696, "end": 212801, "sha256": "06c0cd1593965195010eb3f2755908351e612a4b944e859cf70eaf22c8a69c64", "text": "The new farm industrial system which is to replace Sing Sing is founded largely on the community idea.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00488", "bookId": 73755, "start": 212805, "end": 212817, "sha256": "3de5ee1a82c49918bba3787cea03e15b40a9c7608720173bddcc3a95a83dc419", "text": "Footnote 39:", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00489", "bookId": 73755, "start": 212823, "end": 212994, "sha256": "69d754f610fb71cd9b706bc14748fa30fedc95d4e025d55d6518b5b9e6f1aea0", "text": "France, Norway, Switzerland. In Norway it is said that more then three-quarters of the cases which come before the conciliation courts are settled without law suits.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00490", "bookId": 73755, "start": 212998, "end": 213010, "sha256": "d82fa54dd0d88473f3327fb9ebace5796e36ece5ba1b62839ff63b494ccc78c4", "text": "Footnote 40:", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00491", "bookId": 73755, "start": 213016, "end": 213082, "sha256": "22687b6cd0cd64b29b491a61d82a9c5b12de3d1309d7c9777fa5b0e71fc384d0", "text": "“Experiences in Coöperative Competition,” by W. V. Spaulding.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00492", "bookId": 73755, "start": 213086, "end": 213098, "sha256": "b64d9a50682868597e54b7ca72aae0bdcb330dceba927934aaf7dbbafd35eb67", "text": "Footnote 41:", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00493", "bookId": 73755, "start": 213104, "end": 213194, "sha256": "3b823d550d572f35d07ad8b7aa716d02c482ce9257970c28293f43f71b688824", "text": "The great value of Robert Valentine’s work consisted in his recognition of this fact.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00494", "bookId": 73755, "start": 213198, "end": 213210, "sha256": "5896268df8471b2aa49588b2a22176ccbf24dc3b6b34f29968d9c9e88cbe04e0", "text": "Footnote 42:", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00495", "bookId": 73755, "start": 213216, "end": 213460, "sha256": "724fcdb1de96be90df150e286686b22876b3404fe8a3fcf54b2700964f6a4847", "text": "I am speaking in general. It is true that the history of cases settled by arbitration reveals many in which the “umpire” has insisted that negotiations continue until the real coincident interest of both sides should be discovered.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00496", "bookId": 73755, "start": 213464, "end": 213476, "sha256": "badc521f45730932ddc67b62dea9bbe664376b6d3f5a8801aec8ae36d13593c8", "text": "Footnote 43:", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00497", "bookId": 73755, "start": 213482, "end": 213574, "sha256": "cc95418168a7cd838a1d0652f526d1fa096f6c67ef75eba56029d7ef546db48b", "text": "It has long been known in England and America but recently it has been spreading rapidly.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00498", "bookId": 73755, "start": 213578, "end": 213590, "sha256": "67caebf0c517fa9da7c0c83fcb3e2f011a33363f64b2266e7a2a740346102c56", "text": "Footnote 44:", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00499", "bookId": 73755, "start": 213596, "end": 213615, "sha256": "b753460841ada685230465b2388569dcc9a9979fda6fdb35a58850f9c9fe5fdd", "text": "Recently abandoned.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00500", "bookId": 73755, "start": 213619, "end": 213631, "sha256": "9282b02cca5916899a3ec651d61868fd18a4462a726b81718c49581c7f6dcab8", "text": "Footnote 45:", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00501", "bookId": 73755, "start": 213637, "end": 213968, "sha256": "53483fac0396d060be63eeb7ad8e8471d31702851f328d8036078f3b2bb9df70", "text": "The three firms which have carried co-management furthest are the Printz-Biederman Co. of Cleveland, the Wm. Filene’s Sons Co. of Boston and the U. S. Cartridge Co. of Lowell. See Report of Committee on Vocational Guidance, Fourth Annual Convention of National Association of Corporation Schools, by Henry C. Metcalf.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00502", "bookId": 73755, "start": 213972, "end": 213984, "sha256": "9dfa2a049256f4a2dfcf58c6fce4f28583a41da94f5dac4f23f8120c88dea334", "text": "Footnote 46:", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00503", "bookId": 73755, "start": 213990, "end": 214371, "sha256": "f0db090a3624e7ccc27f779ccabf15b839a3ad11eae3c251261ab48907e77d61", "text": "We have a number of minor instances of the recognition of the group principle in industry. An interesting example is the shop piece-work in the Cadbury works, where the wages are calculated on the output of a whole work-room, and thus every one in the room has to suffer for the laziness of one. (See “Experiments in Industrial Organization,” by Edward Cadbury.)", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00504", "bookId": 73755, "start": 214375, "end": 214387, "sha256": "c26a206634f237a49c98589bf96ad9c19f9f8fc113cba66b955bd9b4824b0b95", "text": "Footnote 47:", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00505", "bookId": 73755, "start": 214393, "end": 214589, "sha256": "c6ca582bfa77e09c0a26d7b0932ea80165a5efd11cf28a034ab7a3f8ca84b1b0", "text": "I have not spoken of the coöperative buying and selling movement because by the name alone it is obvious how well it illustrates my point, and also because it is so well known to every one.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00506", "bookId": 73755, "start": 214595, "end": 214744, "sha256": "9ccca1a1fb2838f405192df4c88e60c4a138b801000906bd9f83ecb954785e72", "text": "Another evidence of the spreading of the community idea is the wide acceptance of the right of the community to value created by the community.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00507", "bookId": 73755, "start": 214748, "end": 214820, "sha256": "5be59d365acb8d35446f682c6d314fffd5db5846ab8c6eb021e6bacd98a82aa0", "text": "------------------------------------------------------------------------", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00508", "bookId": 73755, "start": 214865, "end": 214867, "sha256": "cddc3895eb025399ffa7ea885ad307323375c0892660ee787d82992f75bfb23f", "text": "XV", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00509", "bookId": 73755, "start": 214894, "end": 214920, "sha256": "fafaf2097250696f20d5ab945d5a7475fdc41f608a77a132ca6ec7642940a6e7", "text": "FROM CONTRACT TO COMMUNITY", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00510", "bookId": 73755, "start": 214953, "end": 214967, "sha256": "cb963f8b7dd4be2e8d413c437052b98afad284e3de40cd420bdd246302a111ad", "text": "--------------", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00511", "bookId": 73755, "start": 214973, "end": 215470, "sha256": "5553395fbb2d59668f36fa75985f8f2dc70eedd5c7243928ff353879891de450", "text": "BUT perhaps nowhere in our national life is the growing recognition of the group or community principle so fundamental for us as in our modern theory of law. Mr. Roscoe Pound has opened a new future for America by his exposition of modern law, an exposition which penetrates and illumines every department of our thought. Let us speak briefly of this modern theory of law. It is: (1) that law is the outcome of our community life, (2) that it must serve, not individuals, but the community.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00512", "bookId": 73755, "start": 215474, "end": 216766, "sha256": "1c7d69b61216be0415b79c7bbd38286bbb43d159ba55c3fe6a5422dbfc5d416f", "text": "Mr. Pound, in a series of articles on “The Scope and Purpose of Sociological Jurisprudence” in the Harvard Law Review (1910-1912), points out that it was an epoch-making moment when attention began to be turned from the nature of law to its purpose. The old conception of law was that “new situations are to be met always by deductions from old principles.” The new school (headed by Jhering) believe that “law is a product of conscious and increasingly determinate human will.” “Legal doctrines and legal interests do not work themselves out blindly, but have been fashioned by human wants to meet human needs.” Before Jhering the theory of law had been individualistic; Jhering’s is a social theory of law. “The eighteenth century conceived of law as something which the individual invoked against society; ... Jhering taught that it was something created by society through which the individual found a means of securing his interests, so far as society recognized them.” And Jhering called his a jurisprudence of realities; he wanted legal precepts worked out and tested by results. For instance, if a rule of commercial law were in question, the search should be for the rule which best accords with and gives effect to sound business practice.[48]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00513", "bookId": 73755, "start": 216770, "end": 217260, "sha256": "9c8e98af27b7ef7187aa6f4322b047bff9bfaa6d4e99b183bf06967d1814d82a", "text": "So, Mr. Pound tells us, the idea of justice as the maximum of individual self-assertion, which began to appear at the end of the sixteenth century and reached its highest development in the nineteenth century, began to give way towards the end of the nineteenth century to the new idea of the end of law. Modern jurists have come to consider the working of law more than its abstract content; they lay stress upon the social purposes which law subserves rather than upon sanction.[49]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00514", "bookId": 73755, "start": 217264, "end": 217866, "sha256": "c7cb4d46063a9cc68d137c9eb68f1193eb8cbe7e9dd3e6bc5d1c0b7a7be42d7f", "text": "Mr. Pound then shows us that Gierke’s theory of association “became as strong an attack upon the individualistic jurisprudence of the nineteenth century upon one side as Jhering’s theory of interests was upon another.” The “real personality” of the group is plainly expounded by Gierke, that it is not a legal fiction, that is that the law does not create it but merely recognizes that which already exists, that this “real person” is more than an aggregation of individuals, that there is a group will which is something real apart from the wills of the associated individuals.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00515", "bookId": 73755, "start": 217870, "end": 218185, "sha256": "ab564592717e92d1adf76e091f572f618ece80d29563e7f90e9d478191c67b6b", "text": "Thus German jurists recognize the principle of “community.” The theory of Vereinbarung, as expounded by Jellinek,[50] is also a recognition of the fact that one will can be formed from several. The present tendency to work out the law of association through the study of the group is marked and significant.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00516", "bookId": 73755, "start": 218189, "end": 219962, "sha256": "1877d41b1b7a08650eb455b76b524b874c967d414ef6e2b85bf3d7b42c07e57d", "text": "The chief consequence of this growing tendency in modern juristic thinking is seen in the change in attitude towards contract. The fundamental question of relation, of association, is—Can you make one idea grow where two grew before? _This_ is the law of fruitful increase. The gradual progress away from contract in legal theory is just the gradual recognition of this principle. You can have a contractual relation between two wills or you can have those two wills uniting to form one will. Contract never creates one will. It is the latter process which is shown in the development of corporation law.[51] The laws regulating partnership are based on contractual relations between the individual members. The laws regulating corporations are based on the theory that a corporation is something quite different from the individuals who constitute it or the sum of those individuals, that a new entity has been created. I am writing at this moment (February, 1918) in a room with the thermometer at 42, but the law would not uphold me in going and getting my share, as a stock holder, of the coal now in the New York, New Haven and Hartford sheds! But to many the personality of the corporation is a fiction: they do not consider the corporation a self-created entity but a state-created entity. To others, following Gierke, the corporation is merely a state-_recognized_ entity, it has the inherent power to create itself. The increasing acceptance of this latter theory has made it possible to hold liable groups which have not been legally incorporated but which exercise powers analogous to those of corporations. This has been the principle of some of the English decisions making trade-unions responsible, as notably in the Taff-Vale case.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00517", "bookId": 73755, "start": 219966, "end": 220986, "sha256": "5c934cbd19c379e2b6980948f2b34783452f2c5e5f1169de3078fcb19dda3e9d", "text": "The paradox of contract is that while it seems to be based on relation, it is in reality based on the individual. Contract is a particularist conception. Mr. Pound speaks of the significance of the “parallel movement away from liberty of contract and yet at the same time towards the full recognition of association.” It is the legal theory of association based on our growing understanding of group psychology which will finally banish contract. When Duguit, the eminent French jurist, tells us that contract is diminishing, it is because he sees a time when all juridical manifestations will come from unilateral acts.[52] We see contract diminishing because we believe in a different mode of association: as fast as association becomes a “community” relation, as fast as individuals are recognized as community-units, just so fast does contract fade away. Jellinek points out that legal theory is coming to recognize that violation of community is quite different from the violation of contract.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00518", "bookId": 73755, "start": 220990, "end": 221990, "sha256": "14a83982106acf699da3db58ac3bc251c9ee70a26efd1b91077a14910cfe5346", "text": "From status to contract we do not now consider the history of liberty but of particularism—the development of law through giving a larger and larger share to the particular will. The present progress of law is from contract to community. Our particularistic law is giving way to a legal theory based on a sound theory of interrelationship. Our common law has considered men as separate individuals, not as members of one another. These separate individuals were to be “free” to fight out their differences as best they could, it being overlooked that freedom for one might not mean freedom for the other, as in the case of employer and employed. “Individual rights” in practice usually involve some difference of opinion as to who is the individual! Mr. Olney said of the Adair case: “It is archaic, it is a long step into the past, to conceive of and deal with the relations between the employer in such industries and the employee as if the parties were individuals.”[53]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00519", "bookId": 73755, "start": 221994, "end": 222756, "sha256": "8a12364ef1907f7b20eb6b60f69ffad17be73b684dc110ce8d0d2f16e94388e2", "text": "The principles of individual rights and contract which have long dominated our courts[54] are giving way now to sounder doctrine. The old idea was that a man could do what he liked with his own; this is not the modern notion of law. We find a judge recently saying: “The entire scheme of prohibition as embodied in the Constitution and laws of Kansas might fail, if the right of each citizen to manufacture intoxicating liquors for his own use or as a beverage were recognized. Such a right does not inhere in citizenship.”[55] Our future law is to serve neither classes nor individuals, but the community. The lawyer is to bring his accumulation of knowledge not to his clients merely, but to enrich and interpret and adjust our whole social life.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00520", "bookId": 73755, "start": 222760, "end": 222905, "sha256": "6891bc014601a4e4f2bbecfd213ed222583c4d3929a0869ab076abd0137bae84", "text": "We have many signs to-day of the growing recognition of community as the basis of law. The following are taken from an article by Mr. Pound:[56]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00521", "bookId": 73755, "start": 222909, "end": 223108, "sha256": "1576296ffba6b62491cf7c5416dd39708302224ca9dc5f0ec1e52e7ba3c60c99", "text": "The increasing tendency of law to impose limitations on the use of property, limitations designed to prevent the anti-social use of property. This has already been noticed in our new building laws.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00522", "bookId": 73755, "start": 223112, "end": 223502, "sha256": "35519340d93e14eb8f4faffbf66fd94923f74f58a46c6f08179d7b2ecbcf83fc", "text": "The limitations now imposed on freedom of contract. This is shown in the statutes regulating the hours and conditions of labor, in the law of insurance,[57] in the judicial decisions which have established that the duties of public service corporations are not contractual, flowing from agreement, but quasi-contractual, flowing from the calling in which the public servant is engaged.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00523", "bookId": 73755, "start": 223506, "end": 223774, "sha256": "59934decfff91e0c0cb21ef2e6355cc3b16e3edaabe8396108e051458ed7f814", "text": "Limitations on the part of creditor or injured party to exact satisfaction. This is illustrated by the homestead exemptions which prevail in many states, and such exemptions as tools to artisans, libraries to professional men, and animals and implements to farmers.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00524", "bookId": 73755, "start": 223778, "end": 223892, "sha256": "46681c662a9dfc49b9d30bb78be74cfa0f8789e6c71d3ec662f5f8d48c806e2c", "text": "Imposition of liability without fault, as illustrated in workmen’s compensation and employers’ liability.[58]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00525", "bookId": 73755, "start": 223896, "end": 224224, "sha256": "98915c156b9843503c36d25dea1d67a4809118f8fb8220d22ccc8878fda4e1a6", "text": "Water rights are now interpreted with limitations on the owners. The idea is becoming accepted that running water is an asset of society which is not capable of private appropriation or ownership except under regulations that protect the general interest. This tendency is changing the whole water law of the western states.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00526", "bookId": 73755, "start": 224228, "end": 224420, "sha256": "bb6dfc0cfc4073e5d3a5c19f4793ed9925836d67313f26c259c42dd94dcf9a76", "text": "Insistence on interest of society in dependent members of household. With respect to children it is not the individual interest of the parents, but the interest of society which is regarded.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00527", "bookId": 73755, "start": 224424, "end": 224516, "sha256": "984b466ef63f7853676592f93461687a9702f6e07a265dc2ccebf60d072ec072", "text": "Thus modern law is being based more and more upon a recognition of the community principle.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00528", "bookId": 73755, "start": 224520, "end": 225579, "sha256": "579ec5447d1499c3c6254d33cefd90b494dd23b21dbacf542b6b443d62710336", "text": "When we sometimes hear a lawyer talk of such measures as old age pensions as a matter of “social expediency,” we know that he has not yet caught the community idea in law. Modern law considers individuals not as isolated beings, but in their relation to the life of the whole community. Thus in shortening the hours of work the courts can no longer say this is an “unwarrantable interference” with individual liberty; they have to consider the health of the individual in its relation to his family and his work, also the use he will make of his leisure, the need he has for time to perform his duties as citizen, etc. etc. Mr. Pound points out with great clearness that relation is taking the place of contract in modern law. Workmen’s compensation arises from the theory of reciprocal rights and duties and liabilities which flow from a relation. This he tells us was the common law conception until deflected by contract; now we are going back to it and we do not ask the strict terms of the contract, but what the relation demands.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00529", "bookId": 73755, "start": 225583, "end": 226577, "sha256": "75e5b557528f3070be16a7e988188e32a1f8c83580175b7b4eade951756448e0", "text": "Perhaps social psychology can give two warnings to this new tendency of law. First this relation must not be a personal relation. I have spoken several times of our modern legal system as based on relation, but this must not be confused with the relation of the Middle Ages. Then the fundamental truth of relation, that life is a web of relationships, was felt intuitively, but it was worked out on its personal side. The feudal age lived in the idea of relation, but the heart of the feudal system was personal service. It was like loyalty to the party chief: right or wrong, the vassal followed his lord to the battlefield and died with him there. Because it was worked out on its personal side it had many imperfections, and the inevitable reaction swung far away. Now the pendulum is returning to relation as the truth of life, but it is to be impersonal. Employers and employed must study the ideal relation and try to actualize that. We seek always the law of true community.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00530", "bookId": 73755, "start": 226581, "end": 227345, "sha256": "43421e98610d2b2be78e854ecc300a4253bd259d86c26b590657b47ce384fd99", "text": "Secondly, the relation itself must always be in relation. But these warnings are not necessary for our progressive judges. It is interesting to read the decisions of our common-law judges with this in view: to see how often the search is for the law of the actual conditions and what obligations those actual conditions create, not for a personal relation with some abstract conception of a static relation. It is of a _relation in relation_ that judges must, and often to-day do, consider: not landlord and tenant as landlord and tenant, not master and servant as master and servant, but of that relation in relation to other relations, or, we might say, to society. This growing conception of a dynamic relation in itself means a new theory of law.[59]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00531", "bookId": 73755, "start": 227349, "end": 228588, "sha256": "ca003ac63befa560fa352e3d77d19553dd019a9de7e057dec277cf5eae50fb0e", "text": "Thus our law to-day is giving up its deductions from juristic conceptions, from the “body of rules” upon which trial procedure has so largely rested, and is beginning to study the condition given with the aim of reaching the law of that condition. Mr. Pound says distinctly that law is to be no longer based on first principles, but on “the conditions it is to govern.” And we are told that “Mr. Justice Holmes has been unswerving in his resistance to any doctrinaire interpretation,” that his decisions follow the actual conditions of life even often against his own bias of thought.[60] The great value of Mr. Justice Brandeis’ brief in the Oregon case concerning the constitutionality of limiting the hours of women in industry, was his insistence upon social facts. And Mr. Felix Frankfurter made an address before the American Bar Association in August, 1915, the burden of which was that “law must follow life.” His plea for a “creative” system of law in the place of the crystallized system of the past which we are trying with hopeless failure to apply to present conditions points the way with force and convincingness to a New Society based on the evolving not the static principle of life.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00532", "bookId": 73755, "start": 228592, "end": 229685, "sha256": "61c38dae031aff547bb335315933fd680f5ce14ff004be61852b9fb43a38f55e", "text": "As our theory of the state no longer includes the idea of contractual obligation, we begin to see the interdependence of state and law, that neither is prior to the other. The same process which evolves the state evolves the law. Law flows from our life, therefore it cannot be above it. The source of the binding power of law is not in the consent of the community, but in the fact that it has been produced by the community. This gives us a new conception of law. Some writers talk of social justice as if a definite idea of it existed, and that all we have to do to regenerate society is to direct our efforts towards the realization of this ideal. But the ideal of social justice is itself a collective and a progressive development, that is, it is produced through our associated life and it is produced anew from day to day. We do not want a “perfect” law to regulate the hours of women in industry; we want that kind of life which will make us, all of us, grow the best ideas about the hours of women in industry, about women in industry, about women, about industry.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00533", "bookId": 73755, "start": 229689, "end": 230913, "sha256": "02b266a40ff193a396c0a17856bb32fdba7e363451c49ef7442b199cdef46908", "text": "We cannot assume that we possess a body of achieved ideas stamped in some mysterious way with the authority of reason and justice, but even were it true, the reason and justice of the past must give way to the reason and justice of the present. You cannot bottle up wisdom—it won’t keep—but through our associated life it may be distilled afresh at every instant. We are coming now to see indeed that law is a social imperative in the strict psychological sense, that is, that it gets its authority through the power of group life. Wundt says, The development of law is a process of the psychology of peoples, therefore law will forever be a process of becoming.[61] Our obedience to law then must not be obedience to past law, but obedience to that law which we with all the experience of the past at our command, with all the vision of the future which the past has taught us, with all the intelligence which vivid living in the present has developed in us, are able to make for our generation, for our country, for the world. We are told that one of the most salient points in modern juristic thinking is its faith in the efficacy of effort, its belief that law has been and may be made consciously.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00534", "bookId": 73755, "start": 230917, "end": 231915, "sha256": "bc1a6e1882e4c826e4c59f5487f3fd727f78c3f4ad3fd6570063ccc3069a4451", "text": "When we look upon law as a thing we think of it as a finished thing; the moment we look upon it as a process we think of it always in evolution. Our law must take account of our social and economic conditions, and it must do it again to-morrow and again day after to-morrow. We do not want a new legal system with every sunrise, but we do want a method by which our law shall be capable of assimilating from day to day what it needs to act upon that life from which it has drawn its existence and to which it must minister. The vital fluid of the community, its life’s blood, must pass so continuously from the common will to the law and from the law to the common will that a perfect circulation will be established. We do not “discover” legal principles which it then behooves us to burn candles before forever, but legal principles are the outcome of our daily life. Our law therefore cannot be based on “fixed” principles: our law must be intrinsic in the social process.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00535", "bookId": 73755, "start": 231919, "end": 232793, "sha256": "8ea7b9552dc77d9133cd93f3fc1c80edb43cbeeb9a8de06f86e057360c459dad", "text": "There has been a distinction made between legal principles and the application of these principles: legal principles partook of the nature of the absolute, and to our high-priests, the lawyers, fell the privilege of applying them. But this is an artificial distinction. If our methods could be such that the energy of lawyers, which now often goes in making the concrete instance and the legal principle in some way (by fiction, or twisting, or “interpreting”) fit each other, could help evolve day by day a crescent law which is the outcome of our life as it is to be applied to our life, an enormous amount of energy would be saved for the development of our American people. It is static law and our reverence for legal abstractions which has produced “privilege.” It is dynamic law, as much as anything else, which will bring us the new social order.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00536", "bookId": 73755, "start": 232797, "end": 234021, "sha256": "4e2e91b71aff8ce45647ebe862ec0984a61491f4b572b5a00a6cd4a3c27fa411", "text": "To sum up: Law should not be a “body” of knowledge; it should be revitalized anew at every moment. Our judges cannot administer law by knowing law alone. They have to be so closely in touch with a living, growing society, so at one with the conceptions that are being evolved by that society that their interpretations will be the method by which our so-called “body of law” shall indeed be alive and grow in correspondence with the growth of society. This is what gives to our American supreme courts their large powers, and makes us choose for judges not only men who understand law and who can be trusted for accurate interpretation, but men who have a large comprehension of our country’s needs, wide conceptions of social justice, and who have creative minds—who can make legal interpretation contribute to the structure of our government.[62] The modern lawyer must see, amidst all the complexity of the twentieth-century world, where we are tending, what our true purpose is, and the part law can take in making manifest that purpose. The modern lawyer must create a new system of service. A living law we demand to-day—this is always the law of the given condition, never a “rule.”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00537", "bookId": 73755, "start": 234025, "end": 234030, "sha256": "73be087e93080f9e436892b7d182df66394bc79dbf5df119d9357df61b1ebbfb", "text": "-----", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00538", "bookId": 73755, "start": 234034, "end": 234046, "sha256": "656dd04ddbdc121d418c6a20ea54eaf24d96564a53e326a237b08b67c55f3e5b", "text": "Footnote 48:", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00539", "bookId": 73755, "start": 234052, "end": 234073, "sha256": "cb9cf3bfe199eb7d4dec73a09923c112a6d681e50e7e4d6784a1dd8965b76585", "text": "Col. Law Rev. 8, 610.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00540", "bookId": 73755, "start": 234077, "end": 234089, "sha256": "15d335b65ede9bbdfae46e90ec19297a0abab081c05e15e0219ca61b8b0e9586", "text": "Footnote 49:", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00541", "bookId": 73755, "start": 234095, "end": 234284, "sha256": "aa02422d90ad25d27c72f24651f27fc91d49d610c0d6e43316abc6f3f8e1e84e", "text": "Pound, Outlines of Lectures on Jurisprudence, p. 20. The influence of sociology on law has here been very marked. For further discussion of a teleological jurisprudence, see ch. XXIX.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00542", "bookId": 73755, "start": 234288, "end": 234300, "sha256": "e5be1071e9fe3bcb590f7b89163881f9cde21b2d47e7c903d8bc5cb71384bf61", "text": "Footnote 50:", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00543", "bookId": 73755, "start": 234306, "end": 234441, "sha256": "2d0deab8f500e4a614e6824911f4ef06dd508f7d8d4200903bd016b7bf062198", "text": "Duguit, L’État, Le Droit Objectif et La Loi Positive, 398–409, from Jellinek, System der subjektiren öffentlichen Rechte, 193.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00544", "bookId": 73755, "start": 234445, "end": 234457, "sha256": "cddd887a816cfdd85e009725eb1f94ba323f47345eae8e83b6b18edfa8b38a5f", "text": "Footnote 51:", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00545", "bookId": 73755, "start": 234463, "end": 234599, "sha256": "aca051971406459d0f35fb0901649669cdaf448b01751759f6d69b6f1f6093a1", "text": "The whole legal history of associations and the development of association law throws much light on the growth of the community idea.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00546", "bookId": 73755, "start": 234603, "end": 234615, "sha256": "04d1627eb01b4714e690b8bd10589706db830282699bfdfd1f3a233211e29474", "text": "Footnote 52:", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00547", "bookId": 73755, "start": 234621, "end": 234960, "sha256": "29609c10745ab216b8bcf6e1e8b80f6d9b452fbc06165082aaa91fedc14864cb", "text": "Also, I recognize, because his “_droit objectif_” based on social solidarity tends to sweep away contract. It is interesting to notice that contract is being attacked from more than one point of view. The bearing of all this on politics will be seen later, especially in ch. XXIX, “Political Pluralism and Sovereignty.”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00548", "bookId": 73755, "start": 234964, "end": 234976, "sha256": "bf81fb36683398f2fa5fd9c4bec45ef438ef62d446f237a6bf451f941e2a4b53", "text": "Footnote 53:", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00549", "bookId": 73755, "start": 234982, "end": 235029, "sha256": "fbf5e52cfa8fb0cc0e0bc8466bcc26704b3e0c0d819fb8e24ce1f6820a8412f7", "text": "Quoted by Roscoe Pound in Col. Law Rev. 8, 616.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00550", "bookId": 73755, "start": 235033, "end": 235045, "sha256": "1f6e2ed5fa3b10dbce19e5b6d9ae46e7277c652ade6f60282e1ad4b93889861c", "text": "Footnote 54:", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00551", "bookId": 73755, "start": 235051, "end": 235236, "sha256": "4f54ca2cda29149be8986cb3ce9722b5685f48b9eb953f2a264849110c386adc", "text": "Statutes limiting the hours of labor were held unconstitutional, railway corporations were held not to be required to furnish discharged employees with a cause for dismissal, etc.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00552", "bookId": 73755, "start": 235240, "end": 235252, "sha256": "8316be2070645e313d795f2bac4ba28ea5279e38039b3c03d635e9d27f3dc7dd", "text": "Footnote 55:", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00553", "bookId": 73755, "start": 235258, "end": 235383, "sha256": "3c7fd23bdf7bcf7b88cb57003ea3e239b0e3bc62e9d32e7e6896816b339ef8eb", "text": "Harlan, J., in Mugler _v._ Kansas, 123 U. S. 623. Taken from Roscoe Pound, Liberty of Contract, Yale Law Journal, 18, 468.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00554", "bookId": 73755, "start": 235387, "end": 235399, "sha256": "603799dcb74e3139e7014438d82af34b13df793585a8592936eecd5edb2195d7", "text": "Footnote 56:", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00555", "bookId": 73755, "start": 235405, "end": 235494, "sha256": "ca2cd6930e546daca096f0b1cb790680d627b78919a6f3092546825409f88004", "text": "The End of Law as Developed in Legal Rules and Doctrine, Harv. Law Rev. 27, 195–234.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00556", "bookId": 73755, "start": 235498, "end": 235510, "sha256": "1e2d0a18ba065a9b6e4863f0d03eff55833c7eee620d35968947fe92a6a746f4", "text": "Footnote 57:", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00557", "bookId": 73755, "start": 235516, "end": 235803, "sha256": "5beebe375e51d93245ace352a2e4c2fa003a81da0bca0471766f74fa7bd4ee0a", "text": "“Statutes ... have taken many features of the subject out of the domain of agreement and the tendency of judicial decision has been in effect to attach rights and liabilities to the relation of insurer and insured and thus to remove insurance from the category of contract.”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00558", "bookId": 73755, "start": 235807, "end": 235819, "sha256": "9dc7e939bff126e215dab42a5cfcdea4d40b2cb65549f765bbcb471ec4983b0e", "text": "Footnote 58:", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00559", "bookId": 73755, "start": 235825, "end": 236176, "sha256": "f8b265d5250f1bfafd9c309c9f32342946a77f492614710dede462e0f5a8c56a", "text": "The old idea of “contributory negligence” is seen in the following decision: “We must remember that the injury complained of is due to the negligence of a fellow workman, for which the master is responsible neither in law nor morals.” Durkin _v._ Coal Co. 171, Pa. St. 193, 205. Quoted by Roscoe Pound in Yale Law Journal, 18, 467.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00560", "bookId": 73755, "start": 236180, "end": 236192, "sha256": "d235228ec48ccf88119f0849ca2678e21f53915c823fec0eec920c01117ae60e", "text": "Footnote 59:", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00561", "bookId": 73755, "start": 236198, "end": 236531, "sha256": "ecc0f89c55dae621c3391a44125ab5632de5d1e2d434ba2388283b82e1525814", "text": "This is the “new natural law” of which Mr. Pound speaks as “the revival of the idealist interpretation which is the enduring possession of philosophical jurisprudence.” Formerly, we are told, “equity imposed moral limitations. The law to-day is beginning to impose social limitations.” Harv. Law Rev. 27, 227.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00562", "bookId": 73755, "start": 236535, "end": 236547, "sha256": "2ba17777802039655b50b90fc4e28a4158bab1effacf863327ded20305a1225f", "text": "Footnote 60:", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00563", "bookId": 73755, "start": 236553, "end": 236660, "sha256": "1da65cf1e20040de376684f63ee2ff261149131d9f9ad7b351c1f67d6192384d", "text": "“The Constitutional Opinions of Justice Holmes,” by Felix Frankfurter, Harv. Law Rev. 29, 683–702.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00564", "bookId": 73755, "start": 236664, "end": 236676, "sha256": "7357f0a3e32e30838c6cf267d81a0e7834e99c299149558c4afbf2202efd59fc", "text": "Footnote 61:", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00565", "bookId": 73755, "start": 236682, "end": 236731, "sha256": "ab8f3863c08a159963c0bdf2d05885c9766b416a3e275cf99a547230509fbe72", "text": "Quoted by Roscoe Pound in Harv. Law Rev. 25, 505.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00566", "bookId": 73755, "start": 236735, "end": 236747, "sha256": "fa830d562ff397a011157c76651a00d9577c8075e9a5e808d980a70e53a690a1", "text": "Footnote 62:", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00567", "bookId": 73755, "start": 236753, "end": 237001, "sha256": "e980396cd936acf38edbc8d3c1a3d781ab66a8bbf0f18ec67dae12d404a41a19", "text": "It has been proposed that we should have trained business men on the benches of our supreme courts as well as lawyers. I should think it would be better for our lawyers to be so conversant with social facts that this need not be necessary.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00568", "bookId": 73755, "start": 237005, "end": 237077, "sha256": "5be59d365acb8d35446f682c6d314fffd5db5846ab8c6eb021e6bacd98a82aa0", "text": "------------------------------------------------------------------------", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00569", "bookId": 73755, "start": 237119, "end": 237126, "sha256": "87b6a3b1d87b62692a8d3c58da990ad0e08cd90f00d5c5f3169ed3bb04bf166a", "text": "PART II", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00570", "bookId": 73755, "start": 237153, "end": 237178, "sha256": "dddd86084e057d8c59171d7197fb11499e870fd22538f55b44e9b2f81797b662", "text": "THE TRADITIONAL DEMOCRACY", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00571", "bookId": 73755, "start": 237188, "end": 237260, "sha256": "5be59d365acb8d35446f682c6d314fffd5db5846ab8c6eb021e6bacd98a82aa0", "text": "------------------------------------------------------------------------", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00572", "bookId": 73755, "start": 237304, "end": 237307, "sha256": "fa39a7be5a69ca50404ba06e1b4139bd4c6c1ed63d0b82f5618172b1d7d8cd5b", "text": "XVI", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00573", "bookId": 73755, "start": 237316, "end": 237385, "sha256": "b260569362582a7e186224d0643deffe6afae1c2687197a88fd298d053b97bf3", "text": "DEMOCRACY NOT “LIBERTY” AND “EQUALITY”: OUR POLITICAL DUALISM", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00574", "bookId": 73755, "start": 237418, "end": 237432, "sha256": "cb963f8b7dd4be2e8d413c437052b98afad284e3de40cd420bdd246302a111ad", "text": "--------------", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00575", "bookId": 73755, "start": 237438, "end": 237866, "sha256": "23ee85dfedf4e18e2b3b9cdce3600344474cc319fd23edcd80fa06a55a7ed4f5", "text": "THE purpose of this book is to indicate certain changes which must be made in our political methods in order that the group principle, the most fruitful principle of association we have yet found, shall have free play in our political life. In Part III we shall devote ourselves specifically to that purpose. Here let us examine some of our past notions of democracy and then trace the growth of true democracy in America.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00576", "bookId": 73755, "start": 237870, "end": 239026, "sha256": "611df28eda862de0a2061f922f8b14bbe8d3c34980610327f39074f1e1597031", "text": "Democracy has meant to many “natural” rights, “liberty” and “equality.” The acceptance of the group principle defines for us in truer fashion those watchwords of the past. If my true self is the group-self, then my only rights are those which membership in a group gives me. The old idea of natural rights postulated the particularist individual; we know now that no such person exists. The group and the individual come into existence simultaneously: with this group-man appear group-rights. Thus man can have no rights apart from society or independent of society or against society. Particularist rights are ruled out as everything particularist is ruled out. When we accept fully the principle of rights involved in the group theory of association, it will change the decisions of our courts, our state constitutions, and all the concrete machinery of government. The truth of the whole matter is that our only concern with “rights” is not to protect them but to create them. Our efforts are to be bent not upon guarding the rights which Heaven has showered upon us, but in creating all the rights we shall ever have.[63]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00577", "bookId": 73755, "start": 239030, "end": 239912, "sha256": "060d6d2acb9c0e08ba38384540572f130dc3e2acc4028b8997d06b35149a1989", "text": "As an understanding of the group process abolishes “individual rights,” so it gives us a true definition of liberty. We have seen that the free man is he who actualizes the will of the whole. I have no liberty except as an essential member of a group. The particularist idea of liberty was either negative, depending on the removal of barriers, or it was quantitative, something which I had left over after the state had restrained me in every way it thought necessary. But liberty is not measured by the number of restraints we do not have, but by the number of spontaneous activities we do have. Law and liberty are not like the two halves of this page, mutually exclusive—one is involved in the other. One does not decrease as the other increases. Liberty and law go hand in hand and increase together in the larger synthesis of life we are here trying to make.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00578", "bookId": 73755, "start": 239916, "end": 240393, "sha256": "68f4023cdeb06940b701f3ad8289cc7ef5a49f2525186f39457ad6f2bcf9b3f1", "text": "We see that to obey the group which we have helped to make and of which we are an integral part is to be free because we are then obeying ourself. Ideally the state is such a group, actually it is not, but it depends upon us to make it more and more so. The state must be no external authority which restrains and regulates me, but it must be myself acting as the state in every smallest detail of life. Expression, not restraint, is always the motive of the ideal state.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00579", "bookId": 73755, "start": 240397, "end": 241657, "sha256": "7697989a9c8e874af4c66b94424892991e978586deb168dc25bc2834ee994368", "text": "There has been long a kind of balance theory prevalent: everything that seems to have to do with the one is put on one side, everything that has to do with the many, on the other, and one side is called individuality and freedom, and the other, society, constraint, authority. Then the balancing begins: how much shall we give up on one side and how much on the other to keep the beautiful equilibrium of our daily life? How artificial such balancing sounds! We are beginning to know now that our freedom depends not on the weakness but on the strength of our government, our government being the expression of a united people. We are freer under our present sanitary laws than without them; we are freer under compulsory education than without it. A highly organized state does not mean restriction of the individual but his greater liberty. The individual is restricted in an unorganized state. A greater degree of social organization means a more complex, a richer, broader life, means more opportunity for individual effort and individual choice and individual initiative. The test of our liberty is not the number of limitations put upon the powers of the state. The state is not an extra-will. If we are the state we welcome Our liberty.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00580", "bookId": 73755, "start": 241661, "end": 242576, "sha256": "ba859d608cd7c4e837e3ef79150c543a577c833de170d3943a3d3e23b1b47460", "text": "But liberty on the popular tongue has always been coupled with equality, and this expression too needs revaluation. The group process shows us that we are equal from two points of view: first, I am equal to every one else as one of the necessary members of the group; secondly, each of these essential parts is the tap from an infinite supply—in every man lives an infinite possibility. But we must remember that there are no mechanical, no quantitative equalities. Democracy in fact insists on what are usually thought of as inequalities. Of course I am not “as good as you”—it would be a pretty poor world if I were, that is if you were no better than I am. Democracy without humility is inconceivable. The hope of democracy is in its inequalities. The only real equality I can ever have is to fill my place in the whole at the same time that every other man is filling his place in the whole.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00581", "bookId": 73755, "start": 242580, "end": 243412, "sha256": "8be71b1601a752b92ddd2ac04af5dc331936ae0beffbdb6291c6c49b390ba0f4", "text": "Much of our present class hatred comes from a distorted view of equality. This doctrine means to many that I have as much “right” to things as any one else, and therefore if I see any one having more things than I have, it is proper to feel resentment against that person or class. Much legislation, therefore, is directed to lopping off here and there. But such legislation is a negative and therefore non-constructive interpretation of equality. The trouble with much of our reform is that it is based on the very errors which have brought about the evils it is fighting. The trade-unionists say that the courts give special privileges to employers and that they do not have equal rights. But this is just the complaint of the employers: that the unionists are doing them out of their time-honored equal rights.[64]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00582", "bookId": 73755, "start": 243416, "end": 244794, "sha256": "0a0a74394cc9887c032f4317e053644bd889eb437d5581883301b99d9df8615a", "text": "Our distorted ideas of rights and liberty and equality have been mixed up with our false conception of the state, with the monstrous fallacy of man _vs._ the state. But as we now see that the individual and society are different aspects of the same process, so we see that the citizen and the state are one, that their interests are identical, that their aims are identical, that they are absolutely bound up together. Our old political dualism is now disappearing. The state does not exist for the individual or the individual for the state: we do not exalt the state and subordinate the individual or, on the other hand, apotheosize the individual and give him the state as his “servant.” _The state is not the servant of the people._ The state must _be_ the people before it can reach a high degree of effective accomplishment. The state is one of the collective aspects of the individual; the individual is from one point of view the distributive aspect of the state. The non-existence of self-sufficing individuals gives us the whole of our new theory of democracy. Those who govern and those who are governed are merely two aspects of the common will. When we have a state truly representative of our collective citizenship, then the fear of the state will disappear because the antithesis between the individual and the state will have disappeared.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00583", "bookId": 73755, "start": 244798, "end": 245709, "sha256": "243148f396acc22412f5753a87b0079d99d210bf95e3f1b52994dd873d8fa5be", "text": "To sum up: our present idea of the state is that it is not something outside ourselves, that it must flow out from ourselves and control our social life. But it must “control” our life by expressing it. The state is always the great Yes, not the great No. Liberty and restraint are not opposed, because ideally the expression of the social will in restraint _is_ our freedom. The state has a higher function than either restraining individuals or protecting individuals. It is to have a great forward policy which shall follow the collective will of the people, a collective will which embodied through our state, in our life, shall be the basis of a progress yet undreamed of. When we can give up the notion of individual rights, we shall have taken the longest step forward in our political development. When we can give up the idea of national rights—but it is too soon to talk of that yet.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00584", "bookId": 73755, "start": 245713, "end": 245718, "sha256": "73be087e93080f9e436892b7d182df66394bc79dbf5df119d9357df61b1ebbfb", "text": "-----", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00585", "bookId": 73755, "start": 245722, "end": 245734, "sha256": "2cc4016110e163e658864290cf1a6b4948240c7cd6caebab7a80858fbf0ca20d", "text": "Footnote 63:", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00586", "bookId": 73755, "start": 245740, "end": 245844, "sha256": "830c400c2ebe62370b30f24e56cffd6aab2abf79dee6b8672e512f08e99d897b", "text": "See ch. XXIX for the theory of “objective rights” now held by many as the basis of the new state.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00587", "bookId": 73755, "start": 245848, "end": 245860, "sha256": "6d7895b1918f0c7a9a3c26017fcfe5f16f969efe86638147cb6b9d572ae22b56", "text": "Footnote 64:", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00588", "bookId": 73755, "start": 245866, "end": 246286, "sha256": "9c3f0459e1ebeb8c70ddd37d879866ce7a37428d254beacbd826a6df56aa4e97", "text": "This is a hoary quarrel. From the beginning of our government it was seen that the equal rights doctrine was a sword which could cut both ways. Both Federalists and Republicans believed in equal rights: the Federalists, therefore, wanted to protect individuals with a strong government; the Republicans wanted a weak government so that individuals could be let alone in the exercise of their equal rights.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00589", "bookId": 73755, "start": 246290, "end": 246362, "sha256": "5be59d365acb8d35446f682c6d314fffd5db5846ab8c6eb021e6bacd98a82aa0", "text": "------------------------------------------------------------------------", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00590", "bookId": 73755, "start": 246406, "end": 246410, "sha256": "c189ff843bc4a93e6fedc9cf4c26d798e80d1c10b507e2ae61a68cfb17b0fe54", "text": "XVII", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00591", "bookId": 73755, "start": 246425, "end": 246474, "sha256": "fdfb7d5feedeaf37a7199a2264ce736dc7872eb9be003e39f5302950a4fa8868", "text": "DEMOCRACY NOT THE MAJORITY: OUR POLITICAL FALLACY", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00592", "bookId": 73755, "start": 246507, "end": 246521, "sha256": "cb963f8b7dd4be2e8d413c437052b98afad284e3de40cd420bdd246302a111ad", "text": "--------------", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00593", "bookId": 73755, "start": 246527, "end": 247672, "sha256": "f577f99982fdb8479002043562db0a65b88e2e627e79efd100c2e9f4b5ab41d3", "text": "IF many people have defined democracy as liberty and equal rights, others have defined it as “the ascendancy of numbers,” as “majority rule.” Both these definitions are particularistic. Democracy means the will of the whole, but the will of the whole is not necessarily represented by the majority, nor by a two-thirds or three-quarters vote, nor even by a unanimous vote; majority rule is democratic when it is approaching not a unanimous but an integrated will. We have seen that the adding of similarities does not produce the social consciousness; in the same way the adding of similar votes does not give us the political will. We have seen that society is not an aggregation of units, of men considered one by one; therefore we understand that the will of the state is not discovered by counting.[65] This means a new conception of politics: it means that the organization of men in small, local groups must be the next form which democracy takes. Here the need and will of every man and woman can appear and mingle with the needs and wills of all to produce an all-will. Thus will be abolished the reign of numbers.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00594", "bookId": 73755, "start": 247676, "end": 248017, "sha256": "381501e5c0195cf8ffed079883e467b45539c5c9f446f4143c0e5c6f46712ddd", "text": "A crude view of democracy says that when the working-people realize their power they can have what they want, since, their numbers being so great, they can out-vote other classes. But the reason the working-people have not already learned something so very obvious is because it is not true—_we are never to be ruled by numbers alone_.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00595", "bookId": 73755, "start": 248021, "end": 248697, "sha256": "53dfb7c2e88a02a33d9621d5ef7fcf4cd2e19dd7e1a62e599778636c4f3f40db", "text": "Moreover, a fatal defect in majority rule is that by its very nature it abolishes itself. Majority rule must inevitably become minority rule: the majority is too big to handle itself; it organizes itself into committees—Committee of Fifty, Fifteen, Three—which in their turn resolve themselves into a committee of one, and behold—the full-fledged era of bosses is at hand, with the “consent of the governed” simply because the governed are physically helpless to govern themselves. Many men want majority rule so that they can be this committee of one; some of our most worthy citizens are incipient Greek tyrants longing to give us of their best—tyranny.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00596", "bookId": 73755, "start": 248701, "end": 249014, "sha256": "19616779a26f96a2c2773ce0b02f4154d2bf49d142585ddb815a6c3ea99c4d37", "text": "Many working-men are clamoring for majority rule in industry, yet we know how often in their own organizations the rule of the many becomes the rule of the few. If “industrial democracy” is to mean majority rule, let us be warned by our experience of it in politics—it will rend whoever dallies with it.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00597", "bookId": 73755, "start": 249018, "end": 250074, "sha256": "b247f3e2e0d9efb4b699934e2517ca52db252becd2c1bbacc1035bcc4b779898", "text": "Yet it will be objected, “But what other means under the sun is there of finding the common will except by counting votes?” We see already here and there signs of a new method. In many committees, boards and commissions we see now a reluctance to take action until all agree; there is a feeling that somehow, if we keep at it long enough, we can unify our ideas and our wills, and there is also a feeling that such unification of will has value, that our work will be vastly more effective in consequence. How different from our old methods when we were bent merely upon getting enough on our side to carry the meeting with us. Some one has said, “We count heads to save breaking them.” We are beginning to see now that majority rule is only a clumsy makeshift until we shall devise ways of getting at the genuine collective thought. We have to assume that we have this while we try to approximate it. We are not to circumvent the majority, but to aim steadily at getting the majority will nearer and nearer to a true collective will.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00598", "bookId": 73755, "start": 250078, "end": 250642, "sha256": "7bfda9845748158e7f1369cbb4aa10c7be4f11faaa27273ac7edc1205f1bbd9c", "text": "This may sound absurdly unlike the world as mainly constituted. Is this the way diplomats meet? Is this the way competing industrial interests adjust their differences? Not yet, but it must be. And what will help us more than anything else is just to get rid of the idea that we ever meet to get votes. The corruption in city councils, state legislatures, Congress, is largely the outcome of the idea that the getting of votes is the object of our meeting. The present barter in votes would not take place if the unimportance of votes was once clearly seen.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00599", "bookId": 73755, "start": 250646, "end": 251869, "sha256": "0ba19b3fc20cf9db0e7bb6e1b06c35f9cfc14e38905a9d9bb55fe13472ecc30c", "text": "Even now so far as a majority has power it is not by the brute force of numbers; it is because there has been a certain amount of unifying; it has real power directly in proportion to the amount of unifying. The composition of a political majority depends at present partly on inheritance and environment (which includes sentiment and prejudice), partly on the mass-induced idea (the spread of thought and feeling throughout a community by suggestion), and partly on some degree of integration of the different ideas and the different forces of that particular society. Its power is in proportion to the amount of this integration. When we use the expression “artificial majority” we mean chiefly one which shows little integration, and we have all seen how quickly such majorities tend to melt away when the artificial stimulus of especially magnetic leadership or of an especially catchy and jingoistic idea is withdrawn. Moreover a majority meaning a preponderance of votes can easily be controlled by a party or an “interest”; majorities which represent unities are not so easily managed. Group organization is, above everything else perhaps, to prevent the manipulation of helpless majorities.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00600", "bookId": 73755, "start": 251873, "end": 253267, "sha256": "977db3fc916a2f05e6fe837523987884bc7435891398479f7c9508192819b200", "text": "But “helpless majority” may sound amusing to those who are telling us of the tyranny of majorities. From one point of view indeed majority rule tends to become majority tyranny, so we do not want a majority in either case, either as a tyrant or as an inert mass. But those who talk of the tyranny of majorities are usually those who are advocating the “rights of minorities.” If it is necessary to expose the majority fallacy, it is equally necessary to show that the present worship of minorities in certain quarters is also unsound. There is no inherent virtue in a minority. If as a matter of fact we cannot act forcefully without a certain amount of complacency, then perhaps it is a good thing for those in a minority to flatter themselves that of twenty people nine are more apt to be right than eleven. It may be one of those false assumptions more useful than a true one, and in our pragmatic age we shall not deny its value. Still sour grapes hang sometimes just as high and no higher than the majority, and it seems possible to find a working assumption that will work even better than this. In fact the assumption that the minority is always right is just as much an error as the assumption that the majority is always right. The right is not with the majority or minority because of preponderance of numbers or because of lack of preponderance of numbers.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00601", "bookId": 73755, "start": 253271, "end": 253719, "sha256": "729d7946f59ceef1ab9738f64666c7ff6c93949c818231719f17747c26a03fb8", "text": "But many people tell us seriously that this is not a question of opinion at all, but of fact: all the great reforms of the past, they say, whose victories are now our common heritage, were inaugurated by an intelligent and devoted few. You can indeed point to many causes led by a faithful minority triumphing in the end over a numerical and inert majority, but this minority was usually a majority of those who thought on the subject at all.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00602", "bookId": 73755, "start": 253723, "end": 254405, "sha256": "e6e162e9e5d3381e33a9e37236c1d7f5120a10d05594e3780f13eccc0fed9f4b", "text": "But all talk of majority and minority is futile. It is evident that we must not consider majority versus minority, but only the methods by which unity is attained. Our fetich of majorities has held us back, but most of the plans for stopping the control of majorities look to all kinds of bolstering up of minorities. This keeps majorities and minorities apart, whereas they have both one and only use for us—their contribution to the all-will. Because such integration must always be the ideal in a democracy, we cannot be much interested in those methods for giving the minority more power on election day. The integration must begin further back in our life than this.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00603", "bookId": 73755, "start": 254409, "end": 255179, "sha256": "45a41b7757ca5e906756a62cc19aaa93e45f13077fd2d039641c1565b5928622", "text": "I know a woman of small school education, but large native intelligence, who spends her time between her family and the daily laundry work she does to support that family, who, when she goes to her Mothers’ Club at the “School Centre” penetrates all the superficialities she may find there, and makes every other woman go home with higher standards for her home, her children and herself. The education of children, the opportunities of employment for girls and boys, sanitation, housing, and all the many questions which touch one’s everyday life are considered in a homely way on those Thursday afternoons. Sometime these women will vote on these questions, but a true intermingling of majority and minority will have taken place before election day.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00604", "bookId": 73755, "start": 255183, "end": 255783, "sha256": "ab0bc415e7d4fef921456121a6cf78abdfff40f5738533ab173f082a2031ccaa", "text": "Moreover, while representation of the minority, as proportional representation,[66] is always an interesting experiment, just because it is a method of representation and not a mode of association the party can circumvent it. We are told that minority representation tried in the lower house of the Illinois legislature has been completely subverted to their own ends by the politicians. And also that in Belgium, where proportional representation has been introduced, this system has become a tool in the hands of the dominant party. No electoral or merely representative method can save us.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00605", "bookId": 73755, "start": 255787, "end": 256316, "sha256": "b54a2ebf42558512cc3e132cfc3e24e0dd483e3a1f254f9fb4f8a2f14027f3ef", "text": "Representation is not the main fact of political life; the main concern of politics is _modes of association_. We do not want the rule of the many or the few; we must find that method of political procedure by which majority and minority ideas may be so closely interwoven that we are truly ruled by the will of the whole. We shall have democracy only when we learn to produce this will through group organization—when young men are no longer lectured to on democracy, but when they are made into the stuff of democracy.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00606", "bookId": 73755, "start": 256320, "end": 256325, "sha256": "73be087e93080f9e436892b7d182df66394bc79dbf5df119d9357df61b1ebbfb", "text": "-----", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00607", "bookId": 73755, "start": 256329, "end": 256341, "sha256": "14298072936d33501c304cff4cbbd20c2311c6efedd6ef6beea158c71e2f5840", "text": "Footnote 65:", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00608", "bookId": 73755, "start": 256347, "end": 256508, "sha256": "05ee2709c03cedd2013082b1e8eb22ddd51b3fb0853e960d2717219453dcf89a", "text": "This view of democracy was well satirized by some one, I think Lord Morley, who said, “I do not care who does the voting as long as I do the counting.”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00609", "bookId": 73755, "start": 256512, "end": 256524, "sha256": "7f4066a17dd3738a27fcaedfb88638fffa09e69e4aef85213632b193451f303b", "text": "Footnote 66:", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00610", "bookId": 73755, "start": 256530, "end": 256669, "sha256": "db2b771fd5cc1da0313976978ba45ace3e3cc65d682ba46dd1e1b951cba3991f", "text": "Proportional representation is interesting to the view put forward in this book because it is a method to bring out all the differences.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00611", "bookId": 73755, "start": 256673, "end": 256745, "sha256": "5be59d365acb8d35446f682c6d314fffd5db5846ab8c6eb021e6bacd98a82aa0", "text": "------------------------------------------------------------------------", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00612", "bookId": 73755, "start": 256788, "end": 256793, "sha256": "e3afba59d1ce00b693b77c38dd47cde01ac81bb671e70416cc31f662758e312c", "text": "XVIII", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00613", "bookId": 73755, "start": 256810, "end": 256855, "sha256": "92e7ec4a765b225caaf6749e8c69685def4cd56fe9e6b9d5db4a149b339e52b8", "text": "DEMOCRACY NOT THE CROWD: OUR POPULAR DELUSION", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00614", "bookId": 73755, "start": 256888, "end": 256902, "sha256": "cb963f8b7dd4be2e8d413c437052b98afad284e3de40cd420bdd246302a111ad", "text": "--------------", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00615", "bookId": 73755, "start": 256908, "end": 258427, "sha256": "61e7ca977757828d821a44f4159fa33b4b61864aab45451e3fe29f5ca101414e", "text": "WHEN we define democracy as the “rule of the whole,” this is usually understood as the rule of all, and unless we fully understand the meaning of “all,” we run the danger of falling a victim to the crowd fallacy. The reaction to our long years of particularism, of “individual rights” and “liberty,” which led to special privilege and all the evils in its train, has brought many to the worship of the crowd. Walt Whitman sang of men “en masse.” Many of our recent essayists and poets and novelists idealize the crowd. Miss Jane Harrison in her delightful volume, “Alpha and Omega,” says, “Human life is lived to the full only in and through the herd.” There is an interesting group of young poets in France[67] who call themselves Unanimistes because they believe in the union of all, that an “Altogetherness” is the supreme fact of life. Mr. Ernest Poole in “The Harbor” glorifies the crowd, and the New York “_Tribune_” said of this book, “‘The Harbor’ is the first really notable novel produced by the New Democracy,” thus identifying the new democracy with the crowd. Another writer, looking at our present social and political organization and finding it based largely on class and therefore unsound, also leaps to the conclusion that our salvation rests not on this individual or that, this class or that, this body of people or that, but on all together, on “this mass-life, seething, tumultuous, without compass or guide or will or plan.”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00616", "bookId": 73755, "start": 258431, "end": 259801, "sha256": "115e1e182315b955fed53b8888c538ea06ec72737c491548c1ae6330bdc95f59", "text": "This school is doing good service in leading us from the few or the many to the all, in preaching that the race contains within itself the power of its own advancement; but this power which the race contains within itself is not got through its being a crowd, “without guide or will or plan,” but just because it contains the potentialities of guide, will, plan, all within itself, through its capability of being a true society, that is, through its capability of adopting group methods. It is in the group that we get that complex interpenetration which means both modification and adjustment and at the same time coöperation and fulfilment. The group process, not the crowd or the herd, is the social process. Out of the intermingling, interacting activities of men and women surge up the forces of life: powers are born which we had not dreamed of, ideas take shape and grow, forces are generated which act and react on each other. This is the dialectic of life. But this upspringing of power from our hidden sources is not the latent power of the mass but of the group. It is useless to preach “togetherness” until we have devised ways of making our togetherness fruitful, until we have thought out the methods of a genuine, integrated togetherness. Anything else is indeed “blubbering sentimentality,” as Bismarck defined democracy.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00617", "bookId": 73755, "start": 259805, "end": 260697, "sha256": "ed22e9ef5f899865724d9b04b8e100661a15439794e4d5c301c2eb87d284f808", "text": "But there are two sets of people who are victims of the crowd fallacy: those who apotheosize the crowd and those who denounce the crowd; both ignore the group. The latter fear the crowd because they see in the crowd the annihilation of the individual. They are opposed to what they call collective action because they say that this is herd action and does not allow for individual initiative. We are told, “Man loses his identity in a crowd,” “The crowd obliterates the individual mind.” Quite true, but these writers do not see that the crowd is not the only form of association, that man may belong to a group rather than to a crowd, and that a group fulfils, not wipes out his individuality. The collective action of the group not only allows but consists of individual initiative, of an individual initiative that has learned how to be part of a collective initiative.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00618", "bookId": 73755, "start": 260701, "end": 261415, "sha256": "09a08c12900bf570ed6506cfdc271f273695a4cee01eeffd1060e84ba58498ec", "text": "Collective thought, moreover, is often called collective mediocrity. But the collective thought evolved by the group is not collective mediocrity. On the contrary there is always a tendency for the group idea to express the largest degree of psychic force there is in a group, ideally it would always do so. Herein lies the difference between the group idea and the mass idea. When we hear it stated as a commonplace of human affairs that combined action is less intelligent than individual action, we must point out that it all depends upon whether it is a crowd combination or a group combination. The insidious error that democracy means the “average” is at the root of much of our current thought.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00619", "bookId": 73755, "start": 261419, "end": 262346, "sha256": "3939bbad8d39709b044d10094164057e737331618f35d6b9db039340367cc7cd", "text": "The confusion of democratic rule and mass rule, the identification of the people with the crowd, has led many people to denounce democracy. One writer, thinking the collective man and the crowd man the same, condemns democracy because of his condemnation of the crowd man. Another speaks of “the crowd-mind or the state,” and therefore abandons the state. All these writers think that the more democracy, the more complete the control of the crowd. Our faith in democracy means a profound belief that this need not be true. Moreover this idea that the crowd man must necessarily be the unit of democracy has led many to oppose universal suffrage because they have seen it as a particularist suffrage, giving equal value, they say, to the enlightened and the unenlightened. True democracy frees us from such particularist point of view. It is the group man, not the crowd man, who must be the unit of democracy.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00620", "bookId": 73755, "start": 262350, "end": 263125, "sha256": "2e0b07fae7e9bb1852a8dab0a5aab1e2a5666a0fc941a27c95c6579931192156", "text": "The philosophy of the all is supposed, by its advocates, to be opposed to the philosophy of the individual, but it is interesting to notice that the crowd theory and the particularistic theory rest on the same fallacy, namely, looking on individuals one by one: the crowd doctrine is an attempt to unite mechanically the isolated individuals we have so ardently believed in. This is the danger of the crowd. The crowd idea of sovereignty is thoroughly atomistic. This is sometimes called an era of crowds, sometimes an era of individuals: such apparent opposition of judgment need not confuse us, the crowd spirit and the particularistic spirit are the same; that spirit will continue to corrupt politics and disrupt society until we replace it by the group spirit.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00621", "bookId": 73755, "start": 263129, "end": 263742, "sha256": "57ed7f4dcd12f435ed7f9a8be675e07b0c30141a5ea903a0869345346b17d360", "text": "The crowd theory, like the particularist doctrine, has been strengthened by the upholders of the imitation theory of society. Many of our political as well as our sociological writers have seen life as some exceptional individual suggesting and the crowd following without reasoning, without effort of mind or will. Even Bagehot, who did so much to set us in the right way of thinking, overemphasizes the part of imitation. What he says of the “imitative part of our natures” is indeed true, but by not mentioning the creative part of our natures more explicitly, he keeps himself in the crowd school.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00622", "bookId": 73755, "start": 263746, "end": 264889, "sha256": "0f0d4f68c45530f9a8bb00b6adee004737599120b67fdb77d8ddc2a75df78953", "text": "It is true that at present the people are to a large extent a mass led by those who suggest. The suggestion and imitation of sociology are the leading and following of politics—the leadership of the boss and the following of the mass. The successful politician is one who understands crowds and how to dominate them. He appeals to the emotions, he relies on repetition, he invents catch phrases. The crowd follows. As long as the corner-stone of our political philosophy is the theory that the individual originates and society accepts, of course any man who can get the people to “accept” will do so. This is the fallacy at the foundation of our political structure. When we have a genuine democracy, we shall not have the defective political machinery of the present, but some method by which people will be able not to accept or reject but to create group or whole ideas, to produce a genuine collective will. Because we have invented some governmental machinery by which clever politicians can rule with the entirely artificial “assent” of their constituencies, does not mean that we know anything about democracy.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00623", "bookId": 73755, "start": 264893, "end": 266255, "sha256": "0b5869e8072d6a40c3bc5da5f20397bdfc36b1b1a10f0c849ed0ae54f8ef5086", "text": "It is the ignoring of the group which is retarding our political development. A recent writer on political science says that a study of the interaction between individual and crowd is the basis of politics, and that “the will of nations or states is the sum of individual wills fashioned in accordance with crowd psychology.” In so far as this is true it is to be steadily opposed. Many writers imply that we must either believe in homogeneity, similarity, uniformity (the herd, the crowd), or lose the advantages of fellowship in order to discover and assert our own particularistic ideals. But our alternatives are not the individual and the crowd: the choice is not between particularism with all its separatist tendencies, and the crowd with its levelling, its mediocrity, its sameness, perhaps even its hysteria; there is the neglected group. Democracy will not succeed until assemblages of people are governed consciously and deliberately by group laws. We read, “No idea can conquer until a crowd has inscribed it on its banner.” I should say, “No idea can finally conquer which has not been created by those people who inscribe it on their banner.” The triumph of ideas will never come by crowds. Union, not hypnotism, is the law of development. There can be no real spiritual unity in the mass life, only in the group life.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00624", "bookId": 73755, "start": 266259, "end": 266422, "sha256": "3603781b93cd69b27d7e0cca9c6fd88c47e98600b12605f867a597eb589468d9", "text": "Whether the people of America shall be a crowd, under the laws of suggestion and imitation, or follow the laws of the group, is the underlying problem of to-day.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00625", "bookId": 73755, "start": 266426, "end": 267024, "sha256": "ca83d63dca0913ad76f341743b835f870d2ee98065f54070b915d6194de104fe", "text": "The promise for the future is that there now is in associations of men an increasing tendency for the laws of the group rather than the laws of the crowd to govern. Our most essential duty to the future is to see that that tendency prevail. As we increase the conscious functioning of the group we shall inevitably have less and less of the unconscious response, chauvinists will lose their job, and party bosses will have to change their tactics. People as a matter of fact are not as suggestible as formerly. Men are reading more widely and they are following less blindly what they read.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00626", "bookId": 73755, "start": 267028, "end": 268806, "sha256": "cc5a519b113af7d7330e236d9a036bef0469688cb067463cde9f9f94194fdd93", "text": "This largely increased reading, due to reduction in price, spread of railroads, rural delivery, and lessening hours of industry, is often spoken of as making men more alike in their views. Tarde spoke of the “public,” which he defined as the people sitting at home reading newspapers, as a mental collectivity because of this supposed tendency. Christensen confirms this when he says that the people reading the newspapers are “a scattered crowd.” The usually accepted opinion is that the daily press is making us more and more into crowds, but that is not my experience. A man with his daily paper may be obeying the group law or the crowd law as he unites his own thoughts with the thoughts of others or as he is merely amenable to suggestion from others, and it seems to me we see a good deal of the former process. The newspaper brings home to us vividly what others are feeling and thinking. It offers many suggestions; we see less and less tendency to “swallow these whole,” the colloquial counterpart of the technical “imitation.” These suggestions are freely criticized, readers do a good deal of thinking and the results are fairly rational. The reader more and more I believe is selecting, is unifying difference. The result of all this is that men’s minds are becoming more plastic, that they are deciding less by prejudice and hypnotism and more by judgment. And it must be remembered that a man is not necessarily a more developed person because he rejects his newspaper’s theories than if he accepts them; the developed man is the group man and the group man neither accepts nor rejects, but joins his own thought with that of all he reads to make new thought. The group man is never sterile, he always brings forth.[68]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00627", "bookId": 73755, "start": 268810, "end": 269555, "sha256": "c9b60bd25514fa65da6b3c55c3e12475a4f5778c7534388ff7fa126163ecab5c", "text": "Democracy can never mean the domination of the crowd. The helter-skelter strivings of an endless number of social atoms can never give us a fair and ordered world. It may be true that we have lived under the domination either of individuals or of crowds up to the present time, but now is the moment when this must be deliberately challenged. The party boss must go, the wise men chosen by the reform associations must go, the crowd must be abandoned. The idea of the All has gripped us—but the idea has not been made workable, we have yet to find the way. We have said, “The people must rule.” We now ask, “How are they to rule?” It is the technique of democracy which we are seeking. We shall find it in group organization.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00628", "bookId": 73755, "start": 269559, "end": 269564, "sha256": "73be087e93080f9e436892b7d182df66394bc79dbf5df119d9357df61b1ebbfb", "text": "-----", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00629", "bookId": 73755, "start": 269568, "end": 269580, "sha256": "8828baec2c20f93a52be45b4bd28abcca205cd3bfbdbf61f82cfead1c7598c6c", "text": "Footnote 67:", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00630", "bookId": 73755, "start": 269586, "end": 269791, "sha256": "e05003a6ebd29a89474e342f1a5fc9f47c76d99c41ab0acaea803ded5cbdf390", "text": "Arcos, Romains and Vildrac are the chief of these. Romains, who has written “La Vie Unanime,” is the most interesting for our present purpose, for his togetherness is so plainly that of the herd:", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00631", "bookId": 73755, "start": 269809, "end": 269936, "sha256": "a956954f9e54e380c5179af3e2660d65ae24dd9d6c14923e4506c32035fa214a", "text": "... “quelle joie De fondre dans ton corps [le ville] immense oú l’on a chaud!”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00632", "bookId": 73755, "start": 269942, "end": 270079, "sha256": "2846a702ef53f523a05c4c86dd115fbb4beaa711a24bb28ce9a735ddad49883b", "text": "Here is our old friend, the wild ox, in the mask of the most civilized (perhaps) portion of our most civilised (perhaps) nation. Again", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00633", "bookId": 73755, "start": 270097, "end": 270207, "sha256": "4e8681872df751ef0e25ea7786837731efd82a492a888d7ce6b4604d46759613", "text": "“Nous sommes indistincts: chacun de nous est mort; Et la vie unanime est notre sépulture.”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00634", "bookId": 73755, "start": 270211, "end": 270223, "sha256": "5dc5d43ced6e4473c106f85b97c85d5dd3d76f07234c41f734192792cea866e0", "text": "Footnote 68:", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00635", "bookId": 73755, "start": 270229, "end": 270938, "sha256": "7f24963f4570627499808375c3e7af674bb190891ff919cbfa8174b4ddcb6445", "text": "Other results of the increased reading of newspapers and magazines are that large questions are driving out trivial interests (I find this very marked in the country), and the enormous amount of publicity now given everything finds a channel to the public through the press. The reports of commissions, like the Industrial Relations Commission, the surveys, like the Pittsburgh Survey, the reports of foundations, like the Russell Sage, the reports of the rapidly increasing bureaus of research, like the New York Municipal Bureau, all find their way to us through the columns of our daily or weekly or monthly. Therefore we have more material on which to found individual thinking.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00636", "bookId": 73755, "start": 270942, "end": 271014, "sha256": "5be59d365acb8d35446f682c6d314fffd5db5846ab8c6eb021e6bacd98a82aa0", "text": "------------------------------------------------------------------------", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00637", "bookId": 73755, "start": 271058, "end": 271061, "sha256": "af4b27c0cefadc973cf5fa5a9214b614556c83806cfefb182569ac565903193a", "text": "XIX", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00638", "bookId": 73755, "start": 271092, "end": 271110, "sha256": "7e6edfd6f059618e72ba213726d780413b928e474a529f38687b95c01f552ac0", "text": "THE TRUE DEMOCRACY", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00639", "bookId": 73755, "start": 271143, "end": 271157, "sha256": "cb963f8b7dd4be2e8d413c437052b98afad284e3de40cd420bdd246302a111ad", "text": "--------------", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00640", "bookId": 73755, "start": 271163, "end": 272003, "sha256": "ee278e982e5ee6aa21d91482732fdb91b8af8fde5d32b7e9ca9798d8cbb87ae4", "text": "DEMOCRACY is the rule of an interacting, interpermeating whole. The present advocates of democracy have, therefore, little kinship with those ardent writers of the past who when they said they believed in the people were thinking of working-men only. A man said to me once, “I am very democratic, I thoroughly enjoy a good talk with a working-man.” What in the world has that to do with democracy? Democracy is faith in humanity, not faith in “poor” people or “ignorant” people, but faith in every living soul. Democracy does not enthrone the working-man, it has nothing to do with sympathy for the “lower classes”; the champions of democracy are not looking down to raise any one up, they recognize that all men must face each other squarely with the knowledge that the give-and-take between them is to be equal.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00641", "bookId": 73755, "start": 272007, "end": 272711, "sha256": "bb49ab26aea89f967a38042d0d8dcc1d7cac38a6c7d6afc51cf7bd8b5842caf8", "text": "The enthusiasts of democracy to-day are those who have caught sight of a great spiritual unity which is supported by the most vital trend in philosophical thought and by the latest biologists and social psychologists. It is, above all, what we have learnt of the psychical processes of association which makes us believe in democracy. Democracy is every one building the single life, not my life and others, not the individual and the state, but my life bound up with others, the individual which _is_ the state, the state which _is_ the individual. “When a man’s eye shall be single”—do we quite know yet what that means? Democracy is the fullest possible acceptance of the single life.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00642", "bookId": 73755, "start": 272715, "end": 273580, "sha256": "fb28d0e9179f6e2fee161bfa749e157f528e7d0385e6c6b67b79670315187000", "text": "Thus democracy, although often considered a centrifugal tendency, is rather a centripetal force. Democracy is not a spreading out: it is not the extension of the suffrage—its merely external aspect—it is a drawing together; it is the imperative call for the lacking parts of self. It is the finding of the one will to which the will of every single man and woman must contribute. We want women to vote not that the suffrage may be extended to women but that women may be included in the suffrage: we want what they may have to add to the whole. Democracy is an infinitely including spirit. We have an instinct for democracy because we have an instinct for wholeness; we get wholeness only through reciprocal relations, through infinitely expanding reciprocal relations. Democracy is really neither extending nor including merely, but creating wholes.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00643", "bookId": 73755, "start": 273584, "end": 274119, "sha256": "6fd392138f510387aabc1aad894d10c1f8036fee17a3d2221eaa3c0675630b61", "text": "This is the primitive urge of all life. This is the true nature of man. Democracy must find a form of government that is suited to the nature of man and which will express that nature in its manifold relations. Or rather democracy is the self-creating process of life appearing as the true nature of man, and through the activity of man projecting itself into the visible world in fitting form so that its essential oneness will declare itself. Democracy then is not an end, we must be weaving all the time the web of democracy.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00644", "bookId": 73755, "start": 274123, "end": 275761, "sha256": "0fe39c9e5ce2d108256f41d73a466500ed438aaea9cea2348dbdc192f13f20dd", "text": "The idea of democracy as representing the all-will gives us a new idea of aristocracy. We believe in the few but not as opposed to the many, only as included in all. This makes a tremendous change in political thought. We believe in the influence of the good and the wise, but they must exert their influence within the social process; it must be by action and reaction, it must be by a subtle permeation, it must be through the sporting instinct to take back the ball which one has thrown. The wise can never help us by standing on one side and trying to get their wisdom across to the unwise. The unwise can never help us (what has often been considered the most they could do for the world) by a passive willingness for the wise to impose their wisdom upon them. We need the intermingling of all in the social process. We need our imperfections as well as our perfections. So we offer what we have—our unwisdom, our imperfections—on the altar of the social process, and it is only by this social process that the wonderful transmutation can take place which makes of them the very stuff of which the Perfect Society is to be made. Imperfection meets imperfection, or imperfection meets perfection; it is the _process_ which purifies, not the “influence” of the perfect on the imperfect. This is what faith in democracy means. Moreover, there is the ignorance of the ignorant and the ignorance of the wise; there is the wisdom of the wise and the wisdom of the ignorant. Both kinds of ignorance have to be overcome, one as much as the other; both kinds of wisdom have to prevail, one as much as the other.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00645", "bookId": 73755, "start": 275765, "end": 276111, "sha256": "e407a2972b57ff6dc93a316bcba4b8f1b2e5718d75ee0464c58b7df1b4b266df", "text": "In short, there is not a static world for the wise to influence. This truth is the blow to the old aristocracy. But we need the wise within this living, moving whole, this never-ceasing action and interaction, and this truth is the basis of our new conception of aristocracy. Democracy is not opposed to aristocracy—it includes aristocracy.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00646", "bookId": 73755, "start": 276115, "end": 276403, "sha256": "2bcc1e560877368331fbbd4a5503372f1500b734e6548502a433f249c47c4a97", "text": "As biology shows us nature evolving by the power within itself, so social psychology shows us society evolving by the power of its own inner forces, of _all_ its inner forces. There is no passive material within it to be guided by a few. There is no dead material in a true democracy.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00647", "bookId": 73755, "start": 276407, "end": 277256, "sha256": "c404c1d0045b669b66b8275cc45b013f5964d2286f056ae2469f5cec6afbffd2", "text": "When people see the confusion of our present life, its formlessness and planlessness, the servile following of the crowd, the ignorance of the average man, his satisfaction in his ignorance, the insignificance of the collective life, its blindness and its hopelessness, they say they do not believe in democracy. But this is not democracy. The so-called evils of democracy—favoritism, bribery, graft, bossism—are the evils of our lack of democracy, of our party system and of the abuses which that system has brought into our representative government. It is not democracy which is “on trial,” as is so often said, but it is we ourselves who are on trial. We have been constantly trying to see what democracy meant from the point of view of institutions, we have never yet tried to see what it meant from the point of view of men.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00648", "bookId": 73755, "start": 277260, "end": 278802, "sha256": "8da87b8695c9bb988264d1076f3c802232203023ba7496a9c1aa2e153242db1c", "text": "If life could be made mechanical, our method would be correct, but as mechanics is creature and life its superabounding creator, such method is wholly wrong. When people say that the cure for the evils of democracy is more democracy, they usually mean that while we have some “popular” institutions, we have not enough, and that when we get enough “popular” institutions, our inadequacies will be met. But no form is going to fulfil our needs. This is important to remember just now, with all the agitation for “democratic control.” You cannot establish democratic control by legislation: it is not democratic control to allow the people to assent to or refuse a war decided on by diplomats; there is only one way to get democratic control—by people learning how to evolve collective ideas. The essence of democracy is not in institutions, is not even in “brotherhood”; it is in that organizing of men which makes most sure, most perfect, the bringing forth of the common idea. Democracy has one task only—to free the creative spirit of man. This is done through group organization. We are sometimes told that democracy is an attitude and must grow up in the hearts of men. But this is not enough. Democracy is a method, a scientific technique of evolving the will of the people. For this reason the study of group psychology is a necessary preliminary to the study of democracy. Neither party bosses nor unscrupulous capitalists are our undoing, but our own lack of knowing how to do things together.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00649", "bookId": 73755, "start": 278806, "end": 279238, "sha256": "539d938715edb7c3f23d8bc8d7906f91b031c5e5f29126b93e0389d7583e4e05", "text": "The startling truth that the war is bringing home to many of us is that unity must be something more than a sentiment, it must be an actual system of organization. We are now beginning to see that if you want the fruits of unity, you must _have_ unity, a real unity, a coöperative collectivism. Unity is neither a sentiment nor an intellectual conception, it is a psychological process produced by actual psychic interaction.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00650", "bookId": 73755, "start": 279242, "end": 280262, "sha256": "23fa7f0143c02fc975dbc9f03fabcc30c1d1703cab101f1ae5b6526afe8a1c40", "text": "How shall we gain a practical understanding of this essential unity of man? By practising it with the first person we meet; by approaching every man with the consciousness of the complexity of his needs, of the vastness of his powers. Much is written of the power of history and tradition in giving unity to a community or nation. This has been overemphasized. If this were the only way of getting unity, there would be little hope for the future in America, where we have to make a unity of people with widely differing traditions, and little hope for the future in Europe where peace is unthinkable unless the past can be forgotten and new ties made on the basis of mutual understanding and mutual obligation. To have democracy we must live it day by day. Democracy is the actual commingling of men in order that each shall have continuous access to the needs and the wants of others. Democracy is not a form of government; the democratic soul is born within the group and then it develops its own forms.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00651", "bookId": 73755, "start": 280266, "end": 281905, "sha256": "75990350bc88e7f072338b61e0ee10b698d326b5e0e7b4a2ef1fd65f32d16465", "text": "Democracy then is a great spiritual force evolving itself from men, utilizing each, completing his incompleteness by weaving together all in the many-membered community life which is the true Theophany. The world to-day is growing more spiritual, and I say this not in spite of the Great War, but because of all this war has shown us of the inner forces bursting forth in fuller and fuller expression. The Great War has been the Great Call to humanity and humanity is answering. It is breaking down the ramparts to free the way for the entrance of a larger spirit which is to fill every single being by interflowing between them all. France, England, America—how the beacon lights flash from one to the other—the program of the British Labor Party, the speeches of our American President, the news of the indomitable courage of France—these are like the fires in Europe on St. John’s Eve, which flash their signals from hill-top to hill-top. Even the school children of France and America write letters to each other. American men and women are working for the reconstruction of France as they would work for the reconstruction of their own homes—and all this because we are all sharing the same hope. A new faith is in our hearts. The Great War is the herald of another world for men. The coming of democracy is the spiritual rebirth. We have been told that our physical birth and life are not all, that we are to be born again of water and the spirit. Not indeed of _water_ and spirit, but of _blood_ and spirit, are the warring children of men, a groaning, growing humanity, coming to the Great Rebirth.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00652", "bookId": 73755, "start": 281909, "end": 281981, "sha256": "5be59d365acb8d35446f682c6d314fffd5db5846ab8c6eb021e6bacd98a82aa0", "text": "------------------------------------------------------------------------", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00653", "bookId": 73755, "start": 282026, "end": 282028, "sha256": "ecc76c19c9f3c5108773d6c3a18a6c25c9bf1131c4e250b71213274e3b2b5d08", "text": "XX", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00654", "bookId": 73755, "start": 282051, "end": 282085, "sha256": "40afd1847d716dd72efcb06c6640300e52ef89db4ac731df78e6846511cfe557", "text": "THE GROWTH OF DEMOCRACY IN AMERICA", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00655", "bookId": 73755, "start": 282118, "end": 282132, "sha256": "cb963f8b7dd4be2e8d413c437052b98afad284e3de40cd420bdd246302a111ad", "text": "--------------", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00656", "bookId": 73755, "start": 282138, "end": 282921, "sha256": "b1001c2c6cca8703adeb006fa5e27f0c8d5fe183b44c4bf1944d6675cd2c9399", "text": "THE two problems of democracy to-day are: (1) how to make the individual politically effective, and (2) how to give practical force to social policies. Both of these mean that the individual is at last recognized in political life. The history of democracy has been the history of the steady growth towards individualism. The hope of democracy rests on the individual. It is all one whether we say that democracy is the development of the social consciousness, or that democracy is the development of individualism; until we have become in some degree socially conscious we shall not realize the value of the individual. It is not insignificant that a marked increase in the appreciation of social values has gone hand in hand with a growing recognition of the individual.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00657", "bookId": 73755, "start": 282925, "end": 284380, "sha256": "21c8381db70e1ba0297f31cf66585863239f8b6f479c569a8aabc1e001df0784", "text": "From the Middle Ages the appreciation of the individual has steadily grown. The Reformation in the sixteenth century was an individualistic movement. The apotheosis of the individual, however, soon led us astray, involving as it did an entirely erroneous notion of the relation of the individual to society, and gave us the false political philosophy of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. Men thought of individuals as separate and then had to invent fictions to join them, hence the social contract fiction. The social contract theory was based on the idea of the state as an aggregate of units; it therefore followed that the rights of those units must be maintained. Thus individual rights became a kind of contractual rights. And during the nineteenth century, fostered by Bentham’s ideas of individual happiness, by the _laissez-faire_ of the Manchester school and the new industrial order, by Herbert Spencer’s interpretations of the recent additions to biological knowledge, by Mill, etc., the doctrine of “individual rights” became more firmly entrenched. Government interference was strenuously resisted, “individual” freedom was the goal of our desire, “individual” competition and the survival of the fittest the accredited method of progress. The title of Herbert Spencer’s book, “The Man versus the State,” implies the whole of this false political philosophy built on an unrelated individual.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00658", "bookId": 73755, "start": 284384, "end": 285296, "sha256": "8c9319b507903c318920449208acccc2cbf674e0631df7c5cc8fc4950e7eaf48", "text": "But during the latter part of the nineteenth century there began to grow up, largely at first through the influence of T. H. Green, influenced in his turn by Kant and Hegel, an entirely different theory of the state. The state was now not to be subordinate to the individual, but it was to be the fulfilment of the individual. Man was to get his rights and his liberty from membership in society. Green had at once a large influence on the political thought of England and America, and gradually, with other influences, upon practical politics. The growing recognition of the right and duty of the state to foster the life of its members, so clearly and unequivocally expressed in the social legislation of Lloyd George, we see as early as the Education Act of 1870, the Factory Act of 1878 (which systematized and extended previous Factory Acts), and the various mines and collieries acts from 1872.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00659", "bookId": 73755, "start": 285300, "end": 285817, "sha256": "e3d1d0d57328f1ba22b1cbe76401405274f7c21dd446d5e1f715e7b6c559e720", "text": "I do not mean to imply that the growing activity of the state was due entirely or mainly to the change of theory in regard to the individual and the state; when the disastrous results of _laissez-faire_ were seen, then people demanded state regulation of industry. Theory and practice have acted and reacted on each other. Some one must trace for us, step by step, the interaction of theory and practice in regard to the individual and his relation to society, from the Middle Ages down to the present day.[69]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00660", "bookId": 73755, "start": 285821, "end": 286024, "sha256": "e5d2f03a95c76a270fd366a3a02a3d5b8e66668be0d7d7733fb640d3513b5c2b", "text": "What has been the trend of our development in America? Particularism was at its zenith when our government was founded. Our growth has been away from particularism and towards a true individualism.[70]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00661", "bookId": 73755, "start": 286028, "end": 287287, "sha256": "950e255ab9e825cb0690be634e75266d8b1c8a043bbbdc885c47db0a9462379f", "text": "It is usual to say that the framers of our constitution were individualists and gave to our government an individualistic turn. We must examine this. They did safeguard and protect the individual in his life and property, they did make the bills of rights an authoritative part of our constitutions, they did make it possible for individuals to aggrandize themselves at the expense of society, their ideal of justice was indeed of individual not of social justice. And yet all this was negative. The individual was given no large positive function. The individual was feared and suspected. Our early constitutions showed no faith in men: the Massachusetts constitution expressly stated that it was not a government of men. The law of the land was embodied in written documents with great difficulty of amendment just because the people were not trusted. As we look at the crudities of the Declaration of Independence, as we examine our aristocratic state constitutions, as we study our restricted federal constitution, as we read the borrowed philosophy of our early statesmen, we see very little indication of modern democracy with its splendid faith in man, but a tendency towards aristocracy and a lack of real individualism on every side.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00662", "bookId": 73755, "start": 287291, "end": 288520, "sha256": "c229758e71a40c0dc04fdcc70456dda17adcdc9c5f54c37e0b491885184941b5", "text": "To be sure it was at the same time true that the government was given no positive power. Every one was thoroughly frightened of governments which were founded on status and resulted in arbitrary authority. The executive power was feared, therefore it was so equipped as to be unequal to its task; the legislative power was feared, so the courts were given power over the legislatures, were allowed to declare their acts valid or invalid; the national government was feared, therefore Congress was given only certain powers. Power was not granted because no man and no institution was trusted. The will to act could not be a motive force in 1789, because no embodiment of the will was trusted; the framers of our constitutions could not conceive of a kind of will which could be trusted. Fear, not faith, suspicion not trust, were the foundation of our early government. The government had, therefore, no large formative function, it did not look upon itself as a large social power. As the individual was to be protected, the government was to protect. All our thinking in the latter part of the eighteenth century was rooted in the idea of a weak government; this has been thought to show our individualism.[71]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00663", "bookId": 73755, "start": 288524, "end": 289286, "sha256": "6c600e6fac4eb443bc30604e1cedfcc19d3b2a5b8672f400876c390a60a28b61", "text": "But our government as imagined by its founders did not work.[72] Our system of checks and balances gave no real power to any department. Above all there was no way of fixing responsibility. A condition of chaos was the result. Such complicated machinery was almost unworkable; there was no way of getting anything done under our official system. Moreover, the individual was not satisfied with his function of being protected, he wanted an actual share in the government. Therefore an extra-official system was adopted, the party organization. The two chief reasons for this adoption were: (1) to give the individual some share in government, (2) to give the government a chance to carry out definite policies, to provide some kind of a unifying power.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00664", "bookId": 73755, "start": 289290, "end": 290152, "sha256": "8f13ddb568cc17a114a1fde2717e27e583a0494a96a4056f73f9b1f9bb07d659", "text": "What effect has party organization had on the individual and on government? The domination of the party gives no real opportunity to the individual: originality is crushed; the aim of all party organization is to turn out a well-running voting machine. The party is not interested in men but in voters—an entirely different matter. Party organization created artificial majorities, but gave to the individual little power in or connection with government. The basic weakness of party organization is that the individual gets his significance only through majorities. Any method which looks to the fulfilment of the individual through the domination of majorities is necessarily not only partial but false. The present demand that the nation shall have the full power of the individual is the heaviest blow that party organization has ever received.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00665", "bookId": 73755, "start": 290156, "end": 291515, "sha256": "f1c6f9818f5fa4380bd9d0bb6cad547f09fd2ff34e0c57e9cfe866ac6531e70a", "text": "Now consider, on the other hand, what party organization has done for the government. The powers of government moved steadily to political bosses and business corporations. Boss-rule, party domination and combinations of capital filled in the gaps in the system of government we inaugurated in the eighteenth century. The marriage of business and politics, while it has been the chief factor in entrenching the party system, was the outcome of that system, or rather it was the outcome of the various unworkabilities of our official government. The expansion of big business, with its control of politics, evasion of law, was inevitable; we simply had no machinery adequate to our need, namely, the development of a vast, untouched continent. The urge of that development was an overwhelming force which swept irresistibly on, carrying everything before it, swallowing up legal disability, creating for itself extra-legal methods. We have now, therefore, a system of party organization and political practice which subverts all our theories. Theoretically the people have the power, but really the government is the primaries, the conventions, the caucuses. Officials hold from the party. Party politics became corrupt because party government was irresponsible government. The insidious power of the machine is due to its irresponsibility.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00666", "bookId": 73755, "start": 291519, "end": 292205, "sha256": "e538e2f2f42fe6e2638e57a954abdf333a8ccabf4c0ed8fb7620a87e060780d2", "text": "The evils of our big business have not come because Americans are prone to cheat, because they want to get the better of their fellows, because their greed is inordinate, their ambition domineering. Individuals have not been to blame, but our whole system. It is the system which must be changed. Our constitutions and laws made possible the development of big business; our courts were not “bought” by big business, but legal decision and business practice were formed by the same inheritance and tradition. The reformation of neither will accomplish the results we wish, but the nation-wide acceptance, through all classes and all interests, of a different point of view.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00667", "bookId": 73755, "start": 292209, "end": 293134, "sha256": "c39105ab7ded2864ee3b52e11b645e75514e67f08b580b4b7d3e78112c2d560e", "text": "The next step was the wave of reform that swept over the country. The motive was excellent; the method poor. The method was poor because the same method was adopted which these reform movements were organized to fight, one based on pure crowd philosophy. It was a curious case of astigmatism. The trouble was that the reformers did not see accurately what they were fighting; they were fighting essentially the non-recognition of the individual, but they did not see this, so they went on basing all their own work on the non-appreciation of men. Their essential weakness was the weakness of the party machine—all their efforts were turned to the voter not the man. Their triumphs were always the triumphs of the polls. Their methods were principally three: change in the forms of government (charters, etc.), the nomination of “good” men to office, and exhortation to induce “the people” to elect them.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00668", "bookId": 73755, "start": 293138, "end": 294333, "sha256": "c2b8fb126d00ca8efb5730d3480c19117cca17796aff0337fbb90340c38a968c", "text": "The idea of “good” men in office was the fetich of many reform associations. They thought that their job was to find three or four “good” men and then once a year to hypnotize the electorate to “do their duty” and put these men into office, and then all would go well if before another year three or four more good men could be found. What a futile and childish idea which leaves out of account the whole body of citizenship! It is only through this main body of citizenship that we can have a decent government and a sound social life. That is, in other words, it is only by a genuine appreciation of the individual, of every single individual, that there can be any reform movement with strength and constructive power. The wide-spread fallacy that good officials make a good city is one which lies at the root of much of our thinking and insidiously works to ruin our best plans, our most serious efforts. This extraordinary belief in officials, this faith in the panacea of a change of charters, must go. If our present mechanical government is to turn into a living, breathing, pulsing life, it must be composed of an entire citizenship educated and responsible.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00669", "bookId": 73755, "start": 294337, "end": 294916, "sha256": "8d2cfeb4c0f4b0051e44f5b970d35b7a935131481677bb35b285608fa8b7777d", "text": "This the reform associations now recognize, in some cases partially, in some cases fully. The good government association of to-day has a truer idea of its function. The campaign for the election of city officials is used as a means of educating the mass of citizens: besides the investigation and publication of facts, there is often a clear showing of the aims of government and an enlightening discussion of method. Such associations have always considered the interests of the city as a whole; they have not appealed, like the party organizations, to local sentiment.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00670", "bookId": 73755, "start": 294920, "end": 296192, "sha256": "a09feeba5cfe98c32e84c7bc356f938bae7642c1edb85f742b0b280767263dcc", "text": "I have spoken of the relation of the reform movement of the last of the nineteenth century to the body of citizenship. What was its relation to government? The same spirit applied to government meant patching, mending, restraining, but it did not mean constructive work, it had not a formative effect on our institutions. Against any institution that has to be guarded every moment lest it do evil, there is a strong a priori argument that it should not exist. This until recently has not been sufficiently taken into account. Now, however, in the beginning of the twentieth century, we see many evidences that the old era of restraint is over and the constructive period of reform begun. We see it, for instance, in our Bureaus of Municipal Research; we see it in the more progressive sections of our state constitutional conventions. But the chief error of the nineteenth-century reformers was not that they were reactionary, nor that they were timid, nor that they were insincere, nor that they were hedgers. They were wanting in neither sincerity nor courage. Their error was simply that they did not appreciate the value of the individual. Individualism instead of being something we are getting away from, is something we are just catching sight of.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00671", "bookId": 73755, "start": 296196, "end": 297169, "sha256": "4667dcf1fa62a84fd69b2c8c32be7e782b39a10dd5b9ba4c18a8f3ca25318fe4", "text": "And if our institutions were founded on a false political philosophy which taught “individual rights,” distorted ideas of liberty and equality, and thought of man versus the state, if our political development was influenced by a false social psychology which saw the people as a crowd and gave them first to the party bosses and next to the social reformers, our whole material development was dominated by a false economic philosophy which saw the greatest good of all obtained by each following his own good in his own way. This did not mean the development of individuals but the crushing of individuals—of all but a few. The Manchester school of economics, which was bound to flourish extensively under American conditions, combined with a narrow legal point of view, which for a hundred years interpreted our constitutions in accordance with an antiquated philosophy and a false psychology, to make particularism the dominant note in American life.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00672", "bookId": 73755, "start": 297173, "end": 298340, "sha256": "5d625cc93fa04087b3ff31ad3f32c59c1bbc96cb9a8a039ab26026aa833e9023", "text": "The central point of our particularism was the idea of being let alone. First, the _individual_ was to be let alone, the pioneer on his reclaimed land or the pioneer of industry. But when men saw that their gains would be greater by some sort of combination, then the _trusts_ were to be let alone—freedom of contract was called liberty! Our courts, completely saturated with this philosophy, let the trusts alone. The interpretations of our courts, our corrupt party organization, our institutions and our social philosophy, hastened and entrenched the monopolistic age. Natural rights meant property rights. The power of single men or single corporations at the end of the nineteenth century marked the height of our particularism, of our subordination of the state to single members. They were like _pâté de foie gras_ made by the enlargement of the goose’s liver. It is usual to disregard the goose. The result of our false individualism has been non-conservation of our national resources, exploitation of labor, and political corruption. We see the direct outcome in our slums, our unregulated industries, our “industrial unrest,” etc.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00673", "bookId": 73755, "start": 298344, "end": 298906, "sha256": "49a76b1d3481bfad1017526c7331411ac9c0b81baddd801050ea32e4ff748467", "text": "But egotism, materialism, anarchy are not true individualism. To-day, however, we have many evidences of the steadily increasing appreciation of the individual and a true understanding of his place in society, his relation to the state. Chief among these are: (1) the movement towards industrial democracy, (2) the woman movement, (3) the increase of direct government, and (4) the introduction of social programs into party platforms. These are parallel developments from the same root. What we have awakened to now is the importance of every single man.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00674", "bookId": 73755, "start": 298910, "end": 299908, "sha256": "9b93f5ee0286e9c4bd48579d47abd53cd88ae587a3c1a34632207fb4268e1aef", "text": "The first, the trend towards industrial democracy, will, in its relation to the new state, be considered later. The second, the woman movement, belongs to the past rather than to the present. Its culmination has overrun the century mark and makes what is really a nineteenth-century movement seem as if it belonged to the twentieth. It belongs to the past because it is merely the end of the movement for the extension of the suffrage. Our suffrage rested originally in many states on property distinctions; in New Hampshire there was a religious and property qualification,—only Protestant tax-payers could vote. Gradually it became manhood suffrage, then the immigrants were admitted, later the negroes, then Colorado opened its suffrage to women, and now in thirteen states women have the full suffrage. The essence of the woman movement is not that women as women should have the vote, but that women as individuals should have the vote. There is a fundamental distinction here.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00675", "bookId": 73755, "start": 299912, "end": 300352, "sha256": "a7312129ec58a5f6efe13df5177a13c2edc5d1fae6c58c84b0c62623b71477c5", "text": "The third and fourth indications of the growth of democracy, or the increase of individualism (I speak of these always as synonymous)—the tendency towards more and more direct government and the introduction of social programs into party platforms—will be considered in the next chapter together with a third tendency in American politics which is bound up with these two: I refer to the increase of administrative responsibility.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00676", "bookId": 73755, "start": 300374, "end": 300407, "sha256": "92bf9343d426ee004c3cb7caa3f283036b2f3626f071d4807d38518427facd12", "text": "* * * * *", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00677", "bookId": 73755, "start": 300411, "end": 301658, "sha256": "6e7fb9c695b5786a62dc85f6b058c114374b2909a1c9f92d5a875c220bd6627b", "text": "The theory of government based on individual rights no longer has a place in modern political theory; it no longer guides us entirely in legislation but has yielded largely to a truer practice; yet it still occupies a large place in current thought, in the speeches of our practical politicians, in our institutions of government, and in America in our law court decisions. This being so it is important for us to look for the reasons. First, there are of course always many people who trail along behind. Secondly, partly through the influence of Green and Bosanquet, the idea of contract has been slowly fading away, and many people have been frightened at its disappearance because Hegelianism, even in the modified form in which it appears in English theory, _seems_ to enthrone the state and override the individual.[73] Third, the large influence which Tarde, Le Bon, and their followers have had upon us with their suggestion and imitation theories of society—theories based on a pure particularism. The development of social and political organization has been greatly retarded by this school of sociology. Fourth, our economic development is still associated in the minds of many with the theories of individual rights.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00678", "bookId": 73755, "start": 301662, "end": 302386, "sha256": "cc04878efea805716373b46c34d165f4e3c8a28adbe5e326e96e281fd63186c4", "text": "A more penetrating analysis of society during recent years, however, has uncovered the true conception of individualism hidden from the first within the “individualistic” movement. All through history we see the feeling out for the individual; there are all the false trails followed and there are the real steps taken. The false trails led to the individual rights of politics, the _laissez-faire_ of economics and our whole false particularism. The real steps have culminated in our ideas of to-day. To substitute for the fictitious democracy of equal rights and “consent of the governed,” the living democracy of a united, responsible people is the task of the twentieth century. We seek now the method.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00679", "bookId": 73755, "start": 302390, "end": 302395, "sha256": "73be087e93080f9e436892b7d182df66394bc79dbf5df119d9357df61b1ebbfb", "text": "-----", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00680", "bookId": 73755, "start": 302399, "end": 302411, "sha256": "29527eb0693307f32e240f9a35a41b635a045aa60d9f12cda357f1d26c5e72ff", "text": "Footnote 69:", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00681", "bookId": 73755, "start": 302417, "end": 302555, "sha256": "7556fb817b168ab80997e130dfd2ef3feff30f3ec28ee0ac7ed69b869cad6315", "text": "Also the development of the relation of individualistic theories to the rise and decline of the doctrines regarding the national state.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00682", "bookId": 73755, "start": 302559, "end": 302571, "sha256": "4ae825aa837b32fa36ba369b92d3e63ad718dc4152bdb2162f2629c474ba0c5d", "text": "Footnote 70:", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00683", "bookId": 73755, "start": 302577, "end": 302670, "sha256": "c4e8c3a27d730cde0b2ce13da941aee84ac7a766b78e4ac39959301d8741fc1b", "text": "I do not wish, however, to minimize the truly democratic nature of our local institutions.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00684", "bookId": 73755, "start": 302674, "end": 302686, "sha256": "d8d39a165deef85634510e1c79641c404d6464f35823e77b2c3f64fb0d21d895", "text": "Footnote 71:", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00685", "bookId": 73755, "start": 302692, "end": 303102, "sha256": "2901bc3e2504d64fb8847d58f8cbd522b80c53e89a6935cd1b99a01b42985815", "text": "While it is true that there were undemocratic elements in the mental equipment and psychological bent of our forefathers, and it is these which I have emphasized because from them came our immediate development, it is equally true that there were also sound democratic elements to which we can trace our present ideas of democracy. Such tracing even in briefest form there is not space for here.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00686", "bookId": 73755, "start": 303106, "end": 303118, "sha256": "37d2e07f0afe0b39a1b9be02e889183314157283d7a5615b5360318494688d4f", "text": "Footnote 72:", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00687", "bookId": 73755, "start": 303124, "end": 303823, "sha256": "73bbe4ba2181c445684c46b9f861fe29ad8d5ce2c3838a44de34fc5c1e051392", "text": "It became at once evident that a government whose chief function was to see that individual rights, property rights, state rights, were not invaded, was hardly adequate to unite our colonies with all their separatist instincts, or to meet the needs of a rapidly developing continent. Our national government at once adopted a constructive policy. Guided by Hamilton it assumed constructive powers authority for which could be found in the constitution only by a most liberal construction of its terms. When Jefferson, an antinationalist, acquired Louisiana in 1803, it seemed plain that no such restricted national government as was at first conceived could possibly work.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00688", "bookId": 73755, "start": 303827, "end": 303839, "sha256": "a19882c19b90f27ee498480df28dfc413a307dacfb46a6fa07c93094bae78dc7", "text": "Footnote 73:", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00689", "bookId": 73755, "start": 303845, "end": 303955, "sha256": "268861e49d4e777045a218ae23fe8e282bd4471965b59972e402c158b2e492dd", "text": "These English writers to whom our debt is so large are not responsible for this, but their misinterpreters.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00690", "bookId": 73755, "start": 303959, "end": 304031, "sha256": "5be59d365acb8d35446f682c6d314fffd5db5846ab8c6eb021e6bacd98a82aa0", "text": "------------------------------------------------------------------------", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00691", "bookId": 73755, "start": 304075, "end": 304078, "sha256": "529455afadaf8eeeba4d3a57cd520247d51a47e4a556bc9750ddce83794e6b1b", "text": "XXI", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00692", "bookId": 73755, "start": 304103, "end": 304134, "sha256": "955b9dfee90699c555cfc56e3d7a877ec7720e85fa00f6a1d24dc15ff6dde2a6", "text": "AFTER DIRECT GOVERNMENT—WHAT?", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00693", "bookId": 73755, "start": 304167, "end": 304181, "sha256": "cb963f8b7dd4be2e8d413c437052b98afad284e3de40cd420bdd246302a111ad", "text": "--------------", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00694", "bookId": 73755, "start": 304187, "end": 305324, "sha256": "13236c025acf38e3c257bb5265804f5c278c157032a61e72c8cf0511d7dad9bc", "text": "WE have outgrown our political system. We must face this frankly. We had, first, government by law,[74] second, government by parties and big business, and all the time some sort of fiction of the “consent of the governed” which we said meant democracy. But we have never had government by the people. The third step is to be the development of machinery by which the fundamental ideas of the people can be got at and embodied; further, by which we can grow fundamental ideas; further still, by which we can prepare the soil in which fundamental ideas can grow. Direct government will we hope lead to this step, but it cannot alone do this. How then shall it be supplemented? Let us look at the movement for direct government with two others closely connected with it—the concentration of administrative responsibility and the increase of social legislation—three movements which are making an enormous change in American political life. Then let us see if we can discover what idea it is necessary to add to those involved in these three movements, in other words what new principle is needed in modern politics.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00695", "bookId": 73755, "start": 305328, "end": 306693, "sha256": "72721c7bd96f384ea4136f38d03660926ff81de401a4d27d421eb7e2826d3e84", "text": "We are at present trying to secure (1) a more efficient government, and (2) a real not a nominal control of government by the people. The tendency to transfer power to the American citizenship, and the tendency towards efficient government by the employment of experts and the concentration of administrative authority, are working side by side in American political life to-day. These two tendencies are not opposed, and if the main thesis of this book has been proved, it is understood by this time why they are not opposed. Democracy I have said is not antithetical to aristocracy, but includes aristocracy. And it does not include it accidentally, as it were, but aristocracy is a necessary part of democracy. Therefore administrative responsibility and expert service are as necessary a part of genuine democracy as popular control is a necessary accompaniment of administrative responsibility. They are parallel in importance. Some writers seem to think that because we are giving so much power to our executives, we must safeguard our “liberty” by giving at the same time ultimate authority to the people. While this is of course so in a way, I believe a truer way of looking at the matter is to see centralized responsibility and popular control, not one dependent on the other, but both as part of the same thing—our new democracy.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00696", "bookId": 73755, "start": 306697, "end": 307489, "sha256": "115030a7d0ed63eccc8faf3a3cf2bf9d7a7f30320d304c1a85915b74af4ba384", "text": "Both our city and our state governments are being reorganized. We have long felt that city government should be concentrated in the hands of a few experts. The old idea that any honest citizen was fit for most public offices is rapidly disappearing. Over three hundred cities have adopted the commission form of government, and there is a growing movement for the city-manager plan. But at the same time we must have a participant electorate. We can see three stages in our thinking: (1) our early American democracy thought that public offices could be filled by the average citizen; (2) our reform associations thought that the salvation of our cities depended on expert officials; (3) present thinking sees the necessity of combining expert service and an active electorate.[75]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00697", "bookId": 73755, "start": 307493, "end": 308477, "sha256": "a25fa08c0121e1baf663eacf5959eed1b585904105628e8f4e467ab1b91d4cd9", "text": "The increasing number of states which are holding, or are considering holding, constitutional conventions for the reconstruction of state governments shows the wide-spread dissatisfaction with our state machinery. The principal object of nearly all of these conventions is increased efficiency through concentration of responsibility. In our fear of abuse of power there has been no one to use power; we must change this if we are to have administrative efficiency. Most of the schemes for a reconstruction of state governments are based on (1) concentration of executive leadership in the hands of the governor, and (2) direct responsibility to the electorate. The former implies appointment of administrative officials by the governor, an executive budget, and readjustment in the relation of executive and legislative so that the governor can introduce and defend bills. The latter necessitates the ability of the electorate to criticize work done and plans proposed.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00698", "bookId": 73755, "start": 308481, "end": 309779, "sha256": "d6b1586ddea94d0f60dd4dddf9c345e5887e4c4b1fadb58b3181cd2f7bb52cf7", "text": "Therefore the tendency towards an effective responsibility through the increased power of our executive does not mean that less is required of citizens, but more. To the initiative, referendum and recall is to be added the general control by the people themselves of our state policies. Executive leadership may reduce the power of legislatures, but it will increase the power of the electorate both directly and indirectly: indirectly by weakening party organization, and directly by giving the people more and more control. It has been suggested, for instance, that in any dispute between governor and legislature the people might be called on to decide, either directly by passing on the proposed legislation itself, or by a new election. At any rate ultimate control must somehow be with the people. That this was not sufficiently provided for in the New York constitution submitted to the voters of New York a few years ago was one of the reasons for its rejection. What frightened the men of New York was undoubtedly the increased power of the state administrative without any corresponding increase in democratic control. To increase at the same time democratic control and administrative responsibility, while not an easy thing to do, is the task of our new constitutions.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00699", "bookId": 73755, "start": 309783, "end": 310083, "sha256": "0b6e07c6f7b5981ccd0430283086b603f2776d4255bd9ba140c8e481b108734a", "text": "With regard to direct government we are at present making two mistakes: first, in thinking that we can get any benefit from it if it is operated from within the party organization;[76] secondly, in thinking that it is merely to record, that it is based on counting, on the preponderance of votes.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00700", "bookId": 73755, "start": 310087, "end": 311197, "sha256": "204d5ac64f0232dd9defe722eb63dc595c26d2efeca074f4992cb598ea8085c0", "text": "The question staring us in the face in American politics to-day is—What possible good can direct government do us if party organization remains in control? The movement for direct primaries, popular choice of United States senators, presidential primaries, initiative and referendum, the recall etc., will bear little fruit unless something is done at the same time to break the power of the party. Many people tell us that our present party system, with its method of caucuses, conventions, bosses etc., has failed, and they are now looking to the direct primary as their hope, but the direct primary in itself will not free us from the tyranny of party rule. Look at this much-lauded direct primary and see what it is actually giving us: the political machines have known from the beginning how to circumvent it, it often merely increases the power of the boss, and at its best it is accomplishing no integrating of the American people—the real task of democracy. No development of party machinery or reform of party machinery is going to give us the will of the people, only a new method.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00701", "bookId": 73755, "start": 311201, "end": 312621, "sha256": "1d61ca9b858ad9cae3fc3681a73db94050b39b64a2ab71925cbf831bcf2c8c94", "text": "Moreover, merely giving more power to the people does not automatically reduce the hold of the party; some positive measures must be taken if direct government is not to fail exactly as representative government has failed. The faith in direct government as a sure panacea is almost pathetic when we remember how in the past one stronghold after another has been captured by the party. Much has been written by advocates of direct government to show that it will destroy the arbitrary power of the party, destroy its relation to big business, etc., but we see little evidence of this. We all know, and we can see every year if we watch the history of referendum votes, that the party organization is quite able to use “direct government” for its own ends. Direct government worked by the machine will be subject to much the same abuses as representative government. And direct and representative government cannot be synthesized by executive leadership alone. All that is said in favor of the former may be true, but it can never be made operative unless we are able to find some way of breaking the power of the machine. Direct government can be beneficial to American politics only if accompanied by the organization of voters in non-partisan groups for the production of common ideas and a collective purpose. Of itself direct government can never become the responsible government of a people.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00702", "bookId": 73755, "start": 312625, "end": 314492, "sha256": "b70ae86698d502d8b102e7d867be52c6bebdb2b7deecf3c4da2e5431a8b65263", "text": "I have said that direct government will never succeed if operated from within the party organization, nor if it is considered, as it usually is, merely a method by which the people can accept or reject what is proposed to them. Let us now look at the second point. We have seen that party organization does not allow group methods, that the party is a crowd: suggestion by the boss, imitation by the mass, is the rule. But direct government also may and probably will be crowd government if it is merely a means of counting. As far as direct government can be given the technique of a genuine democracy, it is an advance step in political method, but the trouble is that many of its supporters do not see this necessity; they have given it their adherence because of their belief in majority rule, in their belief that to count one and one and one is to get at the will of the people. But for each to count as one means crowd rule—of course the party captures us. Yet even if it did not, we do not want direct government if we are to fall from party domination into the tyranny of numbers. That every man was to count as one was the contribution of the old psychology to politics; the new psychology goes deeper and further,—it teaches that each is to be the whole at one point. This changes our entire conception of politics. Voting at the polls is not to be the expression of one man after another. My vote should not be my freak will any more than it should be my adherence to party, but my individual expression of the common will. The particularist vote does not represent the individual will because the evolution of the individual will is bound up in a larger evolution. Therefore, _my duty as a citizen is not exhausted by what I bring to the state; my test as a citizen is how fully the whole can be expressed in or through me_.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00703", "bookId": 73755, "start": 314496, "end": 315452, "sha256": "7e5bdb2dbf33943b58f8012ec7924aa029ac68ad23be059e402dca8c891adee5", "text": "The vote in itself does not give us democracy—we have yet to learn democracy’s method. We still think too much of the solidarity of the vote; what we need is solidarity of purpose, solidarity of will. To make my vote a genuine part of the expression of the collective will is the first purpose of politics; it is only through group organization that the individual learns this lesson, that he learns to be an effective political member. People often ask, “Why is democracy so unprogressive?” It is just because we have not democracy in this sense. As long as the vote is that of isolated individuals, the tendency will be for us to have an unprogressive vote. This state of things can be remedied, first, by a different system of education, secondly, by giving men opportunities to exercise that fundamental intermingling with others which is democracy. To the consideration of how this can be accomplished Part III is mainly directed.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00704", "bookId": 73755, "start": 315456, "end": 316111, "sha256": "183e10759736f8b1db300393dce4171921a7b4e802ceddf2d88435bf46233b2c", "text": "But I am making no proposal for some hard and fast method by which every vote shall register the will of a definite, fixed number of men rather than of one man. I am talking of a new method of living _by_ which the individual shall learn to be part of social wholes, _through_ which he shall express social wholes. The individual not the group must be the basis of organization. But the individual is created by many groups, his vote cannot express his relation to one group; it must ideally, I have said, express the whole from his point of view, actually it must express as much of the whole as the variety of his group life makes possible.[77]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00705", "bookId": 73755, "start": 316115, "end": 317101, "sha256": "011c8c7395ab75a3e0865970b3628b24c1bf7005f8828841c131ae7326105538", "text": "When shall we begin to understand what the ballot-box means in our political life? _It creates nothing_—it merely registers what is already created. If direct government is to be more than ballot-box democracy it must learn not to record what is on the surface, but to dig down underneath the surface. No “democracy” which is based on a preponderance of votes can ever succeed. The essence of democracy is an educated and responsible citizenship evolving common ideas and _willing_ its own social life. The dynamic thought is the thought which represents the most complete synthesis. In art the influence of a school does not depend upon the number of its adherents, but upon the extent to which that school represents a synthesis of thought. This is exactly so in politics. Direct government must create. It can do this through group organization. We are at the cross-roads now: shall we give the initiative and referendum to a crowd or to an interpenetrating group?", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00706", "bookId": 73755, "start": 317105, "end": 318069, "sha256": "465f90a1b36e99288e7d01f053b029197c2f7f26edc73db5e1a9272e3886b0dd", "text": "To sum up: the corruption of politics is due largely to the conception of the people as a crowd. To change this idea is, I believe, the first step in the reform of our political life. Unless this is done before we make sweeping changes in the mechanism of government, such changes will not mean progress. If the people are a crowd capable of nothing but imitation, what is the use of all the direct government we are trying to bring about, how can a “crowd” be considered capable of political decisions? Direct government gives to every one the right to express his opinion. The question is whether that opinion is to be his particularist opinion or the imitation of the crowd or the creation of the group. The party has dominated us in the past chiefly because we have truly believed the people to be a crowd. When we understand the law of association as the law of psychic interplay, then indeed shall we be on the way towards the New Democracy.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00707", "bookId": 73755, "start": 318073, "end": 318466, "sha256": "b26bf8d3d27f48b27b4682a16f6377a5c0d74e20ed7879b1e63975f3ab851145", "text": "Direct government will not succeed if it is operated through the party organization; it will not succeed even if separated from party control if it means the crowd in another guise. To be successful direct government must be controlled by some method not yet brought into practical politics. When we have an organized electorate, we shall begin to see the advantages of direct government.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00708", "bookId": 73755, "start": 318488, "end": 318521, "sha256": "92bf9343d426ee004c3cb7caa3f283036b2f3626f071d4807d38518427facd12", "text": "* * * * *", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00709", "bookId": 73755, "start": 318525, "end": 318721, "sha256": "3d148194f298b8317f6a7d3e0058ce6e823195d59a9c6e55d75a12294a801ef2", "text": "At the beginning of this chapter three closely related movements in American politics were mentioned. The third must now be considered—the introduction of social programs into party platforms.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00710", "bookId": 73755, "start": 318725, "end": 318881, "sha256": "5223c24343c0f1eddb5fbb0a9ec96f7cd5ad2c032977602627e99818557888d1", "text": "We have had three policies in legislation: (1) the let-alone policy,[78] (2) the regulation policy, and now (3) the constructive policy is just appearing.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00711", "bookId": 73755, "start": 318885, "end": 319797, "sha256": "7de85f11436b65247b9b904e8d754906bd1ddafb00a856a9de4cd6b3a30b2c50", "text": "In order to get away from the consequences of _laissez-faire_, we adopted, at the end of the nineteenth century, an almost equally pernicious one, the regulation theory. The error at the bottom of the “regulation” idea of government is that people may be allowed to do as they please (_laissez-faire_) until they have built up special rules and privileges for themselves, and then they shall be “regulated.” The regulation theory of government is that we are to give every opportunity for efficiency to come to the top in order that we shall get the benefit of that efficiency, but at the same time our governmental machinery is to be such that efficiency is to be shorn of its power before it can do any harm—a sort of automatic blow-off. Gauge your boiler (society) at what it will stand without bursting, then when our ablest people get to that point the blow-off will make society safe.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00712", "bookId": 73755, "start": 319801, "end": 320596, "sha256": "7d74775d7c071fc199767a137ec51b018e55e54fc65f359f0a739116ed679c60", "text": "But the most salient thing about present American politics is that we are giving up both our let-alone and our regulation policies in favor of a constructive policy. There has been a steady and comprehensible growth of democracy from this point of view, that is, of the idea of the function of government being not merely to protect, to adjust, to restrain, and all the negative rest of it, but that the function of government should be to build, to construct the life of its people. We think now that a constructive social policy is more democratic than the protection of men in their individual rights and property. In 1800 the opposite idea prevailed, and Jefferson, not Hamilton, was considered the Democrat. We must reinterpret or restate the fundamental principles of democracy.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00713", "bookId": 73755, "start": 320600, "end": 321991, "sha256": "a531a44b95cfc07fec71459b40f98e5171c889cf6dddfa069cd71b0705a2fc9a", "text": "But why do we consider our present constructive social policies more democratic? Are they necessarily so? Has not paternalistic Germany constructive social policies for her people? Social legislation in England and America means an increase of democracy because it is a movement which is in England and America bound up with other democratic movements.[79] In America we see at the same time the trend towards (1) an increase of administrative responsibility, (2) an increase of direct control by the people, (3) an increase of social legislation. Not one of these is independent of the other two. They have acted and reacted on one another. Men have not first been given a more direct share in government and then used their increased power to adopt social policies. The two have gone on side by side. Moreover, the adoption of social policies has increased the powers of government and, therefore, it has more and more come to be seen that popular control of government is necessary. At the same time the making of campaign issues out of social policies has at once in itself made all the people more important in politics. Or it is equally true to say that giving the people a closer share in government means that our daily lives pass more naturally into the area of politics. Hence we see, from whichever point we begin, that these three movements are bound together.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00714", "bookId": 73755, "start": 321995, "end": 322637, "sha256": "2541e5d2e9f0e55e5877e6aa68163fbf2ab54f0f2177a71f4811dd50c2954031", "text": "Thus in America there is growing recognition of the fact that social policies are not policies invented for the good of the people, but policies created by the people. The regulation theory was based on the same fallacy as the let-alone theory, namely, that government is something external to the structural life of the people. Government cannot leave us alone, it cannot regulate us, it can only express us. The scope of politics should be our whole social life. Our present idea of an omnipresent, ever-active, articulate citizenship building up its own life within the frame of politics is the most fruitful idea of modern times.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00715", "bookId": 73755, "start": 322641, "end": 323488, "sha256": "a7dec2d6bb5d1aa90032cc2f38888cd747ac25e6a241bdf0f30d7f22b9221213", "text": "Moreover, social legislation is an indication of the growth of democracy, the increase of individualism, because it is legislation for the individual. We have had legislation to protect home industries, we have encouraged agriculture, we have helped the railroads by concessions and land grants, but we have not until recently had legislation for the individual. Social legislation means legislation for the individual man: health laws, shorter hours of work, workmen’s compensation, old age pensions, minimum wage, prevention of industrial accidents, prohibition of child labor, etc. Over and over again our social legislation is pointed to as a reaction against individualism. On the contrary it shows an increase of genuine individualism. The _individual_ has never been so appreciated as in the awakening _social_ world of to-day.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00716", "bookId": 73755, "start": 323492, "end": 324007, "sha256": "9eb1bf1d51e60f1e44d450a10e1b0d6fd31065cad88506eb4596ffb065673bd7", "text": "This is not a contradiction of what is said in chapter XV, that law according to its most progressive exponents is to serve not individuals, but the community; that modern law thinks of men not as separate individuals, but in their relation to one another. Modern law synthesizes the idea of individual and community through its view of the social individual as the community-unit. Law used to be for the particularist individual; now it serves the community, but the community-unit is the social individual.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00717", "bookId": 73755, "start": 324011, "end": 324907, "sha256": "e3cde3fab913af038a98f0e046aae058303fe674bf5af08e1ad77068aba28b71", "text": "In our most recent books we see the expression “the new individualism.” The meaning of this phrase, although never used by him, is clearly implied in the writings of Mr. Roscoe Pound. He says “As a social institution the interests with which law is concerned are social interests, but the chiefest of these social interests is one in the full human life of the individual.” Here is expressed the essential meaning of the new individualism—that it is a synthesis of individual and society. That the social individual, the community-unit, is becoming “the individual” for law is the most promising sign for the future of political method. When Mr. Pound says that the line between public law and private law in jurisprudence is nothing more than a convenient mode of expression, he shows us the old controversy in regard to the state and the individual simply fading away.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00718", "bookId": 73755, "start": 324911, "end": 325277, "sha256": "7635aa98ca1e711038b5c0813916a52c403e9e3af2d401d9f7d1cdd19b24af97", "text": "Social legislation, direct government, concentration of administrative responsibility, are then indications of the growth of democracy? Yes, but only indications. They can mean an actual increase of democracy only if they are accompanied by the development of those methods which shall make every man and his daily needs the basis and the substance of politics.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00719", "bookId": 73755, "start": 325281, "end": 325286, "sha256": "73be087e93080f9e436892b7d182df66394bc79dbf5df119d9357df61b1ebbfb", "text": "-----", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00720", "bookId": 73755, "start": 325290, "end": 325302, "sha256": "721a21adac4ef45dc047e5bd4d4acfe45e2d375ef9deb68f5226344407df3589", "text": "Footnote 74:", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00721", "bookId": 73755, "start": 325308, "end": 325524, "sha256": "ae6fdd4f464e84c48c45ed17270546a9f40081afc5737e625d82001c975df46b", "text": "With the executive and legislative limited in their powers, the decisions of the courts gradually came, especially as they developed constructive powers, to be a body of law which guided the American people.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00722", "bookId": 73755, "start": 325528, "end": 325540, "sha256": "63b3bf33f1328efee998d66e4e915c6c462957d4db9731f9dafee7de2b9a4fe8", "text": "Footnote 75:", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00723", "bookId": 73755, "start": 325546, "end": 325582, "sha256": "21f18dc8725b546f26229ad5955bcb9225ea57888637f29e8e1b939c22c955e5", "text": "For ways of doing this see Part III.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00724", "bookId": 73755, "start": 325586, "end": 325598, "sha256": "201a212bcc45fbd34c8d46a361fddbd87cb9b9b0d6b2032ff7faff96bad69e88", "text": "Footnote 76:", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00725", "bookId": 73755, "start": 325604, "end": 325765, "sha256": "fa8fe6202a9ee509cec5dceff550e36976ce060bc87c4e1fcac21c2f6cb2ab66", "text": "We used to think frequent elections democratic. Now we know that they mean simply an increase of party influence and a decrease of official responsibility.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00726", "bookId": 73755, "start": 325769, "end": 325781, "sha256": "aa56da03c6c3730058fa9988088b050ed34f4cc4252736347fc739a4c43c6a4e", "text": "Footnote 77:", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00727", "bookId": 73755, "start": 325787, "end": 325844, "sha256": "01236be677e90d86b61cf96bdb90dac899870e9e4adade69769903f68857d8c0", "text": "See ch. XXX, “Political Pluralism and Functionalism.”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00728", "bookId": 73755, "start": 325848, "end": 325860, "sha256": "6fdf6651dcd66b61f055209c6df65d3a1a142fe15fca42ee4941afd935e80ee7", "text": "Footnote 78:", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00729", "bookId": 73755, "start": 325866, "end": 326084, "sha256": "19e44fcb7a85e2fd89ec407ac04224357d7606985504197521796222536ddfe7", "text": "_Laissez-faire_ was popular when there were great numbers of individual producers. When the large-scale business system made wage-earners of these, there was the beginning of the break-down of _laissez-faire_.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00730", "bookId": 73755, "start": 326088, "end": 326100, "sha256": "e3387f6fc0e1b0d3516aa433890d0ee204867e5bdf240c1a375a81aadc725573", "text": "Footnote 79:", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00731", "bookId": 73755, "start": 326106, "end": 326163, "sha256": "d62dc7d51d17a865b4576508c0fe514ec911ccda8f25b54aa44c17717ef12613", "text": "Besides the more obvious one of “universal suffrage.”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00732", "bookId": 73755, "start": 326167, "end": 326239, "sha256": "5be59d365acb8d35446f682c6d314fffd5db5846ab8c6eb021e6bacd98a82aa0", "text": "------------------------------------------------------------------------", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00733", "bookId": 73755, "start": 326281, "end": 326289, "sha256": "8867fe43be28b87b18eeccd025a9a6c92d997eed6d6966b60214a5e7fcb10f1d", "text": "PART III", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00734", "bookId": 73755, "start": 326310, "end": 326349, "sha256": "f213cebf439964d44b89e1e3224b71b66e12418431545340a83ee4b9d2c3a0f3", "text": "GROUP ORGANIZATION DEMOCRACY’S METHOD", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00735", "bookId": 73755, "start": 326382, "end": 326407, "sha256": "097b3f379242e8b5ed52758557c67afc61745d1b2b72de584c44942c102e3e76", "text": "1. THE NEIGHBORHOOD GROUP", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00736", "bookId": 73755, "start": 326434, "end": 326459, "sha256": "89bdc9627d7d9221ecb590fbe40cac418338fbb4c4d5c8526ad0f7c05e7b7606", "text": "2. THE OCCUPATIONAL GROUP", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00737", "bookId": 73755, "start": 326463, "end": 326535, "sha256": "5be59d365acb8d35446f682c6d314fffd5db5846ab8c6eb021e6bacd98a82aa0", "text": "------------------------------------------------------------------------", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00738", "bookId": 73755, "start": 326570, "end": 326592, "sha256": "e52e0ec062842698a65bd31dab300aaee6b894c8f78875e7df7b44ddd082d6d5", "text": "THE NEIGHBORHOOD GROUP", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00739", "bookId": 73755, "start": 326602, "end": 326674, "sha256": "5be59d365acb8d35446f682c6d314fffd5db5846ab8c6eb021e6bacd98a82aa0", "text": "------------------------------------------------------------------------", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00740", "bookId": 73755, "start": 326718, "end": 326722, "sha256": "df2199c6bea2e1fc74e009bb062957326bb3a128a7e3bd2f7acad0ebb53dcf2b", "text": "XXII", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00741", "bookId": 73755, "start": 326742, "end": 326782, "sha256": "d21ce142a0c85fdf1d9600e0cc5aae1a4a3344964bdda61a5e89b5fc8c8cfab1", "text": "NEIGHBORHOOD NEEDS THE BASIS OF POLITICS", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00742", "bookId": 73755, "start": 326815, "end": 326829, "sha256": "cb963f8b7dd4be2e8d413c437052b98afad284e3de40cd420bdd246302a111ad", "text": "--------------", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00743", "bookId": 73755, "start": 326835, "end": 326946, "sha256": "b5b4f7b083af38e38b71ee0accefda8cdfdb0e29d9f16785b323e185f1ca59cd", "text": "POLITICS are changing in character: shall the change be without plan or method, or is this the guiding moment?", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00744", "bookId": 73755, "start": 326950, "end": 327570, "sha256": "026fe89d57ee88a9988db19f42c5b1dc9b9dd4461aad647f5e1d1ea14f154424", "text": "We are at a critical hour in our history. We have long thought of politics as entirely outside our daily life manipulated by those set apart for the purpose. The methods by which the party platform is constructed are not those which put into it the real issues before the public; the tendency is to put in what will elect candidates or to cover up the real issues by generalities. But just so long as we separate politics and our daily life, just so long shall we have all our present evils. Politics can no longer be an extra-activity of the American people, they must be a means of satisfying our actual wants.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00745", "bookId": 73755, "start": 327574, "end": 328473, "sha256": "721f46bd200394979481f9b7fc8ec1e09054bbeedc676dc257bd6cc65c00cc12", "text": "We are now beginning to recognize more and more clearly that the work we do, the conditions of that work, the houses in which we live, the water we drink, the food we eat, the opportunities for bringing up our children, that in fact the whole area of our daily life should constitute politics. There is no line where the life of the home ends and the life of the city begins. There is no wall between my private life and my public life. A man I know tells me that he “wouldn’t touch politics with a ten-foot pole,” but how can he help touching politics? He may not like the party game, but politics shape the life he leads from hour to hour. When this is once understood no question in history will seem more astonishing than the one so often reiterated in these days, “Should woman be given a place in politics?” Woman _is_ in politics; no power under the sun can put her out.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00746", "bookId": 73755, "start": 328477, "end": 329377, "sha256": "2c594f151045dfbced60063fa532f1594dc4e52fb28b6f268d147cd61d67cb68", "text": "Politics then must satisfy the needs of the people. What are the needs of the people? Nobody knows. We know the supposed needs of certain classes, of certain “interests”; these can never be woven into the needs of the people. Further back we must go, down into the actual life from which all these needs spring, down into the daily, hourly living with all its innumerable cross currents, with all its longings and heart-burnings, with its envies and jealousies perhaps, with its unsatisfied desires, its embryonic aspirations, and its power, manifest or latent, for endeavor and accomplishment. The needs of the people are not now articulate: they loom out of the darkness, vague, big, portentously big, but dumb because of the separation of men. To open up this hinterland of our life the cross currents now burrowing under ground must come to the surface and be openly acknowledged.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00747", "bookId": 73755, "start": 329381, "end": 331161, "sha256": "7dc2232ab7bee1d06d5eeb8c4f3dcdb68890b9b2a4847f071ec156bfc01eb04c", "text": "We work, we spend most of our waking hours working for some one of whose life we know nothing, who knows nothing of us; we pay rent to a landlord whom we never see or see only once a month, and yet our home is our most precious possession; we have a doctor who is with us in the crucial moments of birth and death, but whom we ordinarily do not meet; we buy our food, our clothes, our fuel, of automatons for the selling of food, clothes and fuel. We know all these people in their occupational capacity, not as men like ourselves with hearts like ours, desires like ours, hopes like ours. And this isolation from those who minister to our lives, to whose lives we minister, does not bring us any nearer to our neighbors in their isolation. For every two or three of us think ourselves a little better than every other two or three, and this becomes a dead wall of separation, of misunderstanding, of antagonism. How can we do away with this artificial separation which is the dry-rot of our life? First we must realize that each has something to give. Every man comes to us with a golden gift in his heart. Do we dare, therefore, avoid any man? If I stay by myself on my little self-made pedestal, I narrow myself down to my own personal equation of error. If I go to all my neighbors, my own life increases in multiple measure. The aim of each of us should be to live in the lives of all. Those fringes which connect my life with the life of every other human being in the world are the inlets by which the central forces flow into me. I am a worse lawyer, a worse teacher, a worse doctor if I do not know these wider contacts. Let us seek then those bonds which unite us with every other life. Then do we find reality, only in union, never in isolation.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00748", "bookId": 73755, "start": 331165, "end": 332037, "sha256": "c2eabd3d3d49f6a7eecc7ab11b60ad3c8b18e2c9429b623e15ae8565a68c2189", "text": "But it must be a significant union, never a mere coming together. How we waste immeasurable force in much of our social life in a mere tossing of the ball, on the merest externality and travesty of a common life which we do not penetrate for the secret at its heart. The quest of life and the meaning of life is reality. We may flit on the surface as gnats in the sunlight, but in each of us, however overlaid, is the hunger and thirst for realness, for substance. We must plunge down to find our treasure. The core of a worthy associated life is the call of reality to reality, the calling and answering and the bringing it forth from the depths forever more and more. To go to meet our fellows is to go out and let the winds of Heaven blow upon us—we throw ourselves open to every breath and current which spring from this meeting of life’s vital forces.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00749", "bookId": 73755, "start": 332041, "end": 332474, "sha256": "a528fa55b656c1b1dbc87a744223a94806647997ce29492b3e3dd1d59936a1ce", "text": "Some of us are looking for the remedy for our fatal isolation in a worthy and purposeful neighborhood life. Our proposal is that people should organize themselves into neighborhood groups to express their daily life, to bring to the surface the needs, desires and aspirations of that life, that these needs should become the substance of politics, and that these neighborhood groups should become the recognized political unit.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00750", "bookId": 73755, "start": 332478, "end": 333444, "sha256": "282c9dc2d4227331ebecf0a82958aef11120ff1ec6086ac5a8c5d6da3a95b5bc", "text": "Let us consider some of the advantages of the neighborhood group. First, it makes possible the association of neighbors, which means fuller acquaintance and a more real understanding. The task of creation from elektrons up is putting self in relation. Is man the only one who refuses this task? I do not know my next-door neighbor! One of the most unfortunate circumstances of our large towns is that we expect concerted action from people who are strangers to one another. So mere acquaintance is the first essential. This will lead inevitably to friendly feeling. The story is told of some American official who begged not to be introduced to a political enemy, for he said he could not hate any one with whom he became acquainted. We certainly do feel more kindly to the people we actually see. It is what has been called “the pungent sense of effective reality.” Neighborhood organization will substitute confidence for suspicion—a great gain.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00751", "bookId": 73755, "start": 333448, "end": 334380, "sha256": "0f18cf439af69abf40dc91f452c59a493af704cba64c4f4f89eb2b217c16bbec", "text": "Moreover, neighborhood organization gives opportunity for constant and regular intercourse. We are indeed far more interested in humanity than ever before. Look at what we are studying: social psychology, social economics, social medicine and hygiene, social ethics etc. But people must socialize their lives by practice, not by study. Until we begin to acquire the habit of a social life no theory of a social life will do us any good. It is a mistake to think that such abstractions as unity, brotherhood etc. are as self-evident to our wills as to our intellect. I learn my duty to my friends not by reading essays on friendship, but by living my life with my friends and learning by experience the obligations friendship demands. Just so must I learn my relation to society by coming into contact with a wide range of experiences, of people, by cultivating and deepening my sympathy and whole understanding of life.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00752", "bookId": 73755, "start": 334384, "end": 335489, "sha256": "2975831d67abbd3109dc256ae0ba469fffd17a178e3607e402a77f423408c4cd", "text": "When we have come together and got acquainted with one another, then we shall have an opportunity for learning the rules of the game—the game of association which is the game of life. Certain organizations have sprung up since 1914 with the avowed object of fighting war with love. If only we knew how to love! I am ready to say to you this minute, “I love my neighbors.” But all that I mean by it is that I have a vague feeling of kindliness towards them. I have no idea how to do the actual deed. I shall offend against the law of love within an hour. The love of our fellow-men to be effective must be the love evolved from some actual group relation. We talk of fellowship; we, puny separatists bristling with a thousand unharmonized traits, with our assertive particularist consciousness, think that all we have to do is to _decide_ on fellowship as a delightful idea. But fellowship will be the slowest thing on earth to create. An eager longing for it may help, but it can come into being as a genuine part of our life only through a deep understanding of what it really means.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00753", "bookId": 73755, "start": 335493, "end": 336652, "sha256": "b8e9ddcc6384a41a56901ce5fcc664cfbf77f2bffcd97da442c8314c0574b54e", "text": "Yet association is the impulse at the core of our being. The whole social process is that of association, individual with individual, group with group. Progress from one point of view is a continuously widening of the area of association. Our modern civilization has simply overlaid and falsified this primary instinct of life. But this is rapidly changing. The most striking characteristic of the present day is that people are doing more things together: they are coming together as never before in labor organizations, in coöperative societies, in consumers’ leagues, in associations of employers and employed, in municipal movements, for national purposes, etc. etc. We have the Men’s City Club, the Women’s City Club; professional societies are multiplying over night. The explanation sometimes given for this present tendency towards union is that we are beginning to see the material advantages of coöperation, but the root of the thing is far from utilitarian advantage. Our happiness, our sense of living at all, is directly dependent on our joining with others. We are lost, exiled, imprisoned until we feel the joy of union.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00754", "bookId": 73755, "start": 336656, "end": 337843, "sha256": "93a4f187554519e4acb37c5345f4ebbbc7176d91e9c00e4913892d251cd9aa71", "text": "I believe that the realization of oneness which will come to us with a fuller sense of democracy, with a deeper sense of our common life, is going to be the substitute for what men now get in war. Some psychologists tell us that fighting is one of the fundamental instincts, and that if we do not have war we shall have all the dangers of thwarted instinct. But the lure of war is neither the instinct of hate nor the love of fighting; it is the joining of one with another in a common purpose. “And the heart of a people beat with one desire.” Many men have gone joyfully to war because it gave them fellowship. I said to some one that I thought the reason war was still popular in spite of all its horrors was because of our lack of imagination, we simply could not realize war. “No,” said the man I spoke to, “I know war, I know its horrors, and the reason that in spite of it all men like war is because there we are doing something all together. That is its exhilaration and why we can’t give it up. We come home and each leads his separate life and it seems tame and uninteresting merely on that account, the deadly separateness of our ordinary life.”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00755", "bookId": 73755, "start": 337847, "end": 338386, "sha256": "9d11671169d0afa1124b02645d0164314bfaccc8e9aa74960270c3411f50c734", "text": "When we want a substitute for war, therefore, we need not seek for a substitute for fighting or for hating; we must find some way of making ourselves feel at one with some portion of our fellow-creatures. If the essential characteristic of war is doing things together, let us begin to do things together in peace. Yet not an artificial doing things together, we could so easily fall into that, but an entire reorganization of life so that the doing things together shall be the natural way—the way we shall all want to do things.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00756", "bookId": 73755, "start": 338390, "end": 338778, "sha256": "de1278b3c180152bdfef6f63a3b867346c5fbf0b3ed4505b048e78af77bd0147", "text": "But mere association is not enough. We need more than the “collective life,” the mere “getting-together,” so much talked of in these days; our getting together must be made effective, must exercise our minds and wills as well as our emotions, must serve the great ends of a great life. Neighborhood organization gives all an opportunity to learn the technique of association.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00757", "bookId": 73755, "start": 338782, "end": 340561, "sha256": "715e82d3124bfe162d9fc18ba7b5347b13456fbde81532961b49e4271181dfff", "text": "A further advantage of neighborhood organization is that as a member of a neighborhood group we get a fuller and more varied life than as a member of any other kind of a group we can find, no matter how big our city or how complex or comprehensive its interests. This statement sounds paradoxical—it will seem to many like saying that the smaller is greater than the larger. Let us examine this statement therefore and see if perhaps in this case the smaller is not greater than the larger. Why is the neighborhood group better for us than the selected group? Why are provincial people more interesting than cosmopolitan, that is, if provincial people have taken advantage of _their_ opportunities? Because cosmopolitan people are all alike—that has been the aim of their existence and they have accomplished it. The man who knows the “best” society of Petrograd, Paris, London and New York, and that only, is a narrow man because the ideals and standards of the “best” society of London, Paris and New York are the same. He knows life across but not down—it is a horizontal civilization instead of a vertical one, with all the lack of depth and height of everything horizontal. This man has always been among the same kind of people, his life has not been enlarged and enriched by the friction of ideas and ideals which comes from the meeting of people of different opportunities and different tastes and different standards. But this is just what we may have in a neighborhood group—different education, different interests, different standards. Think of the doctor, the man who runs the factory, the organist and choir leader, the grocer, the minister, the watch-maker, the school-teacher, all living within a few blocks of one another.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00758", "bookId": 73755, "start": 340565, "end": 341313, "sha256": "86538aa199dd73403ed7262d5f28d2b98bb4b982d9c69d92460fe106ccccd2ab", "text": "On the other hand consider how different it is when we _choose_ the constituents of our group—then we choose those who are the same as ourselves in some particular. We have the authors’ club, the social workers’ club, the artists’ club, the actors’ society, the business men’s club, the business women’s club, the teachers’ club etc.[80] The satisfaction and contentment that comes with sameness indicates a meagre personality. I go to the medical association to meet doctors, I go to my neighborhood club to meet men. It is just because my next door neighbor has never been to college that he is good for me. The stenographer may come to see that her life is really richer from getting the factory girl’s point of view.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00759", "bookId": 73755, "start": 341317, "end": 341770, "sha256": "3ef56d0d01123601680e83cae371a7a80c006b4ef98e00010a2d590200b93bd9", "text": "In a neighborhood group you have the stimulus and the bracing effect of many different experiences and ideals. And in this infinite variety which touches you on every side, you have a life which enriches and enlarges and fecundates; this is the true soil of human development—just because you have here a natural and not an artificial group, the members find all that is necessary in order to grow into that whole which is true community living.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00760", "bookId": 73755, "start": 341774, "end": 342079, "sha256": "2649a70c9fbc98c134e45ebf6b9f71eca53c994f0621a34981e0e292c7a0b4b9", "text": "Many young men and women think as they come to the teeming cities that there they are to find the fuller life they have longed for, but often the larger our world the narrower we become, for we cannot face the vague largeness, and so we join a clique of people as nearly like ourselves as we can find.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00761", "bookId": 73755, "start": 342083, "end": 342824, "sha256": "0fe36a4a7537b28b0b0ef4b2c87acba3726f4160dacb57ff8fd50394f6ee2f67", "text": "In so far, therefore, as neighborhoods are the result of some selective process, they are not so good for our purpose. The Italian colony or the Syrian colony does not give us the best material for group organization, neither does any occupational segregation like the stockyard district of Chicago. (This is an argument against the industrial colonies which are spreading.) In a more or less mixed neighborhood, people of different nationalities or different classes come together easily and naturally on the ground of many common interests: the school, recreational opportunities, the placing of their children in industry, hygiene, housing etc. Race and class prejudices are broken down by working together for intimate objects.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00762", "bookId": 73755, "start": 342828, "end": 343650, "sha256": "69e613e65d07bee3d6d5ce1b43d1c627479bca400a80723f3c40387fe5f28cf3", "text": "Whenever I speak of neighborhood organization to my friends, those who disagree with me at once become violent on the subject. I have never understood why it inflames them more easily than other topics. They immediately take it for granted that I am proposing to shut them up tight in their neighborhoods and seal them hermetically; they assume that I mean to substitute the neighborhood for every other contact. They tell me of the pettiness of neighborhood life, and I have to listen to stories of neighborhood iniquities ranging from small gossip to determined boycotting. Intolerance and narrowness thrive in the neighborhood group they say; in the wider group they do not. But I am not proposing to substitute the neighborhood group for others, yet even so I should like to say a word for the neighborhood.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00763", "bookId": 73755, "start": 343654, "end": 344844, "sha256": "d9f0dce21302ab81cf1c966d58dfe7ab48e089b37824a5d1a97e9671c82c1797", "text": "We may like some selected group better than the company of our neighbors, but such a group is no “broader” necessarily, because it draws from all over the city, than a local one. You can have narrow interests as well as narrow spaces. Neighbors may, it is true, discuss the comings and goings of the family down the street, but I have heard people who are not neighbors discuss equally trivial subjects. But supposing that non-neighborhood groups are less petty in the sense of less personal in their conversation, they are often also less real, and this is an important point. If I dress in my best clothes and go to another part of the city and take all my best class of conversation with me, I don’t know that it does me any good if I am the same person who in my every-day clothes goes in next door and talks slander. What I mean is that the only place in the world where we can change ourselves is on that level where we are real. And what is forgotten by my friends who think neighborhood life trivial is that (according to their own argument) it is the same people who talk gossip in their neighborhoods who are impersonal and noble in another part of the city.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00764", "bookId": 73755, "start": 344848, "end": 345511, "sha256": "6ccf45227b9aad000f4167e0abd33c57cff3aac4847472df00c5cd65930dc513", "text": "Moreover, if we are happier away from our neighborhood it would be well for us to analyze the cause—there may be a worthy reason, there may not. Is it perhaps that one does not get as much consideration there as one thinks one’s due? Have we perhaps, led by our vanity, been drawn to those groups where we get the most consideration? My neighbors may not think much of me because I paint pictures, knowing that my back yard is dirty, but my artist friends who like my color do not know or care about my back yard. My neighbors may feel no admiring awe of my scientific researches knowing that I am not the first in the house of a neighbor in trouble.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00765", "bookId": 73755, "start": 345515, "end": 346397, "sha256": "e994e4372387ece9fc5da56f3203b8521cbdc48a8755908464bd803fffdae9e5", "text": "You may reply, “But this is not my case. I am one of the most esteemed people in my neighborhood and one of the lowest in the City Club, but I prefer the latter just because of that: there is room for me to aspire there, but where I am leading what is there for me to grow toward, how can I expand in such an atmosphere?” But I should say that this also might be a case of vanity: possibly these people prefer the City Club because they do not like to think they have found their place in life in what they consider an inferior group; it flatters them more to think that they belong to a superior group even if they occupy the lowest place there. But the final word to be said is I think that this kind of seeking implies always the attitude of getting, almost as bad as the attitude of conferring. It is extremely salutary to take our place in a neighborhood group.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00766", "bookId": 73755, "start": 346401, "end": 346862, "sha256": "f5088dde2f64c4dd8a24b01ad91653b2832c4e3b68fbd6d2ffb37217914cb22c", "text": "Then, too, that does not always do us most good which we enjoy most, as we are not always progressing most when thrills go up and down our spine. We may have a selected group feeling “good,” but that is not going to make us good. That very homogeneity which we nestle down into and in which we find all the comfort of a down pillow, does not provide the differences in which alone we can grow. We must know the finer enjoyment of recognized diversity.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00767", "bookId": 73755, "start": 346866, "end": 347565, "sha256": "cc30c0c71a1969d89016180b00764c90075d0662e05e8c0adb66bdd36df1c4aa", "text": "It must be noted, however, that while it is not proposed that the neighborhood association be substituted for other forms of association—trade-union, church societies, fraternal societies, local improvement leagues, coöperative societies, men’s clubs, women’s clubs etc.—yet the hope is that it shall not be one more association merely, but that it shall be the means of coördinating and translating into community values other local groups. The neighborhood association might become a very mechanical affair if we were all to go there every evening and go nowhere else. It must not with its professed attempt to give a richer life cut off the variety and spontaneity we now have.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00768", "bookId": 73755, "start": 347569, "end": 348453, "sha256": "fafae0130f6863d4f79f7c89948f518f50a9ee5d837ad8b208045dd92f67a350", "text": "But the trouble now is that we have so much unrelated variety, so much unutilized spontaneity. The small merchant of a neighborhood meets with the other small dealers for business purposes, he goes to church on Sundays, he gets his social intercourse at his lodge or club, but where and when does he consider any possible integration of these into channels for community life? At his political rally, to be sure, he meets his neighbors irrespective of business or church or social lines, but there he comes under party domination. A free, full community life lived within the sustaining and nourishing power of the community bond, lived for community ends, is almost unknown now. This will not come by substituting the neighborhood group for other groups, not even by using it as a clearing-house, but by using it as a medium for interpretation and unofficial integration.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00769", "bookId": 73755, "start": 348457, "end": 349325, "sha256": "546cc94631db4e83df6ad78e84b768553bf286e0f1b2683ad8ff4db7deb54423", "text": "There should be as much spontaneous association as the vitality of the neighborhood makes possible, but other groups may perhaps find their significance and coördination through the neighborhood association. If a men’s or women’s club is of no use to the community it should not exist; if it is of use, it must find out of what use, how related to all other organizations, how through and with them related to the whole community. The lawyers’ club, the teachers’ club, the trade association or the union—these can have little influence on their community until they discover their relation to the community through and in one another. I have seen many examples of this. If the neighborhood group is to be the political unit, it must learn how to gather up into significant community expression these more partial expressions of individual wants.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00770", "bookId": 73755, "start": 349329, "end": 350208, "sha256": "f00a1c4a8d0682fedab128e0a4cb5d68f14702506ceaabef12c23dae0e015ab4", "text": "It is sometimes said that the force of the neighborhood bond is lessening now-a-days with the ease of communication, but this is true only for the wealthy. The poor cannot afford constantly to be paying the ten-cent carfare necessary to leave and return to their homes, nor the more well-to-do of the suburbs the twenty or twenty-five cents it costs them to go to the city and back. The fluctuating population of neighborhoods may be an argument against getting all we should like out of the neighborhood bond, but at the same time it makes it all the more necessary that some organization should be ready at hand to assimilate the new-comers and give them an opportunity of sharing in civic life as an integral, responsible part of that life. Moreover a neighborhood has common traditions and memories which persist and influence even although the personnel changes.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00771", "bookId": 73755, "start": 350212, "end": 350867, "sha256": "871aacf2f0f376cbc3fea01aeba527244f70c138346967f9c1c1fcfd086cddbe", "text": "To sum up: whether we want the exhilaration of a fuller life or whether we want to find the unities which will make for peace and order, for justice and for righteousness, it would be wise to turn back to the neighborhood group and there begin the a b c of a constructive brotherhood of man. We must recognize that too much congeniality makes for narrowness, and that the harmonizing, not the ignoring, of our differences leads us to the truth. Neighborhood organization gives us the best opportunity we have yet discovered of finding the unity underneath all our differences, the real bond between them—of living the consciously creative life.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00772", "bookId": 73755, "start": 350871, "end": 351802, "sha256": "fd6761f1c6a1181e6693b6a146b04365e9d39f8caa81fd7591711861afd77ea5", "text": "We can never reform American politics from above, by reform associations, by charters and schemes of government. Our political forms will have no vitality unless our political life is so organized that it shall be based primarily and fundamentally on spontaneous association. “Government is a social contact,” was found in the examination papers of a student in a near-by college. He was nearer the truth than he knew. Political progress must be by local communities. Our municipal life will be just as strong as the strength of its parts. We shall never know how to be one of a nation until we are one of a neighborhood. And what better training for world organization can each man receive than for neighbors to live together not as detached individuals but as a true community, for no League of Nations will be successful which regards France and Germany, England and Russia as separatist units of a world-union.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00773", "bookId": 73755, "start": 351806, "end": 352503, "sha256": "633dd39ab055c00d5bbdecfdfd14fb60343d1afe2794c50d8b8f88ffb9345518", "text": "Those who are working for particular reforms to be accomplished immediately will not be interested in neighborhood organization; only those will be interested who think that it is far more important for us to find the right method of attacking all our problems than to solve any one. We who believe in neighborhood organization believe that the neighborhood group is a more significant unit to identify ourselves with than any we have hitherto known in cities. People have been getting together in churches, in fraternal societies, in political parties, in industrial and commercial associations, but now in addition to these partial groups communities are to get together as communities.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00774", "bookId": 73755, "start": 352507, "end": 353116, "sha256": "e19a084943bc4bfe7d946c6ab013b962288528cfa49eb2d124d1a9f2eba82929", "text": "The neighborhood organization movement is not waiting for ideal institutions, or perfect men, but is finding whatever creative forces there are within a community and taking these and building the future with them. The neighborhood organization movement is a protest against both utopias on the one hand and a mechanicalized humanity on the other. It consists of the process of building always with the best we have, and its chief problem is to discover the methods by which the best we have can be brought to the surface. Neighborhood organization gives us a method which will revolutionize politics.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00775", "bookId": 73755, "start": 353120, "end": 353125, "sha256": "73be087e93080f9e436892b7d182df66394bc79dbf5df119d9357df61b1ebbfb", "text": "-----", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00776", "bookId": 73755, "start": 353129, "end": 353141, "sha256": "7c1b2989f186e8126d7380985c0561f57c7315bd6850ec004b81e47afc53ecf9", "text": "Footnote 80:", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00777", "bookId": 73755, "start": 353147, "end": 353355, "sha256": "da7f19b5c953dcf080bf9ddd914e8549fd389ba5db6247afca9490c17e6d4efc", "text": "This movement to form societies based on our occupations is of course, although usually unconscious, part of the whole syndicalist movement, and as such has real advantages which will be taken up later.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00778", "bookId": 73755, "start": 353359, "end": 353431, "sha256": "5be59d365acb8d35446f682c6d314fffd5db5846ab8c6eb021e6bacd98a82aa0", "text": "------------------------------------------------------------------------", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00779", "bookId": 73755, "start": 353474, "end": 353479, "sha256": "bf287a8a944d37a8a5e747d90753f837504d79bbf7280c6c7cb623797e86afe1", "text": "XXIII", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00780", "bookId": 73755, "start": 353506, "end": 353532, "sha256": "b825e65e88ff745ae20a287fb27a6bae2c4591c037f2ddc763e9ce36f4b37514", "text": "AN INTEGRATED NEIGHBORHOOD", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00781", "bookId": 73755, "start": 353565, "end": 353579, "sha256": "cb963f8b7dd4be2e8d413c437052b98afad284e3de40cd420bdd246302a111ad", "text": "--------------", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00782", "bookId": 73755, "start": 353585, "end": 354153, "sha256": "53546eb93cfdc9bdf512d82332ef536b2f2210d8e3a76f688fa20be467963955", "text": "HOW can an active and fruitful neighborhood life be brought into existence and fostered and nurtured? How can we unclose the sources within our own midst from which to draw our inspiration? And then how can the vision which we learn to see together be actualized? How can neighborhoods learn to satisfy their own needs through their own initiative? In other words how can the force generated by our neighborhood life become part of our whole civic and national life? How can an integrated neighborhood responsibility become a civic and national responsibility?", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00783", "bookId": 73755, "start": 354157, "end": 354515, "sha256": "07d14d11ec54e893cb66e8fd7846125295a669b201c6eab65c898e03770e07ca", "text": "There is no such thing as a neighborhood in its true sense, something more, that is, than the physical contiguity of people, until you have a neighborhood consciousness. Rows of houses, rows of streets, do not make a neighborhood. The place bond must give way to a consciousness of real union. This neighborhood consciousness can be evolved in five ways:", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00784", "bookId": 73755, "start": 354519, "end": 354680, "sha256": "c96636efb77676476d72084eb8b91c7806e981e3758596f88c2c188fd0e457d3", "text": "1. By regular meetings of neighbors for the consideration of neighborhood and civic problems, not merely sporadic and occasional meetings for specific objects.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00785", "bookId": 73755, "start": 354684, "end": 354737, "sha256": "e928631720081a7aa423888bad292193587c272b6488aac6861cbe7d3b3d07ef", "text": "2. By a genuine discussion at these regular meetings.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00786", "bookId": 73755, "start": 354741, "end": 354961, "sha256": "48f582f5236b4569cb8936e4992df33eda557e27a1fb522a30fe97125888b6f2", "text": "3. By learning together—through lectures, classes, clubs; by sharing one another’s experience through social intercourse; by learning forms of community art expression; in short by leading an actual community life.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00787", "bookId": 73755, "start": 354965, "end": 355041, "sha256": "ca2222f562cee308510730a3641ba73b2833cb53e68fdf90b076dfc895632c91", "text": "4. By taking more and more responsibility for the life of the neighborhood.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00788", "bookId": 73755, "start": 355045, "end": 355155, "sha256": "bd0feae35efb159a1e5809559dfb1def10e8f6ec9afeb9254b41d152e6248c90", "text": "5. By establishing some regular connection between the neighborhood and city, state and national governments.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00789", "bookId": 73755, "start": 355159, "end": 356172, "sha256": "79f921b7ba985db03e471715d3bfc52c901a807dedc3d672de3753e359311bdc", "text": "The most deliberate and conscious movement for neighborhood organization is the Community Centre movement. This is a movement to mobilize community forces and to get these forces expressed in our social and political life. Each community, it is becoming recognized, has its own desires, its own gifts, its own inherent powers to bring to the life of the whole city. But these inner forces must be freed and utilized for public ends. The Community Centre movement is a movement to release the potential values of neighborhood life, to find a channel for them to flow in, to help people find and organize their own resources. It is to provide a means for the self-realization of neighborhoods. In considering, therefore, the various methods of neighborhood integration, it must be remembered that many of these methods are being already actualized in Community Centres, School Centres, Neighborhood Associations—there are many names for the many forms in which this vital need is finding expression.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00790", "bookId": 73755, "start": 356176, "end": 357049, "sha256": "90d9e8b42aa9fd8a55bd5e6ddf97bd75793d6fd7ae05d9c32f0a01339d5be881", "text": "Schoolhouses are being opened all over the country for neighborhood use. In the larger cities, indeed, where school buildings have auditoriums, gymnasiums, cooking-rooms, sewing-rooms etc., the School Centre is for many reasons the best form of community organization. In some cities, as in Chicago, the field-houses in the parks are used as community centres, in addition to the schoolhouses. In many smaller towns or villages, where field-houses are unknown and the schoolhouses unsuitable (although often we find valuable if not showy results in the little red schoolhouse at the cross-roads or in a Kansas cyclone cellar underneath the district school), “community buildings” are being built. Their name is significant. They have a reading room, library, rest room, club rooms and usually a small hall with stage for dramatic and musical entertainments.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00791", "bookId": 73755, "start": 357053, "end": 358043, "sha256": "37da527bf1a509681acc530ef95e1322b0379f06c010a4ba244f15107acd45b6", "text": "And beyond this conscious effort to organize neighborhoods, or rather to help neighborhoods to organize themselves, much spontaneous initiative in both rural and urban communities, springing from the daily needs of the people, is finding neighborhood organization to be the result of concerted effort. Mothers want to learn more of the care of their homes, men want to discuss local improvements, young men and women want recreation, there is a hunger for a wider social intercourse or for some form of community art-expression, music or drama. Yet whichever of these motives leads us to the schoolhouse or the community building, the result is always the same—a closer forging of the neighborhood bond. Whoever takes the initiative in organizing the Community Centre—a parents’ association, a men’s civic club, a mothers’ club, a committee of citizens, the city council, the board of education—the result is always the same, a closer forging of the community bond.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00792", "bookId": 73755, "start": 358047, "end": 358739, "sha256": "795287d4fdfb6541f329d50a217f42187845922e48b8b9906c4bb7d6c833b3da", "text": "The Community Centre movement has made rapid progress in the last ten years. All over the country new Centres are springing up constantly. That the impulse for their organization is almost as varied as there are different towns and cities is evidence of their real need. I have had letters in regard to the organization of Centres from as widely different sources as the city council of a western city, girls teaching in rural schools, the mayor of a small city, and young working men in a big city. Indeed Centres have become so much the fashion that one man came to me and said, “We want a School Centre in our district—will you help us to get one—what is a School Centre?”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00793", "bookId": 73755, "start": 358743, "end": 358888, "sha256": "2df2ef7cf9016a41c445046911fbf04ce09f0d979f90ec23fb62f4f7ba301269", "text": "In the year 1915–16, 463 cities reported over 59,000 occasions in public school buildings after 6 P.M. in addition to evening school work.[81]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00794", "bookId": 73755, "start": 358892, "end": 359678, "sha256": "e2ac3432607dd60a07f990f3c336e112376a688a2983b1f8d1ef75bd3f10e46c", "text": "But School or Community Centres do not exist merely for the satisfaction of neighborhood needs, for the creating of a community bond, for the expression of that bond in communal action,—they also give the training necessary to bring that activity to its highest fulfilment. We all need not merely opportunities to exercise democracy, but opportunity for a training in democracy. We are not going to take any kind of citizen for the new state, we intend to grow our own citizens. Through group activities, through classes and lectures, through university extension, through actual practice in self government by the management of their own Centres and the varied activities therein, all, young and old, may prepare themselves for the new citizenship of the new democracy.[82]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00795", "bookId": 73755, "start": 359682, "end": 360289, "sha256": "088825b65f9d8a4b18beaceade7a1e4fae4d1a7e386fbcf4a6709ec1c95a5dcd", "text": "Let us now consider the five ways given above for producing an integrated and responsible neighborhood. First, the regular meetings of neighbors in civic clubs. In Boston we have, in connection with the School Centres, the so-called “East Boston Town-Meeting,” the “Charlestown Commonwealth,” etc. At such meetings neighborhood needs can be discussed, and the men and women of those neighborhoods, while getting to know one another and their local conditions, can be training themselves to function with government and as government. The first advantage of such meetings is their regularity.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00796", "bookId": 73755, "start": 360293, "end": 361893, "sha256": "98487f1b0a5b438bb1c93da33ac34fa3898fd65acd9b680031a64ab533b05f3f", "text": "I am urging _regular_ meetings of small groups of neighbors as a new method in politics. Neighbors now often meet for one object or two or three, and then when these are accomplished think that they need not meet again until there is another definite end to be gained. But in the meantime there should be the slow building up of the neighborhood consciousness. A mass-meeting will never do this. But this neighborhood consciousness is far more important than to get a municipal bath-house for a certain district. If the bath-house is considered the chief thing, and no effort made to get the neighborhood group together again until something else, a playground for instance, is wanted, this time perhaps not enough cohesion and concentration of purpose can be obtained to secure the playground. The question, in neighborhood organization is—Is our object to get a new playground or to create methods by which playgrounds will become part of the neighborhood consciousness, methods which will above all educate for further concerted effort? If neighborhood organization is one among many methods of getting things, then it is not of great value; if, however, it is going to bring about a different mental life, if it will give us an open mind, a flexible mind, a coöperative mind, then it is the greatest movement of our time. For our object is not to get certain things, or to have certain things; our object is to evolve the kind of life, the way of thinking, within which these specific things will naturally have place. We shall make no real progress until we can do this.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00797", "bookId": 73755, "start": 361897, "end": 362136, "sha256": "de30ef758af122f17b6927bb20e3a666f3f0aa4bb13207ea036a65653169c1f3", "text": "Bernard Shaw has said of family life that it is often cut off equally from the blessings of society and the blessings of solitude. We must see that our neighborhood associations are so organized that we do get the advantages of society.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00798", "bookId": 73755, "start": 362140, "end": 362783, "sha256": "99d96e0f742f481cb2feae1ee8abc75af9f8accac5b683e08f16a4cac6ba0f2c", "text": "The second way of creating an integrated neighborhood is by learning and practising a genuine discussion, that is, a discussion which shall evolve a true collective purpose and bring the group will of the neighborhood to bear directly on city problems. When I speak of discussion I mean always the kind of discussion which is called out by a genuine group. The group idea, not the crowd idea, is to come from discussion. What is the remedy for a “ruthless majority”? What is the remedy for an “arrogant minority”? Group discussion. Group discussion will diminish suggestion as a social force and give place to interpermeation.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00799", "bookId": 73755, "start": 362787, "end": 363627, "sha256": "f388cba042be991332f10c8440236cde954f3e372a552c4aaf472a8b50025007", "text": "When we advocate discussion as a political method, we are not advocating the extension of a method already in use. There is little discussion to-day. Talk to air our grievances or as a steam-valve for the hot-headed, the avowed intention sometimes in the organization of so-called “discussion” societies, is not discussion. People often speak of “self-expression” as if it were a letting off of steam, as if there were something inside us that must be let out before it explodes. But this is not the use to which we must put the powers of self-expression; we must release these powers not to be wasted through a safety valve, but to be used constructively for the good of society. To change the metaphor, we must not make a petty effort to stem a stream which cannot and should not be stemmed but helped to direct itself.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00800", "bookId": 73755, "start": 363631, "end": 365094, "sha256": "356449010c7642e120f313c234ad256eae77abeb8bf65646bff7e5ba98b58474", "text": "Do we have discussion in debating societies? Never. Their influence is pernicious and they should be abolished in colleges, schools, settlements, Young Men’s Christian Associations, or wherever found. In these societies the men as a rule take either side of the question allotted to them, but even if they choose their side the process of the debate is the same. The object is always to win, it is never to discover the truth. This is excellent training for our present party politics. It is wretched preparation for the kind of politics we wish to see in America, because there is no attempt to think together. Some one to whom I said this replied, “But each side has to think together.” Not in the least: they simply pool their information and their arguments, they don’t think together. They don’t even think; that artificial mental process of maintaining a thesis which is not yours by conviction is not thinking. In debating you are always trying to find the ideas and facts which will support your side; you do not look dispassionately at all ideas and all facts, and try to make out just where the truth lies. You do not try to see what ideas of your opponent will enrich your own point of view; you are bound to reject without examination his views, his ideas, almost I might say his facts. In a discussion you can be flexible, you can try experiments, you can grow as the group grows, but in a debate all this is impossible.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00801", "bookId": 73755, "start": 365098, "end": 365202, "sha256": "d66c3f211fcf4664db07ad1743eeeb3631e2adb52f70cb0bcd57d2d754a8d050", "text": "One of the great advantages of the forum movement is that here we are beginning to have discussion.[83]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00802", "bookId": 73755, "start": 365206, "end": 365957, "sha256": "5f6afddf2a235c268eb85d4b1e05f5245930b9b79f02a2bb4741dd8261e60982", "text": "Let us analyze briefly the advantages of discussion. Genuine discussion is truth-seeking. First, then, it presses every man to think clearly and appreciatively and discriminatingly in order to take his part worthily. What we need above everything else is clear thinking. This need has been covered over by the demand for “honest” men, but hardly any one would say to-day, “Give the management of your city over to a group of the most honest men you can find.” A group of honest men—what a disconcerting picture the phrase calls up! We want efficient men, thinking men, as well as honest men. Take care of your thinking and your morals will take care of themselves—is a present which would have benefited certain reform campaigns.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00803", "bookId": 73755, "start": 365961, "end": 366948, "sha256": "d2b313416c79914b3697a1418f1df7b2c56f3d062b29f63e6c02bb6ec73f6923", "text": "The first advantage of discussion then is that it tends to make us think and to seek accurate information in order to be able to think and to think clearly. I belong to a civic conference lunch club which meets once a month to discuss civic questions. On one occasion the program committee discovered a few days before the luncheon that on the question to be considered (a certain bill before the legislature), we were all of the same opinion, and so the discussion did not seem likely to be very lively. But it happened that our secretary knew some one who was on the other side, and this woman was therefore invited to be our guest and present her point of view to us. She accepted with pleasure as she said she felt strongly on the matter. On the morning of the day of our meeting, however, she telephoned that she could not come, as she had just read the bill, thinking it would be wise to do so before she publicly opposed it, and she found she agreed with it heartily!", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00804", "bookId": 73755, "start": 366952, "end": 367289, "sha256": "1c51d9a264b1c5f35b86034072874a8dcf1abeebf1b235c9b3e16938585574d8", "text": "Moreover, no one question can be adequately discussed without an understanding of many more. Remedies for abuses are seldom direct because every abuse is bound up with our whole political and economic system. And if discussion induces thinking by the preparation necessary, it certainly stimulates thinking by the opposition we meet.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00805", "bookId": 73755, "start": 367293, "end": 367901, "sha256": "680f0dfb40f2e7e0cd937535dcf952bd9da4f7b6720f1c5db6c35429598c4006", "text": "But the great advantage of discussion is that thereby we overcome misunderstanding and conquer prejudice. An Englishman who visited America last winter said that he had seen in an American newspaper this advice, “Get acquainted with your neighbor, you might like him,” and was much struck with the difference between the American and the English way of looking at the matter. The Englishman, he said, does not get acquainted with his neighbor for fear he might like him! I sometimes feel that we refuse to get acquainted with the arguments of our opponents for fear we might sympathize with them.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00806", "bookId": 73755, "start": 367905, "end": 368188, "sha256": "7d2e61a456ec94bc3bc035ec164e0143cf6a54ab1716d9887d3b6ceb84daccd7", "text": "Genuine discussion, however, will always and should always bring out difference, but at the same time it teaches us what to do with difference. The formative process which takes place in discussion is that unceasing reciprocal adjustment which brings out and gives form to truth.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00807", "bookId": 73755, "start": 368192, "end": 368851, "sha256": "1afcf1fd9dbe35ab5cab5d4709cd0a464a325cf7a90bc646d3905fe2f88c17fc", "text": "The whole conception of discussion is now changing. Discussion is to be the sharpest, most effective political tool of the future. The value of the town-meeting is not in the fact that every one goes, but in what every one does when he gets there. And discussion will overcome much indifference, much complacency. We must remember that most people are not for or against anything; the first object of getting people together is to make them respond somehow, to overcome inertia. To disagree, as well as to agree, with people brings you closer to them. I always feel intimate with my enemies. It is not opposition but indifference which separates men.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00808", "bookId": 73755, "start": 368855, "end": 369066, "sha256": "537cc6ed47207348cf40ea8a4945d6f4d4e3646be34b596d9a547761d448b47a", "text": "Another advantage of discussion in regular meetings of neighbors is that men discuss questions there before they come to a political issue, when there is not the heat of the actual fight and the desire to win.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00809", "bookId": 73755, "start": 369070, "end": 370466, "sha256": "b834c6e7893553721a01e3e8572de77892dcb2ac645748a1262293b666b09584", "text": "Through regular meetings then, and a genuine discussion, we help to forge the neighborhood bond. But this is not enough. A true community life should be developed. If the multiplicity and complexity of interrelations of interests and wants and hopes are to be brought to the surface to form the substance of politics, people must come more and more to live their lives together. We are ignorant: we should form classes and learn together. The farmer in Virginia goes to the School Centre to learn how to test his seed corn. We need social intercourse: we should meet to exchange experiences and to have a “good time” together. We need opportunity for bringing old and young together, parents and children, for boys and girls to meet in a natural, healthy way. We need true recreation, not the passive looking at the motion pictures, not the deadening watching of other people’s acting; we want the real re-creation of active participation. The leisure time of men and women is being increased by legislation, by vocational efficiency, by machinery, and by scientific management. One of the most pressing needs of to-day is the constructive use of leisure. This need can be largely satisfied in the Neighborhood Centre. Festivals, pageants, the celebration of holidays can all be used as recreation, as a means of self-expression, and of building up the neighborhood bond.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00810", "bookId": 73755, "start": 370470, "end": 371298, "sha256": "57dadbacd8fc3486d3903e254803a59018a0acb2931aef205102a0cbee185e1f", "text": "Here too the family realizes that its life is embedded in a larger life, and the richer that larger life the more the family gains. The family learns its duty to other families, and it finds that its external relations change all its inner life, as the International League will change fundamentally the internal history of every nation. I knew two sisters who were ashamed of their mother until they could say to their friends, “Mother goes to the lectures every Saturday night at the School Centre.” I know men and wives who never went out together until they found an extended home in a School Centre. I know a father, an intelligent policeman, who never had any real friendship with his four daughters until he planned dances for them at the School Centre so that they should not go to the public dance-halls.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00811", "bookId": 73755, "start": 371302, "end": 372293, "sha256": "a41e1915d77937e9f007adbf36b8c5b979c782c88b3ae947735f82fbd82e5604", "text": "Families often need some means of coming to a common understanding; they are not always capable by themselves of making the necessary adjustment of points of view brought from so many sources as the different family outgoings produce. For example, food conservation taught in various ways in the Neighborhood Centre—by cooking classes for women, by lectures for both men and women showing the relation of food to the whole present world problem, by having regular afternoons for meeting with agents from the Health Department, by comparison between neighbors of the results of the new feeding—food conservation, that is, taught as a community problem, is more effective than taught merely to classes of mothers. For if the mother makes dishes the father and children refuse to eat, the cooking classes she has attended will have no community value. To give community value to all our apparently isolated activities is one of the primary objects of neighborhood organization.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00812", "bookId": 73755, "start": 372297, "end": 372926, "sha256": "16d856b37871ab7fd6d9d2abf2ed9147a4c663fbfc12fa3913c2c5eb3cfb3b78", "text": "The Neighborhood Centre, therefore, instead of separating families, as sometimes feared, is uniting them. To live their life in the setting of the broader life is continuously to interpret and explain one to the other. And if we have learned that sacred as our family life must always be, the significance of that sacredness is its power of contributing to the life around us, the life of our little neighborhood, then we are ready to understand that the nation too is real, that its tasks are mighty and that those tasks will not be performed unless every one of us can find self-expression through the nation’s needs.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00813", "bookId": 73755, "start": 372930, "end": 373777, "sha256": "9064ea7b9a1671fef07ce6dd5e3b8bfd41dc9102d71c7b321e25b8c08423413a", "text": "We have seen that the regular meeting of neighbors gives an external integration of neighborhood life. We have seen that group discussion begins to forge a real neighborhood bond. We have seen that a sharing of our daily life—its cares and burdens, its pleasures and joys, each with all—furthers this inner, this spiritual union which is at last to be the core of a new politics. The fourth way of developing the neighborhood bond is by citizens taking more and more responsibility for the life of their community. This will mean a moral integration. We are not to dig down into our life to find our true needs and then demand that government satisfy those needs—the satisfaction also must be found in that fermenting life from which our demands issue. The methods of neighborhood responsibility will be discussed in chapter XXVI.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00814", "bookId": 73755, "start": 373781, "end": 374408, "sha256": "d5c8c6bd17945bf9b2c8cd6df8b7519590d5bf93093c3957e5c1c4be0f49ac29", "text": "The fifth way of developing the neighborhood group is by establishing some regular connection between the neighborhood and city, state and national governments. Then shall we have the political integration of the neighborhood. This will be discussed in chapter XXVII, “From Neighborhood to Nation.” Party politics are organized, “interests” are organized, our citizenship is not organized. Our neighborhood life is starving for lack of any real part in the state. Give us that part and as inevitably as the wake follows the ship will neighborhood responsibility follow the integration of neighborhood and state.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00815", "bookId": 73755, "start": 374412, "end": 374417, "sha256": "73be087e93080f9e436892b7d182df66394bc79dbf5df119d9357df61b1ebbfb", "text": "-----", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00816", "bookId": 73755, "start": 374421, "end": 374433, "sha256": "99c63e6c8b27efe442ba23f2aa97e1ac88479a0347ffc9846c07469790262345", "text": "Footnote 81:", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00817", "bookId": 73755, "start": 374439, "end": 374590, "sha256": "7332c1822f557dc091f6cf2edebe4f5b9f650e51fb63d5aaf2ffa010d29175fe", "text": "Since April, 1917, with the rapidly extending use of the schoolhouse as a centre for war services, these numbers have probably greatly increased.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00818", "bookId": 73755, "start": 374594, "end": 374606, "sha256": "9ed0efdf16521df3c598e5114737a5369678d5092dc59b6075627fe21e0d9b3a", "text": "Footnote 82:", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00819", "bookId": 73755, "start": 374612, "end": 374661, "sha256": "51cff14df45bc6c3884f8b62e3aa98194577c09cde8f9669d47f7d47b1749238", "text": "See Appendix, The Training for the New Democracy.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00820", "bookId": 73755, "start": 374665, "end": 374677, "sha256": "f20431ac5e9f9420577a7e773e8fe9c5aae3d2c5058eb050ae95aa02defb0240", "text": "Footnote 83:", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00821", "bookId": 73755, "start": 374683, "end": 374823, "sha256": "e115be8b1704dcf6b1c05ca99640e79a566353533a73746650f1dfe1c99b0637", "text": "That it is also in many instances leading the way to real community organization makes it one of the most valuable movements of our time.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00822", "bookId": 73755, "start": 374827, "end": 374899, "sha256": "5be59d365acb8d35446f682c6d314fffd5db5846ab8c6eb021e6bacd98a82aa0", "text": "------------------------------------------------------------------------", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00823", "bookId": 73755, "start": 374943, "end": 374947, "sha256": "c967d1e79198bab0a58e8c80279965f5790efe25895333dba7ed6ff64c2caf67", "text": "XXIV", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00824", "bookId": 73755, "start": 374963, "end": 375011, "sha256": "b3e3cb14574138b9923881873a9936d1a4d0d77a79233dd8cba38aa00282381c", "text": "NEIGHBORHOOD ORGANIZATION VS. PARTY ORGANIZATION", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00825", "bookId": 73755, "start": 375040, "end": 375062, "sha256": "cdc6eab52d8fa98feb2c36486a3f21e2990feef11d8a851b075f103b40ce535e", "text": "The Will of the People", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00826", "bookId": 73755, "start": 375095, "end": 375109, "sha256": "cb963f8b7dd4be2e8d413c437052b98afad284e3de40cd420bdd246302a111ad", "text": "--------------", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00827", "bookId": 73755, "start": 375115, "end": 375800, "sha256": "f47f89530860fc6d29c42ca8ab53a0ac0d5ae5e04deaa60f0b5857277b1bef6d", "text": "MANY of us are feeling strongly at the present moment the importance of neighborhood life, the importance of the development of a neighborhood consciousness, the paramount importance of neighborhood organization as the most effective means of solving our city and national problems. What our political life needs to-day is to get at the will of the people and to incorporate it in our government, to substitute a man-governed country for a machine-governed country. If politics are to be no longer mysterious and remote, but the warp and woof of our lives, if they are to be neither a game nor a business, far different methods must be adopted from any we have hitherto known.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00828", "bookId": 73755, "start": 375804, "end": 376601, "sha256": "8812016790fcb9c5d8f0fa637166b65635532e185ae1cbcdd8582cd46bc72869", "text": "Where do we show political vitality at present? In our government? In our party organization? In our local communities? We can see nowhere any clear stream of political life. The vitality of our community life is frittered away or unused. The muddy stream of party politics is choked with personal ambition, the desire for personal gain. Neighborhood organization is, I believe, to be the vital current of our political life. There is a wide-spread idea that we can do away with the evils of the party system by attacking the boss. Many think also that all would be well if we could separate politics and business. But far below the surface are the forces which have allied business and politics; far below the surface we must go, therefore, if we would divorce this badly mated couple.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00829", "bookId": 73755, "start": 376605, "end": 377096, "sha256": "bb7e6ec0024acf706ee3b3db592195a3da3711679e972d276ddbe4d20ca703ce", "text": "Neighborhood organization is to accomplish many things. The most important are: to give a knock-out blow to party organization, to make a direct and continuous connection between our daily lives and needs and our government, to diminish race and class prejudices, to create a responsible citizenship, and to train and discipline the new democracy; or, to sum up all these things, to break down party organization and to make a creative citizenship the force of American political life.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00830", "bookId": 73755, "start": 377100, "end": 377442, "sha256": "c676c685332a7296230b0ae1f78aa7a961ece063557cf3d760d4a6dd375c9a3a", "text": "An effective neighborhood organization will deal the death blow to party: (1) by substituting a real unity for the pseudo unity of party, by creating a genuine public opinion, a true will of the people,[84] (2) by evolving genuine leaders instead of bosses, (3) by putting a responsible government in the place of the irresponsible party.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00831", "bookId": 73755, "start": 377446, "end": 377501, "sha256": "c85234ea6cd385711afec168b6fd842298204bf0ba1038e40f84a7b43ae6d58e", "text": "First, there is at present no real unity of the people.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00832", "bookId": 73755, "start": 377505, "end": 378830, "sha256": "93b88d7b3dd4ee310dabcabfff793cddad192bf04b0d718272202304236c1dd9", "text": "It is clear that party organization has succeeded because it was the only way we knew of bringing about concerted action. This must be obtained by the manipulation of other men’s minds or by the evolving of the common mind; we must choose between the two. In the past the monarch got his power from the fact that he represented the unity of his people—the tribal or national consciousness. In the so-called democracies of England and America we have now no one man who represents a true collective consciousness. Much of the power of party has come, therefore, from the fact that it gave expression to a certain kind of pseudo collective consciousness: we found that it was impossible to get a common will from a multitude, the only way we could get any unity was through the party. We have accepted party dictatorship rather than anarchy. We have felt that any discussion of party organization was largely doctrinaire because party has given us collective action of a kind, and what has been offered in its place was a scattered and irresponsible, and therefore weak and ineffective, particularism. No “independent” method of voting can ever vie with the organized party machinery: its loose unintegrated nebulosity will be shattered into smithereens by the impact of the closely organized machine.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00833", "bookId": 73755, "start": 378834, "end": 379597, "sha256": "da9e182ecab574d086698b23f703acab4e8a0bf2c67af52a69f9d8519c61ed97", "text": "The problem which many men have wrestled with in their lives—whether they are to adhere to party or to be “independent”—is futile. Personal honesty exhausts no man’s duty in life; an effective life is what is demanded of us, and no isolated honesty gives us social effectiveness. When we go up to the gates of another world and say, “I have been honest, I have been pure, I have been diligent”—no guardian of those Heavenly gates will fling them open for us, but we shall be faced with the counter thrust: “How have you used those qualities for making blossom the earth which was your inheritance? We want no sterile virtues here. Have you sold your inheritance for the pottage of personal purity, personal honesty, personal growth?”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00834", "bookId": 73755, "start": 379601, "end": 379956, "sha256": "1b82a153563d6d0726d449972473ea7d4f10d290e7df609842c00c0446eaaef1", "text": "To make our “independence” effective, to vie successfully with party organization, we must organize genuine groups and learn in those true collective action. No particularistic theory of politics will ever be strong enough to take the place of party. The political consciousness of men must be transferred from the party to the neighborhood group.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00835", "bookId": 73755, "start": 379960, "end": 380948, "sha256": "03ff3feb4a731ffc1824cd487be2dc7d3d2cb3752980be57f28a0b2a14b9e623", "text": "We hear discussed from time to time how far public opinion governs the world, but at present there is no public opinion. Our legislatures are supposed to enact the will of the people, our courts are supposed to declare the will of the people, our executive to voice the will of the people, a will surrounding men like a nimbus apparently from their births on. But there is no will of the people.[85] We talk glibly about it but the truth is that it is such a very modern thing that it does not yet exist. There is, it is true, an overwhelming chaos of ideas on all the problems which surround us. Is this public opinion? The urge of the crowd often gets crystallized into a definite policy ardently advocated. Is this public opinion? Certain interests find a voice; one party or another, one group or another, expresses itself. Is this public opinion? Public opinion is that common understanding which is the driving force of a living whole and shapes the life of that whole.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00836", "bookId": 73755, "start": 380952, "end": 381888, "sha256": "3f5b317e0a0e4dd3cde7ccbd0ad2b68915574f081f1c61bad80e049db137e95b", "text": "We believe that the state should be the incarnation of the common will, but where is the common will? All the proposed new devices for getting at the will of the people (referendum etc.) assume that we have a will to express; but our great need at present is not to get a chance to express our wonderful ideas, but to get some wonderful ideas to express. A more complete representation is the aim of much of our political reform, but our first requirement is surely to have something to represent. It isn’t that we need one kind of government more than another, as the image-breakers tell us, it isn’t that we need honest intentions, as the preachers tell us, our essential and vital need is a people creating a will of its own. In all the sentimental talk of democracy the will of the people is spoken of tenderly as if it were there in all its wisdom and all its completeness and we had only to put it into operation.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00837", "bookId": 73755, "start": 381892, "end": 382642, "sha256": "d26d55453362a3f657e7f1b283191f8ded58cf09ec54f169841019caefff955d", "text": "The tragic thing about our situation in America is, not merely that we have no public opinion, but that we think we have. If I have no money in my pocket and know it, I can go to work and earn some; if I do not know it I may starve. But I do not want the American people to starve. The average American citizen says to himself, “It doesn’t matter very much what I think because American public opinion is sound at the core.” It is our Great Illusion. There has been much apotheosizing of the so-called popular will, but not every circle is a halo, and you can’t put a wreath round “the popular will” and call it democracy. The popular will to mean democracy must be a properly evolved popular will—the true will of the people.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00838", "bookId": 73755, "start": 382646, "end": 383623, "sha256": "a5b62b3e7e0b2f05744c6808e8b9a65ea001cc0560cf2c8641d7ca9712190e4f", "text": "Who are the people? Every individual? The majority? A theoretical average? A compromise group? The reason we go astray about public opinion is because we have not as yet a clear and adequate definition of the “people.” We are told that we must elevate the “people.” There are no “people.” We have to create a people. The people are not an imaginary average, shorn of genius and power and leadership. You cannot file off all the points made by talent and efficiency, and call the dead level that is left the people. The people are the integration of every development, of every genius, with everything else that our complex and interacting life brings about. But the method of such integration can never be through crowd association. We may come to think that vox populi is vox Dei, but not until it is the group voice, not until it is found by some more intimate process than listening to the shout of the crowd or counting the votes in the ballot-box.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00839", "bookId": 73755, "start": 383627, "end": 384923, "sha256": "5787c3b37a87109672960f6d7b37d7657d68cd702329a23cae698c57ce7f96ea", "text": "The error in regard to public opinion can be traced to that same sociological error which is the cause of so many confusions in our political thought: that the social process is the spread of similarities by suggestion and imitation. Any opinion that is shared, simply because it is shared, is called public opinion. But if this opinion is shared because it has spread among large numbers by “unconscious imitation,” then it is not a genuine public opinion; to be that, the process by which it has been evolved must be that of intermingling and interpermeating. Public opinion has been defined as the opinions of all the men on the “tops of busses,” or the opinion made by “banks, stock-exchanges and all the wire-pullers of the world,” or the opinion “imposed on the public by a succession of thinkers.” All this is, no doubt, true of much of our so-called public opinion at present, for public opinion to-day is largely crowd opinion. But there is less of this than formerly. And we must adopt those modes of living by which there shall be less and less infection of crowds and more and more an evolving of genuine group thought. When reforms are brought about by crowds being swept into them, they can be undone just as easily; there is no real progress here.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00840", "bookId": 73755, "start": 384927, "end": 386399, "sha256": "3ceb7b123f01e50b21314bd493b88e6a7ae6ceee191a12ba96869f641dd87c05", "text": "Political parties and business interests will continue to dominate us until we learn new methods of association. Men follow party dictates not because of any worship of party but simply because they have not yet any will of their own. Until they have, they will be used and manipulated and artificially stimulated by those who can command sufficient money to engage leaders for that purpose. Hypnosis will be our normal state until we are roused to claim our own creative power. The promise for the future is the power for working together which lies latent in the great rank and file of men and women to-day, and which must be brought clearly to their view and utilized in the right way. If we see no fruitful future for our political life under the present scheme of party domination, if we can see no bearable future for our industrial life under the present class domination, then some plan must be devised for the will of the people to control the life of the people. Fighting abuses is not our role, but the full understanding that such fighting is a tilting at wind-mills. The abuses in themselves amount to nothing. Our role is to leave them alone and build up our own life with our power of creative citizenship. We need to-day: (1) an _active_ citizenship, (2) a _responsible_ citizenship, (3) a _creative_ citizenship—a citizenship building its own world, creating its own political and social structure, constructing its own life forever.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00841", "bookId": 73755, "start": 386403, "end": 386768, "sha256": "a959cdde49a5c54854cf588e81b8e8e734a38c586b2d0988e53979ef93c51dd8", "text": "Our faith in democracy rests ultimately on the belief that men have this creative power. Our vital relation to the Infinite consists in our capacity, as its generating force, to bring forth a group idea, to create the common life. But we have at present no machinery for a constructive life. The organization of neighborhood groups will give us this machinery.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00842", "bookId": 73755, "start": 386772, "end": 386859, "sha256": "675e61c41672a6101c258ad1ff0c0effec86fcf46c6569e2d4b38e2b163a5680", "text": "Let us see how neighborhood groups can create a united will, a genuine public opinion.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00843", "bookId": 73755, "start": 386863, "end": 387623, "sha256": "6c115d2d6f8e5356939f32dab911e02641f7c221b4940859f3fd413eac15165b", "text": "First, neighborhood groups will naturally discuss their local, intimate, personal concerns. The platitudes and insincerities of the party meeting will give way to the homely realities of the neighborhood meeting. These common interests will become the political issues. Then, and not till then, politics, external at no point to any vital need, will represent the life of our people. Then when we see clearly that the affairs of city and state are our affairs, we shall no longer be apathetic or indifferent in regard to politics. We all _are_ interested in our own affairs. When our daily needs become the basis of politics, then party will no longer be left in control because politics bore us, because we feel that they have nothing to do with us.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00844", "bookId": 73755, "start": 387627, "end": 388625, "sha256": "c11fe374b0039826dfa76a8ded987db65eb09ca5424478c3c27566444e7edf03", "text": "Already the daily lives of people are passing into the area of government through the increased social legislation of all our states during the last few years. In 1912 a national party was organized with social legislation as part of its platform. The introduction of social programs into party platforms means that a powerful influence is at work to change American politics from a machine to a living thing. When the political questions were chiefly the tariff, the trust, the currency, closely as these questions affected the lives of people, there was so little general knowledge in regard to them that most of us could contribute little to their solution. The social legislation of the last few years has taken up crime, poverty, disease, which we all know a great deal about: laws have been passed regarding child labor, workmen’s compensation, occupational disease, prison reform, tuberculosis, mothers’ pensions, the liquor question, minimum wage, employment agencies etc.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00845", "bookId": 73755, "start": 388629, "end": 389090, "sha256": "419872f52f16961273efe6ca11bf4a5f10710dfb4efd4d19310e989db221f686", "text": "Tammany is built up on the most intimate local work: no family, no child, is unknown to its organization. And it is founded on the long view: votes are not crudely bought—always; the boy is found a job, the father is helped through his illness, the worn-out mother is sent for a holiday to the country. As politics comes to mean state employment bureaus, sickness and accident insurance, mothers’ pensions, Tammany is being shorn of much of its power.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00846", "bookId": 73755, "start": 389094, "end": 391135, "sha256": "20a27ea861d8771e9535122d3956e65df5826e11c1927c361460771948ded5e1", "text": "We are sometimes told, however, that while it is conceded that campaign issues should be made up from our intimate, everyday needs, yet it is feared that on each question a different split would come, and thus politics would be too confusing and could not be “handled.” Neighborhood organization is going to help us meet this difficulty. In non-partisan neighborhood associations we shall have different alignments on every question. Moreover, we shall have different alignments on the same question in different years. Thus the rigidity of the party organization disappears. The party meeting is to the neighborhood meeting what the victrola is to the human voice: the partisan assembly utters what has been impressed upon it, you hear the machine beating its own rhythm; the neighborhood meeting will give the fresh ever-varied voices from the hearts of men. The party system and the genuine group system is the difference between machine-made and man-made. And this may be true of a good government organization as well as of a Tammany organization—it is true wherever the machine is put above the man. We can get no force without freshness, and you cannot get freshness from a machine, only from living men. Just the very thing which costs the party money—keeping its members together—is its condemnation. Men will make up their minds on question after question in their neighborhood groups. Then they will vote according to these conclusions. Party dictation will never cease until we get group conviction. If our political life is going to show any greater sensitiveness to our real wants and needs than it has shown in the past, there must be some provision made for considering and voting on questions irrespective of party: you can not join a different party every day, but you can separate political issues from partisanship and vote for the thing you want. The reason more of our real wants have not got expressed in our politics is just because people cannot be held together on many issues.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00847", "bookId": 73755, "start": 391139, "end": 391370, "sha256": "c4e5c47ac41cab3de6b194c72174b330c65cbef7de3772bb1e9fda94bc2362e2", "text": "Again, if neighborhood organization takes the place of party organization each question can be decided on its own merit: we shall not have to ask, “How will the management of this affect the power and prestige of our party?”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00848", "bookId": 73755, "start": 391374, "end": 391699, "sha256": "1d97f587c5962350932e8fa5f14036ba4fd6669714a8b9683b9304d000b72a47", "text": "Also neighborhood groups can study problems, but the study of problems is fatal to party organization. The party hands out the ephemeral comings-to-the-surface of what will help the party, or the particularistic interests dominating the party. Every question brought forward at all is brought forward as a campaign issue.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00849", "bookId": 73755, "start": 391703, "end": 392533, "sha256": "c5a7e912cf99ae7314d7a7450aaba0b6292e8764e6d51056390e402f5dde4a9e", "text": "Moreover the group discovers and conserves the individual. A party gathering is always a crowd. And party methods are stereotyped, conventional. Under a party system we have no spontaneous political life. The party system gives no exercise to the judgment, it weakens the will, it does away with personal responsibility. The party, as the crowd, blots out the individual. Mass suggestion is dominating our politics to-day. We shall get rid of mass influence exactly as fast as we develop the group consciousness. Men who belong to neighborhood organizations will not be the stuff of which parties are made. The party has prevented us from having genuine group opinion; or if we do by any chance get a group opinion now, it can usually speak only in opposition to party, it cannot get incorporated in our political life.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00850", "bookId": 73755, "start": 392537, "end": 393454, "sha256": "0bee5d8455f3e5a64778483603127b4de048fa98c368adc89898d572850778b5", "text": "Every one of us will have an opportunity to learn collective thinking in the small, local, neighborhood group. No one comes to his neighborhood group pledged beforehand to any particular way of thinking. The object of the party system is to stifle all difference of opinion. Moreover, in partisan discussion you take one of two sides; in neighborhood groups an infinitely varied number of points of view can be brought out, and thus the final decision will be richer from what it gains on all sides. The neighborhood group which makes possible different alignments on every question, allows ultimate honesty in the expression of our views. If we get into the habit of suppressing our differences, these differences atrophy and we lose our sensitiveness to their demands. And we have found that the expression and the maintenance of difference is the condition of the full and free development of the race.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00851", "bookId": 73755, "start": 393458, "end": 394855, "sha256": "96bb794d66417c61a5e02e0ebe7cbe8b3dff8f4a5170e17758035d6395dc8dbf", "text": "But we want not only a genuine public opinion, but a progressive public opinion. We cannot understand once for all, we must be constantly understanding anew. At the same time that we see the necessity of creating the common will and giving voice to it, we must bear in mind that there should be no crystallizing process by which any particular expression of the common will should be taken as eternally right because it is the expression of the common will. It is right for to-day but not for to-morrow. The flaming fact is our daily life, whatever it is, leaping forever and ever out of the common will. Democracy is the ever-increasing volume of power pouring through men and shaping itself as the moment demands. Constitutional conventions are seeking the machinery by which the reason and justice which have existed among us can be utilized in our life. We must go beyond this and unseal the springs which will reveal the forms for the wisdom and justice of their day. This is life itself, the direct and aboriginal constructor. We meet with our neighbors at our civic club not in order to accumulate facts, but to learn how to release and how to control a constructive force which will build daily for us the habitation of our needs. Then indeed will our government be no longer directed by a “body of law,” but by the self-renewing appearing of the will of the people.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00852", "bookId": 73755, "start": 394859, "end": 395286, "sha256": "923a3a6198ffb38ac87d1d589857185c35683bed79c691accca2fdfeaba2c846", "text": "The chief need of society to-day is an enlightened, progressive and organized public opinion, and the first step towards an enlightened and organized public opinion is an enlightened and organized group opinion. When public opinion becomes conscious of itself it will have a justified confidence in itself. Then the “people,” born of an associated life, will truly govern. Then shall we at last really have an America.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00853", "bookId": 73755, "start": 395290, "end": 395295, "sha256": "73be087e93080f9e436892b7d182df66394bc79dbf5df119d9357df61b1ebbfb", "text": "-----", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00854", "bookId": 73755, "start": 395299, "end": 395311, "sha256": "c9360912532c999dd75a5eeb86671e7261e6604f7cb43a57eea2a7de5e96eca4", "text": "Footnote 84:", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00855", "bookId": 73755, "start": 395317, "end": 395456, "sha256": "bbad33618ea2252d2440ba2cb4a9da1e031aaae1f92d6f5779e1bddbea93e0a1", "text": "Public opinion in a true democracy is a potential will. Therefore for practical purposes they are identical and I use them synonymously.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00856", "bookId": 73755, "start": 395460, "end": 395472, "sha256": "e4c3b0affb078fd02d874bd55172227144f2157d7308ccd56bbe5e1fdb6d1595", "text": "Footnote 85:", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00857", "bookId": 73755, "start": 395478, "end": 395684, "sha256": "f4abeae82b4ff0b6562cc029beee994eefe53a98d60972cf8bc5a44c76f79680", "text": "Our federal system of checks and balances thwarted the will of the people. The party system thwarted the will of the people. Our state governments were never designed to get at the will of the people.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00858", "bookId": 73755, "start": 395688, "end": 395760, "sha256": "5be59d365acb8d35446f682c6d314fffd5db5846ab8c6eb021e6bacd98a82aa0", "text": "------------------------------------------------------------------------", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00859", "bookId": 73755, "start": 395804, "end": 395807, "sha256": "5971054e28e0c9731f08b9d1433721b9f4bb362b7b442d9436f5420f0423ff77", "text": "XXV", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00860", "bookId": 73755, "start": 395823, "end": 395871, "sha256": "b3e3cb14574138b9923881873a9936d1a4d0d77a79233dd8cba38aa00282381c", "text": "NEIGHBORHOOD ORGANIZATION VS. PARTY ORGANIZATION", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00861", "bookId": 73755, "start": 395902, "end": 395920, "sha256": "bd56ecd00c6ad78f07dca6c271092105fcb367052d54bcb4623b47038671f7a7", "text": "Leaders or Bosses?", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00862", "bookId": 73755, "start": 395953, "end": 395967, "sha256": "cb963f8b7dd4be2e8d413c437052b98afad284e3de40cd420bdd246302a111ad", "text": "--------------", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00863", "bookId": 73755, "start": 395973, "end": 396182, "sha256": "02171d4bbeb8c58bd16eb82069616cc8f235589541ca7c6e87e7db467a5a1635", "text": "NEIGHBORHOOD organization will prove fatal to party organization not only through the creating of a genuine will of the people, but also through the producing of real leaders to take the place of the bosses.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00864", "bookId": 73755, "start": 396186, "end": 397563, "sha256": "9ff1579bdc5db258bd8c8d68abb954f99e7fa8428b9f157c0dfddae8bef4386b", "text": "American democracy has always been afraid of leadership. Our constitutions of the eighteenth century provided no one department to lead, no one man in the legislature to lead. Therefore, as we must have leadership, there has been much undefined, irresponsible leadership. This has often meant corruption and abuse, bad enough, but worse still it has meant the creation of machinery for the perpetuation of corruption, the encouragement of abuse. Under machine politics we choose for our leaders the men who are most popular for the moment or who have worked out the most thorough system of patronage, or rather of course we do not choose at all. We have two kinds of leaders under our party system, both the wrong kind: we have our actual leaders, the bosses, and our official leaders who have tended to be men who could be managed by the party. Our officials in their campaign speeches say that they are the “servants of the people.” But we do not want “servants” any more than we want bosses; we want genuine leaders. Now that more and more direct power is being given to the people it is especially necessary that we should not be led by machine bosses, but that we should evolve the kind of leadership which will serve a true democracy, which will be the expression of a true democracy, and will guide it to democratic ends by democratic methods.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00865", "bookId": 73755, "start": 397567, "end": 398981, "sha256": "e7bdb6096338a2d687ecf5d94975d94142d82ae2571b7fdc7f14739a682dd14f", "text": "We hope through local group organization to evolve real leaders. There should be in a democracy some sort of regular and ceaseless process by which ability of all sorts should come to the top, and flexibility in our forms so that new ability can always find its greatest point of usefulness, and so that service which is no longer useful can be replaced by that which is. In neighborhood groups where we have different alignments on different questions, there will be a tendency for those to lead at any particular moment who are most competent to lead in the particular matter in hand. Thus a mechanical leadership will give place to a vital leadership. Suppose the subject is sanitation. The man who is most interested, who has the clearest view of the need and who is its most insistent champion, will naturally step forth as the leader in that. The man who knows most about educational matters will lead in those, will be chosen eventually for the school committee or for the educational committee of the state legislature. Thus the different leaders of a democracy appear. Here in the neighborhood group leaders are born. Democracy is the breeding-ground of aristocracy. You have all the chance the world gives. In your neighborhood group show the clearness of your mind, the strength of your grip, your power to elicit and to guide coöperative action, and you emerge as the leader of men.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00866", "bookId": 73755, "start": 398985, "end": 399314, "sha256": "d91b576053447a1d0ac3fd522345894aab1638c3160fccad290fadf1b36e6b32", "text": "No adequate statement can be made in regard to leadership until it is studied in relation to group psychology. The leadership of the British Premier, of President Wilson, will become interesting studies when we have a better understanding of this subject. Meanwhile let us look briefly at some of the qualities of leadership.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00867", "bookId": 73755, "start": 399318, "end": 399666, "sha256": "8328d8b28325caabd1d761f3aac1e9a68cf8373cf20620aae71a28263ea1f953", "text": "The leader guides the group and is at the same time himself guided by the group, is always a part of the group. No one can truly lead except from within. One danger of conceiving the leader as outside is that then what ought to be group loyalty will become personal loyalty. When we have a leader within the group these two loyalties can merge.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00868", "bookId": 73755, "start": 399670, "end": 400382, "sha256": "35672047831e3aa9b687a3f7f92368e13a3a7b023f6af6b02573001431f84a91", "text": "The leader must have the instinct to trace every evil to its cause, but, equally valuable, he must be able to see the relative value of the cause to each one of his group—in other words, to see the total relativity of the cause to the group. He must draw out all the varying needs of the neighborhood as related to the cause and reconcile them in the remedy. A baby is ill; is the milk perhaps too rich for babies? But probably the rest of the neighborhood demands rich milk. All the neighborhood needs in regard to milk must be elicited and reconciled in the remedy for the sick child. That is, the remedy cannot be thinner milk, but it may be a demand that the milkman have separate milk for babies.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00869", "bookId": 73755, "start": 400386, "end": 400933, "sha256": "25b535c038ced82f03c4c23d7a0e449b7e3e893d0972277647affaca1f0805cf", "text": "In other words the leader of our neighborhood group must interpret our experience to us, must see all the different points of view which underlie our daily activities and also their connections, must adjust the varying and often conflicting needs, must lead the group to an understanding of its needs and to a unification of its purpose. He must give form to things vague, things latent, to mere tendencies. He must be able to lead us to wise decisions, not to impose his own wise decisions upon us. We need leaders, not masters or drivers.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00870", "bookId": 73755, "start": 400937, "end": 401642, "sha256": "066a0ecb97a3726b5dbe8c5dd420b584155bb322d6944ce2978435b7a5ee03ac", "text": "The power of leadership is the power of integrating. This is the power which creates community. You can see it when two or three strangers or casual acquaintances are calling upon some one. With some hostesses you all talk across at one another as entirely separate individuals, pleasantly and friendlily, to be sure, but still across unbridged chasms; while other hostesses have the power of making you all feel for the moment related, as if you were one little community for the time being. This is a subtle as well as a valuable gift. It is one that leaders of men must possess. It is thus that the collective will is evolved from out the chaos of varied personality and complex circumstance.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00871", "bookId": 73755, "start": 401646, "end": 402474, "sha256": "748b7ddda8c139f6b8b39e8ae8e4ecf87289ef1efc18e6efe92d86e24d470da4", "text": "The skilful leader then does not rely on personal force; he controls his group not by dominating but by expressing it. He stimulates what is best in us; he unifies and concentrates what we feel only gropingly and scatteringly, but he never gets away from the current of which we and he are both an integral part. He is a leader who gives form to the inchoate energy in every man. The person who influences me most is not he who does great deeds but he who makes me feel I can do great deeds. Many people tell me what I ought to do and just how I ought to do it, but few have made me want to do something. Who ever has struck fire out of me, aroused me to action which I should not otherwise have taken, he has been my leader. The community leader is he who can liberate the greatest amount of energy in his community.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00872", "bookId": 73755, "start": 402478, "end": 403386, "sha256": "0ee234070e153b30b74ba2ec66dc2691799e82c960dc6df72d4bef6ae59c5394", "text": "Then the neighborhood leader must be a practical politician. He must be able to interpret a neighborhood not only to itself but to others. He must know not only the need of every charwoman but how politics can answer her call. He must know the great movements of the present and their meaning, and he must know how the smallest needs and the humblest powers of his neighborhood can be fitted into the progressive movements of our time. His duty is to shape politics continuously. As the satisfaction of one need, or the expression of one latent power, reveals many more, he must be always alert and ever ready to gather up the many threads into one strand of united endeavor. He is the patient watcher, the active spokesman, the sincere and ardent exponent of a community consciousness. His guiding, embracing and dominant thought is to make that community consciousness articulate in government.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00873", "bookId": 73755, "start": 403390, "end": 404326, "sha256": "e1227490dde84a738f7d50513fdd31971a527ae5287974978b7674ef58c721c6", "text": "The politician is not a group but a crowd leader. The leader of a crowd dominates because a crowd wants to be dominated. Politicians do not try to convince but to dazzle; they do not deal with facts but with formulæ and vague generalizations, with the flag and the country. If our politicians and our representatives are not our most competent men, but those who have the greatest power of suggestion and are most adroit in using it, the proposal here is that we shall develop methods which will produce real leaders. We are aiming now in the reorganization of our state constitutions at responsible official leadership instead of the irresponsible party boss system which was necessary once because we had to have leaders of some sort. How far this new movement shall succeed, will depend on how far it has back of it, or can be made to have back of it, the kind of organization which will develop group not crowd leaders.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00874", "bookId": 73755, "start": 404330, "end": 404839, "sha256": "bda07c0031ab109c61ad5d6df03a40dee616e6e3ea2e76520287b734c31c9934", "text": "Through neighborhood organization we hope that real leaders instead of bosses will be evolved. Democracy does not tend to suppress leadership as is often stated; it is the only organization of society which will bring out leadership. As soon as we are given opportunities for the release of the energy there is in us, heroes and leaders will arise among us. These will draw their stimulus, their passion, their life from all, and then in their turn increase in all passion and power and creating force.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00875", "bookId": 73755, "start": 404843, "end": 404915, "sha256": "5be59d365acb8d35446f682c6d314fffd5db5846ab8c6eb021e6bacd98a82aa0", "text": "------------------------------------------------------------------------", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00876", "bookId": 73755, "start": 404959, "end": 404963, "sha256": "1af14e082277517235357e60c9ef0b679cddf17216f0b27fc042e7796ec0f0c0", "text": "XXVI", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00877", "bookId": 73755, "start": 404979, "end": 405027, "sha256": "b3e3cb14574138b9923881873a9936d1a4d0d77a79233dd8cba38aa00282381c", "text": "NEIGHBORHOOD ORGANIZATION VS. PARTY ORGANIZATION", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00878", "bookId": 73755, "start": 405054, "end": 405080, "sha256": "4c5e76d28c784129fe1b870a004ec73856c3ddef2f19d1003e5e81e1559261df", "text": "A Responsible Neighborhood", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00879", "bookId": 73755, "start": 405113, "end": 405127, "sha256": "cb963f8b7dd4be2e8d413c437052b98afad284e3de40cd420bdd246302a111ad", "text": "--------------", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00880", "bookId": 73755, "start": 405133, "end": 405495, "sha256": "f4ad5d34d8ba4cc8f6f3bdf095d84484084b19342fc11d8f7317c75b4bdec2e8", "text": "WE have said that neighborhood organization must replace party organization by evolving a true will of the people, by giving us leaders instead of bosses, and by making possible a responsible government to take the place of our irresponsible party government. Let us now consider the last point: the possibility of an integrated neighborhood responsibility.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00881", "bookId": 73755, "start": 405499, "end": 406281, "sha256": "9a5b712023017f11f60fc9b623b3b6f490a06ba63477eca05ff62662f916b8f8", "text": "Under our party organization the men who formulate the party platform do not have the official responsibility of carrying it out. Moreover at present representative government rests on the fallacy that when you delegate the job you delegate the responsibility. Most of the abuses which have crept in, business corruption and political bossism alike, are due in large measure to this delegating of responsibility. What we need is a kind of government which will delegate the job but not the responsibility. The case is somewhat like that of the head of a business undertaking, who makes the men under him responsible for their own work and still the final responsibility rests with him. This is not divided responsibility but shared responsibility—a very different thing.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00882", "bookId": 73755, "start": 406285, "end": 406965, "sha256": "bd06f00affff01d52384f26c76e4bd069e5741b6031711faeffe69112a649e8f", "text": "Consider what happens when I want to get a bill through the legislature. I may feel sure that the bill is good and also that “the people” want it, but I can work only through party, and at the state house I have to face all the special interests bound up with party, all the thousand and one “political” considerations, whether I succeed or fail. But of course I recognize the humor of this statement: _I_ ought never to try to get a bill through the legislature; special and partial groups have to do this simply because there is at present no other way; there must be some other way, some recognized way. We do not want to circumvent party but to replace party.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00883", "bookId": 73755, "start": 406969, "end": 408149, "sha256": "54432c90175960c01c6de57453dafde839ec617229ed82a34a0e17cee6aad273", "text": "Our reform associations, while they have fought party, have often endeavored to substitute their own organization for the party organization. This has often been the alternative offered to us—do we want good government or poor government? We have not been asked if we would like to govern ourselves. This is why Mitchell lost last year in New York. One of the New York papers during the campaign advised Mr. Mitchell “to get nearer the people.” But it is not for government to “get nearer” the people; it must identify itself with the people. It isn’t enough for the “good” officials to explain to the people what they are doing; they must take the people into their counsels. If the Gary system had ever been properly put up to the fathers it is doubtful if they would have voted against it. Then a good deal of this advice in regard to city officials “explaining” their plans in all parts of the city leaves out of account that the local people have a great deal to give. Some of the most uneducated, so-called, of the fathers and mothers might have had valuable points of view to offer in regard to the practical workings of the Gary system.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00884", "bookId": 73755, "start": 408153, "end": 408700, "sha256": "44843252a502f2631e59370cc7ce038cbd9c029d8ca2208498a63d7235567277", "text": "Tammany won in New York and we heard many people say, “Well, this is your democracy, the people want bad government, the majority of people in New York city have voted for it.” Nothing could be more superficial. What the election in New York meant was that “the people” are cleverer than was thought; they know that the question should not be of “good” government or “bad” government, but only of self-government, and the only way they have of expressing this is to vote against a government which _seems_ to disregard them.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00885", "bookId": 73755, "start": 408704, "end": 409999, "sha256": "86594ea919a8dcab61dacac4eb2dfa43f8e641d6b7ba253e30a46df0a245a037", "text": "To say, “We are good men, we are honest officials, we are employing experts on education, sanitation etc., you must trust us,” will not do; some way must be devised of connecting the experts and the people—that is the first thing to be worked out, then some way of taking the people into the counsels of city administration. All of us criticize things we don’t know anything about. As soon as we see the difficulties, _as soon as the responsibility is put upon us_, our whole attitude changes. Take the popular cry “Boston positions for Boston people.” This seems a pretty good principle to superficial thinking. But when we know that we have an appropriation of $200,000 a year for a certain department, and are looking for a man to administer it, when we go into the matter and find that there are only two or three experts for this position in the United States, and that not one of these lives in Boston, the question takes the concrete form, “Shall we allow $200,000 of our money to be wasted through inept administration?” It might be said, “But city governments do have the responsibility and yet this is just what they are all the time doing.” Certainly, because their position rests on patronage, but I am proposing that the whole system be changed.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00886", "bookId": 73755, "start": 410003, "end": 410983, "sha256": "5bbc2dbdf89a7d1fd36d66d1638504ef220c28be42f0bc064dd07e2df23fd9c3", "text": "Neighborhood organization must be the method of effective popular responsibility: first, by giving reality to the political bond; secondly, by providing the machinery by which a genuine control of the people can be put into operation. At present nearly all our needs are satisfied by external agencies, government or institutional. Health societies offer health to us, recreation associations teach us how to play, civic art leagues give us more beautiful surroundings, associated charities give us poor relief. A kind lady leads my girl to the dentist, a kind young man finds employment for my boy, a stern officer of the city sees that my children are in their places at school. I am constantly being acted upon, no one is encouraging me to act. New York has one hundred municipal welfare divisions and bureaus. Thus am I robbed of my most precious possession—my responsibilities—for only the active process of participation can shape me for the social purpose.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00887", "bookId": 73755, "start": 410987, "end": 412195, "sha256": "38fd7dbb9a5da48fabcf3142aaac1bf078ba9607d8e95ad99e6631f913aa90da", "text": "But all this is to end. The community itself must grip its own problems, must fill its needs, must make effective its aspirations. If we want the latest scientific knowledge in regard to food values, let us get an expert to come to us, not wait for some society to send an “agent” to us; if the stores near us are not selling at fair prices, let us make a coöperative effort to set this right. If we want milk and baby hygiene organized, our own local doctors should, in proper coöperation with experts on the one hand and the mothers on the other, organize this branch of public service. The medical experts may be employees of the government, but if the plan of their service be worked out by all three—the experts, the local doctors and the mothers—the results will be: (1) that the needs of the neighborhood will really be met, (2) much valuable time of the expert will be saved, (3) a close follow-up will be possible, (4) the expert can be called in whenever necessary through local initiative, and (5) the machinery will be in existence by which the study of that particular problem can be carried on not as a special investigation but as a regular part of neighborhood life.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00888", "bookId": 73755, "start": 412199, "end": 413425, "sha256": "ef43fc13ba547c05a35ef8005bb4138e68364dbf308cee92f17a8d4c64122254", "text": "Take another example. The Placement Bureau is also a necessary public service: it needs the work of experts and it needs pooled information and centralized machinery; a parent cannot find out all the jobs available in a city for boys of 16 in order to place one boy. But as long as the secretary of the Placement Bureau appears in the home and takes this whole burden off the parent, and off the community he is serving, his work will not be well done. For the boy will suffer eventually: he cannot be cut off from his community without being hurt; community incentive is the greatest one we know, and somehow there must be worked out some community responsibility for that boy, as well as some responsibility on his part to his community for standing up or falling down on his job. I say that the boy will eventually suffer; his community also will suffer, for it also has need of him; moreover, the community will greatly suffer by the loss of this opportunity of connecting it, through the parents, with the whole industrial problem of the city. The expert service of the Placement Bureau, whether it is administered by city or state, should always be joined to local initiative, effort and responsibility.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00889", "bookId": 73755, "start": 413429, "end": 414399, "sha256": "c7b1c0ba6fddefe19d69d4c2c7296ac463bb6f050c2d926062117b99f81a7fad", "text": "And so for every need. If we want well-managed dances for our daughters, we, mothers and fathers, must go and manage them. We do not exist on one side and the government on the other. If you go to a municipal dance-hall and see it managed by officials appointed from City Hall, you say, “This is a government affair.” But if you go to a schoolhouse and see a dance managed by men and women chosen by the district, you say, “This is a community affair, government has nothing to do with this.” These two conceptions must mingle before we can have any worthy political life. It must be clearly seen that we can operate _as_ government as well as _with_ government, that the citizen functions through government and the government functions through the citizen. It is not a municipal dance-hall regulated by the city authorities which expresses the right relation between civics and dancing, but dances planned and managed by a neighborhood for itself.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00890", "bookId": 73755, "start": 414403, "end": 415324, "sha256": "8a54c43048c107aae07f84c94247cb52dcadbc4b27d90f5af9af64caca321df3", "text": "It is not the civic theatre which is the last word in the relation of the drama to the people, it is a community organized theatre. Art and civics do not meet merely by the state presenting art to its members; the civic expression of art is illustrated by locally managed festivals, by community singing, a local orchestra or dramatic club, community dancing etc. Those of us who are working for civic art are working for this: for people to express themselves in artistic forms and to organize themselves for that purpose. The state must give the people every opportunity for building up their own full, varied, healthful life. It seems to be often thought that when the state provides schools, parks, universities etc., there you have the ideal state. But we must go beyond this and find our ideal state in that which shows its members how to build up its own life _in_ schools, parks, universities etc.[86]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00891", "bookId": 73755, "start": 415328, "end": 416628, "sha256": "71191678899b03a5edae01b911829649829c8a2ee9fe9775ca60d82a55b36a62", "text": "The question which the state must always be trying to answer is how it can do more for its members at the same time that it is stimulating them to do more for themselves. No, more than this, its doing more for them must take the form of their doing more for themselves. Our modern problem is not, as one would think from some of the writing on social legislation, how much the increased activity of the state can do for the individual, but how the increasing activity of the individual can be state activity, how the widening of the sphere of state activity can be a widening of our own activity. The arguments for or against government action should not take the form of how much or how little government action we shall have, but entirely of how government action and self-action can coincide. Our one essential political problem is always how to be the state, not, putting the state on one side and the individual on the other, to work out their respective provinces. I have said in the chapter on “Our Political Dualism” that the state and the individual are one, yet this is pure theory until we make them one. But they can never be made one through schemes of representation etc., only by the intimate daily lives of all becoming the constituents of the life of the state.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00892", "bookId": 73755, "start": 416632, "end": 417602, "sha256": "9d959c7219a70dd80a52377c7407d3daf23d3288fc9e1b3b2177bb7facbc034c", "text": "When a Mothers’ Club in one of the Boston School Centres found a united want—that of keeping their children off the streets on Saturday afternoon and giving them some wholesome amusement—and decided to meet this want by asking the city of Boston for permission to use the moving-picture machine of the Dorchester High School for fairy-story films, the mothers to manage the undertaking, two significant facts stand out: (1) they did not ask an outside agency to do something for them, for the men and women of Dorchester, with all the other men and women of Boston, _are_ the city of Boston; (2) they were not merely doing something for their children on those Saturday afternoons, they were in a sense officials of the city of Boston working for the youth of Boston. These two conceptions must blend: we do not do for government, government does not do for us, we should be constantly the hands and feet, yes and the head and heart of government.[87]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00893", "bookId": 73755, "start": 417606, "end": 418739, "sha256": "974295eb05f36e4d39be0131e8905ec436c7515cd1b320bdca2ec1832dfd8b66", "text": "A most successful effort at neighborhood organization is that of the East Harlem Community Association, which set East Harlem to work on its own problems: first to investigate conditions, and then to find a way of meeting these conditions. The most interesting point about the whole scheme is that the work is not done by “experts” or any one else from outside; there are no paid visitors, but a committee of twelve mothers—one colored woman, two Italian, two Jewish, two Irish, three American, one Polish, and one German—are doing the work well. As a result of the activities of the East Harlem Community Association there are now in a public school building of the neighborhood organized athletic clubs, industrial classes, orchestra, glee, dramatic and art clubs, concerts, good moving pictures, dances, big brother and big sister groups, Mothers’ Leagues, Parents’ Associations, physical examination of school children etc. Of course these community associations must use expert advice and expert service. Exactly how this relation will be most satisfactorily worked out we do not yet clearly see.[88]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00894", "bookId": 73755, "start": 418743, "end": 419424, "sha256": "409b7829c166e2df8354a82e7b2317609e9cd1a9916dabdad8cf9482ae6f664b", "text": "I give this merely as one illustration out of many possible ones. The necessity of neighborhood organization as the basis of future progress is seen by many people to-day. In New York there is a vigorous movement for “Neighborhood Associations”; there are four already in active working order. If the main idea of some of these is services rendered rather than neighborhood organization; if others see too great a separation between needs and the satisfaction of the needs, that is, if the neighborhoods are always to ask the questions and the experts to find the answers, still these Associations are an interesting and valuable part of the neighborhood movement.[89]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00895", "bookId": 73755, "start": 419428, "end": 420025, "sha256": "a4a8be9e2b06188a3d9887132a7d059a1e4e716b2fe67eed90d188fe5dff00f0", "text": "The acute problem of municipal life is how to make us men and women of Boston feel that we _are_ the city, directly responsible for everything concerning it. Neighborhood organization, brought into existence largely by the growing feeling of each individual that he is responsible for the life around him, itself then increases and focuses this sense of responsibility. Neighborhood association is vivid and intimate. Whereas the individual seems lost in a big city, through his neighborhood he not only becomes an integral part of the city but becomes keenly conscious of his citizenship.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00896", "bookId": 73755, "start": 420029, "end": 420925, "sha256": "e443001ee3db478340a5bf8aeaa98185f6e1c754cf9cf9cc704769ce20da65ae", "text": "In a word, what we hope neighborhood organization will do for the development of responsibility is this: that men will learn that they are not to _influence_ politics through their local groups, they are to _be_ politics. This is the error of some of the reform associations: they want to influence politics. This point of view will never spell progress for us. When we have the organized neighborhood group, when every man sees the problems of political and social reorganization not as abstract matters but as constituting his daily life, when men are so educated in politics as to feel that they themselves are politics functioning, and when our organization is such that this functioning recoils on them, they will so shape their conduct as to change the situation. Then when they are conscious of themselves as masters of the situation they will acknowledge their responsibility.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00897", "bookId": 73755, "start": 420929, "end": 421800, "sha256": "05b6f5e1c8da2ef2d7dd6c541b67f3c41dc1f8fd5eb8e22bef82565674e9fc0e", "text": "We see many signs around us to-day of an increased sense of responsibility, of a longing for a self-expression that is not to be an individual self-expression but community self-expression. Take the women’s clubs: in their first stage their object was personal development; in the second they wished to do something for their town; in the present or third stage women are demanding through some of the more progressive clubs, through women’s municipal leagues etc., a more direct share in community life. They are joining together not to benefit themselves, not to benefit others, as others, but because all together they wish to express their community—no, they wish to _be_ their community. They are not satisfied with serving, but gathering up the service of all in a common consciousness, each feels herself the whole and seeks to express the whole.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00898", "bookId": 73755, "start": 421804, "end": 423009, "sha256": "726f9cd54ece59c15397f0a63f08f7b108a61137855b75b4f04a03ff1be72f27", "text": "But I do not mean that this greater realization of community is confined to women. How often in the past we have heard a man say complacently, “Well, I suppose I must do my duty and go to the polls and vote to-morrow,” or “I must show myself at that rally to-night.” But a nobler idea than this is now filling the minds of many men. They go to their civic club not because it is their duty, but because just there working together with their fellows for the furtherance of their common aims, they find their greatest satisfaction. In neighborhood groups men can find that self-realization which becomes by the most wonderful miracle life can offer us community realization. That is, I can learn through my neighborhood group that I am the city, I am the nation, and that fatal transference of responsibility to an invisible and non-existent “they” can be blotted out forever. When neighborhood organization begins to teach that there is no “they,” that it is always we, we, we, that mothers are responsible and fathers are responsible, and young men are responsible, and young women are responsible, for their city and their nation, it will begin to teach its chief lesson.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00899", "bookId": 73755, "start": 423013, "end": 423498, "sha256": "2250aca050da99c0cc137558af63951e12933d3c8833b6a956b1a4a36f6b7851", "text": "Do I thrill with the passion of service, of joyful, voluntary surrender to a mighty cause as I sail for France to serve the great ends of the Allies? Social and political organization are fatally at fault if they cannot give me the same elation as I go to my Neighborhood Centre and know that there too the world has vital need of me, there too am I not only pouring myself out in world service, but that I am, just in so far, creating, actually building, a new and fairer world.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00900", "bookId": 73755, "start": 423502, "end": 424617, "sha256": "dfa0fc8631d454631469f233c1223a57957f2b5bb4d66a689693b1bd26e83c80", "text": "This is the finest word that can be said for neighborhood organization, for my finding my place through my response to every daily need of my nearest group. For the great word I believe on this subject is not that I _serve_ my neighborhood, my city, my nation, but that by this service I _become_ my neighborhood, my city, my nation. Surely at this hour in our history we can realize this as never before. The soul of America is being born to-day. The war is binding together class and class, alien and American, men and women. We rejoice that we are alive at this moment, but the keenness of my joy is not because I can serve America but because I am America. I save food in my home not in order that my family income can meet the strain of the higher prices, not because I can thereby help to send more food to the Allies, but because I, saving the food of America for the Allies and the world, am performing America’s task, _am_ therefore America. This is the deeper thought of neighborhood organization: that through performing my humblest duties I am creating the soul of this great democracy.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00901", "bookId": 73755, "start": 424639, "end": 424672, "sha256": "92bf9343d426ee004c3cb7caa3f283036b2f3626f071d4807d38518427facd12", "text": "* * * * *", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00902", "bookId": 73755, "start": 424676, "end": 426391, "sha256": "c7994002ebb1c16c3b0bae1555e3d2059d9d6514660a5f4cfdf2ef3a36c6ccb2", "text": "Neighborhood organization must then take the place of party organization. The neighborhood group will answer many of the questions we have put to a party organization which has remained deaf to our importunities, dumb to all our entreaties. We have asked for bread and received the stone times without number. The rigid formality of the party means stultification, annihilation. But group politics, made of the very stuff of life, of the people of the groups, will express the inner, intimate, ardent desires of spontaneous human beings, and will contain within its circumference the possibility of the fullest satisfaction of those desires. Group organization gives a living, pulsing unity made up of the minds and hearts and seasoned judgments of vital men and women. Such organization is capable of unbroken growth. And when this vine of life, which sends its roots where every two or three are gathered together, has rooted itself in the neighborhood, faithful care, sedulous watching, loving ministration will appear with it, will be the natural way of living. Its impalpable bonds hold us together, and although we may differ on countless questions, instead of flying asunder we work out the form in political life which will shelter us and supply our needs. Faithfulness to the neighborhood bond must take the place of allegiance to party. Loyalty to a party is loyalty to a thing—we want a living politics in which loyalty is always intrinsic. And from the strength of this living bond shall come the power of our united life. Always the actor, never the spectator, is the rule of the new democracy. Always the sharer, never the giver or the receiver, is the order of our new life.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00903", "bookId": 73755, "start": 426395, "end": 426653, "sha256": "22905197d8b748dfc4a8c181a29fdfcda9d5b7ff134b6743c1ecc114fd911c6d", "text": "Do you think the neighborhood group too puny to cope with this giant towering above us, drunk with the blood of its many triumphs? The young David went out to conquer Goliath, strong in the conviction of his power. Cannot our cause justify an equal faith?", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00904", "bookId": 73755, "start": 426657, "end": 427023, "sha256": "7828d28d9670351408ba7e646964c918eacfd7a2c4ab75e60e43120b1321bc60", "text": "Is our daily life profane and only so far as we rise out of it do we approach the sacred life? Then no wonder politics are what they have become. But this is not the creed of men to-day: we believe in the sacredness of all our life; we believe that Divinity is forever incarnating in humanity, and so we believe in Humanity and the common daily life of all men.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00905", "bookId": 73755, "start": 427027, "end": 427032, "sha256": "73be087e93080f9e436892b7d182df66394bc79dbf5df119d9357df61b1ebbfb", "text": "-----", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00906", "bookId": 73755, "start": 427036, "end": 427048, "sha256": "d692c60035655e91a8fbb337905e77e4f900b668d8711111ee06b863615fb96e", "text": "Footnote 86:", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00907", "bookId": 73755, "start": 427054, "end": 427343, "sha256": "bcba758aa22006508389a5fdd17b5d9c69f16730f3bf23f397ac475fde30496d", "text": "The war has shown us that our national agricultural program can best be done on a coöperative neighborhood basis: through the establishment of community agricultural conferences, community labor, seed and implement exchanges, community canning centres, community markets, etc.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00908", "bookId": 73755, "start": 427347, "end": 427359, "sha256": "6c313f2d4ec8f7c57599a26df5826e9bbd2f730086d301a0ea6119bd3b6e978a", "text": "Footnote 87:", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00909", "bookId": 73755, "start": 427365, "end": 427845, "sha256": "dd4d4535da0834baf657ae495d49551d5f42f952936342e896ac719c7af73b5f", "text": "I do not mean to imply that I think it is easy to learn how to identify ourselves with our city, especially for those who live in large cities. The men of a small town know that if they have a new town-hall they will have to pay for it. In a large city men ask for a ward building because they will not have to pay for it, they think. It is all this which neighborhood organization and the integration of neighborhoods, of which I shall speak later, must remedy.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00910", "bookId": 73755, "start": 427849, "end": 427861, "sha256": "5dac5c32fe5fd20fb8b3abd2ba74f5c0887943d9137495a1938c72a590f22162", "text": "Footnote 88:", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00911", "bookId": 73755, "start": 427867, "end": 428339, "sha256": "1da5a98bc48a6ad776e9b15a8d8ac2df8801b8badb71b554fd0948ecca0d543f", "text": "The plan of Mr. and Mrs. Wilbur Phillips for community organization and for the connection with it of expert service is too comprehensive to describe here, but based as it is on their actual experience, and planning as it does for the training of whole neighborhoods and the arousing of them to responsibility and action, it should be studied by every one, for such plans are, I believe, the best signs we have that democracy is yet possible for America.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00912", "bookId": 73755, "start": 428343, "end": 428355, "sha256": "0363790089fa584878912770ba0ebcea2860e9cee6dd285ef004a1285ac8e883", "text": "Footnote 89:", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00913", "bookId": 73755, "start": 428361, "end": 428480, "sha256": "db96b73f606eb8d71696d8defcc55dda998cb89a1022886987e781324e00b186", "text": "How much we are all indebted to the settlements as the pioneer neighborhood movement I do not stop to consider here.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00914", "bookId": 73755, "start": 428484, "end": 428556, "sha256": "5be59d365acb8d35446f682c6d314fffd5db5846ab8c6eb021e6bacd98a82aa0", "text": "------------------------------------------------------------------------", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00915", "bookId": 73755, "start": 428599, "end": 428604, "sha256": "2bb1c025ac256acca7384a2b056054d801bdecdadf1eabd0b9caa9d8a2c261fc", "text": "XXVII", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00916", "bookId": 73755, "start": 428620, "end": 428667, "sha256": "d8a73b8fbb68291a1660c96827f447cb1c6704467cad524c7bf386b46e0b9716", "text": "FROM NEIGHBORHOOD TO NATION: THE UNIFYING STATE", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00917", "bookId": 73755, "start": 428700, "end": 428714, "sha256": "cb963f8b7dd4be2e8d413c437052b98afad284e3de40cd420bdd246302a111ad", "text": "--------------", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00918", "bookId": 73755, "start": 428720, "end": 429174, "sha256": "2edaf28be4e31872060514c582b2b35147aaa215b926b3ac475ac0ea3f690986", "text": "HOW can the will of the people be the sovereign power of the state? There must be two changes in our state: first, the state must be the actual integration of living, local groups, thereby finding ways of dealing directly with its individual members. Secondly, other groups than neighborhood groups must be represented in the state: the ever-increasing multiple group life of to-day must be recognized and given a responsible place in politics.[90]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00919", "bookId": 73755, "start": 429178, "end": 430319, "sha256": "1e1d435a4838c4cd06199f44750b5c109a29c45d6eb03b0d8115e747d5d95a87", "text": "First, every neighborhood must be organized; the neighborhood groups must then be integrated, through larger intermediary groups, into a true state. Neither our cities nor our states can ever be properly administered until representatives from neighborhood groups meet to discuss and thereby to correlate the needs of all parts of the city, of all parts of the state. Social workers and medical experts have a conference on tuberculosis, social workers and educational experts have a conference on industrial education. We must now develop the methods by which the citizens also are represented at these conferences. We must go beyond this (for certain organizations, as the National Settlement Conference at least, do already have neighborhood representation), and develop the methods by which regular meetings of representatives from neighborhood organizations meet to discuss all city and state problems. Further still, we must give official recognition to such gatherings, we must make them a regular part of government. The neighborhood must be actually, not theoretically, an integral part of city, of state, of nation.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00920", "bookId": 73755, "start": 430323, "end": 431293, "sha256": "d516a5a58aebdddb8c6d6651c9e7bed909a429f6f289cc1a2826df357b347471", "text": "When Massachusetts is thus organized, the neighborhood groups and intermediary, or district, groups should send representatives to city council and state legislature. The Senate might be composed of experts—experts in education, in housing, in sanitation etc.[91] The neighborhood and district centres would receive reports from their representatives to city council and state legislature and take measures on these reports. They should also be required to send regular reports up to their representative bodies. We should have a definitely organized and strongly articulated network of personal interest and representative reporting. Then the state legislature must devise ways of dealing not only with the district group but with the neighborhood groups through the district group, and thus with every individual in the commonwealth. The nation too must have a real connection with every little neighborhood centre through state and district bodies.[92]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00921", "bookId": 73755, "start": 431297, "end": 432304, "sha256": "8f107bf1596776d4984db03d5a348faf4595e8c8fc82111ff02a2a03c00abaae", "text": "America at war has found a way of getting word from Washington to the smallest local units. The Council of National Defense has a “Section of Coöperation with States.” This is connected with a State Council of Defense in every state. In most cases the State Council is connected with County Councils, and these often with councils in cities and towns. Beyond this the Council of National Defense has recently (February, 1918) recommended the extension of county organization by the creation of Community Councils in every school district. Its official statement opens with this sentence: “The first nine months of the war have shown the vital importance of developing an official nation-wide organization reaching into the smallest communities to mobilize and make available the efforts of the whole people for the prosecution of the war.” And it goes on to say that the government must have such close contact with small units that personal relation with all the citizens is possible.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00922", "bookId": 73755, "start": 432308, "end": 432664, "sha256": "571a108e34246ddf776f70d837ccf5fc35eee226b11cabca38f91de4e6a5a952", "text": "President Wilson in endorsing this step, said, “[This is an] advance of vital significance. It will, I believe, result when thoroughly carried out in welding the nation together as no nation of great size has ever been welded before.... It is only by extending your organization to small communities that every citizen of the state can be reached.”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00923", "bookId": 73755, "start": 432668, "end": 433787, "sha256": "12bdd70c73d787d1b896e4346a865154d9bdf8470060ce5ae50f65d63b906066", "text": "Thus when the government found that it must provide means to its hands for keeping constantly in touch with the whole membership of the nation, it planned to do this by the encouragement and fostering of neighborhood organization. The nation is now seeking the individual through neighborhood groups. It is using the School Centres (it recommends the schoolhouse as the best centre for community organization) for the teaching of Food and Fuel Conservation, for Liberty Loan and Red Cross work, for recruiting for the army, for enlisting workers for war industries, for teaching the necessity and methods of increasing the food supply, for plans to relieve transportation by coöperative shipments and deliveries, for patriotic education etc.[93] This “patriotic education” has an interesting side. In a country which is even nominally a democracy you cannot win a war without explaining your aims and your policy and carrying your people with you step by step. If beyond this the country wishes to be really a democracy, the neighborhood groups must have a share in forming the aims and the policy.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00924", "bookId": 73755, "start": 433791, "end": 434192, "sha256": "6fc5595054a11d7424133c99085eb70083044b1f2da9ed0f141f370218c67d14", "text": "Of course one would always prefer this to be a movement from below up rather than from above down, but it is not impossible for the two movements to go on at the same time, as they are in fact doing now with the rapid development of spontaneous local organization. There were Community Councils in existence in fact if not in name before the recommendation of the Council of National Defense.[94]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00925", "bookId": 73755, "start": 434196, "end": 434695, "sha256": "f5ecbc61c0953b261450645a948aff1ed9d26cac0bab17fe811f2b20aa7077ca", "text": "Through these non-partisan councils not only national policy can be explained and spread throughout the country, but also what one locality thinks out that is good can be reported to Washington and thus handed on to other sections of the country. It is a plan for sending the news backwards and forwards from individual to nation, from nation to individual, and it is also a plan for correlating the problems of the local community with the problems of the nation and of coöperating nations.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00926", "bookId": 73755, "start": 434699, "end": 435033, "sha256": "b7ca79189ad7339344b9d22b04d152466af50a4ee343ae9a3fedc03879cf7540", "text": "But why should we be more efficiently organized for war than for peace? Is our proverbial carelessness to be pricked into effectiveness only by emergency calls? Is the only motive you can offer us for efficiency—to win? Or, if that is an instinctive desire, can we not change the goal and be as eager to win other things as war?", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00927", "bookId": 73755, "start": 435055, "end": 435088, "sha256": "92bf9343d426ee004c3cb7caa3f283036b2f3626f071d4807d38518427facd12", "text": "* * * * *", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00928", "bookId": 73755, "start": 435092, "end": 435540, "sha256": "f3570a0610e1e2b3963cb2c8d908fc7f6f4f8a527674a86e6b9c7bf644ebc1f9", "text": "I speak of the new state as resting upon integrated neighborhood groups.[95] While the changes necessary to bring this about would have to be planned and authorized by constitutional conventions, its psychological basis would be: (1) the fact that we are ready for membership in a larger group only by experience first in the smaller group, and (2) the natural tendency for a real group to seek other groups. Let us look at this second point.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00929", "bookId": 73755, "start": 435544, "end": 436164, "sha256": "0c08c23ed8c6fee5577682c9e58a139a1802adfa3015de873eef3e172679657d", "text": "We have seen the process of the single group evolving. But contemporaneously a thousand other unities are a-making. Every group once become conscious of itself instinctively seeks other groups with which to unite to form a larger whole. Alone it cannot be effective. As individual progress depends upon the degree of interpenetration, so group progress depends upon the interpenetration of group and group. For convenience I speak of each group as a whole, but from a philosophical point of view there is no whole, only an infinite striving for wholeness, only the _principle_ of wholeness forever leading us on.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00930", "bookId": 73755, "start": 436168, "end": 436958, "sha256": "6f82edd50136a9bbefacb9c86b105fe57bc2769487eb6516c0f9e08f10eb3374", "text": "This is the social law: the law which connects neighborhood with neighborhood. The reason we want neighborhood organization is not to keep people within their neighborhoods but to get them out. The movement for neighborhood organization is a deliberate effort to get people to identify themselves actually, not sentimentally, with a larger and larger collective unit than the neighborhood. We may be able through our neighborhood group to learn the social process, to learn to evolve the social will, but the question before us is whether we have enough political genius to apply this method to city organization, national organization, and international organization. City must join with city, state with state, actually, not through party. Finally nation must join with nation.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00931", "bookId": 73755, "start": 436962, "end": 437570, "sha256": "503415799db388c0ce97ced0f15d947ce206e5d6db046f6cc739c4fc6d5a2cb2", "text": "The recommendation of the Council of National Defense which has been mentioned above would repay careful reading for the indications which one finds in it of the double purpose of neighborhood organization. It is definitely stated that the importance of the Community Council is in: (1) initiating work to meet its own war needs; and (2) in making all its local resources available for the nation. And again it is stated that: (1) in a democracy local emergencies can best be met by local action; and (2) that each local district should feel the duty of bearing its full share of the national burden.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00932", "bookId": 73755, "start": 437574, "end": 437879, "sha256": "625fa156d3b422e15e5716a83fe0a88408bd8818fae916061d0063ddd751f2ed", "text": "Thus our national government clearly sees and specifically states that neighborhood organization is both for the neighborhood and for the nation: that it looks in, it looks out. Thus that which we are coming to understand as the true social process receives practical recognition in government policy.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00933", "bookId": 73755, "start": 437883, "end": 438669, "sha256": "ae9415a6c6af02b2c8b52c27350f05b9694278ef597389291088c0c05be8a973", "text": "I have said that neighborhood must join with neighborhood to form the state. This joining of neighborhood and neighborhood can be done neither directly nor imaginatively. It cannot be done directly: representation is necessary not only because the numbers would be too great for all neighborhoods to meet together, but because even if it were physically possible we should have created a crowd not a society. Theoretically when you have large numbers you get a big, composite consciousness made up of infinite kinds of fitting together of infinite kinds of individuals, but practically this varied and multiplied fitting together is not possible beyond a certain number. There must be representatives from the smallest units to the larger and larger, up to the federal state.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00934", "bookId": 73755, "start": 438673, "end": 440112, "sha256": "695617b40a179c30f6d8beb50b70bddbc06a73c8305afc142615458737ea358e", "text": "Secondly, neighborhoods cannot join with neighborhoods through the imagination alone. Various people have asserted that now we have large cities and solidarity cannot come by actual acquaintance, it must be got by appropriate appeals to the imagination, by having, for instance, courses of lectures to tell one part of a city about another part. But this alone will never be successful. Real solidarity will never be accomplished except by beginning somewhere the joining of one small group with another. We are told too that the uneducated man cannot think beyond his particular section of the universe. We can teach him to think beyond his particular section of the universe by actually making him participate in other sections through connecting his section with others. We are capable of being faithful to large groups as well as small, to complex groups as well as simple, to our city, to our nation, but this can be effected only by a certain process, and that process, while it may begin by a stimulation of the imagination, must, if it is going to bring forth results in real life, be a matter of actual experience. Only by actual union, not by appeals to the imagination, can the various and varied neighborhood groups be made the constituents of a sound, normal, unpartisan city life. Then being a member of a neighborhood group will mean at the same time being a member and a responsible member of the state.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00935", "bookId": 73755, "start": 440116, "end": 441404, "sha256": "e50971380485c0676000fc16adc4c7c2ed3939d35624711c0522950042af4aee", "text": "I have spoken of the psychological tendency for group to seek group. Moreover, it is not possible to isolate yourself in your local group because few local needs can be met without joining with other localities, which have these same needs, in order to secure city or state action. We cannot get municipal regulation for the dance-hall in our neighborhood without joining with other neighborhoods which want the same thing and securing municipal regulation for all city dance-halls. If we want better housing laws, grants for industrial education, we join with other groups who want these things and become the state. And even if some need seems purely local, the method of satisfying it ought not to be for the South End to pull as hard as it can for a new ward building, say, while the North End is also pulling as hard as it can for a new ward building, and the winner of such tug-of-war to get the appropriation. If the South End wants a new ward building it should understand how much money is available for ward buildings, and if only enough for one this year, consider where it is most needed. Probably, whatever the evidence, it will be decided that it is most needed in the South End, but a step will be taken towards a different kind of decision in the future.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00936", "bookId": 73755, "start": 441408, "end": 441797, "sha256": "7487635fbe3181bf27258443a57776ffc38c072d9c6dc284ab2e108910414226", "text": "And we join not only to secure city and state but also federal action. If we want a river or harbor appropriation, we go to Congress. And if such demands are supplied at present on the log-rolling basis, we can only hope that this will not always be so. When group organization has vitalized our whole political life, there may then be some chance that log-rolling will be repudiated.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00937", "bookId": 73755, "start": 441801, "end": 442104, "sha256": "aad8355a2d7306fd41aaefb818b6e4a425134a7663977c2a0fbeddbe8a6768c5", "text": "And we do not stop even at Washington. Immigration is a national and international problem, but the immigrant may live next door to you, and thus the immigration question becomes one of nearest concern. This intricate interweaving of our life allows no man to live to himself or to his neighborhood.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00938", "bookId": 73755, "start": 442108, "end": 442855, "sha256": "b24430a08328f0efb736a1386d4a1eeacd4c33e4d694bd4e7adc3cc34d950816", "text": "Then when neighborhood joins with neighborhood all the lessons learned in the simple group must be practised in the complex one. As the group lesson includes not only my responsibility _to_ my group but my responsibility _for_ my group, so I learn not only my duty to my neighborhood but that I am responsible for my neighborhood. Also it is seen that as the individuals of a group are interdependent, so the various groups are interdependent, and the problem is to understand just in what way they are interdependent and how they can be adjusted to one another. The process of the joining of several groups into a larger whole is exactly the same as the joining of individuals to form a group—a reciprocal interaction and correlation.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00939", "bookId": 73755, "start": 442859, "end": 443631, "sha256": "437e8994dcd66e1cbbcf8674f609d3840c1a65df9a42dc43724ea7b2739078cb", "text": "The usual notion is that our neighborhood association is to evolve an idea, a plan, and then when we go to represent it at a meeting of neighborhood associations from different parts of the city that we are to try to push through the plan of action decided on by our own local group. If we do not do this, we are not supposed to be loyal. But we are certainly to do nothing of the kind. We are to try to evolve the collective idea which shall represent the new group, that is, the various neighborhood associations all acting together. We are told that we must not sacrifice the interests of the particular group we represent. No, but also we must not try to make its interests prevail against those of others. Its real interests are the interests of the whole.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00940", "bookId": 73755, "start": 443635, "end": 444179, "sha256": "2032d2db46dd7a842d9a2a2d8b8a37e32ccdf7a9d75027815c9eac2c5d4dc6ee", "text": "And then when we have learned to be truly citizens of Boston, we must discover how Boston and other cities, how cities and the rural communities can join. And so on and so on. At last the “real” state appears. We are pragmatists because we do not want to unite with the state imaginatively, we want to be the state; we want to actualize and feel our way every moment, let every group open the way for a larger group, let every circumference become the centre of a new circumference. My neighborhood group opens the path to the State.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00941", "bookId": 73755, "start": 444183, "end": 444871, "sha256": "a75246ecfa018555d9b3b6932766be92a09f6454fb6a392eb003e9bf962bddd2", "text": "But neighborhoods coöperating actively with the city government is not to-day a dream. Marcus M. Marks, President of the Borough of Manhattan, New York City, in 1914 divided Manhattan into sixteen neighborhoods, and appointed for each a neighborhood commission composed of business men, professional men, mechanics, clerks etc.—a thoroughly representative body chosen irrespective of party lines. Mr. Marks’ avowed object was to obtain a knowledge of the needs of his constituents, to form connecting links between neighborhoods and the city government. And these bodies need not exist dormant until their advice is asked. Sections 1 and 2 of the Rules and Regulations read:", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00942", "bookId": 73755, "start": 444877, "end": 445095, "sha256": "eca2355932e9fd89fe7e5da1270b530209aa3bd4c9ba81ac819d8749f227fe06", "text": "“1. The Commissions shall recommend, or suggest, to the Borough President, for his consideration and advice, matters which, in their opinion will be of benefit to their districts and to the City.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00943", "bookId": 73755, "start": 445101, "end": 445339, "sha256": "1030f39f79d40f19195e2d9414fb4598231946ccbbe63161e3fe52eb501c3fc5", "text": "“2. The Commissions shall receive from the Borough President suggestions or recommendations for their consideration as to matters affecting their districts, and report back their conclusions with respect thereto.”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00944", "bookId": 73755, "start": 445343, "end": 446240, "sha256": "7d25618cec9bc6a2f59d42c6abe7eacda90f69fadbd443a9613da796f39fd0c1", "text": "Moreover, beyond the recommendations of the Commission, the coöperation of the whole neighborhood is sought. “Whenever the commissions are in doubt as to the policy they desire to advocate and wish to further sound the sentiment of their localities, meetings similar to town-meetings are held, usually in the local schoolhouse.” The “neighborhoods” of Manhattan have coöperated with the city government in such matters as bus franchise, markets, location of tracks, floating baths, pavement construction, sewerage etc. One of the results of this plan, Mr. Marks tells us, is that many types of improvement which were formerly opposed, such as sewerage construction by the owners of abutting property, now receive the support of the citizens because there is opportunity for them to understand fully the needs of the situation and even to employ their own expert if they wish.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00945", "bookId": 73755, "start": 446244, "end": 446444, "sha256": "3304c8700b87bdaa3c35361d9d7bc10c9185249b288a8e5b3a19291365958dcc", "text": "The chairmen of the twelve Neighborhood Commissions form a body called the Manhattan Commission. This meets to confer with the President on matters affecting the interests of the entire borough.[96]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00946", "bookId": 73755, "start": 446448, "end": 446664, "sha256": "572e659dd84bb3f87403bc03a61ab6bc892555f48a10a6824055cb1af3d56e44", "text": "This plan, while not yet ideal, particularly in so far as the commissions are appointed from above, is most interesting to all those who are looking towards neighborhood organization as the basis of the new state.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00947", "bookId": 73755, "start": 446668, "end": 447155, "sha256": "8ff8c2ba04abc742cf46aee4fe2956d8dbe8132db077542015c1bd260a4a5f7e", "text": "To summarize: neighborhood groups join with other neighborhood groups to form the city—then only shall we understand what it is to be the city; neighborhood groups join with other neighborhood groups to form the state—then only shall we understand what it is to be the state. We do not begin with a unified state which delegates authority; we begin with the neighborhood group and create the state ourselves. Thus is the state built up through the intimate intertwining of all.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00948", "bookId": 73755, "start": 447159, "end": 448189, "sha256": "6e319ef2facd03ffea5d91ec3b1f3afab31939fcc046fd0457f254b62929ce94", "text": "But this is not a crude and external federalism. We have not transferred the unit of democracy from the individual to the group. It is the individual man who must feel himself the unit of city government, of state government: he has not delegated his responsibility to his neighborhood group; he has direct relation with larger wholes. I have no medieval idea of mediate articulation, of individuals forming groups and groups forming the nation. Mechanical federalism we have long outgrown. The members of the nation are to be individuals, not groups. The movement for neighborhood organization is from one point of view a movement to give the individual political effectiveness—it is an individualistic not a collectivistic movement, paradoxical as this may seem to superficial thinking. But, as the whole structure of government must rest on the individual, it must have its roots within that place where you can get nearest to him, and where his latent powers can best be freed and actualized—his local group.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00949", "bookId": 73755, "start": 448193, "end": 448692, "sha256": "5dd5b41b7ccd5596729e2686ea9bfc91b087d956a7323fe586ee1b20fd962aa1", "text": "What are we ultimately seeking through neighborhood organization? To find the individual. But let no one think that the movement for neighborhood organization is a new movement. Our neighborhood organization, we are often told, had its origin in the New England town-meeting. Yes, and far beyond that in the early institutions of our English ancestors. That our national life must be grounded in the daily, intimate life of all men is the teaching of the whole long stream of English history.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00950", "bookId": 73755, "start": 448696, "end": 449867, "sha256": "f0015c88a35c9f6c8eb1bf2a70518e5098c4cd43d52c35c3d1c048b612378cb9", "text": "We have seen that the increasing activity of the state, its social policies and social legislation, demands the activity of every man. We have seen in considering direct government that the activity of every man is not enough if we mean merely his activity at the polling booths. With the inclusion of all men and women (practically accomplished) in the suffrage, with the rapidly increasing acceptance of direct government, the _extensive_ work of the democratic impulse has ended. Now the _intensive_ work of democracy must begin. The great historic task of the Anglo-Saxon people has been to find wise and reasoned forms for the expression of individual responsibility, has been so to bulwark the rights of the individual as to provide at the same time for the unity and stability of the state. They have done this externally by making the machinery of representative government. We want to-day to do it spiritually, to direct the spiritual currents in their flow and interflow so that we have not only the external interpenetration—choosing representatives etc.—but the deeper interpenetration which shows the minds and needs and wants of all men.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00951", "bookId": 73755, "start": 449871, "end": 451296, "sha256": "59bb636b33c478517747a6d3445acff3475956bf313c2d6bac01de3dc95edb62", "text": "We can satisfy our wants only by a genuine union and communion of all, only in the friendly outpouring of heart to heart. We have come to the time when we see that the machinery of government can be useful to us only so far as it is a living thing: the souls of men are the stones of Heaven, the life of every man must contribute fundamentally to the growth of the state. So the world spirit seeks freedom and finds it in a more and more perfect union of true individuals. _The relation of neighbors one to another must be integrated into the substance of the state._ Politics must take democracy from its external expression of representation to the expression of that inner meaning hidden in the intermingling of all men. This is our part to-day—thus shall we take our place in the great task of our race. Our political life began in the small group, but it has taken us long to evolve our relation to a national life, and meanwhile much of the significance and richness of the local life has been lost. Back now to the local unit we must go with all that we have accumulated, to find in and through that our complete realization. Back we must go to this small primary unit if we would understand the meaning of democracy, if we would get the fruits of democracy. As Voltaire said, “The spirit of France is the candle of Europe,” so must the spirit of the neighborhood be the candle of the nation.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00952", "bookId": 73755, "start": 451300, "end": 451305, "sha256": "73be087e93080f9e436892b7d182df66394bc79dbf5df119d9357df61b1ebbfb", "text": "-----", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00953", "bookId": 73755, "start": 451309, "end": 451321, "sha256": "1f90e6dab1424f2be1ec35648c78afd10db2031220f53da1bc60a7273b98715f", "text": "Footnote 90:", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00954", "bookId": 73755, "start": 451327, "end": 451369, "sha256": "c30efca9a7c89bc87b933cf1157a13929e0b91bc248f177e9f9e52ce9738187b", "text": "This point will be taken up in ch. XXXIII.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00955", "bookId": 73755, "start": 451373, "end": 451385, "sha256": "b4afdfd8aac067b90981083d56ed705019e055958afe1cdd5059e5ce58f7c6ff", "text": "Footnote 91:", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00956", "bookId": 73755, "start": 451391, "end": 451565, "sha256": "f8d82c3c0b386def42a244a30841a53f7405490f86220a3cccf6d4c9119c09af", "text": "Or perhaps the Senate might represent the occupational group (see ch. XXXIII). Or perhaps the experts mentioned above might be representatives from occupational groups.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00957", "bookId": 73755, "start": 451569, "end": 451581, "sha256": "dc02612fa69af809804f89f47627cb95303006eed179d4d2429323a8849dec08", "text": "Footnote 92:", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00958", "bookId": 73755, "start": 451587, "end": 452053, "sha256": "07531eb31491378a4d421d0c706f46edfa3b1909b0780b144237e63156b79c07", "text": "In North Carolina the recently organized State Bureau of Community Service—made up of the administrators of the Department of Agriculture, the Board of Health, the Normal and Industrial College and the Farmers’ Union, with the State Superintendent of Public Instruction as its central executive—is making its immediate work the development of local community organization which shall be directly articulated with a unified state organization.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00959", "bookId": 73755, "start": 452057, "end": 452069, "sha256": "18404531d99cef5464c0f17969598f3f50f7286758432edcfbf0c36481b10216", "text": "Footnote 93:", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00960", "bookId": 73755, "start": 452075, "end": 452231, "sha256": "0dc012707542a93769bafa5965692fef14ae84c8f25db3d2e45a8449f7fc0b18", "text": "The Community Council, however, is not to duplicate other organizations but first to coördinate all existing agencies before planning new activities.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00961", "bookId": 73755, "start": 452235, "end": 452247, "sha256": "3d29de22277d21ce09e78a34d12a93d8fcd1655b42cc16984e8bd165dcb1a5f3", "text": "Footnote 94:", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00962", "bookId": 73755, "start": 452253, "end": 452366, "sha256": "191d787c4782d6c3cc1f59299aa3758298f739b75c49c4a6b5f7ffa0ef7c46a8", "text": "And spontaneously many towns and villages turned to the schoolhouse as the natural centre of its war services.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00963", "bookId": 73755, "start": 452370, "end": 452382, "sha256": "6748039e782ffffe3c2de7b391ce75d604cb8224f0a3610997175b49a37d96eb", "text": "Footnote 95:", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00964", "bookId": 73755, "start": 452388, "end": 452458, "sha256": "2db35ec0fd520ee93e31b8eef49c777f27f978dfa9ec7fb1f960a15a8270f93c", "text": "For the moment I ignore the occupational group to be considered later.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00965", "bookId": 73755, "start": 452462, "end": 452474, "sha256": "52c13cf6765e71a864ab8122b4d8b111965c0e8dd73c26a12af839217856d58c", "text": "Footnote 96:", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00966", "bookId": 73755, "start": 452480, "end": 452965, "sha256": "28c8b1a1f8735021aa9422d54c3bd0867d482ee959d4b494ff16793f0ac6fcc2", "text": "I have taken this account from the official report. I have been told by New York people that these commissions have shown few signs of life. This does not, however, seem to me to detract from the value of the plan as a suggestion, or as indication of what is seen to be advisable if not yet wholly practicable. The New York charter provides for Local Improvement Boards as connecting links with the central government, but these I am told have shown no life whatever.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00967", "bookId": 73755, "start": 452969, "end": 453041, "sha256": "5be59d365acb8d35446f682c6d314fffd5db5846ab8c6eb021e6bacd98a82aa0", "text": "------------------------------------------------------------------------", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00968", "bookId": 73755, "start": 453076, "end": 453098, "sha256": "07bdbc0b85000c2b55911bdf88efbb9ae1cab320e0ca8bd2231f77db64a582b9", "text": "THE OCCUPATIONAL GROUP", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00969", "bookId": 73755, "start": 453108, "end": 453180, "sha256": "5be59d365acb8d35446f682c6d314fffd5db5846ab8c6eb021e6bacd98a82aa0", "text": "------------------------------------------------------------------------", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00970", "bookId": 73755, "start": 453223, "end": 453229, "sha256": "336364116d49ae4e97f05c6d9f6dce585ab4927df1d87cc08905920f474c3b59", "text": "XXVIII", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00971", "bookId": 73755, "start": 453259, "end": 453278, "sha256": "3fdaf880cb3bb861b593eaac8187b7f535804c9d07bf915a84be9691410de0a7", "text": "POLITICAL PLURALISM", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00972", "bookId": 73755, "start": 453311, "end": 453325, "sha256": "cb963f8b7dd4be2e8d413c437052b98afad284e3de40cd420bdd246302a111ad", "text": "--------------", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00973", "bookId": 73755, "start": 453331, "end": 453658, "sha256": "8886281e60f91906bbfa89b132856f1c1a4602c5f88ac52d40a15e870eb0e4c3", "text": "ALL that I have written has been based on the assumption of the unifying state. Moreover I have spoken of neighborhood organization as if it were possible to take it for granted that the neighborhood group is to be the basis of the new state. The truth of both these assumptions is denied by some of our most able thinkers.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00974", "bookId": 73755, "start": 453662, "end": 454412, "sha256": "cb4bfcf4e255237c935623d011963d01ffefbfa1d33aa2b48d75a72795b240cc", "text": "The unified state is now discredited in many quarters. Syndicalists, guild socialists, some of the Liberals in England, some of the advocates of occupational representation in America, and a growing school of writers who might be called political pluralists are throwing the burden of much proof upon the state, and are proposing group organization as the next step in political method. To some the idea of the state is abhorrent. One writer says, “The last hundred years marked in all countries the beginning of the dissolution of the State and of the resurrection of corporate life [trade unions etc.].... In the face of this growth of syndicalism in every direction, ... it is no longer venturesome to assert that the State is dead.”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00975", "bookId": 73755, "start": 454416, "end": 455270, "sha256": "6e8ce05186fb4e91aa8bfd3c359325283a87f7164c89b6e25fe36c767b1dd2c4", "text": "Others like to keep the word “state” but differ much as to the position it is to occupy in the new order: to some it seems to be merely a kind of mucilage to keep the various groups together; with others the state is to hold the ring while different groups fight out their differences. Still other thinkers, while seeing the open door to scepticism in regard to the state, are nevertheless not ready to pass through, but, preserving the instinct and the reverence for the unity of the state, propose as the most immediate object of our study how the unity can be brought about, what is to be the true and perfect bond of union between the multiple groups of our modern life. All these thinkers, differing widely as they do, yet may be roughly classed together as the upholders of a multiple group organization as the basis for a new state.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00976", "bookId": 73755, "start": 455274, "end": 455587, "sha256": "63167e35d32d9b6657a577c44171aebfbfdeaf0ec6ef7d8cf7e50d9b6ece52f0", "text": "This movement is partly a reaction against an atomistic sovereignty, the so-called theory of “subjective” rights, a “senseless” geographical representation, a much berated parliamentary system, and partly the wish to give industrial workers a larger share in the control of industry and in government.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00977", "bookId": 73755, "start": 455591, "end": 456650, "sha256": "2d45b306ef4f04664ad84452f3ac3be50a4e5b5c4371a1eb1614010de5d481a3", "text": "The opposition to “numerical representation” has been growing for some time. We were told thirty years ago by Le Prins that vocational representation is “the way out of the domination of the majority,” that the vocational group is the “natural” group “spontaneously generated in the womb of a nation.” Twenty-five years ago Benoist said that the state must recognize private associations: universities, chambers of commerce, professional associations, societies of agriculture, syndicates of workmen—“en un mot tout ce qui a corps et vie dans la nation.” If the state is to correspond to reality, it must recognize, Benoist insisted, all this group life, all these interests, within it. Moreover, he urged, with our present pulverized suffrage, with sovereignty divided among millions, we are in a state of anarchy; only group representation will save us from “la force stupide de nombre.” M. Léon Duguit has given us a so-called “objective” theory of law which means for many people a new conception of the state.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00978", "bookId": 73755, "start": 456654, "end": 457209, "sha256": "d51add4a394f35152aa3f9837b394cb82fb040f5c037d692098012661e525f35", "text": "Many say that it is absurd for representation to be based on the mere chance of residence as is the case when the geographical district is the unit. The territorial principle is going, we are told, and that of similar occupational interests will take its place. Again some people are suggesting that both principles should be recognized in our government: that one house in Parliament represent geographical areas, the other occupations.[97] No one has yet, however, made any proposal of this kind definite enough to serve as a basis of discussion.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00979", "bookId": 73755, "start": 457213, "end": 457675, "sha256": "feb77d7ee8cdd38cbcb9907acd96d52d22353dbafd24fceda4021f824f32d1be", "text": "Syndicalism demands the abolition of the “state” while—through its organization of the syndicate of workers, the union of syndicates of the same town or region and the federation of these unions—it erects a system of its own controlled entirely by the workers. Syndicalism has gained many adherents lately because of the present reaction against socialism. People do not want the Servile State and, therefore, many think they do not want any state.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00980", "bookId": 73755, "start": 457679, "end": 458486, "sha256": "c1d035a90cd81c31d54c65c408b57026aa5004f618cb5411d25a506847ac332a", "text": "In England a new school is arising which is equally opposed to syndicalism and to the bureaucracy of state socialism. Or rather it takes half of each. Guild socialism believes in state ownership of the means of production, but that the control of each industry or “guild”—appointment of officers, hours and conditions of work etc.—should be vested in the membership of the industry. The syndicalists throw over the state entirely, the guild socialists believe in the “co-management” of the state. There are to be two sets of machinery side by side but quite distinct: that based on the occupational group will be concerned with economic considerations, the other with “political” considerations, the first culminating in a national Guild Congress, and the second in the State.[98]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00981", "bookId": 73755, "start": 458490, "end": 458890, "sha256": "4e867a84a7e93f128e34965668e66f3a7cd97c5bed22abaed3a34b77fbdd3745", "text": "“Guild Socialism,” edited by A. R. Orage, gives in some detail this systematic plan already familiar to readers of the _New Age_. A later book of the same school “Authority, Liberty and Function,” by Ramiro de Maeztu, concerns itself less with detail and more with the philosophical basis of the new order. The value of this book consists in its emphasis on the functional principle.[99]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00982", "bookId": 73755, "start": 458894, "end": 458992, "sha256": "f93695b421b162c24661f183e1c219d158d554811395d8f2fbc9d039780f583f", "text": "Mr. Ernest Barker of Oxford, although he formulates no definite system, is a political pluralist.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00983", "bookId": 73755, "start": 458996, "end": 459250, "sha256": "60e51123ac1762530c197b9e9344ada372fb3f9e9235b47fc3910bd662ad19df", "text": "John Neville Figgis makes an important contribution to pluralism,[100] and although he has a case to plead for the church, he is equally emphatic that all the local groups which really make our life should be fostered and given an increased authority.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00984", "bookId": 73755, "start": 459254, "end": 460637, "sha256": "faef1fe3564876675cb8b8519db4121213196dcb277d94d2c010c5a3769d6fbb", "text": "In America vocational representation has many distinguished advocates, among them Professor Felix Adler and Professor H. A. Overstreet. Mr. Herbert Croly, who has given profound thought to the trend of democracy, advocates giving increased power and legal recognition to the powerful groups growing up within the state. Mr. Harold Laski is a pronounced political pluralist, especially in his emphasis on the advantage of multiple, varied and freely developing groups for the enrichment and enhancement of our whole life. Mr. Laski’s book, “Studies in the Problem of Sovereignty,” is one of the most thought-stimulating bits of modern political writing: it does away with the fetich of the abstract state—it is above all an attempt to look at things as they are rather than as we imagine them to be; it shows that states are not supreme by striking examples of organizations within the state claiming and winning the right to refuse obedience to the state; it sees the strength and the variety of our group life to-day as a significant fact for political method; it is a recognition, to an extent, of the group principle—it sees that sovereignty is not in people as a mass; it pleads for a revivification of local life, and finally it shows us, implicitly, not only that we need to-day a new state, but that the new state must be a great moral force.[101]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00985", "bookId": 73755, "start": 460641, "end": 461153, "sha256": "2e574fea713bf83e2fc5f553f9beba53a3078ff6a061ebfbdaae2f45f6f41f2e", "text": "Perhaps the most interesting contribution of the pluralists is their clear showing that “a single unitary state with a single sovereignty” is not true to the facts of life to-day. Mr. Barker says, “Every state is something of a federal society and contains different national groups, different churches, different economic organizations, each exercising its measure of control over its members.” The following instances are cited to show the present tendency of different groups to claim autonomy:", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00986", "bookId": 73755, "start": 461157, "end": 461394, "sha256": "1b2d3fb6c755c34973b2c0bd3c6112c4e59f5ed32bd03e448984d09714ecfb9e", "text": "1. Religious groups are claiming rights as groups. Many churchmen would like to establish the autonomy of the church. It is impossible to have undenominational instruction in the schools of England because of the claims of the church.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00987", "bookId": 73755, "start": 461398, "end": 461728, "sha256": "76be2585a30ae00b41019713c64e9b55fd67a9e0b32a547535d11fa2a8e61c1b", "text": "2. There is a political movement towards the recognition of national groups. The state in England is passing Home Rule Acts and Welsh Disestablishment Acts to meet the claims of national groups. “All Europe is convulsed with a struggle of which one object is a regrouping of men in ways which will fulfil national ideals.”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00988", "bookId": 73755, "start": 461732, "end": 461873, "sha256": "29e83267dca765a84e8c41dcee1e32eee422d6104dfce6ed9f45c9947bd3a4d9", "text": "3. “The Trade-Unions claim to be free groups.” “Trade-unions have recovered from Parliament more than they have lost in the courts.”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00989", "bookId": 73755, "start": 461877, "end": 462938, "sha256": "f89c57a5d6c7fc38fcb87e7e99053db0ef14f1ca3b8ea88b79daba591a479002", "text": "Let us consider the arguments of the pluralist school, as they form the most interesting, the most suggestive and the most important theory of politics now before us. It seems to me that there are four weaknesses in the pluralist school[102] which must be corrected before we can take from them the torch to light us on our political way: (1) some of the pluralists ostensibly found their books on pragmatic philosophy and yet in their inability to reconcile the distributive and collective they do not accept the latest teachings of pragmatism, for pragmatism does not end with a distributive pluralism, (2) the movement is in part a reaction to a misunderstood Hegelianism, (3) many of the pluralists are professed followers of medieval doctrine, (4) their thinking is not based on a scientific study of the group, which weakens the force of their theories of “objective” rights and sovereignty, much as these latter are an advance on our old theories of “subjective” rights and a sovereignty based on an atomistic conception of society.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00990", "bookId": 73755, "start": 462942, "end": 464646, "sha256": "42a24a829e224d600e6b531d0d5ac86147cd27bddc4dc0783f3356dc308916dd", "text": "First, the underlying problem of pluralism and pragmatism is, as James proclaims, the relation of “collective” and “distributive.” The problem of to-day, we all agree, is the discovery of the kind of federalism which will make the parts live fully in the whole, the whole live fully in the parts. But this is the central problem of philosophy which has stirred the ages. The heart of James’ difficulty was just this: how can many consciousnesses be at the same time one consciousness? How can the same identical fact experience itself so diversely? How can you be the absolute and the individual? It is the old, old struggle which has enmeshed so many, which some of our philosophers have transcended by the deeper intuitions, sure that life is a continuous flow and not spasmodic appearance, disappearance and reappearance. James struggled long with this problem, but the outcome was sure. His spirit could not be bound by intellectualistic logic, the logic of identity. He was finally forced to adopt a higher form of rationality. He gave up conceptualistic logic “fairly, squarely and irrevocably,” and knew by deepest inner testimony that “states of consciousness can separate and combine themselves freely and keep their own identity unchanged while forming parts of simultaneous fields of experience of wider scope.” James always saw the strung-along universe, but he also saw the unifying principle which is working towards its goal. “That secret,” he tells us, “of a continuous life which the universe knows by heart and acts on every instant cannot be a contradiction incarnate.... Our intelligence must keep on speaking terms with the universe.”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00991", "bookId": 73755, "start": 464650, "end": 465583, "sha256": "e5519d6fd4e024292598db2816ac6e3eb673718c821e58e3671de2f8f70c87cc", "text": "When James found that the “all-form” and the “each-forms” are not incompatible, he found the secret of federalism. It is our task to work out in practical politics this speculative truth which the great philosophers have presented to us. The words absolute and individual veil it to us, but substitute state and individual and the problem comes down to the plane of our actual working everyday life. It may be interesting to read philosophy, but the thrilling thing for every man of us to do is to make it come true. We may be heartened by our sojourns on Sinai, but no man may live his life in the clouds. And what does pragmatism mean if not just this? We can only, as James told us again and again, understand the collective and distributive by living. Life is the true revealer: I can never understand the whole by reason, only when the heart-beat of the whole throbs through me as the pulse of my own being.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00992", "bookId": 73755, "start": 465587, "end": 466541, "sha256": "4f8ad60d370d9de1266e07f224d54ad6589b5c2c48c304d1330dc22119180d35", "text": "If we in our neighborhood group live James’ philosophy of the compounding of consciousness, if we obey the true doctrine, that each individual is not only himself but the state—for the fulness of life overflows—then will the perfect form of federalism appear and express itself, for then we have the spirit of federalism creating its own form. Political philosophers talk of the state, but there is no state until we make it. It is pure theory. We, every man and woman to-day, must create his small group first, and then, through its compounding with other groups, it ascends from stage to stage until the federal state appears. Thus do we understand by actual living how collective experiences can claim identity with their constituent parts, how “your experience and mine can be members of a world-experience.” In our neighborhood groups we claim identity with the whole collective will, at that point we are the collective will.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00993", "bookId": 73755, "start": 466545, "end": 467364, "sha256": "c067d868907e02b6dc2bb69bcee77101f83bf0c271309cb749941b745cffb267", "text": "Unless multiple sovereignty can mean ascending rather than parallel groups it will leave out the deepest truth which philosophy has brought us. But surely the political pluralists who are open admirers of James will refuse with him to stay enmeshed in sterile intellectualism, in the narrow and emasculated logic of identity. Confessedly disciples of James, will they not carry their discipleship a step further? Have they not with James a wish for a world that does not fall into “discontinuous pieces,” for “a higher denomination than that distributed, strung-along and flowing sort of reality which we finite beings [now] swim in”? Their groups must be the state each at its separate point. When they see this truth clearly, then the leadership to which their insight entitles them will be theirs.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00994", "bookId": 73755, "start": 467368, "end": 468406, "sha256": "d72452f9638cc9e1376ba3f85124379527aaf9b29b37c6ce52d1ca59c551aeb2", "text": "I have said that the political pluralists are fighting a misunderstood Hegelianism. Do they adopt the crudely popular conception of the Hegelian state as something “above and beyond” men, as a separate entity virtually independent of men? Such a conception is fundamentally wrong and wholly against the spirit of Hegel. As James found collective experience not independent of distributive experience, as he reconciled the two through the “compounding of consciousness,” so Hegel’s related parts received their meaning only in the conception of total relativity. The soul of Hegelianism is total relativity, but this is the essence of the compounding of consciousness. As for James the related parts and their relations appear simultaneously and with equal reality, so in Hegel’s total relativity: the members of the state in their right relation to one another appear in all the different degrees of reality together as one whole total relativity—never sundered, never warring against the true Self, the Whole.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00995", "bookId": 73755, "start": 468410, "end": 469277, "sha256": "c631768fdda3dfe2ec3cc1751e29fd2cdbe725d028979c24b1c8d4f14e173361", "text": "But there is the real Hegel and the Hegel who misapplied his own doctrine, who preached the absolutism of a Prussian State. Green and Bosanquet in measure more or less full taught the true Hegelian doctrine. But for a number of years the false leadings of Hegel have been uppermost in people’s minds, and there has been a reaction to their teaching due to the panic we all feel at the mere thought of an absolute monarch and an irresponsible state. The present behavior of Prussia of course tends to increase the panic, and the fashion of jeering at Hegel and his “misguided” followers is wide-spread. But while many English writers are raging against Hegelianism, at the same time the English are pouring out in unstinted measure themselves and their substance to establish on earth Hegel’s absolute in the actual form of an International League!", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00996", "bookId": 73755, "start": 469281, "end": 469625, "sha256": "07d7f3cdd2355f9f38df2a94b16daadb5c12171cefb4e6c64eec03ccbcc3efa0", "text": "The political pluralists whom we are now considering, believing that a collective and distributive sovereignty cannot exist together, throw overboard collective sovereignty. When they accept the compounding of consciousness taught by their own master, James, then they will see that true Hegelianism finds its actualized form in federalism.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00997", "bookId": 73755, "start": 469629, "end": 469822, "sha256": "749318ecdf72c354f61815789d38a5d25a3ae99d8f4544a2ff70e12b19ef0dca", "text": "Perhaps they would be able to do this sooner if they could rid themselves of the Middle Ages! Many of the political pluralists deliberately announce that they are accepting medieval doctrine.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00998", "bookId": 73755, "start": 469826, "end": 470879, "sha256": "5adcb7c8c30cbf043cad87cb40835b7dfdf018876199eae86bbc26b11ce5c079", "text": "In the Middle Ages the group was the political unit. The medieval man was always the member of a group—of the guild in the town, of the manor in the country. But this was followed by the theory of the individual not as a member of a group but as a member of a nation, and we have always considered this on the whole an advance step. When, therefore, the separate groups are again proposed as the political units, we are going back to a political theory which we have long outgrown and which obviously cramps the individual. It is true that the individual as the basis of government has remained an empty theory. The man with political power has been the rich and strong man. There has been little chance for the individual as an individual to become a force in the state. In reaction against such selfish autocracy people propose a return to the Middle Ages. This is not the solution. Now is the critical moment. If we imitate the Middle Ages and adopt political pluralism we lose our chance to invent our own forms for our larger ideas.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B00999", "bookId": 73755, "start": 470883, "end": 471409, "sha256": "0612963cc4ec7e51db9b0d8ed8cbcf8cf9c5331a1758d4d215ca1bd4f5ab3873", "text": "Again, balancing groups were loosely held together by what has been called a federal bond. Therefore we are to look to the medieval empire for inspiration in forming the modern state. But the union of church and guild, boroughs and shires of the Middle Ages seems to me neither to bear much resemblance to a modern federal state nor to approach the ideal federal state. And if we learn anything from medieval decentralization—guild and church and commune—it is that political and economic power cannot be separated.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01000", "bookId": 73755, "start": 471413, "end": 472312, "sha256": "b0a344f20ce7874bfac0b046d45549af5c546de915f7b51f67b6bd4c5d40c8ea", "text": "Much as we owe the Middle Ages, have we not progressed since then? Are our insights, our ideals, our purposes at all the same? Medieval theory, it is true, had the conception of the living group, and this had a large influence on legal theory.[103] Also medieval theory struggled from first to last to reconcile its notion of individual freedom,[104] the patent fact of manifold groups, and the growing notion of a sovereign state. Our problem it is true is the same to-day, but the Middle Ages hold more warnings than lessons for us. While there was much that was good about the medieval guilds, we certainly do not want to go back to all the weaknesses of medieval cities: the jealousies of the guilds, their selfishness, the unsatisfactory compromises between them, the impossibility of sufficient agreement either to maintain internal order or to pursue successful outside relations.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01001", "bookId": 73755, "start": 472316, "end": 472838, "sha256": "8b120dbb400c563f6aa2a8b53fe692ddae1fc387ebb9724c97b0a801d12ed85d", "text": "The Middle Ages had not worked out any form by which the parts could be related to the whole without the result either of despotism of the more powerful parts or anarchy of all the parts. Moreover, in the Middle Ages it was true on the whole that your relation to your class separated you from other classes: you could not belong to many groups at once. Status was the basis of the Middle Ages. This is exactly the tendency we must avoid in any plan for the direct representation of industrial workers in the state.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01002", "bookId": 73755, "start": 472842, "end": 473097, "sha256": "e6a8e91ffb06aaf4c7ad6104759ed87065b94fa2072e9978aa09d447e5d1b78e", "text": "Is our modern life entirely barren of ideas with which to meet its own problems? Must twentieth century thought with all the richness which our intricately complex life has woven into it try to force itself into the embryonic moulds of the Middle Ages?", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01003", "bookId": 73755, "start": 473101, "end": 473493, "sha256": "2eeae51aa2042f8ddd95ea946cc77fa8bbb828a3df1a8f96b2ade05f0ec36291", "text": "The most serious error, however, of the political pluralists is one we are all making: we have not begun a scientific study of group psychology. No one yet knows enough of the laws of associated life to have the proper foundations for political thinking. The pluralists apotheosize the group but do not study the group. They talk of sovereignty without seeking the source of sovereignty.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01004", "bookId": 73755, "start": 473497, "end": 473926, "sha256": "f4ab1bb970acbd052980fe1c68d03ba1d973a00ada86a16b7c15016cc3a30acb", "text": "In the next three chapters I shall consider what the recent recognition of the group, meagre as it is at present, teaches us in regard to pluralism. Pluralism is the dominant thought to-day in philosophy, in politics, in economics, in jurisprudence, in sociology, in many schemes of social reorganization proposed by social workers, therefore we must consider it carefully—what it holds for us, what it must guard against.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01005", "bookId": 73755, "start": 473930, "end": 473935, "sha256": "73be087e93080f9e436892b7d182df66394bc79dbf5df119d9357df61b1ebbfb", "text": "-----", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01006", "bookId": 73755, "start": 473939, "end": 473951, "sha256": "5e2f763b0646835dff596dce87ca8d44733804abb0bcea2dfbb31510e0a57e1d", "text": "Footnote 97:", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01007", "bookId": 73755, "start": 473957, "end": 474025, "sha256": "5b9b0e25c60fcdca3e90caf21209c089e94ec12e5352a33517c4a8fe3445c134", "text": "Léon Duguit, Graham Wallis, Arthur Christensen, Norman Angell, etc.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01008", "bookId": 73755, "start": 474029, "end": 474041, "sha256": "177acd769e13c498aad3d4df8b8dcb5172d6614e30a5c67581ae67e1c61ac576", "text": "Footnote 98:", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01009", "bookId": 73755, "start": 474047, "end": 474841, "sha256": "0e2331cac34224c2bf476ad3117f5af639b4104e67e8efeda6d8a53b31f92333", "text": "The fatal flaw of guild socialism is this separation of economics and politics. First, the interests of citizenship and guild-membership are not distinct; secondly, in any proper system of occupational representation every one should be included—vocational representation should not be trade representation; third, as long as you call the affairs of the guilds “material,” and say that the politics of the state should be purified of financial interests, you burn every bridge which might make a unity of financial interests and sound state policy. Guild socialism, however, because it is a carefully worked out plan for the control of industry by those who take part in it, is one of the most well worth considering of the proposals at present before us.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01010", "bookId": 73755, "start": 474845, "end": 474857, "sha256": "1b6e4ae5527204f796bc006e846d4eacb2e409f64a7577ce7155b5f21fcad64c", "text": "Footnote 99:", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01011", "bookId": 73755, "start": 474863, "end": 474965, "sha256": "da6e911efd439417fa5bcb255f87ee7f673fe39007ef3e390af7812c29c15cf8", "text": "See G. D. H. Cole, “The World of Labor,” for the relation of trade unionism to guild socialism.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01012", "bookId": 73755, "start": 474969, "end": 474982, "sha256": "4295e740e7490119484a4551282790e179d984244d8594181b4f34d88108cd56", "text": "Footnote 100:", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01013", "bookId": 73755, "start": 474988, "end": 475103, "sha256": "7880775b9dcd2ec7c8ef169deed9529b90003b91f474bd6bee2c2a10b2fce126", "text": "See especially “Churches in the Modern State” and “Studies in Political Thought from Gerson to Grotius.”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01014", "bookId": 73755, "start": 475107, "end": 475120, "sha256": "bc237f6be6d63f160e49edb784edf60ab1b2c77522f242bfb894deb004eb404b", "text": "Footnote 101:", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01015", "bookId": 73755, "start": 475126, "end": 475407, "sha256": "3c391e174d71b0168328d1100c28ccfaa9a07b0706819878bfe38383b98c78c9", "text": "See also Mr. Laski’s articles: “The Personality of Associations,” Harv. Law Rev. 29, 404–426, and “Early History of the Corporation in England,” Harv. Law Rev.: 30, 561–588. This is the kind of work which is breaking the way for a new conception of politics.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01016", "bookId": 73755, "start": 475411, "end": 475424, "sha256": "a1551cac3efdc067a5e621b8bc822ca1334ce04aa18c52996d3906ce6fa40f55", "text": "Footnote 102:", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01017", "bookId": 73755, "start": 475430, "end": 476463, "sha256": "32774a78295c2b598cdbc7499dedabcdc757420f838c2fcb02370a045c57c093", "text": "It must be understood that all I say does not apply to all the pluralists. For the sake of brevity I consider them as a school although they differ widely. Moreover, for convenience I am using the word pluralist roughly and in a sense inaccurately to include all those who are advocating a multiple group organization as the basis of a new state. Most of these agree in making the group rather than the individual the unit of politics, in their support of group “rights,” the “consent” of the group, the “balance” of groups, and in their belief that “rights” should be based on function. But syndicalists and guild socialists are not strictly pluralists since they build up a system based on the occupational group; yet the name is not wholly inapplicable, for, since the guild socialists base their state on balancing groups, that state cannot be called a unified state. It is too early yet to speak of this school with entire accuracy, and in fact there is no “school.”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01018", "bookId": 73755, "start": 476467, "end": 476480, "sha256": "b2c95d5c22495444b3585733a07c7a0d48f3f0e6704fb0c084f900ba7b93137f", "text": "Footnote 103:", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01019", "bookId": 73755, "start": 476486, "end": 476555, "sha256": "17ab52f101d85d33acd8227f42e17edc65178edda6abd92b6d091c7e0ec7e58b", "text": "From this was taken, Gierke tells us, modern German “fellowship.”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01020", "bookId": 73755, "start": 476559, "end": 476572, "sha256": "cdbf378d63d5e908c6b904ca9c68f93b95d323e07fa29b129599b50c32bf7f58", "text": "Footnote 104:", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01021", "bookId": 73755, "start": 476578, "end": 476764, "sha256": "f654c320f38404436bf1a90cf7580c5ee84b58ffe5917f14660616a163b5c388", "text": "And the individual was certainly as prominent in medieval theory as the community of individuals, a fact which the vigorous corporate life of the Middle Ages may lead us to forget.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01022", "bookId": 73755, "start": 476768, "end": 476840, "sha256": "5be59d365acb8d35446f682c6d314fffd5db5846ab8c6eb021e6bacd98a82aa0", "text": "------------------------------------------------------------------------", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01023", "bookId": 73755, "start": 476884, "end": 476888, "sha256": "c0c9cc64bf5f16acfaf830aadc1b2487dc9166041d4af67d11b2ea1256d6df08", "text": "XXIX", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01024", "bookId": 73755, "start": 476910, "end": 476945, "sha256": "cd49c7d226fe0abd059b4219f099421235ec345a6a52f8e9ff432f9b97135700", "text": "POLITICAL PLURALISM AND SOVEREIGNTY", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01025", "bookId": 73755, "start": 476978, "end": 476992, "sha256": "cb963f8b7dd4be2e8d413c437052b98afad284e3de40cd420bdd246302a111ad", "text": "--------------", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01026", "bookId": 73755, "start": 476998, "end": 478241, "sha256": "e0b714b9f720a67c16487f6aec51916415e04848e464056f2c54846a7b8cbaa8", "text": "WHAT does group psychology teach us, as far as we at present understand it, in regard to sovereignty? How does the group get its power? By each one giving up his sovereignty? Never. By some one from outside presenting it with authority? No, although that is the basis of much of our older legal theory. Real authority inheres in a genuine whole. The individual is sovereign over himself as far as he unifies the heterogeneous elements of his nature. Two people are sovereign over themselves as far as they are capable of creating one out of two. A group is sovereign over itself as far as it is capable of creating one out of several or many. A state is sovereign only as it has the power of creating one in which all are. Sovereignty is the power engendered by a complete interdependence becoming conscious of itself. Sovereignty is the imperative of a true collective will. It is not something academic, it is produced by actual living with others—we learn it only through group life. By the subtle process of interpenetration a collective sovereignty is evolved from a distributed sovereignty. Just so can and must, by the law of their being, groups unite to form larger groups, these larger groups to form a world-group.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01027", "bookId": 73755, "start": 478245, "end": 479617, "sha256": "6237525c824cdebf28daa3e396877ce41d6408259c3aaf61ed819fc3dddb0922", "text": "I have said that many of the pluralists are opposed to the monistic state because they do not see that a collective and distributive sovereignty can exist together. They talk of the Many and the One without analyzing the process by which the Many and the One are creating each other. We now see that the problem of the compounding of consciousness, of the One and the Many, need not be left either to an intellectualistic or to an intuitive metaphysics. It is to be solved through a laboratory study of group psychology. When we have that, we shall not have to argue any more about the One and the Many: we shall actually see the Many and the One emerging at the same time; we can then work out the laws of the relation of the One (the state) to the Many (the individual), and of the Many (the individual) to the One (the state), not as a metaphysical question but on a scientific basis. And the process of the Many becoming One is the process by which sovereignty is created. Our conceptions of sovereignty can no longer rest on mere abstractions, theory, speculative thought. How absurdly inadequate such processes are to explain the living, interweaving web of humanity. The question of sovereignty concerns the organization of men (which obviously must be fitted to their nature), hence it finds its answer through the psychological analysis of man.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01028", "bookId": 73755, "start": 479621, "end": 480371, "sha256": "df99f49082e41ca3cdc21d5d85921ca50343e004dcc51cd36adede937800771e", "text": "The seeking of the organs of society which are the immediate source of legal sanctions, the seeking of the ultimate source of political control—these are the quests of jurists and political philosophers. To their search must be added a study of the process by which a genuine sovereignty is created. The political pluralists are reacting against the sovereignty which our legal theory postulates, for they see that there is no such thing actually, but if sovereignty is at present a legal fiction, the matter need not rest there—we must seek to find how a genuine social and political control can be produced. The understanding of self-government, of democracy, is bound up with the conception of sovereignty as a psychological process.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01029", "bookId": 73755, "start": 480375, "end": 481019, "sha256": "81b0de9aec31cd76a19b32006002b8a1d70a26aa7d0de6c13e741b1a77945aac", "text": "The idea of sovereignty held by guild socialists[105] is based largely on the so-called “objective” theory of _le droit_ expounded by M. Léon Duguit of Bordeaux. This theory is accepted as the “juridical basis” of a new state, what some call the functionarist state.[106] Man, Duguit tells us, has no rights as man, but only as a member of the social order. His rights are based on the fact of social interdependence—on his relations and consequent obligations. In fact he has no rights, but duties and powers. All power and all obligation is found in “social solidarity,” in a constantly evolving social solidarity.[107]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01030", "bookId": 73755, "start": 481023, "end": 482239, "sha256": "2122a94fdf515136d419629d2bf66c3be1cc5c6dd3998245f8455de55c0b67b3", "text": "The elaboration of this theory is Duguit’s large contribution to political thought. His _droit_ is a dynamic law—it can never be captured and fixed. The essential weakness of his doctrine is that he denies the possibility of a collective will, which means that he ignores the psychology of the social process. He and his followers reject the notion of a collective will as “_concept de l’esprit dénué de toute réalité positive_.” If this is their idea of a collective will, they are right to reject it. I ask for its acceptance only so far as it can be proved to have positive reality. There is only one way in the world by which you can ever know whether there is a collective will, and that is by actually trying to make one; you need not discuss a collective will as a theory. If experiment proves to us that we cannot have a collective will, we must accept the verdict. Duguit thinks that when we talk of the sovereignty of the people we mean an abstract sovereignty; the new psychology means by the sovereignty of the people that which they actually create. It is true that we have none at present. Duguit is perfectly right in opposing the old theory of the “sovereign state.”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01031", "bookId": 73755, "start": 482243, "end": 483408, "sha256": "de17827fd9de20dc4b6f335e36915aa401fc0ae143693c2fab39b5eeb14b25a5", "text": "But Duguit says that if there were a collective will there is no reason why it should impose itself on the individual wills. “_L’affirmation que la collectivité a le pouvoir légitime de commander force qu’elle est la collectivité, est une affirmation d’ordre métaphysique oú religieux...._” This in itself shows a misunderstanding of the evolution of a collective will. This school does not seem to understand that every one must contribute to the collective will; ideally it would have no power unless this happened, actually we can only be constantly approaching this ideal.[108] Duguit makes a thing-in-itself of _la volonté nationale_—it is a most insidious fallacy which we all fall into again and again. But we can never accept that kind of a collective will. We believe in a collective will only so far as it is _really_ forming from out our actual daily life of intermingling men and women. There is nothing “metaphysical” or “religious” about this. Duguit says metaphysics “_doit rester étranger à toute jurisprudence_....” We agree to that and insist that jurisprudence must be founded on social psychology.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01032", "bookId": 73755, "start": 483412, "end": 484189, "sha256": "c927f2c6a36fc9811fe881f77c202299cf78bbf507d4dd5e26a9913cae25ada3", "text": "Five people produce a collective idea, a collective will. That will becomes at once an imperative upon those five people. It is not an imperative upon any one else. On the other hand no one else can make imperatives for those five people. It has been generated by the social process which is a self-sufficing, all-inclusive process. The same process which creates the collective will creates at the same time the imperative of the collective will. It is absolutely impossible to give self-government: no one has the right to give it; no one has the power to give it. Group A _allows_ group B to govern itself? This is an empty permission unless B has _learned how_ to govern itself. Self-government must always be grown. Sovereignty is always a psychological process.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01033", "bookId": 73755, "start": 484193, "end": 486191, "sha256": "259e689c7c4aee28f099711d103da8658f0c653e36ca104eb02857aa49360925", "text": "Many of Duguit’s errors come from a misconception of the social process. Violently opposed to a collective will, he sees in the individual thought and will the only genuine “_chose en soi_” (it is interesting to notice that _la chose en soi_ finds a place in the thought of many pluralists). Not admitting the process of “community” he asserts that _la règle de droit_ is anterior and superior to the state; he does not see the true relation of _le droit_ to _l’état_, that they evolve together, that the same process which creates _le droit_ creates _l’état_.[109] The will of the people, he insists, can not create _le droit_. Here he does not see the unity of the social process. He separates will and purpose and the activity of the reciprocal interchange instead of seeing them as one. Certainly the will of the people does not create _le droit_, but the social process in its entire unity does. “Positive law must constantly follow _le droit objectif_.” Of course. “_Le droit objectif_ is constantly evolving.” Certainly. But how evolving? Here is where we disagree. The social process creates _le droit objectif_, and will is an essential part of the social process. Purpose is an essential part of the social process. Separate the parts of the social process and you have a different idea of jurisprudence, of democracy, of political institutions. Aim is all-important for Duguit. The rule of _le droit_ is the rule of conscious ends: only the aim gives a will its worth; if the aim is juridical (conformed to _la règle de droit_), then the will is juridical. Thus Duguit’s pragmatism is one which has not yet rid itself of absolute standards. It might be urged that it has, because he finds his absolute standards in “social solidarity.” But any one who believes that the individual will is a _chose en soi_, and who separates the elements of the social process, does not wholly admit the self-sufficing character of that process.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01034", "bookId": 73755, "start": 486195, "end": 487097, "sha256": "952cca2c08774cde10eb3c7eddac04ac873925596460c4fab52623f0d6c140c3", "text": "The modern tendency in many quarters, however, in regard to conceptions of social practice, is to substitute ends for will.[110] This is a perfectly comprehensible reaction, but future jurisprudence must certainly unite these two ideas. Professor Jethro Brown says, “The justification for governmental action is found not in consent but in the purpose it serves.” Not in that alone. De Maeztu says, “The profound secret of associations is not that men have need of one another, but that they need the same thing.” These two ideas can merge. Professor Brown makes the common good the basis of the new doctrine of natural right.[111] But we must all remember, what I do not doubt this writer does remember, that purpose can never be a _chose en soi_, and that, of the utmost importance, the “new natural law” can be brought into manifestation only by certain modes of association.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01035", "bookId": 73755, "start": 487101, "end": 488577, "sha256": "a699274c7baef2b14d610769661c764a7cb3d2ba4187b50d72fa696e535625a4", "text": "It is true, as Duguit says, that the state has the “right” to will because of the thing willed, that it has no “subjective” right to will, that its justification is in its purpose. (This is of course the truth in regard to all our “rights”; they are justified only by the use we make of them.) And yet there is a truth in the old idea of the “right” of a collectivity to will. These two ideas must be synthesized. They _are_ synthesized by the new psychology which sees the purpose forming the will at the same time as the will forms the purpose, which finds no separation anywhere in the social process. We can never think of purpose as something in front which leads us on, as the carrot the donkey. Purpose is never in front of us, it appears at every moment with the appearance of will. Thus the new school of jurisprudence founded on social psychology cannot be a teleological school alone, but must be founded on all the elements which constitute the social process. Ideals do not operate in a vacuum. This theorists seem sometimes to forget, but those of us who have had tragic experience of this truth are likely to give more emphasis to the interaction of purpose, will and activity, past and present activity. The recognition that _le droit_ is the product of a group process swallows up the question as to whether it is “objective” or “subjective”; it is neither, it is both; we look at the matter quite differently.[112]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01036", "bookId": 73755, "start": 488581, "end": 489275, "sha256": "d2ba1ff267ebf9c0d185c1cdefbe3cc1249da1ac0d2aa64ea115d418c789f6ce", "text": "To sum up this point. We must all, I think, agree with the “objective” conception of law in its essence, but not in its dividing the social process, a true unity, into separate parts. Rights arise from relation, and purpose is bound up in the relation. The relation of men to one another and to the object sought are part of the same process. Duguit has rendered us invaluable service in his insistence that _le droit_ must be based on “_la vie actuelle_,” but he does not take the one step further and see that _le droit_ is born within the _group_, that there is an essential law of the group as different from other modes of association, and that this has many implications.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01037", "bookId": 73755, "start": 489279, "end": 490505, "sha256": "17c7ebee0677e254b24fc676df1f8b770e808442e720aa95307a222d51e0c678", "text": "The _droit_ evolved by a group is the _droit_ of that group. The _droit_ evolved by a state-group (we agree that there is no state-group yet, the state is evolving, the _droit_ is evolving, there is only an approximate state, an approximately genuine _droit_) is the _droit_ of the state. The contribution of the new psychology is that _le droit_ comes from relation and is always in relation. The warning of the new psychology to the advocates of vocational representation is that the _droit_ (either as law or right)[113] evolved by men of one occupation only will represent too little intermingling to express the “community” truth. We don’t want doctors’ ethics and lawyers’ ethics, and so on through the various groups. That is just the trouble at present. Employers and employees meet in conference. Watch those conferences. The difference of interest is not always the whole difficulty; there is also the difference of standard. Capitalist ethics and workman ethics are often opposed. We must accept _le droit_ as a social product, as a group product, but we must have groups which will unify interests and standards. Law and politics can be founded on nothing but vital modes of association.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01038", "bookId": 73755, "start": 490509, "end": 491901, "sha256": "b8a4c5c2b69657c63b54cb9c623db621526675ef514f57f306c912bd33b02339", "text": "Mr. Roscoe Pound’s exposition of modern law is just here a great help to political theory. The essential, the vital part of his teaching, is, not his theory of law based on interests, not his emphasis upon relation, but his bringing together of these two ideas. This takes us out of the vague, nebulous region of much of the older legal and political theory, and shows us the actual method of living our daily lives. All that he says of relation implies that we must seek and bring into use those modes of association which will reveal true interests, actual interests, yet not particularist interests but the interests discovered through group relations—employer and employed, master and servant, landlord and tenant, etc. But, and this is of great importance, these groups must be made into genuine groups. If law is to be a group-product, we must see that our groups are real groups, we must find the true principle of association. For this we need, as I must continually repeat, the study of group psychology. “Life,” “man,” “society,” are coming to have little meaning for us: it is your life and my life with which we are concerned, not “man” but the men we see around us, not “society” but the many societies in which we pass our lives. “Social” values? We want individual values, but individual values discovered through group relations.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01039", "bookId": 73755, "start": 491905, "end": 492114, "sha256": "d655c644d77af7df6c9db4f1a6bac915cf6896d5c37233667c5016208d07cacc", "text": "To sum up this point: (1) law should be a group-product, (2) we should therefore have genuine groups, (3) political method must be such that the “law” of the group can become embodied in our legislation.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01040", "bookId": 73755, "start": 492118, "end": 493224, "sha256": "173522e7af733ded4f07322bdbcae13743bd25a9370ede0f85753f3007f1a4b4", "text": "M. Duguit’s disregarding of the laws of that intermingling which is the basis of his _droit objectif_ leads to a partial understanding only of the vote. Voting is for him still in a way a particularist matter. To be sure he calls it a function and that marks a certain advance. Moreover he wishes us to consider the vote an “objective” power, an “objective” duty, not a “subjective” right. This is an alluring theory in a pragmatic age. And if you see it leading to syndicalism which you have already accepted beforehand, it is all the more alluring! But to call the vote a function is only half the story; as long as it is a particularist vote, it does not help us much to have it rest on function, or rather, it goes just half the way. It must rest on the intermingling of all my functions, it must rest on the intermingling of all my functions with all the functions of all the others; it must rest indeed on social solidarity, but a social solidarity in which every man interpenetrating with every other is thereby approaching a whole of which he is the whole at one point.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01041", "bookId": 73755, "start": 493228, "end": 493787, "sha256": "58b795030f31f2d72988c94f3eedfdc56e783cd256beb8a0bf3679e663b8e327", "text": "Duguit, full of Rousseau, does not think it possible to have a collective sovereignty without every one having an equal share of this collective sovereignty, and he most strenuously opposes _le suffrage universel égalitaire_. But _le suffrage universel égalitaire_ staring all the obvious _in_equalities of man in the face, Rousseau’s divided sovereignty based on an indivisible sovereignty—all these things no longer trouble you when you see the vote as the expression at one point of some approximate whole produced by the intermingling of men.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01042", "bookId": 73755, "start": 493791, "end": 494124, "sha256": "a62728cb98a001b1029d53c564bdcf2eb90005eabc8f79dade9417c508a81f21", "text": "True sovereignty and true functionalism are not opposed; the vote resting on “subjective” right and the vote resting on “objective” power are not opposed, but the particularist vote and the genuinely individual vote are opposed. Any doctrine which contains a trace of particularism in any form cannot gain our allegiance.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01043", "bookId": 73755, "start": 494128, "end": 495116, "sha256": "493281d7e05737c3f41166075124f8675120f5909b94f932ad63051a0ece764c", "text": "Again Duguit’s ignoring of the psychology of the social process leads him to the separation of governors and governed. This separation is for him the essential fact of the state. Sovereignty is with those individuals who can impose their will upon others. He says no one can give orders to himself, but as a matter of fact no one can really give orders to any one but himself.[114] Here Duguit confuses present facts and future possibilities. Let us _be_ the state, let us be sovereign—over ourselves. As the problem in the life of each one of us is to find the way to unify the warring elements within us—as only thus do we gain sovereignty over ourselves—so the problem is the same for the state. Duguit is right in saying that the German theory of auto-limitation is unnecessary, but not in the reasons he gives for it. A psychic entity is subordinate to the _droit_ which itself evolves not by auto-limitation, but by the essential and intrinsic law of the group.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01044", "bookId": 73755, "start": 495120, "end": 495912, "sha256": "cc1eba511786fe2c9012600188955b619a3c0f2860070c85a2dfefb1287d7a00", "text": "But Duguit has done us large service not only in his doctrine of a law, a right, born of our actual life, of our always evolving life, but also in his insistence on the individual which makes him one of the builders of the new individualism.[115] We see in the gradual transformation of the idea of natural law which took place among the French jurists of the end of the nineteenth century, the struggle of the old particularism with the feelings-out for the true individualism. That the French have been slow to give up individual rights, that many of them have not given them up for any collective theory, but, feeling the truth underneath the old doctrine, have sought (and found) a different interpretation, a different basis and a different use, has helped us all immeasurably.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01045", "bookId": 73755, "start": 495934, "end": 495967, "sha256": "92bf9343d426ee004c3cb7caa3f283036b2f3626f071d4807d38518427facd12", "text": "* * * * *", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01046", "bookId": 73755, "start": 495971, "end": 497188, "sha256": "74fc050b69ec7b5e1f4ec3e558ec7887e99622487657ec887e21e4f7e822ea86", "text": "Group psychology shows us the process of man creating social power, evolving his own “rights.” We now see that man’s only rights are group-rights. These are based on his activity in the group—you can call it function if you like, only unless you are careful that tends to become mechanical, and it tends to an organic functionalism in which lurk many dangers. But the main point for us to grasp is that we can never understand rights by an abstract discussion of “subjective” _vs._ “objective”—only by the closest study of the process by which these rights are evolved. The true basis of rights is neither a “mystical” idea of related personalities, nor is it to be found entirely in the relation of the associated to the object sought; a truly modern conception of law synthesizes these two ideas. “Function,” de Maeztu tells us “[is] a quality independent of the wills of men.” This is a meaningless sentence to the new psychology. At present the exposition of the “objective” theory of law is largely a polemic against the “subjective.” When we understand more of group psychology, and it can be put forth in a positive manner, it will win many more adherents.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01047", "bookId": 73755, "start": 497192, "end": 498083, "sha256": "7db31972f8a6643dee3b6e6034d16dd630f5b62b284f44bfc8dfde34c86b1631", "text": "Then as soon as the psychological foundation of law is clearly seen, the sovereignty of the state in its old meaning will be neither acclaimed nor denied. An understanding of the group process teaches us the true nature of sovereignty. We can agree with the pluralist school that the present state has no “right” to sovereignty;[116] we can go further and say that the state will never be more than ideally sovereign, further still and say that the whole idea of sovereignty must be recast and take a different place in political science. And yet, with the meaning given to it by present psychology, it is perhaps the most vital thought of the new politics. The sovereign is not the crowd, it is not millions of unrelated atoms, but men joining to form a real whole. The atomistic idea of sovereignty is dead, we all agree, but we may learn to define sovereignty differently.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01048", "bookId": 73755, "start": 498087, "end": 498896, "sha256": "85c103ecd768bfc5d05846266e82b6194437e488da58876cf1ff5dca2d5f0227", "text": "Curiously enough, some of the pluralists are acknowledged followers of Gierke and Maitland, and base much of their doctrine on the “real personality” of the group. But the group can create its own personality only by the “compounding of consciousness,” by every member being at one and the same time an individual and the “real personality.” If it is possible for the members of a group to evolve a unified consciousness, a common idea, a collective will, for the many to become really one, not in a mystical sense but as an actual fact, for the group to have a real not a fictional personality, this process can be carried on through group and group, our task, an infinite one, to evolve a state with a real personality. The imagination of the born pluralist stops with the group.[117]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01049", "bookId": 73755, "start": 498900, "end": 499355, "sha256": "17a53ce7b7eabfc68184cac989ad6b59f72a294afd5b9a718a61d59967c78c60", "text": "But even in regard to the group the pluralists seem sometimes to fall into contradictions. Sovereignty, we are often told, must be decentralized and divided among the local units. But according to their own theory by whom is the sovereignty to be divided? The fact is that the local units must _grow_ sovereignty, that we want to revivify local life not for the purpose of breaking up sovereignty, but for the purpose of creating a real sovereignty.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01050", "bookId": 73755, "start": 499359, "end": 499959, "sha256": "902728d2b7c5e5f4cbe6ca85864098c9b3f5c078002ac8087dc4b700eb316dde", "text": "The pluralists always tell us that the unified state proceeds from the One to the Many; that is why they discard the unified state. This is not true of the unify_ing_ state which I am trying to indicate. They think that the only alternative to pluralism is where you begin with the whole. That is, it is true, the classic monism, but we know now that authority is to proceed from the Many to the One, from the smallest neighborhood group up to the city, the state, the nation. This is the process of life, always a unifying through the interpenetration of the Many—Oneness an infinite goal.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01051", "bookId": 73755, "start": 499963, "end": 500508, "sha256": "2cfa4278d977414215028fee0492b2cb452ae32da023afbbee256b1e3ac366e2", "text": "This is expressed more accurately by saying, as I have elsewhere, that the One and the Many are constantly creating each other. The pluralists object to the One that comes before the Many. They are right, but we need not therefore give up oneness. When we say that there is the One which comes _from_ the Many, this does not mean that the One is _above_ the Many. The deepest truth of life is that the interrelating by which both are at the same time a-making is constant. This must be clearly understood in the building of the new state.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01052", "bookId": 73755, "start": 500512, "end": 501139, "sha256": "00a2948abe076931882c52dc12d5bdd8ee5cca8a093aa20fd1d620dd0c5ccd2c", "text": "The essential error in the theory of distributed sovereignty is that each group has an isolated sovereignty. The truth is that each should represent the whole united sovereignty at one point as each individual is his whole group at one point. An understanding of this fact seems to me absolutely necessary to further development of political theory.[118] This does not mean that the state must come first, that the group gets its power from the state. This the pluralists rightfully resent. The power within the group is its own genetically and wholly. But the same force which forms a group may form a group of groups.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01053", "bookId": 73755, "start": 501143, "end": 502105, "sha256": "63f26808d69efb1a7bc7100fcca883ac89b6d724547a19e00737cc1913bbc3e2", "text": "But the conclusion drawn by some pluralists from the theory of “real personality” is that the state is superfluous because a corporate personality has the right to assert autonomy over itself. They thus acknowledge that pluralism means for them group and group and group side by side. But here they are surely wrong. They ignore the implications of the psychological fact that power developed within the group does not cease with the formation of the group. That very same force which has bound the individuals together in the group (and which the theory of “real personality” recognizes) goes on working, you cannot stop it; it is the fundamental force of life, of all nature, of all humanity, the universal law of being—the out-reaching for the purpose of further unifying. If this force goes on working after the group is formed, what becomes of it? It must reach out to embrace other groups in order to repeat exactly the same process.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01054", "bookId": 73755, "start": 502109, "end": 502806, "sha256": "3f6d034a73c03697e3770dcb57de4dc4fd6b1afe1be0906f97f663c94857cb80", "text": "When you stop your automobile without stopping your engine, the power which runs your car goes on working exactly the same, but is completely lost. It only makes a noise. Do we want this to happen to our groups? Are they to end only in disagreeable noises? In order that the group-force shall not be lost, we must provide means for it to go on working effectively after it is no longer needed within the group, so to speak. We must provide ways for it to go out to meet the life force of other groups, the new power thus generated again and endlessly to seek new forms of unification. No “whole” can imprison us infinite beings. The centre of to-day is the circumference of to-morrow.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01055", "bookId": 73755, "start": 502810, "end": 503098, "sha256": "4285d7af3b0c9dfcb0bcbad4f84a9c5e4e944cc3f96b55d835c7e450a816ad9f", "text": "Thus while the state is not necessary to grant authority, it is the natural outcome of the uniting groups. The state must be the collective mind embodying the moral will and purpose of All. From living group to living group to the “real” state—such must be our line of evolution.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01056", "bookId": 73755, "start": 503102, "end": 504472, "sha256": "9710251cfeefff584a8cb48711f8e4b764e52fdec0cba058c7ac0fe739d3fdea", "text": "Sovereignty, it is true, is a fact, not a theory. Whoever can gain obedience has the sovereign power. But we must go beyond this and seek those political methods by which the command shall be with those who have evolved a genuine authority, that is, an authority evolved by what I have called the true social process. We must go beyond this and seek those methods by which a genuine authority _can_ be evolved, by which the true social process shall be everywhere possible. To repeat: first, the true social process must be given full opportunity and scope, then it must be made the basis of political method. Then shall we see emerging a genuine authority which we can all acclaim as sovereign. There is, I agree with the pluralists, a great advantage in that authority being multiple and varied, but a static pluralism, so to speak, would be as bad as a static monism. The groups are always reaching out _towards_ unity. Our safeguard against crystallization is that every fresh unity means (as I have tried to show in chapter III) the throwing out of myriad fresh differences—our safeguard is that the universe knows no static unity. Unification means sterilization; unifying means a perpetual generating. We do not want the unified sovereignty of Germany; but when you put the individual and the group first, you get unify_ing_ sovereignty.[119]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01057", "bookId": 73755, "start": 504476, "end": 504481, "sha256": "73be087e93080f9e436892b7d182df66394bc79dbf5df119d9357df61b1ebbfb", "text": "-----", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01058", "bookId": 73755, "start": 504485, "end": 504498, "sha256": "1b4efbaf4e98f283c3600d9994247e1f53b3140003b93cc4cda2514b7155fd88", "text": "Footnote 105:", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01059", "bookId": 73755, "start": 504504, "end": 504580, "sha256": "0f6a63f3200a477c0abe6afe71d129df8829af0b4234cf023fca6604fce9eab5", "text": "See writings of Ramiro de Maeztu in New Age and his book mentioned above.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01060", "bookId": 73755, "start": 504584, "end": 504597, "sha256": "529fc13e9aca6e66ecb30648d1dc2c119537de0c1ae11cb4d2b30e0efdbfbff3", "text": "Footnote 106:", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01061", "bookId": 73755, "start": 504603, "end": 504785, "sha256": "bba280bb36d523c6cf06110f3356fc4e9a3d4f6ef2b7dd58ca50dfb9ceeb9848", "text": "See “Traité de Droit Constitutionnel” and “Études de Droit Public”: I, L’État, Le Droit Objectif et La Loi Positive; II, L’État, Les Gouvernants and Les Agents.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01062", "bookId": 73755, "start": 504791, "end": 505638, "sha256": "1d23078e9cdfcf049ae5aaca925f5f6ba42fc2f85cb67ab7a5d714a81051bc63", "text": "As in French _droit_ may be either law or _a_ right, Duguit, in order to distinguish between these meanings, follows the German distinction of _objektives Recht_ and _subjektives Recht_, and speaks of _le droit objectif_ and _le droit subjectif_, thus meaning by _le droit objectif_ merely law. But because he at the same time writes of power as resting on function in contradistinction to the classical theory of the abstract “rights” of man, rights apart from law and only declared by law, political writers sometimes speak of Duguit’s “objective” theory of law, as opposed to a “subjective” theory of law, when jurists would tell us that law _is_ objective, and that subjective right is always merely _a_ right, my right. This matter of terminology must be made much clearer than it is at present.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01063", "bookId": 73755, "start": 505642, "end": 505655, "sha256": "1b2593d47c970fe00fd2bc08bd05c0886e94af78dfc21b59d98a07a07c87a87d", "text": "Footnote 107:", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01064", "bookId": 73755, "start": 505661, "end": 505766, "sha256": "e27970463955b5a602dd780d728fd8a50171f0b0a92ba6da72fffb7474356aad", "text": "Although how far Duguit had in mind merely the solidarity of French and Roman law has been questioned.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01065", "bookId": 73755, "start": 505770, "end": 505783, "sha256": "59be8a8ff4c9f8c41e9ba124a717dca4e11d19224a584e717e0a40404f9b3705", "text": "Footnote 108:", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01066", "bookId": 73755, "start": 505789, "end": 506066, "sha256": "d35ffc0a5eef17a1f43269faf8fe70c0d50991e79f247f344b63ff945a32c771", "text": "I have just read in a work on sociology, “Men surrender their individual wills to the collective will.” No, the true social process is not when they _surrender_ but when they _contribute_ their wills to the collective will. See chs. II-VI, “The Group Process.”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01067", "bookId": 73755, "start": 506070, "end": 506083, "sha256": "2f64e31ba73c171e82600dc8cb9f0eb1491ddbf0ba9edda3f75376f0df998645", "text": "Footnote 109:", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01068", "bookId": 73755, "start": 506089, "end": 506100, "sha256": "259ffc4da0d8e2fd217ccc7692f115ffd6804a3923886fb96d874ab50eec2679", "text": "See p. 130.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01069", "bookId": 73755, "start": 506104, "end": 506117, "sha256": "8eba4856f9c2c3e8e91590e409804d83f732d8601be424a95a44e12501acea02", "text": "Footnote 110:", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01070", "bookId": 73755, "start": 506123, "end": 506374, "sha256": "9140724dc886c5caf4bec4c7297180c28eeaa1173f48ab6e03af269555ee58f3", "text": "De Maeztu tells us, “Rights do not arise from personality. This idea is mystic and unnecessary. Rights arise primarily from the relation of the associated with the thing which associates them....” Authority, Liberty, and Function, p. 250.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01071", "bookId": 73755, "start": 506380, "end": 506890, "sha256": "a28adc1a23cc8cad9b3bce4a2c374c8982a6458f808d30fe0e73d8dc31add459", "text": "Mr. Barker substitutes purpose for personality and will as the unifying bond of associations, and says that we thus get rid of “murder in the air” when it is a question of the “competition of ideas, not of real collective personalities.” (See “The Discredited State,” in _The Political Quarterly_, February, 1915.) This seems a curiously anthropomorphic, so to speak, idea of personality for a twentieth-century writer. The article is, however, an interesting and valuable one.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01072", "bookId": 73755, "start": 506896, "end": 506958, "sha256": "1b1e4a0017e4dcf6d607bd8cc1ca853eeda9056c4504df2c783eb736661d496e", "text": "See also Pollock and Maitland, History of English Law, I, 472.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01073", "bookId": 73755, "start": 506962, "end": 506975, "sha256": "1c710fac7eb11c5f793d04c4d518e437b8f8343c9483cdaebae65e0d9e7c9c0d", "text": "Footnote 111:", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01074", "bookId": 73755, "start": 506981, "end": 507028, "sha256": "58604689b88ca1bc17a9af79d1cf679208795d8363dee2c47857fb2a4cc9fd82", "text": "See “Underlying Principles of Legislation.”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01075", "bookId": 73755, "start": 507032, "end": 507045, "sha256": "c996330f52cd5597f4e8ddd477dcbb86b6488ee0c51a55d03a7e3c5397ccd39c", "text": "Footnote 112:", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01076", "bookId": 73755, "start": 507051, "end": 507456, "sha256": "1ad002e7badc120583b402108724ef2cdb6b043bfc339aeba662c0566ece2634", "text": "The teleological school of sociology is interesting just here. While it marked a long advance on older theories, the true place of selection of ends is to-day more clearly seen. We were told: “Men have wants, therefore they come together to seek means to satisfy those wants.” When do men “come together”? When were they ever separated? But it is not necessary to push this further.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01077", "bookId": 73755, "start": 507460, "end": 507473, "sha256": "0be4dbfd04c7ab78efe6c8d4ed77a190e1d629168001c0b443c0f8a30a6ec0b0", "text": "Footnote 113:", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01078", "bookId": 73755, "start": 507479, "end": 507660, "sha256": "25e122828e1e0a62442f8c4b0c1ffb5193d34adcb56c5c57efca8cf202211bcc", "text": "I have tried not to jump the track from legal right to ethical right but occasionally one can speak of them together, if it is understood that one is not thereby merging them.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01079", "bookId": 73755, "start": 507664, "end": 507677, "sha256": "2b8bff403cc82ddc066b7652f3617b46a98f75d52b47a45e2cc076f4a93b05ff", "text": "Footnote 114:", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01080", "bookId": 73755, "start": 507683, "end": 507972, "sha256": "8877bda74a163fdf8fb12ea187f62e3a63ba186acd9ac5f6bf2648b66240fceb", "text": "The old consent theory assumes that some make the laws and others obey them. In the true democracy we shall obey the laws we have ourselves made. To find the methods by which we can be approaching the true democracy is now our task; we can never rest satisfied with “consent.”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01081", "bookId": 73755, "start": 507976, "end": 507989, "sha256": "5ed57bb458751eed41651e523f404c9896573e78a3405b617f18bd6ba02803be", "text": "Footnote 115:", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01082", "bookId": 73755, "start": 507995, "end": 508072, "sha256": "2f61d6267bcc876755dedd0cb355df992cce5bbbc4abe5908d90a36302d78ce3", "text": "Although I do not agree with the form individualism takes in his doctrine.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01083", "bookId": 73755, "start": 508076, "end": 508089, "sha256": "17e9823ac7d0edefc450831872a6625df3f5c2a696d83e2707bf41a7b30cff25", "text": "Footnote 116:", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01084", "bookId": 73755, "start": 508095, "end": 508200, "sha256": "4100498ecbb0696122a77e4753dc00f72c70b9dab98c11a1b0acc8db0a25c072", "text": "Some of the pluralists are concerned, I recognize, with the fact rather than the right of sovereignty.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01085", "bookId": 73755, "start": 508204, "end": 508217, "sha256": "82972d5b0019909d2429a201233e1a296b018689010c396c565cd5392b81cc5f", "text": "Footnote 117:", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01086", "bookId": 73755, "start": 508223, "end": 508567, "sha256": "8d0501baa02907d20b82664861c134a90c008ecc472e78bc563f852725852b82", "text": "The trouble with the pluralists is that their emphasis is not on the fact that the group creates its own personality, but on the fact that the state does _not_ create it. When they change this emphasis, their thinking will be unchained, I believe, and leap ahead to the constructive work which we eagerly await and expect from them.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01087", "bookId": 73755, "start": 508571, "end": 508584, "sha256": "dcb8dd266338095426f03aa8d6cb45c48e580900d63c556a7138f7a75e1e856e", "text": "Footnote 118:", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01088", "bookId": 73755, "start": 508590, "end": 508700, "sha256": "c27e6ae6d261aa993f0fd3014f679271ad036b5315a955c4a1bd2e83e8e07bef", "text": "It is also necessary to an understanding of the new international law. See ch. XXXV, “The World State.”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01089", "bookId": 73755, "start": 508704, "end": 508717, "sha256": "6fc1b8bbfb46e2f35198289cc1f796d7971e140596a888258f93eb35ff971ca6", "text": "Footnote 119:", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01090", "bookId": 73755, "start": 508723, "end": 509962, "sha256": "503ee8bb0b32e122770c51e66c273671dacb9f23f9cd499ec114f383a0cc6b0e", "text": "No one has yet given us a satisfactory account of the history of the notion of sovereignty: just how and in what degree it has been affected by history, by philosophy, by jurisprudence, etc., and how all these have interacted. We have not only to disentangle many strands to trace each to its source, but we have, moreover, just not to disentangle them, but to understand the constant interweaving of all. To watch the interplay of legal theory and political philosophy from the Middle Ages down to the present day is one of the most interesting parts of our reading, but perhaps nowhere is it more fruitful than in the idea of sovereignty. We see the corporation long ignored and the idea of legal partnership influencing the development of the social contract theory, which in its turn reacted on legal theory. We find the juristic conception of group personality, clearly seen as early as Althusius (1557–1638), and revived and expanded by Gierke, influencing the whole German school of “group sociologists.” But to-day are not many of us agreed that however interesting such historical tracing, our present notion of sovereignty must rest on what we learn from group psychology?", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01091", "bookId": 73755, "start": 509966, "end": 510038, "sha256": "5be59d365acb8d35446f682c6d314fffd5db5846ab8c6eb021e6bacd98a82aa0", "text": "------------------------------------------------------------------------", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01092", "bookId": 73755, "start": 510082, "end": 510085, "sha256": "9b38b8f5877f2395b4361c1f68c059078ee9c0c8b0cbb22c97d2906e011e40a3", "text": "XXX", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01093", "bookId": 73755, "start": 510106, "end": 510143, "sha256": "481855e2a6e24daa4ec7d2760584b24a1f3da84cced2b1fb6ef2dd484afca473", "text": "POLITICAL PLURALISM AND FUNCTIONALISM", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01094", "bookId": 73755, "start": 510161, "end": 510208, "sha256": "4d42a9ba8944030bae4c7c976a0d77db4f92b774b83476c6a4617d341d4619e9", "text": "The Service State vs. the “Sovereign State”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01095", "bookId": 73755, "start": 510241, "end": 510255, "sha256": "cb963f8b7dd4be2e8d413c437052b98afad284e3de40cd420bdd246302a111ad", "text": "--------------", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01096", "bookId": 73755, "start": 510261, "end": 511056, "sha256": "04d03e57e214ed0114ae1d46e22f1051a7d6934bd7dda207e442b74dade648f7", "text": "THE idea at the bottom of occupational representation which has won it many adherents is that of the interdependence of function. Most of the people who advocate vocational representation believe in what they call an organic democracy. This leads them to believe that the group not the individual should be the unit of government: a man in an industry is to vote not as an individual but as a department member because he is thus representing his function. But man has many functions and then there is something left over. It is just because our place in the whole can never be bounded by any one function that we cannot accept the organism of the Middle Ages, the organic society of certain sociologists, or the “organic democracy” of the upholders of occupational representation.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01097", "bookId": 73755, "start": 511060, "end": 511772, "sha256": "62f694f88a81a9de3b1016c2a6a6044842ea9c78fd406d65f3ac8f01993fd611", "text": "Man has many functions or rather he is the interplay of many functions. The child grows to manhood through interpenetrating—with his family, at school, at work, with his play group, with his art group: the carpenter may join the Arts and Crafts to find there an actualization of spirit for which he is fitted, and so on and so on. All the different sides of our nature develop by the process of compounding. If you shut a man up in his occupation, you refuse him the opportunity of full growth. The task has been given to humanity to “Know thyself,” but man cannot know himself without knowing the many sides of his self. His essential self is the possibility of the multiple expression of spirit.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01098", "bookId": 73755, "start": 511776, "end": 512769, "sha256": "317a3f2cdea29228458211091a69f7facc28571af2119fe30ee3f37535533135", "text": "We see this principle operating every day in our own lives: we cannot do one thing well by doing one thing alone. The interrelations are so manifold that each of us does far more than he wishes, not because our tendency is a senseless ramifying, but because we cannot do our own job well unless we do many other things: we do not take on the extra activities as an _ex_tension of our life, but simply as an _in_tensification of our life at the point of our particular interest. Ideally one should fulfil all the functions of man in order to perform one function. No one ought to teach without being a parent! etc. etc. Man must identify himself with humanity. The great lesson which the pluralist school has to teach is that man cannot do this imaginatively but only actually, through his group relations. What it leaves out is that the task is manifold and infinite because man must identify himself with a manifold and infinite number of groups before he has embraced humanity.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01099", "bookId": 73755, "start": 512773, "end": 514006, "sha256": "4d364da276bf1f53378bb5b14b0dd8b15057b673b2d264e311182bce05ebcb86", "text": "Society, however, does not consist merely of the union of all these various groups. There is a more subtle process going on—the interlocking of groups. And in these interlocking groups we have not only the same people taking up different activities, but actually representing different interests. In some groups I may be an employer, in others an employee. I can be a workman and a stockholder. Men have many loyalties. It is no longer true that I belong to such a class and must always identify myself with its interests. I may belong at the same time to the college club and the business women’s club, to the Players’ League (representing the actor’s point of view) and to the Drama Association (representing the playgoer’s point of view). I not only thus get opposite points of view, but I myself can contribute to two opposite points of view. The importance of this has not been fully estimated. I may have to say the collective I or we first of my basket-ball team, next of my trade-union, then of my church club or citizens’ league or neighborhood association, and the lines may cross and recross many times. It is just these cross lines that are of inestimable value in the development of society.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01100", "bookId": 73755, "start": 514010, "end": 515267, "sha256": "66d2a4d1d7238cad45291f79dd138e91c3e97f51a7abe50e2dcdcd55a2a6af2a", "text": "Thus while two groups may be competing, certain members of these groups may be working together for the satisfaction of some interest. This is recognized by law. A man can be a member of different corporations. Our possibility of association is not exhausted by contributing to the production of one legal person, we may help to create many different legal persons, each with an entirely different set of liabilities. Then there may be some sort of relation with a definite legal status existing between these bodies: I as member of one corporation may have relation with myself as member of another corporation. We see this clearly in the case of corporations, but it is what is taking place everywhere, this interlocking and overlapping of groups, and is I feel one of the neglected factors in the argument of those who are advocating occupational representation. What we are working for is a plastic social organization: not only in the sense of a flexible interaction between the groups, but in the sense of an elasticity which makes it possible for individuals to change constantly their relations, their groups, without destroying social cohesion. Vocational representation would tend to crystallize us into definite permanent groups.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01101", "bookId": 73755, "start": 515271, "end": 516104, "sha256": "d13563cbba5d272c102831a2145dc7bb184a8c2af7709f970603db90ad6df68e", "text": "The present advocacy of organic democracy or “functionalism” is obviously, and in many cases explicitly, a reaction to “individualism”: the functional group must be the unit because the individual is so feared. I agree with the denunciation of the individual if you mean the man who seeks only his own advantage. But have we not already seen that that is not the true individual? And do we not see now that man is a multiple being? Life is a recognition of multitudinous multiplicity. Politics must be shaped for that. Our task is to make straight the paths for the coming of the Lord—the true Individual. Man is struggling for the freedom of his nature. What is his nature? Manifold being. You must have as many different kinds of groups as there are powers in man—this does away with “organic democracy.”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01102", "bookId": 73755, "start": 516108, "end": 516996, "sha256": "c7a78243d018a65bae0ad4029b8f19574f3fd5beb4a1efdc511c6db33fa4758b", "text": "The state cannot be composed of groups because no group nor any number of groups can contain the whole of me, and the ideal state demands the whole of me. No one group can seize the whole of me; no one group can seize any part of me in a mechanical way so that having taken one-tenth there are nine-tenths left. My nature is not divisible into so many parts as a house into so many rooms. My group uses me and then the whole of me is still left to give to the whole. This is the constant social process. Thus my citizenship is something bigger than my membership in a vocational group. Vocational representation does not deal with men—it deals with masons and doctors. I may be a photographer but how little of my personality does my photography absorb. We are concerned with what is left over—is that going to be lost? The whole of every man must go into his citizenship.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01103", "bookId": 73755, "start": 517000, "end": 517840, "sha256": "1f58a43527b0fe4a61eb29635a249bf326ba14800525745e57e5ad09039e6eff", "text": "Some at the guild socialists tell us, however, that a man has as many “rights” as he has functions: a shoe-maker is also a father and a rate-payer. But they do not give us any plan for the political recognition of these various functions. How the father _as_ father is to be represented in the state we are not told. The state will never get the whole of a man by his trying to divide himself into parts. A man is not a father at home, a citizen at the polls, an artisan at work, a business man in his office, a follower of Christ at church. He is at every moment a Christian, a father, a citizen, a worker, if he is at any time these in a true sense. We want the whole man in politics. Clever business men are not engaging workers, they need men, our churches need men, the insistent demand of our political life is for men.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01104", "bookId": 73755, "start": 517844, "end": 518075, "sha256": "be283c2dd817bee88cb234366b2f4ed8007d76dcb75d2c20a32250476c3e77f9", "text": "As ideally every function should include every other, as every power of which I am capable should go into my work, occupational representation might do for the millennium, but it is not fitted for the limitations of man in 1918.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01105", "bookId": 73755, "start": 518079, "end": 519321, "sha256": "70b1150edd080847111d1ee7a4ba2a1c704e5327758ddb3b17cc761f5e28b05a", "text": "I am advocating throughout the group principle, but not the group as the political unit. We do not need to swing forever between the individual and the group. We must devise some method of using both at the same time. Our present method is right so far as it is based on individuals, but we have not yet found the true individual. The groups are the indispensable means for the discovery of self by each man. The individual finds himself in a group; he has no power alone or in a crowd. One group creates me, another group creates me and so on and on. The different groups bring into appearance the multiple sides of me. I go to the polls to express the multiple man which the groups have created. I am to express the whole from my individual point of view, and that is a multiple point of view because of my various groups. But my relation to the state is always as an individual. The group is a method merely. It cannot supplant either the individual on the one hand or the state on the other. The unit of society is the individual coming into being and functioning through groups of a more and more federated nature. Thus the unit of society is neither the group nor the particularist-individual, but the group-individual.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01106", "bookId": 73755, "start": 519325, "end": 520203, "sha256": "3b828dece20a337c1fd657107cbdd738befec6a218fd080d0f1e3cafbe5ce7d4", "text": "The question is put baldly to us by the advocates of vocational representation—“Do you want representation of numbers or representation of interests?” They are opposed to the former, which they call democracy, because “democracy” means to them the “sovereignty of the people,” which means the reign of the crowd. Democracy and functionalism are supposed to be opposed. An industry is to be composed not of individuals but of departments; likewise the state is to be a union of industries or occupations. The present state is conceived as a crowd-state.[120] If the state is and must necessarily be a crowd, no wonder it is being condemned to-day in many quarters. But I do not believe this is the alternative we are facing—the crowd-state or the group-state. We want the representation of individuals, but of true individuals, group-individuals.[121]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01107", "bookId": 73755, "start": 520207, "end": 521998, "sha256": "0165923cfd818ddc7f044f1d5b11982123a597cd70c72c62383479b0eaf58416", "text": "The best part of pluralism is that it is a protest against the domination of numbers; the trouble is that it identifies numbers with individuals. Some plan must be devised by which we put the individual at the centre of our political system, without an atomistic sovereignty, and yet by which we can get the whole of the individual. I am proposing for the moment the individual the unit, the group the method, but this alone does not cover all that is necessary. In the French syndicalist organization every syndicate, whatever its size, is represented by a single individual. In this way power is prevented from falling into the hands of a strong federation like the miners, but of course this often means minority rule. In England the Trade Union Congress can be dominated by the five large trades, a state of things which has been much complained of there. But we must remember that while the syndicalists get rid of majority rule, that is, that the majority of individuals no longer govern, they merely give the rule to the majority of groups. They have not given up the _principle_ of majority rule, they simply apply it differently. There is a good deal of syndicalist thinking that is not a penetrating analysis which presents us with new principles, but a mere taking of ideas long accepted in regard to the individual and transferring them to the field of the group. I have tried to show in chapter XVII, “Democracy Not the Majority,” that the pressing matter in politics is not whether we want majority rule or not, but to decide upon those methods of association by which we get the greatest amount of integration. The syndicalists are right, we do not want a crowd, but I do not think most syndicalists have discovered the true use of the true group.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01108", "bookId": 73755, "start": 522002, "end": 522495, "sha256": "8e116f46a0cefdb250920c7e87bb53f7ccab3f2ce87154f346c89e4a34845e21", "text": "The task before us now is to think out the way in which the group method can be a regular part of our political system—its relation to the individual on the one hand and to the state on the other. No man should have a share in government as an isolated individual, but only as bound up with others: the individual must be the unit, but an individual capable of entering into genuine group relations and of using these for an expanding scale of social, political and international life.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01109", "bookId": 73755, "start": 522499, "end": 523130, "sha256": "827736b175ef262f9c9e36490a9bfa7fa0bf1bc20496d847817172251fa8832d", "text": "The best part of functionalism is that it presents to us the Service State in the place of the old Sovereign State. This has two meanings: (1) that the state is created by the actual services of every man, that every man will get his place in the state through the service rendered: (2) that the state itself is tested by the services it renders, both to its members and to the world-community.[122] The weakness of functionalism, as so far developed, is that it has provided no method for all the functions of man to be included in the state. The essence of democracy is the expression of every man in his multiple nature.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01110", "bookId": 73755, "start": 523134, "end": 523688, "sha256": "816f730cb2003b5cad244f76a94896dde0decd21baa44363f4cf3e7f4c6588ae", "text": "To sum up: no one group can enfold me, because of my multiple nature. This is the blow to the theory of occupational representation. But also no number of groups can enfold me. This is the reason why the individual must always be the unit of politics, as group organization must be its method. We _find_ the individual through the group, we _use_ him always as the true individual—the undivided one—who, living link of living group, is yet never embedded in the meshes but is forever free for every new possibility of a forever unfolding life.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01111", "bookId": 73755, "start": 523692, "end": 523697, "sha256": "73be087e93080f9e436892b7d182df66394bc79dbf5df119d9357df61b1ebbfb", "text": "-----", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01112", "bookId": 73755, "start": 523701, "end": 523714, "sha256": "5b7d8f43de61bebcfccd285d356a209686abc04ecd0d8bcd35d9bbdb55f5e1f5", "text": "Footnote 120:", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01113", "bookId": 73755, "start": 523720, "end": 523922, "sha256": "229d835d0c085f2561ed5ed894c33ae1b424fce350c0beb27c0a98be29f9db5b", "text": "The French syndicalists avowedly do not want democracy because it “mixes the classes,” because, as they say, interests and aims mingle in one great mass in which all true significance is lost.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01114", "bookId": 73755, "start": 523926, "end": 523939, "sha256": "4a3685d6ce0fccd08443ba7c6d032002e73ec181e7cf51d4b6e554e6b762c7c1", "text": "Footnote 121:", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01115", "bookId": 73755, "start": 523945, "end": 523956, "sha256": "bcac8e93939189c13a705975c9fc49e5d7bb853133a1523765e1ec23ad0a85e8", "text": "See p. 184.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01116", "bookId": 73755, "start": 523960, "end": 523973, "sha256": "ea67d8459a0ace0be7ee0b9ddc5dedc1366f317f3560479e6f6e830b6f77be0b", "text": "Footnote 122:", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01117", "bookId": 73755, "start": 523979, "end": 524135, "sha256": "a83db03eb16a8045673bfa5672995ea339f1e5a7fc524231c2690f80f57baa71", "text": "This is the basis of Duguit’s international law—the place of a state in an international league is to be determined directly by services rendered.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01118", "bookId": 73755, "start": 524139, "end": 524211, "sha256": "5be59d365acb8d35446f682c6d314fffd5db5846ab8c6eb021e6bacd98a82aa0", "text": "------------------------------------------------------------------------", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01119", "bookId": 73755, "start": 524255, "end": 524259, "sha256": "803465c5bc9731d5a244e98e5bca9b2c17ac273b2e2f1dab8fd03ef2a0dc17de", "text": "XXXI", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01120", "bookId": 73755, "start": 524276, "end": 524322, "sha256": "df38105a909d7f06d243567f850b74116bc76c865bc7c9c90be17d9c3ecdacfb", "text": "POLITICAL PLURALISM AND THE TRUE FEDERAL STATE", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01121", "bookId": 73755, "start": 524355, "end": 524369, "sha256": "cb963f8b7dd4be2e8d413c437052b98afad284e3de40cd420bdd246302a111ad", "text": "--------------", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01122", "bookId": 73755, "start": 524375, "end": 524740, "sha256": "40a607b2a4d22b18c3f9630c5bbc2d32563b1bfc83525f9cc9ec54c869e9e084", "text": "IN the last two chapters I have taken up the two fundamental laws of life—the law of interpenetration and the law of multiples. (1) Sovereignty, we have seen, is the power generated within the group—dependent on the principle of interpenetration. (2) Man joins many groups—in order to express his multiple nature. These two principles give us federalism.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01123", "bookId": 73755, "start": 524744, "end": 526499, "sha256": "49c629c2f862687ebee38bd0e69a74208095b036727f11011785981a7ae76e08", "text": "Let us, before considering the conception of federalism in detail, sum up in a few sentences what has already been said of these two principles. The fundamental truth of life we have seen is self-perpetuating activity—activity so regnant, so omnipresent, so all-embracing, that it banishes even the conception of anything static from the world of being. Conscious evolution means that we must discover the essential principle of this activity and see that it is at work in the humblest of its modes, the smallest group or meeting of even two or three. The new psychology has brought to political science the recognition of interpenetration and the “compounding of consciousness” as the very condition of all life. Our political methods must conform to life’s methods. We must understand and follow the laws of association that the state may appear, that our own little purposes may be fulfilled. _Little_ purposes? Is there any great and small? The humblest man and the price of his daily loaf—is this a small matter—it hangs upon the whole world situation to-day. In order that the needs of the humblest shall be satisfied, or in order that world purposes shall be fulfilled—it matters not which—this principle of “compounding” must be fully recognized and embodied in our political methods. It is this vital intermingling which creates the real individual and knits men into the myriad relations of life. We win through life our individuality, it is not presented to us at the beginning to be exploited as we will. We win a multiple individuality through our manifold relations. In the workings of this dual law are rooted all of social and political progress, all the hope and the potency of human evolution.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01124", "bookId": 73755, "start": 526503, "end": 527040, "sha256": "d7034ed4947134dcda26c665abee900c4dc6bd86921432bc55c5e8579cba9f17", "text": "Only the federal state can express this dual principle of existence—the compounding and the multiple compounding. It is an incomplete understanding of this dual law which is responsible for the mistaken interpretation of federalism held by some of the pluralists: a conception which includes the false doctrines of division of power, the idea that the group not the individual should be the unit of the state, the old consent of governed theory, an almost discarded particularism (group rights), and the worn-out balance theory.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01125", "bookId": 73755, "start": 527044, "end": 527664, "sha256": "5c3955b71fba3addeca4b6b271a83d7be37130f01c928c55dbf0c53b0df962e6", "text": "The distributive sovereignty school assumes that the essential, the basic part of federalism is the division of power between the central and separate parts: while the parts may be considered as ceding power to the central state, or the central state may be considered as granting power to the parts, yet in one form or another federalism means a divided sovereignty. Esmein says definitely, “_L’État fédératif ... fractionne la souveraineté...._”[123] No, it should unite sovereignty. There should be no absolute division of power or conferring of power. The activity of whole and parts should be one.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01126", "bookId": 73755, "start": 527668, "end": 529263, "sha256": "9aa932c4cf2e39ccdb2b036b41a110404652290f3936b13dc4932dcc4dfea7c9", "text": "In spite of all our American doctrines of the end of the eighteenth century, in spite of our whole history of states-right theory and sentiment, the division of sovereignty is not the main fact of the United States government. From 1789 to 1861 the idea of a divided sovereignty—that the United States was a voluntary agreement between free, sovereign and independent states, that authority was “divided” between nation and states—dictated the history of the United States. The war of 1861 was fought (some of the pluralists seem not to know) to settle this question.[124] The two ideas of federalism came to a death grapple in our Civil War and the true doctrine triumphed. That war decided that the United States was not a delegated affair, that it had a “real” existence, and that it was sovereign, yet not sovereign over the states as an external party, for it is composed of the states, but sovereign over itself, merely over itself. You have not to be a mystic to understand this but only an American. Those who see in a federal union a mere league with rights and powers granted to a central government, those who see in a federal union a balancing of sovereign powers, do not understand true federalism. When we enumerate the powers of the states as distinct from the powers of our national government, some people regard this distinction as a dividing line between nation and states, but the true “federalist” is always seeing the relation of these powers to those of the central government. There are no absolute divisions in a true federal union.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01127", "bookId": 73755, "start": 529267, "end": 529800, "sha256": "39998b6b3050a5768edd87f2319a12b70f61f2c7a9eb56334de9e25eb95ff445", "text": "Do we then want a central government which shall override the parts until they become practically non-existent? The moment federalism attempts to transcend the parts it has become vitiated. Our Civil War was not, as some writers assert, the blow to states-rights and the victory of centralization. We shall yet, I believe, show that it was a victory for true federalism.[125] The United States is neither to ignore the states, transcend the states, nor to balance the states, it is to _be_ the states in their united capacity.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01128", "bookId": 73755, "start": 529804, "end": 530460, "sha256": "d171c27d54251d54ce8e11f846579a1ad516a130f08e55120a028005d65c8bd3", "text": "Of course it is true that many Americans do think of our government as a division of powers between central and local authority, therefore there is as a matter of fact much balancing of interests. But as far as we are doing this at Washington it is exactly what we must get rid of. The first lesson for every member of a federal government to learn is that the interests of the different parts, or the interests of the whole and the interests of the parts, are never to be pitted against each other. As far as the United States represents an interpenetration of thought and feeling and interest and will, it is carrying out the aims of federalism.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01129", "bookId": 73755, "start": 530464, "end": 531245, "sha256": "63755242370765191884fe01b4c141d48bc0d52c72355519ee0e8b991e11ca1e", "text": "We have not indeed a true federalism in the United States to-day; we are now learning the lesson of federalism. Some one must analyze for us the difference between centralization and true federalism, which is neither nationalization, states-rights, nor balance, and then we must work for true federalism. For the federal government to attempt to do that which the states should do, or perhaps even are doing, means loss of force, and loss of education-by-experience for the states. On the other hand, not to see when federal action means at the same time local development and national strength, means a serious retarding of our growth. It is equally true that when the states attempt what the federal government alone should undertake, the consequence is general muddle.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01130", "bookId": 73755, "start": 531249, "end": 532489, "sha256": "f6efdff3c357308aef10708ab79eb292e2cd3ab3ac459e956a409a07ebefcf82", "text": "And it is by no means a question only of what the federal government should do and what it should not do. It is a question of the _way_ of doing. It is a question of guiding, where necessary, without losing local initiative or local responsibility. It is a question of so framing measures that true federation, not centralization, be obtained. Recently, even before the war, the tendency has been towards increased federal action and federal control, as seen, for instance, in the control of railroad transportation, of vocational education etc. The latter is an excellent example of the possibility of central action being true federal and not nationalized action. The federal government upon application from a state grants to that state an amount for vocational education equal to what the state itself will appropriate. The administration of the fund rests with the state. The federal government thus makes no assumptions. It _recognizes existing facts_. And it does not impose something from without. The state must understand its needs, must know how those needs can best be satisfied; it must take responsibility. The experience of one state joins with the experience of other states to form a collective experience.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01131", "bookId": 73755, "start": 532493, "end": 533186, "sha256": "45c8bcc427db8dbd09840d374c5a812c6b19b8b544016c8cc625c42500fe588d", "text": "As we watch federalism being worked out in actual practice at Washington, we see in that practice the necessity of a distinction which has been emphasized throughout this book as the contribution of contemporary psychology to politics: nationalization is the Hegelian reconciliation, true federalism is the integration of present psychology. This means a genuine integration of the interests of all the parts. If our present tendency is towards nationalization, we must learn the difference between that and federalism and change it into the latter. We need a new order of statesmen in the world to-day—for our nation, for our international league—those who understand federalism.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01132", "bookId": 73755, "start": 533190, "end": 534081, "sha256": "f5f2238d1348b103ac26f14d7dd3fde9ad2f4af569c0e4a126f31496b42dbdae", "text": "But I have been talking of federalism as the integration of parts (the states). We should remember also, and this is of the greatest importance, that the United States is not only to be the _states_ in their united capacity, but it is to be all the men and women of the United States in _their_ united capacity. This it seems difficult for many Europeans to understand; it breaks across their traditional conception of federalism which has been a league, a confederation of “sovereign” parts, not a true federal state. We of Massachusetts feel ourselves not first children of Massachusetts and then through Massachusetts of the United States. We belong directly to the United States not merely through Massachusetts. True federalism means that the individual, not the group, is the unit. A true federal government acts directly on its citizens, not merely through the groups.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01133", "bookId": 73755, "start": 534085, "end": 534883, "sha256": "f11b75e8a39fbb69e77506e42e84212de6f87e3feb40a4ba40b789b16b38e6c4", "text": "America has not led the world in democracy through methods of representation, social legislation, ballot laws or industrial organization. She has been surpassed by other countries in all of these. She leads the world in democracy because through federalism she is working out the secret of the universe actively. Multiple citizenship in its spontaneous unifying is the foundation of the new state. Federalism and democracy go together, you do not decide to have one or the other as your fancy may be. We did not establish federalism in the United States, we are growing federalism. Cohesion imposed upon us externally will lack in significance and duration. Federalism must live through: (1) the reality of the group, (2) the expanding group, (3) the ascending group or unifying process.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01134", "bookId": 73755, "start": 534887, "end": 536038, "sha256": "31c6f58bdf4d98bd49447433cea80e3768491d7daedb93162a31b6ea332aa36b", "text": "The federal state is the unifying state. The political pluralists, following James, use the “trailing and”[126] argument to prove that we can never have a unified state, that there is always something which never gets included. I should use it to prove that we can and must have a unify_ing_ state, that this “and” is the very unifying principle. The “trailing and” is the deepest truth of psychology. It is because of this “and” that our goal must always be the unified state—the unified state to be attained through the federal form. Our spirit it is true is by nature federal, but this means not infinite unrelation but infinite possibility of relation, not infinite strung-alongness but infinite seeking for the unifying of the strung-alongness. I forever discover undeveloped powers. This is the glory of our exhaustless nature. We are the expression of the principle of endless growth, of endless appearing, and democracy must, therefore, so shape its forms as to allow for the manifestation of each new appearing. I grow possibilities; new opportunities should always be arising to meet these new possibilities.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01135", "bookId": 73755, "start": 536042, "end": 536748, "sha256": "3a6f11c090675a76501b5a5bb59ca103eacb8436f552f816141800c0ac061bd6", "text": "Then through group and group and ascending group I actualize more and more. The “trailing and” is man’s task for ever and ever—to drag in more spirit, more knowledge, more harmony. Federalism is the only possible form for the state because it leaves room for the new forces which are coming through these spiritual “ands,” for the myriad centres of life which must be forever springing up, group after group, within a vital state. Our impulse is at one and the same time to develop self and to transcend self. It is this ever transcending self which needs the federal state. The federal state is not a unified state, I agree, but it is a unifying state, not a “strung-along” state.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01136", "bookId": 73755, "start": 536752, "end": 536914, "sha256": "993ec10164ca8e89f7d2965ea019d2c6dee42fd3de7d87f9a09324ff048d04eb", "text": "Thus it is the federal state which expresses the two fundamental principles of life—the compounding of consciousness and the endless appearings of new forces.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01137", "bookId": 73755, "start": 536918, "end": 537416, "sha256": "7b3f716e2059c4a3bfb5971fabc4604019c09d2e3e3b5cb7a9e3108e6f46dec0", "text": "I have said that the pluralists’ mistaken interpretation of federalism includes the particularist notions of “consent” and “rights” and “balance,” and that all these come from a false conception of sovereignty. What does the new psychology teach us of “consent”? Power is generated within the true group not by one or several assuming authority and the others “consenting,” but solely by the process of intermingling. Only by the same method can the true state be grown.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01138", "bookId": 73755, "start": 537420, "end": 538038, "sha256": "86d56561dc6aad21525b223e4fca3da61105b81a4c0b86e049e51397090b6715", "text": "If divorce is to be allowed between the state and this group or that, what are the grounds on which it is to be granted? Will incompatibility be sufficient? Are the manufacturing north and agricultural south of Ireland incompatible? Does a certain trade association want, like Nora, a “larger life”? The pluralists open the gates to too much. They wish to throw open the doors of the state to labor: yes, they are right, but let them beware what veiled shapes may slip between those open portals. Labor must indeed be included in the state, it is our most immediate task, but let us ponder well the method.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01139", "bookId": 73755, "start": 538042, "end": 538843, "sha256": "0d2de7116e987da91c058093b52e094ed6d9d9baa3f275a4030da47369bc8c30", "text": "The pluralists assume that the unified state must always claim authority over “other groups.”[127] But as he who expresses the unity of my group has no authority over me but is simply the symbol and the organ of the group, so that group which expresses the unity of all groups—that is, the state—should have no authority _as a separate group_, but only so far as it gathers up into itself the whole meaning of these constituent groups. Just here is the crux of the disagreement between the upholders of the pluralistic and of the true monistic state: the former think of the other groups as “coextensive” or “complementary” to the state—the state is one of the groups to which we owe obedience; to the latter they and all individuals are the constituents of the state.[128]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01140", "bookId": 73755, "start": 538847, "end": 539162, "sha256": "c81117f0d1ee4e9bb15be234cb9f7fc2ee01f690ec50ea3aa122514edf931546", "text": "I have said that our progress is from Contract to Community.[129] This those pluralists cannot accept who take the consent of the group as part of their theory of the state. They thereby keep themselves in the contract stage of thinking, they thereby and in so far range themselves with all particularists.[130]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01141", "bookId": 73755, "start": 539166, "end": 540965, "sha256": "97b183e2d487eb037ec3f5fd3361e65a81d78a2620e9872347e3075b9d6b8c04", "text": "Secondly, in the divided sovereignty theory the old particularist doctrine of individual rights gives way merely to a new doctrine of group rights, the “inherent rights” of trade-unions or ecclesiastical bodies. “Natural rights” and “social compact” went together; the “inherent rights” of groups again tend to make the federal bond a compact.[131] The state resting on a numerical basis, composed of an aggregate of individuals, gives way only to a state still resting on a numerical basis although composed now of groups instead of individuals. As in the old days the individuals were to be “free,” now the groups are to be “independent.” These new particularists are as zealous and as jealous for the group as any nineteenth-century “individualist” was for the individual. Mr. Barker, who warns us, it is true, against inherent rights which are not adjusted to other inherent rights, nevertheless says, “If we are individualists now, we are corporate individualists. Our individuals are becoming groups. We no longer write Man _vs._ the State but The Group _vs._ the State.” But does Mr. Barker really think it progress to write Group _vs._ the State? If the principle of individual _vs._ the state is wrong, what difference does it make whether that individual is one man or a group of men? In so far as these rights are based on function, we have an advance in political theory; in so far as we can talk of group _vs._ the state, we are held in the thralls of another form of social atomism. It is the pluralists themselves who are always saying, when they oppose crowd-sovereignty, that atomism means anarchy. Agreed, but atomism in any form, of groups as well as individuals, means anarchy, and this they do not always seem to realize.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01142", "bookId": 73755, "start": 540969, "end": 541524, "sha256": "e4921f9e20c7e5922ea96d9e9d00e41e7c7500c48c8fc9425bd8eb4e799c86c8", "text": "Mr. Barker speaks of the present tendency “to restrict the activity of the state in order to safeguard the rights of the groups.” Many pluralists and syndicalists are afraid of the state because for them the old dualism is unsolvable. But as I have tried to show in the chapter on “Our Political Dualism” that the rights of the state and the citizen are never, ideally, incompatible, so now we should understand that our present task is to develop those political forms within which rights of group and state can be approaching coincidence.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01143", "bookId": 73755, "start": 541528, "end": 542589, "sha256": "1228991673e6938b1c5feaee0336f288030c0a2a347d246cfe1c9d7476cff908", "text": "As long as we settle down within any one group, we are in danger of the old particularism. Many a trade-unionist succumbs to this danger. Love of a group will not get us out of particularism. We can have egoism of the group as well as egoism of the individual. Indeed the group may have all the evils of the individual—aggrandizement of self, exploitation of others etc. Nothing will get us out of particularism but the constant recognition that any whole is always the element of a larger whole. Group life has two meanings, one as important as the other: (1) it looks in to its own integrated, coördinated activity, (2) it sees that activity in relation to other activities, in relation to a larger whole of which it is a part. The group which does not look out deteriorates into caste. The group which thinks only of itself is a menace to society; the group which looks to its manifold relations is part of social progress. President Wilson as head of a national group has just as clear a duty to other national groups as to his own country.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01144", "bookId": 73755, "start": 542593, "end": 542792, "sha256": "0547c53f3672a19075217f1ade60cbc643fc81582df921bad2b01bf8f8ddb761", "text": "Particularism of the individual is dead, in theory if not in practice. Let us not now fall into the specious error of clinging to our particularism while changing its name from individual to group.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01145", "bookId": 73755, "start": 542796, "end": 543427, "sha256": "9799b8720695b409eab31b1cf0d0e7948f18c5d86175c2be806dda6e5496abac", "text": "The outcome of group particularism is the balance of power theory, perhaps the most pernicious part of the pluralists’ doctrine. The pluralist state is to be composed of sovereign groups. What is their life to be? They are to be left alone to fight, to compete, or, word most favored by this school, to balance. With de Maeztu the balance of power is confessedly the corner-stone of the new state. “The dilemma which would make us choose between the State and anarchy is false. There is another alternative, that of plurality and the balance of powers, not merely within the nation but in the family of nations.”[132]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01146", "bookId": 73755, "start": 543431, "end": 543515, "sha256": "2d7fb99911e235d9e1bc631af57df8191bc570ea11957d41ba9fc1d93f527db3", "text": "But whenever you have balance in your premise, you have anarchy in your conclusion.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01147", "bookId": 73755, "start": 543519, "end": 543981, "sha256": "14a534d7846b58bd63e102db49de038c92bb6855a7af908420bfe2b955697a2f", "text": "The weakness of the reasoning involved in the balance of power argument has been exposed in so much of the war literature of the last three years, which has exploded the balance of power theory between nations, that little further criticism is needed here. Unity must be our aim to-day. When you have not unity, you have balance or struggle or domination—of one over others. The nations of Europe refuse domination, aim at balance, and war is the result.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01148", "bookId": 73755, "start": 543985, "end": 544819, "sha256": "210baab8bf4510ea27ccc935f248a30379604328e453ca067f5015662780980f", "text": "It seems curious that these two movements should be going on side by side: that we are giving up the idea of the balance of nations, that we are refusing to think any longer in terms of “sovereign” nations, and yet at the same time an increasing number of men should be advocating balancing, “sovereign” groups within nations. The pluralists object to unity, but unity and plurality are surely not incompatible. The true monistic state is merely the multiple state working out its own unity from infinite diversity. But the unifying state shows us what to do with that diversity. What advantage is that diversity if it is to be always “competing,” “fighting,” “balancing?” Only in the unifying state do we get the full advantage of diversity where it is gathered up into significance and pointed action.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01149", "bookId": 73755, "start": 544823, "end": 545000, "sha256": "001c0faef3c4a6504eaf3adf0533da508bcbeab5148b1505b8be5a56660159aa", "text": "The practical outcome of the balance theory will be first antagonistic interests, then jealous interests, then competing interests, then dominating interests—a fatal climax.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01150", "bookId": 73755, "start": 545004, "end": 546579, "sha256": "fa7ccf4fe18df94c2063a5e750a1d80e9576464511428000325b82d41b83ade7", "text": "The trouble with the balance theory is that by the time the representatives of the balancing groups meet, it is too late to expect agreement. The chief objection to pluralism is, perhaps, that it is usually merely a scheme of representation, that its advocates are usually talking of the kind of roof they want before they have laid the foundation stones. No theory of the state can have vitality which is merely a plan of representation. The new state must rest on a new conception of living, on a true understanding of the vital modes of association. The reason why occupational representation must bring balance and competition is because the integrating of differences, the essential social process, does not take place far enough back in our life. If Parliaments are composed of various groups or interests, the unification of those interests has to take place in Parliament. But then it is too late. The ideas of the different groups must mingle earlier than Parliament. We must go further back than our legislatures for the necessary unifying. We do not want legislatures full of opposing interests. The ideas of the groups become too crystallized by the time their representatives get to the Parliament, in fact they have often hardened into prejudices. Moreover, the representatives could not go against their constituencies, they would be pledged to specific measures. The different groups would come together each to try to prevail, not to go through the only genuine democratic process, that of trying to integrate their ideas and interests.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01151", "bookId": 73755, "start": 546583, "end": 547839, "sha256": "7153c2938380fd86fdcc4eb6f623a42bc3a3f18178bf229b1de5f35414da1e41", "text": "When the desire to prevail is once keenly upon us, we behave very differently than when our object is the seeking of truth. Suppose I am the representative in Congress of a group or a party. A bill is under consideration. I see a weakness in that bill; if I point it out some one else may see a remedy for it and the bill may be immensely improved. But do I do this? Certainly not. I am so afraid of the bill being lost if I show any weakness in it that I keep this insight to myself and my country loses just so much. I cannot believe that occupational representation will foster truth seeking or truth speaking. It seems to me quite a case of the frying pan into the fire. Compromise and swapping will be the order in Parliaments based solely on the vocational principle. The different interests must fight it out in Parliament. This is fundamentally against democracy because it is against the psychological foundation of democracy, the fundamental law of association. Democracy depends on the blending, not the balancing, of interests and thoughts and wills. Occupational representation assumes that you secure the interests of the whole by securing the interests of every class, the old particularist fallacy transferred to the group.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01152", "bookId": 73755, "start": 547843, "end": 548332, "sha256": "c99d4d39efd10b7caca16e51f790d1e75107cc320475248de667b1169fc9bd3d", "text": "Moreover, it is often assumed that because the occupational group is composed of men of similar interests we shall have agreement in the occupational group; it is taken for granted that in these economic groups the agreement of opinion necessary for voting will be automatic. But do poets or carpenters or photographers think alike on more than a very few questions? What we must do is to get behind these electoral methods to some fundamental method which shall _produce_ agreement.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01153", "bookId": 73755, "start": 548336, "end": 548716, "sha256": "63e96805e896c930d46e7c5756b665a5175d27236ddf98e84b3c22bbe110b82b", "text": "Moreover, if the Cabinet were made up of these warring elements, administration would be almost impossible. Lloyd-George’s Cabinet at present is hampered by too much “difference.” I have throughout, to be sure, been advocating the compounding of difference as the secret of politics, but the compounding must begin further back in our life than Parliaments or Cabinets.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01154", "bookId": 73755, "start": 548720, "end": 549233, "sha256": "fa0fb29a84fe3c116cb5f26cf0378e515ea27fc1a3c3afb9ac1c354b28c99c8c", "text": "And if you had group representation in England would not the Cabinet be made up of the most powerful of the groups, and would not a fear of defeat at any particular time mean overtures to enough of the other groups to make success in the Cabinet? And would not an entirely improper amount of power drift to the Premier under these circumstances? Have we any leaders who would, could any one trust himself to, guide the British Cabinet for the best interests of Great Britain under such conditions as these?", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01155", "bookId": 73755, "start": 549237, "end": 550594, "sha256": "5753d489c3e463341f913262556ff9c1cdd430a94d159e66aeea75a468dded84", "text": "To sum up: a true federalism cannot rest on balance or group-rights or consent. Authority, obedience, liberty, can never be understood without an understanding of the group process. Some of the advocates of guild socialism oppose function to authority and liberty, but we can have function _and_ liberty _and_ authority: authority of the whole through the liberty of all by means of the functions of each. These three are inescapably united. A genuine group, a small or large group, association or state, has the right to the obedience of its members. No group should be sovereign over another group. The only right the state has to authority over “other” groups is as far as those groups are constituent parts of the state. All groups are not constituent parts of the state to-day, as the pluralists clearly see. Possibly or probably all groups never will be, but such perpetually self-actualizing unity should be the process. Groups are sovereign over themselves, but in their relation to the state they are interdependent groups, each recognizing the claims of every other. Our multiple group life is the fact we have to reckon with; unity is the aim of all our seeking. And with this unity will appear a sovereignty spontaneously and joyfully acknowledged. In true federalism, voided of division and balance, lies such sovereignty.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01156", "bookId": 73755, "start": 550598, "end": 550603, "sha256": "73be087e93080f9e436892b7d182df66394bc79dbf5df119d9357df61b1ebbfb", "text": "-----", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01157", "bookId": 73755, "start": 550607, "end": 550620, "sha256": "953ff8db890426091f712c379e058fd7fba522e9847fed00b2db150a2f3753e6", "text": "Footnote 123:", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01158", "bookId": 73755, "start": 550626, "end": 550643, "sha256": "f7080cf1018409435e7b8946c51d2ac05e508e2e6956726c89e131a4a3393280", "text": "Quoted by Duguit.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01159", "bookId": 73755, "start": 550647, "end": 550660, "sha256": "ab3a0cd3d30af25a237c9e4e30a9786a756f1b1f057ba8fbfdd64c62ee4e092d", "text": "Footnote 124:", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01160", "bookId": 73755, "start": 550666, "end": 551110, "sha256": "e69a01076eb0a85fa302d2f06ee01e83d54dacc816441c7991b0ac777ece17b3", "text": "It must be remembered, however, that while in the Civil War we definitely gave up the compact theory held by us since the Mayflower compact, yet we did not adopt the organism theory. The federal state we have tried and are trying to work out in America is based on the principles of psychic unity described in chapter X. The giving up of the “consent” theory does not bring us necessarily to the organic theory of society.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01161", "bookId": 73755, "start": 551114, "end": 551127, "sha256": "7ba71d48755ab147bbe13b002a58f6d354166f08226d1b9302872985a87b6f85", "text": "Footnote 125:", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01162", "bookId": 73755, "start": 551133, "end": 551261, "sha256": "77251e76106d7e30cf57666fd8347d68377e2ae01d0908e7804e77ba6aa4c3f7", "text": "Duguit says that the United States confers the rights of a state on a territory. No, it recognizes that which already exists.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01163", "bookId": 73755, "start": 551265, "end": 551278, "sha256": "bff115b55693d27f2cbff155cdb755e642d43aee4d27df17949a1bfae5bfb305", "text": "Footnote 126:", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01164", "bookId": 73755, "start": 551284, "end": 551512, "sha256": "6bb0d394af0126ac983ce9beee660b2bf443e569cf6277b63a1b44ca711819af", "text": "“The word ‘and’ trails along after every sentence. Something always escapes.... The pluralistic world is thus more like a federal republic than like an empire or a kingdom.” “A Pluralistic Universe,” 321–322.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01165", "bookId": 73755, "start": 551516, "end": 551529, "sha256": "1326b90a61b620e884bd822e7148407a7102ff79ce0e93d46c04d5832591ce91", "text": "Footnote 127:", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01166", "bookId": 73755, "start": 551535, "end": 551653, "sha256": "ed430e88e947d81df5e8ad81044a1d3d6debad36f5640a84d22d43451482b98b", "text": "When they say that the passion for unity is the urge for a dominant One, they think of the dominant One as outside.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01167", "bookId": 73755, "start": 551657, "end": 551670, "sha256": "345a7980421d357543149489952991c7e71f1213a985a74bc90df62070095847", "text": "Footnote 128:", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01168", "bookId": 73755, "start": 551676, "end": 552142, "sha256": "7bc3a479c7c4b06f1349ca951a05097e2baf4b19d44b9b3d21f079fd6dd7987b", "text": "One of the pluralists says, “I cannot see that ... sovereignty is the unique property of any one association.” No, not sovereignty over “others,” but sovereignty always belongs to any genuine group; as groups join to form another real group, the sovereignty of the more inclusive group is evolved—that is the only kind of state sovereignty which we can recognize as legitimate. (See ch. XXIX on “Political Pluralism and Sovereignty.”)", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01169", "bookId": 73755, "start": 552146, "end": 552159, "sha256": "96332191f529c00343dbdb1b937ded1c06b3576ab83c45233ae931480f853a0c", "text": "Footnote 129:", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01170", "bookId": 73755, "start": 552165, "end": 552176, "sha256": "e75324e2a2eb4aad056892689eaacb613dca5b5d2f141e12e0ca8fd0a9bf5179", "text": "See ch. XV.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01171", "bookId": 73755, "start": 552180, "end": 552193, "sha256": "6a8d35de4ffa72c25e46e9ae24e8fcb4bb314d9997082132792b4a875664f37a", "text": "Footnote 130:", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01172", "bookId": 73755, "start": 552199, "end": 552935, "sha256": "2a8de92bad5cc01ac013bb6e3c398a8fdc86c6108b3801b331fb16f7c5963308", "text": "Mr. Laski is an exception to many writers on “consent.” When he speaks of consent he is referring only to the actual facts of to-day. Denying the sovereignty postulated by the lawyers (he says you can never find in a community any one will which is certain of obedience), he shows that as a matter of fact the state sovereignty we have now rests on consent. I do not wish to confuse the issue between facts of the present and hopes for the future, but I wish to make a distinction between the “sovereignty” of the present end the sovereignty which I hope we can grow. This distinction is implicit in Mr. Laski’s book, but it is lacking in much of the writing on the “consent of the governed.”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01173", "bookId": 73755, "start": 552939, "end": 552952, "sha256": "b3502a0e9a5e94e22b47aa8ada965fd938f1b79fbca73aead3d190b0df7a4e9a", "text": "Footnote 131:", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01174", "bookId": 73755, "start": 552958, "end": 553294, "sha256": "83de9391e0516e5978042ad6076d5a5a67aa41ea0bbca7fabc5e26e281721cc9", "text": "Wherever you have the social contract theory in any form, and assent as the foundation of power, there is no social process going on; the state is an arbitrary creation of men. Group organization to-day must give up any taint whatever of the social contract and rest squarely and fully on its legitimate psychological basis.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01175", "bookId": 73755, "start": 553298, "end": 553311, "sha256": "64d1d4e71ef2672d0a079266171cb8c49340a1f3cd6fa50791f5fe5379ed9cc2", "text": "Footnote 132:", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01176", "bookId": 73755, "start": 553317, "end": 553418, "sha256": "a268c4a408d153b768ae6ef5b5a6314217a53f3c7fada11d5383e7259fc603b9", "text": "This is perhaps a remnant of the nineteenth-century myth that competition is the mode of progress.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01177", "bookId": 73755, "start": 553422, "end": 553494, "sha256": "5be59d365acb8d35446f682c6d314fffd5db5846ab8c6eb021e6bacd98a82aa0", "text": "------------------------------------------------------------------------", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01178", "bookId": 73755, "start": 553537, "end": 553542, "sha256": "7ad584bbb55ace0324d97366a513b14c9595af9d9bfe12485d16baa69bfd80e0", "text": "XXXII", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01179", "bookId": 73755, "start": 553566, "end": 553597, "sha256": "6b5dfa6600d9978cd559e0dd5383e88900552aca22b8da20599d7387ce0bf2f6", "text": "POLITICAL PLURALISM (CONCLUDED)", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01180", "bookId": 73755, "start": 553630, "end": 553644, "sha256": "cb963f8b7dd4be2e8d413c437052b98afad284e3de40cd420bdd246302a111ad", "text": "--------------", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01181", "bookId": 73755, "start": 553650, "end": 554217, "sha256": "933e288434038f71a1f3a5094583df69b51c9bdb25866f7062ca32d951864eb2", "text": "I HAVE spoken of the endeavor of the pluralist school to look at things as they are as one of its excellencies. But a progressive political science must also decide what it is aiming at. It is no logical argument against a sovereign state to say that we have not one at present, or that our present particularistic states are not successful. Proof of actual plural sovereignty does not constitute an argument against the ideal of unified or rather a unifying sovereignty. The question is do we want a unifying state? And if so, how can we set about getting it?", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01182", "bookId": 73755, "start": 554221, "end": 554505, "sha256": "907c9a4ddd73e446bbf1d8cffc6efab492fcba40f899e82e861b97c3e50cc7c7", "text": "The old theory of the monistic state indeed tended to make the state absolute. The pluralists are justified in their fear of a unified state when they conceive it as a monster which has swallowed up everything within sight. It reminds one of the nursery rhyme of one’s childhood:", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01183", "bookId": 73755, "start": 554537, "end": 554649, "sha256": "129332344dc81fd8513bd0baa0e65af07389dc7529f1d4d75e15c0365da149c8", "text": "Algy met a bear The bear was bulgy The bulge was Algy.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01184", "bookId": 73755, "start": 554653, "end": 555060, "sha256": "c4dcf287becfc1f5be5a5ee85466ccb67aa702c149dda00aed71b498a40c5fc9", "text": "The pluralists say that the monistic state _absorbs_ its members. (This is a word used by many writers).[133] But the ideal unified state is not all-absorptive; it is all-inclusive—a very different matter: we are not, individual or group, to be absorbed into a whole, we are to be constituent members of the whole. I am speaking throughout of the ideal unified state, which I call a unify_ing_ state.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01185", "bookId": 73755, "start": 555064, "end": 556330, "sha256": "bbb5f34559c53ffd4deb58b3073009b3381ed0e81da2548054daaf338ef434c0", "text": "The failure to understand a unifying state is responsible for the dread on the one hand of a state which will “demand” our allegiance, and on the other of our being left to the clash of “divided” allegiances. Both these bugbears will disappear only through an understanding of how each allegiance can minister to every other, and also through a realization that no single group can embrace my life. It is true that the state as state no more than family or trade-union or church can “capture my soul.” But this does not mean that I must divide my allegiance; I must find how I can by being loyal to each be loyal to all, to the whole. I am an American with all my heart and soul and at the same time I can work daily for Boston and Massachusetts. I can work for my nation through local machinery of city or neighborhood. My work at office or factory enriches my family life; my duty to my family is my most pressing incentive to do my best work. There is no competing here, but an infinite number of filaments cross and recross and connect all my various allegiances. We should not be obliged to choose between our different groups. Competition is not the soul of true federalism but the interlocking of all interests and all activities.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01186", "bookId": 73755, "start": 556334, "end": 556998, "sha256": "987fe7e5f14342cf0e010dee998260a680a76efbb0adec0d4c1640dc630a034f", "text": "The true state must gather up every interest within itself. It must take our many loyalties and find how it can make them one. I have all these different allegiances, I should indeed lead a divided and therefore uninteresting life if I could not unify them, Life _would_ be “just one damned thing after another.” The true state has my devotion because it gathers up into itself the various sides of me, is the symbol of my multiple self, is my multiple self brought to significance, to self-realization. If you leave me with my plural selves, you leave me in desolate places, my soul craving its meaning, its home. The home of my soul is in the state.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01187", "bookId": 73755, "start": 557002, "end": 557962, "sha256": "205dc4aa678d8f8f14cb406af3394ea96b71943d99a80e212ccbb214df5f88db", "text": "But the true state does not “demand” my allegiance. It is the spontaneously uniting, the instinctive self-unifying of our multiple interests. And as it does not “demand” allegiance, so also it does not “compete” with trade-unions etc., as the present state often does, for my allegiance. We have been recently told that the tendency of the state is to be intolerant of “any competing interest or faith or hope,” but if it is, the cure is not to make it tolerant, but to make it recognize that the very substance of its life is all these interests and faiths and hopes. Every group which we join must increase our loyalty to the state because the state must recognize fully every legitimate interest. Our political machinery must not be such that I get what I need by pitting the group which most clearly embodies my need against the state; it must be such that my loyalty to my trade-union is truly part of my loyalty to the state.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01188", "bookId": 73755, "start": 557966, "end": 558809, "sha256": "ef6bf8b0cdc23694c9fefc7458ba9a3a2f53c73537086ded51e025445a8b8517", "text": "When I find that my loyalty to my group and my loyalty to the state conflict (if I am a Quaker and my country is at war, or if I am a trade-unionist and the commands of nation and trade-union clash at the time of a strike), I must usually, as a matter of immediate action, decide between these loyalties. But my duty to either group or state is not thereby exhausted: I must, if my disapproval of war is to be neither abandoned nor remain a mere particularist conviction, seek to change the policy of my state in regard to its foreign relations; I must, knowing that there can be no sound national life where trade-unions are pitted against the state, seek to bring about those changes in our industrial and political organization by which the interests of my trade-union can become a constituent part of the interests of the state.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01189", "bookId": 73755, "start": 558813, "end": 559451, "sha256": "a07329485679c3fe05fdd2a4da423ecf86af65383df5c485ba2d28cd36797921", "text": "I feel capable of more than a multiple allegiance, I feel capable of a unified allegiance. A unified allegiance the new state will claim, but that is something very different from an “undivided” allegiance. It is, to use James’ phrase again, a compounding of allegiances. “Multiple allegiance” leaves us with the abnormal idea of competing groups. “Supplementary allegiance” gives us too fragmentary an existence. “Coöperative allegiance” comes nearer the truth. Can we not perhaps imagine a coöperative or unified allegiance, all these various and varying allegiances actually living in and through the other?", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01190", "bookId": 73755, "start": 559455, "end": 559814, "sha256": "09996fa3300ed03d09a6010cfdb8882f9c7f5af11f516d374d479477015cc0de", "text": "We need not fear the state if we could understand it as the unifying power: it is the state-principle when two or three are gathered together, when any differences are harmonized. Our problem is how all the separate community sense and community loyalty and community responsibility can be gathered up into larger community sense and loyalty and control.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01191", "bookId": 73755, "start": 559818, "end": 561161, "sha256": "1b7fc6f8653fa1522efa6bfd52db0a4ed43122e39bc0a116595798e7187e9f63", "text": "One thing more it is necessary to bear in mind in considering the unified state, and that is that a unifying state is not a static state. We, organized as the state, may issue certain commands to ourselves to-day, but organized as a plastic state, those commands may change to-morrow with our changing needs and changing ideals, and they will change through _our_ initiative. The true state is neither an external force nor an unchanging force. Rooted in our most intimate daily lives, in those bonds which are at the same time the strongest and the most pliant, the “absolutism” of the true state depends always upon _our_ activity. The objectors to the unified state seem to imply that it is necessarily a ready-made state, with hard and fast articulations, existing apart from us, imposing its commands upon us which we must obey; but the truth is that the state must be in perfect flux and that it is utterly dependent upon us for its appearance. In so far as we actualize it, it appears to us; we recognize that it is wrong, then we see it in a higher form and actualize that. The true state is not an arbitrary creation. It is a process: a continual self-modification to express its different stages of growth which each and all must be so flexible that continual change of form is twin-fellow of continual growth.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01192", "bookId": 73755, "start": 561165, "end": 561307, "sha256": "017f9bb5197695d55c1b627fcb44f3e2d4f0af36131899cc7905ae408deddab3", "text": "But every objection that can be raised against the pluralists does not I believe take from them the right to leadership in political thought.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01193", "bookId": 73755, "start": 561311, "end": 561712, "sha256": "1f1566b4cd48f72bfde54e2b51da761237e2b6d1f27dc95b252e65a834e9ccec", "text": "First, they prick the bubble of the present state’s right to supremacy. They see that the state which has been slowly forming since the Middle Ages with its pretences and unfulfilled claims has not won either our regard or respect. Why then, they ask, should we render this state obedience? “[The state must] prove itself by what it achieves.” With the latter we are all beginning to agree.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01194", "bookId": 73755, "start": 561716, "end": 562618, "sha256": "324e07f3755fc87b3ae137c35de87c7e1af0ebece0e52b8d4d13fc839c1d756b", "text": "Genuine power, in the sense not of power actually possessed, but in the sense of a properly evolved power, is, we have seen, an actual psychological process. Invaluable, therefore, is the implicit warning of the pluralists that to attain this power is an infinite task. Sovereignty is always a-growing; our political forms must keep closely in touch with the specific stage of that growth. In rendering the state obedience, we assume that the state has genuine power (because the consequences of an opposite assumption would be too disastrous) while we are trying to approximate it. The great lesson of Mr. Laski’s book is in its implication that we do not have a sovereign state until we make one. Political theory will not _create_ sovereignty, acts of Parliament cannot _confer_ sovereignty, only living the life will turn us, subjects indeed at present, into kings of our own destiny.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01195", "bookId": 73755, "start": 562622, "end": 562886, "sha256": "92e22302af6f4ce177a1b329b8ccb27beaef7fa4fb39817183385128d2919ac6", "text": "Moreover, recently some of the pluralists are beginning to use the phrase coöperative sovereignty[134] which seems happily to be taking them away from their earlier “strung-along” sovereignty. If they press along this path, we shall all be eager to follow.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01196", "bookId": 73755, "start": 562890, "end": 563457, "sha256": "9d1c93eac72d6fff2ddcc4c01a6b40c0408e15e01058e33b13c8cdd9a9105422", "text": "Secondly, they recognize the value of the group and they see that the variety of our group life to-day has a significance which must be immediately reckoned with in political method. Moreover they repudiate the idea that the groups are given authority by the state. An able political writer recently said, “All other societies rest on the authority given by the state. The state itself stands self-sufficient, self-directing....” It is this school of thought which the pluralists are combating and thereby rendering invaluable service to political theory.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01197", "bookId": 73755, "start": 563461, "end": 564484, "sha256": "c4d40ba8323b8a5ce71e7936b182c33603bfccd83b144e5916029a250b8f7e4f", "text": "Third, and directly connected with the last point, they plead for a revivification of local life. It is interesting to note that the necessity of this is recognized both by those who think the state has failed and by those who wish to increase the power of the state. To the former, the group is to be the substitute for the repudiated state. As for the latter, the Fabians have long felt that local units should be vitalized and educated and interested, for they thought that socialism would begin with the city and other local units. Neighborhood education and neighborhood organization is then the pressing problem of 1918. All those who are looking towards a real democracy, not the pretence of one which we have now, feel that the most imminent of our needs is the awakening and invigorating, the educating and organizing of the local unit. All those who in the humblest way, in settlement or community centre, are working for this, are working at the greatest political problem of the twentieth century.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01198", "bookId": 73755, "start": 564488, "end": 564766, "sha256": "1671ba1496e96fc429775ac199f379c7f71cf90590af7cabfe5d000295d6a9a5", "text": "In the fourth place the pluralists see that the interest of the state is not now always identical with the interests of its parts. It is to the interest of England to win this war, they say, but England has yet to prove that it is also for the interest of her working people.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01199", "bookId": 73755, "start": 564770, "end": 565393, "sha256": "8345516624f0bbdc464c4edd78e49f8aad1d079e8fab945aa50253c933c0227b", "text": "In the fifth place, we may hail the group school as the beginning of the disappearance of the crowd. Many people advocate vocational representation because they see in it a method of getting away from our present crowd rule, what they call numerical representation. They see our present voters hypnotized by their leaders and manipulated by “interests,” and propose the occupational group as a substitute for the crowd. New political experiments must indeed be along this line. We must guard only (1) that the “group” itself shall not be a crowd, (2) that the union of groups shall not be a numerical union.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01200", "bookId": 73755, "start": 565397, "end": 566625, "sha256": "30c8161fe9c9194f882a401782c5bade2b8c6f9edaf3638a33e4cf6c5c616e5f", "text": "Finally, this new school contains the prophecy of the future because it has with keenest insight seized upon the problem of identity, of association, of federalism,[135] as the central problem of politics as it is the central problem of life. The force of the pluralist school is that it is not academic; it is considering a question which every thoughtful person is asking himself. We are faced to-day with a variety of group interests, with many objects demanding our enthusiasm and devotion; our duty itself shines, not a single light showing a single path, but shedding a larger radiance on a life which is most gloriously not a path at all. Shall Boston or Washington hold me, my family, my church, my union? With the complexity of interests increasing every day on the outside, inside with the power of the soul to “belong” expanding every day (the English and the French flags stir us hardly less than the American now), with the psychologists talking of pluralism and the political scientists of multiple sovereignty, with all this yet the soul of man seeks unity in obedience to his essential nature. How is this to be obtained? Social evolution is in the hands of those who can solve this problem.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01201", "bookId": 73755, "start": 566629, "end": 567788, "sha256": "6478657ff8fe9d3dbf7d719cdef580a3cc16ca92bd60ac4a60a30aa599162f79", "text": "What is the law of politics that corresponds in importance to the law of gravitation in the physical world? It is the law of interpenetration and of multiples. I am the multiple man and the multiple man is the germ of the unified state. If I live fully I become so enriched by the manifold sides of life that I cannot be narrowed down to mere corporation or church or trade-union or any other special group. The miracle of spirit is that it can give itself utterly to all these things and yet remain unimpaired, unexhausted, undivided. I am not a serial story to be read only in the different instalments of my different groups. We do not give a part to one group and a part to another, but we give our whole to each and the whole remains for every other relation. Life escapes its classifications and this is what some of the writers on group organization do not seem to understand. This secret of the spirit is the power of the federal principle. True federation multiplies each individual. We have thought that federal government consisted of mechanical, artificial, external forms, but really it is the spirit which liveth and giveth life.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01202", "bookId": 73755, "start": 567792, "end": 568578, "sha256": "7210cce9f97b2abc15ee27d38311fa8919e678456d78ccadc463b26d49f0e2ec", "text": "Let the pluralists accept this principle and they will no longer tell us that they are torn by a divided allegiance. Let them carry their pragmatism a step further and they will see that it is only by actual living that we can understand an undivided allegiance. James tells us that “Reality falls in passing into conceptual analysis; it mounts in living its own undivided life—it buds and bourgeons, changes and creates.” This is the way we must understand an undivided allegiance. I live forever the undivided life. As an individual I am the undivided one, as the group-I, I am again the undivided one, as the state-I, I am the undivided one—I am always and forever the undivided one, mounting from height to height, always mounting, always the whole of me mounting.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01203", "bookId": 73755, "start": 568582, "end": 568587, "sha256": "73be087e93080f9e436892b7d182df66394bc79dbf5df119d9357df61b1ebbfb", "text": "-----", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01204", "bookId": 73755, "start": 568591, "end": 568604, "sha256": "251beb1cd8d0a440e14af98e9c34457a42a2658b8b214a60d41d57c1a092681f", "text": "Footnote 133:", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01205", "bookId": 73755, "start": 568610, "end": 568626, "sha256": "cf2d6552051f1cb93c0d1dd7e56bcac7eeae33a81941b4dea290bdfac186f6a3", "text": "See p. 39, note.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01206", "bookId": 73755, "start": 568630, "end": 568643, "sha256": "f2b7105271713b1525ff725344aac4de8aa052a811d6435fdd28be238138b54a", "text": "Footnote 134:", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01207", "bookId": 73755, "start": 568649, "end": 568668, "sha256": "5ff412ccc1ac584901f86a42965eab97bc597733357d16c1fb1cfb3becf75a15", "text": "Mr. Laski, I think.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01208", "bookId": 73755, "start": 568672, "end": 568685, "sha256": "fdfc4e79253b68f6be92e0de8a88888490a44561dc5f9272bf237d6ee501f81d", "text": "Footnote 135:", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01209", "bookId": 73755, "start": 568691, "end": 568847, "sha256": "2a20f1b5dccfe81f9f43238852f01d4b55d758d6980b08c5725e146624eedd7b", "text": "It does not matter in the terms of which branch of study you express it—philosophy, sociology, or political science—it is always the same problem.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01210", "bookId": 73755, "start": 568851, "end": 568923, "sha256": "5be59d365acb8d35446f682c6d314fffd5db5846ab8c6eb021e6bacd98a82aa0", "text": "------------------------------------------------------------------------", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01211", "bookId": 73755, "start": 568966, "end": 568972, "sha256": "1ad0ddc322be914c9022687d43cebe227a160293a00452d8b5ecf189da71ae9b", "text": "XXXIII", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01212", "bookId": 73755, "start": 568988, "end": 569036, "sha256": "101a468fcfcfffa5819a754ac49125c3e17408eef83ba834fdbf56703b229422", "text": "INCREASING RECOGNITION OF THE OCCUPATIONAL GROUP", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01213", "bookId": 73755, "start": 569069, "end": 569083, "sha256": "cb963f8b7dd4be2e8d413c437052b98afad284e3de40cd420bdd246302a111ad", "text": "--------------", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01214", "bookId": 73755, "start": 569089, "end": 569814, "sha256": "dc7c2d0e9e370aec7f004c746bddc7efd808e1d0195cbb73efa42177105fb078", "text": "FROM the confessedly embryonic stage of thinking in which the movement for group organization still is, two principal questions have emerged: (1) shall the groups form a pluralistic or a unifying state, (2) shall the economic group be the sole basis of representation? The first question I have tried to answer, the second offers greater difficulties with our present amount of experience. Men often discuss the occupational vs. the neighborhood group on the pivotal question—which of these is nearest a man? Benoist’s plea for the occupational group was that politics must represent _la vie_. But, agreed as to that, we still question whether the occupational group is the most complete embodiment of _la vie_.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01215", "bookId": 73755, "start": 569818, "end": 571834, "sha256": "989e9c9cf82edda6d335fa6f91b65aab50cc91bcb7120560efe8a786758deb2b", "text": "It is not, however, necessary to balance the advantages of neighborhood and occupational group, for I am not proposing that the neighborhood group take the place of the occupational. We may perhaps come to wish for an integration of neighborhood and industrial groups—and other groups too as their importance and usefulness demand—as their “objective” value appears. In our neighborhood group we shall find that we can correct many partial points of view which we get from our more specialized groups. A director of a corporation will be more valuable to his state and even to his corporation if he is at the same time the member of a neighborhood group. It may be that we shall work out some machinery by which the neighborhood group can include the occupational group. All our functions must be expressed, but somewhere must come that coördination which will give them their real effectiveness. We are not yet ready to say what the machinery will be, only to recognize some of the principles which should guide us in constructing that machinery. The power of an individual is his power to live a vital group life. The more your society is diversified in group life, the higher the stage of civilization. Perhaps the destiny of the neighborhood group is to interpret and correlate, to give full significance and value to, all the spontaneous association which our increasingly fuller and more varied life is constantly creating. It may be that the neighborhood group is not so much to _include_ the others as to make each see its relation through every other to every other.[136] The possible solution, mentioned above, of the two houses of our legislatures and parliaments dividing neighborhood and occupational representation, seems a little crude now to our further analysis unless some practical integration is being worked out at the same time in the local unit. But all this must be a matter of experiment and experience, of patient trial and open-minded observation.[137]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01216", "bookId": 73755, "start": 571838, "end": 573557, "sha256": "a4f6d5ab1a7d8b3ad5163d0107e54a6bcd62ff1099a725820ceccf78461af368", "text": "The salient fact, however, is that neighborhood and occupational groups, either independently or one through the other, must both find representation in the state. But we must remember that it is industry which must be included in the state, not labor, but labor and capital. This war certainly shows us the importance of the great organizations of industry. Let them be integrated openly with the state on the side of their public service, rather than allow a back-stairs connection on the side of their “interests.” And let them be integrated in such manner that labor itself is at last included in our political organization. This will not be easy; as a matter of fact we have no more difficult, as we have no more important, problem before us than the relation within the state of one powerful organized body to another and of these bodies to the state. The average American is against the growth of corporate bodies. But this prejudice must go: we need strong corporate bodies not to compete with the state but to minister to the state. Individualism and concentrated authority have been struggling for supremacy with us since the beginning of our government. From the beginning of our government we have been seeking the synthesis of the two. That synthesis is to be found in the recognition of organized groups, but not, I believe, by taking away power from the state and giving to the group. Some of the pluralists, in their reaction to the present fear of powerful groups, advocate that groups should be given more and more power. I agree with them so far, but their implication is that we shall thereby have shorn the Samson locks of the state. This I do not believe we want to do.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01217", "bookId": 73755, "start": 573561, "end": 574386, "sha256": "5f5fdd750ea9c0f93b387fca11eec5089ab72f6775f8b2bae06d9a4facc1a17d", "text": "Every one sees the necessity to-day of the increase of state control as a war measure, but some tell us that we should guard against its dangers by giving to certain organizations within the state enough power to “balance” the state. I insist that balance can never be the aim of sound political method. We must first change our conception of the state—substitute the Service State for the Sovereign State—then methods must be devised within which such new conception can operate. We should, indeed, give more and more power to the groups, or rather, because we can never “give” power, we should recognize all the power which springs up spontaneously within the state, and seek merely those methods by which that self-generating power shall tend immediately to become part of the strength of the state.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01218", "bookId": 73755, "start": 574390, "end": 575372, "sha256": "51be207fbca648fb7de602d200940f24a4ded544ec1d9ec5ccc8a78a549074f5", "text": "How absurd our logic has been. We knew that it took strong men to make a strong state; we did not realize that those groups which represent the whole industry and business of the country need not be rivals of the state, but must be made to contribute to the state, must be the means by which the state becomes great and powerful at the same time that it uses that power for the well-being and growth of all. Our timidity has been but the reflection of our ignorance. A larger understanding is what we need to-day. There is no need to condemn the state, as do the pluralists; there is no need to condemn our great corporate bodies, as do their opponents. But full of distrust we shall surely be, on one side or the other, until we come truly to understand a state and to create a state which ministers continuously to its parts, while its parts from hour to hour serve only the enhancement of its life, and through it, the enhancement of the life of its humblest member.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01219", "bookId": 73755, "start": 575376, "end": 575802, "sha256": "3ea1cae1f863c41fbfcc35c0bf4bb7dd4c38ad366e834aeb808b87f7fcc61050", "text": "The tendency to which we have long been subject, to do away with everything which stood between man and the state, must go, but that does not mean that we must fly to the other extreme and do away with either the individual or the state. One of the chief weaknesses of political pluralism is that it has so many of the earmarks of a reaction—the truth is that we have groups _and_ man _and_ the state, all to deal with.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01220", "bookId": 73755, "start": 575806, "end": 576699, "sha256": "7761a5342e70c7c6c3d7404f9c97e62d0f90ffe06cb901fc649f2dfbce9e36a5", "text": "Neighborhood groups, economic groups, unifying groups, these have been my themes, and yet the point which I wish to emphasize is not the kind of group, but that the group whatever its nature shall be a genuine group, that we can have no genuine state at all which does not rest on genuine groups. Few trade-unionists in demanding that their organization shall be the basis of the new state examine that organization to see what right it has to make this demand. Most trade-unionists are satisfied in their own organizations with a centralized government or an outworn representative system. Labor can never have its full share in the control of industry until it has learnt the secrets of the group process. Collective bargaining must first be the result of a genuine collective will before it can successfully pass on to directorate representation, to complete joint control.[138]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01221", "bookId": 73755, "start": 576703, "end": 577935, "sha256": "dcca9be8380890bd8842882804c9ad58b72435e7ce51c21687435fcf27b5dd5b", "text": "It is significant that the guild socialists, in considering how acrimonious disputes between guilds are to be avoided, say that “the labor and brains of each Guild naturally [will evolve] a hierarchy to which large issues of industrial policy might with confidence be referred,” and “at the back of this hierarchy and finally dominating it, is the Guild democracy....” But then guild socialism is to have no different psychological basis from our present system. This is exactly what we rely on now so patiently, so unsuccessfully—the lead of the few, the following of the crowd, with the fiction that, as our government is based on numbers, the crowd can always have what it wants; therefore, at any moment what we have is what we have chosen—Tammany rule for instance. We need a new method: the group process must be applied to industrial groups as well as to neighborhood groups, to business groups, to professional societies—to every form of human association. If the labor question is to be solved by a system of economic control based on economic representation instead of upon vital modes of association, “industrial democracy” will fail exactly as so-called political democracy has failed.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01222", "bookId": 73755, "start": 577939, "end": 578737, "sha256": "438459056af3a7803a84c75d91df5587cd1ae8503516ec41a07f55db70e938da", "text": "Perhaps this warning is particularly necessary at the present moment because “group” control of industry seems imminent. Through the pressure of the war guild socialism has made practical as well as theoretical headway in England. There are two movements going on side by side, both due it is true to the emergency of war, but neither of which will be wholly lost when the war is over; it is the opinion of many, on the contrary, that these movements are destined to shape a new state for England. First, the government has assumed a certain amount of control over munition plants, railroads, mines, breweries, flour mills and factories of various kinds, and it has undertaken the regulation of wages and prices, control of markets and food consumption, taxation of profits etc.[139]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01223", "bookId": 73755, "start": 578741, "end": 579601, "sha256": "8ddc7307eb13a59e02ce8d7016e8d73c709f6e7c4ea5a9ce20235d6e35fe2507", "text": "Secondly, at the same time that the state is assuming a larger control of industry, it is inviting the workmen themselves to take part in the control of industry. “The Whitley Report, adopted by the Reconstruction Committee of the Cabinet, proposes not only a Joint Standing Industrial Council for each great national industry, for the regular consideration of matters affecting the progress and well-being of the trade, but District Councils and Works Committees within each business upon which capital and labor shall be equally represented.” These bodies will take up “questions of standard wages, hours, overtime, apprenticeship, shop discipline, ... technical training, industrial research and invention, the adoption of improved machinery and processes, and all those matters which are included under ‘scientific management.’”[140]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01224", "bookId": 73755, "start": 579605, "end": 580045, "sha256": "e8fa78116d8df1d426ec2b6c9dbcfe8a2dec1f81046131187f8d61b17ed30617", "text": "This is a step which goes far beyond arbitration and conciliation boards. It gives to labor a positive share in the control of industry. “Although it is not at present proposed to give any legal recognition to this new machinery of economic government or any legal enforcement of its decision, ... it may reasonably be expected that [these national industrial councils] will soon become the effective legislature of the industry.”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01225", "bookId": 73755, "start": 580049, "end": 580575, "sha256": "0c589e144af0c7ef38a427719d8ff711ec531a2b565d81830d7f2b74a8cc53fa", "text": "Most noteworthy is the general acceptance of this plan. “All classes appear to be willing and even anxious to apply the principle of representative self-government not only to the conduct of the great trades but to their constituent businesses.” Undoubtedly the English laborer has an increasing fear of bureaucracy and this is turning him from state socialism: his practical experience during the war of “tyrannical” bureaucracy in the government controlled industries has lost state socialism many supporters.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01226", "bookId": 73755, "start": 580579, "end": 581401, "sha256": "b8c44c6ac63beb154cfd27dc54d5d8d11abb4f4980a58733610cfd07f86db3a3", "text": "The establishment of the Standing Industrial Councils is a step towards guild socialism although (1) the determination of lines of production, the buying and selling processes, questions of finance, everything in fact outside shop-management, is at present left to the employers, and (2) the capitalist is left in possession of his capital. But this movement taken together with the one mentioned above, that is, the trend towards state-ownership or joint ownership or partial control, has large significance: the state to own the means of production, the producers to control the conditions of production, seems like the next step in industrial development, in government form,—the fact that these two go together, that government form is to follow industrial development, gives us large hope for the future.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01227", "bookId": 73755, "start": 581405, "end": 581674, "sha256": "7d34eee9be2716e476b54ed9bc03d57182cf2dfc97d0d728c47a9da234d5ee00", "text": "The British Labor Party in 1917 formulated a careful plan for reorganization with a declared object of common ownership of means of production and “a steadily increasing participation of the organized workers in the management.”[141] This wording is significant.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01228", "bookId": 73755, "start": 581678, "end": 582648, "sha256": "59f979cd642c04221e2233ca36704ab610e1cf87e9386692f303651368003196", "text": "In America also the pressure of war has led to the recognition of labor in the control of industry. Adjustment boards containing labor representatives have been required of almost all private employers signing contracts with the War and Navy Departments.[142] The policy of the administration is to recognize collective bargaining. And the President’s Mediation Commission, which imposed collective agreements on the copper industry of Arizona, stated in its official report, “The leaders of industry must ... [enable] labor to take its place as a coöperator in the industrial enterprise.” Moreover, the workman is gaining recognition not only in the management of the industry in which he is engaged, but also at Washington. On most of the important government boards which deal with matters affecting labor, labor is represented. The work of the War Labor Board and the War Labor Policies Board mark our advance in the treatment of labor questions.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01229", "bookId": 73755, "start": 582652, "end": 582986, "sha256": "5b8c8096aaf05a293fb93241fa3f9bd9033266dad4c57e0bb03ff0fcecbfad4b", "text": "The “National Party,” inaugurated in Chicago in October, 1917, composed largely of socialists, had for one plank in its platform, “The chief industries should be controlled by administrative boards upon which the workers, the managers and the government should all be represented.” Thus the old state socialism is passing.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01230", "bookId": 73755, "start": 582990, "end": 583673, "sha256": "1b54fb044933a8fa715583edaf4ffe2e0252a29601c999f89ae511eff00116de", "text": "In France long before the war we see the beginnings of syndicalism in the steps taken to give to the actual teaching force of universities a share in the administration of the department of education. In 1896–1897 university councils were established, composed of deans and two delegates elected by each university faculty. While these councils are under ministerial control, this is hailed as the beginning of functionarist decentralization in France. In 1910 was organized the representation of all the personnel of the service of post, telephone and telegraph in regional and central councils of discipline, and also advisory representation to the heads of the service.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01231", "bookId": 73755, "start": 583677, "end": 584103, "sha256": "e582c20dd4accc6ba8bff7cde7f5aa1b219e924f0db79991905df3ae312bd3ed", "text": "The best part of syndicalism is its recognition that every department of our life must be controlled by those who know most about that department, by those who have most to do with that department. Teachers should share both in the legislation and the administration affecting education. Factory laws should not be made by a Parliament in which factory managers and employees are not, or are only partially, represented.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01232", "bookId": 73755, "start": 584107, "end": 584595, "sha256": "e71ed9a19d524392842f9192e1ede01626f3598700eee7320afb985cb09fc6e6", "text": "One movement toward syndicalism we see everywhere: the forming of professional groups—commercial, literary, scientific, artistic—is as marked as the forming of industrial groups. Any analysis of society to-day must study its groupings faithfully. We are told too that in France these professional groups are beginning to have political power, as was seen in several large towns in the municipal elections before the war. Similar instances are not wanting in England and America.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01233", "bookId": 73755, "start": 584599, "end": 585013, "sha256": "7023b9e2dbe7effc0e766e9b90a2b157897c00e2e5c314e35afdcf9c55e3e350", "text": "In Germany there are three strong “interest” organizations which have a large influence on politics: the “Landlords’ League” which represents the conservatives, the “Social Democrats” who represent labor, and the “Hanseatic League for Manufactures, Trade and Industry” founded in 1909 with the express object of bringing forward its members as candidates for the Reichstag and Landtags.[143]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01234", "bookId": 73755, "start": 585017, "end": 586015, "sha256": "961f066e45a072f06d541120542c6667d7130d72968146c11b48f3f9115ef0cc", "text": "We have an interesting instance in the United States of political organization on occupational lines from which we may learn much—I refer to the Nonpartisan league of North Dakota composed of farmers which, inaugurated in 1915, in 1916–7 carried the state elections of North Dakota, electing a farmer-governor, and putting their candidates in three of the supreme court judgeships, and gaining 105 out of the 138 seats in the state legislature. The first object of the league was the redress of economic injustice suffered by the farmer. They saw that this must be done through concerted control of the political machinery. Of the legislation they wished, they secured: (1) a new office of State Inspector of Grains, Weights and Measures, (2) partial exemption of farm improvements from taxation, (3) a new coöperative corporation law, and (4) a law to prevent railroads from discriminating, in supplying freight-cars, against elevators owned by farmers’ coöperative societies.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01235", "bookId": 73755, "start": 586019, "end": 586492, "sha256": "a739d62f48449e1a73489e73bb001595997abe8c1106982cdfe28b19e31b417b", "text": "In 1917 a Farmers’ Nonpartisan League of the state of New York was organized. In September, 1917, the North Dakota League became the “National Nonpartisan League,” the organization spreading to several of the neighboring states: Minnesota, South Dakota, Idaho, Montana, etc. At the North Dakota state primaries held in the summer of 1918, nearly all the League’s candidates were nominated, thus insuring the continuance of its control of the state government.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01236", "bookId": 73755, "start": 586496, "end": 586796, "sha256": "7b8edc140d69431c7b245f3798fdc5b6bc479b607ab6c6fd8f4ed77fa870cc93", "text": "In Denmark we are told the battle rages between the agrarian party and the labor party. More and more the struggle in Parliamentary countries is becoming a struggle between interests rather than between parties based on abstract principles. This must be fully taken into account in the new state.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01237", "bookId": 73755, "start": 586800, "end": 587545, "sha256": "cb944d8c951a5b9f821f238a33829ad28038e00ae43bb497f50554d878db75fc", "text": "The hoped-for relation of industry to the state might be summed up thus: we want a state which shall include industry without on the one hand abdicating to industry, or on the other controlling industry bureaucratically. The present plans for guild socialism or syndicate control, while they point to a possible future development, and while they may be a step on the way, as a scheme of political organization have many weak points. Such experiments as the Industrial Councils of England are interesting, but until further technique is worked out we shall find that individual selfishness merely gives way to group selfishness. From such experiments we shall learn much, but the new ship of state cannot ride on such turbulent waters.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01238", "bookId": 73755, "start": 587549, "end": 588209, "sha256": "a5346b1141b5e715a693092c9e95f243b47e1097ba854d0531b35cf72fdd0536", "text": "The part labor will take in the new state depends now largely upon labor itself. Labor must see that it cannot reiterate its old cries, that it need no longer demand “rights.” It is a question of a new conception of the state and labor seeing its place within it. For a new state is coming—we cannot be blind to the signs on every side, we cannot be deaf to the voices within. Labor needs leaders to-day who are alive not to the needs of labor, but to the needs of the whole state: then it will be seen as a corollary how labor fits in, what the state needs from labor, what labor needs from the state, what part labor is to have _in_ the state.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01239", "bookId": 73755, "start": 588213, "end": 588218, "sha256": "73be087e93080f9e436892b7d182df66394bc79dbf5df119d9357df61b1ebbfb", "text": "-----", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01240", "bookId": 73755, "start": 588222, "end": 588235, "sha256": "a91f795712258cea8dfdb436133af959b81235d233be9d3ef828e8794119b93c", "text": "Footnote 136:", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01241", "bookId": 73755, "start": 588241, "end": 588259, "sha256": "ed1f42d588b1d1bc88ecf401d564495f02cf3bde1200d5eaf09514f26678cf3d", "text": "See pp. 199–201.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01242", "bookId": 73755, "start": 588263, "end": 588276, "sha256": "45fa38fb5407f327863c69018b26ef3db8a4645a0eae15a0d835b4445286fda1", "text": "Footnote 137:", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01243", "bookId": 73755, "start": 588282, "end": 588594, "sha256": "3a5a86f2ab852c6d8faa1849d1f498177c706057a2ff399242354b09269738de", "text": "Some writers talk of trade representation vs. party organization as if in the trade group you are rid of party. Have they studied the politics of trade unionism? In neither the trade group nor the neighborhood group do you automatically get rid of the party spirit. That will be a slow growth indeed.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01244", "bookId": 73755, "start": 588598, "end": 588611, "sha256": "de45474e40b59376af64dce92d435532a99f50f6015b8b8949b4500c75cc77f4", "text": "Footnote 138:", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01245", "bookId": 73755, "start": 588617, "end": 589272, "sha256": "2cfb6832652517a919d674eb96085ba4c4792183818c727cb1d98c344bde9a32", "text": "Yet perhaps the trade-union has been one of the truest groups, one of the most effective teachers of genuine group lessons which we have yet seen. Increased wages, improved conditions, are always for the group. The trade-unionist feels group-wants; he seeks to satisfy these through group action. Moreover the terms of a collective bargain cannot be enforced without a certain amount of group solidarity. In strikes workmen often sacrifice their own interests for what will benefit the union: the individual—I may prefer his present wages to the privations of a strike; the group-I wants to raise the wages of the whole union.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01246", "bookId": 73755, "start": 589276, "end": 589289, "sha256": "d911cac04bad4fdeffc42e628f163065e3bdcede2fdb6f6dbad4ed4c3a96e7f8", "text": "Footnote 139:", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01247", "bookId": 73755, "start": 589295, "end": 589481, "sha256": "b8a856fe7b41dba5e2d697764c4a27d40b633f4caaf8bdf14dfeaa63fb8a2ea7", "text": "I have not in this brief statement distinguished between government “ownership,” “control,” “regulation,” etc. See “War-Time Control of Industry” by Howard L. Gray.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01248", "bookId": 73755, "start": 589485, "end": 589498, "sha256": "a0a885fe3cc678e6ce1dd1f83d733acb880f711181272b0d424e019061c558e9", "text": "Footnote 140:", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01249", "bookId": 73755, "start": 589504, "end": 589613, "sha256": "78dadbb78cd0fb11bb784eb3e210d42f85f1734b7fe3721f370be9acdd218b3c", "text": "“Representative Government in British Industry” by J. A. Hobson, in _New Republic_, September 1, 1917.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01250", "bookId": 73755, "start": 589617, "end": 589630, "sha256": "2caf83ac16b40e1cf007dab8014b896b856d783c29580c3bb08402ec495255a8", "text": "Footnote 141:", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01251", "bookId": 73755, "start": 589636, "end": 589647, "sha256": "f0abd8d891a29f42a19ad33d08637777c4faed5be3cf4de8f16a3e7ac90044ee", "text": "See p. 120.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01252", "bookId": 73755, "start": 589651, "end": 589664, "sha256": "d6e52c350181f3f9adb82a519fe5e3925af19ad252d1e91f9347fd614395ee69", "text": "Footnote 142:", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01253", "bookId": 73755, "start": 589670, "end": 589897, "sha256": "7a49957d65c805bed58fdc59a1df8dcf0a16b51ba9de24513a72434a3a2de01c", "text": "Following the precedent of England which provided, under the Munitions of War act and other legislation, machinery (joint boards representing employers and employed) for the prevention and adjustment of labor disputes.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01254", "bookId": 73755, "start": 589901, "end": 589914, "sha256": "c9f3db5f804d9482627344945e600aa42d33cd1ed72fe6b3fbf61765bec9c8d6", "text": "Footnote 143:", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01255", "bookId": 73755, "start": 589920, "end": 589975, "sha256": "ea8706f62f684e4001541f9556bedd9878aad8b9d9bef9e76cf0f91c20c8997f", "text": "Christensen, “Politics and Crowd Morality,” p. 238.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01256", "bookId": 73755, "start": 589979, "end": 590051, "sha256": "5be59d365acb8d35446f682c6d314fffd5db5846ab8c6eb021e6bacd98a82aa0", "text": "------------------------------------------------------------------------", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01257", "bookId": 73755, "start": 590093, "end": 590100, "sha256": "caa911f88aec76677aef6adc5ee661fcaaed816ba4a511fd3b93fd590f35f17a", "text": "PART IV", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01258", "bookId": 73755, "start": 590125, "end": 590154, "sha256": "5d81a8ce94ff6a7a50c4c001a79a592c5087a1156913be4e7604d264c1806b6f", "text": "THE DUAL ASPECT OF THE GROUP:", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01259", "bookId": 73755, "start": 590166, "end": 590221, "sha256": "adbb6abf25367c380feb7552e325c8d1b70679469f3ad056a08232c250d67644", "text": "A UNION OF INDIVIDUALS, AN INDIVIDUAL IN A LARGER UNION", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01260", "bookId": 73755, "start": 590231, "end": 590303, "sha256": "5be59d365acb8d35446f682c6d314fffd5db5846ab8c6eb021e6bacd98a82aa0", "text": "------------------------------------------------------------------------", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01261", "bookId": 73755, "start": 590346, "end": 590351, "sha256": "08282b2008f87c38bf61bfa4d54840b1c6e5b9f373e13bf02ad2e9d241a13844", "text": "XXXIV", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01262", "bookId": 73755, "start": 590371, "end": 590411, "sha256": "ab8c64ef7727c1b5ebc8cf8d72e3cd4e7a8aa3eba933045b20ce280751dc1e02", "text": "THE MORAL STATE AND CREATIVE CITIZENSHIP", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01263", "bookId": 73755, "start": 590444, "end": 590458, "sha256": "cb963f8b7dd4be2e8d413c437052b98afad284e3de40cd420bdd246302a111ad", "text": "--------------", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01264", "bookId": 73755, "start": 590464, "end": 591330, "sha256": "fd88fda0eaf5c7ec0e21eaa030f9ecb129ef02a174858cacaa715597f8c0986f", "text": "WE see now that the state as the appearance of the federal principle must be more than a coördinating agency. It must appear as the great moral leader. Its supreme function is moral ordering. What is morality? The fulfilment of relation by man to man, since it is impossible to conceive an isolated man: the father and mother appear in our mind and with the three the whole infinite series. The state is the ordering of this infinite series into their right relations that the greatest possible welfare of the total may be worked out. This ordering of relations is morality in its essence and completeness. The state must gather up into itself all the moral power of its day, and more than this, as our relations are widening constantly it must be the explorer which discovers the kind of ordering, the kind of grouping, which best expresses its intent.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01265", "bookId": 73755, "start": 591334, "end": 591727, "sha256": "3ce1153db38cacd90be545aa2e1fa7aca5408f62d0865131739b15cc922cb851", "text": "But “things are rotten in Denmark.” The world is at present a moral bankrupt, for nations are immoral and men worship their nations. We have for centuries been thinking out the morals of individuals. The morality of the state must now have equal consideration. We spring to that duty to-day. We have the ten commandments for the individual; we want the ten commandments for the state.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01266", "bookId": 73755, "start": 591731, "end": 591786, "sha256": "bdebf107519db0eb03ca6b95c503db35062b2fed002f1e7bf90e3062f3a087e3", "text": "How is the state to gain moral and spiritual authority?", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01267", "bookId": 73755, "start": 591790, "end": 592666, "sha256": "7cfc13b39cbe90377211ae91aff6794baa7a04013b510a90299d4b86f9a7be01", "text": "Only through its citizens in their growing understanding of the widening promise of relation. The neighborhood group feeds the imagination because we have daily to consider the wants of all in order to make a synthesis of those wants; we have to recognize the rights of others and adapt ourselves to them. Men must recognize and unify difference and then the moral law appears in all its majesty in concrete form. This is the universal striving. This is the trend of all nature—the harmonious unifying of all. The call of the moral law is constantly to recognize this. Our neighborhood group gives us preëminently the opportunity for moral training, the associated groups continue it, the goal, the infinite goal, the emergence of the all-inclusive state which is the visible appearance of the total relativity of man in all right connections and articulations.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01268", "bookId": 73755, "start": 592670, "end": 594141, "sha256": "421d44b0ac56ba75657ff20f8f64ed160578ef856b2de67654391af0357ab4c0", "text": "The state accumulates moral power only through the spiritual activity of its citizens. There is no state except through me. James’ deep-seated antagonism to the idealists is because of their assertion that the absolute is, always has been and always will be. The contribution of pragmatism is that we must work out the absolute. You are drugging yourselves, cries James, the absolute is real as far as you make it real, as far as you bring forth in tangible, concrete form all its potentialities. In the same way we have no state until we make one. This is the teaching of the new psychology. We have not to “postulate” all sorts of things as the philosophers do (“organic actuality of the moral order” etc.), we have to _live_ it; if we can make a moral whole then we shall know whether or not there is one. We cannot become the state imaginatively, but only actually through our group relations. Stamped with the image of All-State-potentiality we must be forever making the state. We are pragmatists in politics as the new school of philosophy is in religion: just as they say that we are one with God not by prayer and communion alone, but by doing the God-deed every moment, so we are one with the state by actualizing the latent state at every instant of our lives. As God appears only through us, so is the state made visible through the political man. We must gird up our loins, we must light our lamp and set forth, we must _do_ it.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01269", "bookId": 73755, "start": 594145, "end": 595480, "sha256": "3d08633615f8f4b2180f753a8b2b40684fbc8ad8b1b10e7224f19dba6c139bcf", "text": "The federal state can be the moral state only through its being built anew from hour to hour by the activity of all its members. We have had within our memory three ideas of the individual’s relation to society: the individual as deserving “rights” _from_ society, next with a duty _to_ society, and now the idea of the individual as an activity _of_ society. Our relation to society is so close that there is no room for either rights or duties. This means a new ethics and a new politics. Citizenship is not a right nor a privilege nor a duty, but an activity to be exercised every moment of the time. Democracy does not exist unless each man is doing his part fully every minute, unless every one is taking his share in building the state-to-be. This is the trumpet call to men to-day. A creative citizenship must be made the force of American political life, a trained, responsible citizenship always in control creating always its own life. In most of the writing on American politics we find the demand for a “creative statesmanship” as the most pressing need of America to-day. It is indeed true that with so much crystallized conservatism and chaotic radicalism we need leadership and a constructive leadership, but the doctrine of true democracy is that every man is and must be a creative citizen.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01270", "bookId": 73755, "start": 595484, "end": 596288, "sha256": "242e4932704ff425091e4faad2c45b99f95f4ab14b0895f07a74fe8756e431bc", "text": "We are now awaking to this need. In the past the American conception of government has been a machine-made not a man-made thing. We have wanted a perfect machine which could be set going like an international exhibition by pressing the button, but who is going to press the button? We have talked about the public without thinking that we were the public, of public opinion as something quite distinct from any opinion of our own. It is partly because men have not wanted the trouble of governing themselves that they have put all their faith in “good” officials and “good” charters. “I hate this school, I wish it would burn up,” wrote a boy home, “there’s too much old self-government about it, you can’t have any fun.” Many of us have not wanted that kind of government.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01271", "bookId": 73755, "start": 596292, "end": 597283, "sha256": "385bb216358cf6268ed6935ed2291ce994591d36268d7338d6895a0c266e8892", "text": "The idea of the state as a collection of units has fatally misled us in regard to our duty as citizens. A man often thinks of his share in the collective responsibility for Boston as a 1/500,000 part of the whole responsibility. This is too small a part to interest him, and therefore he often disregards such an infinitesimal duty altogether. Of course we tell him about little drops of water, little grains of sand etc., but hitherto such eloquence has produced little effect. This is because it is untrue. We must somehow make it clear that the part of every man in a great city is not analogous to the grain of sand in the desert, it is not a 1/500,000 part of the whole duty. It is a part so bound up with every other part that no fraction of a whole can represent it. It is like the key of a piano, the value of which is not in its being 1/56 of all the notes, but in its infinite relations to all the other notes. If that note is lacking every other note loses its value.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01272", "bookId": 73755, "start": 597287, "end": 598433, "sha256": "9b74f3f63d950d0ec2d63d63d79d219af602c0290699af95f9222b23c97f075c", "text": "Another twist in our ideas which has tended to reduce our sense of personal responsibility has been that we have often thought of democracy as a happy method by which all our particular limitations are lost sight of in the general strength. Matthew Arnold said, “Democracy is a force in which the concert of a great number of men makes up for the weakness of each man taken by himself.” But there is no mysterious value in people conceived of all together. A lot of ignorant or a lot of bad people do not acquire wisdom and virtue the moment we conceive them collectively. There is no alchemy by which the poornesses and weaknesses of the individual get transmuted in the group; there is no trick by which we can lose them in the whole. The truth is that all that the individual has or is enhances society, all that the individual lacks, detracts from society. The state will become a splendid thing when each one of us becomes a splendid individual. Democracy does not mean being lost in the mass, it means the contribution of every power I possess to social uses. The individual is not lost in the whole, he makes the whole.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01273", "bookId": 73755, "start": 598437, "end": 598838, "sha256": "b4f8229557cf782121aad6a0ac32365fec541a918e4fdb57740e65e2a710a834", "text": "A striking exception to the attitude of the average American in the matter of his personal responsibility was Mr. John Jay Chapman’s visit to Coatesville, Pennsylvania, to do penance for “that blot on American history”—the burning a negro to death in the public square of Coatesville—because he felt that “it was not the wickedness of Coatesville but the wickedness of all America.”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01274", "bookId": 73755, "start": 598842, "end": 599138, "sha256": "d777761c748183ed3ffbfcd532e9c64cff065db332fd7e12b182a9e55d8fe322", "text": "But there are signs to-day of a new spirit among us. We have begun to be restless under our present political forms: we are demanding that the machine give way to the man, we want a world of men governed by the will of men. What signs have we that we are now ready for a creative citizenship?", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01275", "bookId": 73755, "start": 599142, "end": 600122, "sha256": "f096ef1778f1245f5ff3590ebe46dd955187a115aeff1999aac171d58dfa6206", "text": "Every one is claiming to-day a share in the larger life of society. Each of us wants to pour forth in community use the life that we feel welling up within us. Citizens’ associations, civic clubs and forums are springing up every day in every part of the country. Men are seeking through direct government a closer share in law-making. The woman suffrage movement, the labor movement, are parts of this vital and irresistible current. They have not come from surface springs, their sources are deep in the life forces of our age. There is a more fundamental cause of our present unrest than the superficial ones given for the woman movement, or the selfish ones given for our labor troubles: it is not the “demand for justice” from women nor the “economic greed” of labor, but the desire for one’s place, for each to give his share, for each to control his own life—this is the underlying thought which is so profoundly moving both men and women to-day.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01276", "bookId": 73755, "start": 600126, "end": 601355, "sha256": "c4466aa7f08a0ca010e38a6a832c64568455ab5cc00ddce93984f6add659fc78", "text": "But a greater awakening has come since April, 1917. It has taken the ploughshare of fire to reveal our true selves: this war is running the furrows deep in the hearts of men and turning up desires of which they were unconscious themselves in their days of ease. Men are flocking to Washington at the sacrifice of business and personal interests willing to pour out their all for the great stake of democracy; the moment came when the possession of self-government was imperilled and all leapt forward ready to lay down their lives to preserve it. This war has revealed the deeper self with its deeper wishes to every man and he sees that he prizes beyond life the power to govern himself. Now is the moment to use all this rush of patriotism and devotion and love of liberty and willingness to serve, and not let it sink back again into its hidden and subterranean depths. Let us develop the kind of institutions which will call forth and utilize these powers and energies for peace as for war, for the works of peace are glorious if men can but see the goal. Let us make a fitting abiding place for men’s innate grandeur. Let us build high the walls of democracy and enlarge its courts for our daily dwelling.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01277", "bookId": 73755, "start": 601359, "end": 602455, "sha256": "c5e987ecadf8b119d1972ded5507a32ae9efc363eff3e7d819cca6142a10254c", "text": "Then must men understand that in peace as in war ours is to be a life of endeavor, of work, of conscious effort towards conscious ends. The ordinary man is not to do his work and then play a little in order to refresh himself, with the understanding that the world of industry and the government of his country are to be run by experts. They are to be run by him and he is to prepare himself to tackle his job. The leisure-time problem is not how the workman can have more time for play, it is how he can have more time for association, to take his share in the integrated thought and will and responsibility which is to make the new world. The “good citizen” is not he who obeys the laws, but he who has an active sense of being an integral part of the state. This is the essence and the basis of effective good citizenship. We are not part of a nation because we are living within its boundaries, because we feel in sympathy with it and have accepted its ideas, because we have become naturalized. We are part of a nation only in so far as we are helping to make that nation.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01278", "bookId": 73755, "start": 602459, "end": 603152, "sha256": "792635c08c598f4b618f9a97734c460dc86c4b62f3f37656980a48594c458b03", "text": "For this we must provide methods by which every man is enabled to take his part. We are no longer to put business and political affairs in the hands of one set of men and then appoint another set as watch-dogs over them, with the people at best a sort of chorus in the background, at the worst practically non-existent. But we are so to democratize our industrial and our political methods that all will have a share in policy and in responsibility. Exhortation to good citizenship is useless. We get good citizenship by creating those forms within which good citizenship can operate, by making it possible to acquire the habit of good citizenship by the practice of good citizenship.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01279", "bookId": 73755, "start": 603156, "end": 603917, "sha256": "01b781d6a68baa8fb35e8594ca62ed5b998dd53ecae84233236ecfc05315fe1c", "text": "The neighborhood group gives the best opportunity for the training and for the practice of citizenship. The leader of a neighborhood group should be able to help every one discover his greatest ability, he should see the stimulus to apply, the path of approach, that the constituents of his neighborhood should not merely serve, but should serve in exactly that way which will best fit themselves into the community’s needs. The system of war registration where men and women record what they are best able to do, might, through the medium of the neighborhood group, be applied to the whole country. The chief object of neighborhood organization is not to right wrongs, as is often supposed, but to found more firmly and build more widely the right.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01280", "bookId": 73755, "start": 603921, "end": 604660, "sha256": "518e14511d48490b8ef8d444ef3520686f2d9cf4545637f0cd5a94d04ff6e545", "text": "Moreover, neighborhood organization gives us a definite objective for individual responsibility. We cannot understand our duty or perform our duty unless it is a duty to _something_. It is because of the erroneous notion that the individual is related to “society” rather than to a group or groups that we can trace much of our lack of responsibility. A man trusts vaguely that he is doing his duty to “society,” but such vagueness gets him nowhere. There is no “society,” and therefore he often does no duty. But let him once understand that his duty is to his group—to his neighborhood group, to his industrial group—and he will begin to see his duty as a specific, concrete thing taking definite shape for him.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01281", "bookId": 73755, "start": 604664, "end": 606120, "sha256": "59b4075cb2964e2ec8816e8f755072caf5fe430a42c8382d6f0192af4a37d421", "text": "But my gospel is not for a moment of citizenship as a mere duty. We must bring to politics passion and joy. It is not through the cramping and stultification of desire that life is nobly lived, it is through seeing life in its fulness. We want to use the whole of man. You cannot put some of his energies on one side and some on the other and say some are good and some bad—all are good and should be put to good use. Men follow their passions and should do so, but they must purify their passions, educate them, discipline and direct them. We turn our impulses to wrong uses, but our impulses are not wrong. The forces of life should be used, not stifled. It is not corruption, dishonesty, we have to fight; it is ignorance, lack of insight, desires not transmuted. We want a state which will transmute the instincts of men into the energies of the nation. You cannot dam the stream entirely, you can only see that it flows so as to irrigate and fructify. It all comes down to our fear of men. If we could believe in men, if we could see that circle which unites human passion and divine achievement as a halo round the head of each human being, then social and political reorganization would no longer be a hope but a fact. The old individualism feared men; the corner-stone of the new individualism is faith in men. We need a constructive faith and a robust faith, faith in men, in this world, in this day, in the Here and the Now.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01282", "bookId": 73755, "start": 606124, "end": 606820, "sha256": "06ce74f9958aafd42b0de3ecae0b325a60315af3e16090172cef1c62f355157a", "text": "From the belief of savages in the spirits who ruled their fate to the “power outside ourselves that makes for righteousness,” through the weak man’s reliance on luck and the strong man’s reliance on his isolated individuality, we have had innumerable forms of the misunderstanding of responsibility. But all this is now changing. The distinguishing mark of our age is that we are coming to a keen sense of personal responsibility, that we are taking upon ourselves the blame for all our evils, the charge for all our progress. We are beginning to realize that the redemptive power is within the social bond, that we have creative evolution only through individual responsibility.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01283", "bookId": 73755, "start": 606824, "end": 607168, "sha256": "c9ef156ecff7c1d7b5e6f048f8f4b43d3f4d0120c0b7ee3315ccf2bcba51bb84", "text": "The old ways of thinking are breaking up. The New Life is before us. Are we ready? Are we making ourselves ready? A new man is needed for the New Life—a man who understands self-discipline, who understands training, who is willing to purge himself of his particularist desires, who is conscious of relations as the stuff of his existence.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01284", "bookId": 73755, "start": 607172, "end": 608769, "sha256": "b40582ab4ee9642ab93272507595dcbed5e52d14dd70f292453352e34f20e163", "text": "To sum up this chapter: the moral state is the task of man. This must be achieved through the creative power of man as brought into visibility and actuality through his group life. The great cosmic force in the womb of humanity is latent in the group as its creative energy; that it may appear the individual must do his duty every moment. We do not get the whole power of the group unless every individual is given full value, is giving full value. It is the creative spontaneity of each which makes life march on irresistibly to the purposes of the whole. Our social and political organization must be such that this group life is possible. We hear much of “the wasted forces of our nation.” The neighborhood organization movement is a movement to use some of the wasted forces of this nation—it is the biggest movement yet conceived for conservation. Have we more “value” in forests and water-power in America than in human beings? The new generation cries, “No, this release of the spiritual energy of human beings is to be the salvation of the nation, for the life of all these human beings is the nation.” The success of democracy depends (1) upon the degree of responsibility it is possible to arouse in every man and woman, (2) on the opportunity they are given to exercise that responsibility. The new democracy depends upon you and me. It depends upon you and me because there is no one else in the world but you and me. If I pledge myself to the new democracy and you pledge yourself to the new democracy, a new motor force will be born in the world.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01285", "bookId": 73755, "start": 608773, "end": 609582, "sha256": "abdad7e3fc4993c862e5b684759ab1934ed1da492465ac7dece771fb30f9d0e1", "text": "We need to-day new principles. We can reform and reform but all this is on the surface. What we have got to do is to change some of the fundamental ideas of our American life. This is not being disloyal to our past, it is exactly the opposite. Let us be loyal to our inheritance and tradition, but let us understand what that inheritance and tradition truly is. It is not _our_ tradition to stick to an outworn past, a conventional ideal, a rigid religion. We are children of men who have not been afraid of new continents or new ideas. In our blood is the impulse to leap to the highest we can see, as the wills of our fathers fixed themselves on the convictions of their hearts. To spring forward and then to follow the path steadfastly is forever the duty of Americans. We must _live_ democracy.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01286", "bookId": 73755, "start": 609586, "end": 609658, "sha256": "5be59d365acb8d35446f682c6d314fffd5db5846ab8c6eb021e6bacd98a82aa0", "text": "------------------------------------------------------------------------", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01287", "bookId": 73755, "start": 609702, "end": 609706, "sha256": "bb87c8e014926c830f0d2f29f97f27b1e0fa8f5e24145d56d7689b121d772855", "text": "XXXV", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01288", "bookId": 73755, "start": 609738, "end": 609753, "sha256": "ad67c940439194aadff778acc76e37b76acd40ee8e65e60e32d4de178932f317", "text": "THE WORLD STATE", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01289", "bookId": 73755, "start": 609786, "end": 609800, "sha256": "cb963f8b7dd4be2e8d413c437052b98afad284e3de40cd420bdd246302a111ad", "text": "--------------", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01290", "bookId": 73755, "start": 609806, "end": 610118, "sha256": "6dcdd79b17e646f6f1dada729e9a01d876502adb97542238c719b60b77bb7f0e", "text": "WE have seen the true state emerging through the working of the federal principle, dual in its nature: (1) created by the law of interpenetration, the unifying of difference, and (2) representing the multiple man in his essential nature. Through the further working of this principle the world-state appears.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01291", "bookId": 73755, "start": 610122, "end": 610502, "sha256": "9403a2fb0e3d04c8e64dcca7d61bebc8f9b8155e2e69dbe8e76307b1c4c8fa10", "text": "The lesson of the group is imperative for our international relations. No “alliances,” no balance of power, no agreements, no Hague tribunals will now satisfy us; we know that it is only by creating a genuine community of nations that we can have stability and growth—world peace, world progress. What are the contributions of group psychology to the League of Nations?", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01292", "bookId": 73755, "start": 610506, "end": 611612, "sha256": "6cc855a37a2ab68fc3e195d9abb33ec90189262f5234d0ce2329067fceb432e6", "text": "There is no way out of the hell of our present European situation until we find a method of compounding difference. Superficial moralists try to get us to like some other nationality by emphasizing all the things we have in common, but war can never cease until we see the value of differences, that they are to be maintained not blotted out. The white-man’s burden is not to make others like himself. As we see the value of the individual, of every individual, so we must see the value of each nation, that all are needed. The pacifists have wanted us to tolerate our enemies and the more extreme ones to turn the other cheek when smitten. But tolerance is intolerable. And we cannot dwell among enemies. The ideal of this planet inhabited by Christian enemies all turning the cheek does not seem to me a happy one. We must indeed, as the extreme militarists tell us, “wipe out” our enemies, but we do not wipe out our enemies by crushing them. The old-fashioned hero went out to conquer his enemy; the modern hero goes out to disarm his enemy through creating a mutual understanding.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01293", "bookId": 73755, "start": 611616, "end": 612731, "sha256": "4e463c2945e57ff22b232317060d2b540da1a60634cee2a9d9a8d1209c0d8710", "text": "The failure of international society in the past is a fact fraught with deep significance: the differences between nations are not to be overcome by one class of people in a country uniting with the same class in another country. The upper classes of Petrograd, Berlin, Paris and London have very much the same manners and habits. This has not brought peace. Artists the world over have a common language. Workingmen have tried to break down international barriers by assuming that their interests were so identical that they could unite across these barriers. But this has failed to bring peace as the other _rapprochements_ have failed. Why? Because they are all on the wrong track. International peace is never coming by an increase of similarities (this is the old-fashioned crowd-philosophy); international peace is coming by the frankest and fullest kind of recognition of our differences. Internationalism and cosmopolitanism must not be confused. The aim of cosmopolitanism is for all to be alike; the aim of internationalism is a rich content of widely varying characteristic and experience.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01294", "bookId": 73755, "start": 612735, "end": 613707, "sha256": "a71d4301e58bef5fd025f02e4c40c15bd31d934711d2742109035a226d0fa0db", "text": "If it were true that we ought to increase the likenesses between nations, then it would be legitimate for each nation to try to impose its ideals upon others. In that case England would try to spread her particular brand of civilization, and Germany hers, for if some one kind of civilization has to prevail, each will want it to be his own. There is not room on this planet for a lot of similar nations, but only for a lot of different nations. A group of nations must create a group culture which shall be broader than the culture of one nation alone. There must be a world-ideal, a whole-civilization, in which the ideals and the civilization of every nation can find a place. The ideal of one nation is not antagonistic to the ideal of another, nor do these ideals exist in a row side by side, but these different kinds of civilization are bound up in one another. I am told that this is mysticism. It is the most practical idea I have found in the world.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01295", "bookId": 73755, "start": 613711, "end": 614119, "sha256": "a77d841ebae244ae7da1b8f5229d825de383a12303abcbb28c827882606e47ab", "text": "It is said that a mighty struggle is before us by-and-by when East meets West, and in that shock will be decided which of these civilizations shall rule the world—that this is to be the great world-decision. No, the great world-decision is that each nation needs equally every other, therefore each will not only protect, but foster and increase the other that thereby it may increase its own stature.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01296", "bookId": 73755, "start": 614123, "end": 615360, "sha256": "77553ff017410080a2e895195a61cb464dd6add17068dab4ee36e055d8077665", "text": "Perhaps one of the most useful lessons to be learned from the group process is a new definition of patriotism. Patriotism must not be herd-instinct. Patriotism must be the individual’s rational, self-conscious building of his country every moment. Loyalty means always to create your group, not to wave a flag over it.[144] We need a patriotism which is not “following the lead” but involved in a process in which all take part. In the place of sentimental patriotism we want a common purpose, a purpose evolved by the common life, to be used for the common life. Some of our biologists mislead us when they talk of the homogeneity of the herd as the aim of nations. The nation may be a herd at present. What we have to do is to make it a true group. Internationalism must be based upon group units, not upon herd or crowd units, that is, upon people united not by herd instinct but by group conviction. If a nation is a crowd, patriotism is mere hypnotism; if a nation is a true federal state built up of interlocking and ascending groups, then patriotism is self-evolved. When you are building up an association or a nation you have to preach loyalty; later it is part of the very substance which has been built.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01297", "bookId": 73755, "start": 615364, "end": 616295, "sha256": "047a8b3b8fcbbc491c2cfba1932818478ad4056ce7f7266ea77c9b48a2b299b7", "text": "Then genuine loyalty, a self-evolved loyalty, will always lead the way to higher units. Nationalism looks out as well as in. It means, in addition to its other meanings, every nation being responsible to a larger whole. It is this new definition of patriotism which America is now learning. It is this new patriotism which must be taught our children, which we must repeat to one another on our special patriotic day, July 4th, and on every occasion when we meet. This new patriotism looks in, it looks out: we have to learn that we are not wholly patriotic when we are working with all our heart for America merely; we are truly patriotic only when we are working also that America may take her place worthily and helpfully in the world of nations. Nationalism is not my nation for itself or my nation against others or my nation dominating others, but simply my nation taking its part as “an equal among equals.”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01298", "bookId": 73755, "start": 616299, "end": 617208, "sha256": "9c8cb3c1ff431ab988748388d2d70c3fb44b69fb8a002983f2a0c30982a5ec0f", "text": "Shall this hideous war go on simply because people will not understand nationalism? Nationalism and internationalism are not opposed. We do not lop off just enough patriotism to our country to make enough for a world-state: he who is capable of the greatest loyalty to his own country is most ready for a wider loyalty. There is possible no world-citizenship the ranks of which are to be filled by those who do not care very much for their own country. We have passed through a period when patriotism among cultivated people seemed often to be at a discount—the ideal was to be “citizens of the world.” But we see now that we can never be “citizens of the world” until we learn how to be citizens of America or England or France. Internationalism is not going to swallow up nationalism. Internationalism will accentuate, give point, significance, meaning, value, reality, to nationalism.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01299", "bookId": 73755, "start": 617212, "end": 618765, "sha256": "6791c0702307a2f74b1919825dd6df261a075f69d97a25ff9fa5edd7c1327941", "text": "Whether we can have a lasting peace or not depends upon whether we have advanced far enough to be capable of loyalty to a higher unit, not as a substitute for our old patriotism to our country, but in addition to it. Peace will come by the group consciousness rising from the national to the international unit. This cannot be done through the imagination alone but needs actual experiments in world union, or rather experiments first in the union of two or more nations. Men go round lecturing to kind-hearted audiences and say, “Can you not be loyal to something bigger than a nation?” And the kind-hearted audiences reply, “Certainly, we will now, at your very interesting suggestion, be loyal to a league of nations.” But this is only a wish on their part, its realization can never come by _wishing_ but only by _willing_, and willing is a process, you have to put yourself in a certain place from which to will. We must, in other words, try experiments with a league of nations, and out of the actual life of that league will come loyalty to it. We are not ready for the life of the larger group because some teacher of ethics has taught us “to respect other men’s loyalties.” We are ready for it when our experience has incorporated into every tissue of our thought-life the knowledge that we need other men’s loyalties. Loyalty, therefore, is not the chickens running back to the coop, also it is not a sentiment which we decide arbitrarily to adopt, it is the outcome of a process, the process of belonging.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01300", "bookId": 73755, "start": 618769, "end": 620058, "sha256": "be1e49dfc482a697432ecc2c81e4a2a7a894025d69dc37fa6da0c241aa5a8c52", "text": "Of course there must be some motive for the larger union: we shall probably first get nations into an international league through their economic interests; then when we have a genuine union the sense of belonging begins. When men have felt the need of larger units than nations and have formed “alliances,” they have not felt that they belonged to these alliances. The sense of belonging ended at the British Empire or the German Empire. But the reason Germany became one empire and Italy one nation was because an economic union brought it home to the people daily that they were Italians, not Venetians, Germans, not Bavarians. We must feel the international bond exactly as we feel the national bond. Some one in speaking of the difficulties of internationalism has said, “It is easier to make sacrifices for those whom you know well, your own countrymen, than for strangers.” But internationalism has not come when we decide that we are willing to make sacrifices for strangers. This fallacy has been the stumbling block of some of the pacifists. To make sacrifices for “strangers” will never succeed. We make sacrifices for our own nation because of group feeling. We shall make sacrifices for a league of nations when we get the same feeling of a bond.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01301", "bookId": 73755, "start": 620062, "end": 620985, "sha256": "4008c5fcebdff291280c14f937230efe70305c793f26d6530ce98fde74876798", "text": "We may, perhaps, look forward to Europe going through something of the same process which we have gone through in the United States. The colonies joined in a federal government. The union was something entirely apart from themselves. The men of Massachusetts were first and last men of Massachusetts. We belonged for good reasons to a larger unit, but it was only very slowly that we gained any actual feeling of belonging to the United States, of loving it because we were a constituent part of it, because we were helping to make it, not just as an external authority to which we had promised loyalty. The American colonies did not undertake to look pleasant and be kind to one another, they went to work and learned how to live together. And state jealousy has been diminished every year, not by any one preaching to us, but by the process of living together. This is what may happen in a league of nations.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01302", "bookId": 73755, "start": 620989, "end": 622024, "sha256": "0842c5529582c6a36d48a512eeb61d78fe72fc9825a8e10c93d5fc076fedbe75", "text": "The great lesson of the group process, in which all others are involved, is that particularism, however magnified, is no longer possible. There is no magic by which selfishness becomes patriotism the moment we can invoke the nation. The change must be this: as we see now that a nation cannot be healthy and virile if it is merely protecting the rights of its members, so we must see that we can have no sound condition of world affairs merely by the protection of each individual nation—that is the old theory of individual rights. Each nation must play its part in some larger whole. Nations have fought for national rights. These are as obsolete as the individual rights of the last century. What raises this war to a place never reached by any war before is that the Allies are not fighting for national rights. As long as history is read the contribution of America to the Great War will be told as America’s taking her stand squarely and responsibly on the position that national particularism was in 1917 dead.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01303", "bookId": 73755, "start": 622028, "end": 623410, "sha256": "f686e050a0598a79cdafb883dd4ceccb8384f0f7fbda367fb32c05a1e36ce8f1", "text": "And as we are no longer to talk of the “rights” of nations, so no longer must “independent” nations be the basis of union. In our present international law a sovereign nation is one that is independent of other nations—surely a complete legal fiction. And when stress is laid on independence in external relations as the nature of sovereignty, it is but a step to the German idea that independence of others can develop into authority over others. This tendency is avoided when we think of sovereignty: (1) as _looking in_, as authority over its own members, as the independence which is the result of the complete interdependence of those members; and when we at the same time (2) think of this independence as _looking out_ to other independences to form through a larger interdependence the larger sovereignty of a larger whole. Interdependence is the keynote of the relations of nations as it is the keynote of the relations of individuals within a nation. As no man can be entirely free except through his perfected relation to his group, so no nation can be truly independent until a genuine union has brought about interdependence. As we no longer think that every individual has a final purpose of his own independent of any community, so we no longer think that each nation has a “destiny” independent of the “destiny” of other nations.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01304", "bookId": 73755, "start": 623414, "end": 624516, "sha256": "493da1211addee0709369f3c8df49a9fb508fd7998052ba2fd1585850a5283c9", "text": "The error of our old political philosophy was that the state always looks in: it has obligations to its members, it has none to other states; it merely enters into agreements with them for mutual benefit thereby obtained. International law of the future must be based not on nations as “sovereigns” dealing with one another, but on nations as members of a society dealing with one another. The difference in these conceptions is enormous. We are told that cessions of sovereignty must be the basis of an international government. We cannot have a lasting international union until we entirely reform such notions of sovereignty: that the power of the larger unit is produced mechanically by taking away bits of power from all the separate units. Sovereignty is got by giving to every unit its fullest value and thereby giving birth to a new power—the power of a larger whole. We must give up “sovereign” nations in the old sense, but with our present definition of sovereignty we may keep all the real sovereignty we have and then unite to evolve together a larger sovereignty.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01305", "bookId": 73755, "start": 624520, "end": 625642, "sha256": "9119060824d510c3b51196f8a383b5c3b4702bcecd1b1b3be9206ee057962c78", "text": "This idea must be carefully worked out: we can take each so-called “sovereign power” which we are thinking of “delegating” to a League of Nations and we can see that that delegating does not make us individual nations less “sovereign” and less “free” but more so—it is the Great Paradox of our time. The object of every proper “cession” of sovereignty is to make us freer than ever before. Is it to be “sovereign” and “free” for nations suspiciously and fearfully to keep sleepless watch on one another while they build ship for ship, plane for plane? Have England and Germany been proudly conscious of their “freedom” when thinking of Central Africa? When the individual nations give up their separate sovereignty—as regards their armaments, as regards the control of the regions which possess the raw materials, as regards the great waterways of the world, as regards, in fact, all which affects their joint lives—the falling chains of a real slavery will reverberate through the world. For unrelated sovereignty, with world conditions as they are to-day, is slavery.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01306", "bookId": 73755, "start": 625646, "end": 626094, "sha256": "10121bf3e7d0c2f20c74aa9fed1a981a81a1f22ba7268b480448daa525ca4185", "text": "The idea of “sovereign” nations must go as completely as is disappearing the idea of sovereign individuals. The isolation of sovereign nations is so utterly complete that they cannot really (and I mean this literally) even see each other. The International League is the one solution for the relation of nations. Whenever we say we can have a “moral” international law on any other basis, we write ourselves down pure sentimentalists.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01307", "bookId": 73755, "start": 626098, "end": 626408, "sha256": "3766be1a63c0d50a730eeb5bef2dd6f0bbbc5e5dc6605e1800942612b93ae275", "text": "There are many corollaries to this project. We do not need, for instance, a more vigorous protection of neutrals, but the abolition of neutrals. The invasion of the rights of neutrals in this war by both sides shows that we can no longer have neutrals in our scheme of union; all must come within the bond.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01308", "bookId": 73755, "start": 626412, "end": 626893, "sha256": "9b4f79aee9c040c6e533e34d3c317a7383619e856aca46497550b7705b3ef18a", "text": "Further, diplomatic relations will be entirely changed. “Honor among thieves” means loyalty to your group: while to lie or to try to get the better of your own particular group is an unpardonable offence, you may deceive an outsider. We see now the psychological reason for this. Diplomatic lying will not go until diplomatists instead of treating with one another as members of alien groups consider themselves all as members of one larger group—the League of Nations.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01309", "bookId": 73755, "start": 626897, "end": 627812, "sha256": "cc6f3c7a3ff40d1baed85feecbb87b77befa6b4e3d536aae2aa26b73fb758601", "text": "Moreover, one nation cannot injure another merely; the injury will be against the community, and the community of nations will look upon it as such. Under our present international system the attack of one nation on another is the same as the attack of one outlaw on another. But under a civilized international system, the attack of one individual on another is an attack on society and the whole society must punish it. The punishment, however, will not consist in keeping the offender out of the alliance. If the Allies win, Germany should not be punished by keeping her out of a European league; she must be shown how to take her place within it. And it must be remembered that we do not join a league of nations solely to work out our relations to one another, but to learn to work for the larger whole, for international values. Until this lesson is learned no league of nations can be successful.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01310", "bookId": 73755, "start": 627816, "end": 627969, "sha256": "5a191c20ed68293d1dcc34bbba3ffbd8dcd38a4fea1e57359d04596dac752933", "text": "Finally, the League of Nations is against the theory of the balance of power, but this has been already considered in the chapter on The Federal State.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01311", "bookId": 73755, "start": 627973, "end": 628323, "sha256": "c61959f478e68d605e6740cffbc5aa06702690178534a870653aaa24b871a57c", "text": "To sum up all these particularist fallacies: live and let live can never be our international motto. _Laissez-faire_ fails as ignominiously in international relations as within a single nation. Our new motto must be, Live in such manner that the fulness of life may come to all. This is “the ledge and the leap” for twentieth-century thought.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01312", "bookId": 73755, "start": 628327, "end": 628988, "sha256": "b312b51e68c1f4235e6f7cfe029116879f1dd6bea77d939f618ea521eab86aff", "text": "Organized coöperation is in the future to be the basis of international relations. We are international in our interests. We do not want an American education, an English education, a French education. “Movements” seek always an international society. We have international finance. Our standards of living are becoming internationalized. Socially, economically, in the world of thought, national barriers are being broken down. It is only in politics that we are national. This must soon change: with all these _rapprochements_ we cannot be told much longer of fundamental differences between us which can be settled only by murdering each other.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01313", "bookId": 73755, "start": 628992, "end": 630071, "sha256": "be1c8166228e054f8bb3cf70cedf53388b9a7a076a2db5945dc94b8435d74f29", "text": "People thought that Italy could not be united, that the duchies of Germany would never join. Cavour and Bismark had indeed no easy part. But if one hundred millions of people in Central Europe can be made to see the evils of separation, cannot others? With our greater facilities of communication, with our increased commercial intercourse and our increased realization of the interdependence of nations (a manufacturing nation cannot get along without the food-producing nations, etc.), this ought not now to be impossible. Or has the single state exhausted our political ability? Are we willing to acknowledge this? We have had very little idea yet of a community of nations. The great fault of Germany is not that she overestimates her own power of achievement, which is indeed marvellous, but that she has never yet had any conception of a community of nations. Let her apply all her own theory of the subordination of the individual to the whole to the subordination of Germany to an allied Europe, and she would be a most valuable member of a European league.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01314", "bookId": 73755, "start": 630075, "end": 630409, "sha256": "c920867fc0f5f065e4740a646abbe914a023eb4c0a559c4dfd830c5fa07f3d9c", "text": "The group process thus shows us that a genuine community of nations means the correlation of interests, the development of an international ethics, the creation of an international will, the self-evolving of a higher loyalty, and above all and including all, the full responsibility of every nation for the welfare of every other.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01315", "bookId": 73755, "start": 630413, "end": 631213, "sha256": "35705b72461b4d22e710478d292cbbd4715a0454da5047b4aa4ad342c8d90876", "text": "With such an aim before us courts of arbitration seem a sorry makeshift. We are told that as individuals no longer fight duels but take their disputes into the courts, so nations must now arbitrate, that is, take their dispute to some court. But what has really ousted duels has not been the courts but a different conception of the relation between men; so what will do away with war will not be courts of arbitration, but a different conception of the relations between nations. We need machinery not merely for settling disputes but for preventing disputes from arising; not merely for interpreting past relations, but for giving expression to new relations; not merely to administer international law, but to make international law—not a Hague court but an international legislature.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01316", "bookId": 73755, "start": 631217, "end": 631791, "sha256": "8fac32d6dfcc33c72b766def6a67bfb3b20fd17f28b45329cedba9e60a46c4ae", "text": "A community of nations needs a constitution, not treaties. Treaties are of the same nature as contract. Just as in internal law contract is giving way to the truer theory of community, so the same change must take place in international law. It is true that the first step must be more progressive treaties before we can hope for a closer union, but let us keep clearly before us the goal in order that in making these treaties they shall be such that they will open the way in time to a real federation, to an international law based not on “sovereign” nations.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01317", "bookId": 73755, "start": 631795, "end": 632733, "sha256": "89e2f55305bddf4b05364153d80b98385b5cf9eca6c949207bcaf094e77b6291", "text": "We have already seen that it is the _creation_ of a collective will which we need most in our social and political life, not the enforcing of it; it is the same with a league of nations—we must create an international will. We want neither concession nor compromise. And a vague “brotherhood” is certainly not enough. As we have seen the group as the workshop for the making of the collective will, so we see that we cannot have an international will without creating a community of nations. Group psychology will revolutionize international law. The group gets its authority through the power it has _in itself_ of integrating ideas and interests. No so-called collective will which is not a genuine collective will, that is, which is not evolved by this process, will have real authority; therefore no stable international relations are possible except those founded on the creation of an actual community of nations.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01318", "bookId": 73755, "start": 632737, "end": 633520, "sha256": "4b37e7edd28391c5e6752c0d5adf873ac6b83a5d19cdaaf853e47a21ea545a25", "text": "What interests us most in all the war literature is any proposed _method_ of union. The importance of an international league as a peace plan is that you can never aim directly at peace, peace is what you get through other things. Much of the peace propaganda urges us to choose peace rather than war. But the decision between “war” or “peace” never lies within our power. These are mere words to gather up in convenient form of expression an enormous amount that is underneath. All sorts of interests compete, all sorts of ideas compete or join: if they can join, we have peace; if they must compete, we have war. But war or peace is merely an outcome of the process; peace or war has come, by other decisions, long before the question of peace or war ever arises.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01319", "bookId": 73755, "start": 633524, "end": 633742, "sha256": "7ee2bda1ce5dc8fc7604487e01fab87e692f8c46cf10a854cdac5ca63905d8f8", "text": "All our hope therefore of future international relations lies, not in the ethical exhortations of the pacifists, nor in plans for an economic war, but in the recognition of the possibility of a community of nations.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01320", "bookId": 73755, "start": 633746, "end": 635188, "sha256": "7c9c4bfc82ea693a64f24dd1cab189ea0f29c42fba76d464a4b56062ac7e7a34", "text": "In making a plea for some experiment in international coöperation, I remember, with humiliation, that we have fought because it is the easy way. Fighting solves no problems. The problems which brought on this war will all be there to be settled when the war ends. But we have war as the line of least resistance. We have war when the mind gives up its job of agreeing as too difficult.[145] It is often stated that conflict is a necessity of the human soul, and that if conflict should ever disappear from among us, individuals would deteriorate and society collapse. But the effort of agreeing is so much more strenuous than the comparatively easy stunt of fighting that we can harden our spiritual muscles much more effectively on the former than the latter. Suppose I disagree with you in a discussion and we make no effort to join our ideas, but “fight it out.” I hammer away with my idea, I try to find all the weakest parts of yours, I refuse to see anything good in what you think. That is not nearly so difficult as trying to recognize all the possible subtle interweavings of thought, how one part of your thought, or even one aspect of one part, may unite with one part or one aspect of one part of mine etc. Likewise with coöperation and competition in business: coöperation is going to prove so much more difficult than competition that there is not the slightest danger of any one getting soft under it.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01321", "bookId": 73755, "start": 635192, "end": 636103, "sha256": "43eab4254bd607c84c2b42ed190ba039a2d83bcfefa31d7b2af291c1ae441eb1", "text": "The choice of war or peace is not the choice between effort and stagnation. We have thought of peace as the lambs lying down together after browsing on the consciousness of their happy agreements. We have thought of peace as a letting go and war as a girding up. We have thought of peace as the passive and war as the active way of living. The opposite is true. War is not the most strenuous life. It is a kind of rest-cure compared to the task of reconciling our differences. I knew a young business man who went to the Spanish war who said when he came back that it had been as good as going to a sanitarium; he had simply obeyed commands and had not made a decision or thought a thought since he left home. From war to peace is not from the strenuous to the easy existence; it is from the futile to the effective, from the stagnant to the active, from the destructive to the creative way of life.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01322", "bookId": 73755, "start": 636107, "end": 636578, "sha256": "ef3482b58a1c1040f4190f8a9a62ee96eedab82d17405ef80d2929aded7d0edd", "text": "If, however, peace means for you simply the abstinence from bloodshed, if it means instead of the fight of the battlefield, the fight of employer and employed, the fight of different interests in the legislature, the fight of competing business firms, that is a different matter. But if you are going to try to _solve_ the problems of capital and labor, of competing business interests, of differing nations, it is a tougher job than standing up on the battlefield.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01323", "bookId": 73755, "start": 636582, "end": 637139, "sha256": "8e00834dd360c88eff4eb6f4ea1b0604204d8eacd08894ff6a38d51dd43a2506", "text": "We are told that when the North Sea fishermen found that they were bringing flabby codfish home to market, they devised the scheme of introducing one catfish into every large tank of codfish. The consequent struggle hardened the flesh of the fish and they came firm to market. The conclusion usually drawn from all such stories is that men need fighting to keep them in moral condition. But what I maintain is that if we want to train our moral muscles we are devising a much harder job for them if we try to agree with our catfish than to fight him.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01324", "bookId": 73755, "start": 637143, "end": 637945, "sha256": "d0b887c72768791cc4a7432146187802be03dd2a37f7ee86af1b04305769fac6", "text": "Civilization calls upon us to “Agree with thine adversary.” It means a supreme effort on our part, and the future of the world depends upon whether we can make this effort, whether we are equal to the cry of civilization to the individual man, to the individual nation. It is a supreme effort because it is not, as sometimes thought, a matter of feeling. To feel kindly, to desire peace—no, we must summon every force of our natures, trained minds and disciplined characters, to find the _methods_ of agreement. We may be angry and fight, we may feel kindly and want peace—it is all about the same. The world will be regenerated by the people who rise above both these passive ways and heroically seek, by whatever hardship, by whatever toil, the methods by which people _can_ agree.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01325", "bookId": 73755, "start": 637949, "end": 638334, "sha256": "3a611e90ac8d7265a0b9e7c5e17bed41d43daa9bc213a2689ebcb3c443f78609", "text": "What has this young twentieth century gone out to fight? Autocracy? The doctrine of the right of might? Yes, and wherever found, in Germany or among ourselves. And wherever found these rest on the consciousness of separateness. It is the conviction of separateness which has to be conquered before civilization can proceed. Community must be the foundation stone of the New State.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01326", "bookId": 73755, "start": 638356, "end": 638389, "sha256": "92bf9343d426ee004c3cb7caa3f283036b2f3626f071d4807d38518427facd12", "text": "* * * * *", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01327", "bookId": 73755, "start": 638393, "end": 640229, "sha256": "f17f09dea4f166f37f91a7df6f1d8b993e04aa06a31763cfa415c8cdfc37063c", "text": "The history of modern times from the point of view of political science is the history of the growth of democracy; from the point of view of social psychology it is the history of the growth of the social consciousness. These two are one. But the mere consciousness of the social bond is not enough. Frenssen said of Jörn Uhl, “He became conscious of his soul, but it was empty and he had now to furnish it.” We have become conscious of a social soul, we have now to give it content. It is a long way from the maxim, “Religion is an affair between man and his Maker,” to the cry of Mazzini, “Italy is itself a religion,” but we surely to-day have come to see in the social bond and the Creative Will, a compelling power, a depth and force, as great as that of any religion we have ever known. We are ready for a new revelation of God. It is not coming through any single man, but through the men and men who are banding together with one purpose, in one consecrated service, for a great fulfilment. Many of us have felt bewildered in a confused and chaotic world. We need to focus both our aspirations and our energy; we need to make these effective and at the same time to multiply them by their continuous use. This book is a plea for the more abundant life: for the fulness of life and the growing life. It is a plea against everything static, against the idea that there need be any passive material within the social bond. It is a plea for a splendid progress dependent upon every splendid one of us. We need a new faith in humanity, not a sentimental faith or a theological tenet or a philosophical conception, but an active faith in that creative power of men which shall shape government and industry, which shall give form equally to our daily life with our neighbor and to a world league.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01328", "bookId": 73755, "start": 640233, "end": 640238, "sha256": "73be087e93080f9e436892b7d182df66394bc79dbf5df119d9357df61b1ebbfb", "text": "-----", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01329", "bookId": 73755, "start": 640242, "end": 640255, "sha256": "960b51e25709e96c87f45cf624bd1ceb9e714bdf653fdc833716331027fb2703", "text": "Footnote 144:", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01330", "bookId": 73755, "start": 640261, "end": 640277, "sha256": "6d51f2af7140d1f84b71cbd827075b2cff00c69b7c96fe74486c5dafc9420c25", "text": "See pp. 58–59.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01331", "bookId": 73755, "start": 640281, "end": 640294, "sha256": "6925018cc332b2de7d417f6eb27ab456d7a13bfd287be1a249b42963b1899e8e", "text": "Footnote 145:", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01332", "bookId": 73755, "start": 640300, "end": 640822, "sha256": "8804596d424fe7f1eeb4bd4b29d7a4cfcb660c2b286cfc659fa10993b7329d27", "text": "It has usually been supposed that wars have been the all-important element in consolidating nations; I do not want to disregard this element, I want only to warn against its over emphasis. Moreover, the way in which wars have had a real and permanent influence in the consolidation of nations is by the pressure which they have exerted upon them in showing them that efficiency is obtained by the closest coöperation and coördination of all our activities, by a high degree of internal organization.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01333", "bookId": 73755, "start": 640826, "end": 640898, "sha256": "5be59d365acb8d35446f682c6d314fffd5db5846ab8c6eb021e6bacd98a82aa0", "text": "------------------------------------------------------------------------", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01334", "bookId": 73755, "start": 640940, "end": 640948, "sha256": "c7d7d0ad74ae42888b3524491d03621282b5c64962027fe533fda12d7640e5fb", "text": "APPENDIX", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01335", "bookId": 73755, "start": 640958, "end": 641030, "sha256": "5be59d365acb8d35446f682c6d314fffd5db5846ab8c6eb021e6bacd98a82aa0", "text": "------------------------------------------------------------------------", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01336", "bookId": 73755, "start": 641072, "end": 641080, "sha256": "c7d7d0ad74ae42888b3524491d03621282b5c64962027fe533fda12d7640e5fb", "text": "APPENDIX", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01337", "bookId": 73755, "start": 641103, "end": 641137, "sha256": "24faa372ca48948eaf40e7f8d32552f73e93c0ca157c8be1a2cb890e5af85072", "text": "THE TRAINING FOR THE NEW DEMOCRACY", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01338", "bookId": 73755, "start": 641170, "end": 641184, "sha256": "cb963f8b7dd4be2e8d413c437052b98afad284e3de40cd420bdd246302a111ad", "text": "--------------", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01339", "bookId": 73755, "start": 641190, "end": 641756, "sha256": "a23b484b1c66a9d95b65d90c80e472f66c1948285ba6ff7b347fb58c6b47d614", "text": "THE training for the new democracy must be from the cradle—through nursery, school and play, and on and on through every activity of our life. Citizenship is not to be learned in good government classes or current events courses or lessons in civics. It is to be acquired only through those modes of living and acting which shall teach us how to grow the social consciousness. This should be the object of all day school education, of all night school education, of all our supervised recreation, of all our family life, of our club life, of our civic life.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01340", "bookId": 73755, "start": 641760, "end": 642171, "sha256": "1ce8f47b8489fedeed749341aacd10087928b7a0643ddfeb59a1ffe77851486a", "text": "When we change our ideas of the relation of the individual to society, our whole system of education changes. What we want to teach is interdependence, that efficiency waits on discipline, that discipline is obedience to the whole of which I am a part. Discipline has been a word long connected with school life—when we know how to teach _social_ discipline, then we shall know how to “teach school.”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01341", "bookId": 73755, "start": 642175, "end": 643054, "sha256": "cf55969857665ef508df33036cfa08012714d6a987e009020bc4464eb6353a05", "text": "The object of education is to fit children into the life of the community.[146] Every coöperative method conceivable, therefore, must be used in our schools for this end. It is at school that children should begin to learn group initiative, group responsibility—in other words social functioning. The group process must be learnt by practice. We should therefore teach subjects which require a working together, we should have group recitations, group investigations, and a gradual plan of self-government. Every child must be shown his place in the life that builds and his relation to all others who are building. All the little daily and hourly experiences of his interrelations must be constantly interpreted to him. Individual competition must, of course, disappear. All must see that the test of success is ability to work with others, not to surpass others.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01342", "bookId": 73755, "start": 643058, "end": 643402, "sha256": "d6228eb6b0f7b34ea45254390ab2c52133b8b5d4a83ea0885ac48c2cbe630b7a", "text": "Group work is, indeed, being introduced into our more progressive schools. Manual training, especially when the object made is large enough to require the work of two or more, cooking classes, school papers, printing classes etc., give opportunity for organization into groups with the essential advantage of the group: coördinated effort.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01343", "bookId": 73755, "start": 643406, "end": 644285, "sha256": "82be2716cb116b6e97b318077e983fd56dead09300dfefbe4b73d4209ec2ce87", "text": "Moreover, we should have, and are beginning to have, group recitations. A recitation should not be to test the pupil but to create something. Every pupil should be made to feel that his point of view is slightly different from any one’s else, and that, therefore, he has something to contribute. He is not to “recite” something which the teacher knows already; he is to contribute not only to the ideas of his fellow-pupils but also to those of his teacher. And this is not impossible even for the youngest. Once when I was in Paris I made the acquaintance of little Michael, a charming English boy of five, who upon being taken to the Louvre by his mother and asked what he thought of the Mona Lisa, replied, with a most pathetic expression, “I don’t think she looks as if she liked little boys.” That was certainly a contribution to Mona Lisa criticism.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01344", "bookId": 73755, "start": 644289, "end": 644727, "sha256": "8c4ded58b18da661ed29f175043c396526112a7a3ed7d9d35dc12cc0d9ba8bb1", "text": "But after the child has been taught in his group recitation to contribute his own point of view, he must immediately be shown that he cannot over-insist upon it; he must be taught that it is only a part of the truth, that he should be eager for all the other points of view, that all together they can find a point of view which no one could work out alone. In other words we can teach collective thinking through group recitations.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01345", "bookId": 73755, "start": 644731, "end": 645750, "sha256": "dd898c8bfdee2229eba3e26579dfc0de87518fa9d22bdf89a9c3b6d7c1e135cd", "text": "A group recitation may give each pupil the feeling that a whole is being created: (1) by different points of view being brought out and discussed, and (2) by every one contributing something different: one will do some extra reading, one will bring clippings from newspapers and periodicals, one will take his camera to the Art Museum and take pictures of the casts. Thus we get life, and the lesson of life, into that hour. Thus may we learn the obligation and the joy of “belonging,” not only when our school goes to play some other school, but in every recitation hour of the day. The old idea was that no one should help another in a recitation; the new idea is that every one is to help every one else. The kind of competition you have in a group recitation is whether you have added as much as any one else. You now feel responsible not only for your contribution but that the recitation as a whole should be a worthy thing. Such an aim will overcome much of the present class-room indifference.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01346", "bookId": 73755, "start": 645754, "end": 646013, "sha256": "1e90916fff18471025745fd541bc85c17b369cedc01267cf65721659dab5cbac", "text": "Many more of the regular school activities could be arranged on a group basis than is now thought possible—investigation for instance. This is a big word, but the youngest children sent out to the woods in spring are being taught “original research.”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01347", "bookId": 73755, "start": 646017, "end": 646517, "sha256": "6f0f0226e6eb221160800dac4f3f9bd2689aa30dc0ae1f78081b93c3c347b8f2", "text": "Again, every good teacher teaches her pupils to “assemble” his different thoughts, shows them that a single thought is not useful, but only as it is connected with others. The modern teacher is like the modern curator who thinks the group significance of a particular classification more important than the significance of each isolated piece. The modern teacher does not wish his pupils’ minds to be like an old-fashioned museum—a hodge-podge of isolated facts—but a useful workshop.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01348", "bookId": 73755, "start": 646521, "end": 646976, "sha256": "b466d9c97e7afa6d3c2c9a971a47ee82d157f95268cdd1994fdc1a752eee9d57", "text": "Again, to learn genuine discussion should be considered an essential part of our education. Every child must be trained to meet the clash of difference—difference of opinion, difference of interest—which life brings. In some universities professors are putting aside one hour a week for a discussion hour. This should be done in all colleges and schools, and then it should be seen to that it is genuine discussion that takes place in that hour.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01349", "bookId": 73755, "start": 646980, "end": 647258, "sha256": "6f12ee90d45d22a85c11df97195fd0df30d78c97a43c6be09a8d51bf08ac9618", "text": "Moreover, in many schools supervised playground and gymnasium activities are being established, athletic clubs encouraged, choruses and dramatic leagues developed, not only because of their value from the health or art point of view, but because they teach the social lesson.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01350", "bookId": 73755, "start": 647262, "end": 647649, "sha256": "43eea01ed10d80f892bb5c858923fc57a1f3b3f233433ccd904cc16e5b79ed78", "text": "The question of self-government in the schools is too complicated a subject and has met with too many difficulties, notwithstanding its brilliant successes, to take up here, but undoubtedly some amount of self-control can be given to certain groups, and in the upper grades to whole schools, and when this can be done no training for democracy is equal to the practice of democracy.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01351", "bookId": 73755, "start": 647653, "end": 648072, "sha256": "cc55ed9cb39c14380b6301dfc2f948a8fe88e556f6b0bed1d39ac9d4b86f485e", "text": "The aim is to create such a mental atmosphere for children that it is natural for them to wish to take their part, to make them understand that citizenship is not obeying the laws nor voting, nor even being President,[147] but that all the visions of their highest moments, all the aspirations of their spiritual nature can be satisfied through their common life, that only thus do we get “practical politics.”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01352", "bookId": 73755, "start": 648076, "end": 648211, "sha256": "da1be170c4dd9c9f92eb6b32397980ff88c45bbfc4fdaa01dbc34d8ec618d82c", "text": "In our industrial schools it is obviously easier to carry further the teaching of coördinated effort than in the regular day schools.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01353", "bookId": 73755, "start": 648215, "end": 648387, "sha256": "eb0bd59dd12402bf5e71475aa6cecdab02555287cc7b8192115dabfc61b3b054", "text": "Our evening schools must adopt the methods of the more progressive day schools, and must, as they are doing in many cases, add to the usual activities of evening schools.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01354", "bookId": 73755, "start": 648391, "end": 650214, "sha256": "acf2128e891f42a12c4e201332dc13774189bbefaf090b7a9d7d21aee5d77a24", "text": "The most conscious and deliberate preparation for citizenship is given by the “School Centres” now being established all over the United States. The School Centre movement is a movement to mould the future, to direct evolution instead of trusting to evolution. The subject of this book has been the necessity for community organization, but the ability to meet this necessity implies that we know how to do that most difficult thing in the world—work with other people: that we are ready to sacrifice individual interests to the general good, that we have a fully developed sense of responsibility, that we are trained in initiative and action. But this is not true. If the School Centres are to fill an important place in neighborhood life, they must not only give an opportunity for the development of neighborhood consciousness and neighborhood organization, but they must train up young people to be ready for neighborhood organization. We who believe in the School Centre as one of the most effective means we have for reconstructing city life believe that the School Centre can furnish this training. We hear everywhere of the corruption of American municipal politics, but why should the next generation do any better than the present unless we are training our young men and women to a proper understanding of the meaning of good citizenship and the sense of their own responsibility? The need of democracy to-day is a trained citizenship. We must deliberately train for citizenship as for music, art or trade. The School Centres are, in fact, both the prophecy of the new democracy and a method of its fulfilment. They provide an opportunity for its expression, and at the same time give to men and women the opportunity for the training needed to bring it to its highest expression.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01355", "bookId": 73755, "start": 650218, "end": 650360, "sha256": "628428fd0126336fc2af75728009ca1be00894c33aa325289132502b799f691f", "text": "The training in the School Centres consists of: group-activities, various forms of civic clubs and classes, and practice in self-government.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01356", "bookId": 73755, "start": 650364, "end": 651478, "sha256": "b67275b15843170f81887991eb6d90a462affe1e318e761a88ea0d98bc863570", "text": "First, we have in the Centres those activities which require working together, such as dramatic and choral clubs, orchestras and bands, civic and debating clubs, folk-dancing and team-games. We want choral unions and orchestras, to be sure, because they will enrich the community life at the same time that they emphasize the neighborhood bond, we want civic and debating clubs because we all need enlightenment on the subjects taken up in these clubs, but the primary reason for choosing such activities is that they are group activities where each learns to identify himself with a social whole. This is the first lesson for all practical life. Take two young men in business. One says of his firm, “_They_ are doing so and so”: his attitude is that the business is a complete whole, without him, to which he may indeed be ministering in some degree. Another young man who has been a few weeks with an old-established firm says “_We_ have done so and so for years,” “_Our_ policy is so and so.” You perhaps smile but you know that he possesses one of the chief requirements for rising.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01357", "bookId": 73755, "start": 651482, "end": 651781, "sha256": "ad2a4b34fbd5d7b213970c8b700e355719688ac2e0e1d4d8e979a287c8634f18", "text": "In our group the centre of consciousness is transferred from our private to our associate life. Thus through our group activities does neighborhood life become a preparation for neighborhood life; thus does it prepare us for the pouring out of strength and strain and effort in the common cause.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01358", "bookId": 73755, "start": 651785, "end": 652654, "sha256": "c8405f1cdfc3bd5f2a4027c772e0979c2261c56502f8dcd54f80017730c96379", "text": "Then the consciousness of the solidarity of the group leads directly to a sense of responsibility, responsibility in a group and for a group. Sooner or later every one in a democracy must ask himself, what am I worth to society? Our effort in the Centres is to help the birth of that moment. This is the social lesson: for people to understand that their every act, their work, their home-life, the kind of recreation they demand, the kind of newspapers they read, the bearing of their children, the bringing up of their children—that all these so-called private acts create the city in which they live. It is not just when we vote, or meet together in political groups, or when we take part in some charitable or philanthropic or social scheme, that we are performing our duty to society. Every single act of our life should be looked at as a social act.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01359", "bookId": 73755, "start": 652658, "end": 652918, "sha256": "bb356ab6d52106f16354288843ffe5d80131260b92e734e239b90e3df94ade1f", "text": "Moreover, we learn responsibility for our group as well as to our group. We used to think, “I must do right no matter what anyone else does.” Now we know how little that exhausts our duty; we must feel an equally keen responsibility for our whole group.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01360", "bookId": 73755, "start": 652922, "end": 653120, "sha256": "9a045f79b1cb2689ce3e6168f0292c277c98b97d301e9eda72be906f2c52572c", "text": "These then are the lessons which we hope group activities will teach—solidarity, responsibility and initiative,—how to take one’s place worthily in a self-directed, self-governing community.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01361", "bookId": 73755, "start": 653124, "end": 654018, "sha256": "c15e9540a3fd4b797a9209e678e6de55d7ba194010b85852a2ac120564499366", "text": "In the first year of one of our Boston Centres, the people of a certain nationality asked if they might meet regularly at the Centre. At their first meeting, however, they broke up without accomplishing anything, without even deciding to meet again, simply because those present had never learned how to do things with other people. Each man seemed a little island by himself. They explained to me the fact that they made no plans for further meeting by saying that they found they did not know parliamentary law, and some of them must learn parliamentary law before they could organize. I did not feel, however, that that was the real reason. I was sure it was because they had never been accustomed to do things in groups—they had probably never belonged to a basket-ball team or a dramatic club—and we have to learn the trick of association as we have to learn anything else.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01362", "bookId": 73755, "start": 654022, "end": 654595, "sha256": "3d5db10bc977939a4415961f05ffc05e3239f014d7e8341d68cf4480638bbbe4", "text": "But the Centres prepare for citizenship not only by group activities but also by direct civic teaching. This takes the form not only of lectures, classes in citizenship, but also of societies like the “junior city councils” or the “legislatures” where municipal and state questions are discussed, and young men’s and young women’s civic clubs. And it must be remembered that the chief value of these clubs is not the information acquired, not even the interest aroused, but the lesson learned of genuine discussion with all the advantages therefrom.[148]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01363", "bookId": 73755, "start": 654599, "end": 655630, "sha256": "5cdf6525443b57b212d58cc6caaf2b113e4134e7e23676564b3b191124b05601", "text": "But I have written as if it were our young people who were to be educated by the group activities of the Centres, as if the young people were to have the training for democracy and the older people the exercise of democracy. Nothing could be further from my thoughts. The training for democracy can never cease while we exercise democracy. We older ones need it exactly as much as the younger ones. That education is a continuous process is a truism. It does not end with graduation day; it does not end when “life” begins. Life and education must never be separated. We must have more life in our universities, more education in our life. Chesterton says of H. G. Wells, “One can lie awake nights and hear him grow.” That it might be said of all of us! We need education all the time and we all need education. The “ignorant vote” does not (or should not) mean the vote of the ignorant, we get an ignorant vote very often from educated people; an ignorant vote means ignorance of some particular subject.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01364", "bookId": 73755, "start": 655634, "end": 656656, "sha256": "c8cb6fcb61e8982e95146bb2a842dd7291104489685e1f188ff4da151dbcc914", "text": "A successful business man said to me the other day, “I graduated from college with honors, but all I learned there has done me little good directly. What I got out of college was an attitude towards life: that life was a matter of constantly learning, that my education had begun and was going on as long as I lived.” Then he went on to say, “This is the attitude I want somehow to get into my factory. Boys and girls come to me with the idea, ‘School is over, learning is behind me, now work begins.’ This is all wrong. I am now planning a school in connection with my factory, not primarily on account of what they will learn in the school, but in order to make them see that their life of steady learning is just beginning and that their whole career depends on their getting this attitude.” Now this is what we want the Centres to do for people: to help them acquire the attitude of learning, to make them see that education is for life, that it is as valuable for adults as for young people.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01365", "bookId": 73755, "start": 656660, "end": 657701, "sha256": "4b1ee99db1474255891d4eb5804b454cb17021788e0d77b8bfbcd4b164494ac3", "text": "We have many forms of adult education: extension courses, continuation and night schools, correspondence schools, courses in settlements, Young Men’s Christian Associations etc. And yet all these take a very small per cent of our adult population. Where are people to get this necessary education? Our present form of industry does not give enough. Tending a machine all day is not conducive to thought;[149] a man thus employed gets to rely entirely on his foreman. The man who lets his foreman do his thinking for him all day tends to need a political boss at night. We must somehow counteract the paralyzing effect of the methods of modern industry. In the School Centre we have an opportunity for adult education in the only forms in which many people, tired out with the day’s work, can take it: discussion, recreation, group activities and self-governing clubs. The enormous value of that rapidly spreading movement, the forum movement, and its connection with the School Centres, there is space here only to mention.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01366", "bookId": 73755, "start": 657705, "end": 658607, "sha256": "0dfc1562bbb424347df0c665abba2e9ec20fc8ed8b0c1da6bb675bcb520e5ff3", "text": "Many people, however, even if not the majority, are eager and hungry for what one man spoke to me of as “real education.” University extension work is spreading rapidly and in many cases adapting itself marvellously to local needs; a much closer connection could be made between the opportunities of the university and the training of the citizen for his proposed increased activity in the state by having university extension work a recognized part of the School Centre, so that every one, the farmer or the humblest workman, might know that even although he cannot give all his time to college life, he may have the advantage of its training. In the School Centre should be opportunity for the study of social and economic conditions, the work of constitutional conventions, the European situation and our relation to it, the South American situation and our relation to it, etc. etc.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01367", "bookId": 73755, "start": 658611, "end": 659064, "sha256": "96c361662fea5c5c100bc1991022bed67d87d03b652f1b5e8cd367f555664b78", "text": "Moreover, we must remember when we say we all need more education, that even if we could be “entirely” educated, so to speak, at any one minute, the next minute life would have set new lessons for us. The world is learning all the time about health, food values, care of children etc. All that science discovers must be spread. Adult education means largely the assimilation of new ideas; from this point of view no one can deny its necessity.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01368", "bookId": 73755, "start": 659068, "end": 659730, "sha256": "35b9d3ae79355deb091e1686ea7592e26ece82d5388bf73c20d48b36f171ee79", "text": "I have said that the Centres prepare for citizenship through group activities, through civic clubs and classes and through actual practice in self-government. The Centres may be a real training in self-government, a real opportunity for the development of those qualities upon which genuine self-direction depends, by every club or group being self-governed, and the whole Centre self-directed and self-controlled by means of delegates elected from each club meeting regularly in a Central Council. If we want a nation which shall be really self-governed not just nominally self-governed, we must train up our young people in the ways of self-direction.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01369", "bookId": 73755, "start": 659734, "end": 660930, "sha256": "bb2ca299ddc20144952e038922df6affdeb53c862215ed9d7a7704f6c8651fec", "text": "Moreover, the development of responsibility and self-direction will be the most effective means of raising standards. We are hearing a great deal just now of regulated recreation, regulated dance halls etc. We must give regulation a secondary place. There is something better than this which ought to be the aim of all recreation leaders, that is, to educate our young people to want higher standards by interpreting their own experience to them and by getting them to think in terms of cause and effect. You can force a moral code on people from above yet this will change them very little, but by a system of self-governing clubs with leaders who know how to lead, we can make real progress in educating people to higher standards. This is true of athletic games as well as of dances. We find, indeed, that it is true of all parts of our Centre work. Through the stormy paths of club election of officers, I have seen leaders often guide their young men to an understanding of honest politics. It is usually easier, it is true, to do _for_ people, it is easier to “regulate” their lives, but it is not the way to bring the results we wish. We need education, not regulation.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01370", "bookId": 73755, "start": 660934, "end": 661903, "sha256": "3941b69aa14abfb4a42c0111a45732987ce3660b8c6593f30e1dbd9fc721e246", "text": "Self-government in the Centres then means not only the election of officers and the making of a constitution, but a real management of club and Centre affairs, the opportunity to take initiative, to make choices and decisions, to take responsibility. The test of our success in the Centres will always be how far we are developing the self-shaping instinct. But we must remember that we have not given self-government by allowing the members of a club to record their votes. Many people think a neighborhood association or club is self-governing if a question is put to them and every one votes upon it. But if a club is to be really self-governed it must first learn collective thinking. This is not a process which can be hurried, it will take time and that time must not be grudged. Collective thinking must be reverenced as an act of creation. The time spent in evolving the group spirit is time spent in creating the dynamic force of our civilization.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01371", "bookId": 73755, "start": 661907, "end": 663008, "sha256": "238e0fc55e733f64038f3ed84f84b7ad602928890cb2474abca5cf8f935472e7", "text": "Moreover each Centre should be begun, directed and supported (as far as possible) by the adult people of a community acting together for that end. A Centre should not be an undertaking begun by the School Committee and run by the School Committee, but each Centre should be organized by local initiative, to serve local needs, through methods chosen by the people of a district to suit that particular district. The ideal School Centre is a Community Centre. A group of citizens asks for the use of a schoolhouse after school hours, with heat, light, janitor, and a director to make the necessary connection between the local undertaking and the city department. Then that group of citizens is responsible for the Centre: for things worth while being done in the schoolhouse, and for the support of the activities undertaken. By the time such a School Centre is organized by such an association of citizens, neighbors will have become acquainted with one another in a more vital way than before, and they will have begun to learn how to think and to act together as a neighborhood unit.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01372", "bookId": 73755, "start": 663012, "end": 663692, "sha256": "b2edf1c00063e82e43430cadb00e7baba1f3b8f61cc341a54f8adc0720f81956", "text": "We are coming to a more general realization of this. In the municipal buildings in the parks of Chicago, the people are not given free lectures, free moving pictures, free music, free dances etc.; they are invited to develop their own activities. To the Recreation Centres of New York, operated by the Board of Education, are being added the Community Centres controlled by local boards of neighbors. In Boston we have under the School Committee a department of “The Extended Use of School Buildings,” and the aim is to get the people of each district to plan, carry out and supervise what civic, educational and recreational activities they wish in the schoolhouses.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01373", "bookId": 73755, "start": 663696, "end": 664003, "sha256": "2d3a4c5a33181e608ecc9a977b8523b56e58cad048ba8dd3798fad74dde76213", "text": "A Chicago minister said the other day that the south side of Chicago was the only part of the city where interest in civic problems and community welfare could be aroused, and this he said was because of the South Park’s work in field houses, clubrooms and gymnasiums for the last ten or twelve years.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01374", "bookId": 73755, "start": 664007, "end": 664421, "sha256": "96d478aa304cb91e887630a62182382ff2407314bbb7537890e5a323022a7a26", "text": "When the chairman of the Agricultural Council of Defense of Virginia asked a citizen of a certain county what he thought the prospects were of being able to rouse the people in his county in regard to an increased food production, the prompt reply was, “On the north side of the county we shall have no trouble because we have several Community Leagues there, but on the south side it will be a hard job.”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01375", "bookId": 73755, "start": 664425, "end": 664539, "sha256": "386828494a3ab062342b7f98b881fb85770031d537a52c6bcbfcaf1253d42973", "text": "The School or Community Centre is the real continuation school of America, the true university of true democracy.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01376", "bookId": 73755, "start": 664574, "end": 664595, "sha256": "fc0e1c1c3e9991d9af86ba58ff1744171469bda051b1268aa127a088fb18ff82", "text": "---------------------", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01377", "bookId": 73755, "start": 664615, "end": 664654, "sha256": "2f99cbb7a0015871be483393a8a170ce2173185543f74b60e3a5a475cb3383f3", "text": "PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01378", "bookId": 73755, "start": 664658, "end": 664663, "sha256": "73be087e93080f9e436892b7d182df66394bc79dbf5df119d9357df61b1ebbfb", "text": "-----", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01379", "bookId": 73755, "start": 664667, "end": 664680, "sha256": "99adec96a6cc7f48b79c8e729243d568b2ce655e8966ad4463c159211def4501", "text": "Footnote 146:", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01380", "bookId": 73755, "start": 664686, "end": 664867, "sha256": "57873a096f7cb56058618d8f63016c61fc26aa102863458f9de62c97b0af8aca", "text": "The western states feel that they are training members of society and not individuals and that is why it seems proper to them to take public money to found state universities.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01381", "bookId": 73755, "start": 664871, "end": 664884, "sha256": "65e6dcd12bcde5f4d02ffadb2d2e3be66d2b4e301363035230fe5267ffef3e08", "text": "Footnote 147:", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01382", "bookId": 73755, "start": 664890, "end": 664988, "sha256": "e084486059cf4a88bc42241d4f46c9ba79850e4fda001505b3e716c1a2e5c410", "text": "A little girl I know said, “Mother, if women get the vote, shall I _have_ to be President?”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01383", "bookId": 73755, "start": 664992, "end": 665005, "sha256": "48f8d5342b8c947715729f73d4f48be9c333cefe709c3855f62e90b3b978d2c5", "text": "Footnote 148:", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01384", "bookId": 73755, "start": 665011, "end": 665029, "sha256": "505093661b47eab7712abf29d32b1530e1c467c3d61c280c12f2b5f863acafed", "text": "See pp. 208–212.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01385", "bookId": 73755, "start": 665033, "end": 665046, "sha256": "0622e1862a46a3d4acee132b7f144dd2c5ccd6fb93385cdab62c3047b105a86e", "text": "Footnote 149:", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01386", "bookId": 73755, "start": 665052, "end": 665120, "sha256": "8cccb337de91f1db453527fcb7c95dc50a210ff571036839cc34e00a7fb98c1a", "text": "Also men have less opportunity for discussion at work than formerly.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01387", "bookId": 73755, "start": 665124, "end": 665196, "sha256": "5be59d365acb8d35446f682c6d314fffd5db5846ab8c6eb021e6bacd98a82aa0", "text": "------------------------------------------------------------------------", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01388", "bookId": 73755, "start": 665232, "end": 665253, "sha256": "2d04faa0e8d10e03c57393540197759ef70f2e83a2edf5b5c025020efce5c4c8", "text": "Transcriber’s Notes", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01389", "bookId": 73755, "start": 665258, "end": 665319, "sha256": "3d97e528dd6b734a51a21bc8aa54da7a13cd0fc51d720a7f2e4a1ac49c14e912", "text": "Hyphenation has not been regularized, and remains as printed.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01390", "bookId": 73755, "start": 665324, "end": 665408, "sha256": "0b35c3fb9b07895098f4f60337ae880bc1a18945c7f5978858419f9500f7c38c", "text": "New original cover art included with this eBook is granted to the public domain.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01391", "bookId": 73755, "start": 665413, "end": 665581, "sha256": "e0e82abfba7066d0d2ad14e3d5764870b94167f675e55091aff0fea3cfeb639c", "text": "Archaic and non-standard spelling has been retained. Instances of what seem to be obvious printer’s errors have been corrected. Changes made are listed below:", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01392", "bookId": 73755, "start": 665586, "end": 665652, "sha256": "57063e6360d9e857fbe4c44304ab1deb1f18a19139a193c14d76f59ee9c0bbd2", "text": "Pg. 20: Corrected typo: ‘Social Psycology’ to ‘Psychology’", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01393", "bookId": 73755, "start": 665657, "end": 665753, "sha256": "e78ceecfae3681f8cc04f85c0f6427ff204385475cfd34ef54ae1d5f73339403", "text": "Pg. 34: Changed comma for period at end of sentence: ‘a collective will,’ to ‘will.’", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01394", "bookId": 73755, "start": 665758, "end": 665834, "sha256": "8a232e1a01d064fef79e65fedc20e5e2244a5c0d8046ff9b76a26f5698b5424d", "text": "Pg. 43: Corrected typo: ‘rather perhaps indentified’ to ‘identified’", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01395", "bookId": 73755, "start": 665839, "end": 665936, "sha256": "8b554dfd57fe7e558e64acab438c4db77e445066eac17ff1ee99aaeabd09eb4b", "text": "Pg. 98: Added umlaut for consistency: ‘compatible with cooperation’ to ‘coöperation’", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01396", "bookId": 73755, "start": 665941, "end": 666042, "sha256": "9892dd8ccfa9f048f8c658d263f9a1530b6e66646d8b776ad91464237ee4f3a3", "text": "Pg. 123: Added accent as in other instances: ‘L’Etat, Le Droit Objectif’ to ‘L’État’", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; 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no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01400", "bookId": 73755, "start": 666310, "end": 666377, "sha256": "3af1e8d7b57c4b29d08cb272f69ccd2d8dd93d5d2d4bbde5c9ba3f8dba97da1b", "text": "Pg. 273: Corrected typo: ‘either law or a rigat’ to ‘right’", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01401", "bookId": 73755, "start": 666382, "end": 666458, "sha256": "51f448a2ee02675f313390ad8009d62d4d3410f5f145b7ebeb9e852b3bbc7af3", "text": "Pg. 274: Added missing accent: ‘métaphysique ou religieux’ to ‘oú’", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG73755.B01402", "bookId": 73755, "start": 666463, "end": 666529, "sha256": "07ba5a1c12f2c46bcf89ecdf4f0eba2d98ba2a53f4e11e946fecc33c3cc335a3", "text": "Pg. 278: Corrected typo: ‘through the varous’ to ‘various’", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; 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W. Rouse Ball This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions whatsoever. Y ou may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you will have to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this eBook. Title: Mathematical Recreations and Essays Author: W. W. Rouse Ball Release Date: October 8, 2008 [EBook #26839] [Most recently updated: October 19, 2021] Language: English Character set encoding: UTF-8 Produced by Joshua Hutchinson, David Starner, David Wilson and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net Revised by David Wilson *** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK MATHEMATICAL RECREATIONS ***", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 1 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00002", "bookId": 26839, "start": 971, "end": 1070, "sha256": "3286b5f6482e7c80c529467f3e94ed2b69d9612c08d8a8be77596b151827886f", "text": "[PDF page 2] First Edition, Feb. 1892. Reprinted, May, 1892. Second Edition, 1896. Reprinted, 1905.", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true, "pdfPage": 2 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00003", "bookId": 26839, "start": 1072, "end": 1298, "sha256": "b734e5a8ee578626ea2fbbb6378b6d03e6396d6097258a33d21a250de616373e", "text": "[PDF page 3] MATHEMATICAL RECREATIONS AND ESSAYS BY W.W. ROUSE BALL Fellow and Tutor of Trinity College, Cambridge. FOURTH EDITION London: MACMILLAN AND CO., Limited NEW YORK: THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 1905 [All rights reserved. ]", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 3 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00004", "bookId": 26839, "start": 1300, "end": 2077, "sha256": "246fe5ea4f833532a4fa3d364cb7c09af1762365cf196c7c7482a8d472cd861f", "text": "[PDF page 4] Produced by Joshua Hutchinson, David Starner, David Wilson and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net Transcriber’s notes Most of the open questions discussed by the author were settled during the twentieth century. The author’s footnotes are labelled using printer’s marks*; footnotes showing where corrections to the text have been made are labelled numerically1. Minor typographical corrections are documented in the L ATEX source. This document is designed for two-sided printing. Consequently, the many hyperlinked cross-references are not visually distinguished. The document can be recompiled for more comfortable on-screen viewing: see comments in source L ATEX code. ‘Character set encoding’ refers to the LATEX source.", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 4 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00005", "bookId": 26839, "start": 2079, "end": 3402, "sha256": "84b9ea3908a9cc41da487a5d6452b3df954eb466261ae3035c01d61d45aac860", "text": "[PDF page 5] PREF ACE TO THE FIRST EDITION. The following pages contain an account of certain mathematical recreations, problems, and speculations of past and present times. I hasten to add that the conclusions are of no practical use, and most of the results are not new. If therefore the reader proceeds further he is at least forewarned. At the same time I think I may assert that many of the diversions— particularly those in the latter half of the book—are interesting, not a few are associated with the names of distinguished mathematicians, while hitherto several of the memoirs quoted have not been easily ac- cessible to English readers. The book is divided into two parts, but in both parts I have in- cluded questions which involve advanced mathematics. The first partconsists of seven chapters, in which are included var- ious problems and amusements of the kind usually calledmathematical recreations. The questions discussed in the first of these chapters are connected with arithmetic; those in the second with geometry; and those in the third relate to mechanics. The fourth chapter contains an account of some miscellaneous problems which involve both num- ber and situation; the fifth chapter contains a concise account of magic squares; and the sixth and seventh chapters deal with some unicursal iii", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 5 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00006", "bookId": 26839, "start": 3404, "end": 4783, "sha256": "de6c4a657d84fc1bf29cfa509cd09cbdd1a770252fdee824279997525c42085b", "text": "[PDF page 6] iv PREF ACE problems. Several of the questions mentioned in the first three chap- ters are of a somewhat trivial character, and had they been treated in any standard English work to which I could have referred the reader, I should have pointed them out. In the absence of such a work, I thought it best to insert them and trust to the judicious reader to omit them altogether or to skim them as he feels inclined. The second partconsists of five chapters, which are mostlyhistori- cal. They deal respectively with three classical problems in geometry— namely, the duplication of the cube, the trisection of an angle, and the quadrature of the circle—astrology, the hypotheses as to the nature of space and mass, and a means of measuring time. Ihaveinserteddetailedreferences, asfarasIknow, astothesources of the various questions and solutions given; also, wherever I have given only the result of a theorem, I have tried to indicate authorities where a proof may be found. In general, unless it is stated otherwise, I have taken the references direct from the original works; but, in spite of considerable time spent in verifying them, I dare not suppose that they are free from all errors or misprints. I shall be grateful for notices of additions or corrections which may occur to any of my readers. W.W. ROUSE BALL Trinity College, Cambridge. February, 1892.", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 6 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00007", "bookId": 26839, "start": 4785, "end": 5442, "sha256": "d1c7d61880eb881534969be401996a31eec63e6036f8aaab71f95b9e73053f51", "text": "[PDF page 7] NOTE TO THE FOURTH EDITION. In this edition I have inserted in the earlier chapters descriptions of several additional Recreations involving elementary mathematics, and I have added in the second part chapters on theHistory of the Mathe- matical Tripos at Cambridge, Mersenne’s Numbers, andCryptography and Ciphers. It is with some hesitation that I include in the book the chapters on Astrology and Ciphers, for these subjects are only remotely connected with Mathematics, but to afford myself some latitude I have altered the title of the second part toMiscellaneous Essays and Problems. W.W.R.B. Trinity College, Cambridge. 13 May, 1905. v", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 7 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00008", "bookId": 26839, "start": 5444, "end": 6528, "sha256": "3d9020d6ab550b125e73b1ccee2392e9a6b7229ad7c11aa9511b5746643f6c33", "text": "[PDF page 8] TABLE OF CONTENTS. PART I. Mathematical Recreations. Chapter I. Some Arithmetical Questions. PAGE Elementary Questions on Numbers (Miscellaneous) . . . . . . 4 Arithmetical Fallacies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 Bachet’s Weights Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 Problems in Higher Arithmetic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 Fermat’sTheorem on Binary Powers. . . . . . . . . . . . 31 Fermat’sLast Theorem. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 Chapter II. Some Geometrical Questions. Geometrical Fallacies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 Geometrical Paradoxes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42 Colouring Maps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44 Physical Geography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46 Statical Games of Position . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48 Three-in-a-row. Extension to p-in-a-row . . . . . . . . . 48 Tesselation. Cross-Fours . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 Colour-Cube Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51 vi", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 8 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00009", "bookId": 26839, "start": 6530, "end": 8409, "sha256": "5959c3070278a6d975d6772fa3cd700bd02ecfab2d976f753b8272c0d6969077", "text": "[PDF page 9] TABLE OF CONTENTS. vii PAGE Dynamical Games of Position . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52 Shunting Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 Ferry-Boat Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55 Geodesic Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57 Problems with Counters placed in a row . . . . . . . . . . 58 Problems on a Chess-board with Counters or Pawns . . . . 60 Guarini’s Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63 Geometrical Puzzles (rods, strings, &c.) . . . . . . . . . . . . 64 Paradromic Rings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64 Chapter III. Some Mechanical Questions. Paradoxes on Motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67 Force, Inertia, Centrifugal Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70 Work, Stability of Equilibrium, &c. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72 Perpetual Motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75 Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78 Sailing quicker than the Wind . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79 Boat moved by a rope inside the boat . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81 Results dependent on Hauksbee’s Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82 Cut on a tennis-ball. Spin on a cricket-ball . . . . . . . 83 Flight of Birds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85 Curiosa Physica . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86 Chapter IV. Some Miscellaneous Questions. The Fifteen Puzzle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88 The Tower of Hanoï . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91 Chinese Rings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93 The Eight Queens Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97 Other Problems with Queens and Chess-pieces . . . . . . . . . 102 The Fifteen School-Girls Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 9 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00010", "bookId": 26839, "start": 8411, "end": 10470, "sha256": "4f7b849c9fe195770f920c849fa899fdd7ab2f0a1e1b9d8f700c4ad54df02a97", "text": "[PDF page 10] viii TABLE OF CONTENTS. PAGE Problems connected with a pack of cards . . . . . . . . . . . . 109 Monge on shuffling a pack of cards . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109 Arrangement by rows and columns . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111 Determination of one out of1 2 n(n + 1) given couples . . . . 113 Gergonne’s Pile Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115 The Mouse Trap. Treize . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119 Chapter V. Magic Squares. Notes on the History of Magic Squares . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122 Construction of Odd Magic Squares . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123 Method of De la Loubère . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124 Method of Bachet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125 Method of De la Hire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126 Construction of Even Magic Squares . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128 First Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129 Method of De la Hire and Labosne . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132 Composite Magic Squares . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134 Bordered Magic Squares . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135 Hyper-Magic Squares . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136 Pan-diagonal or Nasik Squares . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136 Doubly Magic Squares . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137 Magic Pencils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137 Magic Puzzles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140 Card Square . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140 Euler’s Officers Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140 Domino Squares . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141 Coin Squares . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141 Chapter VI. Unicursal Problems. Euler’s Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143 Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145 Euler’s Theorems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145 Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 10 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00011", "bookId": 26839, "start": 10472, "end": 11512, "sha256": "5f62412503c5a6a01d3a02846a4572943460a93b8bd2180c0a4012e284bd3ff0", "text": "[PDF page 11] TABLE OF CONTENTS. ix PAGE Mazes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149 Rules for completely traversing a Maze . . . . . . . . . . . 149 Notes on the History of Mazes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150 Geometrical Trees . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154 The Hamiltonian Game . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155 Knight’s Path on a Chess-Board . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158 Method of De Montmort and De Moivre . . . . . . . . . . 159 Method of Euler . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160 Method of Vandermonde . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163 Method of Warnsdorff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163 Method of Roget . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164 Method of Moon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167 Method of Jaenisch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168 Number of possible routes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168 Paths of other Chess-Pieces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 11 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00012", "bookId": 26839, "start": 11514, "end": 13674, "sha256": "896437ba7771c991c3779de350b48d3dc68e8ea5c8492640ca7dccff1d6150c8", "text": "[PDF page 12] x TABLE OF CONTENTS. PART II. Miscellaneous Essays and Problems. Chapter VII. The Mathematical Tripos. PAGE Medieval Course of Studies: Acts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170 The Renaissance at Cambridge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171 Rise of a Mathematical School . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171 Subject-Matter of Acts at different periods . . . . . . . . . . . 171 Degree Lists . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173 Oral Examinations always possible . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173 Public Oral Examinations become customary, 1710–30 . . . . 174 Additional work thrown on Moderators. Stipends raised . 174 Facilitates order of merit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175 Scheme of Examination in 1750 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175 Right of M.A.s to take part in it . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175 Scheme of Examination in 1763 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176 Foundations of Smith’s Prizes, 1768 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177 Introduction of a Written Examination, circ. 1770 . . . . . . . 178 Description of the Examination in 1772 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178 Scheme of Examination in 1779 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181 System of Brackets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181 Problem Papers in 1785 and 1786 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182 Description of the Examination in 1791 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183 The Poll Part of the Examination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184 A Pass Standard introduced . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185 Problem Papers from 1802 onwards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185 Description of the Examination in 1802 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186 Scheme of Reading in 1806 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188 Introduction of modern analytical notation . . . . . . . . . . . 191 Alterations in Schemes of Study, 1824 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194 Scheme of Examination in 1827 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194 Scheme of Examination in 1833 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196 All the papers marked . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196 Scheme of Examination in 1839 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 12 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00013", "bookId": 26839, "start": 13676, "end": 16041, "sha256": "38a68789b913d2d8ae7c456260f65ff410d0481fd2987854901ee250ee128978", "text": "[PDF page 13] TABLE OF CONTENTS. xi PAGE Scheme of Examination in 1848 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197 Creation of a Board of Mathematical Studies . . . . . . . . . 197 Scheme of Examination in 1873 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198 Scheme of Examination in 1882 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199 Fall in number of students reading mathematics . . . . . . 200 Origin of term Tripos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200 Tripos Verses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201 Chapter VIII. Three Geometrical Problems. The Three Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203 The Duplication of the Cube . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204 Legendary origin of the problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204 Lemma of Hippocrates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205 Solutions of Archytas, Plato, Menaechmus, Apollonius, and Sporus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206 Solutions of Vieta, Descartes, Gregory of St Vincent, and Newton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208 The Trisection of an Angle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209 Solutions quoted by Pappus (three) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209 Solutions of Descartes, Newton, Clairaut, and Chasles . . . . 210 The Quadrature of the Circle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211 Incommensurability of π . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211 Definitions of π . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212 Origin of symbolπ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213 Methods of approximating to the numerical value ofπ . . . . 213 Geometrical methods of approximation . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213 Results of Egyptians, Babylonians, Jews . . . . . . . . . . 214 Results of Archimedes and other Greek writers . . . . . . . 214 Results of Roman surveyors and Gerbert . . . . . . . . . . 215 Results of Indian and Eastern writers . . . . . . . . . . . . 215 Results of European writers, 1200–1630 . . . . . . . . . . . 216 Theorems of Wallis and Brouncker . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219 Analytical methods of approximation. Gregory’s series . . . . 219 Results of European writers, 1699–1873 . . . . . . . . . . . 219 Geometrical approximations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221 Approximations by the theory of probability . . . . . . . . . . 221", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 13 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00014", "bookId": 26839, "start": 16043, "end": 18203, "sha256": "a2d8e9d5bb5de72a6415415e7837c49bc79b62f33de18a04174bac89016df338", "text": "[PDF page 14] xii TABLE OF CONTENTS. Chapter IX. Mersenne’s Numbers. PAGE Mersenne’s Enunciation of the Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . 223 List of known results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224 Cases awaiting verification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224 History of Investigations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225 Methods used in attacking the problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229 By trial of divisors of known forms . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230 By indeterminate equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232 By properties of quadratic forms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233 By the use of aCanon Arithmeticus . . . . . . . . . . . . 233 By properties of binary powers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234 By the use of the binary scale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234 By the use of Fermat’s Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235 Mechanical methods of Factorizing Numbers . . . . . . . . . . 235 Chapter X. Astrology. Astrology. Two branches: natal and horary astrology . . . . . 237 Rules for casting and reading a horoscope . . . . . . . . . . . 237 Houses and their significations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237 Planets and their significations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239 Zodiacal signs and their significations . . . . . . . . . . . . 241 Knowledge that rules were worthless . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242 Notable instances of horoscopy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245 Lilly’s prediction of the Great Fire and Plague . . . . . . . 245 Flamsteed’s guess . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245 Cardan’s horoscope of Edward VI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246 Chapter XI. Cryptographs and Ciphers. A Cryptograph. Definition. Illustration . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250 A Cipher. Definition. Illustration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251 Essential Features of Cryptographs and Ciphers . . . . . . . . 251 Cryptographs of Three Types. Illustrations . . . . . . . . . . 252 Order of letters re-arranged . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252 Use of non-significant symbols. The Grille . . . . . . . . . 255 Use of broken symbols. The Scytale . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 14 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00015", "bookId": 26839, "start": 18205, "end": 20407, "sha256": "f215d22dcc946126c9e6f3c691013b409f05814c9d5f5719aee3a79d19a3c081", "text": "[PDF page 15] TABLE OF CONTENTS. xiii PAGE Ciphers. Use of arbitrary symbols unnecessary . . . . . . . . . 258 Ciphers of Four Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258 Ciphers of the First Type. Illustrations . . . . . . . . . . . 259 Ciphers of the Second Type. Illustrations . . . . . . . . . . 262 Ciphers of the Third Type. Illustrations . . . . . . . . . . 264 Ciphers of the Fourth Type. Illustrations . . . . . . . . . . 266 Requisites in a good Cipher . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267 Cipher Machines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268 Historical Ciphers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268 Julius Caesar, Augustus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268 Bacon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268 Charles I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268 Pepys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270 De Rohan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271 Marie Antoinette . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272 The Code Dictionary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273 Poe’s Writings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274 Chapter XII. Hyper-space. Two subjects of speculation on Hyper-space . . . . . . . . . . 277 Space of two dimensions and of one dimension . . . . . . . . . 277 Space of four dimensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278 Existence in such a world . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278 Arguments in favour of the existence of such a world . . . 279 Non-Euclidean Geometries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283 Euclid’s axioms and postulates. The parallel postulate . . . . 283 Hyperbolic Geometry of two dimensions . . . . . . . . . . . . 284 Elliptic Geometry of two dimensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284 Elliptic, Parabolic and Hyperbolic Geometries compared . 284 Non-Euclidean Geometries of three or more dimensions . . . . 286 Chapter XIII. Time and its Measurement. Units for measuring durations (days, weeks, months, years) . . 288 The Civil Calendar (Julian, Gregorian, &c.) . . . . . . . . . . 291 The Ecclesiastical Calendar (date of Easter) . . . . . . . . . . 293", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 15 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00016", "bookId": 26839, "start": 20409, "end": 22113, "sha256": "311f2ccbf9906d18074cbbc308140e5c6426512084422aa207c020a8778234a7", "text": "[PDF page 16] xiv TABLE OF CONTENTS. PAGE Day of the week corresponding to a given date . . . . . . . . . 296 Means of measuring Time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296 Styles, Sun-dials, Sun-rings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296 Water-clocks, Sand-clocks, Graduated Candles . . . . . . . 300 Clocks and Watches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300 Watches as Compasses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302 Chapter XIV. Matter and Ether Theories. Hypothesis of Continuous Matter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305 Atomic Theories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305 Popular Atomic Hypothesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305 Boscovich’s Hypothesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306 Hypothesis of an Elastic Solid Ether. Labile Ether . . . . . 306 Dynamical Theories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307 The Vortex Ring Hypothesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307 The Vortex Sponge Hypothesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309 The Ether-Squirts Hypothesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309 The Electron Hypothesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310 Speculations due to investigations on Radio-activity . . . . 310 The Bubble Hypothesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312 Conjectures as to the cause of Gravity . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313 Conjectures to explain the finite number of species of Atoms . 317 Size of the molecules of bodies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319 Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322 Notices of some works—chiefly historico-mathematical . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334 Project Gutenberg Licensing Information. . . . . . 353", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 16 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00017", "bookId": 26839, "start": 22115, "end": 22645, "sha256": "9bdb11a4ec28b0609b14e0582180213a54a2b029375341740939043032ee0df5", "text": "[PDF page 17] PART I. Mathematical Recreations. “Les hommes ne sont jamais plus ingénieux que dans l’invention des jeux; l’esprit s’y trouve à son aise.... Après les jeux qui dépendent uniquement des nombres viennent les jeux où entre la situa- tion.... Après les jeux où n’entrent que le nom- bre et la situation viendraient les jeux où entre le mouvement.... Enfin il serait a souhaiter qu’on eût un cours entier des jeux, traités mathématique- ment.” (Leibnitz: letter to De Montmort, July 29, 1715.) 1", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 17 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00018", "bookId": 26839, "start": 22647, "end": 24409, "sha256": "45dd9090cf15da42a20c766aa94ff25414f27a9847d02e70e180951ecd4c8995", "text": "[PDF page 18] CHAPTER I. SOME ARITHMETICAL QUESTIONS. The interest excited by statements of the relations between num- bers of certain forms has been often remarked. The majority of works on mathematical recreations include several such problems, which are obvious to any one acquainted with the elements of algebra, but which to many who are ignorant of that subject possess the same kind of charm that some mathematicians find in the more recondite proposi- tions of higher arithmetic. I shall devote the bulk of this chapter to these elementary problems, but I append a few remarks on one or two questions in the theory of numbers. Before entering on the subject of the chapter, I may add that a large proportion of the elementary questions mentioned here and in the following two chapters are taken from one of two sources. The first of these is the classicalProblèmes plaisans et délectables, by C.G. Ba- chet, sieur de Méziriac, of which the first edition was published in 1612 and the second in 1624: it is to the edition of 1624 that the references hereafter given apply. Several of Bachet’s problems are taken from the writings of Alcuin, Pacioli di Burgo, Tartaglia, or Cardan, and possi- bly some of them are of oriental origin, but I have made no attempt to add such references. The other source to which I alluded above is Ozanam’sRécréations mathématiques et physiques. The greater por- tion of the original edition, published in two volumes at Paris in 1694, was a compilation from the works of Bachet, Leurechon, Mydorge, van Etten, and Oughtred: this part is excellent, but the same cannot be said of the additions due to Ozanam. In theBiographie Universelleal- lusion is made to subsequent editions issued in 1720, 1735, 1741, 1778, 2", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 18 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00019", "bookId": 26839, "start": 24411, "end": 27024, "sha256": "cd832613dc52e4740172dfb3022b2acee78196ae9be1df71fc8bf27e635cdc40", "text": "[PDF page 19] CH. I] ARITHMETICAL RECREATIONS. 3 and 1790; doubtless these references are correct, but the following edi- tions, all of which I have seen, are the only ones of which I have any knowledge. In 1696 an edition was issued at Amsterdam. In 1723— six years after the death of Ozanam—one was issued in three volumes, with a supplementary fourth volume, containing (among other things) an appendix on puzzles: I believe that it would be difficult to find in any of the books current in England on mathematical amusements as many as a dozen puzzles which are not contained in one of these four volumes. Fresh editions were issued in 1741, 1750 (the second volume of which bears the date 1749), 1770, and 1790. The edition of 1750 is said to have been corrected by Montucla on condition that his name should not be associated with it; but the edition of 1790 is the earliest one in which reference is made to these corrections, though the editor is referred to only as Monsieur M***. Montucla expunged most of what was actually incorrect in the older editions, and added several historical notes, but unfortunately his scruples prevented him from striking out the accounts of numerous trivial experiments and truisms which over- load the work. An English translation of the original edition appeared in 1708, and I believe ran through four editions, the last of them being published in Dublin in 1790. Montucla’s revision of 1790 was translated by C. Hutton, and editions of this were issued in 1803, in 1814, and (in one volume) in 1840: my references are to the editions of 1803 and 1840. I proceed now to enumerate some of the elementary questions con- nected with numbers which for nearly three centuries have formed a large part of most compilations of mathematical amusements. They are given here mainly for their historical—not for their arithmetical— interest; and perhaps a mathematician may well omit them, and pass at once to the latter part of this chapter. These questions are of the nature of tricks or puzzles and I follow the usual course and present them in that form. I may note however that most of them are not worth proposing, even as tricks, unless either the modus operandi is disguised or the result arrived at is different from that expected; but, as I am not writing on conjuring, I refrain from alluding to the means of disguising the operations indicated, and give merely a bare enumeration of the steps essential to the success of the method used, though I may recall the fundamental rule that no trick, however good, will bear immediate repetition, and that, if it is", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 19 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00020", "bookId": 26839, "start": 27026, "end": 29450, "sha256": "e6153ae7aac69f64a26c2225e559faeba3ee1e2c72a6517d4ba600fedc73dcd0", "text": "[PDF page 20] 4 ARITHMETICAL RECREATIONS. [CH. I necessary to appear to repeat it, a different method of obtaining the result should be used. To find a number selected by some one. There are in- numerable ways of finding a number chosen by some one, provided the result of certain operations on it is known. I confine myself to methods typical of those commonly used. Any one acquainted with algebra will find no difficulty in modifying the rules here given or framing new ones of an analogous nature. First Method*. (i) Ask the person who has chosen the number to treble it. (ii) Enquire if the product is even or odd: if it is even, request him to take half of it; if it is odd, request him to add unity to it and then to take half of it. (iii) Tell him to multiply the result of the second step by 3. (iv) Ask how many integral times9 divides into the latter product: suppose the answer to ben. (v) Then the number thought of was 2n or 2n + 1, according as the result of step (i) was even or odd. The demonstration is obvious. Every even number is of the form 2n, and the successive operations applied to this give (i)6n, which is even; (ii) 1 26n = 3n; (iii) 3 × 3n = 9n; (iv) 1 99n = n; (v) 2n. Every odd number is of the form2n + 1, and the successive operations applied to this give (i) 6n + 3, which is odd; (ii) 1 2(6n + 3 + 1) = 3 n + 2; (iii) 3(3n + 2) = 9n + 6; (iv) 1 9(9n + 6) = n +a remainder; (v)2n + 1. These results lead to the rule given above. Second Method†. Ask the person who has chosen the number to perform in succession the following operations. (i) To multiply the number by 5. (ii) To add6 to the product. (iii) To multiply the sum by 4. (iv) To add9 to the product. (v) To multiply the sum by5. Ask to be told the result of the last operation: if from this product165 is subtracted, and then the remainder is divided by100, the quotient will be the number thought of originally. For let n be the number selected. Then the successive operations applied to it give (i) 5n; (ii) 5n + 6; (iii) 20n + 24; (iv) 20n + 33; (v) 100n + 165. Hence the rule. Third Method‡. Request the person who has thought of the num- ber to perform the following operations. (i) To multiply it by any number you like, say,a. (ii) To divide the product by any number, * Bachet, Problèmes plaisans, Lyons, 1624, problemi, p. 53. † A similar rule was given by Bachet, problemiv, p. 74. ‡ Bachet, problem v, p. 80.", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 20 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00021", "bookId": 26839, "start": 29452, "end": 32073, "sha256": "271eff4baa693943fbb96c2aa8a4d82783e3870d328f83b70e43e17160986d19", "text": "[PDF page 21] CH. I] ELEMENTARY TRICKS AND PROBLEMS. 5 say, b. (iii) To multiply the quotient byc. (iv) To divide this result by d. (v) To divide the final result by the number selected originally. (vi) To add to the result of operation (v) the number thought of at first. Ask for the sum so found: then, ifac/bd is subtracted from this sum, the remainder will be the number chosen originally. For, if n was the number selected, the result of the first four op- erations is to form nac/bd; operation (v) gives ac/bd; and (vi) gives n + (ac/bd), which number is mentioned. Butac/bd is known; hence, subtracting it from the number mentioned,n is found. Of coursea, b, c, d may have any numerical values it is liked to assign to them. For example, if a = 12, b = 4, c = 7, d = 3 it is sufficient to subtract7 from the final result in order to obtain the number originally selected. Fourth Method*. Ask some one to select a number less than90. (i) Request him to multiply it by10, and to add any number he pleases, a, which is less than10. (ii) Request him to divide the result of step (i) by 3, andtomentiontheremainder, say, b. (iii)Requesthimtomultiply the quotient obtained in step (ii) by10, and to add any number he pleases, c, which is less than10. (iv) Request him to divide the result of step (iii) by3, and to mention the remainder, sayd, and the third digit (from the right) of the quotient; suppose this digit ise. Then, if the numbers a, b, c, d, e are known, the original number can be at once determined. In fact, if the number is9x + y, where x ≯ 9 and y ≯ 8, and if r is the remainder whena − b + 3(c − d) is divided by 9, we have x = e, y = 9 − r. The demonstration is not difficult. For if the selected number is 9x+y, step(i)gives 90x+10y+a; (ii)let y+a = 3n+b, thenthequotient obtained in step (ii) is30x+3 y + n; step (iii) gives300x+30 y +10 n+ c; (iv) let n + c = 3 m + d, then the quotient obtained in step (iv) is 100x + 10y + 3n + m, which I will denote byQ. Now the third digit in Q must be x, because, since y ≯ 8 and a ≯ 9, we haven ≯ 5; and since n ≯ 5 and c ≯ 9, we havem ≯ 4; therefore 10y + 3n + m ≯ 99. Hence the third or hundreds digit inQ is x. Again, from the relations y + a = 3 n + b and n + c = 3 m + d, we have9m − y = a − b + 3(c − d): hence, if r is the remainder when a−b+3(c−d) is divided by9, we havey = 9−r. [This is always true, if we maker positive; but ifa−b+3(c−d) is negative, it is simpler to take y as equal to its numerical value; or we may prevent the occurrence of * Educational Times, London, May 1, 1895, vol.xl viii, p. 234.", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 21 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00022", "bookId": 26839, "start": 32075, "end": 34384, "sha256": "4ce4a8808b84619388a94684648a0cbece4b1908289c82f01afa7d64b7d9109c", "text": "[PDF page 22] 6 ARITHMETICAL RECREATIONS. [CH. I this case by assigning proper values toa and c.] Thus x and y are both known, and therefore the number selected, namely9x + y, is known. Fifth Method *. Ask any one to select a number less than 60. (i) Request him to divide it by 3 and mention the remainder; sup- pose it to be a. (ii) Request him to divide it by4, and mention the remainder; suppose it to beb. (iii) Request him to divide it by5, and mention the remainder; suppose it to bec. Then the number selected is the remainder obtained by dividing40a + 45b + 36c by 60. This method can be generalized and then will apply to any number chosen. Let a′, b′, c′, . . . be a series of numbers prime to one another, and let p be their product. Let n be any number less thanp, and let a, b, c, . . .be the remainders when n is divided by a′, b′, c′, . . . respec- tively. Find a number A which is a multiple of the productb′c′d′ · · · and which exceeds by unity a multiple ofa′. Find a numberB which is a multiple ofa′c′d′ · · · and which exceeds by unity a multiple ofb′; and similarly find analogous numbersC, D, . . .. Rules for the calculation of A, B, C, . . .are given in the theory of numbers, but in general, if the numbers a′, b′, c′, . . .are small, the corresponding numbers,A, B, C, . . . can be found by inspection. I proceed to show thatn is equal to the remainder when Aa + Bb + Cc + · · · is divided by p. Let N = Aa+Bb+Cc +· · ·, and letM(x) stand for a multiple ofx. Now A = M(a′) + 1, therefore Aa = M(a′) + a. Hence, if the first term in N, that is Aa, is divided by a′, the remainder is a. Again, B is a multiple of a′c′d′ · · ·. Therefore Bb is exactly divisible by a′. Similarly Cc, Dd, . . . are each exactly divisible bya′. Thus every term in N, except the first, is exactly divisible bya′. Hence, if N is divided by a′, the remainder isa. But ifn is divided bya′, the remainder isa. Therefore N − n = M(a′) . Similarly N − n = M(b′) , N − n = M(c′) , ....................... But a′, b′, c′, . . .are prime to one another. ∴ N − n = M(a′b′c′ · · ·) = M(p) , that is, N = M(p) + n . * Bachet, problem vi, p. 84: Bachet added, on p. 87, a note on the previous history of the problem.", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 22 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00023", "bookId": 26839, "start": 34386, "end": 36842, "sha256": "7d4ea5cca9f6ce01d0db9e8537ee2be913b68e713dc1eb675bbb4424e0697367", "text": "[PDF page 23] CH. I] ELEMENTARY TRICKS AND PROBLEMS. 7 Now n is less thanp, hence ifN is divided byp, the remainder isn. The rule given by Bachet corresponds to the case ofa′ = 3, b′ = 4, c′ = 5, p = 60, A = 40, B = 45, C = 36. If the number chosen is less than 420, we may takea′ = 3, b′ = 4, c′ = 5, d′ = 7, p = 420, A = 280, B = 105, C = 336, D = 120. To find the result of a series of operations performed on any number (unknown to the questioner) without asking any questions. All rules for solving such problems ultimately depend on so arranging the operations that the number disappears from the final result. Four examples will suffice. First Example*. Request some one to think of a number. Suppose it to ben. Ask him (i) to multiply it by any number you please (say) a; (ii) then to add (say) b; (iii) then to divide the sum by (say) c. (iv) Next, tell him to takea/c of the number originally chosen; and (v) to subtract this from the result of the third operation. The result of the first three operations is(na + b)/c, and the result of operation (iv) isna/c: the difference between these isb/c, and therefore is known to you. For example, if a = 6, b = 12, c = 4, and a/c = 1 1 2, then the final result is 3. Second Example†. Ask A to take any number of counters that he pleases: suppose that he takesn counters. (i) Ask some one else, say B, to takep times as many, wherep is any number you like to choose. (ii) RequestA to giveq of his counters toB, whereq is any number you like to select. (iii) Next, askB to transfer toA a number of counters equal to p times as many counters asA has in his possession. Then there will remain inB’s handsq(p + 1)counters: this number is known to you; and the trick can be finished either by mentioning it or in any other way you like. The reason is as follows. The result of operation (ii) is thatB has pn + q counters, and A has n − q counters. The result of (iii) is that B transfers p(n − q) counters to A: hence he has left in his possession (pn + q) − p(n − q) counters, that is, he hasq(p + 1). For example, if originallyA took any number of counters, then (if you chose p equal to 2), first you would askB to take twice as many counters asA had done; next (if you choseq equal to3) you would ask * Bachet, problem viii, p. 102. † Bachet, problem xiii, p. 123: Bachet presented the above trick in a somewhat more general form, but one which is less effective in practice.", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 23 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00024", "bookId": 26839, "start": 36844, "end": 38548, "sha256": "683919155f3b243e47e293db7b8839cdb76d1821c2496756fbe7a5873358a560", "text": "[PDF page 24] 8 ARITHMETICAL RECREATIONS. [CH. I A to give 3 counters to B; and then you would askB to give to A a number of counters equal to twice the number then inA’s possession; after this was done you would know thatB had 3(2 + 1), that is,9 left. This trick (as also some of the following problems) may be per- formed equally well with one person, in which caseA may stand for his right hand and B for his left hand. Third Example. Ask some one to perform in succession the follow- ing operations. (i) Take any number of three digits. (ii) Form a new number by reversing the order of the digits. (iii) Find the difference of these two numbers. (iv) Form another number by reversing the order of thedigitsinthisdifference. (v)Addtogethertheresultsof(iii)and(iv). Then the sum obtained as the result of this last operation will be1089. An illustration and the explanation of the rule are given below. (i) 237 100 a + 10b + c (ii) 732 100 c + 10b + a (iii) 495 100( a − c − 1) + 90 + (10 + c − a) (iv) 594 100(10 + c − a) + 90 + ( a − c − 1) (v) 1089 900 + 180 + 9 Fourth Example*. The following trick depends on the same prin- ciple. Ask some one to perform in succession the following operations. (i) To write down any sum of money less than £12; the number of pounds not being the same as the number of pence. (ii) Toreverse this sum, that is, to write down a sum of money obtained from it by interchanging the numbers of pounds and pence. (iii) To find the differ- ence between the results of (i) and (ii). (iv) To reverse this difference. (v) To add together the results of (iii) and (iv). Then this sum will be £12. 18s. 11d. * Educational Times Reprints, 1890, vol.liii, p. 78.", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 24 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00025", "bookId": 26839, "start": 38550, "end": 40021, "sha256": "89ea5eb3fa0321632137094105115f6dde580a8a7644c08425e8443ed55670e1", "text": "[PDF page 25] CH. I] ELEMENTARY TRICKS AND PROBLEMS. 9 For instance, take the sum £10. 17s. 5d.; we have £. s. d. (i) ........... 10 17 5 (ii) ........... 5 17 10 (iii) ........... 4 19 7 (iv) ........... 7 19 4 (v) ........... 12 18 11 Thefollowing work explainsthe rule, and shows thatthe finalresult is independent of the sum written down initially. £. s. d. (i) ........... a b c (ii) ........... c b a (iii) ........... a − c − 1 19 c − a + 12 (iv) ........... c − a + 12 19 a − c − 1 (v) ........... 11 38 11 The rule can be generalized to cover any system of monetary units. Problems involving Two Numbers. I proceed next to give a couple of examples of a class of problems which involve two numbers. First Example*. Suppose that there are two numbers, one even and the other odd, and that a person A is asked to select one of them, and that another person B takes the other. It is desired to know whetherA selected the even or the odd number. AskA to multi- ply his number by 2 (or any even number) andB to multiply his by3 (or any odd number). Request them to add the two products together and tell you the sum. If it is even, then originallyA selected the odd number, but if it is odd, then originallyA selected the even number. The reason is obvious. Second Example†. The above rule was extended by Bachet to any two numbers, provided they were prime to one another and one of them * Bachet, problem ix, p. 107. † Bachet, problem xi, p. 113.", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 25 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00026", "bookId": 26839, "start": 40023, "end": 42465, "sha256": "fc95092875f8ca62bea7541d0d794f2540d01a033d4e19c82bd380f295b4bc9c", "text": "[PDF page 26] 10 ARITHMETICAL RECREATIONS. [CH. I was not itself a prime. Let the numbers bemand n, and suppose thatn is exactly divisible byp. Ask A to select one of these numbers, andB to take the other. Choose a number prime top, say q. Ask A to multiply his number by q, and B to multiply his number byp. Request them to add the products together and state the sum. Then A originally selected m or n, according as this result is not or is divisible byp. For example, m = 7, n = 15, p = 3, q = 2. Problems depending on the Scale of Notation. Many of the rules for finding two or more numbers depend on the fact that in arithmetic an integral number is denoted by a succession of digits, where each digit represents the product of that digit and a power of ten, and the number is equal to the sum of these products. For example, 2017 signifies (2 ×103)+(0 ×102)+(1 ×10)+7; that is, the2 represents 2 thousands, i.e. the product of2 and 103, the0 represents 0 hundreds, i.e.the product of0and 102; the1represents 1ten, i.e.the product of1 and 10, and the7 represents 7 units. Thus every digit has a local value. The application to tricks connected with numbers will be under- stood readily from three illustrative examples. First Example*. A common conjuring trick is to ask a boy among the audience to throw two dice, or to select at random from a box a domino on each half of which is a number. The boy is then told to recollect the two numbers thus obtained, to choose either of them, to multiply it by5, to add7 to the result, to double this result, and lastly to add to this the other number. From the number thus obtained, the conjurer subtracts 14, and obtains a number of two digits which are the two numbers chosen originally. For suppose that the boy selected the numbersa and b. Each of these is less than ten—dice or dominoes ensuring this. The successive operations give (i)5a; (ii)5a+7; (iii)10a+14; (iv)10a+14+ b. Hence, if 14 is subtracted from the final result, there will be left a number of two digits, and these digits are the numbers selected originally. An analogous trick might be performed in other scales of notation if it was thought necessary to disguise the process further. * Some similar questions were given by Bachet in problemxii, p. 117; by Oughtred in his Mathematicall Recreations (translated from or founded on van Etten’s work of 1633), London, 1653, problemxxxiv; and by Ozanam, parti, chapterx.", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 26 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00027", "bookId": 26839, "start": 42467, "end": 45031, "sha256": "f6bb7565b793c82eda0e944ef0356b0c3bb4e92e51ff81b6b33ad2d45d7db23c", "text": "[PDF page 27] CH. I] ELEMENTARY TRICKS AND PROBLEMS. 11 Second Example*. Similarly, if three numbers, say, a, b, c, are chosen, then, if each of them is less than ten, they can be found by the following rule. (i) Take one of the numbers, say,a, and multiply it by 2. (ii) Add3 to the product; the result is2a + 3. (iii) Multiply this by 5, and add 7 to the product; the result is10a + 22. (iv) To this sum add the second number. (v) Multiply the result by2. (vi) Add3 to the product. (vii) Multiply by5, and add the third number to the product. The result is100a + 10b + c + 235. Hence, if the final result is known, it is sufficient to subtract235 from it, and the remainder will be a number of three digits. These digits are the numbers chosen originally. I have seen a similar rule applied to determine the birthday and age of some one in the audience. The result is a number of six digits, of which the first two digits give the day of the month, the middle two digits the number of the month, and the last two digits the present age. Third Example†. The following rule for finding a man’s age is of the same kind. Take the tens digit of the year of birth; (i) multiply it by 5; (ii) to the product add2; (iii) multiply the result by2; (iv) to this product add the units digit of the birth-year; (v) subtract the sum from 110. The result is the man’s age in 1906. The algebraic proof of the rule is obvious. Leta and b be the tens and units digits of the birth-year. The successive operations give (i)5a; (ii) 5a + 2; (iii) 10a + 4 (iv) 10a + 4 + b; (v) 106 − (10a + b), which is his age in 1906. The rule can be easily adapted to give the age in any specified year. Other Problems with numbers in the denary scale.I may mention here two or three other slight problems dependent on the common scale of notation, which, as far as I am aware, are unknown to most compilers of books of puzzles. First Problem. The first of them is as follows. Take any number of three digits: reverse the order of the digits: subtract the number so formed from the original number: then, if the last digit of the difference is mentioned, all the digits in the difference are known. For leta be the hundreds digit of the number chosen,b be the tens digit, and c be the units digit. Therefore the number is100a + 10b + c. The number obtained by reversing the digits is100c + 10b + a. The * Bachet gave some similar questions in problemxii, p. 117. † A similar question was given by Laisant and Perrin in theirAlgèbre, Paris, 1892; and inL’Illustrationfor July 13, 1895.", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 27 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00028", "bookId": 26839, "start": 45033, "end": 47565, "sha256": "47fabd26d9cb04408305ce657c20c1015b4a27690d56ca5cdd7f06342e81c326", "text": "[PDF page 28] 12 ARITHMETICAL RECREATIONS. [CH. I difference of these numbers is equal to(100a+c)−(100c+a), that is, to 99(a − c). But a − c is not greater than9, and therefore the remainder can only be99, 198, 297, 396, 495, 594, 693, 792, or 891—in each case the middle digit being9 and the digit before it (if any) being equal to the difference between9 and the last digit. Hence, if the last digit is known, so is the whole of the remainder. Second Problem. The second problem is somewhat similar and is as follows. (i) Take any number; (ii) reverse the digits; (iii) find the difference between the number formed in (ii) and the given number; (iv) multiply this difference by any number you like to name; (v) cross out any digit except a nought; (vi) read the remainder. Then the sum of the digits in the remainder subtracted from the next highest multiple of nine will give the figure struck out. This follows at once from the fact that the result of operation (iii)— and therefore also of operation (iv)—is necessarily a multiple of nine, and it is known that the sum of the digits of every multiple of nine is itself a multiple of nine. Miscellaneous Questions. Besides these problems, properly so called, there are numerous questions on numbers which can be solved empirically, but which are of no special mathematical interest. As an instance I may quote a question which attracted some at- tention in London in 1893, and may be enunciated as follows. With the seven digits 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 0 express three numbers whose sum is 82: each digit, being used only once, and the use of the usual no- tations for fractions being allowed. One solution is 80.6˙9 + .7˙4 + .˙5. Similar questions are with the ten digits,9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1, 0, to express numbers whose sum is unity; a solution is35/70 and 148/296. If the sum were100, a solution would be50, 49, 1/2, and 38/76. A less straightforward question would be, with the nine digits,9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1, to express four numbers whose sum is100; a solution is 78, 15, 2√ 9, and 3√ 64. Problems with a series of things which are numbered. Any collection of things which can be distinguished one from the other—especially if numbered consecutively—afford easy concrete il- lustrations of questions depending on these elementary properties of numbers. As examples I proceed to enumerate a few familiar tricks. The first two of these are commonly shown by the use of awatch, the last three are best exemplified by the use of a pack of playing", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 28 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00029", "bookId": 26839, "start": 47567, "end": 49995, "sha256": "b83d8560cd6c0ab443dd23ec4defd51670f54e67a1b3b623bce03040f143df5a", "text": "[PDF page 29] CH. I] ELEMENTARY TRICKS AND PROBLEMS. 13 cards, which readily lend themselves to such illustrations, and I present them in these forms. First Example*. The first of these examples is connected with the hours marked on the face of a watch. In this puzzle some one is asked to think of some hour, say,m, and then to touch a number that marks another hour, say,n. Then if, beginning with the number touched, he taps each successive hour marked on the face of the watch, going in the opposite direction to that in which the hands of the watch move, and reckoning to himself the taps asm, (m + 1), &c., the (n + 12)th tap will be on the hour he thought of. For example, if he thinks ofv and touchesix, then, if he taps successivelyix, viii, vii, vi, ..., going backwards and reckoning them respectively as5, 6, 7, 8, ..., the tap which he reckons as21 will be on thev. The reason of the rule is obvious, for he arrives finally at the (n + 12 − m)th hour from which he started. Now, since he goes in the opposite direction to that in which the hands of the watch move, he has to go over(n − m) hours to reach the hourm: also it will make no difference if in addition he goes over12 hours, since the only effect of this is to take him once completely round the circle. Now(n + 12− m) is always positive, since m < 12, and therefore if we make him pass over (n + 12− m) hours we can give the rule in a form which is equally valid whether m is greater or less thann. Second Example. The following is another well-known way of in- dicating on a watch-dial an hour selected by some one. I do not know who first invented it. If the hour is tapped by a pencil beginning at vii and proceeding backwards round the dial tovi, v, &c., and if the person who selected the number counts the taps, reckoning from the hour selected (thus, if he selectedx, he would reckon the first tap as the 11th), then the20th tap as reckoned by him will be on the hour chosen. For suppose he selected thenth hour. Then the8th tap is onxii and is reckoned by him as the(n + 8)th. The tap which he reckons as (n + 9)th is onxi, and generally the tap which he reckons as(n + p)th is on the hour(20 − p). Hence, putting p − 20 − n, the tap which he reckons as20th is on the hourn. Of course the hours indicated by the first seven taps are immaterial. * Bachet, problem xx, p. 155; Oughtred, Mathematicall Recreations, London, 1653, p. 28.", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 29 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00030", "bookId": 26839, "start": 49997, "end": 52563, "sha256": "1921b2d258186cb908a75ecb941c32f502c1acb0a7fb775f248ada0d207ebb7d", "text": "[PDF page 30] 14 ARITHMETICAL RECREATIONS. [CH. I Extension. It is obvious that the same trick can be performed with any collection ofm things, such as cards or dominoes, which are distinguishable one from the other, provided m < 20. For suppose the m things are arranged on a table in some numerical order, and the nth thing is selected by a spectator. Then the first(19 − m) taps are immaterial, the(20 − m)th tap must be on themth thing and be reckoned by the spectator as the(n+20 − m)th, the(20 − m+1)th tap must be on the(m−1)th thing and be reckoned as the(n+20−m+1)th, and finally the(20 − n)th tap will be on thenth thing and is reckoned as the 20th tap. Third Example. The following example rests on an extension of the method used in the last question; it is very simple, but I have never seen it previously described in print. Suppose that a pack ofn cards is given to some one who is asked to select one out of the firstm cards and to remember (but not to mention) what is its number from the top of the pack (say it is actually thexth card in the pack). Then take the pack, reverse the order of the topm cards (which can be easily effected by shuffling), and transfery cards (where y < n − m) from the bottom to the top of the pack. The effect of this is that the card originally chosen is now the(y + m − x + 1)th from the top. Return to the spectator the pack so rearranged, and ask that the top card be counted as the(x + 1)th, the next as the(x + 2)th, and so on, in which case the card originally chosen will be the(y + m + 1)th. Now y and m can be chosen as we please, and may be varied every time the trick is performed; thus any one unskilled in arithmetic will not readily detect the modus operandi. Fourth Example*. Place a card on the table, and on it place as many other cards from the pack as with the number of pips on the card will make a total of twelve. For example, if the card placed first on the table is the five of clubs, then seven additional cards must be placed on it. The court cards may have any values assigned to them, but usually they are reckoned as tens. This is done again with another card, and thus another pile is formed. The operation may be repeated either only three or four times or as often as the pack will permit of such piles being formed. If finally there are p such piles, and if the number of cards left over isr, then the sum of the number of pips on the bottom cards of all the piles will be13(p − 4) + r. * A particular case of this problem was given by Bachet, problemxvii, p. 138.", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 30 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00031", "bookId": 26839, "start": 52565, "end": 54802, "sha256": "493ada5cef462dffe3f688af925b0e8c029340f4bf49ce032475da418b2fb038", "text": "[PDF page 31] CH. I] MEDIEV AL PROBLEMS IN ARITHMETIC. 15 For, if x is the number of pips on the bottom card of a pile, the number of cards in that pile will be13 − x. A similar argument holds for each pile. Also there are 52 cards in the pack; and this must be equal to the sum of the cards in thep piles and ther cards left over. ∴ (13 − x1) + (13 − x2) + · · · + (13 − xp) + r = 52 , ∴ 13p − (x1 + x2 + · · · + xp) + r = 52 , ∴ x1 + x2 + · · · + xp = 13p − 52 + r = 13(p − 4) + r . More generally, if a pack ofn cards is taken, and if in each pile the sum of the pips on the bottom card and the number of cards put on it is equal tom, then the sum of the pips on the bottom cards of the piles will be(m + 1)p + r − n. In an écarté pack n = 32, and it is convenient to take m = 15. Fifth Example. It may be noticed that cutting a pack of cards never alters the relative position of the cards provided that, if necessary, we regard the top card as following immediately after the bottom card in the pack. This is used in the following trick*. Take a pack, and deal the cards face upwards on the table, calling them one, two, three, &c. as you put them down, and noting in your own mind the card first dealt. Ask some one to select a card and recollect its number. Turn the pack over, and let it be cut (not shuffled) as often as you like. Enquire what was the number of the card chosen. Then, if you deal, and as soon as you come to the original first card begin (silently) to count, reckoning this as one, the selected card will appear at the number mentioned. Of course, if all the cards are dealt before reaching this number, you must turn the cards over and go on counting continuously. Another similar trick is performed by handing the pack face up- wards to some one, and asking him to select a card and state its num- ber, reckoning from the top; suppose it to be thenth. Next, ask him to choose a number at which it shall appear in the pack; suppose he selects themth. Take the pack and secretly movem − n cards from the bottom to the top (or ifn is greater thanm, then n − m from the top to the bottom) and of course the card will be in the required position. * Bachet, problem xix, p. 152.", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 31 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00032", "bookId": 26839, "start": 54804, "end": 57129, "sha256": "1c04e69df737ae4be5cf7e14ab0404af2a7f429e3db9a81d0e32ea11c4ac9363", "text": "[PDF page 32] 16 ARITHMETICAL RECREATIONS. [CH. I Medieval Problems in Arithmetic. Before leaving the sub- ject of these elementary questions, I may mention a few problems which for centuries have appeared in nearly every collection of mathemati- cal recreations, and therefore may claim what is almost a prescriptive right to a place here. First Example*. The following is a sample of one class of these puzzles. Three men robbed a gentleman of a vase, containing24 ounces of balsam. Whilst running away they met in a wood with a glass-seller, of whom in a great hurry they purchased three vessels. On reaching a place of safety they wished to divide the booty, but they found that their vessels contained 5, 11, and 13 ounces respectively. How could they divide the balsam into equal portions? Problems like this can be worked out only by trial: there are several solutions, of which one is as follows. The vessels can contain...... 24 oz. 13 oz. 11 oz. 5 oz. Their contents originally are 24 ... 0 ... 0 ... 0 ... First, make their contents ... 0 ... 8 ... 11 ... 5 ... Second, ” ” ... 16 ... 8 ... 0 ... 0 ... Third, ” ” ... 16 ... 0 ... 8 ... 0 ... Fourth, ” ” ... 3 ... 13 ... 8 ... 0 ... Fifth, ” ” ... 3 ... 8 ... 8 ... 5 ... Sixth, ” ” ... 8 ... 8 ... 8 ... 0 ... Second Example†. The next of these is a not uncommon game, played by two people, say A and B. A begins by mentioning some number not greater than (say) six,B may add to that any number not greater than six,A may add to that again any number not greater than six, andsoon. Hewinswhoisthefirsttoreach(say) 50. Obviously, ifA calls 43, then whateverB adds to that,A can win next time. Similarly, if A calls 36, B cannot prevent A’s calling43 the next time. In this way it is clear that the key numbers are those forming the arithmetical progression 43, 36, 29, 22, 15, 8, 1; and whoever plays first ought to win. Similarly, if no number greater thanm may be added at any one time, andn is the number to be called by the victor, then the key num- * Some similar problems were given by Bachet, appendix, problem iii, p. 206; problem ix, p. 233; by Oughtred in hisRecreations, p. 22: and by Ozanam, 1803 edition, vol. i, p. 174; 1840 edition, p. 79. Earlier instances occur in Tartaglia’s writings. † Bachet, problem xxii, p. 170.", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 32 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00033", "bookId": 26839, "start": 57131, "end": 59496, "sha256": "37015f26051a2ab2b1c730722bcf47556f18f04301e00707e723010fc93c65c1", "text": "[PDF page 33] CH. I] MEDIEV AL PROBLEMS IN ARITHMETIC. 17 bers will be those forming the arithmetical progression whose common difference is m + 1 and whose smallest term is the remainder obtained by dividing n by m + 1. The same game may be played in another form by placingn coins, matches, or other objects on a table, and directing each player in turn to take away not more thanm of them. Whoever takes away the last coin wins. Obviously the key numbers are multiples ofm + 1, and the first player who is able to leave an exact multiple of(m + 1) coins can win. Perhaps a better form of the game is to make that player lose who takes away the last coin, in which case each of the key numbers exceeds by unity a multiple ofm + 1. Mr Loyd has also suggested* a modification which is equivalent to placing n counters in the form of a circle, and allowing each player in succession to take away not more thanmof them which are in unbroken sequence: m being less thann and greater than unity. In this case the second of the two players can always win. Recent Extension of this Problem. The games last described are very simple, but if we impose on the original problem the additional restriction that each player may not add the same number more than three times, the analysis becomes by no means easy. It is difficult in this case to say whether it is an advantage to begin or not. I have never seen this extension described in print, and I will therefore enunciate it at length. Suppose that each player is given eighteen cards, three of them marked 6, three marked 5, three marked 4, three marked 3, three marked 2, and three marked 1. They play alternately; A begins by playing one of his cards; thenB plays one of his, and so on. He wins who first plays a card which makes the sum of the points or numbers on all the cards played exactly equal to50, but he loses if he plays a card which makes this sum exceed50. The game can be played men- tally or by noting the numbers on a piece of paper, and in practice it is unnecessary to use cards. Thus, if they play as followsA, 4; B, 3; A, 1; B, 6; A, 3; B, 4; A, 4; B, 5; A, 4; B, 4; A, 5; the game stands at43. B can now win, for he may safely play3, since A has not another4 wherewith to follow it; and ifA plays less than4, B will win the next time. Again, if they play * Tit-Bits, London, July 17, Aug. 7, 1897.", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 33 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00034", "bookId": 26839, "start": 59498, "end": 61946, "sha256": "1e67fc5f1a082ceddeb4ab81de7b5093f688ff5fe76b322cf9f9851c53fb5b94", "text": "[PDF page 34] 18 ARITHMETICAL RECREATIONS. [CH. I thus, A, 6; B, 3; A, 1; B, 6; A, 3; B, 4; A, 2; B, 5; A, 1; B, 5; A, 2; B, 5; A, 2; B, 3; A is now forced to play1, and B wins by playing1. The game can be also played if each player is given only two cards of each kind. Third Example. The following medieval problem is somewhat more elaborate. Suppose that three people, P, Q, R, select three things, which we may denote by a, e, i, respectively, and that it is desired to find by whom each object was selected*. Place 24 counters on a table. AskP to take one counter,Q to take two counters, andR to take three counters. Next, ask the person who selected a to take as many counters as he has already, whoever selected etotaketwiceasmanycountersashehasalready, andwhoeverselected i to take four times as many counters as he has already. Note how many counters remain on the table. There are only six ways of distributing the three things among P, Q, and R; and the number of counters remaining on the table is different for each way. The remainders may be 1, 2, 3, 5, 6, or 7. Bachet summed up the results in the mnemonic linePar fer (1) César (2) jadis (3) devint (5) si grand(6) prince (7). Corresponding to any remainder is a word or words containing two syllables: for instance, to the remainder 5 corresponds the word devint. The vowel in the first syllable indicates the thing selected byP, the vowel in the second syllable indicates the thing selected byQ, and of courseR selected the remaining thing. Salve certa animae semita vita quieswas suggested by Oughtred† as an alternative mnemonic line. Extension. M. Bourlet, in the course of a very kindly notice‡ of the second edition of this work, has given a much neater solution of the above question, and has extended the problem to the case ofn people, P0, P1, P2, . . . , Pn−1, each of whom selects one object, out of a collection of n objects, such as dominoes or cards. It is required to know which domino or card was selected by each person. Let us suppose the dominoes to be denoted or marked by the num- bers 0, 1, . . . , n− 1, instead of by vowels. Give one counter toP1, two counters to P2, and generally k counters to Pk. Note the number of counters left on the table. Next ask the person who had chosen the * Bachet, problem xxv, p. 187. † Mathematicall Recreations, London, 1653, p. 20. ‡ Bulletin des sciences mathématiques, Paris, 1893, vol.xvii, pp. 105–107.", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 34 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00035", "bookId": 26839, "start": 61948, "end": 64446, "sha256": "d4ef5c30f48d3841ac76fb79cdff18a728e19b48602a77769774212e11225b55", "text": "[PDF page 35] CH. I] MEDIEV AL PROBLEMS IN ARITHMETIC. 19 domino 0 to take as many counters as he had already, and generally whoever had chosen the dominoh to take nh times as many dominoes as he had already: thus ifPk had chosen the domino numberedh, he would take nhk counters. Note the total number of counters taken, i.e. P nhk. Divide it by n, then the remainder will be the number on the domino selected byP0; divide the quotient byn, and the remainder will be the number on the domino selected byP1; divide this quotient by n, and the remainder will be the number on the domino selected by P2; and so on. In other words, if the number of counters taken is expressed in the scale of notation whose radix isn, then the(h + 1)th digit from the right will give the number on the domino selected byPh. Thus in Bachet’s problem with3 people and3 dominoes, we should first give one counter toQ, and two counters toR, while P would have no counters; then we should ask the person who selected the domino marked 0 or a to take as many counters as he had already, whoever selected the domino marked1 or e to take three times as many counters as he had already, and whoever selected the domino marked2 or i to take nine times as many counters as he had already. By noticing the original number of counters, and observing that3 of these had been given to Q and R, we should know the total number taken byP, Q, and R. If this number were divided by3, the remainder would be the number of the domino chosen byP; if the quotient were divided by3 the remainder would be the number of the domino chosen byQ; and the final quotient would be the number of the domino chosen byR. I may add that Bachet also discussed the case whenn = 4, which had been previously considered by Diego Palomino in 1599, but as M. Bourlet’s method is general, it is unnecessary to discuss further particular cases. Decimation. ThelastoftheseantiqueproblemstowhichIreferred consists in placing men round a circle so that if everynth man is killed the remainder shall be certain specified individuals. When decimation was a not uncommon punishment a knowledge of this kind may have had practical interest. Hegesippus* says that Josephus saved his life by such a device. Ac- cording to his account, after the Romans had captured Jotopat, Jose- phus and forty other Jews took refuge in a cave. Josephus, much to his disgust, found that all except himself and one other man were resolved * De Bello Judaico, bk. iii, chaps. 16–18.", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 35 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00036", "bookId": 26839, "start": 64448, "end": 66762, "sha256": "9b978127bdda757e1ead60b907625d5ee5596f488345e7ec58e3e00f0306ac24", "text": "[PDF page 36] 20 ARITHMETICAL RECREATIONS. [CH. I to kill themselves, so as not to fall into the hands of their conquerors. Fearing to show his opposition too openly he consented, but declared that the operation must be carried out in an orderly way, and sug- gested that they should arrange themselves round a circle and that every third person should be killed until but one man was left, who must then commit suicide. It is alleged that he placed himself and the other man in the31st and 16th place respectively, with a result which will be easily foreseen. The question is usually presented in the following form. A ship, carrying as passengers fifteen Turks and fifteen Christians, encountered a storm, and the pilot declared that, in order to save the ship and crew, one-half of the passengers must be thrown into the sea. To choose the victims the passengers were placed round a circle, and it was agreed thateveryninthmanshouldbecastoverboard, reckoningfromacertain point. It is desired to find an arrangement by which all the Christians should be saved.* Problems like this can be easily solved by counting, but it is im- possible to give a general rule. In this case, the Christians, reckoning from the man first counted, must occupy the places1, 2, 3, 4, 10, 11, 13, 14, 15, 17, 20, 21, 25, 28, 29. This arrangement can be recollected by the positions of the vowels in the following doggerel rhyme, From numbers’ aid and art, never will fame depart, where a stands for 1, e for 2, i for 3, o for 4, and u for 5. Hence (looking only at the vowels in the verse) the order is4 Christians, 5 Turks, 2 Christians, 1 Turk, 3 Christians, 1 Turk, 1 Christian, 2 Turks, 2 Christians, 3 Turks, 1 Christian, 2 Turks, 2 Christians, 1 Turk. Other similar mnemonic lines in French and in Latin were given by Bachet and by Ozanam respectively. Arithmetical Fallacies. I insert next some instances of demonstrations† leading to arithmetical results which are obviously * Bachet, problem xxiii, p. 174. The same problem had been previously enunci- ated by Tartaglia. † Of the fallacies given in the text, the first, second, and third, are well known; the fourth is not new, but the earliest work in which I recollect seeing it is my Algebra, Cambridge, 1890, p. 430; the fifth is given in G.C. Chrystal’sAlgebra,", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 36 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00037", "bookId": 26839, "start": 66764, "end": 68414, "sha256": "c84a2c659c5e6eaa4e6652928705f4b08dda7e3092f2eac1833b9b2f87c59179", "text": "[PDF page 37] CH. I] ARITHMETICAL F ALLACIES. 21 impossible. I include algebraical proofs as well as arithmetical ones. The fallacies are so patent that in preparing the first and second editions I did not think such questions worth printing, but, as some correspondents have expressed a contrary opinion, I give them for what they are worth. First fallacy. One of the oldest of these—and not a very interest- ing specimen—is as follows. Suppose thata = b, then ab = a2 . ∴ ab − b2 = a2 − b2 . ∴ b(a − b) = (a + b)(a − b) . ∴ b = a + b . ∴ b = 2b . ∴ 1 = 2 . Second Fallacy. Another instance, almost as puerile, is as follows. Let a and b be two unequal numbers, and let c be their arithmetic mean, hence a + b = 2c . ∴ (a + b)(a − b) = 2c(a − b) . ∴ a2 − 2ac = b2 − 2bc . ∴ a2 − 2ac + c2 = b2 − 2bc + c2 . ∴ (a − c)2 = (b − c)2 . ∴ a = b . Edinburgh, 1889, vol. ii, p. 159; the eighth is due to G.T. Walker, and, as far as I know, has not appeared in any other book; the ninth is due to D’Alembert; and the tenth to F. Galton. A mechanical demonstration that1 = 2 was given by R. Chartres inKnowledge, July, 1891. J.L.F. Bertrand pointed out that a demonstration that 1 = −1 can be also obtained from the proposition in the Integral Calculus that, if the limits are constant, the order of integration is indifferent; hence the integral to x (from x = 0 to x = 1) of the integral to y (from y = 0 to y = 1) of a function φ should be equal to the integral toy (from y = 0 to y = 1) of the integral tox (from x = 0 to x = 1) of φ, but if φ = (x2 − y2)/(x2 + y2)2, this gives 1 4 π = − 1 4 π.", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 37 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00038", "bookId": 26839, "start": 68416, "end": 69433, "sha256": "f294941007c8492dcceb724adc113a1258dfa22c20ee964934aa96ac844097f9", "text": "[PDF page 38] 22 ARITHMETICAL RECREATIONS. [CH. I Third Fallacy. Another example, the idea of which is due to John Bernoulli, may be stated as follows. We have (−1)2 = 1 . Take logarithms, ∴ 2 log(−1) = log 1 = 0 . ∴ log(−1) = 0 . ∴ −1 = e0 . ∴ −1 = 1 . The same argument may be expressed thus. Letx be a quantity which satisfies the equation ex = −1 . Square both sides, ∴ e2x = 1 . ∴ 2x = 0 . ∴ x = 0 . ∴ ex = e0 . But ex = −1 and e0 = 1, ∴ −1 = 1 . Fourth Fallacy. As yet another instance, we know that log(1 + x) = x − 1 2 x2 + 1 3 x3 − · · · . If x = 1, the resulting series is convergent; hence we have log 2 = 1 − 1 2 + 1 3 − 1 4 + 1 5 − 1 6 + 1 7 − 1 8 + 1 9 − · · · . ∴ 2 log 2 = 2− 1 + 2 3 − 1 2 + 2 5 − 1 3 + 2 7 − 1 4 + 2 9 − · · · . Taking those terms together which have a common denominator, we obtain 2 log 2 = 1 +1 3 − 1 2 + 1 5 + 1 7 − 1 4 + 1 9 − · · · = 1 − 1 2 + 1 3 − 1 4 + 1 5 − · · · = log 2. Hence 2 = 1 .", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 38 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00039", "bookId": 26839, "start": 69435, "end": 69810, "sha256": "7a862c2324574b4dfc7fab687a475914c1219d77998a42bd135b007c16026bf4", "text": "[PDF page 39] CH. I] ARITHMETICAL F ALLACIES. 23 Fifth Fallacy. This fallacy is very similar to that last given. We have log 2 = 1 − 1 2 + 1 3 − 1 4 + 1 5 − 1 6 + · · · = \u0000 1 + 1 3 + 1 5 + · · · \u0001 − \u0000 1 2 + 1 4 + 1 6 + · · · \u0001 = \b\u0000 1 + 1 3 + 1 5 + · · · \u0001 + \u0000 1 2 + 1 4 + 1 6 + · · · \u0001 − 2 \u0000 1 2 + 1 4 + 1 6 + · · · \u0001 = \b 1 + 1 2 + 1 3 + · · ·", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 39 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00040", "bookId": 26839, "start": 69813, "end": 70797, "sha256": "58ced0ab7eb62583557fa26ef479ea8ff6fe3b1fb1dfb74b6929e998bcfb69b8", "text": "− \u0000 1 + 1 2 + 1 3 + · · · \u0001 = 0 . The error in each of the foregoing examples is obvious, but the fallacies in the next examples are concealed somewhat better. Sixth Fallacy. We can write the identity√−1 = √−1 in the form r −1 1 = r 1 −1 , hence √−1√ 1 = √ 1√−1 , therefore ( √ −1)2 = ( √ 1)2 , that is, −1 = 1 . Seventh Fallacy. Again, we have √a × √ b = √ ab . Hence √ −1 × √ −1 = p (−1)(−1) , therefore ( √ −1)2 = √ 1 , that is, −1 = 1 . Eighth Fallacy. The following demonstration depends on the fact that an algebraical identity is true whatever be the symbols used in it, and it will appeal only to those who are familiar with this fact. We have, as an identity, √x − y = i√y − x ....... (i), where i stands either for +√−1 or for −√−1. Now an identity in x and y is necessarily true whatever numbers x and y may represent. First put x = a and y = b, ∴ √ a − b = i √ b − a .......(ii).", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 39 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00041", "bookId": 26839, "start": 70799, "end": 73061, "sha256": "56b241be984a09f11aa238584bd57866f66a73694d709555937d178bf819fb29", "text": "[PDF page 40] 24 ARITHMETICAL RECREATIONS. [CH. I Next put x = b and y = a, ∴ √ b − a = i √ a − b ...... (iii). Also since (i) is an identity, it follows that in (ii) and (iii) the symboli must be the same, that is, it represents+√−1 or −√−1 in both cases. Hence, from (ii) and (iii), we have √ a − b √ b − a = i2√ b − a √ a − b , ∴ 1 = i2 , that is 1 = −1 . Ninth Fallacy. The following fallacy is due to D’Alembert*. We know that if the product of two numbers is equal to the product of two other numbers, the numbers will be in proportion, and from the definition of a proportion it follows that if the first term is greater than the second, then the third term will be greater than the fourth: thus, if ad = bc, then a : b = c : d, and if in this proportiona > b , then c > d. Now if we puta = d = 1 and b = c = −1 we have four numbers which satisfy the relationad = bc and such thata > b ; hence, by the proposition, c > d , that is, −1 > 1, which is absurd. Tenth Fallacy. The mathematical theory of probability leads to various paradoxes: of these one specimen† will suffice. Suppose three coins to be thrown up and the fact whether each comes down head or tail to be noticed. The probability that all three coins come down head is clearly( 1 2)3, that is, is1 8; similarly the probability that all three come down tail is1 8: hence the probability that all the coins come down alike (i.e.either all of them heads or all of them tails) is1 4. But, of three coins thus thrown up, at least two must come down alike; now the probability that the third coin comes down head is1 2 and the probability that it comes down tail is1 2, thus the probability that it comes down the same as the other two coins is 1 2: hence the probability that all the coins come down alike is 1 2. I leave to my readers to say whether either of these conflicting conclusions is right and if so, which. Arithmetical Problems. To the above examples I may add the fol- lowing questions, which I have often propounded in past years: though not fallacies, they may serve to illustrate the fact that the answer to * Opuscules mathématiques, Paris, 1761, vol.i, p. 201. † See Nature, Feb. 15, March 1, 1894, vol.xlix, pp. 365–366, 413.", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 40 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00042", "bookId": 26839, "start": 73063, "end": 75644, "sha256": "869126c13beaf42299306f619a5d87f9f7390ce35f6a3f4d10643baef3621ed5", "text": "[PDF page 41] CH. I] ARITHMETICAL F ALLACIES. 25 an arithmetical question is frequently different to what a hasty reader might suppose. The first of these questions is as follows. Two clerks are engaged, one at a salary commencing at the rate of (say) £100 a year with a rise of £20 every year, the other at a salary commencing at the same rate (£100 a year) with a rise of £5 every half-year, in each case payments being made half-yearly: which has the larger income? The answer is the latter; for in the first year the first clerk receives £100, but the second clerk receives £50 and £55 as his two half-yearly payments and thus receives in all £105. In the second year the first clerk receives £120, but the second clerk receives £60 and £65 as his two half-yearly payments and thus receives in all £125. In fact the second clerk will always receive £5 a year more than the first clerk. As another question take the following. A man bets1/nth of his money on an even chance (say tossing heads or tails with a penny): he repeats this again and again, each time betting1/nth of all the money then in his possession. If, finally, the number of times he has won is equal to the number of times he has lost, has he gained or lost by the transaction? He has, in fact, lost. Here is another simple question to which not unfrequently I have received incorrect answers. One tumbler is half-full of wine, another is half-full of water: from the first tumbler a teaspoonful of wine is taken out and poured into the tumbler containing the water: a teaspoonful of the mixture in the second tumbler is then transferred to the first tumbler. As the result of this double transaction, is the quantity of wine removed from the first tumbler greater or less than the quantity of water removed from the second tumbler? Nineteen people out of twenty will say it is greater, but this is not the case. Routes on a Chess-Board. A not uncommon problem can be gen- eralised as follows*. Construct a rectangular board ofmn cells (or small squares) by rulingm + 1 vertical lines andn + 1 horizontal lines. It is required to know how many routes can be taken from the top left-hand corner to the bottom right-hand corner, the motion being along the ruled lines and its direction being always either vertically downwards or horizontally from left to right. The answer is(m+ n)!/m!n!: thus on a square board containing16 cells (i.e. one-quarter of a chess-board), * The substance of the problem was given in a scholarship paper set at Cambridge about 30 years ago, and possibly was not new then.", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 41 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00043", "bookId": 26839, "start": 75646, "end": 78041, "sha256": "81024aa68da061d411e90cdad1de2d3af8dbed08ab18d4501d8193c50b1298fc", "text": "[PDF page 42] 26 ARITHMETICAL RECREATIONS. [CH. I where m = n = 4, there are70 such routes; while on a common chess- board, where m = n = 8, there are no less than 12870 such routes. A similar theorem can be enunciated for a parallelopiped. Another problem of a somewhat similar type is the determination of the number of closed routes throughmn points arranged inm rows and n columns, following the lines of the quadrilateral net-work, and passing once and only once through each point*. Permutation Problems. As other simple illustrations of the very large number of ways in which combinations of even a few things can be arranged, I may note that as many as 19, 958400 distinct skele- ton cubes can be formed with twelve differently coloured rods of equal length†; again there are 3, 979614, 965760 ways of arranging a set of twenty-eight dominoes (i.e. a set from double zero to double six) in a line, with like numbers in contact‡; while there are no less than 53644, 737765, 488792, 839237, 440000 possible different distributions of hands at whist with a pack of fifty-two cards§. Voting Problems. Here is a simple example on combinations deal- ing with the cumulative vote as affecting the representation of a mi- nority. If there are p electors each having r votes of which not more than s may be given to one candidate, andn men are to be elected, then the least number of supporters who can secure the election of a candidate must exceed pr/(ns + r). Exploration Problems. Another common question is concerned with the maximum distance into a desert which could be reached from a frontier settlement by the aid of a party ofn explorers, each capa- ble of carrying provisions that would last one man fora days. The answer is that the man who reaches the greatest distance will occupy na/(n + 1)days before he returns to his starting point. If in the course of their journey they may make depôts, the longest possible journey will occupy 1 2 a(1 + 1 2 + 1 3 + · · · + 1/n) days. Further extensions by the use of horses and cycles will suggest themselves. Here I conclude my account of such of these easy problems on * See C.F. Sainte-Marie in L’Intermédiaire des mathématiciens, Paris, vol. xi, March, 1904, pp. 86–88. † Mathematical Tripos, Cambridge, Part I, 1894. ‡ Reiss inAnnali di matematica, Milan, November, 1871, vol.v, pp. 63–120. § That is (52!)/(13!)4.", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 42 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00044", "bookId": 26839, "start": 78043, "end": 80645, "sha256": "d71eb580367a30e12de16e49b047e19b357d6daee76297595173c8f189467a63", "text": "[PDF page 43] CH. I] BACHET’S WEIGHTS PROBLEM. 27 numbers or elementary algebra as seemed worth reproducing. It will be noticed that the majority of them either are due to Bachet or were collected by him in his classical Problèmes; but it should be added that besides the questions I have mentioned he enunciated, even if he did not always solve, some other problems of greater interest. One instance will suffice. Bachet’s Weights Problem*. Among the more difficult problems proposed by Bachet was the determination of the least num- ber of weights which would serve to weigh any integral number of pounds from 1 lb. to 40 lbs. inclusive. Bachet gave two solutions: namely, (i) the series of weights of1, 2, 4, 8, 16, and 32 lbs.; (ii) the series of weights of1, 3, 9, and 27 lbs. If the weights may be placed in only one of the scale-pans, the first series gives a solution, as had been pointed out in 1556 by Tartaglia†. Bachet, however, assumedthatanyweightmightbeplacedineither of the scale-pans. In this case the second series gives the least possible number of weights required. His reasoning is as follows. To weigh1 lb. we must have a1 lb. weight. To weigh2 lbs. we must have in addition either a2 lb. weight or a3 lb. weight; but, if we are confined to only one new weight (in addition to the1 lb. we have got already), then with no weight greater than3 lbs. could we weigh2 lbs.: if we use a2 lb. weight we then can weigh1 lb., 2 lbs., and 3 lbs., but if we use a3 lb. weight we then can weigh1 lb., (3 − 1) lbs., 3 lbs., and (3 + 1) lbs.; hence a 3 lb. weight is preferable. Similarly, to enable us to weigh5 lbs. we must have another weight not greater than9 lbs., and a weight of9 lbs. enables us to weigh every weight from1 lb. to 13 lbs.; hence it is the best to choose. The next weight required will be2(1+3+9)+1 lb., that is, will be27 lbs.; and this enables us to weigh from1 lb. to40 lbs. Thus only four weights are required, namely,1 lb., 3 lbs., 32 lbs., and 33 lbs. We can show similarly that the series of weights of1, 3, 32, . . ., 3n−1 lbs. will enable us to weigh any integral number of pounds from 1 lb. to(1 + 3 + 32 + · · ·3n−1) lbs., that is, to1 2(3n − 1) lbs. This is the least number with which the problem can be effected. To determine the arrangement of the weights to weigh any given mass we have only to express the number of pounds in it as a number in the ternary scale of notation, except that in finding the successive * Bachet, Appendix, problem v, p. 215. † Trattato de’ numeri e misure, Venice, 1556, vol.ii, bk. i, chap. xvi, art. 32.", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 43 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00045", "bookId": 26839, "start": 80647, "end": 83288, "sha256": "0610ce4fb4da284b8261983bf1b28ba98ba232e027dffdccc039d8b87f6c5ded", "text": "[PDF page 44] 28 ARITHMETICAL RECREATIONS. [CH. I digits we must make every remainder either0, 1, or −1: to effect this a remainder 2 must be written as 3 − 1, that is, the quotient must be increased by unity, in which case the remainder is −1. This is explained in most text-books on algebra. Bachet’s argument does not prove that his result is unique or that it gives the least possible number of weights required. These omissions have been supplied by Major MacMahon, who has discussed the far more difficult problem (of which Bachet’s is a particular case) of the determination of all possible sets of weights, not necessarily unequal, which enable us to weigh any integral number of pounds from1 to n inclusive, (i) when the weights may be placed in only one scale-pan, and (ii) when any weight may be placed in either scale-pan. He has investigated also the modifications of the results which are necessary when we impose either or both of the further conditions (a) that no other weighings are to be possible, and (b) that each weighing is to be possible in only one way, that is, is to be unique*. The method for case (i) consists in resolving1 + x + x2 + · · · + xn into factors, each factor being of the form1 +xa + x2a + · · ·+ xma; the number of solutions depends on the composite character ofn + 1. The method for case (ii) consists in resolving the expressionx−n+x−n+1+· · · + x−1 + 1 + x + · · · + xn−1 + xn into factors, each factor being of the form x−ma + · · · + x−a + 1 + xa + · · · + xma; the number of solutions depends on the composite character of2n + 1. Bachet’s problem falls under case (ii),n = 40. MacMahon’s anal- ysis shows that there are eight such ways of factorizingx−40 + x−39 + · · · + 1 + x39 + x40. First, there is the expression itself in whicha = 1, m = 40 . Second, the expression is equal to (1 − x81)/x40(1 − x), which can be resolved into the product of (1 − x3)/x(1 − x) and (1 − x81)/x39(1 − x3); hence it can be resolved into two factors of the form given above, in one of whicha = 1, m = 1, and in the other, a = 3, m = 13. Third, similarly, it can be resolved into two such factors, in one of whicha = 1, m = 4, and in the othera = 9, m = 4. Fourth, it can be resolved into three such factors, in one of whicha = 1, m = 1, in anothera = 3, m = 1, and in the other,a = 9, m = 4. Fifth, it can be resolved into two such factors, in one of whicha = 1, m = 13, * See his article in theQuarterly Journal of Mathematics, 1886, vol.xxi, pp. 367– 373. An account of the method is given in Nature, Dec. 4, 1890, vol. xlii, pp. 113–114.", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 44 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00046", "bookId": 26839, "start": 83290, "end": 85819, "sha256": "8e9db238ac903c002acff783673e1d98d68bf61859c40f0e929ccb6c27d651a7", "text": "[PDF page 45] CH. I] PROBLEMS IN HIGHER ARITHMETIC. 29 and in the othera = 27, m = 1. Sixth, it can be resolved into three such factors, in one of whicha = 1, m = 1, in another a = 3, m = 4, and in the othera = 27, m = 1. Seventh, it can be resolved into three such factors, in one of whicha = 1, m = 4, in another a = 9, m = 1, and in the othera = 27, m = 1. Eighth, it can be resolved into four such factors, in one of whicha = 1, m = 1, in another a = 3, m = 1, in another a = 9, m = 1, and in the othera = 27, m = 1. These results show that there are eight possible sets of weights with which any integral number of pounds from1 to 40 can be weighed subject to the conditions (ii), (a), and (b). If we denotep weights each equalto w by wp, theseeightsolutionsare 140; 1, 313; 14, 94; 1, 3, 94; 113, 27; 1, 34, 27; 14, 9, 27; 1, 3, 9, 27. The last of these is Bachet’s solution: not only is it that in which the least number of weights are employed, but it is also the only unique one in which all the weights are unequal. Problems in Higher Arithmetic. At the commencement of this chapter I alluded to the special interest which many mathemati- cians find in the theorems of higher arithmetic: such, for example, as that every prime of the form4n + 1 and every power of it is ex- pressible as the sum of two squares*, and the first and second powers can be expressed thus in only one way. For instance,13 = 3 2 + 22, 132 = 12 2 + 52, 133 = 46 2 + 92, and so on. Similarly 41 = 5 2 + 42, 412 = 40 2 + 92, 413 = 236 2 + 1152, and so on. Propositions such as the one just quoted may be found in text- books on the theory of numbers and therefore lie outside the limits of this work, but there are one or two questions in higher arithmetic involving points not yet quite cleared up which may find a place here. Primes. The first of these is concerned with the possibility of determining readily whether a given number is prime or not. Euler and Gaussattachedgreatimportancetothisproblem, butfailedtoestablish any conclusive test. It would seem, however, that Fermat possessed some means of finding from its form whether a given number (at any rate if one of certain known forms) was prime or not. Thus, in answer to Mersenne who asked if he could tell without much trouble whether the number 100895, 598169 was a prime, Fermat wrote on April 7, 1643, that it was the product of 898423 and 112303, both of which were * Fermat’sDiophantus, Toulouse, 1670, bk.iii, prop. 22, p. 127; or Brassinne’s Précis, Paris, 1853, p. 65.", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 45 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00047", "bookId": 26839, "start": 85821, "end": 88338, "sha256": "4de46f5021784eb3e3dff7cda705d5fce78cff03d0285a9a58467c9f5e58bfc1", "text": "[PDF page 46] 30 ARITHMETICAL RECREATIONS. [CH. I primes. I have indicated elsewhere one way by which this result can be found, and Mr F.W. Laurence has indicated another which may have been that used by Fermat in this particular case. Mersenne’s Numbers*. Another illustration, confirmatory of the opinion that Fermat or some of his contemporaries had a test by which it was possible to find out whether certain numbers were prime, may be drawn from Mersenne’sCogitata Physico-Mathematicawhich was published in 1644. In the preface to that work it is asserted that in order that 2p − 1 may be prime, the only values ofp, not greater than 257, which are possible are1, 2, 3, 5, 7, 13, 17, 19, 31, 67, 127, and 257: I conjecture that the number67 is a misprint for61. With this correction the statement appears to be true, and it has been verified for all except nineteen values of p: namely, 71, 101, 103, 107, 109, 137, 139, 149, 157, 163, 167, 173, 181, 193, 199, 227, 229, 241, and 257. Of these values, Mersenne asserted that p = 257 makes 2p − 1 a prime, and that the other values make2p − 1 a composite number. The demonstrations for the cases when p = 89, 127 have not been published; nor have the actual factors of2p − 1 when p = 89 been as yet determined: the discovery of these factors may be commended to those interested in the theory of numbers. Mersenne’s result could not be obtained empirically, and it is im- possible to suppose that it was worked out for every case; hence it would seem that whoever first enunciated it was acquainted with cer- tain theorems in higher arithmetic which have not been re-discovered. Perfect Numbers†. The theory of perfect numbers depends directly on that of Mersenne’s Numbers. A number is said to be per- fect if it is equal to the sum of all its integral subdivisors. Thus the subdivisors of 6 are 1, 2, and 3; the sum of these is equal to6; hence 6 is a perfect number. It is probable that all perfect numbers are included in the formula 2p−1(2p − 1), where 2p − 1 is a prime. Euclid proved that any num- ber of this form is perfect; Euler showed that the formula includes all even perfect numbers; and there is reason to believe—though a rigid demonstration is wanting—that an odd number cannot be perfect. If * For references, see chapter ix below. † On the theory of perfect numbers, see bibliographical references by H. Brocard, L’Intermédiaire des mathématiciens, Paris, 1895, vol.ii, pp. 52–54; and 1905, vol. xii, p. 19.", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 46 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00048", "bookId": 26839, "start": 88340, "end": 90673, "sha256": "c7ed04723e02bb52038e7af5ec84726972112663d8a82c304c2f53af02992ed8", "text": "[PDF page 47] CH. I] GOLDBACH’S THEOREM. 31 we assume that the last of these statements is true, then every perfect number is of the above form. It is easy to establish that every number included in this formula (except whenp = 2) is congruent to unity to the modulus 9, that is, when divided by9 leaves a remainder1; also that either the last digit is a6 or the last two digits are28. Thus, if p = 2, 3, 5, 7, 13, 17, 19, 31, 61, then by Mersenne’s rule the corresponding values of2p − 1 are prime; they are 3, 7, 31, 127, 8191, 131071, 524287, 2147483647, 2305843009213693951; and the cor- responding perfect numbers are6, 28, 496, 8128, 33550336, 8589869056, 137438691328, 2305843008139952128, and 2658455991569831744654692615953842176. Goldbach’s Theorem. Another interesting problem in higher arithmetic is the question whether there are any even integers which cannot be expressed as a sum of two primes. Probably there are none. The expression of all even1 integers not greater than5000 in the form of a sum of two primes has been effected*, but a general demonstration that all even integers can be so expressed is wanting. Lagrange’s Theorem†. Another theorem in higher arith- metic which, as far as I know, is still unsolved, is to the effect that every prime of the form4n − 1 is the sum of a prime of the form4n + 1 and of double a prime of the form4n + 1; for example,23 = 13 + 2× 5. Lagrange, however, added that it was only by induction that he ar- rived at the result. Fermat’s Theorem on Binary Powers. Fermat enriched mathematics with a multitude of new propositions. With two excep- tions all these have been proved subsequently to be true. The first of these exceptions is histheorem on binary powers, in which he asserted that all numbers of the form2m + 1, wherem = 2n, are primes‡, but he added that, though he was convinced of the truth of this proposition, he could not obtain a valid demonstration. * Transactions of the Halle Academy (Naturforschung), vol. lxxii, Halle, 1897, pp. 5–214: see alsoL’Intermédiaire des mathématiciens, 1903, vol.x, and 1904, vol. xi. † Nouveaux Mémoires de l’Académie Royale des Sciences, Berlin, 1775, p. 356. ‡ Letter of Oct. 18, 1640,Opera, Toulouse, 1679, p. 162: or Brassinne’sPrécis, p. 143. 1. ‘even’ inserted as per errata sheet", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 47 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00049", "bookId": 26839, "start": 90675, "end": 93421, "sha256": "6410fe03b5aff7a1002662ac25577c50ad371fd922874170a3fad1b0f9a0f69f", "text": "[PDF page 48] 32 ARITHMETICAL RECREATIONS. [CH. I It may be shown that2m + 1 is composite if m is not a power of 2, but of course it does not follow that2m + 1 is a prime if m is a power of2. As a matter of fact the theorem is not true. In 1732 Euler* showed that ifn = 5 the formula gives4294, 967297, which is equal to 641 ×6, 700417: curiously enough, these factors can be deduced at once from Fermat’s remark on the possible factors of numbers of the form 2m ± 1, from which it may be shown that the prime factors (if any) of 232 + 1 must be primes of the form64n + 1. During the last thirty years it has been shown† that the resulting numbers are composite when n = 6, 9, 11, 12, 18, 23, 36, and 38: the two last numbers contain many thousands of millions of digits. I believe that Eisenstein asserted that the number of primes of the form 2m + 1, where m = 2 n, is infinite: the proof has not been published, but perhaps it might throw some light on the general theory. Fermat’s Last Theorem.I pass now to the only other asser- tionmadebyFermatwhichhasnotbeenprovedhitherto. This, whichis sometimes known asFermat’s Last Theorem, is to the effect‡that no in- tegral values ofx, y, z can be found to satisfy the equationxn+yn = zn, if n is an integer greater than2. This proposition has acquired extraor- dinary celebrity from the fact that no general demonstration of it has been given, but there is no reason to doubt that it is true. Fermat seems to have discovered its truth first§ for the casen = 3, and then for the casen = 4. His proof for the former of these cases is lost, but that for the latter is extant∥, and a similar proof for the case of n = 3 was given by Euler¶. These proofs depend upon showing that, if three integral values ofx, y, z can be found which satisfy the equation, * Commentarii Academiae Scientiarum Petropolitanae, St Petersburg, 1738, vol. vi, p. 104; see alsoNovi Comm. Acad. Sci. Petrop., St Petersburg, 1764, vol. ix, p. 101: orCommentationes Arithmeticae Collectae, St Petersburg, 1849, vol. i, pp. 2, 357. † For the factors and bibliographical references, see the memoir by A.J.C. Cun- ningham and A.E. Western,Transactions of the London Mathematical Society, May 14, 1903, series 2, vol.i, p. 175. ‡ Fermat’s enunciation will be found in his edition ofDiophantus, Toulouse, 1670, bk. ii, qu. 8, p. 61; or Brassinne’sPrécis, Paris, 1853, p. 53. For bibliographical references, seeL’Intermédiaire des mathématiciens, 1905, vol.xii, pp. 11, 12. § See a letter from Fermat quoted in myHistory of Mathematics, London, chap- ter xv. ∥ Fermat’sDiophantus, note on p. 339; or Brassinne’sPrécis, p. 127. ¶ Euler’s Algebra (English trans. 1797), vol.ii, chap. xv, p. 247.", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 48 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00050", "bookId": 26839, "start": 93423, "end": 96034, "sha256": "5bf223bffcc5cca3870755ddd8b9b044443f447213def31fd087e149b1e3ed32", "text": "[PDF page 49] CH. I] FERMAT’S LAST THEOREM. 33 then it will be possible to find three other and smaller integers which also satisfy it: in this way finally we show that the equation must be satisfied by three values which obviously do not satisfy it. Thus no integral solution is possible. It would seem that this method is inapplicable except when n = 3 and n = 4. Fermat’s discovery of the general theorem was made later. An easy demonstration can be given on the assumption that every number can be resolved into prime (complex) factors in one and only one way. That assumption has been made by some writers, but it is not universally true. It is possible that Fermat made some such supposition, though it is perhaps more probable that he discovered a rigorous demonstra- tion. At any rate he asserts definitely that he had a valid proof— demonstratio mirabilis sane—and the fact that every other theorem on the subject which he stated he had proved has been subsequently veri- fied must weigh strongly in his favour; especially as in making the one statement in his writings which is not correct he was scrupulously care- ful to add that he could not obtain a satisfactory demonstration of it. It must be remembered that Fermat was a mathematician of quite the first rank who had made a special study of the theory of numbers. That subject is in itself one of peculiar interest and elegance, but its conclusions have little practical importance, and since his time it has been discussed by only a few mathematicians, while even of them not many have made it their chief study. This is the explanation of the fact that it took more than a century before some of the simpler results which Fermat had enunciated were proved, and thus it is not surprising that a proof of the theorem which he succeeded in establishing only towards the close of his life should involve great difficulties. In 1823 Legendre* obtained a proof for the case ofn = 5; in 1832 LejeuneDirichlet †gaveonefor n = 14, andin1840LaméandLebesgue ‡ gave proofs for n = 7. The proposition appears to be true universally, and in 1849 Kum- mer§, by means of ideal primes, proved it to be so for all numbers except those (if any) which satisfy three conditions. It is not known * Reprinted in his Théorie des Nombres, Paris, 1830, vol.ii, pp. 361–368: see also pp. 5, 6. † Crelle’s Journal, 1832, vol.ix, pp. 390–393. ‡ Liouville’s Journal, 1841, vol.v, pp. 195–215, 276–9, 348–9. § References to Kummer’s Memoirs are given in Smith’s Report to the British Association on the Theory of Numbers, London, 1860.", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 49 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00051", "bookId": 26839, "start": 96036, "end": 98554, "sha256": "88266ffdbaf099cfe6bceddbd56b7662d15e835a17e339f5badad341223711ea", "text": "[PDF page 50] 34 ARITHMETICAL RECREATIONS. [CH. I whether any number can be found to satisfy these conditions, but it seems unlikely, and it has been shown that there is no number less than 100 which does so. The proof is complicated and difficult, and there can be little doubt is based on considerations unknown to Fermat. I may add that to prove the truth of the proposition whenn is greater than 4, it obviously is sufficient to confine ourselves to cases wheren is a prime, and the first step in Kummer’s demonstration is to show that in such cases one of the numbersx, y, z must be divisible byn. Naturally there has been much speculation as to how Fermat ar- rived at the result. The modern treatment of higher arithmetic is founded on the special notation and processes introduced by Gauss, who pointed out that the theory of discrete magnitude is essentially different from that of continuous magnitude, but until the end of the last century the theory of numbers was treated as a branch of algebra, and such proofs by Fermat as are extant involve nothing more than el- ementary geometry and algebra, and indeed some of his arguments do notinvolveanysymbols. ThishasledsomewriterstothinkthatFermat used none but elementary algebraic methods. This may be so, but the following remark, which I believe is not generally known, rather points to the opposite conclusion. He had proposed, as a problem to the En- glish mathematicians, to show that there was only one integral solution of the equationx2 + 2 = y3: the solution evidently beingx = 5, y = 3. On this he has a note* to the effect that there was no difficulty in finding a solution in rational fractions, but that he had discovered an entirely new method—sane pulcherrima et subtilissima—which enabled him to solve such questions in integers. It was his intention to write a work†on his researches in the theory of numbers, but it was never completed, and we know but little of his methods of analysis. I venture however to add my private suspicion that continued fractions played a not unimportant part in his researches, and as strengthening this conjecture I may note that some of his more recondite results—such as the theorem that a prime of the form4n + 1is expressible as the sum of two squares—may be established with comparative ease by properties of such fractions. * Fermat’sDiophantus, bk. vi, prop. 19, p. 320; or Brassinne’sPrécis, p. 122. † Fermat’sDiophantus, bk. iv, prop. 31, p. 181; or Brassinne’sPrécis, p. 82.", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 50 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00052", "bookId": 26839, "start": 98556, "end": 100037, "sha256": "2dbdfd22327c28ea91eac9224f3e5fe805dc5fbf73b1c401c01cce870cda8cc1", "text": "[PDF page 51] CHAPTER II. SOME GEOMETRICAL QUESTIONS. In this chapter I propose to enumerate certain geometrical ques- tions the discussion of which will not involve necessarily any consider- able use of algebra or arithmetic. Unluckily no writer like Bachet has collected and classified problems of this kind, and I take the following instances from my note-books with the feeling that they represent the subject but imperfectly. The first part of the chapter is devoted to questions which are of the nature of formal propositions: the last part contains a description of various trivial puzzles and games, which the older writers would have termed geometrical, but which the reader of to-day may omit without loss. In accordance with the rule I laid down for myself in the preface, I exclude the detailed discussion of theorems which involve advanced mathematics. Moreover(withonepossibleexception)Iexcludealsoany mention of the numerous geometrical paradoxes which depend merely on the inability of the eye to compare correctly the dimensions of figures when their relative position is changed. This apparent deception does not involve the conscious reasoning powers, but rests on the inaccurate interpretation by the mind of the sensations derived through the eyes, and I do not consider such paradoxes as coming within the domain of mathematics. Geometrical Fallacies. Most educated Englishmen are ac- quainted with the series of logical propositions in geometry associated 35", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 51 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00053", "bookId": 26839, "start": 100039, "end": 101619, "sha256": "f6665d09f118912221e5226fd047e55298a0cd2e8cea74ed076388d74e9a4993", "text": "[PDF page 52] 36 SOME GEOMETRICAL QUESTIONS. [CH. II with the name of Euclid, but it is not known so generally that these propositions were supplemented originally by certain exercises. Of such exercises Euclid issued three series: two containing easy theorems or problems, and the third consisting of geometrical fallacies, the errors in which the student was required to find. The collection of fallacies prepared by Euclid is lost, and tradition has not preserved any record as to the nature of the erroneous reasoning or conclusions; but, as an illustration of such questions, I append two or three demonstrations, leading to obviously impossible results, which perhapsmayamuseanyonetowhomtheyarenew. Ileavethediscovery of the errors to the ingenuity of my readers. First Fallacy. To prove that a right angle is equal to an angle which is greater than a right angle.Let ABCD be a rectangle. FromA draw a lineAE outside the rectangle, equal toAB or DC and making an acute angle with AB, as indicated in the diagram. Bisect CB in A BC D E O H K H, and throughH draw HO at right angles toCB. Bisect CE in K, and through K draw KO at right angles toCE. Since CB and CE are not parallel the linesHO and KO will meet (say) atO. Join OA, OE, OC, and OD. The triangles ODC and OAE are equal in all respects. For, since KO bisects CE and is perpendicular to it, we haveOC = OE. Simi- larly, since HO bisects CB and DA and is perpendicular to them, we have OD = OA. Also, by construction,DC = AE. Therefore the three sides of the triangleODC are equal respectively to the three sides of", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 52 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00054", "bookId": 26839, "start": 101621, "end": 102796, "sha256": "49097eb595d6a79ca34143b8afda557f20fb7eba1e08b718f72d0ca0f2f60a2e", "text": "[PDF page 53] CH. II] GEOMETRICAL F ALLACIES. 37 the triangle OAE. Hence, by Euc. i. 8, the triangles are equal; and therefore the angle ODC is equal to the angleOAE. Again, since HO bisects DA and is perpendicular to it, we have the angle ODA equal to the angle OAD. Hence the angleADC (which is the difference ofODC and ODA) is equal to the angleDAE (which is the difference ofOAE and OAD). But ADC is a right angle, andDAE is necessarily greater than a right angle. Thus the result is impossible. Second Fallacy*. To prove that a part of a line is equal to the whole line.Let ABC be a triangle; and, to fix our ideas, let us suppose that the triangle is scalene, that the angleB is acute, and that the B C A ED angle A is greater than the angle C. From A draw AD making the angle BAD equal to the angleC, and cuttingBC in D. From A draw AE perpendicular to BC. The triangles ABC, ABD are equiangular; hence, by Euc.vi. 19, △ABC : △ABD = AC 2 : AD2 . Also the triangles ABC, ABD are of equal altitude: hence, by Euc. vi. 1, △ABC : △ABD = BC : BD , ∴ AC 2 : AD2 = BC : BD . ∴ AC 2 BC = AD2 BD . * See a note by M. Coccoz inL’Illustration, Paris, Jan. 12, 1895.", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 53 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00055", "bookId": 26839, "start": 102798, "end": 104321, "sha256": "07afc1f45d41a924cf170c28a8865ae2cb95325c35c3361bc02113932d0052b7", "text": "[PDF page 54] 38 SOME GEOMETRICAL QUESTIONS. [CH. II Hence, by Euc. ii. 13, AB2 + BC 2 − 2BC · BE BC = AB2 + BD 2 − 2BD · BE BD . ∴ AB2 BC + BC − 2BE = AB2 BD + BD − 2BE . ∴ AB2 BC − BD = AB2 BD − BC . ∴ AB2 − BC · BD BC = AB2 − BC · BD BD . ∴ BC = BD , a result which is impossible. Third Fallacy. To prove that every triangle is isosceles.Let ABC be any triangle. BisectBC in D, and throughD draw DO perpendic- ular to BC. Bisect the angle BAC by AO. First. If DO and AO do not meet, then they are parallel. Therefore AO is at right angles toBC. Therefore AB = AC. Second. If DO and AO meet, let them meet in O. Draw OE perpendicular to AC. Draw OF perpendicular to AB. Join OB, OC. A B CD O E F Let us begin by taking the case where O is inside the triangle, in which case E falls on AC and F on1 AB. The triangles AOF and AOE are equal, since the sideAO is com- mon, angle OAF = angle OAE, and angle OF A = angle OEA. Hence AF = AE. Also, the trian- gles BOF and COE are equal. For since OD bisects BC at right angles, we haveOB = OC; also, since the triangles AOF and AOE are equal, we haveOF = OE; lastly, the angles at F and E are right angles. Therefore, by Euc.i. 47 andi. 8, the triangles BOF and COE are equal. Hence F B = EC. Therefore AF + F B = AE + EC, that is, AB = AC. The same demonstration will cover the case whereDO and AO meet at D, as also the case where they meet outsideBC but so near it that E and F fall on AC and AB and not onAC and AB produced. 1. corrected BC to AB", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 54 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00056", "bookId": 26839, "start": 104323, "end": 105758, "sha256": "3f7933213e0df72348c66d29637e331af05f82950576e7dd1f04ae6df203bc54", "text": "[PDF page 55] CH. II] GEOMETRICAL F ALLACIES. 39 Next take the case whereDO and AO meet outside the triangle, and E and F fall onAC and AB produced. Draw OE perpendicular to AC produced. Draw OF perpendicularto AB produced. Join OB, OC. A B CD O EF Following the same argument as before, from the equality of the triangles AOF and AOE, we obtainAF = AE; and, from the equality of the triangles BOF and COE, we obtain F B = EC. Therefore AF − F B = AE − EC, that is, AB = AC. Thus in all cases, whether or notDO and AO meet, and whether they meet inside or outside the triangle, we have AB = AC: and therefore every triangle is isosceles, a result which is impossible. Fourth Fallacy. I am indebted to Captain Turton for the following ingenious fallacy; it appeared for the first time in the third edition of this work. On the hypothenuse, BC, of an isosceles right-angled triangle, DBC, describe an equilateral triangle ABC, the vertex A being on the same side of the base as D is. On CA take a point H so that CH = CD. Bisect BD in K. Join HK and let it cutCB (produced) in L. Join DL. Bisect DL at M, and throughM draw M Operpendic- ular to DL. Bisect HL at N, and throughN draw N O perpendicular to HL. Since DL and HL intersect, therefore M O and N O will also intersect; moreover, since BDC is a right angle, M O and N O both slope away from DC and therefore they will meet on the side ofDL remote from A. Join OC, OD, OH, OL.", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 55 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00057", "bookId": 26839, "start": 105760, "end": 107243, "sha256": "44f9c9bae370341506c04518c13efc9eb3f972588790811b5ebe7e06cc2413f5", "text": "[PDF page 56] 40 SOME GEOMETRICAL QUESTIONS. [CH. II The triangles OM D and OM L are equal, henceOD = OL. Simi- larly the trianglesON Land ON H are equal, henceOL = OH. There- fore OD = OH. Now in the triangles OCD and OCH, we have OD = OH, CD = CH (by construction), andOC common, hence (by Euc. i. 8) the angleOCD is equal to the angleOCH, which is absurd. Fifth Fallacy*. To prove that, if two opposite sides of a quadri- lateral are equal, the other two sides must be parallel.Let ABCD be a quadrilateral such thatAB is equal to DC. Bisect AD in M, and through M draw M O at right angles to AD. Bisect BC in N, and draw N O at right angles to BC. If M O and N O are parallel, thenAD and BC (which are at right angles to them) are also parallel. If M O and N O are not parallel, let them meet inO; then O must be either inside the quadrilateral as in the left-hand diagram or outside A B C D N M O A B C D N M O the quadrilateral as in the right-hand diagram. JoinOA, OB, OC, OD. Since OM bisects AD and is perpendicular to it, we haveOA = OD, and the angle OAM equal to the angle ODM. Similarly OB = OC, and the angle OBN equal to the angle OCN. Also by hypothesis AB = DC, hence, by Euc.i. 8, the trianglesOAB and ODC are equal in all respects, and therefore the angleAOB is equal to the angle DOC. Hence in the left-hand diagram the sum of the anglesAOM, AOB is equal to the sum of the anglesDOM, DOC; and in the right-hand * Mathesis, October, 1893, series 2, vol.iii, p. 224.", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 56 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00058", "bookId": 26839, "start": 107245, "end": 109374, "sha256": "1927d6554e8b7a588c6a80e77710ffc3e6b63f492b623f4c356154b9089eb8c2", "text": "[PDF page 57] CH. II] GEOMETRICAL F ALLACIES. 41 diagram the difference of the anglesAOM, AOB is equal to the dif- ference of the angles DOM, DOC; and therefore in both cases the angle M OB is equal to the angleM OC, i.e. OM (or OM produced) bisects the angle BOC. But the angle N OB is equal to the angle N OC, i.e. ON bisects the angle BOC; hence OM and ON coincide in direction. Therefore AD and BC, which are perpendicular to this direction, must be parallel. This result is not universally true, and the above demonstration contains a flaw. Sixth Fallacy. The following argument is taken from a text-book on electricity, published in 1889 by two distinguished mathematicians, in which it was presented as valid. A given vectorOP of length l can be resolved in an infinite number of ways into two vectorsOM, M P, of lengths l′, l′′, and we can makel′/l′′ have any value we please from nothing to infinity. Suppose that the system is referred to rectangular axes Ox, Oy; and that OP, OM, M P make respectively anglesθ, θ′, θ′′ with Ox. Hence, by projection onOy and on Ox, we have l sin θ = l′ sin θ′ + l′′ sin θ′′ , l cos θ = l′ cos θ′ + l′′ cos θ′′ . Therefore tan θ = n sin θ′ + sin θ′′ n cos θ′ + cos θ′′ , where n = l′/l′′. This result is true whatever be the value of n. But n may have any value (ex. gr. n = ∞, or n = 0 ), hence tan θ = tan θ′ = tan θ′′, which obviously is impossible. Seventh Fallacy. Here is a fallacious investigation, to which Mr Chartres first called my attention, of the value ofπ: it is founded on well-known quadratures. The area of the semi-ellipse bounded by the minor axis is (in the usual notation) equal to1 2 πab. If the centre is moved off to an indefinitely great distance along the major axis, the ellipse degenerates into a parabola, and therefore in this particular limiting position the area is equal to two-thirds of the circumscribing rectangle. But the first result is true whatever be the dimensions of the curve. ∴ 1 2 πab = 2 3 a × 2b, ∴ π = 8/3, a result which is obviously untrue.", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 57 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00059", "bookId": 26839, "start": 109376, "end": 111908, "sha256": "737409dff31b3e352844beb0f788d6b8e150963f36a1c185548de4dd53fd1669", "text": "[PDF page 58] 42 SOME GEOMETRICAL QUESTIONS. [CH. II Geometrical Paradoxes. To the above examples I may add the following questions, which, though not exactly fallacious, lead to results which at a hasty glance appear impossible. First Paradox. The first is a problem, sent to me by Mr Renton, to rotate a plane lamina (say, for instance, a sheet of paper) through four right angles so that the effect is equivalent to turning it through only one right angle. If it is desired that the effect shall be equivalent to turning it through a right angle about a pointO, the solution is as follows. De- scribe on the lamina a squareOABC. Rotate the lamina successively through two right angles about the diagonalOB as axis and through two right angles about the side OA as axis, and the required result will be attained. Second Paradox. As in arithmetic, so in geometry, the theory of probability lends itself to numerous paradoxes. Here is a very simple illustration. A stick is broken at random into three pieces. It is possible to put them together into the shape of a triangle provided the length of the longest piece is less than the sum of the other two pieces (cf. Euc. i. 20), that is, provided the length of the longest piece is less than half the length of the stick. But the probability that a fragment of a stick shall be half the original length of the stick is1 2. Hence the probability that a triangle can be constructed out of the three pieces into which the stick is broken would appear to be1 2. This is not true, for actually the probability is 1 4. Third Paradox. The following example illustrates how easily the eye may be deceived in demonstrations obtained by actually dissecting the figures and re-arranging the parts. In fact proofs by superposi- tion should be regarded with considerable distrust unless they are sup- plemented by mathematical reasoning. The well-known proofs of the propositions Euclidi. 32 and Euclidi. 47 can be so supplemented and are valid. On the other hand, as an illustration of how deceptive a non- mathematical proof may be, I here mention the familiar paradox that a square of paper, subdivided like a chessboard into64 small squares, can be cut into four pieces which being put together form a figure con- taining 65 such small squares*. This is effected by cutting the original * I do not know who discovered this paradox. It is given in various modern books, but I cannot find an earlier reference to it than one by Prof. G.H. Darwin, Messenger of Mathematics, 1877, vol.vi, p. 87.", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 58 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00060", "bookId": 26839, "start": 111910, "end": 113646, "sha256": "1c558a36f57cb553e62cff1c996cde02ee8a353e82d6727f2c2a3e7c98b72ef3", "text": "[PDF page 59] CH. II] GEOMETRICAL PARADOXES. 43 A B square into four pieces in the manner indicated by the thick lines in the first figure. If these four pieces are put together in the shape of a rectangle in the way shown in the second figure it will appear as if this rectangle contains 65 of the small squares. This phenomenon, which in my experience non-mathematicians find perplexing, is due to the fact that the edges of the four pieces of paper, which in the second figure lie along the diagonalAB, do not coincide exactly in direction. In reality they include a small lozenge or diamond-shaped figure, whose area is equal to that of one of the 64 small squares in the original square, but whose lengthAB is much greater than its breadth. The diagrams show that the angle between the two sides of this lozenge which meet atA is tan−1 2 5 − tan−1 3 8, that is, is tan−1 1 46, which is less than1 1 4 ◦. To enable the eye to distinguish so small an angle as this the dividing lines in the first figure would have to be cut with extreme accuracy and the pieces placed together with great care. The paradox depends upon the relation 5 × 13 − 82 = 1. Sim- ilar results can be obtained from the formulae 13 × 34 − 212 = 1 , 34×89−552 = 1,...; orfromtheformulae 52−3×8 = 1, 132−8×21 = 1, 342 − 21 × 55 = 1,.... These numbers are obtained by finding conver- gents to the continued fraction 1 + 1 1 + 1 1 + 1 1 + · · · . A similar paradox for a square of17 cells, by which it was shown that 289 was equal to288, was alluded to by Ozanam* who gave also the diagram for dividing a rectangle of 11 by 3 into two rectangles whose dimensions appear to be5 by 4 and 7 by 2. * Ozanam, 1803 edition, vol. i, p. 299.", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 59 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00061", "bookId": 26839, "start": 113648, "end": 116128, "sha256": "3a4cb78c33b8a5e14508ae329c08fa688d275666527f5bdab9ea492aa14d919e", "text": "[PDF page 60] 44 SOME GEOMETRICAL QUESTIONS. [CH. II Turton’s Seventy-Seven Puzzle.A far better dissection puzzle was invented by Captain Turton. In this a piece of cardboard,11 inches by 7 inches, subdivided into77 small equal squares, each1 inch by1 inch, can be cut up and re-arranged so as to give78 such equal squares, each 1 inch by 1 inch, of which77 are arranged in a rectangle of the same dimensions as the original rectangle from one side of which projects a small additional square. The construction is ingenious, but cannot be described without the use of a model. The trick consists in utilizing the fact that cardboard has a sensible thickness. Hence the edges of the cuts can be bevelled, but in the model the bevelling is so slight as to be imperceptible save on a very close scrutiny. The play thus given in fitting the pieces together permits the apparent production of an additional square. Colouring Maps. I proceed next to mention the geometrical proposition that not more than four colours are necessary in order to colour a map of a country (divided into districts) in such a way that no two contiguous districts shall be of the same colour. By contiguous districts are meant districts having a common line as part of their boundaries: districts which touch only at points are not contiguous in this sense. The problem was mentioned by A.F. Möbius* in his Lectures in 1840, but it was not until Francis Guthrie†communicated it to De Mor- gan about 1850 that attention was generally called to it: it is said that the fact had been familiar to practical map-makers for a long time pre- viously. Through De Morgan the proposition became generally known; and in 1878 Cayley‡recalled attention to it by stating that he did not know of any rigorous proof of it. Probably the following argument, though not a formal demonstra- tion, will satisfy the reader that the result is true. Let A, B, C be three contiguous districts, and letX be any other district contiguous with all of them. Then X must lie either wholly outside the external boundary of the areaABC or wholly inside the internal boundary, that is, it must occupy a position either likeX or * Leipzig Transactions(Math.-phys. Classe), 1885, vol.xxxvii, pp. 1–6. † Proceedings of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, July 19, 1880, vol.x, p. 728. ‡ Proceedings of the London Mathematical Society, 1878, vol.ix, p. 148, andPro- ceedings of the Royal Geographical Society, 1879, N.S., vol.i, p. 259.", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 60 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00062", "bookId": 26839, "start": 116130, "end": 117447, "sha256": "e00ea7985f153324ad88b5a1102cfbefeb18f4cb42a90ae4ee77b29f50108a6d", "text": "[PDF page 61] CH. II] THE FOUR-COLOUR THEOREM.. 45 like X ′. In either case every remaining occupied area in the figure is enclosed by the boundaries of not more than three districts: hence there is no possible way of drawing another areaY which shall be contiguous with A, B, C, and X. In other words, it is possible to draw on a plane four areas which are contiguous, but it is not possible to draw five such areas. If A, B, C are not contiguous, each with the other, or if X is not contiguous withA, B, and C, it is not necessary to colour them all differently, and thus the most unfavourable case is that already treated. Moreover any of the above areas may diminish to a point and finally disappear without affecting the argument. That we may require at least four colours is obvious from the dia- gram on this page, since in that case the areasA, B, C, and X would have to be coloured differently. A proof of the proposition involves difficulties of a high order, which as yet have baffled all attempts to surmount them. The argument by which the truth of the proposition was formerly supposed to be demonstrated was given by A.B. Kempe* in 1879, but * He sent his first demonstration across the Atlantic to theAmerican Journal of Mathematics, 1879, vol. ii, pp. 193–200; but subsequently he communicated it", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 61 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00063", "bookId": 26839, "start": 117449, "end": 120113, "sha256": "3606403c4f5eac004368fafaf1a036dbaf26ec917f785eedeaf477149a96a03f", "text": "[PDF page 62] 46 SOME GEOMETRICAL QUESTIONS. [CH. II there is a flaw* in it. In 1880, Tait published a solution†depending on the theorem that if a closed network of lines joining an even number of points is such that three and only three lines meet at each point then three colours are sufficient to colour the lines in such a way that no two lines meeting at a point are of the same colour; a closed network being supposed to exclude the case where the lines can be divided into two groups between which there is but one connecting line. His deduction therefrom that four colours will suffice for a map was given in the last edition of this work. The demonstration appeared so straightforward that at first it was generally accepted, but it would seem that it too involves a fallacy‡. The proof however leads to the interesting corollary that four colours may not suffice for a map drawn on a multiply-connected surface such as an anchor ring. Although a proof of the theorem is still wanting, no one has suc- ceeded in constructing a plane map which requires more than four tints to colour it, and there is no reason to doubt the correctness of the state- ment that it is not necessary to have more than four colours for any plane map. The number of ways which such a map can be coloured with four tints has been also considered§, but the results are not sufficiently interesting to require mention here. Physical Configuration of a Country. As I have been alluding to maps, I may here mention that the theory of the repre- sentation of the physical configuration of a country by means of lines drawn on a map was discussed, by Cayley and Clerk Maxwell∥. They in simplified forms to the London Mathematical Society,Transactions, 1879, vol. x, pp. 229–231, and toNature, Feb. 26, 1880, vol.xxi, pp. 399–400. * See articles by P.J. Heawood in theQuarterly Journal of Mathematics, London, 1890, vol. xxiv, pp. 332–338; and 1897, vol.xxxi, pp. 270–285. † Proceedings of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, July 19, 1880, vol.x, p. 729; and Philosophical Magazine, January, 1884, series 5, vol.xvii, p. 41. ‡ See J. Peterson of Copenhagen, L’Intermédiaire des mathématiciens, vol. v, 1898, pp. 225–227; and vol.vi, 1899, pp. 36–38. § See A.C. Dixon, Messenger of Mathematics, Cambridge, 1902–3, vol.xxxii, pp. 81–83. ∥ Cayley on ‘Contour and Slope Lines,’Philosophical Magazine, London, October, 1859, series 4, vol. xviii, pp. 264–268;Collected Works, vol. iv, pp. 108–111. J. Clerk Maxwell on ‘Hills and Dales,’Philosophical Magazine, December, 1870, series 4, vol.xl, pp. 421–427;Collected Works, vol. ii, pp. 233–240.", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 62 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00064", "bookId": 26839, "start": 120115, "end": 122741, "sha256": "712bab61f79d992a5e272f5e429c42e1ed63ba78e5828dacc258ea27d9abf07b", "text": "[PDF page 63] CH. II] HILLS AND DALES.. 47 showed that a certain relation exists between the number of hills, dales, passes, &c. which can co-exist on the earth or on an island. I proceed to give a summary of their nomenclature and conclusions. All places whose heights above the mean sea level are equal are on the same level. The locus of such points on a map is indicated by a contour-line. Roughly speaking, an island is bounded by a contour-line. It is usual to draw the successive contour-lines on a map so that the difference between the heights of any two successive lines is the same, and thus the closer the contour-lines the steeper is the slope, but the heights are measured dynamically by the amount of work to be done to go from one level to the other and not by linear distances. A contour-line in general will be a closed curve. This curve may enclose a region of elevation: if two such regions meet at a point, that point will be a crunode (i.e. a real double point) on the contour-line through it, and such a point is called apass. The contour-line may enclose a region of depression: if two such regions meet at a point, that point will be a crunode on the contour-line through it, and such a point is called afork or bar. As the heights of the corresponding level surfaces become greater, the areas of the regions of elevation become smaller, and at last become reduced to points: these points are thesummits of the corresponding mountains. Similarly as the level surface sinks the regions of depression contract, and at last are reduced to points: these points are thebottoms (or immits) of the corresponding valleys. Lines drawn so as to be everywhere at right angles to the contour- lines are calledlines of slope. If we go up a line of slope generally we shall reach a summit, and if we go down such a line generally we shall reach a bottom: we may come however in particular cases either to a pass or to a fork. Districts whose lines of slope run to the same summit are hills. Those whose lines of slope run to the same bottom aredales. A watershed is the line of slope from a summit to a pass or a fork, and it separates two dales. Awatercourse is the line of slope from a pass or a fork to a bottom, and it separates two hills. If n + 1 regions of elevation or of depression meet at a point, the point is a multiple point on the contour-line drawn through it; such a point is called a pass or a fork of thenth order, and must be counted as n separate passes (or forks). If one region of depression meets another in several places at once, one of these must be taken as a fork and the rest as passes.", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 63 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00065", "bookId": 26839, "start": 122743, "end": 124968, "sha256": "ce748d9e5db5fed9da72be75dc18a7d6ad9e22879060e5d80ad41a03abc03be7", "text": "[PDF page 64] 48 SOME GEOMETRICAL QUESTIONS. [CH. II Having now a definite geographical terminology we can apply geo- metrical propositions to the subject. Leth be the number of hills on the earth (or an island), then there will be alsoh summits; let d be the number of dales, then there will be alsod bottoms; let p be the whole numberofpasses, p1 thatofsinglepasses, p2 ofdoublepasses, andsoon; let f be the whole number of forks,f1 that of single forks,f2 of double forks, and so on; letw be the number of watercourses, then there will be also w watersheds. Hence, by the theorems of Cauchy and Euler, h = 1 + p1 + 2p2 + · · · , d = 1 + f1 + 2f2 + · · · , and w = 2(p1 + f1) + 3(p2 + f2)) + · · · . The above results can be extended to the case of a multiply- connected closed surface. Games. Leaving now the question of formal geometrical propo- sitions, I proceed to enumerate a few games or puzzles which depend mainly on the relative position of things, but I postpone to chapteriv the discussion of such amusements of this kind as necessitate any con- siderable use of arithmetic or algebra. Some writers regard draughts, solitaire, chess and such like games as subjects for geometrical treat- ment in the same way as they treat dominoes, backgammon, and games with dice in connection with arithmetic: but these discussions require too many artificial assumptions to correspond with the games as actu- ally played or to be interesting. The amusements to which I refer are of a more trivial description, and it is possible that a mathematician may like to omit the remainder of the chapter. In some cases it is difficult to say whether they should be classified as mainly arithmetical or geometrical, but the point is of no importance. Statical Games of Position. Of the innumerable statical games involving geometry of position I shall mention only three or four. Three-in-a-row. First, I may mention the game of three-in-a-row, of which noughts and crosses, one form of merrilees, and go-bang are well-known examples. These games are played on a board—generally in the form of a square containingn2 small squares or cells. The common practice is for one player to place a white counter or piece or to make", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 64 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00066", "bookId": 26839, "start": 124970, "end": 127506, "sha256": "525c6f3a31c2041ff01ec2fb937335ce9b2c3c705e3125cecbe377fee47a013f", "text": "[PDF page 65] CH. II] THREE-IN-A-ROW.. 49 a cross on each small square or cell which he occupies: his opponent similarly uses black counters or pieces or makes a nought on each square which he occupies. Whoever first gets three (or any other assigned number) of his pieces in three adjacent cells and in a straight line wins. The mathematical theory for a board of9 cells has been worked out completely, and there is no difficulty in extending it to one of16 cells: but the analysis is lengthy and not particularly interesting. Most of these games were known to the ancients*, and it is for that reason I mention them here. Three-in-a-row. Extension. I may, however, add an elegant but difficult extension which has not previously found its way, so far as I am aware, into any book of mathematical recreations. The problem is to place n counters on a plane so as to form as many rows as possible, each of which shall contain three and only three counters†. It is easy to arrange the counters in a number of rows equal to the integral part of 1 8(n − 1)2. This can be effected by the following construction. Let P be any point on a cubic. Let the tangent atP cut the curve again inQ. Let the tangent atQ cut the curve inA. Let P A cut the curve inB, QB cut it inC, P C cut it inD, QD cut it inE, and so on. Then the counters must be placed at the pointsP, Q, A, B, . . .. Thus 9 counters can be placed in 8 such rows; 10 counters in 10 rows; 15 counters in 24 rows; 81 counters in 800 rows; and so on. If however the pointP is a pluperfect point of thenth order on the cubic, then Sylvester proved that the above construction gives a number of rows equal to the integral part of1 6(n − 1)(n − 2). Thus 9 counters can be arranged in 9 rows, which is a well-known and easy puzzle; 10 counters in 12 rows; 15 counters in 30 rows; and so on. Even this however is an inferior limit and may be exceeded—for instance, Sylvester stated that 9 counters can be placed in 10 rows, each containing three counters; I do not know how he placed them, but one way of so arranging them is by putting them at points whose coor- dinates are (2, 0), (2, 2), (2, 4), (4, 0), (4, 2), (4, 4), (0, 0), (3, 2), (6, 4); another way is by putting them at the points(0, 0), (0, 2), (0, 4), (2, 1), (2, 2), (2, 3), (4, 0), (4, 2), (4, 4); more generally, the angular points of * Becq de Fouquières, Les jeux des anciens , second edition, Paris, 1873, chap. xviii. † Educational Times Reprints, 1868, vol.viii, p. 106;Ibid.1886, vol.xl v, pp. 127– 128.", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 65 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00067", "bookId": 26839, "start": 127508, "end": 129778, "sha256": "5cf9027df378a3a9b373d2eb87f70d916c0d203df7da80f059c987c133202a9a", "text": "[PDF page 66] 50 SOME GEOMETRICAL QUESTIONS. [CH. II a regular hexagon and the three points of intersection of opposite sides form such a group, and therefore any projection of that figure will give a solution. Thus at present it is not possible to say what is the maximum number of rows of three which can be formed fromn counters placed on a plane. Extension to p-in-a-row. The problem mentioned above at once suggests the extension of placingn counters so as to form as many rows as possible, each of which shall containp and only p counters. Such problems can be often solved immediately by placing at infinity the points of intersection of some of the lines, and (if it is so desired) sub- sequentlyprojectingthediagramthusformedsoastobringthesepoints to a finite distance. One instance of such a solution is given above. As easy examples I may give the arrangement of16 counters in15 rows1, each containing4 counters; and the arrangement of19 counters in 10 rows, each containing 5 counters. A solution of the second of these problems can be obtained by placing counters at the19 points of intersection of the10 lines x = ±a, x = ±b, y = ±a, y = ±b, y = ±x: of these points two are at infinity. The first problem I leave to the ingenuity of my readers. Tesselation. Another of these statical recreations is known as tes- selation and consists in the formation of geometrical designs or mosaics by means of tesselated tiles. To those who have never looked into the matter it may be surpris- ing that patterns formed by the use of square tiles (of which one-half bounded by a diagonal is white and the other half black) should be subject to mathematical analysis. In view of the discussion of this subject by Montucla*, Lucas†, and other writers it would be hard to refuse to call the formation of such patterns a mathematical amuse- ment, but the treatment is (perhaps necessarily) somewhat empirical, and though there are some interesting puzzles of this kind, I do not propose to describe them here. * See Ozanam, 1803 edition, vol. i, p. 100; 1840 edition, p. 46. † Lucas, Récréations Mathématiques, Paris, 1882–3, vol.ii, part 4: hereafter I shall refer to this work by the name of the author. 1. ‘13’ corrected to ’15’ as per errata sheet", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 66 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00068", "bookId": 26839, "start": 129780, "end": 132374, "sha256": "786c3ce10bd846e74f84a9baf02443a9749ab35f3a171a848ad64ac27d0d5ed1", "text": "[PDF page 67] CH. II] COLOUR-CUBE PROBLEM. 51 Sylvester* proposed a modified tesselation problem which consists in forming anallagmatic squares, that is, squares such that in every row and every column the number of changes of colour or the number of permanences is constant, the tiles used being square white tiles and square black tiles. If more than two colours are used, the problems become increas- ingly difficult. As a simple instance of this class of problems I may mention one, sent to me by a correspondent who termed itCross-Fours, wherein sixteen square counters are used, the upper half of each being yellow, red, pink, or blue, and the lower half being gold, green, black, or white, no two counters being coloured alike. Such counters can be arranged in the form of a square so that in each vertical, horizontal, and diagonal line there shall be 8 colours and no more: they can be also arranged so that in each of these ten lines there shall be 6 colours and no more, or 5 colours and no more, or 4 colours and no more. Puzzles of this kind are but little known; they are however not uninstructive. Colour-Cube Problem. As an example of a recreation analogous to tesselation I will mention the colour-cube problem; I select this partly because it is one of the most difficult of such puzzles, but chiefly because it has been subjected† to mathematical analysis. Stripped of mathematical technicalities the problem may be enun- ciated as follows. A cube has six faces, and if six colours are chosen we can paint each face with a different colour. By permuting the or- der of the colours we can obtain thirty such cubes, no two of which are coloured alike. Take any one of these cubes,K, then it is desired to select eight out of the remaining twenty-nine cubes, such that they can be arranged in the form of a cube (whose linear dimensions are double those of any of the separate cubes) coloured like the cubeK, and placed so that where any two cubes touch each other the faces in contact are coloured alike. Only one collection of eight cubes can be found to satisfy these conditions. To pick out these eight cubes empirically would be out of the question, but the mathematical analysis enables us to select them by the following rule. Take any face of the cubeK: it has four * Ex. gr. see the Educational Times Reprints, London, 1868, vol. x, pp. 74–76, 112: see also vol.xl v, p. 127; vol.l vi, pp. 97–99. † By Major MacMahon; an abstract of his paper, read before the London Mathe- matical Society on Feb. 9, 1893, was given inNature, Feb. 23, 1893, vol.xl vii, p. 406.", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 67 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00069", "bookId": 26839, "start": 132376, "end": 134993, "sha256": "317747a8eb95636a80e7e961671170df37c491ac81b177fa989d9c61c523d943", "text": "[PDF page 68] 52 SOME GEOMETRICAL QUESTIONS. [CH. II angles, and at each angle three colours meet. By permuting the colours cyclically we can obtain from each angle two other cubes, and the eight cubes so obtained are those required. Forinstancesupposethatthesixcoloursareindicatedbytheletters a, b, c, d, e, f. Let the cubeK be put on a table, and to fix our ideas suppose that the face colouredf is at the bottom, the face coloureda is at the top, and the faces colouredb, c, d, and e front respectively the east, north, west, and south points of the compass. I may denote such an arrangement by (f; a; b, c, d, e). One cyclical permutation of the colours which meet at the north-east corner of the top face gives the cube (f; c; a, b, d, e), and a second cyclical permutation gives the cube (f; b; c, a, d, e). Similarly cyclical permutations of the colours which meet at the north-west corner of the top face ofK give the cubes (f; d; b, a, c, e) and (f; c; b, d, a, e). Similarly from the top south-west corner of K we get the cubes (f; e; b, c, a, d) and (f; d; b, c, e, a): and from the top south-east corner we get the cubes (f; e; a, c, d, b) and (f; b; e, c, d, a). The eight cubes being thus determined it is not difficult to arrange them in the form of a cube coloured similarly toK, and subject to the condition that faces in contact are coloured alike; in fact they can be arranged in two ways to satisfy these conditions. One such way, taking the cubes in the numerical order given above, is to put the cubes3, 6, 8, and 2 at the SE, NE, NW, and SW corners of the bottom face; of course each placed with the colourf at the bottom, while3 and 6 have the colour b to the east, and2 and 8 have the colourd to the west: the cubes 7, 1, 4, and5 will then form the SE, NE, NW, and SW corners of the top face; of course each placed with the coloura at the top, while7 and 1 have the colourb to the east, and5 and 4 have the colourd to the west. If howeverK is not given, then, without the aid of mathematical analysis, it is a difficult puzzle to arrange the eight cubes in the form of a cube coloured similarly to one of the other twenty-two cubes and subject to the condition that faces in contact are coloured alike. It is easy to make similar puzzles in two dimensions which are fairly difficult; it is somewhat surprising that none are to be bought, but I have never seen any except those that I have made myself. Dynamical Games of Position. Games which are played by moving pieces on boards of various shapes—such as merrilees, fox and geese, solitaire, backgammon, draughts, and chess—present more", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 68 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00070", "bookId": 26839, "start": 134995, "end": 136698, "sha256": "55cb0493fb86e8c2a9dac17989553a2f4f28f776b2077fbdac48bedc37109ac6", "text": "[PDF page 69] CH. II] SHUNTING PROBLEMS. 53 interest. In general, however, they permit of so many movements of the pieces that any mathematical analysis of them becomes too intricate to follow out completely. Probably this is obvious, but it may emphasize the impossibility of discussing such games effectively if I add that it has been shown that in a game of chess there may be as many as197299 waysofplayingthefirstfourmoves, andnearly 72000differentpositions at the end of the first four moves (two on each side), of which16556 arise when the players move pawns only*. Games in which the possible movements are very limited may be susceptible of mathematical treatment. One or two of these are given in the next chapter: here I shall confine myself mainly to puzzles and simple amusements. Shunting Problems. The first I will mention is a little puzzle which I bought some years ago and which was described as the “Great North- ern puzzle.” It is typical of a good many problems connected with the shunting of trains, and though it rests on a most improbable hypoth- esis, I give it as a specimen of its kind. A BC DE F P Q R The puzzle shows a railway, DEF, with two sidings, DBA and F CA, connected atA. The portion of the rails atA which is common to the two sidings is long enough to permit of a single wagon, likeP or Q, running in or out of it; but is too short to contain the whole of an engine, like R. Hence, if an engine runs up one siding, such asDBA, it must come back the same way. * L’Intermédiaire des mathématiciens, Paris, December, 1903, vol. x, pp. 305– 308: alsoRoyal Engineers Journal, London, August–November, 1889; orBritish Association Transactions, 1890, p. 745.", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 69 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00071", "bookId": 26839, "start": 136700, "end": 138794, "sha256": "178699df9dc97efc7a9ec2e1e17a669590a4002a7ed956a39173d1ba9815daf1", "text": "[PDF page 70] 54 SOME GEOMETRICAL QUESTIONS. [CH. II Initially a small block of wood,P, coloured to represent a wagon, is placed at B; a similar block,Q, is placed atC; and a longer block of wood, R, representing an engine, is placed atE. The problem is to use the engineR to interchange the wagonsP and Q, without allowing any flying shunts. This is effected thus. (i)R pushes P into A. (ii) R returns, pushes Q up to P in A, couples Q to P, draws them both out toF, and then pushes them toE. (iii) P is now uncoupled,R takes Q back toA, and leaves it there. (iv) R returns to P, pulls P back to C, and leaves it there. (v) R running successively throughF, D, B comes to A, draws Q out, and leaves it at B. A somewhat similar puzzle, on sale in the streets in 1905, is made as follows. A loop-lineBGE connects two pointsB and E on a railway track AF, which is supposed blocked at both ends, as shown in the diagram. In the model, the trackAF is 9 inches long,AB = EF = 1 5 6 inches, and AH = F K = BC = DE = 1 4 inch. On the track and loop are eight wagons, numbered successively1 to 8, each one inch long and AB CD EF G HK one-quarter of an inch broad, and an engine of the same dimensions. Originally the wagons are on the track fromA to F and in the order 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, and the engine is on the loop. The construction and the initial arrangement ensure that at any one time there cannot be more than eight vehicles on the track. Also if eight vehicles are on it only the penultimate vehicle at either end can be moved on to the loop, but if less than eight are on the track then the last two vehicles at either end can be moved on to the loop. If the points at each end of the loop-line are clear, it will hold four, but not more than four, vehicles. The object is to reverse the order of the wagons on the track, so that fromA to F they will be numbered successively8 to 1; and to do this by means which will involve as few transferences of the engine or a wagon to or from the loop as is possible. Other shunting problems are not uncommon, but these two exam- ples will suffice.", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 70 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00072", "bookId": 26839, "start": 138796, "end": 141344, "sha256": "cf0bcbef07bb15d58144fe8bbdce2996585484268766b4afcd07ecc15bbc4ee8", "text": "[PDF page 71] CH. II] FERRY-BOAT PROBLEMS. 55 Ferry-Boat Problems. Everybody is familiar with the story of the showman who was travelling with a wolf, a goat, and a basket of cab- bages; and for obvious reasons was unable to leave the wolf alone with the goat, or the goat alone with the cabbages. The only means of transporting them across a river was a boat so small that he could take in it only one of them at a time. The problem is to show how the passage could be effected*. A similar problem, given by Alcuin, Tartaglia, and others, is as follows†. Three beautiful ladies have for husbands three men, who are as jealous as they are young, handsome, and gallant. The party are travelling, and find on the bank of a river, over which they have to pass, a small boat which can hold no more than two persons. How can they pass, it being agreed that, in order to avoid scandal, no woman shall be left in the society of a man unless her husband is present? The method of transportation to be used in the above cases is obvious, and can be illustrated practically by using six court cards out of a pack. Another problem similar to the one last mentioned is the case of n married couples who have to cross a river by means of a boat which can be rowed by one person and will carryn − 1 people, but not more, with the condition that no woman is to be in the society of a man unless her husband is present. Alcuin’s problem is the case ofn = 3. Let y denote the number of passages from one bank to the other which will be necessary. Then it has been shown that ifn = 3, y = 11; if n = 4, y = 9; and ifn > 4, y = 7; the demonstration presents no difficulty. The following analogous problem is due to the late Prof. Lucas‡. To find the smallest numberx of persons that a boat must be able to carry in order that n married couples may by its aid cross a river in such a manner that no woman shall remain in the company of any man unless her husband is present; it being assumed that the boat can be rowed by one person only. Also to find the least number of passages, say y, from one bank to the other which will be required. M. Delannoy has shown that ifn = 2, then x = 2, and y = 5. If n = 3, then x = 2, and y = 11. If n = 4, then x = 3, and y = 9. If n = 5, then x = 3, and y = 11. And finally if n > 5, then x = 4, and y = 2n − 1. M. De Fonteney has remarked that, if there was an island in the * Ozanam, 1803 edition, vol. i, p. 171; 1840 edition, p. 77. † Bachet, Appendix, problemiv, p. 212. ‡ Lucas, vol. i, pp. 15–18, 237–238.", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 71 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00073", "bookId": 26839, "start": 141346, "end": 143531, "sha256": "c1af95134c841089068dc724cea34169eae2236f69b59c097a247e63d62c7f9b", "text": "[PDF page 72] 56 SOME GEOMETRICAL QUESTIONS. [CH. II middle of the river, the passage might be always effected by the aid of a boat which could carry only two persons. If there are only two or only three couples the island is unnecessary, and the case is covered by the preceding method. Ifn > 3 then the least number of passages from land to land which will be required is8(n − 1). His solution is as follows. The first nine passages will be the same, no matter how many couples there may be: the result is to transfer one couple to the island and one couple to the second bank. The result of the next eight passages is to transfer one couple from the first bank to the second bank: this series of eight operations must be repeated as often as necessary until there is left only one couple on the first bank, only one couple on the island, and all the rest on the second bank. The result of the last seven passages is to transfer all the couples to the second bank. The solution for the case when there are four couples may be rep- resented as follows. LetA and a, B and b, C and c, D and d, be the four couples. The letters in the successive lines indicate the positions of the men and their respective wives after different passages of the boat. First Bank Island Second Bank Initially ABCD abcd . . . . .... . . . . .... After 1st passage ABCD .. cd . . . . ab.. . . . . .... \" 2nd \" ABCD . bcd . . . . a... . . . . .... \" 3rd \" ABCD ... d . . . . abc. . . . . .... \" 4th \" ABCD .. cd . . . . ab.. . . . . .... \" 5th \" . . CD .. cd AB . . ab.. . . . . .... \" 6th \" . . CD .. cd AB . . .... . . . . ab.. \" 7th \" . . CD .. cd AB . . . b.. . . . . a... \" 8th \" . . CD .. cd . . . . . b.. AB . . a... \" 9th \" . . CD .. cd . B . . . b.. A . . . a... \" 10th \" . BCD .. cd . . . . . b.. A . . . a... \" 11th \" . BCD .... . . . . . bcd A . . . a... \" 12th \" . BCD ... d . . . . . bc. A . . . a... \" 13th \" . . . D ... d . BC . . bc. A . . . a... \" 14th \" . . . D ... d . . . . . bc. ABC . a... \" 15th \" . . . D ... d . . . . abc. ABC . .... \" 16th \" . . . D ... d . . . . . b.. ABC . a.c. \" 17th \" . . . D ... d . B . . . b.. A . C . a.c. \" 18th \" . B . D ... d . . . . . b.. A . C . a.c.", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 72 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00074", "bookId": 26839, "start": 143533, "end": 145888, "sha256": "8dc2a22d9f8fb425d5ce2a6c23f08af4d540e2a3e184c29992149014ee63cb10", "text": "[PDF page 73] CH. II] GEODESICS.. 57 First Bank Island Second Bank After19th passage . . . . ... d . B . D . b.. A . C . a.c. \" 20th \" . . . . ... d . . . . . b.. ABCD a .c. \" 21st \" . . . . ... d . . . . . bc. ABCD a ... \" 22nd \" . . . . ... d . . . . .... ABCD abc . \" 23rd \" . . . . .. cd . . . . .... ABCD ab .. \" 24th \" . . . . .... . . . . .... ABCD abcd Prof. G. Tarry has suggested an extension of the problem, which still further complicates its solution. He supposes that each husband travels with a harem of m wives or concubines; moreover, as Mo- hammedan women are brought up in seclusion, it is reasonable to sup- pose that they would be unable to row a boat by themselves without the aid of a man. But perhaps the difficulties attendant on the trav- els of one wife may be deemed sufficient for Christians, and I content myself with merely mentioning the increased anxieties experienced by Mohammedans in similar circumstances. Geodesics. Geometrical problems connected with finding the shortest routes from one point to another on a curved surface are often difficult, but geodesics on a flat surface or flat surfaces are in general readily determinable. I append an instance*, but I should have hesitated to do so had not experience shown that some readers do not readily see the solution. It is as follows: A room is30 feet long,12 feet wide, and12 feet high. On the middle line of one of the smaller side walls and one foot from the ceiling is a wasp. On the middle line of the opposite wall and11 feet from the ceiling is a fly. The wasp catches the fly by crawling all the way to it: the fly, paralysed by fear, remaining still. The problem is to find the shortest route that the wasp can follow. To obtain a solution we observe that we can cut a sheet of paper so that, when folded properly, it will make a model to scale of the room. This can be done in several ways. If, when the paper is again spread out flat, we can join the points representing the wasp and the fly by a straight line lying wholly on the paper we shall obtain a geodesic route between them. Thus the problem is reduced to finding the way of cutting out the paper which gives the shortest route of the kind. * I heard a similar question propounded at Cambridge in 1903, but the only place where I have seen it in print is theDaily Mail, London, February 1, 1905.", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 73 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00075", "bookId": 26839, "start": 145890, "end": 147318, "sha256": "e2dd6efa4343d1d9419ec43826e9a5a804670c5d45c99ee68224d2d837f1e5fa", "text": "[PDF page 74] 58 SOME GEOMETRICAL QUESTIONS. [CH. II A B C D W F Here is the diagram corresponding to a solution of the above ques- tion, where A represents the floor, B and D the longer side-walls, C the ceiling, and W and F the positions on the two smaller side-walls occupied initially by the wasp and fly. In the diagram the square of the distance betweenW and F is (32)2+(24)2; hence the distance is40 feet. Problems with Counters placed in a row. Numerous dynamical problems and puzzles may be illustrated with a box of counters, espe- cially if there are counters of two colours. Of course coins or pawns or cards will serve equally well. I proceed to enumerate a few of these played with counters placed in a row. First Problem with Counters. The following problem must be fa- miliar to many of my readers. Ten counters (or coins) are placed in a row. Any counter may be moved over two of those adjacent to it on the counter next beyond them. It is required to move the coun- ters according to the above rule so that they shall be arranged in five equidistant couples. If we denote the counters in their initial positions by the numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, we proceed as follows. Put7 on 10, then5 on 2, then 3 on 8, then 1 on 4, and lastly9 on 6. Thus they are arranged in pairs on the places originally occupied by the counters2, 4, 6, 8, 10. Similarly by putting4 on 1, then 6 on 9, then 8 on 3, then 10 on", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 74 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00076", "bookId": 26839, "start": 147320, "end": 149694, "sha256": "4476492f293b41b40125c3694c87e9c26827f12cc01e20ed42f23d34256ed418", "text": "[PDF page 75] CH. II] PROBLEMS WITH COUNTERS.. 59 7, and lastly2 on 5, they are arranged in pairs on the places originally occupied by the counters 1, 3, 5, 7, 9. If two superposed counters are reckoned as only one, solutions anal- ogous to those given above will be obtained by putting7 on 10, then5 on 2, then 3 on 8, then 1 on 6, and lastly9 on 4; or by putting4 on 1, then 6 on 9, then 8 on 3, then 10 on 5, and lastly2 on 7*. There is a somewhat similar game played with eight counters, but in this case the four couples finally formed are not equidistant. Here the transformation will be effected if we move5 on 2, then3 on 7, then 4 on 1, and lastly6 on 8. This form of the game is applicable equally to (8 + 2n) counters, for if we move4 on 1 we have left on one side of this couple a row of(8 + 2n − 2) counters. This again can be reduced to one of(8 + 2n − 4) counters, and in this way finally we have left8 counters which can be moved in the way explained above. A more complete generalization would be the case ofn counters, where each counter might be moved over them counters adjacent to it on to the one beyond them. Second Problem with Counters. Another problem of a somewhat similar kind is due to Tait†. Place four florins (or white counters) and four halfpence (or black counters) alternately in a line in contact with one another. It is required in four moves, each of a pair of two contiguous pieces, without altering the relative position of the pair, to form a continuous line of four halfpence followed by four florins. His solution is as follows. Let a florin be denoted by a and a halfpenny byb, and let×× denote two contiguous blank spaces. Then the successive positions of the pieces may be represented thus: Initially ................. × × a b a b a b a b . After the first move ..... b a a b a b a × × b . After the second move .. b a a b × × a a b b . After the third move .... b × × b a a a a b b . After the fourth move ... b b b b a a a a × × . The operation is conducted according to the following rule. Sup- pose the pieces to be arranged originally in circular order, with two contiguous blank spaces, then we always move to the blank space for * Note by J. Fitzpatrick to a French translation of the third edition of this work, Paris, 1898. † Philosophical Magazine, London, January, 1884, series 5, vol.xvii, p. 39.", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 75 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00077", "bookId": 26839, "start": 149696, "end": 152226, "sha256": "ca828f26a2980126b30a03764f28ac2ad0bfda9622d6ef8a50a90f8cb7bb0abe", "text": "[PDF page 76] 60 SOME GEOMETRICAL QUESTIONS. [CH. II the time being that pair of coins which occupies the places next but one and next but two to the blank space on one assigned side of it. A similar problem with2n counters—n of them being white and n black—will at once suggest itself, and, ifn is greater than4, it can be solved inn moves. I have however failed to find a simple rule which covers all cases alike, but solutions, due to M. Delannoy, have been given* for the four cases wheren is of the form4m, 4m + 2, 4m + 1, or 4m+3; in the first two cases the first1 2 n moves are of pairs of dissimilar counters and the last1 2 n moves are of pairs of similar counters; in the last two cases, the first move is similar to that given above, namely, of the penultimate and antepenultimate counters to the beginning of the row, the next 1 2(n − 1) moves are of pairs of dissimilar counters, and the final 1 2(n − 1) moves are of similar counters. The problem is also capable of solution if we substitute the restric- tion that at each move the pair of counters taken up must be moved to one of the two ends of the row instead of the condition that the final arrangement is to be continuous. Tait suggested a variation of the problem by making it a condition that the two coins to be moved shall also be made to interchange places; in this form it would seem that5 moves are required; or, in the general case, n + 1 moves are required. Problems on a Chess-board with Counters or Pawns.The follow- ing three problems require the use of a chess-board as well as of counters or pieces of two colours. It is more convenient to move a pawn than a counter, and if therefore I describe them as played with pawns it is only as a matter of convenience and not that they have any connection with chess. The first is characterized by the fact that in every position not more than two moves are possible; in the second and third problems not more than four moves are possible in any position. With these lim- itations, analysis is possible. I shall not discuss the similar problems in which more moves are possible. First Problem with Pawns†. On a row of seven squares on a chess- board 3 white pawns (or counters), denoted in the diagram by “a”s, are placed on the3 squares at one end, and3 black pawns (or counters), denoted by “b”s, are placed on the3 squares at the other end—the middle square being left vacant. Each piece can move only in one * La Nature, June, 1887, p. 10. † Lucas, vol. ii, part 5, pp. 141-143.", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 76 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00078", "bookId": 26839, "start": 152228, "end": 154626, "sha256": "19a7f1bc0742aa74c4fe74c2cc6e109f44a2da6819e04fee3a14caa7b5f377ed", "text": "[PDF page 77] CH. II] PROBLEMS WITH COUNTERS OR PA WNS. 61 direction; the “a” pieces can move from left to right, and the “b” pieces from right to left. If the square next to a piece is unoccupied, it can a a a b b b move on to that; or if the square next to it is occupied by a piece of the opposite colour and the square beyond that is unoccupied, then it can, like a queen in draughts, leap over that piece on to the unoccupied square beyond it. The object is to get all the white pawns in the places occupied initially by the black pawns and vice versa. The solution requires15moves. It may be effected by moving first a white pawn, then successively two black pawns then three white pawns, then three black pawns, then three white pawns, then two black pawns, and then one white pawn. We can express this solution by saying that if we number the cells (a term used to describe each of the small squares on a chess-board) consecutively, then initially the vacant space occupies the cell 4 and in the successive moves it will occupy the cells3, 5, 6, 4, 2, 1, 3, 5, 7, 6, 4, 2, 3, 5, 4. Of these moves, six are simple and nine are leaps. Similarly if we haven white pawns at one end of a row of2n + 1 cells, and n black pawns at the other end, they can be interchanged in n(n+2) moves, by moving in succession1 pawn, 2 pawns, 3 pawns, ..., n − 1 pawns, n pawns, n pawns, n pawns, n − 1 pawns, ..., 2 pawns, and 1 pawn—all the pawns in each group being of the same colour and different from that of the pawns in the group preceding it. Of these moves 2n are simple and n2 are leaps. Second Problem with Pawns*. A similar game may be played on a rectangular or square board. The case of a square board containing 49 cells, or small squares, will illustrate this sufficiently: in this case the initial position is shown in the annexed diagram where the “a”s denote the pawns or pieces of one colour, and the “b”s those of the other colour. The “a” pieces can move horizontally from left to right or vertically down, and the “b” pieces can move horizontally from right to left or vertically up, according to the same rules as before. The solution reduces to the preceding case. The pieces in the mid- dle column can be interchanged in15 moves. In the course of these moves every one of the seven cells in that column is at some time or * Lucas, vol. ii, part 5, p. 144.", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 77 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00079", "bookId": 26839, "start": 154628, "end": 156138, "sha256": "57365979742a893533d9bec4dc6c85af96b31064ad1acfab44c0b61d6e633b3a", "text": "[PDF page 78] 62 SOME GEOMETRICAL QUESTIONS. [CH. II a a a a b b b a a a a b b b a a a a b b b a a a b b b a a a b b b b a a a b b b b a a a b b b b other vacant, and whenever that is the case the pieces in the row con- taining the vacant cell can be interchanged. To interchange the pieces in each of the seven rows will require 15 moves. Hence to interchange all the pieces will require15 + (7 × 15) moves, that is,120 moves. If we place2n(n + 1) white pawns and2n(n + 1) black pawns in a similar way on a square board of(2n + 1)2 cells, we can transpose them in 2n(n + 1)(n + 2) moves: of these 4n(n + 1) are simple and 2n2(n + 1) are leaps. Third Problem with Pawns. The following analogous, though somewhat more complicated, game was I believe originally published in the first edition of this work: but I find that it has been since widely a b c d e f g h ∗ H G F E D C B A distributed in connexion with an advertisement and probably now is well-known. On a square board of 25 cells, place eight white pawns or counters on the cells denoted by small letters in the annexed diagram, and eight black pawns or counters on the cells denoted by capital let- ters: the cell marked with an asterisk (∗) being left blank. Each pawn can move according to the laws already explained—the white pawns being able to move only horizontally from left to right or vertically downwards, and the black pawns being able to move only horizontally from right to left or vertically upwards. The object is to get all the", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 78 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00080", "bookId": 26839, "start": 156140, "end": 158531, "sha256": "3cb0704fc6378cc5ad3bf5ee73bd73b619cb19d6eb4055af387ab038bc8075f6", "text": "[PDF page 79] CH. II] PROBLEMS WITH CHESS-PIECES 63 white pawns in the places initially occupied by the black pawns and vice versa. No moves outside the dark line are permitted. Since there is only one cell on the board which is unoccupied, and since no diagonal moves and no backward moves are permitted, it fol- lows that at each move not more than two pieces of either colour are capable of moving. There are however a very large number of solu- tions. The following empirical solution in forty-eight moves is one way of effecting the transfer—the letters indicating the cellsfrom which the pieces are successively moved: h H ∗ f F E H G ∗ c b h g d f F C ∗ h H B A C ∗ c a b h H ∗ c f F D G H B C ∗ g h e f F ∗ h H ∗ . It will be noticed that the first twenty-four moves lead to a symmet- rical position, and that the next twenty-three moves can be at once obtained by writing the first twenty-three moves in reverse order and interchanging small and capital letters. Probably, were it worth the trouble, the mathematical theory of games such as that just described might be worked out by the use of Vandermonde’s notation, described later in chaptervi, or by the analogous method employed in the theory of the game of solitaire*. I believe that this has not been done, and I do not think it would repay the labour involved. Problems on a Chess-board with Chess-pieces. There are several mathematical recreations with chess-pieces, other than pawns, some- what similar to those given above. One of these, on the determination of the ways in which eight queens can be placed on a board so that no queen can take any other, is given later in chapteriv. Another, on the path to be followed by a knight which is moved on a chess-board so that it shall occupy every cell once and only once, is given in chaptervi. Here I will mention one of the simplest of such problems, which is in- teresting from the fact that it is given in Guarini’s manuscript written in 1512; it was quoted by Lucas, but so far as I know has not been otherwise published. Guarini’s Problem.On a board of nine cells, such as that drawn below, the two white knights are placed on the two top corner cells * On the theory of the solitaire, see Reiss, ‘Beiträge zur Theorie des Solitär-Spiels,’ Crelle’s Journal, Berlin, 1858, vol.liv, pp. 344–379; and Lucas, vol.i, part v, pp. 89–141.", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 79 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00081", "bookId": 26839, "start": 158533, "end": 160582, "sha256": "cce61da14b6cef0fd3bbc07a0c4ce6bde6166d208b79067d146573e2b317f489", "text": "[PDF page 80] 64 SOME GEOMETRICAL QUESTIONS. [CH. II a C d D B b A c (a, d), and the two black knights on the two bottom corner cells (b, c): the other cells are left vacant. It is required to move the knights so that the white knights shall occupy the cellsb and c, while the black shall occupy the cells a and d. The solution is tolerably obvious. First, move the pieces froma to A, from b to B, from c to C, and fromd to D. Next, move the pieces from A to d, from B to a, from C to b, and fromD to c. The effect of these eight moves is the same as if the original square had been rotated through one right angle. Repeat the above process, that is, move the pieces successively from a to A, from b to B, from c to C, from d to D; from A to d, from B to a, from C to b, and from D to c. The required result is then attained. Geometrical Puzzles with Rods, etc. Another species of geometrical puzzles, to which here I will do no more than allude, are made of steel rods, or of wire, or of wire and string. Numbers of these are often sold in the streets of London for a penny each, and some of them afford ingenious problems in the geometry of position. Most of them could hardly be discussed without the aid of diagrams, but they are inexpensive to construct, and in fact innumerable puzzles on geometry of position can be made with a couple of stout sticks and a ball of string, or even with only a box of matches: several examples are given in the appendix to the fourth volume of the 1723 edition of Ozanam’s work. I will mention, as an easy example, analogous to one group of the string puzzles, that any one can take off his waistcoat (which may be unbuttoned) without taking off his coat, and without pulling the waistcoat over the head like a jersey. This last feat may serve to show the difficulty of mentally realizing the effect of geometrical alterations in a figure unless they are of the simplest character. Paradromic Rings. The fact just stated is illustrated by the familiar experiment of making paradromic rings by cutting a paper", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 80 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00082", "bookId": 26839, "start": 160584, "end": 162449, "sha256": "6c0ae6ac73f58b0fd2aa4507a569fc712d6afa687cedfe9fa7ed210f5ed43c14", "text": "[PDF page 81] CH. II] PARADROMIC RINGS. 65 ring prepared in the following manner. Take a strip of paper or piece of tape, say, for convenience, an inch or two wide and at least nine or ten inches long, rule a line in the middle down the lengthAB of the strip, gum one end over the other end B, and we get a ring like a section of a cylinder. If this ring is cut by a pair of scissors along the ruled line we obtain two rings exactly like the first, except that they are only half the width. Next suppose that the endA is twisted through two right angles before it is gummed to B (the result of which is that the back of the strip atA is gummed over the front of the strip atB), then a cut along the line will produce only one ring. Next suppose that the endA is twisted once completely round (i.e. through four right angles) before it is gummed toB, then a similar cut produces two interlaced rings. If any of my readers think that these results could be predicted off-hand, it may be interesting to them to see if they can predict correctly the effect of again cutting the rings formed in the second and third experiments down their middle lines in a manner similar to that above described. The theory is due to J.B. Listing* who discussed the case when the endA receives m half-twists, that is, is twisted throughmπ, before it is gummed to B. If m is even we obtain a surface which has two sides and two edges, which are termed paradromic. If the ring is cut along a line midway between the edges, we obtain two rings, each of which hasmhalf-twists, and which are linked together 1 2 m times. If m is odd we obtain a surface having only one side and one edge. If this ring is cut along its mid-line, we obtain only one ring, but it has 2m half-twists, and ifm is greater than unity it is knotted. * Vorstudien zur Topologie, Die Studien, Göttingen, 1847, partx.", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 81 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00083", "bookId": 26839, "start": 162451, "end": 164101, "sha256": "df077384ff4fcaf96f2f660a7a5e73b50b218793bf5dbcdb27a944534d0c542c", "text": "[PDF page 82] CHAPTER III. SOME MECHANICAL QUESTIONS. I proceednow to enumerate a few questions connected with me- chanics which lead to results that seem to me interesting from a his- torical point of view or paradoxical. Problems in mechanics generally involvemoredifficultiesthanproblemsinarithmetic, algebra, orgeome- try, and the explanations of some phenomena—such as those connected with the flight of birds—are still incomplete, while the explanations of many others of an interesting character are too difficult to find a place in a non-technical work. Here, however, I shall confine myself to ques- tions which, like those treated in the two preceding chapters, are of an elementary, not to say trivial, character; and the conclusions are well-known to mathematicians. I assume that the reader is acquainted with the fundamental ideas of kinematics and dynamics, and is familiar with the three Newtonian laws; namely, first that a body will continue in its state of rest or of uniform motion in a straight line unless compelled to change that state by some external force: second, that the change of momentum per unit of time is proportional to the external force and takes place in the direction of it: and third, that the action of one body on another is equal in magnitude but opposite in direction to the reaction of the second body on the first. The first and second laws state the principles required for solving any question on the motion of a particle under the action of given forces. The third law supplies the additional principle required for the solution of problems in which two or more particles influence one another. 66", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 82 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00084", "bookId": 26839, "start": 164103, "end": 166357, "sha256": "4e67c42a07faf0fa64c39309d9e4cd17de42275d841dff7aacf8a388bb1b388a", "text": "[PDF page 83] CH. III] ZENO’S PARADOXES.. 67 Motion. The difficulties connected with the idea of motion have been for a long time a favourite subject for paradoxes, some of which bring us into the realm of the philosophy of mathematics. Zeno’s Paradoxes on Motion.One of the earliest of these is the remark of Zeno to the effect that since an arrow cannot move where it is not, and since also it cannot move where it is (i.e. in the space it exactly fills), it follows that it cannot move at all. The answer that the very idea of the motion of the arrow implies the passage from where it is to where it is not was rejected by Zeno, who seems to have thought that the appearance of motion of a body was a phenomenon caused by the successive appearances of the body at rest but in different positions. Zeno also asserted that the idea of motion was itself inconceivable, for what moves must reach the middle of its course before it reaches the end. Hence the assumption of motion presupposes another motion, and that in turn another, and so ad infinitum. His objection was in fact analogous to the biological difficulty expressed by Swift:— “So naturalists observe, a flea hath smaller fleas that on him prey. And these have smaller fleas to bite ’em. And so proceed ad infinitum.” Or as De Morgan preferred to put it “Great fleas have little fleas upon their backs to bite ’em, And little fleas have lesser fleas, and so ad infinitum. And the great fleas themselves, in turn, have greater fleas to go on; While these have greater still, and greater still, and so on.” Achilles and the Tortoise. Zeno’s paradox about Achilles and the tortoise is known even more widely. The assertion was that if Achilles ran ten times as fast as a tortoise, yet if the tortoise had (say)1000 yards start it could never be overtaken. To establish this, Zeno argued that when Achilles had gone the1000 yards, the tortoise would still be 100 yards in front of him; by the time he had covered these100 yards, it would still be 10 yards in front of him; and so on for ever. Thus Achilles would get nearer and nearer to the tortoise but would never overtake it. Zeno regarded this as confirming his view that the popular idea of motion is self-contradictory.", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 83 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00085", "bookId": 26839, "start": 166359, "end": 169074, "sha256": "da5709ad6bfac343f541e08bc0136030a72d40894923e3318220d94f426ea8dd", "text": "[PDF page 84] 68 MECHANICAL RECREATIONS. [CH. III Zeno’s Paradox on Time.The fallacy of Achilles and the Tortoise is usually explained by saying that though the time required to over- take the tortoise can be divided into an infinite number of intervals, as stated in the argument, yet these intervals get smaller and smaller in geometrical progression, and the sum of them all is a finite time: after the lapse of that time Achilles would be in front of the tortoise. Probably Zeno would have replied that this explanation rests on the assumption that space and time are infinitely divisible, propositions which he would not admit. He seems further to have contended that while, to an accurate thinker, the notion of the infinite divisibility of time was impossible, it was equally impossible to think of a minimum measure of time. For suppose, he argued, thatτ is the smallest con- ceivable interval, and suppose that three horizontal lines composed of three consecutive spansabc, a′b′c′, a′′b′′c′′ are placed so thataa′a′′, bb′b′′, cc′c′′ are vertically over one another. Imagine the second line moved as a whole one span to the right in the timeτ, and simultaneously the third line moved as a whole one span to the left. Thenb, a′, c′′ will be vertically over one another. And in this durationτ (which by hypothesis is indivisible)c′ must have passed vertically overa′′. Hence the duration is divisible, contrary to the hypothesis. The Paradox of Tristram Shandy. Mr Russell has enunciated* a paradox somewhat similar to that of Achilles and the Tortoise, save that the intervals of time considered get longer and longer during the course of events. Tristram Shandy, as we know, took two years writing the history of the first two days of his life, and lamented that, at this rate, material would accumulate faster than he could deal with it, so that he could never come to an end, however long he lived. But had he lived long enough, and not wearied of his task, then, even if his life had continued as eventfully as it began, no part of his biography would have remained unwritten. For if he wrote the events of the first day in the first year, he would write the events of thenth day in thenth year, hence in time the events of any assigned day would be written, and therefore no part of his biography would remain unwritten. This argument might be put in the form of a demonstration that the part of a magnitude may be equal to the whole of it. Questions, such as those given above, which are concerned with the continuity and extent of space and time involve difficulties of a * B.A.W. Russell, Principles of Mathematics, Cambridge, 1903, vol.i, p. 358.", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 84 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00086", "bookId": 26839, "start": 169076, "end": 171641, "sha256": "95562e009ac320acf72e707e732382cce9924c934c904704d382290532f25c1e", "text": "[PDF page 85] CH. III] ANGULAR MOTION. 69 high order. Angular Motion. A non-mathematician finds additional difficul- ties in the idea of angular motion. For instance, here is a well-known proposition on motion in an equiangular spiral (of which the result is true on the ordinary conventions of mathematics) which shows that a body, moving with uniform velocity and as slowly as we please, may in a finite time whirl round a fixed point an infinite number of times. The equiangular spiral is the trace of a pointP, which moves along a line OP, the line OP turning round a fixed pointO with uniform angular velocity while the distance of P from O decreases with the time in geometrical progression. If the radius vector rotates through four right angles we have one convolution of the curve. All convolutions are similar, and the length of each convolution is a constant fraction, say 1/nth, that of the convolution immediately outside it. Inside any given convolution, there are an infinite number of convolutions which get smaller and smaller as we get nearer the pole. Now suppose a point Q to move uniformly along the spiral from any point towards the pole. If it covers the first convolution ina seconds, it will cover the next in a/n seconds, the next ina/n2 seconds, and so on, and will finally reach the pole in(a + a/n + a/n2 + a/n3 + · · ·) seconds, that is, inan/(n − 1) seconds. The velocity is uniform, and yet in a finite time,Q will have traversed an infinite number of convolutions and therefore have circled round the pole an infinite number of times*. Simple Relative Motion. Even if the philosophical difficulties sug- gested by Zeno are settled or evaded, the mere idea of relative motion has been often found to present difficulties, and Zeno himself failed to explain a simple phenomenon involving the principle. As one of the easiest examples of this kind, I may quote the common question of how many trains going fromB to A a passenger from A to B would meet and pass on his way, assuming that the journey either way takes4 1 2 hours and that the trains start from each end every hour. The answer is 9. Or again this: Take two pennies, face upwards on a table and edges in contact. Suppose that one is fixed and that the other rolls on it without slipping, making one complete revolution round it and returning to its initial position. How many revolutions round its own centre has the rolling coin made? The answer is2. * The proposition is put in this form in J. Richard’sPhilosophie des mathémat- iques, Paris, 1903, pp. 119–120.", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 85 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00087", "bookId": 26839, "start": 171643, "end": 174106, "sha256": "4e9ce4e532fc4124384d26d449e5b9c4c69464f69ee088a9c05722488c506084", "text": "[PDF page 86] 70 MECHANICAL RECREATIONS. [CH. III Laws of Motion. I proceed next to make a few remarks on points connected with the laws of motion. The first law of motion is often said to defineforce, but it is in only a qualified sense that this is true. Probably the meaning of the law is best expressed in Clifford’s phrase, that force is “the description of a certain kind of motion”—in other words it is not an entity but merely a convenient way of stating, without circumlocution, that a certain kind of motion is observed. It is not difficult to show that any other interpretation lands us in difficulties. Thus some authors use the law to justify a definition that force is that which moves a body or changes its motion; yet the same writers speak of a steam-engine moving a train. It would seem then that, according to them, a steam-engine is a force. That such state- ments are current may be fairly reckoned among mechanical paradoxes. The idea of force is difficult to grasp. How many people, for in- stance, could predict correctly what would happen in a question as sim- ple as the following? A rope (whose weight may be neglected) hangs over a smooth pulley; it has one end fastened to a weight of10 stone, and the other end to a sailor of weight10 stone, the sailor and the weight hanging in the air. The sailor begins to climb up the rope; will the weight move at all; and, if so, will it rise or fall? It will be noted that in the first law of motion it is asserted that, unless acted on by an external force, a body in motion continues to move (i) with uniform velocity, and (ii) in a straight line. The tendency of a body to continue in its state of rest or of uniform motion is called its inertia. This tendency may be used to explain various common phenomena and experiments. Thus, if a number of dominoes or draughts are arranged in a vertical pile, a sharp horizontal blow on one of those near the bottom will send it out of the pile, and those above will merely drop down to take its place—in fact they have nottimetochangetheirrelativepositionsbeforethereissufficientspace for them to drop vertically as if they were a solid body. This also is the principle on which depends the successful playing of “Aunt Sally,” and the performance of numerous tricks, described in collections of mathematical puzzles*. * See Les récréations scientifiquesby G. Tissandier, where several ingenious illus- trations of inertia are given.", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 86 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00088", "bookId": 26839, "start": 174108, "end": 176703, "sha256": "93f511f7229d71b53245f77d5f7c0534c89544dd2b23371044643f0fbbf0b3c4", "text": "[PDF page 87] CH. III] LA WS OF MOTION. 71 The statement about inertia in the first law may be taken to imply that a body set in rotation about a principal axis passing through its centre of mass will continue to move with a uniform angular velocity and to keep its axis of rotation fixed in direction. The former of these statements is the assumption on which our measurement of time is based as mentioned below in chapter xiii. The latter assists us to explain the motion of a projectile in a resisting fluid. It affords the explanation of why the barrel of a rifle is grooved; and why, similarly, anyone who has to throw a flat body of irregular shape (such as a card) in a given direction usually gives it a rapid rotatory motion about a principal axis. Elegant illustrations of the fact just mentioned are afforded by a good many of the tricks of acrobats, though the full explanation of most of them also introduces other considerations. Thus when some few years ago the Japanese village at Knightsbridge was one of the shows of London, there were some acrobats there who tossed on to the top surface of an umbrella a penny so that it alighted on its edge, and then, by turning round the stick of the umbrella rapidly, the coin was caused to rotate, but as the umbrella moved away underneath it the coin remained apparently stationary and standing upright, while by diminishing or increasing the angular velocity of the umbrella the penny was caused to run forwards or backwards. This is not a difficult trick to execute. The tendency of a body in motion to continue to move in a straight line is sometimes called itscentrifugal force. Thus, if a train is running roundacurve, ittendstomoveinastraightline, andisconstrainedonly by the pressure of the rails to move in the required direction. Hence it presses on the outer rail of the curve. This pressure can be diminished to some extent both by raising the outer rail, and by putting a guard rail, parallel and close to the inner rail, against which the wheels on that side also will press. An illustration of this fact occurred in a little known incident of the American civil war*. In the spring of 1862 a party of volunteers from the North made their way to the rear of the Southern armies and seized a train, intending to destroy, as they passed along it, the railway which was the main line of communication between various confederate corps and their base of operations. They were however detected and pursued. To save themselves, they stopped on a sharp curve and tore * Capturing a Locomotiveby W. Pittenger, London, 1882, p. 104.", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 87 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00089", "bookId": 26839, "start": 176705, "end": 179111, "sha256": "b718821049a9670b331c75a6c022a5d170bd03693a6522b47c45504189f8e211", "text": "[PDF page 88] 72 MECHANICAL RECREATIONS. [CH. III up some rails so as to throw the engine which was following them off the line. Unluckily for themselves they were ignorant of dynamics and tore up the inner rails of the curve, an operation which did not incommode their pursuers. The second law gives us the means of measuring mass, force, and therefore work. A given agent in a given time can do only a definite amount of work. This is illustrated by the fact that although, by means of a rigid lever and a fixed fulcrum, any force however small may be caused to move any mass however large, yet what is gained in power is lost in speed—as the popular phrase runs. Montucla* inserted a striking illustration of this principle founded on the well-known story of Archimedes who is said to have declared to Hiero that, were he but given a fixed fulcrum, he could move the world. Montucla calculated the mass of the earth and, assuming that a man could work incessantly at the rate of116 foot-lbs. per second, which is a very high estimate, he found that it would take over three billion centuries,i.e. 3 × 1014 years, before a mass equal to that of the earth was moved as much as one inch against gravity at the surface of the earth: to move it one inch along a horizonal plane would take about 74000 centuries. Stability of Equilibrium. It is known to all those who have read the elements of mechanics that the centre of gravity of a body, which is resting in equilibrium under its own weight, must be vertically above its base: also, speaking generally, we may say that, if every small displace- ment has the effect of raising the centre of gravity, then the equilibrium is stable, that is, the body when left to itself will return to its original position; but, if a displacement has the effect of lowering the centre of gravity, then for that displacement the equilibrium is unstable; while, if every displacement does not alter the height above some fixed plane of the centre of gravity, then the equilibrium is neutral. In other words, if in order to cause a displacement work has to be done against the forces acting on the body, then for that displacement the equilibrium is stable, while if the forces do work the equilibrium is unstable. A good many of the simpler mechanical toys and tricks afford il- lustrations of this principle. * Ozanam, 1803 edition, vol. ii, p. 18; 1840 edition, p. 202.", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 88 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00090", "bookId": 26839, "start": 179113, "end": 181611, "sha256": "fc76ff6d415eb1d83d07e042a0378d24cb217877e96b7b19e93303e2e1d7a69d", "text": "[PDF page 89] CH. III] MAGIC BOTTLES. 73 Magic Bottles*. Among the most common of such toys are the small bottles—trays of which may be seen any day in the streets of London—which keep always upright, and cannot be upset until their owner orders them to lie down. Such a bottle is made of thin glass or varnished paper fixed to the plane surface of a solid hemisphere or smaller segment of a sphere. Now the distance of the centre of gravity of a homogeneous hemisphere from the centre of the sphere is three- eighths of the radius, and the mass of the glass or varnished paper is so small compared with the mass of the lead base that the centre of gravity of the whole bottle is still within the hemisphere. Let us denote the centre of the hemisphere byC, and the centre of gravity of the bottle by G. Ifsuchabottleisplacedwiththehemisphererestingonahorizontal plane and GC vertical, any small displacement on the plane will tend to raise G, and thus the equilibrium is stable. This may be seen also from the fact that when slightly displaced there is brought into play a couple, of which one force is the reaction of the table passing through C and acting vertically upward, and the other the weight of the bottle acting vertically downward atG. If G is below C, this couple tends to restore the bottle to its original position. If there is dropped into the bottle a shot or nail so heavy as to raise the centre of gravity of the whole aboveC, then the equilibrium is unstable, and, if any small displacement is given, the bottle falls over on to its side. Montucla says that in his time it was not uncommon to see boxes of tin soldiers mounted on lead hemispheres, and when the lid of the box was taken off the whole regiment sprang to attention. Inasimilarwaywemayexplainhowtobalanceapencilinavertical position, with its point resting on the top of one’s finger, an experiment which is described in nearly every book of puzzles†. This is effected by taking a penknife, of which one blade is opened through an angle of (say) 120◦, and sticking the blade in the pencil so that the handle of the penknife is below the finger. The centre of gravity is thus brought below the point of support, and a small displacement given to the pencil will raise the centre of gravity of the whole: thus the equilibrium is stable. * Ozanam, 1803 edition, vol. ii, p. 15; 1840 edition, p. 201. † Ex. gr.Oughtred,Mathematical Recreations, p.24; Ozanam, 1803edition, vol.ii, p. 14; 1840 edition, p. 200.", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 89 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00091", "bookId": 26839, "start": 181613, "end": 184180, "sha256": "b3983b15bc6cc09bb27766887f8b2378e8c18e2610a48df1b9b702e0af848a47", "text": "[PDF page 90] 74 MECHANICAL RECREATIONS. [CH. III Other similar tricks are the suspension of a bucket over the edge of a table by a couple of sticks, and the balancing of a coin on the edge of a wine-glass by the aid of a couple of forks*—the sticks or forks being so placed that the centre of gravity of the whole is vertically below the point of support and its depth below it a maximum. The toy representing a horseman, whose motion continually brings him over the edge of a table into a position which seems to ensure immediate destruction, is constructed in somewhat the same way. A wire has one end fixed to the feet of the rider; the wire is curved down- wards and backwards, and at the other end is fixed a weight. When the horse is placed so that his hind legs are near the edge of the table and his forefeet over the edge, the weight is under his hind feet. Thus the whole toy forms a pendulum with a curved instead of a straight rod. Hence the farther it swings over the table, the higher is the cen- tre of gravity raised, and thus the toy tends to return to its original position of equilibrium. An elegant modification of the prancing horse was brought out at Paris in 1890 in the shape of a toy made of tin and in the figure of a man†. The legs are pivoted so as to be movable about the thighs, but with a wire check to prevent too long a step, and the hands are fastened tothetopofa T-shapedwireweightedatitsends. Ifthefigureisplaced on a narrow sloping plank or strip of wood passing between the legs of theT, then owing to theT-shaped wire any lateral displacement of the figure will raise its centre of gravity, and thus for any such displacement the equilibrium is stable. Hence, if a slight lateral disturbance is given, the figure will oscillate and will rest alternately on each foot: when it is supported by one foot the other foot under its own weight moves forwards, and thus the figure will walk down the plank though with a slight reeling motion. Shortly after the publication of the third edition of this book an improved form of this toy, in the shape of a walking elephant made in heavy metal, was issued in England, and probably in that form it is now familiar to all who are interested in noticing street toys. Columbus’s Egg.The toy known as Columbus’s egg depends on the same principle as the magic bottle, though it leads to the converse result. The shell of the egg is made of tin and cannot be opened. Inside * Oughtred, p. 30; Ozanam, 1803 edition, vol.ii, p. 12; 1840 edition, p. 199. † La Nature, Paris, March, 1891.", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 90 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00092", "bookId": 26839, "start": 184182, "end": 186642, "sha256": "9a919176cf379d2b33a026669e0f7d538880cd71858802681d4ba4e901e4314c", "text": "[PDF page 91] CH. III] CONES RUNNING UP HILL. 75 it and fastened to its base is a hollow truncated tin cone, and there is also a loose marble inside the shell. If the egg is held properly, the marble runs inside the cone and the egg will stand on its base, but so long as the marble is outside the cone, the egg cannot be made to stand on its base. Cones running up hill*. The experiment to make a double cone run up hill depends on the same principle as the toys above described; namely, on the tendency of a body to take a position so that its centre of gravity is as low as possible. In this case it produces the optical effect of a body moving by itself up a hill. Usually the experiment is performed as follows. Arrange two sticks in the shape of a W, with the apex on a table and the two upper ends resting on the top edge of a book placed on the table. Take two equal cones fixed base to base, and place them with the curved surfaces resting on the sticks near the apex of theW, the common axis of the cones being horizontal and parallel to the edge of the book. Then, if properly arranged, the cones will run up the plane formed by the sticks. The explanation is obvious. The centre of gravity of the cones moves in the vertical plane midway between the two sticks and it occu- pies a lower position as the points of contact on the sticks get farther apart. Hence as the cone rolls up the sticks its centre of gravity de- scends. Perpetual Motion. The idea of making a machine which once set going would continue to go for ever by itself has been the ignis fatuus of self-taught mechanicians in much the same way as the quadrature of the circle has been of self-taught geometricians. Nowtheobviousmeaningofthethirdlawofmotionisthataforceis only one aspect of a stress, and that whenever a force is caused another equal and opposite one is brought also into existence—though it may act upon a different body, and thus be immaterial for the particular problem considered. The law however is capable of another interpreta- tion†, namely, that the rate at which an agent does work (that is, its action) is equal to the rate at which work is done against it (that is, its reaction). If it is allowable to include in the reaction the rate at which kinetic energy is being produced, and if work is taken to include * Ozanam, 1803 edition, vol. ii, p. 49; 1840 edition, p. 216. † Newton’sPrincipia, last paragraph of the Scholium to the Laws of Motion.", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 91 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00093", "bookId": 26839, "start": 186644, "end": 188328, "sha256": "1f297a46c302f52af9fb889237e5e9a86c4d3d27ee2d6f33e6a8d7bef724abba", "text": "[PDF page 92] 76 MECHANICAL RECREATIONS. [CH. III that done against molecular forces, then it follows from this interpre- tation that the work done by an agent on a system is equivalent to the total increase of energy, that is, the power of doing work. Hence in an isolated system the total amount of energy is constant. If this is granted, then since friction and some molecular dissipation of energy cannot be wholly prevented, it must be impossible to construct in an isolated system a machine capable of perpetual motion. I do not propose to describe in detail the various machines for producing perpetual motion which have been suggested, but I may add that a number of them are equivalent essentially to the one of which a section is represented in the accompanying figure. C It consists of two concentric vertical wheels in the same plane, and mounted on a horizontal axle through their centre,C. The space between the wheels is divided into compartments by spokes inclined at a constant angle to the radii to the points whence they are drawn, and each compartment contains a heavy bullet. Apart from these bullets, the wheels would be in equilibrium. Each bullet tends to turn the wheels round their axle, and the moment which measures this tendency is the product of the weight of the bullet and its distance from the vertical through C. The idea of the constructors of such machines was that, as the bullet in any compartment would roll under gravity to the lowest point of the compartment, the bullets on the right-hand side of the diagram would be farther from the vertical throughC than those on the left. Hence the sum of the moments of the weights of the bullets on the", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 92 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00094", "bookId": 26839, "start": 188330, "end": 190905, "sha256": "31188913468d1b4e96119fce57f409f082dcdb9ec27ef60041c49a0360b2d69f", "text": "[PDF page 93] CH. III] PERPETUAL MOTION. 77 right would be greater than the sum of the moments of those on the left. Thus the wheels would turn continually in the same direction as the hands of a watch. The fallacy in the argument is obvious. Another large group of machines for producing perpetual motion depended on the use of a magnet to raise a mass which was then allowed to fall under gravity. Thus, if the bob of a simple pendulum was made of iron, it was thought that magnets fixed near the highest points which were reached by the bob in the swing of the pendulum would draw the bobuptothesameheightineachswingandthusgiveperpetualmotion. Of course it is only in isolated systems that the total amount of energy is constant, and, if a source of external energy can be obtained from which energy is continually introduced into the system, perpet- ual motion is, in a sense, possible; though even here materials would ultimately wear out. The solar heat and the tides are among the most obvious of such sources. There was at Paris in the latter half of the eighteenth century a clock which was an ingenious illustration of such perpetual motion*. The energy which was stored up in it to maintain the motion of the pendulumwasprovidedbytheexpansionofasilverrod. Thisexpansion was caused by the daily rise of temperature, and by means of a train of levers it wound up the clock. There was a disconnecting apparatus, so that the contraction due to a fall of temperature produced no effect, and there was a similar arrangement to prevent overwinding. I believe that a rise of eight or nine degrees Fahrenheit was sufficient to wind up the clock for twenty-four hours. I have in my possession a watch, which produces the same effect by somewhat different means. Inside the case is a steel weight, and if the watch is carried in a pocket this weight rises and falls at every step one takes, somewhat after the manner of a pedometer. The weight is raised by the action of the person who has it in his pocket in taking a step, and in falling it winds up the spring of the watch. On the face is a small dial showing the number of hours for which the watch is wound up. As soon as the hand of this dial points to fifty-six hours, the train of levers which winds up the watch disconnects automatically, so as to prevent overwinding the spring, and it reconnects again as soon as the watch has run down eight hours. The watch is an excellent time- keeper, and a walk of about a couple of miles is sufficient to wind it * Ozanam, 1803 edition, vol. ii, p. 105; 1840 edition, p. 238.", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 93 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00095", "bookId": 26839, "start": 190907, "end": 193338, "sha256": "9fd0097836bddbc817dd4329162b48b36a51785fd5a8db42b3e32227bf1845ba", "text": "[PDF page 94] 78 MECHANICAL RECREATIONS. [CH. III up for twenty-four hours. Models. I may add here the observation, which is well known to mathematicians, but is a perpetual source of disappointment to igno- rant inventors, that it frequently happens that an accurate model of a machine will work satisfactorily while the machine itself will not do so. One reason for this is as follows. If all the parts of a model are magnified in the same proportion, saym, and if thereby a line in it is increased in the ratiom : 1, then the areas and volumes in it will be increased respectively in the ratiosm2 : 1 and m3 : 1. For example, if the side of a cube is doubled then a face of it will be increased in the ratio 4 : 1 and its volume will be increased in the ratio8 : 1. Now if all the linear dimensions are increasedm times, then some of the forces that act on a machine (such, for example, as the weight of part of it) will be increasedm3 times, while others which depend on area (such as the sustaining power of a beam) will be increased only m2 times. Hence the forces that act on the machine and are brought into play by the various parts may be altered in different proportions, and thus the machine may be incapable of producing results similar to those which can be produced by the model. The same argument has been adduced in the case of animal life to explain why very large specimens of any particular breed or species are usually weak. For example, if the linear dimensions of a bird were increased n times, the work necessary to give the power of flight would have to be increased no less thann7 times*. Again, if the linear di- mensions of a man of height5 ft. 10 in. were increased by one-seventh his height would become6 ft. 8 in., but his weight would be increased in the ratio512 : 343 (i.e. about half as much again), while the cross sections of his legs, which would have to bear this weight, would be increased only in the ratio64 : 49; thus in some respects he would be less efficient than before. Of course the increased dimensions, length of limb, or size of muscle might be of greater advantage than the relative loss of strength; hence the problem of what are the most efficient pro- portions is not simple, but the above argument will serve to illustrate the fact that the working of a machine may not be similar to that of a model of it. * Helmholtz, Gesammelte Abhandlungen, Leipzig, 1881, vol.i, p. 165.", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 94 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00096", "bookId": 26839, "start": 193340, "end": 195821, "sha256": "ef553b5d8e8ea89906624eb83fadc96bb30206e779f21fee3a447ca9b406e90c", "text": "[PDF page 95] CH. III] SAILING QUICKER THAN THE WIND. 79 Leaving now these elementary considerations I pass on to some other mechanical questions. Sailing quicker than the Wind. As a kinematical paradox I may allude to the possibility ofsailing quicker than the wind blows, a fact which strikes many people as curious. The explanation* depends on the consideration of the velocity of the wind relative to the boat. Perhaps, however, a non-mathematician will find the solution simplified if I consider first the effect of the wind- pressure on the back of the sail which drives the boat forward, and second the resistance to motion caused by the sail being forced through the air. When the wind is blowing against a plane sail the resultant pres- sure of the wind on the sail may be resolved into two components, one perpendicular to the sail (but which in general is not a function only of the component velocity in that direction, though it vanishes when that component vanishes) and the other parallel to its plane. The lat- ter of these has no effect on the motion of the ship. The component perpendicular to the sail tends to move the ship in that direction. This pressure, normal to the sail, may be resolved again into two compo- nents, one in the direction of the keel of the boat, the other in the direction of the beam of the boat. The former component drives the boat forward, the latter to leeward. It is the object of a boat-builder to construct the boat on lines so that the resistance of the water to motion forward shall be as small as possible, and the resistance to motion in a perpendicular direction (i.e. to leeward) shall be as large as possible; and I will assume for the moment that the former of these resistances may be neglected, and that the latter is so large as to render motion in that direction impossible. Now, as the boat moves forward, the pressure of the air on the front of the sail will tend to stop the motion. As long as its component normal to the sail is less than the pressure of the wind behind the sail and normal to it, the resultant of the two will be a force behind the sail and normal to it which tends to drive the boat forwards. But as the velocity of the boat increases, a time will arrive when the pressure of the wind is only just able to balance the resisting force which is caused by the sail moving through the air. The velocity of the boat will not * Ozanam, 1803 edition, vol. iii, pp. 359, 367; 1840 edition, pp. 540, 543.", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 95 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00097", "bookId": 26839, "start": 195823, "end": 197597, "sha256": "631fa27038e7c026f374b7f8fafd1bd6f77638e6245f49c462e83cad5f9fe656", "text": "[PDF page 96] 80 MECHANICAL RECREATIONS. [CH. III BR S L A W increase beyond this, and the motion will be then what mathematicians describe as “steady.” In the accompanying figure, letBAR represent the keel of a boat, B being the bow, and let SAL represent the sail. Suppose that the wind is blowing in the directionWA with a velocity u; and that this direction makes an angleθ with the keel,i.e. angle WAR = θ. Suppose that the sail is set so as to make an angleα with the keel,i.e. angle BAS = α, and therefore angleWAL = θ + α. Suppose finally that v is the velocity of the boat in the directionAB. I have already shown that the solution of the problem depends on the relative directions and velocities of the wind and the boat; hence to find the result reduce the boat to rest by impressing on it a velocity v in the directionBA. The resultant velocity ofv parallel to BA and of u parallel to WA will be parallel toSL, if v sin α = u sin(θ + α); and in this case the resultant pressure perpendicular to the sail vanishes. Thus, for steady motion we havev sin α = u sin(θ + α). Hence, whenever sin(θ + α) > sin α, we have v > u . Suppose, to take one instance, the sail to be fixed, that is, supposeα to be a constant. Then v is a maximum ifθ + α = 1 2 π, that is, ifθ is equal to the complement of α. In this case we havev = u cosec α, and thereforev is greater than u. Hence, if the wind makes the same angle α abaft the beam that the sail makes with the keel, the velocity of the boat will be greater than the velocity of the wind. Next, suppose that the boat is running close to the wind, so that the wind is before the beam (see figure below), then in the same way as before we have v sin α = u sin(θ + α), or v sin α = u sin φ, where", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 96 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00098", "bookId": 26839, "start": 197599, "end": 199118, "sha256": "5e01f5e9ac2fc57e1bac8d1b902a831e15b659d689a22e7f80d8977de17cb523", "text": "[PDF page 97] CH. III] BOAT MOVED BY A ROPE.. 81 φ = angle WAS = π − θ − α. Hence v = u sin φ cosec α. Let w be the component velocity of the boat in the teeth of the wind, that is, in the directionAW. Then we havew = v cos BAW = v cos(α + φ) = u sin φ cosec α cos(α + φ). If α is constant, this is a maximum when φ = 1 4 π − 1 2 α; and, if φ has this value, then w = 1 2 u(cosec α − 1). This formula shows that w is greater than u, if sin α < 1 3. Thus, if the sails can be set so that α is less than sin−1 1 3, that is, rather less than19◦29′, and if the wind has the direc- tion above assigned, then the component velocity of the boat in the face of the wind is greater than the velocity of the wind. The above theory is curious, but it must be remembered that in practice considerable allowance has to be made for the fact that no boat for use on water can be constructed in which the resistance to BR S L A W motion in the direction of the keel can be wholly neglected, or which would not drift slightly to leeward if the wind was not dead astern. Still this makes less difference than might be thought by a landsman. In the case of boats sailing on smooth ice the assumptions made are substantially correct, and the practical results are said to agree closely with the theory. Boat moved by a Rope. There is a form of boat-racing, occa- sionally used at regattas, which affords a somewhat curious illustration of certain mechanical principles. The only thing supplied to the crew", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 97 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00099", "bookId": 26839, "start": 199120, "end": 201689, "sha256": "aa191cc64ba02f656d910746066a931f3f01e631343fbe1eb0ce30112a1f45fa", "text": "[PDF page 98] 82 MECHANICAL RECREATIONS. [CH. III is a coil of rope, and they have, without leaving the boat, to propel it from one point to another as rapidly as possible. The motion is given by tying one end of the rope to the after thwart, and giving the other end a series of violent jerks in a direction parallel to the keel. I am told that in still water a pace of two or three miles an hour can be thus attained. The chief cause for this result seems to be that the friction between the boat and the water retards all relative motion, but is not great enough to materially affect motion caused by a sufficiently big impulse. Hence the usual movements of the crew in the boat do not sensibly move the centre of gravity of themselves and the boat, but this does not apply to an impulsive movement, and if the crew in making a jerk move their centre of gravity towards the bown times more rapidly than it returns after the jerk, then the boat is impelled forwards at leastn times more than backwards: hence on the whole the motion is forwards. Motion of Fluids and Motion in Fluids. The theories of motion of fluidsand motion in fluidsinvolve considerable difficulties. Here I will mention only one or two instances—mainly illustrations of Hauksbee’s Law. Hauksbee’s Law.When a fluid is in rapid motion the pressure is less than when it is at rest*. Thus, if a current of air is moving in a tube, the pressure on the sides of the tube is less than when the air is at rest— and the quicker the air moves the smaller is the pressure. This fact was noticedbyHauksbeenearlytwocenturiesago. Inanelasticperfectfluid in which the pressure is proportional to the density, the law connecting the pressure, p, and the steady velocity,v, is p = Πα−v2 where Π and α are constants: the establishment of corresponding formula for gases where the pressure is proportional to a power of the density presents no difficulty. This principle is illustrated by a twopenny toy, on sale in most toy-shops, called thepneumatic mystery. It consists of a tube, with a cup-shaped end in which rests a wooden ball. If the tube is held in a vertical position, with the mouthpiece at the upper end and the cup at * See Besant, Hydromechanics, Cambridge, 1867, art. 149, where however it is assumed that the pressure is proportional to the density. Hauksbee was the earliest writer who called attention to the problem, but I do not know who first explained the phenomenon; some references to it are given by Willis,Cambridge Philosophical Transactions, 1830, vol.iii, pp. 129–140.", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 98 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00100", "bookId": 26839, "start": 201691, "end": 204205, "sha256": "bc985f7beabb17613775face46ea67ec56af6bd91c7ad3ce0e27f387a34aa427", "text": "[PDF page 99] CH. III] SPIN ON TENNIS AND CRICKET BALLS.. 83 the lower end, then, if anyone blows hard through the tube and places the ball against the cup, the ball will remain suspended there. The explanation is that the pressure of the air below the ball is so much greater than the pressure of the air in the cup that the ball is held up. The same effect may be produced by fastening to one end of a tube a piece of cardboard having a small hole in it. If a piece of paper is placed over the hole and the experimenter blows through the tube, the paper will not be detached from the card but will bend so as to allow the egress of the air. An exactly similar experiment, described in many text-books on hydromechanics, is made as follows. To one end of a straight tube a plane disc is fitted which is capable of sliding on wires projecting from the end of the tube. If the disc is placed at a small distance from the end, and anyone blows steadily into the tube, the disc will be drawn towards the tube instead of being blown off the wires, and will oscillate about a position near the end of the tube. In the same way we may make a tube by placing two books on a table with their backs parallel and an inch or so apart and laying a sheet of newspaper over them. If anyone blows steadily through the tube so formed, the paper will be sucked in instead of being blown out. The following experiment is explicable by the same argument. On the top of a vertical axis balance a thin horizontal rod. At each end of this rod fasten a small vertical square or sail of thin cardboard—the two sails being in the same plane. If anyone blows close to one of these squares and in a direction parallel to its plane, the square will move towards the side on which one is blowing, and the rod with the two sails will rotate about the axis. The experiments above described can be performed so as to illus- trate Hauksbee’s Law; but unless care is taken other causes will be also introduced which affect the phenomena: it is however unnecessary for my purpose to go into these details. Cut on a Tennis-Ball. Racquet and tennis players know that if a strong cut is given to a ball it can be made to rebound off a vertical wall and then (without striking the floor or any other wall) return and hit the wall again. This affords another illustration of Hauksbee’s Law. The expla- nation* is that the cut causes the ball to rotate rapidly about an axis * See Magnus on ‘Die Abweichung der Geschosse ’ in theAbhandlungen der", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 99 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00101", "bookId": 26839, "start": 204207, "end": 206379, "sha256": "111d60ca58bf23134d96c97099efbc1140b0d3b20ce55bebaa537d1cb313e059", "text": "[PDF page 100] 84 MECHANICAL RECREATIONS. [CH. III through its centre of figure, and the friction of the surface of the ball on the air produces a sort of whirlpool. This rotation is in addition to its motion of translation. Suppose the ball to be spherical and rotat- ing about an axis through its centre perpendicular to the plane of the paper in the direction of the arrow-head, and at the same time moving through still air from left to right parallel toP Q. Any motion of the ball perpendicular to P Q will be produced by the pressure of the air on the surface of the ball, and this pressure will, by Hauksbee’s Law, be greatest where the velocity of the air relative to the ball is least, and vice versa. To find the velocity of the air relative to the ball we may reduce the centre of the ball to rest, and suppose a stream of air to impinge on the surface of the ball moving with a velocity equal and opposite to that of the centre of the ball. The air is not frictionless, and therefore the air in contact with the surface of the ball will be set in motion, by the rotation of the ball and will form a sort of whirlpool rotating in the direction of the arrow-head in the figure. To find the actual velocity of this air relative to the ball we must consider how the motion due to the whirlpool is affected by the motion of the stream of air parallel toQP. The air atA in the whirlpool is moving against the stream of air there, and therefore its velocity is retarded: the air at B in the whirlpool is moving in the same direction as the stream of air there, and therefore its velocity is increased. Hence the relative velocity of the air atA is less than that atB, and since the pressure of the air is greatest where the velocity is least, the pressure of the air on the surface of the ball atA is greater than on that at B, Hence the ball is forced by this pressure in the direction from the lineP Q, P Q A B which we may suppose to represent the section of the vertical wall in Akademie der Wissenschaften, Berlin, 1852, pp. 1–23; Lord Rayleigh, ‘On the irregular flight of a tennis ball,’Messenger of Mathematics, Cambridge, 1878, vol. vii, pp. 14–16.", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 100 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00102", "bookId": 26839, "start": 206381, "end": 208830, "sha256": "ff03c8ad369c09f97e6221025c397f9927788d52880ca428035ea93efa568c68", "text": "[PDF page 101] CH. III] FLIGHT OF BIRDS. 85 a racquet-court. In other words, the ball tends to move at right angles to the line in which its centre is moving and in the direction in which the surface of the front of the ball is being carried by the rotation. In the case of a lawn tennis-ball, the shape of the ball is altered by a strong cut, and this introduces additional complications. Spin on a Cricket-Ball. The curl of a cricket-ball in its flight through the air, caused by a spin given by the bowler in delivering the ball, is explained by the same reasoning. Thus suppose the ball is delivered in a direction lying in a vertical plane containing the two middle stumps of the wickets. A spin round a horizontal axis parallel to the crease in a direction which the bowler’s umpire would describe as positive, namely, counter clock-wise, will, in consequence of the friction of the air, cause it to drop, and therefore decrease the length of the pitch. A spin in the opposite direction will cause it to rise, and therefore lengthen the pitch. A spin round a vertical axis in the positive direction, as viewed from above, will make it curl sideways in the air to the left, that is, from leg to off. A spin in the opposite direction will make it curl to the right. A spin given to the ball round the direction of motion of the centre of the ball will not sensibly affect the motion through the air, though it would cause the ball, on hitting the ground, to break. Of course these various kinds of spin can be combined. The questions involving the application of Hauksbee’s Law are easy as compared with many of the problems in fluid motion. The analy- sis required to attack most of these problems is beyond the scope of this book, but one of them may be worth mentioning even though no explanation is given. The Theory of the Flight of Birds.A mechanical problem of great interest is the explanation of the means by which birds are enabled to fly for considerable distances with no (perceptible) motion of the wings. Albatrosses, to take an instance of special difficulty, have been known to follow for some days ships running at the rate of nine or ten knots, and sometimes for considerable periods there is no motion of the wings or body which can be detected, while even if the bird moved its wings it is not easy to understand how it has the muscular energy to propel itself so rapidly and for such a length of time. Of this phenomenon", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 101 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00103", "bookId": 26839, "start": 208832, "end": 211396, "sha256": "70441c1c6a11e5df658cb94bf6dfff22b2d3662c211e0c47583bda0f02a48167", "text": "[PDF page 102] 86 MECHANICAL RECREATIONS. [CH. III various explanations* have been suggested. Notable among these are Mr Maxim’s of upward air-currents, Lord Rayleigh’s of variations of the wind velocity at different heights above the ground, Dr S.P. Langley’s of the incessant occurrence of gusts of wind separated by lulls, and Dr Bryan’s of vortices in the atmosphere. It now seems reasonably certain that the second and third of these sources of energy account for at least a portion of the observed phenom- ena. The effect of the third cause may be partially explained by noting that the centre of gravity of the bird with extended wings is slightly below the aeroplane or wing surface, so that the animal forms a sort of parachute. The effect of a sudden gust of wind upon such a body is that the aeroplane is set in motion more rapidly than the suspended mass, causing the structure to heel over so as to receive the wind on the under surface of the aeroplane, and this lifts the suspended mass giving it an upward velocity. When the wind falls the greater inertia of the mass carries it on upwards causing the aeroplane to again present its under side to the air; and if while the parachute is in this position the wind is still blowing from the side, the suspended mass is again lifted. Thus the more the bird is blown about, the more it rises in the air; actually birds in flight are carried up by a sudden side gust of wind as we should expect from this theory. The fact that the bird is in motion tends also to keep it up, for it has been recently shown that a horizontal plane under the action of gravity falls to the ground more slowly if it is travelling through the air with horizontal velocity than it would do if allowed to fall vertically, hence the bird’s forward motion causes it to fall through a smaller height between successive gusts of wind than it would do if it were at rest, Moreover it has been proved experimentally that the horsepower required to support a body in horizontal flight by means of an aeroplane is less for high than for low speeds: hence when a side-wind (that is, a wind at right angles to the bird’s course) strikes the bird, the lift is increased in consequence of the bird’s forward velocity. Curiosa Physica. When I was writing the first edition of these “Recreations,” I put together a chapter, following this one, on “Some Physical Questions,” dealing with problems such as, in the Theory of * See G.H. Bryan in the Transactions of the British Association for 1896, vol. lxvi, pp. 726-728.", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 102 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00104", "bookId": 26839, "start": 211398, "end": 213982, "sha256": "fe7b9b5a668477c01391dc3d1da6cae8f733b757e904fd24a4429bd7db715e17", "text": "[PDF page 103] CH. III] CURIOSA PHYSICA. 87 Sound, the explanation of the fact that in some of Captain Parry’s ex- periments the report of a cannon, when fired, travelled so much more rapidly than the sound of the human voice that observers heard the report of the cannon when fired before that of the order to fire it*: in the Kinetic Theory of Gases, the complications in our universe that might be produced by “Maxwell’s demon”†: in the Theory of Optics, the explanation of the Japanese “magic mirrors,”‡which reflect the pat- tern on the back of the mirror (on which the light does not fall): to which I might add the theory of the “spectrum top,” by means of which a white surface, on which some black lines are drawn, can be moved so as to give the impression§ that the lines are coloured (red, green, blue, slate, or drab), and the curious fact that the colours change with the direction of rotation: it has also been recently shown that if two trains of waves, whose lengths are in the ratiom − 1 : m + 1, be superposed, then every mth wave in the system will be big—thus the current opin- ion that every ninth wave in the open sea is bigger than the other waves may receive scientific confirmation. There is no lack of interesting and curious phenomena in physics, and in some branches, notably in elec- tricity and magnetism, the difficulty is rather one of selection, but I felt that the connection with mathematics was in general either too remote or too technical to justify the insertion of such a collection in a work on elementary mathematical recreations, and therefore I struck out the chapter. I mention the fact now partly to express the hope that some physicist will one day give us a collection of the kind, partly to suggest these questions to those who are interested in such matters. * The fact is well authenticated. Mr Earnshaw (Philosophical Transactions, Lon- don, 1860, pp. 133–148) explained it by the acceleration of a wave caused by the formation of a kind of bore, a view accepted by Clerk Maxwell and most physicists, but Sir George Airy thought that the explanation was to be found in physiology; see Airy’sSound, second edition, London, 1871, pp. 141, 142. † See Theory of Heat, by J. Clerk Maxwell, second edition, London, 1872, p. 308. ‡ See a memoir by W.E. Ayrton and J. Perry,Proceedings of the Royal Society of London, part i, 1879, vol.xxviii, pp. 127–148. § See letters from Mr C.E. Benham and others inNature, 1894–5; and a memoir by Prof. Liveing, Cambridge Philosophical Society, November 26, 1894.", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 103 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00105", "bookId": 26839, "start": 213984, "end": 215594, "sha256": "35c6c6bc7fc2795335ec8f973b7bba453c0c55cac62a2ca8273062dc9d7a8e66", "text": "[PDF page 104] CHAPTER IV. SOME MISCELLANEOUS QUESTIONS. I proposeto discuss in this chapter the mathematical theory of certain of the more common mathematical amusements and games. Some of these might have been treated in the first two chapters, but, since most of them involve mixed geometry and algebra, it is rather more convenient to deal with them apart from the problems and puzzles which have been described already. This division, however, is by no means well defined, and the arrangement is based on convenience rather than on any logical distinction. The majority of the questions here enumerated have no connection one with another, and I jot them down almost at random. I shall discuss in succession theFifteen Puzzle, theTower of Hanoï, Chinese Rings, the Eight Queens Problem, the Fifteen School-Girls Problem, and some miscellaneous Problems connected with a pack of cards. The Fifteen Puzzle†. Some years ago the so-called fifteen puzzle was on sale in all toy-shops. It consists of a shallow wooden box—one side being marked as the top—in the form of a square, and contains fifteen square blocks or counters numbered1, 2, 3 . . .up to15. The box will hold just sixteen such counters, and, as it contains only fifteen, they can be moved about in the box relatively to one another. Initially they are put in the box in any order, but leaving the sixteenth † There are two articles on the subject in theAmerican Journal of Mathematics 1879, vol. ii, by Professors Woolsey Johnson and Story; but the whole theory is deducible immediately from the proposition I give above in the text. 88", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 104 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00106", "bookId": 26839, "start": 215596, "end": 217362, "sha256": "ef0cd61f709cbcaf64459017a95873b15e2848f9f4413f4502ccab2a3d71dab5", "text": "[PDF page 105] CH. IV] THE FIFTEEN PUZZLE. 89 cell or small square empty; the puzzle is to move them so that finally they occupy the position shown in the first of the annexed figures. 12 3 4 5 6 7 8 91 0 11 12 13 14 15 AB CD Bottom of Box Top of Box 214 3 6 5 8 7 10 9 12 11 13 14 15 We may represent the various stages in the game by supposing that the blank space, occupying the sixteenth cell, is moved over the board, ending finally where it started. The route pursued by the blank space may consist partly of tracks followed and again retraced, which have no effect on the arrangement, and partly of closed paths travelled round, which necessarily are cycli- cal permutations of an odd number of counters. No other motion is possible. Now a cyclical permutation ofn letters is equivalent ton−1 simple interchanges; accordingly an odd cyclical permutation is equivalent to an even number of simple interchanges. Hence, if we move the counters so as to bring the blank space back into the sixteenth cell, the new order must differ from the initial order by an even number of simple interchanges. If therefore the order we want to get can be obtained from this initial order only by an odd number of interchanges, the problem is incapable of solution; if it can be obtained by an even number, the problem is possible. Thus the order in the second of the diagrams given on the current page is deducible from that in the first diagram by six interchanges; namely, by interchanging the counters1 and 2, 3 and 4, 5 and 6, 7 and 8, 9 and 10, 11 and 12. Hence the one can be deduced from the other by moving the counters about in the box. Ifhoweverintheseconddiagramtheorderofthelastthreecounters had been 13, 15, 14, then it would have required seven interchanges of", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 105 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00107", "bookId": 26839, "start": 217364, "end": 219613, "sha256": "e90e1a0b3bdf02329ebe866728d08ef316c5b317df7632f043d77e720c25cddf", "text": "[PDF page 106] 90 MISCELLANEOUS MATHEMATICAL RECREATIONS. [CH. IV counters to bring them into the order given in the first diagram. Hence in this case the problem would be insoluble. The easiest way of finding the number of simple interchanges neces- sary in order to obtain one given arrangement from another is to make the transformation by a series of cycles. For example, suppose that we take the counters in the box in any definite order, such as taking the successive rows from left to right, and suppose the original order and the final order to be respectively 1, 13, 2, 3, 5, 7, 12, 8, 15, 6, 9, 4, 11, 10, 14, and 11, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 1, 9, 10, 13, 12, 8, 14, 15. We can deduce the second order from the first by 12 simple inter- changes. The simplest way of seeing this is to arrange the process in three separate cycles as follows:— 1, 11, 8 ; 13, 2, 3, 4, 12, 7, 6, 10, 14, 15, 9 ; 5. 11, 8, 1 ; 2, 3, 4, 12, 7, 6, 10, 14, 15, 9, 13 ; 5. Thus, if in the first row of figures11 is substituted for 1, then 8 for 11, then 1 for 8, we have made a cyclical interchange of3 numbers, which is equivalent to2 simple interchanges (namely, interchanging1 and 11, and then1 and 8). Thus the whole process is equivalent to one cyclical interchange of3 numbers, another of11 numbers, and another of 1 number. Hence it is equivalent to(2 + 10 + 0)simple interchanges. This is an even number, and thus one of these orders can be deduced from the other by moving the counters about in the box. It is obvious that, if the initial order is the same as the required order except that the last three counters are in the order15, 14, 13, it would require one interchange to put them in the order13, 14, 15; hence the problem is insoluble. If however the box is turned through a right angle, so as to make AD the top, this rotation will be equivalent to13 simple interchanges. For, if we keep the sixteenth square always blank, then such a rotation would change any order such as 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, to 13, 9, 5, 1, 14, 10, 6, 2, 15, 11, 7, 3, 12, 8, 4, which is equivalent to13 simple interchanges. Hence it will change the arrangement from one in which a solution is impossible to one where it is possible, and vice versa.", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 106 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00108", "bookId": 26839, "start": 219615, "end": 221958, "sha256": "8d400ed4e8d637fb23a6479881c1e49e434312dacec2facc00a720cee977e892", "text": "[PDF page 107] CH. IV] THE TOWER OF HANOÏ. 91 Again, even if the initial order is one which makes a solution impos- sible, yet if the first cell and not the last is left blank it will be possible to arrange the fifteen counters in their natural order. For, if we repre- sent the blank cell byb, this will be equivalent to changing the order 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, b, b, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15 : this is a cyclical interchange of16 things and therefore is equivalent to 15 simple interchanges. Hence it will change the arrangement from one in which a solution is impossible to one where it is possible, and vice versa. It is evident that the above principles are applicable equally to a rectangular box containing mn cells or spaces and mn − 1 counters which are numbered. Of course m may be equal ton. If such a box is turned through a right angle, andm and n are both even, it will be equivalent tomn − 3 simple interchanges—and thus will change an impossible position to a possible one, and vice versa—but unless both m and n are even the rotation is equivalent to only an even number of interchanges. Similarly, if either m or n is even, and it is impossible to solve the problem when the last cell is left blank, then it will be possible to solve it by leaving the first cell blank. The problem may be made more difficult by limiting the possible movements by fixing bars inside the box which will prevent the move- ment of a counter transverse to their directions. We can conceive also of a similar cubical puzzle, but we could not work it practically except by sections. The Tower of Hanoï. I may mention next the ingenious puz- zle known as the Tower of Hanoï. It was brought out in 1883 by M. Claus (Lucas). It consists of three pegs fastened to a stand, and of eight circular discs of wood or cardboard each of which has a hole in the middle so that a peg can be put through it. These discs are of different radii, and initially they are placed all on one peg, so that the biggest is at the bottom, and the radii of the successive discs decrease as we ascend: thus the smallest disc is at the top. This arrangement is called the Tower. The problem is to shift the discs from one peg to another in such a way that a disc shall never rest on one smaller than itself, and", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 107 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00109", "bookId": 26839, "start": 221960, "end": 224611, "sha256": "05446c87defeeb0fad726640dda34aff0a9ff9bbe50663f0048346a4518c627c", "text": "[PDF page 108] 92 MISCELLANEOUS MATHEMATICAL RECREATIONS. [CH. IV finally to transfer the tower (i.e. all the discs in their proper order) from the peg on which they initially rested to one of the other pegs. The method of effecting this is as follows. (i) If initially there are n discs on the peg A, the first operation is to transfer gradually the top n − 1 discs from the peg A to the peg B, leaving the peg C vacant: suppose that this requiresx separate transfers. (ii) Next, move the bottom disc to the pegC. (iii) Then, reversing the first process, transfer gradually then − 1 discs from B to C, which will necessitate x transfers. Hence, if it requiresx transfers of simple discs to move a tower of n − 1 discs, then it will require2x + 1 separate transfers of single discs to move a tower ofn discs. Now with 2 discs it requires3 transfers, i.e. 22−1transfers; hence with3discs the number of transfers required will be2(22 −1) + 1, that is,23 −1. Proceeding in this way we see that with a tower ofn discs it will require2n − 1 transfers of single discs to effect the complete transfer. Thus the eight discs of the puzzle will require255 single transfers. The result can be also obtained by the theory of finite differences. It will be noticed that every alternate move consists of a transfer of the smallest disc from one peg to another, the pegs being taken in cyclical order. M. De Parville gives an account of the origin of the toy which is a sufficiently pretty conceit to deserve repetition*. In the great temple at Benares, says he, beneath the dome which marks the centre of the world, rests a brass-plate in which are fixed three diamond needles, each a cubit high and as thick as the body of a bee. On one of these needles, at the creation, God placed sixty-four discs of pure gold, the largest disc resting on the brass plate, and the others getting smaller and smaller up to the top one. This is the Tower of Bramah. Day and nightunceasinglytheprieststransferthediscsfromonediamondneedle to another according to the fixed and immutable laws of Bramah, which require that the priest must not move more than one disc at a time and that he must place this disc on a needle so that there is no smaller disc below it. When the sixty-four discs shall have been thus transferred from the needle on which at the creation God placed them to one of the other needles, tower, temple, and Brahmins alike will crumble into dust, andwithathunder-claptheworldwillvanish. WouldthatEnglish writers were in the habit of inventing equally interesting origins for the puzzles they produce! * La Nature, Paris, 1884, parti, pp. 285–286.", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 108 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00110", "bookId": 26839, "start": 224613, "end": 226051, "sha256": "a5d54c629b69787fd8590e0b7dd404ee4f1f73f9e1b58616114b3c7d66c43333", "text": "[PDF page 109] CH. IV] CHINESE RINGS. 93 ThenumberofseparatetransfersofsinglediscswhichtheBrahmins must make to effect the transfer of the tower is264 − 1, that is, is 18, 446744, 073709, 551615: a number which, even if the priests never made a mistake, would require many thousands of millions of years to carry out. Chinese Rings*. A somewhat more elaborate toy, known as Chinese Rings, which is on sale in most English toy-shops, is repre- sented in the accompanying figure. It consists of a number of rings hung upon a bar in such a manner that the ring at one end (sayA) can be taken off or put on the bar at pleasure; but any other ring can be taken off or put on only when the one next to it towardsA is on, and all the rest towardsA are off the bar. The order of the rings cannot be changed. Only one ring can be taken off or put on at a time. [In the toy, as usually sold, the first two rings form an exception to the rule. Both these can be taken off or put on together. To simplify the discussion I shall assume at first that only one ring is taken off or put on at a time.] I proceed to show that, if there are n rings, then in order to * It was described by Cardan in 1550 in hisDe Subtilitate, bk. xv, paragr. 2, ed. Sponius, vol. iii, p. 587; by Wallis in hisAlgebra, second edition, 1693,Opera, vol. ii, chap. 111, pp. 472–478; and allusion is made to it also in Ozanam’s Récréations, 1723 edition, vol.iv, p. 439.", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 109 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00111", "bookId": 26839, "start": 226053, "end": 228616, "sha256": "814e9590bb46f4adcc4e3f81f5595a22218d00c171b427c30bebc19a4267deea", "text": "[PDF page 110] 94 MISCELLANEOUS MATHEMATICAL RECREATIONS. [CH. IV disconnect them from the bar, it will be necessary to take a ring off or to put a ring on either1 3(2n+1 −1) times or 1 3(2n+1 −2) times according as n is odd or even. Let the taking a ring off the bar or putting a ring on the bar be called astep. It is usual to number the rings from the free endA. Let us suppose that we commence with the firstm rings off the bar and all the rest on the bar; and suppose that then it requiresx − 1 steps to take off the next ring, that is, it requiresx − 1 additional steps to arrange the rings so that the firstm + 1 of them are off the bar and all the rest are on it. Before taking these steps we can take off the (m + 2)th ring and thus it will requirex steps from our initial position to remove the(m + 1)th and (m + 2)th rings. Suppose that thesex steps have been made and that thus the first m + 2 rings are off the bar and the rest on it, and let us find how many additional steps are now necessary to take off the(m + 3)th and (m + 4)th rings. To take these off we begin by taking off the(m + 4)th ring: this requires1 step. Before we can take off the(m+3)th we must arrange the rings so that the(m + 2)th is on and the firstm + 1 rings are off: to effect this, (i) we must get the(m + 1)th ring on and the first m rings off, which requiresx − 1 steps, (ii) then we must put on the (m + 2)th ring, which requires1 step, (iii) and lastly we must take the (m + 1)th ring off, which requiresx − 1 steps: thus this series of movements requires in all{2(x − 1) + 1} steps. Next we can take the (m + 3)th ring off, which requires1 step; this leaves us with the first m + 1 rings off, the (m + 2)th on, the (m + 3)th off and all the rest on. Finally to take off the(m + 2)th ring, (i) we get the(m + 1)th ring on and the firstm rings off, which requiresx − 1 steps, (ii) we take off the (m + 2)th ring, which requires1 step, (iii) we take(m + 1)th ring off, which requiresx − 1 steps: thus this series of movements requires {2(x − 1) + 1} steps. Therefore, if when the firstm rings are off it requiresx steps to take off the(m + 1)th and (m + 2)th rings, then the number of addi- tional steps required to take off the(m + 3)th and (m + 4)th rings is 1 + {2(x − 1) + 1} + 1 + {2(x − 1) + 1}, that is, is4x. To find the whole number of steps necessary to take off an odd number of rings we proceed as follows. To take off the first ring requires 1 step; ∴ to take off the first3 rings requires 4 additional steps; ∴ \" \" 5 \" \" 42 \" \" .", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 110 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00112", "bookId": 26839, "start": 228618, "end": 231118, "sha256": "d9b3bbb1150bc2b874bf07feb7beb5f9f69a99f60945f968b25437643a5c5fae", "text": "[PDF page 111] CH. IV] CHINESE RINGS. 95 In this way we see that the number of steps required to take off the first 2n + 1rings is1 + 4 + 42 + · · ·+ 4n, which is equal to1 3(22n+2 − 1). To find the number of steps necessary to take off an even number of rings we proceed in a similar manner. To take off the first2 rings requires 2 steps; ∴ to take off the first 4 rings requires 2 × 4 additional steps; ∴ \" \" 6 \" \" 2 × 42 \" \" . In this way we see that the number of steps required to take off the first 2n rings is2 + (2× 4) + (2× 42) + · · ·+ (2 × 4n−1), which is equal to 1 3(22n+1 − 2). If we take off or put on the first two rings in one step instead of two separate steps, these results become respectively22n and 22n−1 −1. I give the above analysis because it is the direct solution of a prob- lem attacked by Cardan in 1550 and by Wallis in 1693—in both cases unsuccessfully—and which at one time attracted some attention. I pro- ceednext togiveanothersolution, moreelegantthoughratherartificial. This solution, which is due to M. Gros*, depends on a convention by which any position of the rings is denoted by a certain number expressed in the binary scale of notation in such a way that a step is indicated by the addition or subtraction of unity. Let the rings be indicated by circles: if a ring is on the bar, it is represented by a circle drawn above the bar; if the ring is off the bar, it is represented by a circle below the bar. Thus figure i below represents a set of seven rings of which the first two are off the bar, the next three are on it, the sixth is off it, and the seventh is on it. Denote the rings which are on the bar by the digits1 or 0 alter- nately, reckoning from left to right, and denote a ring which is off the bar by the digit assigned to that ring on the bar which is nearest to it on the left of it, or by a0 if there is no ring to the left of it. Thus the three positions indicated below are denoted respectively by the numbers written below them. The position represented in fig- ure ii is obtained from that in figure i by putting the first ring on to the bar, while the position represented in figure iii is obtained from that in figure i by taking the fourth ring off the bar. It follows that every position of the rings is denoted by a number expressed in the binary scale: moreover, since in going from left to right * Théorie du Baguenodier, by L. Gros, Lyons, 1872. I take the account of this from Lucas, vol.i, part 7.", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 111 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00113", "bookId": 26839, "start": 231120, "end": 233382, "sha256": "75737e79af92a18cb1bee2bf968cc433c61d9b4ed8dc86134ae312c171981144", "text": "[PDF page 112] 96 MISCELLANEOUS MATHEMATICAL RECREATIONS. [CH. IV e e e e e e e 1101000 Figure i. e e e e e e e 1101001 Figure ii. e e e e e e e 1100111 Figure iii. every ring on the bar gives a variation (that is,1 to 0 or 0 to 1) and every ring off the bar gives a continuation, the effect of a step by which a ring is taken off or put on the bar is either to subtract unity from this number or to add unity to it. For example, the number denoting the position of the rings in figure ii is obtained from the number denoting that in figure i by adding unity to it. Similarly the number denoting the position of the rings in figure iii is obtained from the number denoting that in figure i by subtracting unity from it. The position when all the seven rings are off the bar is denoted by the number 0000000: when all of them are on the bar by the number 1010101. Hence to change from one position to the other requires a number of steps equal to the difference between these two numbers in the binary scale. The first of these numbers is0: the second is equal to 26 + 24 + 22 + 1, that is, to 85. Therefore 85 steps are required. In a similar way we may show that to put on a set of2n + 1 rings requires (1 + 21 + 22 + . . . + 22n) steps, that is, 1 3(22n+2 − 1) steps; and to put on a set of2n rings requires (2 + 23 + . . . + 22n−1) steps, that is, 1 3(2n+1 − 2) steps. I append a table indicating the steps necessary to take off the first four rings from a set of five rings. The diagrams in the middle column show the successive position of the rings after each step. The number following each diagram indicates that position, each number being ob- tained from the one above it by the addition of unity. The steps which are bracketed together can be made in one movement, and, if thus ef- fected, the whole process is completed in7 movements instead of 10 steps: this is in accordance with the formula given above. M. Gros asserted that it is possible to take from64 to 80 steps a minute, which in my experience is a rather high estimate. If we accept the lower of these numbers, it would be possible to take off10 rings in less than 8 minutes; to take off25 rings would require more than 582 days, each of ten hours work; and to take off60 rings would", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 112 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00114", "bookId": 26839, "start": 233384, "end": 234609, "sha256": "1fe6b9bd6fe9b06ab05e6817149ea41c94fe5f50ee6b92e4ee60a4df43f4f8d3", "text": "[PDF page 113] CH. IV] THE EIGHT QUEENS PROBLEM. 97 Initial position d d d d d 10101 After 1st step d d d d d 10110 }\" 2nd \" d d d d d 10111 \" 3rd \" d d d d d 11000 \" 4th \" d d d d d 11001 }\" 5th \" d d d d d 11010 \" 6th \" d d d d d 11011 \" 7th \" d d d d d 11100 \" 8th \" d d d d d 11101 \" 9th \" d d d d d 11110 }\" 10th \" d d d d d 11111 necessitatenolessthan 768614, 336404, 564650steps, andwouldrequire nearly 55000, 000000 years work—assuming of course that no mistakes were made. The Eight Queens Problem *. The determination of the number of ways in which eight queens can be placed on a chess- board—or more generally, in which n queens can be placed on a board of n2 cells—so that no queen can take any other was proposed originally by Nauck in 1850. In 1874 Dr S. Günther† suggested a method of solution by means of determinants. For, if each symbol represents the corresponding cell of the board, the possible solutions for a board ofn2 cells are given by * On the history of this problem see W. Ahrens, Mathematische Unterhaltun- gen und Spiele, Leipzig, 1901, chap.ix—a work issued subsequent to the third edition of this book. † Grunert’sArchiv der Mathematik und Physik, 1874, vol.l vipp. 281–292.", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 113 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00115", "bookId": 26839, "start": 234611, "end": 236878, "sha256": "a127a8eb36c87dc246537ba2b59c024ce2648efef89d1afdac72d272229c7f7e", "text": "[PDF page 114] 98 MISCELLANEOUS MATHEMATICAL RECREATIONS. [CH. IV those terms, if any, of the determinant a1 b2 c3 d4 . . . . . . . . . . . . β2 a3 b4 c5 . . . . . . . . . . . . γ3 β4 a5 b6 . . . . . . . . . . . . δ4 γ5 β6 a7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . a 2n−3 b2n−2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . β 2n−2 a2n−1 in which no letter and no suffix appears more than once. The reason is obvious. Every term in a determinant contains one and only one element out of every row and out of every column: hence any term will indicate a position on the board in which the queens cannot take one another by moves rook-wise. Again in the above de- terminant the letters and suffixes are so arranged that all the same letters and all the same suffixes lie along bishop’s paths: hence, if we retain only those terms in each of which all the letters and all the suf- fixes are different, they will denote positions in which the queens cannot take one another by moves bishop-wise. It is clear that the signs of the terms are immaterial. In the case of an ordinary chess-board the determinant is of the8th order, and therefore contains8!, that is,40320 terms, so that it would be out of the question to use this method for the usual chess-board of 64 cells or for a board of larger size unless some way of picking out the required terms could be discovered. A way of effecting this was suggested by Dr J.W.L. Glaisher* in 1874, and as far as I am aware the theory remains as he left it. He showed that if all the solutions ofn queens on a board ofn2 cells were known, then all the solutions of a certain type forn + 1 queens on a board of(n+1) 2 cells could be deduced, and that all the other solutions of n + 1 queens on a board of(n + 1)2 cells could be obtained without difficulty. The method will be sufficiently illustrated by one instance of its application. It is easily seen that there are no solutions whenn = 2 and n = 3. If n = 4 there are two terms in the determinant which give solutions, namely, b2c5γ3β6 and c3β2b6γ5. To find the solutions when n = 5 , * Philosophical Magazine, London, December, 1874, series 4, vol.xl viii, pp. 457– 467.", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 114 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00116", "bookId": 26839, "start": 236880, "end": 238577, "sha256": "d8e70fd69b38ca8652cabb8be79441f9cec91fbe82d14413643a5be757723753", "text": "[PDF page 115] CH. IV] THE EIGHT QUEENS PROBLEM. 99 Glaisher proceeded thus. In this case Günther’s determinant is a1 b2 c3 d4 e5 β2 a3 b4 c5 d6 γ3 β4 a5 b6 c7 δ4 γ5 β6 a7 b8 ε5 δ6 γ7 β8 a9 To obtain those solutions (if any) which involvea9 it is sufficient to ap- pend a9 to such of the solutions for a board of16 cells as do not involve a. As neither of those given above involves ana we thus get two solu- tions, namely, b2c5γ3β6a9 and c3β2b6γ5a9. The solutions which involve a1, e5 and ε5 can be written down by symmetry. The eight solutions thus obtained are all distinct; we may call them of the first type. The above are the only solutions which can involve elements in the corner squares of the determinant. Hence the remaining solutions are obtainable from the determinant 0 b2 c3 d4 0 β2 a3 b4 c5 d6 γ3 β4 a5 b6 c7 δ4 γ5 β6 a7 b8 0 δ6 γ7 β8 0 If, in this, we take the minor ofb2 and in it replace by zero every term involving the letterb or the suffix2 we shall get all solutions involving b2. But in this case the minor at once reduces tod6a5δ4β8. We thus get one solution, namely,b2d6a5δ4β8. The solutions which involveβ2, δ4, δ6, β8, b8, d6, and d4 can be obtained by symmetry. Of these eight solutions it is easily seen that only two are distinct: these may be called solutions of the second type. Similarly the remaining solutions must be obtained from the de- terminant 0 0 c3 0 0 0 a3 b4 c5 0 γ3 β4 a5 b6 c7 0 γ5 β6 a7 0 0 0 γ7 0 0 If, in this, we take the minor ofc3, and in it replace by zero every term involving the letterc or the suffix3, we shall get all the solutions", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 115 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00117", "bookId": 26839, "start": 238579, "end": 241228, "sha256": "581bc6e85411be8a66d6c5da9f2dec5b7e8c5b33e2b12d4b7f9163b5aef2ddb9", "text": "[PDF page 116] 100 MISCELLANEOUS MATHEMATICAL RECREATIONS. [CH. IV which involve c3. But in this case the minor vanishes. Hence there is no solution involvingc3, and therefore by symmetry no solutions which involve γ3, γ7, or c3. Had there been any solutions involving the third element in the first or last row or column of the determinant we should have described them as of the third type. Thus in all there are ten and only ten solutions, namely, eight of the first type, two of the second type, and none of the third type. Similarly, if n = 6, we obtain no solutions of the first type, four solutions of the second type, and no solutions of the third type; that is, four solutions in all. If n = 7, we obtain sixteen solutions of the first type, twenty-four solutions of the second type, no solutions of the third type, and no solutions of the fourth type; that is, forty solutions in all. If n = 8, we obtain sixteen solutions of the first type, fifty-six solutions of the second type, and twenty solutions of the third type, that is, ninety-two solutions in all. It will be noticed that all the solutions of one type are not always distinct. In general, from any solution seven others can be obtained at once. Of these eight solutions, four consist of the initial or fundamen- tal solution and the three similar ones obtained by turning the board through one, two, or three right angles; the other four are the reflex- ions of these in a mirror: but in any particular case it may happen that the reflexions reproduce the originals, or that a rotation through one or two right angles makes no difference. Thus on boards of42, 52, 62, 72, 82, 92, 102 cells there are respectively1, 2, 1, 6, 12, 46, 92 fundamental solutions; while altogether there are respectively2, 10, 4, 40, 92, 352, 724 solutions. The following collection of fundamental solutions may interest the reader. The positions on the board of the queens are indicated by digits: the first digit represents the number of the cell occupied by the queen in the first column reckoned from one end of the column, the second digit the number in the second column, and so on. Thus on a board of 42 cells the solution3142 means that one queen is on the3rd square of the first column, one on the1st square of the second column, one on the4th square of the third column, and one on the2nd square of the fourth column. If a fundamental solution gives rise to only four solutions the number which indicates it is placed in curved brackets, ( ); if it gives rise to only two solutions the number which indicates it is placed in square brackets, [ ]; the other fundamental solutions give rise", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 116 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00118", "bookId": 26839, "start": 241230, "end": 243302, "sha256": "3d12005c0455e690727171941b2300d1bb771cde7dadace9940307c471d9d1de", "text": "[PDF page 117] CH. IV] THE EIGHT QUEENS PROBLEM. 101 to eight solutions each. On a board of 42 cells there is 1 fundamental solution: namely, [3142]. On a board of52 cells there are2 fundamental solutions: namely, 14253, [25314]. On a board of 62 cells there is 1 fundamental solution: namely, (246135). On a board of72 cells there are6 fundamental solutions: namely, 1357246, 3572461, (5724613), 4613572, 3162574, (2574136). On a board of82 cells there are12 fundamental solutions: namely, 25713864, 57138642, 71386425, 82417536, 68241753, 36824175, 64713528, 36814752, 36815724, 72418536, 26831475, ( 64718253). The arrangement in this order is due to Mr Oram. It will be noticed that the 10th, 11th, and 12th solutions somewhat resemble the 4th, 6th, and7th respectively. The6th solution is the only one in which no three queens are in a straight line. On a board of92 cells there are 46 fundamental solutions; one of them is 248396157. On a board of102 cells there are92 fundamental solutions; these were given by Dr A. Pein*; one of them is2468t13579, where t stands for ten. On a board of112 cells there are 341 funda- mental solutions; these have been given by Dr T.B. Sprague†: one of them is 15926t37e48. I may add that for a board ofn2 cells there is always a symmetrical solution of the form246 . . . n135 . . .(n −1), when n = 6 m or n = 6 m + 4, Also Mr Oram has shown that for a board of n2 cells, when n is a prime, cyclical arrangements of then natural numbers, other than in their natural order, will give solutions; see, for instance, the solution quoted above. The puzzle in the form of a board of 36 squares is sold in the streets of London for a penny, a small wooden board being ruled in the manner shown in the diagram and having holes drilled in it at the points marked by dots. The object is to put six pins into the holes so that no two are connected by a straight line. * Aufstellung von n Königinnen auf einem Schachbrett vonn2 Feldern, Leipzig, 1889. † Proceedings of the Edinburgh Mathematical Society, vol.xvii, 1898–9, pp. 43–68.", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 117 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00119", "bookId": 26839, "start": 243304, "end": 245135, "sha256": "2f0a889e70cbfb31ab73166433ea4bcaca8cd8bd0c847da3dfb44496da1f925d", "text": "[PDF page 118] 102 MISCELLANEOUS MATHEMATICAL RECREATIONS. [CH. IV Other Problems with Queens. Captain Turton called my atten- tion to two other problems of a somewhat analogous character, neither of which, as far as I know, has been published elsewhere, or solved otherwise than empirically. The first of these is to place eight queens on a chess-board so as to command the fewest possible squares. Thus, if queens are placed on cells 1 and 2 of the second column, on cell 2 of the sixth column, on cells 1, 3, and 7 of the seventh column, and on cells2 and 7 of the eighth column, eleven cells on the board will not be in check; the same number can be obtained by other arrangements. Is it possible to place the eight queens so as to leave more than eleven cells out of check? I have never succeeded in doing so, nor in showing that it is impossible to do it. The other problem is to place m queens (m being less than 5) on a chess-board so as to command as many cells as possible. For instance, four queens can be placed in several ways on the board so as to command58 cells besides those on which the queens stand, thus leaving only2 cells which are not commanded:ex. gr.this is effected if the queens are placed on cell5 of the third column, cell1 of the fourth column, cell 6 of the seventh column, and cell2 of the eighth column; or on cell1 of the first column, cell7 of the third column, cell3 of the fifth column, and cell5 of the seventh column. A similar problem is to determine the minimum number and the position of queens which can be placed on a board ofn2 cells so as to occupy or command every cell. It would seem that, even with the additional restriction that no queen shall be able to take any other queen, there are no less than ninety-one typical solutions in which five queens can be placed on a chess-board", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 118 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00120", "bookId": 26839, "start": 245137, "end": 247901, "sha256": "a946c3010e68d12e7360bc1eed200a68741c7e0cfea4b6bddee03c619836aef3", "text": "[PDF page 119] CH. IV] THE FIFTEEN SCHOOL-GIRLS PROBLEM. 103 so as to command every cell*. Extension to other Chess Pieces.Analogousproblemsmaybepro- posed with other chess-pieces. For instance, questions as to the max- imum number of knights which can be placed on a board ofn2 cells so that no knight can take any other, and the minimum number of knights which can be placed on it so as to occupy or command every cell have been propounded†. Similar problems have also been proposed fork kings placed on a chess-board ofn2 cells‡. It has been asserted that, ifk = 2, the number of ways in which two kings can be placed on a board so that they may not occupy adjacent squares is1 2(n − 1)(n − 2)(n2 + 3n − 2). Similarly, if k = 3, the number of ways in which three kings can be placed on a board so that no two of them occupy adjacent squares is said to be 1 6(n − 1)(n − 2)(n4 + 3n3 − 20n2 − 30n + 132). The Fifteen School-Girls Problem. This problem— which was first enunciated by Mr T.P. Kirkman, and is sometimes known as Kirkman’s problem§—consists in arranging fifteen things in different sets of triplets. It is usually presented in the form that a school-mistress was in the habit of taking her girls for a daily walk. * L’Intermédiaire des mathématiciens, Paris, 1901, vol.viii, p. 88. † Ibid., March, 1896, vol. iii, p. 58; 1897, vol. iv, p. 15, 254; and 1898, vol.v, p. 87. ‡ Ibid., June, 1901, p. 140. § It was published first in the Lady’s and Gentleman’s Diaryfor 1850, p. 48, and has been the subject of numerous memoirs. Among these I may single out the papers by A. Cayley in thePhilosophical Magazine, July, 1850, series 3, vol. xxxvii, pp. 50–53; by T.P. Kirkman in theCambridge and Dublin Math- ematical Journal, 1850, vol. v, p. 260; by R.R. Anstice,Ibid., 1852, vol. vii, pp. 279–292; by B. Pierce,Gould’s Journal, Cambridge, U.S., 1860, vol. vi, pp. 169–174; by T.P. Kirkman,Philosophical Magazine, March, 1862, series 4, vol. xxiii, pp. 198–204; by W.S.B. Woolhouse in theLady’s Diaryfor 1862, pp. 84–88, and for 1863, pp. 79–90, and in theEducational Times Reprints, 1867, vol. viii, pp. 76–83; by J. Power in theQuarterly Journal of Mathemat- ics, 1867, vol.viii, pp. 236–251; by A.H. Frost,Ibid., 1871, vol.xi, pp. 26–37; by E. Carpmael in theProceedings of the London Mathematical Society, 1881, vol. xii, pp. 148–156; by Lucas in hisRécréations, vol.ii, part vi; by A.C. Dixon in theMessenger of Mathematics, Cambridge, October, 1893, vol.xxiii, pp. 88– 89; and by W. Burnside,Ibid., 1894, vol.xxiii, pp. 137–143. It has also, since the issue of my third edition, been discussed by W. Ahrens in hisMathematische Unterhaltungen und Spiele, Leipzig, 1901, chapter xiv.", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 119 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00121", "bookId": 26839, "start": 247903, "end": 250498, "sha256": "81c04022f19b5a897c681b47b8bdbc6fdf63c354c539390dc90c65efd4acaac5", "text": "[PDF page 120] 104 MISCELLANEOUS MATHEMATICAL RECREATIONS. [CH. IV The girls were fifteen in number, and were arranged in five rows of three each so that each girl might have two companions. The problem is to dispose them so that for seven consecutive days no girl will walk with any of her school-fellows more than once. More generally we may require to arrange3m girls in triplets to walk out for1 2(3m − 1) days, so that no girl will walk with any of her school-fellows more than once. The theory of the formation of all such possible triplets in the case of fifteen girls is not difficult, but the extension to3m girls is, as yet, unsolved. I proceed to describe three methods of solution: these methods are analytical, but I may add that the problem can be also attacked by geometrical methods. Frost’s Method.The first of these solutions is due to Mr Frost. A full exposition of it would occupy a good deal of space, but I hope that the following sketch will make the process intelligible. Denote one of the girls by k. Her companions on each day are different: suppose that on Sunday they area1 and a2, on Monday b1 and b2, and so on, and finally on Saturdayg1 and g2. Hence for each day we have one triplet, and we have to find four others, but in each of the latter no two like letters can occur together, that is, the three letters in any of them must be all different. Let a stand for a1, or a2, b for b1 or b2, and so on. The suffixes1 and 2 are called complementary. Then, since the three letters in each of the triplets we are trying to find must be different, we must make some arrangement such as puttinga with bc, de, andf g; and, if so,b may be associated with d fand eg; and c with dg and ef. Thus there are seven possible triads, such asabc, ade, af g, bd f, beg, cdg, and cef. Moreover each of these may stand for any one of four triplets: for instance, the triad bd fmay stand for any of the tripletsb1d1f1, b1d2f2, b2d1f2, b2d2f1. Thefourtriadswhichdonotinvolve amustbeplacedintheSunday column, the four which do not involveb in the Monday column, and so on. Thus each triad will occur four times. It only remains to insert the proper suffixes. This is done as follows. Take one triad, such asbd f, and insert a different set of suffixes each time that it occurs; for instance, the four sets given above. Next, the other like letters (b, d, or f as the case may be) in these four columns must have the complementary suffixes attached. After this is done, the next triplet in the Sunday column will be b2eg. The triad beg occurs in four columns and includes four possi-", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 120 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00122", "bookId": 26839, "start": 250500, "end": 252724, "sha256": "fef74b4ba27d65b41eee9b62fadd788939bd2081481679a100f4a721014e46dc", "text": "[PDF page 121] CH. IV] THE FIFTEEN SCHOOL-GIRLS PROBLEM. 105 ble triplets, such as b2e1g1, b2e2g2, b1e1g2, b1e2g1. Insert these, and then give the complementary suffixes to the other like letters in these four columns. In this way the arrangement is constructed gradually, by taking one triad at a time, inserting the proper suffixes to the four triplets included in it, and then the complementary suffixes in the other like letter in the same columns. One final arrangement, thus obtained, is as follows: Sunday Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday Saturday ka1a2 kb1b2 kc1c2 kd1d2 ke1e2 kf1f2 kg1g2 b1d1f1 a1d2e2 a1d1e1 a2b2c2 a2b1c1 a1b2c1 a1b1c2 b2e1g1 a2f2g2 a2f1g1 a1f2g1 a1f1g2 a2d2e1 a2d1e2 c1d2g2 c1d1g1 b1d2f2 b1e1g2 b2d1f2 b1e2g1 b2d2f1 c2e2f2 c2e1f1 b2e2g2 c1e2f1 c2d2g1 c2d1g2 c1e1f2 We might obtain other solutions by selecting other seven triads or by choosing other arrangements of the suffixes in each triad (or by merely interchanging letters and suffixes in the above order). By these means Mr Power showed that there are no less than15567, 552000 different solutions; but, since the total number of ways in which the school can walk out for a week in triplets is(455)7, the probability that any chance way satisfies Kirkman’s condition is very small. Frost’s method is applicable to the case of22n − 1 girls walking out for 22n−1 − 1 days in triplets. The detailed solution for63 girls walking out for 31 days, which corresponds ton = 3, have been given. Anstice’s Method.Another method of attacking the problem is due to Mr Anstice; it is illustrated by the following elegant solution, by which from the order on Sunday we can obtain the order on the following six days by a cyclical permutation. Let the girls be denoted respectively by the lettersk, a1, a2, a3, a4, a5, a6, a7, b1, b2, b3, b4, b5, b6, b7; and suppose the order on Sunday to be ka1b1, a 2a3a5, a 4b3b6, a 6b2b7, a 7b4b5 . Then, if the suffixes are permuted cyclically, we obtain six other ar- rangements which satisfy the conditions of the problem: the reason being that in the above arrangement the difference of the suffixes of ev- ery pair of like letters—such as either the “a”s or the “b”s—in a triplet", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 121 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00123", "bookId": 26839, "start": 252726, "end": 255274, "sha256": "97ea9772added904e297070a7d78fb64c03622decfe940bf2586e4a35abdf2fe", "text": "[PDF page 122] 106 MISCELLANEOUS MATHEMATICAL RECREATIONS. [CH. IV is different for each triplet, as also is the difference of the suffixes of every pair of unlike letters which are in a triplet. Two other arrangements for Sunday, from which those for the re- maining days are obtainable by cyclical permutations can be formed. Theseare ka1b1, a2a3a5, a4b5b7, a6b3b4, a7b2b6; andka1b1, a2a3a5, a4b2b6, a6b5b7, a7b3b4. Anstice’s method is applicable to the case of2p + 1 girls walking out for p days in triplets so that no pair may walk together more than once, provided p is a prime of the form12m + 7. In such a case he showed how to construct a fundamental arrangement for one day from which the arrangements for the remainingp − 1 days can be obtained by cyclical permutations of suffixes. The number of such fundamental arrangements is 3(2m + 1)(3m + 1). The problem of15 girls corresponds tom = 0, and the three fun- damental Anstician arrangements are given above. Ifm = 1 we have the problem of 39 girls. One Anstician arrangement in this case is as follows: ka1b1, a2a8a12, a5a7a10, a6a17a18, a3b10b15, a4b3b5, a9b18b19, a11b8b14, a13b9b17, a14b12b16, a15b4b7, a16b2b11, a19b6b13. If m = 2 we have the problem of63girls, of which Frost has given one solution; and so on. Gill’s Method.Anothermethod ofattackingtheproblemhasbeen suggested to me by Mr T.H. Gill. Representing the girls bya1, a2, a3, . . . , a3m he (i) forms one triplet of the typea1am+1a2m+1, from which, by cyclical permutation of the suffixes1, 2, . . . ,3m he obtainsm triplets which constitute an arrangement for one day, and (ii) forms1 2(m − 1) other triplets such that the three differences of the suffixes are different, from which, by cyclical permutations of the suffixes, the arrangements for the remaining 3 2(m − 1) other days can be obtained. Thus in the case of 15 girls, the triplet a1a6a11 gives, by cyclical permutations of the suffixes, an arrangement for the first day and two triplets such as a1a2a5, a1a3a9 enable us to form30 triplets from which an arrangement for the other six days can be found. Here is a solution thus determined. First Day: 1. 6.11; 2. 7.12; 3. 8.13; 4. 9.14; 5.10.15. Second Day: 1. 2. 5; 3. 4. 7; 8. 9.12; 10.11.14; 13.15. 6. Third Day: 2. 3. 6; 4. 5. 8; 9.10.13; 11.12.15; 14. 1. 7. Fourth Day: 5. 6. 9; 7. 8.11; 12.13. 1; 14.15. 3; 2. 4.10. Fifth Day: 7. 9.15; 8.10. 1; 3. 5.11; 4. 6.12; 13.14. 2. Sixth Day: 9.11. 2; 10.12. 3; 5. 7.13; 6. 8.14; 15. 1. 4. Seventh Day: 11.13. 4; 12.14. 5; 15. 2. 8; 1. 3. 9; 6. 7.10.", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 122 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00124", "bookId": 26839, "start": 255276, "end": 258052, "sha256": "769759f4411bdc2ecd6fc4842a1f5f066a2360224513cbe06c83bc8c2b0dd9db", "text": "[PDF page 123] CH. IV] THE FIFTEEN SCHOOL-GIRLS PROBLEM. 107 But, although this method gives triplets with which the problem can be solved, the final arrangement is empirical. A solution of the problem of21 girls for 10 days can be got by the samemethod: a1a8a15 giving 7tripletswhichconstituteanarrangement for one day; anda1a2a6, a1a3a11, a1a4a10 giving 63 triplets from which an arrangement for the other nine days can be formed. Here is the solution thus determined. First Day: 1. 8.15; 2. 9.16; 3.10.17; 4.11.18; 5.12.19; 6.13.20; 7.14.21. Second Day: 1. 2. 6; 4. 5. 9; 7. 8.12; 10.11.15; 13.14.18; 16.17.21; 19.20. 3. Third Day: 7.10.16; 8.11.17; 12.15.21; 18.19. 2; 20. 1. 9; 3. 5.13; 4. 6.14. Fourth Day: 13.16. 1; 14.17. 2; 18.21. 6; 3. 4. 8; 5. 7.15; 9.11.19; 10.12.20. Fifth Day: 4. 7.13; 5. 8.14; 9.12.18; 15.16.20; 17.19. 6; 21. 2.10; 1. 3.11. Sixth Day; 1. 4.10; 2. 5.11; 6. 9.15; 12.13.17; 14.16. 3; 18.20. 7; 19.21. 8. Seventh Day: 2. 3. 7; 5. 6.10; 8. 9.13; 11.12.16; 14.15.19; 17.18. 1; 20.21. 4. Eighth Day: 10.13.19; 11.14.20; 15.18. 3; 21. 1. 5; 2. 4.12; 6. 8.16; 7. 9.17. Ninth Day: 16.19. 4; 17.20. 5; 21. 3. 9; 6. 7.11; 8.10.18; 12.14. 1; 13.15. 2. Tenth Day: 19. 1. 7; 20. 2. 8; 3. 6.12; 9.10.14; 11.13.21; 15.17. 4; 16.18. 5. I should be interested if any of my readers could give me a similar solution of the analogous arrangement of33 girls for 16 days formed from typical triplet suffixes like1, 12, 23; 1, 2, 10; 1, 3, 16; 1, 4, 18; 1, 5, 11; 1, 6, 13; or from other sets of triplets formed in a similar way so that (except in the first triplet) the differences of the suffixes are all different. Walecki’s Theorem. Lastly, Walecki—quoted by Lucas—has shown that, if a solution for the case ofn girls walking out in triplets for 1 2(n − 1) days is known, then a solution for3n girls walking out for 1 2(3n − 1) days can be deduced. For if an arrangement of then girls, a1, a2, . . . , an for 1 2(n − 1) days is known; and also one of then girls, b1, b2, . . . , bn; and also one of the n girls c1, c2, . . . , cn; then an arrangement of these3n girls for 1 2(n − 1) days is known. A set of n triplets for another day will be given by ambm+kcm+2k where m is put equal to 1, 2, . . . , n successively. Here k may have any of then values, 0, 1, 2, . . . ,(n − 1); but, wherever a suffix is greater thann, it is to be divided byn and only the remainder retained. Hence altogether we have an arrangement forn + 1 2(n − 1) days, i.e. for 1 2(3n − 1) days. The arrangement of 3 girls for one day is obvious. Hence, by Walecki’s theorem, we can deduce at once an arrangement of3m girls for 1 2(3m − 1) days. And, generally, as I have given solutions of the problem in the case of3n girls when n = 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 13, 15, it follows", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 123 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00125", "bookId": 26839, "start": 258054, "end": 260561, "sha256": "a893ab8eeb961d926ce69e1c63cca28c0c31887e3b8a7c3829e672b7eab18559", "text": "[PDF page 124] 108 MISCELLANEOUS MATHEMATICAL RECREATIONS. [CH. IV that for the same values ofn, we can solve the analogous arrangements of 3m × n girls. To the original theorem J.J. Sylvester* added the corollary that the school of 15 girls could walk out in triplets on13 × 7 days until every possible triplet had walked abreast once. The generalized problem of finding the greatest number of ways in which x girls walking in rows ofa abreast can be arranged so that every possible combination ofb of them may walk abreast once and only once has been solved for various cases. Suppose that this greatest number of ways isy. It is obvious that, if all thex girls are to walk out each day in rows ofa abreast, thenx must be an exact multiple ofa and the number of rows formed each day isx/a. If such an arrangement can be made for z days, then we have a solution of the problem to arrangex girls to walk out in rows ofa abreast for z days so that they all go out each day and so that every possible combination ofb girls may walk together once, and only once. In the corresponding generalization of Kirkman’s problem no companionship of girls which has occurred once may occur again, but it does not follow necessarily that every possible companionship must occur once. An example where the solution is obvious is ifx = 2n, a = 2, b = 2, in which case y = n(2n − 1), z = 2 n − 1. If we take the casex = 15, a = 3, b = 2, we find y = 35; and it happens that these 35 rows can be divided into7 sets, each of which contains all the symbols; hencez = 7. More generally, ifx = 5 × 3m, a = 3 , b = 2 , we find y = 3 2(x − 1)/x, z = 1 2(x − 1). It will be noticed that in the solutions of the original fifteen school-girls problem and of Walecki’s extension of it given above every possible pair of girls walk together once; hence we might infer that in these cases we could determine z as well as y. The results of the last paragraph were given by Kirkman†in 1850. In the same memoir he also proved that, ifp is a prime, and ifx = pm, a = p, b = 2, then y = ( pm − 1)/(p − 1); if x = ( p2 + p + 1)(p + 1) where p2 + p + 1 has no divisor less thanp + 1, a = p + 1, b = 2, then y = x(x − 1)/p(p + 1); if x = p3 + p + 1, a = p + 1, b = 2, then y = x; * Philosophical Magazine, July, 1850, series 3, vol.xxxvii, p. 52; a solution by Sylvester is given in thePhilosophical Magazine, May, 1861, series 4, vol.xxi, p. 371. † Cambridge and Dublin Mathematical Journal, 1850, vol.v, pp. 255–262.", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 124 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00126", "bookId": 26839, "start": 260563, "end": 262937, "sha256": "9fde7e6584d5703c70b42033c394f05b87013e6576b28c1eb249f787134d29b7", "text": "[PDF page 125] CH. IV] PROBLEMS CONNECTED WITH A PACK OF CARDS. 109 and Sylvester’s result that ifx = 15, a = 3, b = 3, y = 455, z = 91. Three years later Kirkman* solved the problem whenx = 2 n, a = 4, b = 3. Lastly, in 1893, Sylvester† published the solution whenx = 9, a = 3, b = 3, in which casey = 84, z = 28; and stated that a similar method was applicable whenx = 3 m, a = 3, b = 3: thus 9 girls can be arranged to walk out 28 times (say 4 times a day for a week) so that in any day the same pair never are together more than once and so that at the end of the week each girl has been associated with every possible pair of her schoolfellows. In 1867 Mr S. Bills‡ showed that if x = 7, a = 3, b = 2, then y = 7: if x = 15, a = 3, b = 2, then y = 35: if x = 31, a = 3, b = 2, then y = 155: and the method by which these results are proved will give the value ofy, if x = 2 n − 1, a = 3, b = 2. Shortly afterwards Mr W. Lea§showed that ifx = 11, a = 5, b = 4, then y = 66; also that if x = 16, a = 4, b = 3, then y = 140; the latter result is a particular case of Kirkman’s theorems. It will be noticed that these writers did not confine their discussion to cases wherex is an exact multiple ofa. Problems connected with a Pack of Cards.Imentioned in chapteri that an ordinary pack of playing cards could be used to il- lustrate many tricks depending on simple properties of numbers. Most of these involve the relative position of the cards. The principle of solu- tion generally consists in re-arranging the pack in a particular manner so as to bring the card into some definite position. Any such rearrange- ment is a species of shuffling. I shall treat in succession of problems connected withshuffling a pack, arrangements by rows and columns, the determination of a pair out of 1 2 n(n + 1) pairs, Gergonne’s pile problem, and the game known as the mouse trap. Shuffling a Pack. Any system ofshuffling a pack of cards, if carried out consistently, leads to an arrangement which can be cal- culated; but tricks that depend on it generally require considerable * Ibid., 1853, vol.viii, pp. 38–42. † Messenger of Mathematics, February, 1893, vol.xxii, pp. 159–160. ‡ Educational Times Reprints, London, 1867, vol.viii, pp. 32–33. § Ibid., 1868, vol.ix, pp. 35–36; and 1874, vol.xxii, pp. 74–76; see also the volume for 1869, vol.xi, p. 97.", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 125 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00127", "bookId": 26839, "start": 262939, "end": 265585, "sha256": "2f0f6474a6976f7574cdddd4fc8c63f8b51fe8741b97c69df29dcfc2bd4929cf", "text": "[PDF page 126] 110 MISCELLANEOUS MATHEMATICAL RECREATIONS. [CH. IV technical skill. Suppose for instance that a pack ofn cards is shuffled, as is not unusual, by placing the second card on the first, the third below these, the fourth above them, and so on. The theory of this system of shuffling is due to Monge*. The following are some of the results and are not difficult to prove directly. If the pack contains6p + 4 cards, the (2p + 2)th card will occupy the same position in the shuffled pack. For instance, if a complete pack of 52 cards is shuffled as described above, the18th card will remain the 18th card. Again, if a pack of10p+2 cards is shuffled in this way, the(2p+1)th and the (6p × 2)th cards will interchange places. For instance, if an écarté pack of32 cards is shuffled as described above, the7th and the 20th cards will change places. More generally, one shuffle of a pack of2p cards will move the card which was in thex0th place to thex1th place, wherex1 = 1 2(2p+x0+1) if x0 is odd, and x1 = 1 2(2p − x0 + 2) if x0 is even, from which the above results can be deduced. By repeated applications of the above formulae we can show that the effect of m such shuffles is to move the card which was initially in thex0th place to thexmth place where 2m+1xm = (4p + 1)(2m−1 ± 2m−2 ± · · · ±2 ± 1) ± 2x0 + 2m ± 1, the sign ± representing an ambiguity of sign. Again, in any pack ofn cards after a certain number of shufflings, not greater thann, the cards will return to their primitive order. This will always be the case as soon as the original top card occupies that position again. To determine the number of shuffles required for a pack of 2p cards, it is sufficient to putxm = x0 and find the smallest value of m which satisfies the resulting equation for all values ofx0 from 1 to 2p. It follows that, ifm is the least number which makes4m − 1 divisible by 4p + 1, then m shuffles will be required if either2m + 1or 2m − 1 is divisible by4p + 1, otherwise2m shuffles will be required. The number * Monge’s investigations are printed in theMémoires de l’Académie des Sciences, Paris, 1773, pp. 390–412. Among those who have studied the subject afresh I may in particular mention V. Bouniakowski,Bulletin physico-mathématique de St Pétersbourg, 1857, vol.xv, pp. 202–205, summarised in theNouvelles annales de mathématiques, 1858, pp. 66–67; T. de St Laurent,Mémoires de l’Académie de Gard, 1865; L.Tanner,Educational Times Reprints, 1880, vol.xxxiii, pp.73– 75; and M.J. Bourget, Liouville’s Journal, 1882, pp. 413–434. The solutions given by Prof. Tanner are simple and concise.", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 126 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00128", "bookId": 26839, "start": 265587, "end": 268121, "sha256": "ab691285c369aedc0637d801fb9f3870ca0bab0836a7dfb206c1682bc16b8fb9", "text": "[PDF page 127] CH. IV] PROBLEMS CONNECTED WITH A PACK OF CARDS. 111 for a pack of2p+1 cards is the same as that for a pack of2pcards. With an écarté pack of32 cards, six shuffles are sufficient; with a pack of2n cards, n + 1 shuffles are sufficient; with a full pack of52 cards, twelve shuffles are sufficient; with a pack of13 cards ten shuffles are sufficient; while with a pack of50 cards fifty shuffles are required; and so on. Mr W.H.H. Hudson* has also shown that, whatever is the law of shuffling, yet if it is repeated again and again on a pack ofn cards, the cards will ultimately fall into their initial positions after a number of shufflings not greater than the greatest possiblel.c.m. of all numbers whose sum is n. For suppose that any particular position is occupied after the1st, 2nd, . . ., pth shuffles by the cardsA1, A2, . . . , Ap respectively, and that initially the position is occupied by the cardA0. Suppose further that after thepth shuffleA0 returns to its initial position, thereforeA0 = Ap. Then at the second shufflingA2 succeeds A1 by the same law by which A1 succeeded A0 at the first; hence it follows that previous to the second shuffling A2 must have been in the place occupied byA1 previous to the first. Thus the cards which after the successive shuffles take the place initially occupied byA1 are A2, A3, . . . , Ap, A1; that is, after the pth shuffle A1 has returned to the place initially occupied by it: and so for all the other cardsA2, A3, . . . , Ap−1. Hence the cardsA1, A2, . . . , Ap form a cycle ofp cards, one or other of which is always in one or other ofp positions in the pack, and which go through all their changes inp shufflings. Let the number n of the pack be divided intop, q, r, . . .such cycles, whose sum isn; then the l.c.m. of p, q, r, . . .is the utmost number of shufflings necessary before all the cards will be brought back to their original places. In the case of a pack of52 cards, the greatestl.c.m. of numbers whose sum is 52 will be found by trial to be180180. Arrangements by Rows and Columns. A not uncommon trick, which rests on a species of shuffling, depends on the obvious fact that if n2 cards are arranged in the form of a square ofn rows, each containing n cards, then any card will be defined if the row and the column in which it lies are mentioned. This information is generally elicited by first asking in which row the selected card lies, and noting the extreme left-hand card of that * Educational Times Reprints, London, 1865, vol.ii, p. 105.", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 127 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00129", "bookId": 26839, "start": 268123, "end": 269670, "sha256": "d248e45fe2bb2040c52160e8f3c2d6610395818d7f5f79f7c6e300104c737ac2", "text": "[PDF page 128] 112 MISCELLANEOUS MATHEMATICAL RECREATIONS. [CH. IV row. The cards in each column are then taken up, face upwards, one at a time beginning with the lowest card of each column and taking the columns in their order from right to left–each card taken up being placed on the top of those previously taken up. The cards are then dealt out again in rows, from left to right, beginning with the top left- hand corner, and a question is put as to which row contains the card. The selected card will be that card in the row mentioned which is in the same vertical column as the card which was originally noted. The above is the form in which the trick is usually presented, but it is greatly improved by allowing the pack to be cut as often as is liked before the cards are re-dealt, and then giving one cut at the end so as to make the top card in the pack one of those originally in the top row. The explanation is obvious. For, if 16 cards are taken, the first 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 Figure i. 1 5 9 13 2 6 10 14 3 7 11 15 4 8 12 16 Figure ii. and second arrangements may be represented by figures i and ii. For example, if we are told that in figure i the card is in the third row, it must be either9, 10, 11, or 12: hence, if we know in which row of figure ii it lies, it is determined. If we allow the pack to be cut between the deals, we must secure somehow that the top card is either1, 2, 3, or 4, since that will leave the cards in each row of figure ii unaltered though the positions of the rows will be changed.", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 128 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00130", "bookId": 26839, "start": 269672, "end": 271310, "sha256": "38f8e9d53d451b79aa84fd19da33ddaffc7eb27610af4c24a167c60d4976a895", "text": "[PDF page 129] CH. IV] PROBLEMS CONNECTED WITH A PACK OF CARDS. 113 Determination of a selected pair of cards out of 1 2 n(n + 1) given pairs*. Another common trick is to throw twenty cards on to a table in ten couples, and ask someone to select one couple. The cards are then taken up, and dealt out in a certain manner into four rows each containing five cards. If the rows which contain the given cards are indicated, the cards selected are known at once. This depends on the fact that the number of homogeneous products of two dimensions which can be formed out of four things is10. Hence the homogeneous products of two dimensions formed out of four things can be used to define ten things. Suppose that ten pairs of cards are placed on a table and someone selects one couple. Take up the cards in their couples. Then the first 1 2 3 5 7 4 9 10 11 13 6 12 15 16 17 8 14 18 19 20 two cards form the first couple, the next two the second couple, and so on. Deal them out in four rows each containing five cards according to the scheme shown in the diagram. The first couple (1 and 2) are in the first row. Of the next couple (3 and 4), put one in the first row and one in the second. Of the next couple (5 and 6), put one in the first row and one in the third, and so on, as indicated in the diagram. After filling up the first row proceed similarly with the second row, and so on. Enquire in which rows the two selected cards appear. If only one line, the mth, is mentioned as containing the cards then the required pair of cards are the mth and (m + 1)th cards in that line. These * Bachet, problem xvii, avertissement, p. 146et seq.", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 129 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00131", "bookId": 26839, "start": 271312, "end": 273880, "sha256": "a94c6a1395068dd95370521b980683a4634d07f4e181f53a5a213156b047e5cf", "text": "[PDF page 130] 114 MISCELLANEOUS MATHEMATICAL RECREATIONS. [CH. IV occupy the clue squares of that line. Next, if two lines are mentioned, then proceed as follows. Let the two lines be thepth and theqth and suppose q > p. Then that one of the required cards which is in theqth line will be the(q −p)th card which is below the first of the clue squares in the pth line. The other of the required cards is in thepth line and is the (q − p)th card to the right of the second of the clue squares. Bachet’s rule, in the form in which I have given it, is applicable to a pack ofn(n + 1)cards divided into couples, and dealt inn rows each containing n + 1cards; for there are1 2 n(n + 1)such couples, also there are 1 2 n(n + 1) homogeneous products of two dimensions which can be formed out ofn things. Bachet gave the diagrams for the cases of20, 30, and42 cards: these the reader will have no difficulty in constructing for himself, and I have enunciated the rule for20 cards in a form which covers all the cases. I have seen the same trick performed by means of a sentence and not by numbers. If we take the case of ten couples, then after collecting the pairs the cards must be dealt in four rows each containing five cards, in the order indicated by the sentenceMatas dedit nomen Cocis. This sentence must be imagined as written on the table, each word forming one line, The first card is dealt on theM. The next card (which is the pair of the first) is placed on the secondm in the sentence, that is, third in the third row. The third card is placed on thea. The fourth card (which is the pair of the third) is placed on the seconda, that is, fourth in the first row. Each of the next two cards is placed on at, and so on. Enquire in which rows the two selected cards appear. If two rows are mentioned, the two cards are on the letters common to the words that make these rows. If only one row is mentioned, the cards are on the two letters common to that row. The reason is obvious: let us denote each of the first pair by ana, and similarly each of any of the other pairs by ane, i, o, c, d, m, n, s, or t respectively. Now the sentenceMatas dedit nomen Cociscontains four words each of five letters; ten letters are used, and each letter is repeated only twice. Hence, if two of the words are mentioned, they will have one letter in common, or, if one word is mentioned, it will have two like letters. To perform the same trick with any other number of cards we should require a different sentence. The number of homogeneous products of three dimensions which", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 130 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00132", "bookId": 26839, "start": 273882, "end": 276254, "sha256": "6e1bce0ef8f6b037b2edf5aa687f44acc36e96a8d5c05d607bc871fbda2ab3ee", "text": "[PDF page 131] CH. IV] PROBLEMS CONNECTED WITH A PACK OF CARDS. 115 can be formed out of four things is20, and of these the number consist- ing of products in which three things are alike and those in which three things are different is8. This leads to a trick with8 trios of things, which is similar to that last given–the cards being arranged in the order indicated by the sentenceLanata levete livini novoto. I believe that these arrangements by sentences are known, but I am not aware who invented them. Gergonne’s Pile Problem. Before discussing Gergonne’s theorem I will describe the familiar three pile problem, the theory of which is included in his results. The Three Pile Problem*. This trick is usually performed as fol- lows. Take 27 cards and deal them into three piles, face upwards. By “dealing” is to be understood that the top card is placed as the bottom card of the first pile, the second card in the pack as the bottom card of the second pile, the third card as the bottom card of the third pile, the fourth card on the top of the first one, and so on: moreover I as- sume that throughout the problem the cards are held in the hand face upwards. The result can be modified to cover any other way of dealing. Request a spectator to note a card, and remember in which pile it is. After finishing the deal, ask in which pile the card is. Take up the three piles, placing that pile between the other two. Deal again as before, and repeat the question as to which pile contains the given card. Take up the three packs again, placing the pile which now contains the selected card between the other two. Deal again as before, but in dealing note the middle card of each pile. Ask again for the third time in which pile the card lies, and you will know that the card was the one which you noted as being the middle card of that pile. The trick can be finished then in any way that you like. The usual method—but a very clumsy one—is to take up the three piles once more, placing the named pile between the other two as before, when the selected card will be the middle one in the pack, that is, if27 cards are used it will be the fourteenth. The trick is often performed with 15 cards or with 21 cards, in either of which cases the same rule holds. * The trick is mentioned by Bachet, problemxviii, p. 143, but his analysis of it is insufficient.", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 131 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00133", "bookId": 26839, "start": 276256, "end": 278768, "sha256": "01badb9542334da5d8fec300a7963464b49168e0751d7eb782f7a66d9c447b3c", "text": "[PDF page 132] 116 MISCELLANEOUS MATHEMATICAL RECREATIONS. [CH. IV Gergonne’s Generalization.The general theory for a pack ofmm cards was given by M. Gergonne*. Suppose the pack is arranged inm piles, each containing mm−1 cards, and that, after the first deal, the pile indicated as containing the selected card is taken upath; after the second deal, is taken upbth; and so on, and finally after themth deal, the pile containing the card is taken up kth. Then when the cards are collected after the mth deal the selected card will be nth from the top where if m is even, n = kmm−1 − jmm−2 + · · · + bm − a + 1 , if m is odd, n = kmm−1 − jmm−2 + · · · − bm + a . For example, if a pack of256 cards (i.e. m = 4) was given, and anyoneselectedacardoutofit, thecardcouldbedeterminedbymaking four successive deals into four piles of64 cards each, and after each deal asking in which pile the selected card lay. The reason is that after the first deal you know it is one of sixty-four cards. In the next deal these sixty-four cards are distributed equally over the four piles, and therefore, if you know in which pile it is, you will know that it is one of sixteen cards. After the third deal you know it is one of four cards. After the fourth deal you know which card it is. Moreover, if the pack of 256 cards is used, it is immaterial in what order the pile containing the selected card is taken up after a deal. For, if after the first deal it is taken upath, after the second bth, after the thirdcth, and after the fourthdth, the card will be the (64d − 16c + 4b − a + 1)th from the top of the pack, and thus will be known. We need not take up the cards after the fourth deal, for the same argument will show that it is the(64 − 16c + 4b − a + 1)th in the pile then indicated as containing it. Thus ifa = 3, b = 4, c = 1, d = 2, it will be the62nd card in the pile indicated after the fourth deal as containing it and will be the126th card in the pack as then collected. In exactly the same way a pack of twenty-seven cards may be used, and three successive deals, each into three piles of nine cards, will suffice to determine the card. If after the deals the pile indicated as containing the given card is taken upath, bth, and cth respectively, then the card will be the(9c − 3b + a)th in the pack or will be the(9 − 3b + a)th card in the pile indicated after the third deal as containing it. * Gergonne’sAnnales de Mathématiques, Nismes, 1813–4, vol.iv, pp. 276–283.", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 132 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00134", "bookId": 26839, "start": 278770, "end": 281330, "sha256": "f1e45c9a5e5b9832a0f3807e02891ba5d153859e9698b9da082f4d466c0b3640", "text": "[PDF page 133] CH. IV] PROBLEMS CONNECTED WITH A PACK OF CARDS. 117 The method of proof will be illustrated sufficiently by considering the usual case of a pack of twenty-seven cards, for whichm = 3, which are dealt into three piles each of nine cards. Suppose that, after the first deal, the pile containing the selected card is taken upath: then (i) at the top of the pack there area − 1 piles each containing nine cards; (ii) next there are9 cards, of which one is the selected card; and (iii) lastly there are the remaining cards of the pack. The cards are dealt out now for the second time: in each pile the bottom3(a − 1) cards will be taken from (i), the next3 cards from (ii), and the remaining9 − 3a cards from (iii). Suppose that the pile now indicated as containing the selected card is taken up bth: then (i) at the top of the pack are 9(b − 1) cards; (ii) next are 9 − 3a cards; (iii) next are 3 cards, of which one is the selected card; and (iv) lastly are the remaining cards of the pack. The cards are dealt out now for the third time: in each pile the bottom 3(b − 1) cards will be taken from (i), the next3 − a cards will be taken from (ii), the next card will be one of the three cards in (iii), and the remaining 8 − 3b + a cards are from (iv). Hence, after this deal, as soon as the pile is indicated, it is known that the card is the(9 − 3b + a)th from the top of that pile. If the process is continued by taking up this pile ascth, then the selected card will come out in the place9(c − 1) + (8− 3b + a) + 1from the top, that is, will come out as the(9c − 3b + a)th card. Since, after the third deal, the position of the card in the pile then indicated is known, it is easy to notice the card, in which case the trick can be finished in some way more effective than dealing again. If we put the pile indicated always in the middle of the pack we have a = 2, b = 2, c = 2, hence n = 9 c − 3b + a = 14, which is the form in which the trick is usually presented, as was explained above on page 115. I have shown that ifa, b, c are known, thenn is determined. We may modify the rule so as to make the selected card come out in any assigned position, say thenth. In this case we have to find values of a, b, c which will satisfy the equationn = 9 c − 3b + a, where a, b, c can have only the values1, 2, or 3. Hence, if we dividen by 3 and the remainder is1 or 2, this remain- der will bea; but, if the remainder is0, we must decrease the quotient by unity so that the remainder is3, and this remainder will bea. In", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 133 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00135", "bookId": 26839, "start": 281332, "end": 283939, "sha256": "ad0b8cbc550da49c83236dabd064a1bc2b8153c7a419a0da761a3c8d00768df8", "text": "[PDF page 134] 118 MISCELLANEOUS MATHEMATICAL RECREATIONS. [CH. IV other wordsa is the smallest positive number (exclusive of zero) which must be subtracted fromn to make the difference a multiple of3. Next let p be this multiple,i.e. p is the next lowest integer ton/3: then 3p = 9c − 3b, thereforep = 3c − b. Hence b is the smallest positive number (exclusive of zero) which must be added top to make the sum a multiple of 3, and c is that multiple. A couple of illustrations will make this clear. Suppose we wish the card to come out22nd from the top, therefore22 = 9 c − 3b + a. The smallest number which must be subtracted from22 to leave a multiple of 3 is 1, therefore a = 1. Hence 22 = 9c − 3b + 1, therefore7 = 3c − b. The smallest number which must be added to7 to make a multiple of 3 is 2, therefore b = 2. Hence 7 = 3 c − 2, therefore c = 3. Thus a = 1, b = 2, c = 3. Again, suppose the card is to come out21st. Hence 21 = 9c−3b+a. Therefore a is the smallest number which subtracted from21 makes a multiple of 3, therefore a = 3. Hence 6 = 3 c − b. Therefore b is the smallest number which added to 6 makes a multiple of 3, therefore b = 3. Hence 9 = 3c, therefore c = 3. Thus a = 3, b = 3, c = 3. If any difficulty is experienced in this work, we can proceed thus. Let a = x + 1, b = 3 − y, c = z + 1; then x, y, z may have only the values 0, 1, or 2. In this case Gergonne’s equation takes the form 9z + 3y + x = n − 1. Hence, ifn − 1 is expressed in the ternary scale of notation, x, y, z will be determined, and thereforea, b, c will be known. The rule in the case of a pack ofmm cards is exactly similar. We want to make the card come out in a given place. Hence, in Gergonne’s formula, we are given n and we have to finda, b, . . . , k. We can ef- fect this by dividingn continually bym, with the convention that the remainder are to be alternately positive and negative and that their numerical values are to be not greater thanm or less than unity. An analogous theorem with a pack oflm cards can be constructed. C.T. Hudson and L.E. Dickson* have discussed the general case where such a pack is dealtn times, each time intol piles ofm cards; and they have shown how the piles must be taken up in order that after thenth deal the selected card may berth from the top. The principle will be sufficiently illustrated by one example treated in a manner analogous to the cases already discussed. For instance, * Educational Times Reprints, 1868, vol.ix, pp. 89–91; andBulletin of the Amer- ican Mathematical Society, New York, April, 1895, vol.i, pp. 184–186.", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 134 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00136", "bookId": 26839, "start": 283941, "end": 286400, "sha256": "ed228dc386fb8bf23d3999ee47f1f87a5e34592875de3a07bc8f0ab70c1e96e3", "text": "[PDF page 135] CH. IV] PROBLEMS CONNECTED WITH A PACK OF CARDS. 119 suppose that an écarté pack of32 cards is dealt into4 piles each of8 cards, and that the pile which contains some selected card is picked up ath. Suppose that on dealing again into four piles, one pile is indicated as containing the selected card, the selected card cannot be one of the bottom 2(a − 1) cards, or of the top 8 − 2a cards, but must be one of the intermediate 2 cards, and the trick can be finished in any way, as for instance by the common conjuring ambiguity of asking someone to choose one of them, leaving it doubtful whether the one he takes is to be rejected or retained. The Mouse Trap. I will conclude this chapter with the bare mention of another game of cards, known as themouse trap, the dis- cussion of which involves some rather difficult algebraic analysis. It is played as follows. A set of cards, marked with the numbers 1, 2, 3, . . . , n, is dealt in any order, face upwards, in the form of a circle. The player begins at any card and counts round the circle always in the same direction. If thekth card has the numberk on it—which event is called ahit—the player takes up the card and begins counting afresh. According to Cayley, the player wins if he thus takes up all the cards, and the cards win if at any time the player counts up ton without being able to take up a card. For example, if a pack of only four cards is used and these cards come in the order,3214, then the player would obtain the second card 2 as a hit, next he would obtain 1 as a hit, but if he went on for ever he would not obtain another hit. On the other hand, if the cards in the pack were initially in the order1423, the player would obtain successively all four cards in the order1, 2, 3, 4. The problem may be stated as the determination of what hits and how many hits can be made with a given number of cards; and what permutations will give a certain number of hits in a certain order. Cayley* showed that there are 9 arrangements of a pack of four cards in which no hit will be made,7 arrangements in which only one hit will be made,3 arrangements in which only two hits will be made, and 5 arrangements in which four hits will be made. Prof. Steen† has investigated the general theory for a pack ofn cards. He has shown how to determine the number of arrangements in * Quarterly Journal of Mathematics, 1878, vol.xv, pp. 8–10. † Ibid., vol. xv, pp. 230–241.", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 135 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00137", "bookId": 26839, "start": 286402, "end": 287293, "sha256": "04b98636b579c4a056001cf1585809bd70d47ee0e3c57c5c9a9045d745c86a36", "text": "[PDF page 136] 120 MISCELLANEOUS MATHEMATICAL RECREATIONS. [CH. IV which x is the first hit [Arts. 3–5]; the number of arrangements in which 1 is the first hit andx is the second hit [Art. 6]; and the number of arrangements in which2 is the first hit andx the second hit [Arts. 7–8]; but beyond this point the theory has not been carried. It is obvious that, if there aren − 1 hits, the nth hit will necessarily follow. Treize. The French game oftreize is very similar. It is played with a full pack of fifty-two cards (knave, queen, and king counting as 11, 12, and 13 respectively). The dealer calls out1, 2, 3, . . . ,13, as he deals the 1st, 2nd, 3rd, . . ., 13th cards respectively. At the beginning of a deal the dealer offers to lay or take certain odds that he will make a hit in the thirteen cards next dealt. One of the innumerable forms ofpatienceis played in a similar way.", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 136 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00138", "bookId": 26839, "start": 287295, "end": 288469, "sha256": "2489e0fe7d6303c85da5ce4d10cf99904714cb8357f0ea1760566937b3cdc24e", "text": "[PDF page 137] CHAPTER V. MAGIC SQUARES. A magic square consists of a number of integers arranged in the form of a square, so that the sum of the numbers in every row, in every column, and in each diagonal is the same. If the integers are the consecutive numbers from1 to n2 the square is said to be of thenth order, and it is easily seen that in this case the sum of the numbers in any row, column, or diagonal is equal to1 2 n(n2 + 1): this number may be denoted byN. I confine my account to such magic squares, that is, to squares formed with consecutive integers, from1 upwards. Thus the first16 integers, arranged in either of the forms given in figures i and ii below, form a magic square of the fourth order, the sum 1 15 14 4 12 6 7 9 8 10 11 5 13 3 2 16 Figure i. 15 10 3 6 4 5 16 9 14 11 2 7 1 8 13 12 Figure ii. of the numbers in any row, column, or diagonal being34. Similarly figures iii and v on page 124, figure viii on page 126, and figures xii and xiii on page 136, show magic squares of the fifth order; and figure xi on page 133 shows a magic square of the sixth order; and figures xiv and xv on pages 137, 138, show magic squares of the eighth order. 121", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 137 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00139", "bookId": 26839, "start": 288471, "end": 291122, "sha256": "f20330c3dc2ffa2aa0c3a24895132c96e274e3cf02028890f9350a3d34a40eca", "text": "[PDF page 138] 122 MAGIC SQUARES. [CH. V The formation of these squares is an old amusement, and in times when mystical philosophical ideas were associated with particular num- bers it was natural that such arrangements should be deemed to possess magical properties. Magic squares of an odd order were constructed in India before the Christian era according to a law of formation which is explained hereafter. Their introduction into Europe appears to have been due to Moschopulus, who lived at Constantinople in the early part of the fifteenth century, and enunciated two methods for making such squares. The majority of the medieval astrologers and physicians were much impressed by such arrangements. In particular the famous Cor- nelius Agrippa (1486–1535) constructed magic squares of the orders3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, which were associated respectively with the seven as- trological “planets”: namely, Saturn, Jupiter, Mars, the Sun, Venus, Mercury, and the Moon. He taught that a square of one cell, in which unity was inserted, represented the unity and eternity of God; while the fact that a square of the second order could not be constructed illustrated the imperfection of the four elements, air, earth, fire, and water; and later writers added that it was symbolic of original sin. A magic square engraved on a silver plate was sometimes prescribed as a charm against the plague, and one, namely, that represented in figure i on page 121, is drawn in the picture of Melancholy, painted about the year 1500 by Albert Dürer. Such charms are still worn in the East. The development of the theory has been due mainly to French mathematicians. Bachet gave a rule for the construction of any square of an odd order in a form substantially equivalent to one of the rules given by Moschopulus. The formation of magic squares, especially of even squares, was considered by Frénicle and Fermat. The theory was continued by Poignard, De la Hire, Sauveur, D’Ons-en-bray, and Des Ourmes. Ozanam included in his work an essay on magic squares which was amplified by Montucla. From this and from De la Hire’s memoirs the larger part of the materials for this chapter are derived. Like most algebraical problems, the construction of magic squares at- tracted the attention of Euler, but he did not advance the general theory. In 1837 an elaborate work on the subject was compiled by B. Violle, which is useful as containing numerous illustrations. I give the references in a footnote*. * Bachet, Problèmes plaisans, Lyons, 1624, problemxxi, p. 161; Frénicle,Divers Ouvrages de Mathématique par Messieurs de l’Académie des Sciences, Paris,", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 138 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00140", "bookId": 26839, "start": 291124, "end": 294141, "sha256": "765e4d34331ec41a12b2dc71bad942f6c133c3be8c1ffeb319e2921ad3353ff4", "text": "[PDF page 139] CH. V] MAGIC SQUARES OF AN ODD ORDER.. 123 I shall confine myself to establishing rules for the construction of squares subject to no conditions beyond those given in the definition. Rules sufficient for this purpose are contained in the works to which I have just referred and on which I have based this sketch; some ex- tensions and developments will be found in the memoirs mentioned below*. I shall commence by giving rules for the construction of a square of an odd order, and then shall proceed to similar rules for one of an even order. It will be convenient to use the following terms. The spaces or small squares occupied by the numbers are calledcells. The diagonal from the top left-hand cell to the bottom right-hand cell is called the leading diagonalor left diagonal. The diagonal from the top right-hand cell to the bottom left-hand cell is called theright diagonal. MagicSquaresofanoddorder. Iproceedtogivemethods for constructingodd magic squares, but for simplicity I shall apply them to the formation of squares of the fifth order, though exactly similar 1693, pp. 423–483; with an appendix (pp. 484–507), containing diagrams of all the possible magic squares of the fourth order, 880 in number: Fermat, Opera Mathematica, Toulouse, 1679, pp. 173–178; or Brassinne’sPrécis, Paris, 1853, pp. 146–149: Poignard,Traité des Quarrés Sublimes, Brussels, 1704: De la Hire, Mémoires de l’Académie des Sciencesfor 1705, Paris, 1706, part i, pp. 127–171; partii, pp. 364–382: Sauveur,Construction des Quarrés Mag- iques, Paris, 1710: D’Ons-en-bray,Mémoires de l’Académie des Sciencesfor 1750, Paris, 1754, pp. 241–271: Des Ourmes,Mémoires de Mathématique et de Physique (French Academy), Paris, 1763, vol.iv, pp. 196–241: Ozanam and Montucla, Récréations, part i, chapter xii: Euler, Commentationes Arithmeti- cae Collectae, St Petersburg, 1849, vol.ii, pp. 593–602: Violle,Traité Complet des Carrés Magiques, 3 vols, Paris, 1837–8. A sketch of the history of the subject is given in chap. iv of S. Günther’sGeschichte der mathematischen Wis- senschaften, Leipzig, 1876. See also W. Ahrens,Mathematische Unterhaltungen und Spiele, Leipzig, 1901, chapter xii. * In England the subject has been studied by R. Moon,Cambridge Mathematical Journal, 1845, vol. iv, pp. 209–214; H. Holditch,Quarterly Journal of Math- ematics, London, 1864, vol. vi, pp. 181–189; W.H. Thompson,Ibid., 1870, vol. x, pp. 186–202; J. Horner,Ibid., 1871, vol. xi, pp. 57–65, 123–132, 213– 224; S.M. Drach,Messenger of Mathematics, Cambridge, 1873, vol.ii, pp. 169– 174, 187; A.H. Frost,Quarterly Journal of Mathematics, London, 1878, vol.xv, pp. 34–49, 93–123, 366–368, in which the results of previous memoirs are in- cluded: there are also some pamphlets and articles on it of a more popular character. Of recent Continental works on the subject I have no complete bib- liography, and probably it is better to omit all rather than give an imperfect list.", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 139 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00141", "bookId": 26839, "start": 294143, "end": 296522, "sha256": "11c2171b682ee5af420ba2f5fafb0f8ef23b26e2c0ef1d70468bdcc0fdb7916f", "text": "[PDF page 140] 124 MAGIC SQUARES. [CH. V proofs will apply equally to any odd square. De la Loubère’s Method*. If the reader will look at figure iii he will see one way in which such a square containing25 cells can be constructed. The middle cell in the top row is occupied by 1. The successive numbers are placed in their natural order in a diagonal line 17 24 1 8 15 23 5 7 14 16 4 6 13 20 22 10 12 19 21 3 11 18 25 2 9 De la Loubère’s Method. Figure iii. 15 + 2 20 + 4 0 + 1 5 + 3 10 + 5 20 + 3 0 + 5 5 + 2 10 + 4 15 + 1 0 + 4 5 + 1 10 + 3 15 + 5 20 + 2 5 + 5 10 + 2 15 + 4 20 + 1 0 + 3 10 + 1 15 + 3 20 + 5 0 + 2 5 + 4 De la Loubère’s Method. Figure iv. 23 6 19 2 15 10 18 1 14 22 17 5 13 21 9 4 12 25 8 16 11 24 7 20 3 Bachet’s Method. Figure v. which slopes upwards to the right, except that (i) when the top row is reached the next number is written in the bottom row as if it came immediately above the top row; (ii) when the right-hand column is reached, the next number is written in the left-hand column, as if it immediately succeeded the right-hand column; and (iii) when a cell which has been filled up already, or when the top right-hand square is reached, the path of the series drops to the row vertically below it and then continues to mount again. Probably a glance at the diagram in figure iii will make this clear. The reason why such a square is magic can be explained best by expressing the numbers in the scale of notation whose radix is5 (or n, if the magic square is of the ordern), except that5 is allowed to appear as a unit-digit and0 is not allowed to appear as a unit-digit. The result is shown in figure iv. From that figure it will be seen that the method of construction ensures that every row and every column shall contain one and only one of each of the unit-digits1, 2, 3, 4, 5, the sum of which is 15; and also one and only one of each of the radix-digits0, 5, 10, 15, 20, the sum of which is50. Hence, as far as rows and columns are concerned, the square is magic. Moreover if the square is odd, each of the diagonals will contain one and only one of each of the unit-digits 1, 2, 3, 4, 5. Also the leading diagonal will contain one and only one * De la Loubère, Du Royaume de Siam (Eng. Trans.), London, 1693, vol. ii, pp. 227–247. De la Loubère was the envoy of Louis XIV to Siam in 1687–8, and there learnt this method.", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 140 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00142", "bookId": 26839, "start": 296524, "end": 299134, "sha256": "37d9bf3952adc076bbab1e8193a493f51564ad50916bcca42d69aaded8d06f0a", "text": "[PDF page 141] CH. V] MAGIC SQUARES OF AN ODD ORDER.. 125 of the radix-digits0, 5, 10, 15, 20, the sum of which is50; and if, as is the case in the square drawn above, the number10 is the radix-digit to be added to the unit-digits in the right diagonal, then the sum of the radix-digits in that diagonal is also50. Hence the two diagonals also possess the magical property. And generally if a magic square of an odd ordern is constructed by De la Loubère’s method, every row and every column must contain one and only one of each of the unit-digits1, 2, 3 . . . , n; and also one and only one of each of the radix-digits0, n,2n, . . . , n(n − 1). Hence, as far as rows and columns are concerned, the square is magic. Moreover each diagonal will either contain one and only one of the unit-digits or will contain n unit-digits each equal to1 2(n + 1). It will also either contain one and only one of the radix-digits or will containn radix-digits each equalto 1 2 n(n−1). Hencethetwodiagonalswillalsopossessthemagical property. Thus the square will be magic. I may notice here that, if we place1in any cell and fill up the square by De la Loubère’s rule, we shall obtain a square that is magic in rows and in columns, but it will not in general be magic in its diagonals. It is evident that other squares can be derived from De la Loubère’s square by permuting the symbols properly. For instance, in figure iv, we may permute the symbols 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 in 5! ways, and we may permute the symbols 0, 5, 15, 20 in 4! ways. Any one of these 5! arrangements combined with any one of these4! arrangements will give a magic square. Hence we can obtain2880 magic squares of the fifth order of this kind, though only720 of them are really distinct. Other squares can however be deduced, for it may be noted that from any magic square, whether even or odd, other magic squares of the same order can be formed by the mere interchange of the row and the column which intersect in a cell on a diagonal with the row and the column which intersect in the complementary cell of the same diagonal. Bachet’s Method*. Another method, very similar to that of De la Loubère, for constructing an odd magic square is as follows. We begin by placing1 in the cell above the middle one (that is, in a square of the fifth order in the cell occupied by the number7 in figure iii), and then we write the successive numbers in a diagonal line sloping upwards to the right, subject to the condition that when the cases (i) and (ii) mentioned under De la Loubère’s method occur the rules there * Bachet, Problem xxi, p. 161.", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 141 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00143", "bookId": 26839, "start": 299136, "end": 301314, "sha256": "26cc2cc6faf33868f7b41d4b8aaace273b4d63e417774675d4aa97fcbd8446b5", "text": "[PDF page 142] 126 MAGIC SQUARES. [CH. V given are followed, but when the case (iii) occurs the path of the series rises two rows, i.e. it is continued from one cell to the cell next but one vertically above it, if this cell is above the top row the path continues from the corresponding cell in one of the bottom two rows following the analogy of rule (i) in De la Loubère’s method. Such a square is delineated in figure v on page 124. Bachet’s method leads ultimately to this arrangement; except that the rules are altered so as to make the line slope downwards. This method also gives720 magic squares of the fifth order. De la Hire’s Method*. I shall now give another rule for the forma- tion of odd magic squares. To form an odd magic square of the order n by this method, we begin by constructing two subsidiary squares, one of the unit-digits, 1, 2, . . . , n, and the other of multiples of the radix, namely, 0, n,2n, . . . ,(n − 1)n. We then form the magic square by adding together the numbers in the corresponding cells in the two subsidiary squares. De la Hire gave several ways of constructing such subsidiary squares. I select the following method (props. x and xiv of his memoir) as being the simplest, but I shall apply it to form a square of only the fifth order. It leads to the same results as the second of the two rules given by Moschopulus. The first of the subsidiary squares (figure vi, below), is constructed thus. First, 3 is put in the top left-hand corner, and then the numbers 1, 2, 4, 5 are written in the other cells of the top line (in any order). Next, the number in each cell of the top line is repeated in all the cells 3 4 1 5 2 2 3 4 1 5 5 2 3 4 1 1 5 2 3 4 4 1 5 2 3 First Subsidiary Square Figure vi. 15 0 20 5 10 0 20 5 10 15 20 5 10 15 0 5 10 15 0 20 10 15 0 20 5 Second Subsidiary Square Figure vii. 18 4 21 10 12 2 23 9 11 20 25 7 13 19 1 6 15 17 3 24 14 16 5 22 8 Resulting Magic Square Figure viii. which lie in a diagonal line sloping downwards to the right (see figure vi) according to the rule (ii) in De la Loubère’s method. The cells filled by * Mémoires de l’Académie des Sciencesfor 1705, parti, pp. 127–171.", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 142 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00144", "bookId": 26839, "start": 301316, "end": 303925, "sha256": "4d4b3eeaab91541c9d31910739d0f775dc9c76f4458166ff6b68bd614a49e499", "text": "[PDF page 143] CH. V] MAGIC SQUARES OF AN ODD ORDER.. 127 the same number form abroken diagonal. It follows that every row and every column contains one and only one1, one and only one2, and so on. Hence the sum of the numbers in every row and in every column is equal to 15; also, since we placed3, which is the average of these numbers, in the top left-hand corner, the sum of the numbers in the left diagonal is15; and, since the right diagonal contains one and only one of each of the numbers1, 2, 3, 4, and 5, the sum of the numbers in that diagonal also is 15. The second of the subsidiary squares (figure vii) is constructed in a similar way with the numbers0, 5, 10, 15, and 20, except that the mean number10 is placed in the top right-hand corner; and the broken diagonals formed of the same numbers all slope downwards to the left. It follows that every row and every column in figure vii contains one and only one0, one and only one5, and so on; hence the sum of the numbers in every row and every column is equal to50. Also the sum of the numbers in each diagonal is equal to50. If now we add together the numbers in the corresponding cells of these two squares, we shall obtain25 numbers such that the sum of the numbers in every row, every column, and each diagonal is equal to 15 + 50, that is, to 65. This is represented in figure viii. Moreover, no two cells in that figure contain the same number. For instance, the numbers 21 to 25 can occur only in those five cells which in figure vii are occupied by the number20, but the corresponding cells in figure vi contain respectively the numbers1, 2, 3, 4, and5; and thus in figure viii each of the numbers from21to 25occurs once and only once. De la Hire preferred to have the cells in the subsidiary squares which are filled by the same number connected by a knight’s move and not by a bishop’s move; and usually his rule is enunciated in that form. By permuting the numbers1, 2, 4, 5 in figure vi we get4! other ar- rangements, each of which combined with that in figure vii would give a magic square. Similarly by permuting the numbers0, 5, 15, 20 in figure vii we obtain4! other squares, each of which might be combined with any of the4! arrangements deduced from figure vi. Hence alto- gether we can obtain in this way576 magic squares of the fifth order. There is yet another method of constructing odd squares which is due to Poignard, and was improved by De la Hire in the memoir already cited. I shall not discuss it, because, though for certain assigned values of n it is simpler than the methods which I have given, it depends on", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 143 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00145", "bookId": 26839, "start": 303927, "end": 306506, "sha256": "8291dbf0db82bae10e0cbc67b7aa145634d3e89921a84d7aabec6f6108f708c4", "text": "[PDF page 144] 128 MAGIC SQUARES. [CH. V the form ofn, and particularly on the number of prime factors ofn. In the case of a square of the fifth order, this gives an even larger number of magic squares than the methods of De la Loubère, Bachet, and De la Hire. I may also add that it has been shown that magic squares whose order is a prime number can be constructed by a rule similar to De la Loubère’s, except that we begin by placing1 in the bottom left-hand cell, and the subsequent consecutive numbers fill cells forming a knight’s path on the square and not a bishop’s path. A square of the fifth order of this kind is given in figure xiii on page 136. There are 2880 magic squares of the fifth order of this kind. De la Hire showed that, apart from mere inversions, there were 57600 magic squares of the fifth order which could be formed by the methods he enumerated. Taking account of other methods, it would seem that the total number of magic squares of the fifth order is very large, perhaps exceeding 500000. Magic squares of an even order. The above methods are inapplicable to squares of an even order. I proceed to give two methods for constructing anyeven magic squareof an order higher than two. It will be convenient to use the following terms. Two rows which are equidistant, the one from the top, the other from the bottom, are said to becomplementary. Two columns which are equidistant, the one from the left-hand side, the other from the right-hand side, are said to be complementary. Two cells in the same row, but in complementary columns, are said to be horizontally related. Two cells in the same column, but in complementary rows, are said to bevertically related. Two cells in complementary rows and columns are said to beskewly related; thus, if the cellb is horizontally related to the cella, and the cell d is vertically related to the cella, then the cellsb and d are skewly related; in such a case if the cellc is vertically related to the cellb, it will be horizontally related to the celld, and the cells a and c are skewly related: the cellsa, b, c, d constitute anassociated group, and if the square is divided into four equal quarters, one cell of an associated group is in each quarter. Ahorizontal interchangeconsists in the interchange of the numbers in two horizontally related cells. A vertical interchange consists in the interchange of the numbers in two vertically related cells. Askew interchange consists in the interchange of the numbers in two skewly related cells. Across interchangeconsists in the change of the numbers", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 144 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00146", "bookId": 26839, "start": 306508, "end": 309063, "sha256": "dbca29e9a4fe659060665235524788bfc3efbbae07475a01cd62d7d06dc4559b", "text": "[PDF page 145] CH. V] MAGIC SQUARES OF AN EVEN ORDER.. 129 in any cell and in its horizontally related cell with the numbers in the cells skewly related to them; hence, it is equivalent to two vertical interchanges and two horizontal interchanges. First Method*. This method is the simplest with which I am ac- quainted, and I believe, at any rate as far as concerns singly-even squares, was published for the first time in 1893. Begin by filling the cells of the square with the numbers1, 2, . . . , n2 in their natural order commencing (say) with the top left-hand corner, writing the numbers in each row from left to right, and taking the rows in succession from the top. I will commence by proving that a certain number of horizontal and vertical interchanges in such a square must make it magic, and will then give a rule by which the cells whose numbers are to be interchanged can be at once picked out. First, we may notice that the sum of the numbers in each diagonal is equal toN, where N = 1 2 n(n2 + 1); hence the diagonals are already magic, and will remain so if the numbers therein are not altered. Next, consider the rows. The sum of the numbers in the xth row from the top isN − 1 2 n2(n − 2x + 1). The sum of the numbers in the complementary row, that is, thexth row from the bottom, is N + 1 2 n2(n − 2x + 1). Also the number in any cell in thexth row is less than the number in the cell vertically related to it byn(n − 2x + 1). Hence, if in these two rows we make1 2 n interchanges of the numbers which are situated in vertically related cells, then we increase the sum of the numbers in thexth row by 1 2 n × n(n − 2x + 1), and therefore make that row magic; while we decrease the sum of the numbers in the complementary row by the same number, and therefore make that row magic. Hence, if in every pair of complementary rows we make 1 2 n interchanges of the numbers situated in vertically related cells, the square will be made magic in rows. But, in order that the diagonals may remain magic, either we must leave both the diagonal numbers in any row unaltered, or we must change both of them with those in the cells vertically related to them. The square is now magic in diagonals and in rows, and it remains to make it magic in columns. Taking the original arrangement of the numbers (in their natural order) we might have made the square magic in columns in a similar way to that in which we made it magic in rows. * See an article in the Messenger of Mathematics, Cambridge, September, 1893, vol. xxiii, pp. 65–69.", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 145 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00147", "bookId": 26839, "start": 309065, "end": 311614, "sha256": "ac76b4f830fe2bf5bc2113577a0115db78794414058c12795cb9942707f606f6", "text": "[PDF page 146] 130 MAGIC SQUARES. [CH. V The sum of the numbers originally in theyth column from the left-hand side is N − 1 2 n(n − 2y + 1). The sum of the numbers originally in the complementary column, that is, the yth column from the right-hand side, is N + 1 2 n(n − 2y + 1). Also the number originally in any cell in the yth column was less than the number in the cell horizontally related to it byn −2y +1. Hence, if in these two columns we had made 1 2 n interchanges of the numbers situated in horizontally related cells, we should have made the sum of the numbers in each column equal to N. If we had done this in succession for every pair of complementary columns, we should have made the square magic in columns. But, as before, in order that the diagonals might remain magic, either we must have left both the diagonal numbers in any column unaltered, or we must have changed both of them with those in the cells horizontally related to them. It remains to show that the vertical and horizontal interchanges, which have been considered in the last two paragraphs, can be made independently, that is, that we can make these interchanges of the numbers in complementary columns in such a manner as will not affect the numbers already interchanged in complementary rows. This will require that in every column there shall be exactly 1 2 n interchanges of the numbers in vertically related cells, and that in every row there shall be exactly 1 2 n interchanges of the numbers in horizontally related cells. I proceed to show how we can always ensure this, ifn is greater than 2. I continue to suppose that the cells are initially filled with the numbers1, 2, . . . , n2 in their natural order, and that we work from that arrangement. Adoubly-even squareis one wherenis of the form4m. If the square is divided into four equal quarters, the first quarter will contain2m columnsand 2mrows. Ineachofthesecolumnstake mcellssoarranged that there are alsom cells in each row, and change the numbers in these 2m2 cells and the6m2 cells associated with them by a cross interchange. The result is equivalent to2m interchanges in every row and in every column, and therefore renders the square magic. One way of selecting the2m2 cells in the first quarter is to divide the whole square into sixteen subsidiary squares each containingm2 cells, which we may represent by the diagram below, and then we may take either the cells in thea squares or those in theb squares; thus, if every number in the eighta squares is interchanged with the number", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 146 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00148", "bookId": 26839, "start": 311616, "end": 313887, "sha256": "ae92e5eff6966438b257d29ef4e4acc82314bd9df8ad7179f5571010b3239bbb", "text": "[PDF page 147] CH. V] MAGIC SQUARES OF AN EVEN ORDER.. 131 a b b a b a a b b a a b a b b a skewly related to it the resulting square is magic. A magic square of the eighth order, constructed in this way, is shown in figure xv on page 138. Another way of selecting the2m2 cells in the first quarter would be to take the firstm cells in the first column, the cells2 to m + 1 in the second column, and so on, the cellsm + 1 to 2m in the (m + 1)th column, the cellsm+2 to 2m and the first cell in the(m+2)th column, and so on, and finally the2mth cell and the cells1 to m − 1 in the 2mth column. A singly-even squareis one wheren is of the form2(2m+1). If the square is divided into four equal quarters, the first quarter will contain 2m+1 columns and2m+1 rows. In each of these columns takem cells so arranged that there are alsom cells in each row: as, for instance, by taking the firstm cells in the first column, the cells2 to m + 1 in the second column, and so on, the cellsm + 2 to 2m + 1 in the (m + 2)th column, the cells m + 3 to 2m + 1 and the first cell in the(m + 3)th column, and so on, and finally the(2m + 1)th cell and the cells1 to m − 1 in the (2m + 1)th column. Next change the numbers in these m(2m+1) cells and the3m(2m+1) cells associated with them by cross interchanges. The result is equivalent to2m interchanges in every row and in every column. In order to make the square magic we must have 1 2 n, that is,2m+1 such interchanges in every row and in every column, that is, we must have one more interchange in every row and in every column. This presents no difficulty, for instance, in the arrangement indicated above the numbers in the(2m + 1)th cell of the first column, in the first cell of the second column, in the second cell of the third column, and so on, to the2mth cell in the(2m + 1)th column may be interchanged with the numbers in their vertically related cells; this will make all the rows magic. Next, the numbers in the2mth cell of the first column, in the(2m + 1)th cell of the second column, in the first cell of the third column, in the second cell of the fourth column, and so on, to the (2m −1)th cell of the(2m+ 1)th column may be interchanged with those in the cells horizontally related to them; and this will make the", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 147 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00149", "bookId": 26839, "start": 313889, "end": 316494, "sha256": "7358a55c49319049abdcb8e236f7207f64107334e2714df98cc40666fcaccada", "text": "[PDF page 148] 132 MAGIC SQUARES. [CH. V columns magic without affecting the magical properties of the rows. It will be observed that we have implicitly assumed thatm is not zero, that is, thatn is greater than 2; also it would seem that, ifm = 1 and therefore n = 6, then the numbers in the diagonal cells must be includedinthosetowhichthecrossinterchangeisapplied, but, if n > 6, this is not necessary, though it may be convenient. The construction of odd magic squares and of doubly-even magic squares is very easy. But though the rule given above for singly-even squares is not difficult, it is tedious of application. It is unfortunate that no more obvious rule—such, for instance, as one for bordering a doubly-even square—can be suggested for writing down instantly and without thought singly-even magic squares. De la Hire’s Method*. I now proceed to give another way due to De la Hire, of constructing any even magic square of an order higher than two. In the same manner as in his rule for making odd magic squares, we begin by constructing two subsidiary squares, one of the unit-digits, 1, 2, 3, . . . , n, and the other of the radix-digits 0, n,2n, . . . ,(n − 1)n. We then form the magic square by adding together the numbers in the corresponding cells in the two subsidiary squares. Following the analogy of the notation used above, two numbers which are equidistant from the ends of the series1, 2, 3, . . . , nare said to becomplementary. Similarly numbers which are equidistant from the ends of the series 0, n,2n, . . . ,(n − 1)n are said to becomplementary. For simplicity I shall apply this method to construct a magic square of only the sixth order, though an exactly similar method will apply to any even square of an order higher than the second. The first of the subsidiary squares (figure ix) is constructed as fol- lows. First, the cells in the leading diagonal are filled with the numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 placed in any order whatever that puts complementary numbers in complementary positions (ex. gr. in the order 2, 6, 3, 4, 1, 5, or in their natural order1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6). Second, the cells ver- tically related to these are filled respectively with the same numbers. Third, each of the remaining cells in the first vertical column is filled * The rule is due to De la Hire (part 2 of his memoir) and is given by Montucla in his edition of Ozanam’s work: I have used the modified enunciation of it inserted in Labosne’s edition of Bachet’sProblèmes, as it saves the introduction of a third subsidiary square. I do not know to whom the modification is due.", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 148 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00150", "bookId": 26839, "start": 316496, "end": 318840, "sha256": "6d978c7a70e57a457acafd1b8e861fd84089486cf9f798cde39d690606ea3150", "text": "[PDF page 149] CH. V] MAGIC SQUARES OF AN EVEN ORDER.. 133 1 5 4 3 2 6 6 2 4 3 5 1 6 5 3 4 2 1 1 5 3 4 2 6 6 2 3 4 5 1 1 2 4 3 5 6 First Subsidiary Square Figure ix. 0 30 30 0 30 0 24 6 24 24 6 6 18 18 12 12 12 18 12 12 18 18 18 12 6 24 6 6 24 24 30 0 0 30 0 30 Second Subsidiary Square Figure x. 1 35 34 3 32 6 30 8 28 27 11 7 24 23 15 16 14 19 13 17 21 22 20 18 12 26 9 10 29 25 31 2 4 33 5 36 Resulting Magic Square Figure xi. either with the same number as that already in two of them or with the complementary number (ex. gr. in figure ix with a “1” or a “6”) in any way, provided that there are an equal number of each of these numbers in the column, and subject also to the provisoes mentioned in the next paragraph but one. Fourth, the cells horizontally related to those in the first column are filled with the complementary numbers. Fifth, the remaining cells in the second and third columns are filled in an analogous way to that in which those in the first column were filled: and then the cells horizontally related to them are filled with the complementary numbers. The square so formed is necessarily magic in rows, columns, and diagonals. The second of the subsidiary squares (figure x) is constructed as fol- lows. First, the cells in the leading diagonal are filled with the numbers 0, 6, 12, 18, 24, 30 placed in any order whatever that puts comple- mentary numbers in complementary positions. Second, the cells hori- zontally related to them are filled respectively with the same numbers. Third, each of the remaining cells in the first horizontal row is filled either with the same number as that already in two of them or with the complementary number (ex. gr.in figure x with a “0” or a “30”) in any way, provided (i) that there are an equal number of each of these numbers in the row, and (ii) that if any cell in the first row of figure ix and its vertically related cell are filled with complementary numbers, then the corresponding cell in the first row of figure x and its hori- zontally related cell must be occupied by the same number*. Fourth, the cells vertically related to those in the first row are filled with the complementary numbers. Fifth, the remaining cells in the second and * The insertion of this step evades the necessity of constructing (as Montucla did) a third subsidiary square.", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 149 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00151", "bookId": 26839, "start": 318842, "end": 321473, "sha256": "b48f04a1d68fb4f7271dfd5fd9fa244661b4668e08a88729893b1bdc70caa814", "text": "[PDF page 150] 134 MAGIC SQUARES. [CH. V the third rows are filled in an analogous way to that in which those in the first row were filled: and then the cells vertically related to them are filled with the complementary numbers. The square so formed is necessarily magic in rows, columns, and diagonals. Itremainstoshowthatproviso(ii)inthethirdstepdescribedinthe last paragraph can be satisfied always. In a doubly even square, that is, one in whichn is divisible by4, we need not have any complementary numbers in vertically related cells in the first subsidiary square unless we please, but even if we like to insert them they will not interfere with the satisfaction of this proviso. In the case of a singly even square, that is, one in whichn is divisible by2, but not by4, we cannot satisfy the proviso if any horizontal row in the first square has all its vertically related squares, other than the two squares in the diagonals, filled with complementary numbers. Thus in the case of a singly even square it will be necessary in constructing the first square to take care in the third step that in every row at least one cell which is not in a diagonal shall have its vertically related cell filled with the same number as itself: this is always possible ifn is greater than 2. The required magic square will be constructed if in each cell we place the sum of the numbers in the corresponding cells of the sub- sidiary squares, figures ix and x. The result of this is given in figure xi. The square is evidently magic. Also every number from1 to 36 occurs once and only once, for the numbers from1 to 6 and from31 to 36 can occur only in the top or the bottom rows, and the method of construc- tion ensures that the same number cannot occur twice. Similarly the numbers from 7 to 12 and from 25 to 30 occupy two other rows, and no number can occur twice; and so on. The square in figure i on page 121 may be constructed by the above rules; and the reader will have no difficulty in applying them to any other even square. Other Methods for Constructing any Magic Square. The above methods appear to me to be the simplest which have been proposed. There are howevertwo other methods, of less generality, to which I will allude briefly in passing. Both depend on the principle that, if every number in a magic square is multiplied by some constant, and a constant is added to the product, the square will remain magic. The first methodapplies only to such squares as can be divided into smaller magic squares of some order higher than two. It depends on the fact that, if we know how to construct magic squares of themth andnth", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 150 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00152", "bookId": 26839, "start": 321475, "end": 324119, "sha256": "fb87bf697ffc7496f6167e9480f9f5b3d5c7848e9b4ffd0889e1dc3856170d6e", "text": "[PDF page 151] CH. V] COMPOSITE AND BORDERED SQUARES.. 135 orders, we can construct one of themnth order. For example, a square of 81 cells may be considered as composed of9 smaller squares each containing 9 cells, and by filling the cells in each of these small squares in the same relative order and taking the small squares themselves in the same order, the square can be constructed easily. Such squares are called composite magic squares. The second method, which was introduced by Frénicle, consists in surrounding a magic square with aborder. Thus in figure xii on the following page the inner square is magic, and it is surrounded with a border in such a way that the whole square is also magic. In this manner from the magic square of the3rd order we can build up suc- cessively squares of the orders 5, 7, 9, &c., that is, any odd magic square. Similarly from the magic square of the4th order we can build up successively any higher even magic square. If we construct a magic square of the firstn2 numbers by bordering a magic square of(n − 2)2 numbers, the usual process is to reserve for the 4(n − 1) numbers in the border the first2(n − 1) natural numbers and the last2(n − 1) numbers. Now the sum of the numbers in each line of a square of the order(n − 2) is 1 2(n − 2){(n − 2)2 + 1}, and the average is 1 2 {(n − 2)2 + 1}. Similarly the average number in a square of the nth order is1 2(n2 +1). The difference of these is2(n −1). We begin then by taking any magic square of the order(n − 2), and we add to every number in it2(n − 1); this makes the average number1 2(n2 + 1). The numbers reserved for the border occur in pairs,n2 and 1, n2 −1 and 2, n2 −2 and 3, &c., such that the average of each pair is1 2(n2 +1), and they must be bordered on the square so that these numbers are opposite to one another. Thus the bordered square will be necessarily magic, provided that the sum of the numbers in two adjacent sides of the external border is correct. The arrangement of the numbers in the borders will be somewhat facilitated if the numbern2 + 1 − p (which has to be placed opposite to the numberp) is denoted byp, but it is not worth while going into further details here. It will illustrate sufficiently the general method if I explain how the square in figure xii is constructed. A magic square of the third order is formed by De la Loubère’s rule, and to every number in it8 is added: the result is the inner square in figure xii. The numbers not used are 25 and 1, 24 and 2, 23 and 3, 22 and 4, 21 and 5, 20 and 6, 19 and 7, 18 and 8. The sum of each pair is26, and obviously they must be", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 151 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00153", "bookId": 26839, "start": 324121, "end": 326068, "sha256": "d3dabb3ae4b343bbf2295d771340ea1c436fbfedcca5c7e8352e6a0f079123ec", "text": "[PDF page 152] 136 MAGIC SQUARES. [CH. V placed at opposite ends of any line. I believe that with a little patience a magic square of any order can be thus built up, and of course it will have the property that, if each border is successively stripped off, the square will still remain magic. Some examples are given by Violle. This is the method of construction commonly adopted by self-taught mathematicians, many 1 2 19 20 23 18 16 9 14 8 21 11 13 15 5 22 12 17 10 4 3 24 7 6 25 Bordered Magic Square. Figure xii. 7 20 3 11 24 13 21 9 17 5 19 2 15 23 6 25 8 16 4 12 1 14 22 10 18 Nasik Magic Square. Figure xiii. of whom seem to think that the empirical formation of such squares is a valuable discovery. There are magic circles, rectangles, crosses, diamonds, stars, and other figures: also magic cubes, cylinders, and spheres. The theory of the construction of such figures is of no value, and I cannot spare the space to describe rules for forming them. Hyper-Magic Squares. In recent times attention has been mainly concentrated on the formation of magic squares with the impo- sition of additional conditions; some of the resulting problems involve mathematical difficulties of a high order. Nasik Squares. In one species of hyper-magic squares the squares are formed so that the sums of the numbers along all the rows and columns, both diagonals, and all the broken diagonals are the same. In England these are callednasik squaresor pan-diagonal magic squares: in Francecarrés diaboliques or carrés magiquement magiques. These squares were mentioned by De la Hire, Sauveur, and Euler; but the theory is mainly due to Mr A.H. Frost, who has expounded it in the memoirs mentioned in the footnote on page 123, and to M. Frolow, who treated it in two memoirs, St Petersburg, 1884, and Paris, 1886. Of course a nasik square can be divided by a vertical or horizontal cut and the pieces interchanged without affecting the magical property. By", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 152 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00154", "bookId": 26839, "start": 326070, "end": 327681, "sha256": "4eb7d9393a36308bf894c6aed1b34a852475b9eb0b254e2a59393c345211d1be", "text": "[PDF page 153] CH. V] MAGIC PENCILS. 137 one vertical and one horizontal transposition of this kind any number can be moved to any specified cell. A nasik square of the fourth order is represented in figure ii on page 121, and one of the fifth order is represented in figure xiii on the preceding page. Nasik squares of the order6n±1 can be constructed by rules analogous to those given by De la Loubère, except that a knight’s and not a bishop’s move must be used in connecting cells filled by consecutive numbers and that for orders higher than five special rules for going from the cell occupied by the numberkn to that occupied by the number kn + 1 have to be laid down. Doubly-Magic Squares. In another species of hyper-magic squares the problem is to construct a magic square of thenth order in such a way that if the number in each cell is replaced by itsmth power the 5 31 35 60 57 34 8 30 19 9 53 46 47 56 18 12 16 22 42 39 52 61 27 1 63 37 25 24 3 14 44 50 26 4 64 49 38 43 13 23 41 51 15 2 21 28 62 40 54 48 20 11 10 17 55 45 36 58 6 29 32 7 33 59 A Doubly-Magic Square. Figure xiv. resulting square shall also be magic. Here for example (see figure xiv) is a magic square* of the eighth order, the sum of the numbers in each line being equal to260, so constructed that if the number in each cell is replaced by its square the resulting square is also magic (the sum of the numbers in each line being equal to11180). Magic Pencils. Hitherto I have concerned myself with num- bers arranged in lines. By reciprocating the figures composed of the * See M. Coccoz in L’Illustration, May 29, 1897.", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 153 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00155", "bookId": 26839, "start": 327683, "end": 329555, "sha256": "79f8114355793afa9f8197144e685377862ef50b3c977578ac92fec452023ec8", "text": "[PDF page 154] 138 MAGIC SQUARES. [CH. V points on which the numbers are placed we obtain a collection of lines forming pencils, and, if these lines be numbered to correspond with the points, the pencils will be magic*. Thus, in a magic square of thenth order, we arrange n2 consecutive numbers to form2n + 2 lines, each containing n numbers so that the sum of the numbers in each line is the same. Reciprocally we can arrangen2 lines, numbered consecutively to form 2n + 2 pencils, each containingn lines, so that in each pencil the sum of the numbers designating the lines is the same. For instance, figure xv represents a magic square of64 consecutive 1 2 62 61 60 59 7 8 9 10 54 53 52 51 15 16 48 47 19 20 21 22 42 41 40 39 27 28 29 30 34 33 32 31 35 36 37 38 26 25 24 23 43 44 45 46 18 17 49 50 14 13 12 11 55 56 57 58 6 5 4 3 63 64 Figure xv. numbers arranged to form 18 lines, each of 8 numbers. Reciprocally, figure xvi represents 64 lines arranged to form 18 pencils, each of 8 lines. The method of construction is fairly obvious. The eight-rayed pencil, vertex O, is cut by two parallels perpendicular to the axis of the pencil, and all the points of intersection are joined cross-wise. This gives 8 pencils, with vertices A, B, . . . , H; 8 pencils, with vertices A′, . . . H′; one pencil with its vertex atO; and one pencil with its vertex on the axis of the last-named pencil. The sum of the numbers in each of the 18 lines in figure xv is the same. To make figure xvi correspond to this we must number the lines in the pencilA from left to right,1, 9, . . . ,57, following the order of the numbers in the first column of the square: the lines in pencilB must be numbered similarly to correspond to the numbers in the second column of the square, and so on. To prevent confusion in the figure I * See Magic-Reciprocalsby G. Frankenstein, Cincinnati, 1875.", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 154 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00156", "bookId": 26839, "start": 329557, "end": 330102, "sha256": "a48b4e13c3f84315e97b70affa866a6b490af781602fff780e71262b56aff271", "text": "[PDF page 155] CH. V] MAGIC PENCILS. 139 O AB C DEF G H A' H' Figure xvi. have not inserted the numbers, but it will be seen that the method of construction ensures that the sum of the 8 numbers which designate the lines in each of these 18 pencils is the same. We can proceed a step further, if the resulting figure is cut by two other parallel lines perpendicular to the axis, and if the points of their intersection with the cross-joins be joined cross-wise, these new cross-joins will intersect on the axis of the original pencil or on lines", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 155 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00157", "bookId": 26839, "start": 330104, "end": 332688, "sha256": "205eb4878ee1c625034cc61e58eafd928e9f66ad03dc33e940375686834d6dc2", "text": "[PDF page 156] 140 MAGIC SQUARES. [CH. V perpendicular to it. The whole figure will now give83 lines, arranged in 244 pencils each of8 rays, and will be the reciprocal of a magic cube of the 8th order. If we reciprocate back again we obtain a representation in a plane of a magic cube. Magic Square Puzzles. Many empirical problems, closely re- lated to magic squares, will suggest themselves; but most of them are more correctly described as ingenious puzzles than as mathematical recreations. The following will serve as specimens. Magic Card Square*. The first of these is the familiar problem of placing the sixteen court cards (taken out of a pack) in the form of a square so that no row, no column, and neither of the diagonals shall contain more than one card of each suit and one card of each rank. The solution presents no difficulty, and is indicated in figure xviii on the next page. Euler’s Officers Problem†. A similar problem, proposed by Euler in 1779, consists in arranging, if it be possible, thirty-six officers taken from six regiments—the officers being in six groups, each consisting of six officers of equal rank, one drawn from each regiment; say officers of rank a, b, c, d, e, f, drawn from the1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th, 5th, and 6th regiments—in a solid square formation of six by six, so that each row and each file shall contain one and only one officer of each rank and one and only one officer from each regiment. The problem is insoluble. Extension of Euler’s Problem.More generally we may investigate the arrangement on a chess-board, containingn2 cells, of n2 counters (the counters being divided inton groups, each group consisting ofn counters of the same colour numbered consecutively1, 2, . . . , n) so that each row and each column shall contain no two counters of the same colour or marked with the same number. For instance, if n = 3, with three red counters a1, a2, a3, three white counters b1, b 2, b3, and three black countersc1, c2, c3, we can satisfy the conditions by arranging them as in figure xvii on the facing page. If n = 4, then with countersa1, a2, a3, a4; b1, b2, b3, b4; c1, c2, * Ozanam, 1723 edition, vol. iv, p. 434. † Euler’sCommentationes Arithmeticae, St Petersburg, 1849, volii, pp. 302–361. See also a paper by G. Tarry in theComptes rendusof the French Association for the Advancement of Science, Paris, 1900, vol.ii, pp. 170–203; and various notes in L’Intermédiaire des mathématiciens, Paris, vol. iii, 1896, pp. 17, 90; vol. v, 1898, pp. 83, 176, 252, vol.vi, 1899, p. 251; vol.vii, 1900, pp. 14, 311.", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 156 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00158", "bookId": 26839, "start": 332690, "end": 334788, "sha256": "2c1b19a6eb9ab688ec1251be5219b758d0c0e312586e02113422e6a14d34e22e", "text": "[PDF page 157] CH. V] MAGIC PUZZLES.. 141 c3, c4; d1, d2, d3, d4, we can arrange them as in figure xviii below. A solution when n = 5 is indicated in figure xix. a1 b2 c3 b2 c1 a2 c3 a3 b1 Figure xvii. a1 b2 c3 d4 c4 d3 a2 b1 d2 c1 b4 a3 b3 a4 d1 c2 Figure xviii. a1 b2 c3 d4 e5 b5 c1 d2 e3 a4 c4 d5 e1 a2 b3 d3 e4 a5 b1 c2 e2 a3 b4 c5 d1 Figure xix. The problem is soluble if n is odd or if n is of the form 4m. If solutions when n = a and when n = b are known, a solution when n = ab can be written down at once. The theory is closely connected with that of magic squares and need not be here discussed further. Magic Domino Squares. Analogous problems can be made with dominoes. An ordinary set of dominoes, ranging from double zero to double six, contains28 dominoes. Each domino is a rectangle formed by fixing two small square blocks together side by side: of these56 blocks, eight are blank, on each of eight of them is one pip, on each of another eight of them are two pips, and so on. It is required to arrange the dominoes so that the56 blocks form a square of7 by 7 bordered by one line of7 blank squares and so that the sum of the pips in each row, each column, and in the two diagonals of the square is equal to 24. A solution* is given on the following page. Similarly, a set of dominoes, ranging from double zero to doublen, contains 1 2(n + 1)(n + 2)dominoes and therefore(n + 1)(n + 2)blocks. Can these dominoes be arranged in the form of a square of(n + 1)2 cells, bordered by a row of blanks, so that the sum of the pips in each row, each column, and in the two diagonals of the square is equal to 1 2 n(n + 2)? Magic Coin Squares†. There are somewhat similar questions con- cerned with coins. Here is one applicable to a square of the third order divided into nine cells, as in figure xvii above. If a five-shilling piece is placed in the middle cellc1 and a florin in the cell below it, namely, in a3 it is required to place the fewest possible current English coins in * See L’Illustration, July 10, 1897. † See The Strand Magazine, London, December, 1896, pp. 720, 721.", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 157 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00159", "bookId": 26839, "start": 334790, "end": 335363, "sha256": "907dc8f34285155d66fc1af94a4318935d142ff9fea1a61b919cdfa03b1cb835", "text": "[PDF page 158] 142 MAGIC SQUARES. [CH. V Magic Domino Square. the remaining seven cells so that in each cell there is at least one coin, so that the total value of the coins in every cell is different, and so that the sum of the values of the coins in each row, column, and diagonal is fifteen shillings: it will be found that thirteen additional coins will suf- fice. A similar problem is to place ten current English postage stamps, all but two being different, in the nine cells so that the sum of the values of the stamps in each row, column, and diagonal is ninepence.", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 158 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00160", "bookId": 26839, "start": 335365, "end": 336922, "sha256": "871779927b2d880376d00b8815881edc7f8bcc8e584af12a4c44beb54da92827", "text": "[PDF page 159] CHAPTER VI. UNICURSAL PROBLEMS. I proposeto consider in this chapter some problems which arise out of the theory of unicursal curves. I shall commence withEuler’s Problem and Theorems, and shall apply the results briefly to the theo- ries ofMazes andGeometrical Trees. The reciprocal unicursal problems of theHamilton Gameand theKnight’s Path on a Chess-boardwill be discussed in the latter half of the chapter. Euler’s Problem. Euler’s problem has its origin in a memoir† presented by him in 1736 to the St Petersburg Academy, in which he solved a question then under discussion as to whether it was possible to take a walk in the town of Königsberg in such a way as to cross every bridge in it once and only once. The town is built near the mouth of the river Pregel, which there takes the form indicated on the following page and includes the island of Kneiphof. In 1759 there were (and according to Baedeker there are still) seven bridges in the positions shown in the diagram, and it is easily seen that with such an arrangement the problem is insoluble. Euler however did not confine himself to the case of Königsberg, but discussed the general problem of any number of islands connected in any way by bridges. It is evident that the question will not be affected if † Solutio problematis ad Geometriam situs pertinentis, Commentarii Academiae Scientiarum Petropolitanaefor 1736, St Petersburg, 1741, vol.viii, pp. 128–140. This has been translated into French by M. Ch. Henry; see Lucas, vol.i, part 2, pp. 21–33. 143", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 159 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00161", "bookId": 26839, "start": 336924, "end": 338093, "sha256": "a96044db29b22ffc75e6558a165cacba3ce200bb4ecbceb93e5120f69e071483", "text": "[PDF page 160] 144 UNICURSAL PROBLEMS. [CH. VI we suppose the islands to diminish to points and the bridges to lengthen out. In this way we ultimately obtain a geometrical figure or network. In the Königsberg problem this figure is of the shape indicated below, the areas being represented by the pointsA, B, C, D, and the bridges being represented by the linesl, m, n, p, q, r, s. A B C D s r l qp mn Euler’s problem consists therefore in finding whether a given ge- ometrical figure can be described by a point moving so as to traverse every line in it once and only once. A more general question is to deter- mine how many strokes are necessary to describe such a figure so that no line is traversed twice: this is covered by the rules hereafter given. The figure may be either in three or in two dimensions, and it may be represented by lines, straight, curved, or tortuous, joining a number of given points, or a model may be constructed by taking a number of rods or pieces of string furnished at each end with a hook so as to allow of any number of them being connected together at one point. The theory of such figures is included as a particular case in the", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 160 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00162", "bookId": 26839, "start": 338095, "end": 340592, "sha256": "e51023d296503cdfffef99d2c730a225868dd132601c7d19eaf28da900883df2", "text": "[PDF page 161] CH. VI] EULER’S PROBLEM. 145 propositions proved by Listing in hisTopologie*. I shall, however, adopt here the methods of Euler, and I shall begin by giving some definitions, as it will enable me to put the argument in a more concise form. A node (or isle) is a point to or from which lines are drawn. A branch (or bridge or path) is a line connecting two consecutive nodes. An end (or hook) is the point at each termination of a branch. The order of a node is the number of branches which meet at it. A node to which only one branch is drawn is afree node or a free end. A node at which an even number of branches meet is aneven node: evidently the presence of a node of the second order is immaterial. A node at which an odd number of branches meet is anodd node. A figure is closed if it has no free end: such a figure is often called a closed network. A route consists of a number of branches taken in consecutive order and so that no branch is traversed twice. A closed route terminates at the point from which it started. A figure is describedunicursally when the whole of it is traversed in one route. The following are Euler’s results. (i) In a closed network the num- ber of odd nodes is even. (ii) A figure which has no odd node can be described unicursally, in a re-entrant route, by a moving point which starts from any point on it. (iii) A figure which has two and only two odd notes can be described unicursally by a moving point which starts from one of the odd nodes and finishes at the other. (iv) A figure which has more than two odd nodes cannot be described completely in one route; to which Listing added the corollary that a figure which has2n odd nodes, and no more, can be described completely inn separate routes. I now proceed to prove these theorems. First. The number of odd nodes in a closed network is even. Suppose the number of branches to beb. Therefore the number of hooks is 2b. Let kn be the number of nodes of thenth order. Since a node of thenth order is one at whichn branches meet, there aren hooks there. Also since the figure is closed,n cannot be less than2. ∴ 2k2 + 3k3 + 4k4 + · · · + nkn + · · · = 2b . Hence 3k3 + 5k5 + · · · is even. ∴ k3 + k5 + · · · is even. Second. A figure which has no odd node can be described unicur- sally in a re-entrant route. * Die Studien, Göttingen, 1847, part x. See also Tait on Listing’s Topologie, Philosophical Magazine, London, January, 1884, series 5, vol.xvii, pp. 30–46.", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 161 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00163", "bookId": 26839, "start": 340594, "end": 343123, "sha256": "626a5c71ba384d63a67685ac35291c146e32651e20dbd1ee42c5ec9c8491e8ec", "text": "[PDF page 162] 146 UNICURSAL PROBLEMS. [CH. VI Since the route is to be re-entrant it will make no difference where it commences. Suppose that we start from a nodeA. Every time our route takes us through a node we use up one hook in entering it and one in leaving it. There are no odd nodes, therefore the number of hooks at every node is even: hence, if we reach any node exceptA, we shall always find a hook which will take us into a branch previously untra- versed. Hence the route will take us finally to the nodeA from which we started. If there are more than two hooks atA, we can continue the route over one of the branches fromA previously untraversed, but in the same way as before we shall finally come back toA. It remains to show that we can arrange our route so as to make it cover all the branches. Suppose each branch of the network to be represented by a string with a hook at each end, and that at each node all the hooks there are fastened together. The number of hooks at each node is even, and if they are unfastened they can be re-coupled together in pairs, the arrangement of the pairs being immaterial. The whole network will then form one or more closed curves, since now each node consists merely of two ends hooked together. If this random coupling gives us one single curve then the proposi- tion is proved; for starting at any point we shall go along every branch and come back to the initial point. But if this random coupling pro- duces anywhere an isolated loop,L, then where it touches some other loop, M, say at the nodeP, unfasten the four hooks there (viz. two of the loop L and two of the loopM) and re-couple them in any other order: then the loopL will become a part of the loopM. In this way, by altering the couplings, we can transform gradually all the separate loops into parts of only one loop. For example, take the case of three isles,A, B, C, each connected with both the others by two bridges. The most unfavourable way of re- coupling the ends atA, B, C would be to makeABA, ACA, andBCB separate loops. The loopsABA and ACA are separate and touch atA; hence we should re-couple the hooks atA so as to combineABA and ACA into one loopABACA. Similarly, by re-arranging the couplings of the four hooks atB, we can combine the loopBCB with ABACA and thus make only one loop. I infer from Euler’s language that he had attempted to solve the problem of giving a practical rule which would enable one to describe such a figure unicursally without knowledge of its form, but that in this", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 162 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00164", "bookId": 26839, "start": 343125, "end": 345058, "sha256": "77fb427c5a791a10033d24ca257d00a404490bbb1c07c4b906642e1ce752075e", "text": "[PDF page 163] CH. VI] EULER’S PROBLEM. 147 B C A he was unsuccessful. He however added that any geometrical figure can be described completely in a single route provided each part of it is described twice and only twice, for, if we suppose that every branch is duplicated, there will be no odd nodes and the figure is unicursal. In this case any figure can be described completely without knowing its form: rules to effect this are given below. Third. A figure which has two and only two odd nodes can be described unicursally by a point which starts from one of the odd nodes and finishes at the other odd node. This at once reduces to the second theorem. LetA and Z be the two odd nodes. First, suppose that Z is not a free end. We can, of course, take a route fromA to Z; if we imagine the branches in this route to be eliminated, it will remove one hook fromA and make it even, will remove two hooks from every node intermediate betweenA and Z and therefore leave each of them even, and will remove one hook from Z and therefore will make it even. All the remaining network is now even: hence, by Euler’s second proposition, it can be described unicursally, and, if the route begins at Z, it will end at Z. Hence, if these two routes are taken in succession, the whole figure will be described unicursally, beginning atA and ending at Z. Second, if Z is a free end, then we must travel fromZ to some node, Y, at which more than two branches meet. Then a route fromA to Y which covers the whole figure exclusive of the path fromY to Z can be determined as before and must be finished by travelling fromY to Z. Fourth. A figure having 2n odd nodes, and no more, can be de- scribed completely in n separate routes. If any route starts at an odd node, and if it is continued until it reaches a node where no fresh path is open to it, this latter node must be an odd one. For every time we enter an even node there is necessarily", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 163 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00165", "bookId": 26839, "start": 345060, "end": 346934, "sha256": "c271a835efa091d44a0ce6b2abc403cdf9f781b20590be36454b7a69df0e180f", "text": "[PDF page 164] 148 UNICURSAL PROBLEMS. [CH. VI a way out of it; and similarly every time we go through an odd node we use up one hook in entering and one hook in leaving, but whenever we reach it as the end of our route we use only one hook. If this route is suppressed there will remain a figure with2n − 2 odd nodes. Hence n such routes will leave one or more networks with only even nodes. But each of these must have some node common to one of the routes already taken and therefore can be described as a part of that route. Hence the complete passage will require n and not more thann routes. It follows, as stated by Euler, that, if there are more than two odd nodes, the figure cannot be traversed completely in one route. The Königsberg bridges lead to a network with four odd nodes; hence, by Euler’s fourth proposition, it cannot be described unicur- sally in a single journey, though it can be traversed completely in two separate routes. The first and second diagrams figured below contain only even nodes, and therefore each of them can be described unicursally. The first of these—a re-entrant pentagon—was one of the Pythagorean sym- bols. The other is the so-called sign-manual of Mohammed, said to have been originally traced in the sand by the point of his scimetar with- out taking the scimetar off the ground or retracing any part of the figure—which, as it contains only even nodes, is possible. The third diagram is taken from Tait’s article: it contains only two odd nodes, and therefore can be described unicursally if we start from one of them and finish at the other. As other examples I may note that the geometrical figure formed by taking a (2n + 1)gon and joining every angular point with every other angular point is unicursal. On the other hand a chess-board, divided as usual by straight lines into64 cells, has 28 odd nodes and", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 164 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00166", "bookId": 26839, "start": 346936, "end": 349446, "sha256": "a3987c1906871d87ee8a275b4b81a3a808dfb61d8ca4cec0ca26579609b5eeaa", "text": "[PDF page 165] CH. VI] MAZES AND LABYRINTHS.. 149 53 even nodes: hence it would require14 separate pen-strokes to trace out all the boundaries without going over any more than once. Again, the diagram on page 102 has20 odd nodes and therefore would require 10 separate pen-strokes to trace it out. It is well known that a curve which has as many nodes as is con- sistent with its degree is unicursal. Mazes. Everyone has read of the labyrinth of Minos in Crete and of Rosamund’s Bower. A few modern mazes exist here and there— notably one, which is a very poor specimen of its kind, at Hampton Court—and in one of these, or at any rate on a drawing of one, most of us have threaded our way to the interior. I proceed now to consider the manner in which any such construction may be completely traversed even by one who is ignorant of its plan. The theory of the description of mazes is included in Euler’s theo- rems given above. The paths in the maze are what previously we have termed branches, and the places where two or more paths meet are nodes. The entrance to the maze, the end of a blind alley, and the centre of the maze are free ends and therefore odd nodes. If the only odd nodes are the entrance to the maze and the centre of it–which will necessitate the absence of all blind alleys–the maze can be described unicursally. This follows from Euler’s third proposition. Again, no matter how many odd nodes there may be in a maze, we can always find a route which will take us from the entrance to the centre without retracing our steps, though such a route will take us through only a part of the maze. But in neither of the cases mentioned in this paragraph can the route be determined without a plan of the maze. A plan is not necessary, however, if we make use of Euler’s sugges- tion, and suppose that every path in the maze is duplicated. In this case we can give definite rules for the complete description of the whole of any maze, even if we are entirely ignorant of its plan. Of course to walk twice over every path in a labyrinth is not the shortest way of arriving at the centre, but, if it is performed correctly, the whole maze is traversed, the arrival at the centre at some point in the course of the route is certain, and it is impossible to lose one’s way. I need hardly explain why the complete description of such a du- plicated maze is possible, for now every node is even, and hence, by Euler’s second proposition, if we begin at the entrance we can traverse", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 165 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00167", "bookId": 26839, "start": 349448, "end": 352113, "sha256": "8b23d1e63768f4ac5b976366f3cb877837c593f67883cf48c1ab267e29f28446", "text": "[PDF page 166] 150 UNICURSAL PROBLEMS. [CH. VI the whole maze; in so doing we shall at some point arrive at the cen- tre, and finally shall emerge at the point from which we started. This description will require us to go over every path in the maze twice, and as a matter of fact the two passages along any path will be always made in opposite directions. If a maze is traced on paper, the way to the centre is generally obvious, but in an actual labyrinth it is not so easy to find the correct route unless the plan is known. In order to make sure of describing a maze without knowing its plan it is necessary to have some means of marking the paths which we traverse and the direction in which we have traversed them—for example, by drawing an arrow at the entrance and end of every path traversed, or better perhaps by marking the wall on the right-hand side, in which case a path may not be entered when there is a mark on each side of it. If we can do this, and if when a node is reached, we take, if it be possible, some path not previously used, or, if no other path is available, we enter on a path already traversed once only, we shall completely traverse any maze in two dimensions*. Of course a path must not be traversed twice in the same direction, a path already traversed twice (namely, once in each direction) must not be entered, and at the end of a blind alley it is necessary to turn back along the path by which it was reached. I think most people would understand by a maze a series of inter- lacing paths through which some route can be obtained leading to a space or building at the centre of the maze. I believe that few, if any, mazes of this type existed in classical or medieval times. One class of what the ancients called mazes or labyrinths seems to have comprised any complicated building with numerous vaults and passages†. Such a building might be termed a labyrinth, but it is not what is usually understood by the word. The above rules would enable anyone to traverse the whole of any structure of this kind. I do not know if there are any accounts or descriptions of Rosamund’s Bower * See Le problème des labyrinthesby G. Tarry,Nouvelles Annales de mathémat- iques, May, 1895, series 3, vol.xiv. † For instance, see the descriptions of the labyrinth at Lake Moeris given by Herodotus, bk. ii, c. 148; Strabo, bk. xvii, c. 1, art. 37; Diodorus, bk. i, cc. 61, 66; and Pliny, Hist. Nat., bk. xxxvi, c. 13, arts. 84–89. On these and other references see A. Wiedemann,Herodots zweites Buch, Leipzig, 1890, p. 522et seq. See also Virgil, Aeneid, bk. v, c. v, 588; Ovid, Met., bk. viii, c. 5, 159; Strabo, bk. viii, c. 6.", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 166 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00168", "bookId": 26839, "start": 352115, "end": 354005, "sha256": "cf3c182e1adbaf3e11f455e84b17aec5198210fdaa0b0e5ac1d4797c202f9215", "text": "[PDF page 167] CH. VI] MAZES AND LABYRINTHS.. 151 other than those by Drayton, Bromton, and Knyghton: in the opinion of some, these imply that the bower was merely a house, the passages in which were confusing and ill-arranged. Anotherclassofancientmazesconsistedofatortuouspathconfined to a small area of ground and leading to a place or shrine in the centre*. This is a maze in which there is no chance of taking a wrong turning; but, as the whole area can be occupied by the windings of one path, the distance to be traversed from the entrance to the centre may be considerable, even though the piece of ground covered by the maze is but small. The traditional form of the labyrinth constructed for the Minotaur is a specimen of this class. It was delineated on the reverses of the coins of Cnossus, specimens of which are not uncommon; one form of it is indicated in the accompanying diagram (figure i). The design really is the same as that drawn in figure ii, as can be easily seen by bending round a circle the rectangular figure there given. Mr Inwards has suggested†that this design on the coins of Cnossus may be a survival from that on a token given by the priests as a clue to Figure i. Figure ii. the right path in the labyrinth there. Taking the circular form of the design shown above he supposed each circular wall to be replaced by two equidistant walls separated by a path, and thus obtained a maze to which the original design would serve as the key. The route thus indicated may be at once obtained by noticing that when a node is reached (i.e. a point where there is a choice of paths) the path to be * On ancient and medieval labyrinths—particularly of this kind—see an article by Mr E. Trollope inThe Archaeological Journal, 1858, vol.xv, pp. 216–235, from which much of the historical information given above is derived † Knowledge, London, October, 1892.", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 167 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00169", "bookId": 26839, "start": 354007, "end": 356563, "sha256": "1115f8be94e4765b3f05a699f8f5089ad757eef8cb70ae8af34c59fda411a8c9", "text": "[PDF page 168] 152 UNICURSAL PROBLEMS. [CH. VI taken is that which is next but one to that by which the node was approached. This maze may be also threaded by the simple rule of always following the wall on the right-hand side or always that on the left-hand side. The labyrinth may be somewhat improved by erecting a few additional barriers, without affecting the applicability of the above rules, but it cannot be made really difficult. This makes a pretty toy, but though the conjecture on which it is founded is ingenious it must be regarded as exceedingly improbable. Another suggestion is that the curved line on the reverse of the coins indicated the form of the rope held by those taking part in some rhythmic dance; while others consider that the form was gradually evolved from the widely prevalent svastika. Copies of the maze of Cnossus were frequently engraved on Greek and Roman gems; similar but more elaborate designs are found in nu- merous Roman mosaic pavements*. A copy of the Cretan labyrinth was embroidered on many of the state robes of the later Emperors, and, apparently thence, was copied on to the walls and floors of vari- ous churches†. At a later time in Italy and in France these mural and pavement decorations were developed into scrolls of great complexity, but consisting, as far as I know, always of a single line. Some of the best specimens now extant are on the walls of the cathedrals at Lucca, Aix in Provence, and Poitiers; and on the floors of the churches of Santa Maria in Trastevere at Rome, San Vitale at Ravenna, Notre Dame at St Omer, and the cathedral at Chartres. It is possible that they were usedtorepresentthejourneythroughlifeasakindofpilgrim’sprogress. In England these mazes were usually, perhaps always, cut in the turf adjacent to some religious house or hermitage: and there are some slight reasons for thinking that, when traversed as a religious exercise, a pater orave hadtoberepeatedateveryturning. AftertheRenaissance, such labyrinths were frequently termed Troy-towns or Julian’s bowers. Some of the best specimens, which are still extant, are those at Rockliff Marshes, Cumberland; Asenby, Yorkshire; Alkborough, Lincolnshire; Wing, Rutlandshire; Boughton-Green, Northamptonshire; Comberton, Cambridgeshire; Saffron Walden, Essex; and Chilcombe, near Win- chester. The modern maze seems to have been introduced—probably from Italy—during the Renaissance, and many of the palaces and large * See ex. gr.Breton’sPompeia, p. 303. † Ozanam, Graphia aureae urbis Romae, pp. 92, 178.", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 168 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00170", "bookId": 26839, "start": 356565, "end": 358321, "sha256": "9fe34632da703f28df1bf346b057e045f6f3e4ee7f329196e1ace0604b6e4b2e", "text": "[PDF page 169] CH. VI] MAZES AND LABYRINTHS.. 153 houses built in England during the Tudor and the Stuart periods had labyrinths attached to them. Those adjoining the royal palaces at Southwark, Greenwich, and Hampton Court were particularly well known from their vicinity to the capital. The last of these was designed by London and Wise in 1690, for William III, who had a fancy for such conceits: a plan of it is given in various guide-books. For the majority Maze at Hampton Court. of the sight-seers who enter, it is sufficiently elaborate; but it is an indifferent construction, for it can be described completely by always following the hedge on one side (either the right hand or the left hand), and no node is of an order higher than three. Unless at some point the route to the centre forks and subsequently the two forks reunite, forming a loop in which the centre of the maze is situated, the centre can be reached by the rule just given, namely, by following the wall on one side—either on the right hand or on the left hand. No labyrinth is worthy of the name of a puzzle which can be threaded in this way. Assuming that the path forks as described above, the more numerous the nodes and the higher their order the more difficult will be the maze, and the difficulty might be increased considerably by using bridges and tunnels so as to construct a labyrinth in three dimensions. In an ordinary garden and on a small piece of ground, often of an inconvenient shape, it is not easy to make a maze which fulfils these conditions. Here on the following page is a plan of one which I put up in my own garden on a plot of ground which would not allow of more than36 by 23 paths, but it will be noticed that none of the nodes are of a high order.", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 169 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00171", "bookId": 26839, "start": 358323, "end": 359870, "sha256": "ff224383281511bc4741ba42b31dd9a227b187bd079aa41e00aa1f25d587bede", "text": "[PDF page 170] 154 UNICURSAL PROBLEMS. [CH. VI Geometrical Trees. Euler’s original investigations were con- fined to a closed network. In the problem of the maze it was assumed that there might be any number of blind alleys in it, the ends of which formed free nodes. We may now progress one step farther, and sup- pose that the network or closed part of the figure diminishes to a point. This last arrangement is known as atree. The number of unicursal descriptions necessary to completely describe a tree is called thebase of the ramification. We can illustrate the possible form of these trees by rods, having a hook at each end. Starting with one such rod, we can attach at either end one or more similar rods. Again, on any free hook we can attach one or more similar rods, and so on. Every free hook, and also every point where two or more rods meet, are what hitherto we have called nodes. The rods are what hitherto we have termed branches or paths. The theory of trees—which already plays a somewhat important part in certain branches of modern analysis, and possibly may contain the key to certain chemical and biological theories—originated in a memoir by Cayley*, written in 1856. The discussion of the theory has * Philosophical Magazine, March, 1857, series4, vol.xiii, pp.172–176; orCollected Works, Cambridge, 1890, vol.iii, no. 203, pp. 242–346: see also the paper on double partitions, Philosophical Magazine, November, 1860, series 4, vol.xx, pp. 337–341. On the number of trees with a given number of nodes, see the", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 170 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00172", "bookId": 26839, "start": 359872, "end": 362235, "sha256": "73fc268022f6f4dc6fcff8f0a871bbc96f7021cedabda25dd2e73adc107cf131", "text": "[PDF page 171] CH. VI] THE HAMILTONIAN GAME. 155 been analytical rather than geometrical. I content myself with noting the following results. The number of trees with n given nodes is nn−2. If An is the number of trees withn branches, and Bn the number of trees withn free branches which are bifurcations at least, then (1 − x)−1(1 − x2)−A1(1 − x3)−A2 · · · = 1 + A1x + A2x2 + A3x3 + · · · , (1 − x)−1(1 − x2)−B2(1 − x3)−B3 · · · = 1 + x + 2B2x2 + 2B3x3 + · · · . Using these formulae we can find successively the values ofA1, A2, . . ., and B1, B2, . . .. The values of An when n = 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, are 2, 4, 9, 20, 48, 115; and of Bn are 1, 2, 5, 12, 33, 90. I turn next to consider some problems where it is desired to find a route which will pass once and only once through each node of a given geometrical figure. This is the reciprocal of the problem treated in the first part of this chapter, and is a far more difficult question. I am not aware that the general theory has been considered by mathematicians, though two special cases—namely, theHamiltonian (or Icosian)Game and theKnight’s Path on a Chess-Board—have been treated in some detail; and I confine myself to a discussion of these. The Hamiltonian Game. The Hamiltonian Game consists in the determination of a route along the edges of a regular dodecahedron which will pass once and only once through every angular point. Sir William Hamilton*, who invented this game—if game is the right term for it—denoted the twenty angular points on the solid by letters which stand for various towns. The thirty edges constitute the only possible paths. The inconvenience of using a solid is considerable, and the dodecahedron may be represented conveniently in perspective by a flat board marked as shown in the first of the annexed diagrams. The Quarterly Journal of Mathematics, London, 1889, vol.xxiii, pp. 376–378. The connection with chemistry was first pointed out in Cayley’s paper on isomers, Philosophical Magazine, June, 1874, series 4, vol.xl vii, pp. 444–447, and was treated more fully in his report on trees to the British Association in 1875, Reports, pp. 257–305. * See Quarterly Journal of Mathematics, London, 1862, vol.v, p. 305; orPhilo- sophical Magazine, January, 1884, series 5, vol.xvii, p. 42; also Lucas, vol.ii, part vii.", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 171 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00173", "bookId": 26839, "start": 362237, "end": 363714, "sha256": "447fbb9f0a430f789a8fd526775a5b2a138d36cba106a36d9350382640947753", "text": "[PDF page 172] 156 UNICURSAL PROBLEMS. [CH. VI second and third diagrams will answer our purpose equally well and are easier to draw. A G J L N P Q R S T B C D E F H KM O U A B C D E F G H J K L M N O P Q R S T U A B C D E F U The first problem is go “all round the world,” that is, starting from any town, to go to every other town once and only once and to return to the initial town; the order of then towns to be first visited being assigned, where n is not greater than five. Hamilton’s rule for effecting this was given at the meeting in 1857 of the British Association at Dublin. At each angular point there are three and only three edges. Hence, if we approach a point by one edge, the only routes open to us are one to the right, denoted byr, and one to the left, denoted byl. It will be found that the operations indicated on opposite sides of the following equalities are equivalent, lr2l = rlr, rl 2r = lrl, lr 3l = r2, rl 3r = l2 . Also the operationl5 or r5 brings us back to the initial point: we may represent this by the equations l5 = 1, r 5 = 1 . To solve the problem for a figure having twenty angular points we must deduce a relation involving twenty successive operations, the total effect of which is equal to unity. By repeated use of the relation l2 = rl3r we see that 1 = l5 = l2l3 = (rl3r)l3 = {rl3}2 = {r(rl3r)l}2 = {r2l3rl}2 = {r2(rl3r)lrl}2 = {r3l3rlrl }2 . Therefore {r3l3(rl)2}2 = 1 ....... (i), and similarly {l3r3(lr)2}2 = 1 .......(ii).", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 172 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00174", "bookId": 26839, "start": 363716, "end": 365971, "sha256": "761b8871b08425fd3529539621fab67d1a000d04f65eda2d78f5cc5f4dc2e58b", "text": "[PDF page 173] CH. VI] THE HAMILTONIAN GAME. 157 Hence on a dodecahedron either of the operations r r r l l l r l r l r r r l l l r l r l ....... (i), l l l r r r l r l r l l l r r r l r l r .......(ii), indicates a route which takes the traveller through every town, The arrangement is cyclical, and the route can be commenced at any point in the series of operations by transferring the proper number of letters from one end to the other. The point at which we begin is determined by the order of certain towns which is given initially. Thus, suppose that we are told that we start from F and then successively go to B, A, U, and T, and we want to find a route from T through all the remaining towns which will end atF. If we think of ourselves as coming intoF from G, the path F B would be indicated by l, but if we think of ourselves as coming intoF from E, the path F B would be indicated byr. The path fromB to A is indicated byl, and so on. Hence our first paths are indicated either byl l l r or by r l l r . The latter operation does not occur either in (i) or in (ii), and therefore does not fall within our solutions. The former operation may be regarded either as the1st, 2nd, 3rd, and 4th steps of (ii), or as the 4th, 5th, 6th, and7th steps of (i). Each of these leads to a route which satisfies the problem. These routes are F B A U T P O N C D E J K L M Q R S H G F , and F B A U T S R K L M Q P O N C D E J H G F . It is convenient to make a mark or to put down a counter at each corner as soon as it is reached, and this will prevent our passing through the same town twice. A similar game may be played with other solids provided that at each angular point three and only three edges meet. Of such solids a tetrahedron and a cube are the simplest instances, but the reader can make for himself any number of plane figures representing such solids similar to those drawn on the preceding page. Some of these were indicated by Hamilton. In all such cases we must obtain from the formulae analogous to those given above cyclical relations like (i) or (ii) there given. The solution will then follow the lines indicated above. This method may be used to form a rule for describing any maze in which no node is of an order higher than three.", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 173 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00175", "bookId": 26839, "start": 365973, "end": 368619, "sha256": "92f7848cc46f1d7b9652dd638bbfa167db726c99f7b00adaf6c9067eb1ac107d", "text": "[PDF page 174] 158 UNICURSAL PROBLEMS. [CH. VI For solids having angular points where more than three edges meet—such as the octahedron where at each angular point four edges meet, or the icosahedron where at each angular point five edges meet— we should at each point have more than two routes open to us; hence (unless we suppress some of the edges) the symbolical notation would have to be extended before it could be applied to these solids. I offer the suggestion to anyone who is desirous of inventing a new game. Another and a very elegant solution of the Hamiltonian dodecahe- dron problem has been given by M. Hermary. It consists in unfolding the dodecahedron into its twelve pentagons, each of which is attached to the preceding one by only one of its sides; but the solution is geo- metrical, and not directly applicable to more complicated solids. Hamilton suggested as another problem to start from any town, to go to certain specified towns in an assigned order, then to go to every other town once and only once, and to end the journey at some given town. He also suggested the consideration of the way in which a certain number of towns should be blocked so that there was no passage through them, in order to produce certain effects. These problems have not, so far as I know, been subjected to mathematical analysis. Knight’s Path on a Chess-Board. Another geometrical problem on which a great deal of ingenuity has been expended, and of a kind somewhat similar to the Hamiltonian game, consists in moving a knight on a chess-board in such a manner that it shall move suc- cessively on to every cell* once and only once. The literature on this subject is so extensive†that I make no pretence to give a full account of the various methods for solving the problem, and I shall content myself by putting together a few notes on some of the solutions I have come across, particularly on those due to De Moivre, Euler, Vandermonde, Warnsdorff, and Roget. On a board containing an even number of cells the path may or may not be re-entrant, but on a board containing an odd number of * The 64 small squares into which a chess-board is divided are termedcells. † For a bibliography see A. van der Linde, Geschichte und Literatur des Schachspiels, Berlin, 1874, vol.ii, pp. 101–111. On the problem see a memoir by P. Volpicelli inAtti della Reale Accademia dei Lincei, Rome, 1872, vol.xxv, pp. 87–162: alsoApplications de l’Analyse Mathématique au Jeu des échecs, by C.F. de Jaenisch, 3 vols., St Petersburg, 1862–3; and General Parmentier, Association Française pour l’avancement des Sciences, 1891, 1892, 1894.", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 174 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00176", "bookId": 26839, "start": 368621, "end": 370744, "sha256": "ca015d59494d6f62e034e6efc45eb0573f3e659b4ef092f64b4da6b100ec810c", "text": "[PDF page 175] CH. VI] KNIGHT’S PATH ON A CHESS-BOARD. 159 cells it cannot be re-entrant. For, if a knight begins on a white cell, its first move must take it to a black cell, the next to a white cell, and so on. Hence, if its path passes through all the cells, then on a board of an odd number of cells the last move must leave it on a cell of the same colour as that on which it started, and therefore these cells cannot be connected by one move. The earliest solutions of which I have any knowledge are those given about the end of the seventeenth century by De Montmort and De Moivre*. They apply to the ordinary chess-board of64 cells, and dependondividing(mentally)theboardintoaninnersquarecontaining sixteen cells surrounded by an outer ring of cells two deep. If initially the knight is placed on a cell in the outer ring, it moves round that ring always in the same direction so as to fill it up completely—only going into the inner square when absolutely necessary. When the outer ring is filled up the order of the moves required for filling the remaining cells presents but little difficulty. If initially the knight is placed on the inner square the process must be reversed. The method can be applied to square and rectangular boards of all sizes. It is illustrated sufficiently by De Moivre’s solution which is given below, where the 34 49 22 11 36 39 24 1 21 10 35 50 23 12 37 40 48 33 62 57 38 25 2 13 9 20 51 54 63 60 41 26 32 47 58 61 56 53 14 3 19 8 55 52 59 64 27 42 46 31 6 17 44 29 4 15 7 18 45 30 5 16 43 28 De Moivre’s Solution. 30 21 6 15 28 19 7 16 29 20 5 14 22 31 8 35 18 27 9 36 17 26 13 4 32 23 2 11 34 25 1 10 33 24 3 12 Euler’s Thirty-six Cell Solution. numbers indicate the order in which the cells are occupied successively. I place by its side a somewhat similar re-entrant solution, due to Euler, for a board of36 cells. If a chess-board is used it is convenient to place a counter on each cell as the knight leaves it. * I do not know where they were published originally; they were quoted by Ozanam and Montucla, see Ozanam, 1803 edition, vol.i, p. 178; 1840 edition, p. 80.", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 175 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00177", "bookId": 26839, "start": 370746, "end": 372682, "sha256": "6fbcdc7204a171643b6513978da71a2b9dcc3425e08bc3dae99dbbc0d6d39e43", "text": "[PDF page 176] 160 UNICURSAL PROBLEMS. [CH. VI The next serious attempt to deal with the subject was made by Eu- ler* in 1759: it was due to a suggestion made by L. Bertrand of Geneva, who subsequently (in 1778) issued an account of it. This method is ap- plicable to boards of any shape and size, but in general the solutions to which it leads are not symmetrical and their mutual connexion is not apparent. Euler commenced by moving the knight at random over the board until it has no move open to it. With care this will leave only a few cells not traversed: denote them by a, b, . . .. His method consists in establishingcertainrulesbywhichthesevacantcellscanbeinterpolated into various parts of the circuit, and also by which the circuit can be made re-entrant. The following example, mentioned by Legendre as one of excep- tional difficulty, illustrates the method. Suppose that we have formed 55 58 29 40 27 44 19 22 60 39 56 43 30 21 26 45 57 54 59 28 41 18 23 20 38 51 42 31 8 25 46 17 53 32 37 a 47 16 9 24 50 3 52 33 36 7 12 15 1 34 5 48 b 14 c 10 4 49 2 35 6 11 d 13 Figure i. 22 25 50 39 52 35 60 57 27 40 23 36 49 58 53 34 24 21 26 51 38 61 56 59 41 28 37 48 3 54 33 62 20 47 42 13 32 63 4 55 29 16 19 46 43 2 7 10 18 45 14 31 12 9 64 5 15 30 17 44 1 6 11 8 Figure ii. Example of Euler’s Method. the route given in figure i; namely,1, 2, 3, . . ., 59, 60; and that there are four cells left untraversed, namely,a, b, c, d. We begin by making the path1 to 60 re-entrant. The cell 1 com- mands a cell p, where p is 32, 52, or 2. The cell 60 commands a cell q, where q is 29, 59, or 51. Then, if any of these values of p and q differ by unity, we can make the route re-entrant. This is the case here if p = 52, q = 51. Thus the cells 1, 2, 3, . . . ,51; 60, 59, . . . ,52 form a * Mémoires de Berlin for 1759, Berlin, 1766, pp. 310–337; orCommentationes Arithmeticae Collectae, St Petersburg, 1849, vol.i, pp. 337–355.", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 176 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00178", "bookId": 26839, "start": 372684, "end": 375218, "sha256": "7e132b03473d550ad358c250e1210121ad54bd8da01192a4e01daafccb432b2e", "text": "[PDF page 177] CH. VI] KNIGHT’S PATH ON A CHESS-BOARD. 161 re-entrant route of60 moves. Hence, if we replace the numbers60, 59, . . . ,52 by 52, 53, . . . ,60, the steps will be numbered consecutively. I recommend the reader who wishes to follow the subsequent details of Euler’s argument to construct this square on a piece of paper before proceeding further. Next, we add the cellsa, b, d to this route. In the new diagram of 60 cells formed as above the cella commands the cells there numbered 51, 53, 41, 25, 7, 5, and 3. It is indifferent which of these we select: suppose we take51. Then we must make51 the last cell of the route of 60 cells, so that we can continue witha, b, d. Hence, if the reader will add 9 to every number on the diagram he has constructed, and then replace 61, 62, . . . ,69 by 1, 2, . . . ,9, he will have a route which starts from the cell occupied originally by60, the 60th move is on to the cell occupied originally by 51, and the 61st, 62nd, 63rd moves will be on the cells a, b, d respectively. It remains to introduce the cellc. Since c commands the cell now numbered 25, and63 commands the cell now numbered24, this can be effected in the same way as the first route was made re-entrant. In fact the cells numbered 1, 2, . . . ,24; 63, 62, . . . ,25, c form a knight’s path. Hence we must replace 63, 62, . . . ,25 by the numbers 25, 26, . . . ,63, and then we can fill upc with 64. We have now a route which covers the whole board. Lastly, it remains to make this route re-entrant. First, we must get the cells 1 and 64 near one another. This can be effected thus. Take one of the cells commanded by1, such as28, then 28 commands 1 and 27. Hence the cells64, 63, . . . ,28; 1, 2, . . . ,27 form a route; and this will be represented in the diagram if we replace the cells numbered 1, 2, . . . ,27 by 27, 26, . . . ,1. The cell now occupied by1 commands the cells26, 38, 54, 12, 14, 16, 28; and the cell occupied by 64 commands the cells 13, 43, 63, 55. The cells 13 and 14 are consecutive, and therefore the cells64, 63, . . . ,14; 1, 2, . . . ,13 form a route. Hence we must replace the numbers 1, 2, . . . ,13 by 13, 12, . . . ,1, and we obtain a re-entrant route covering the whole board, which is represented in the second of the diagrams given on the facing page. Euler showed how seven other re-entrant routes can be deduced from any given re-entrant route. It is not difficult to apply the method so as to form a route which begins on one given cell and ends on any other given cell.", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 177 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00179", "bookId": 26839, "start": 375220, "end": 377417, "sha256": "894760d18079b6f5e9d32827192a3d54eab1fb2d90cff5580b54fd68786655ec", "text": "[PDF page 178] 162 UNICURSAL PROBLEMS. [CH. VI Euler next investigated how his method could be modified so as to allow of the imposition of additional restrictions. An interesting example of this kind is where the first32 moves are confined to one half of the board. One solution of this is delineated below. The order of the first32 moves can be determined by Euler’s 58 43 60 37 52 41 62 35 49 46 57 42 61 36 53 40 44 59 48 51 38 55 34 63 47 50 45 56 33 64 39 54 22 7 32 1 24 13 18 15 31 2 23 6 19 16 27 12 8 21 4 29 10 25 14 17 3 30 9 20 5 28 11 26 Euler’s Half-board Solution. 50 45 62 41 60 39 54 35 63 42 51 48 53 36 57 38 46 49 44 61 40 59 34 55 43 64 47 52 33 56 37 58 26 5 24 1 20 15 32 11 23 2 27 8 29 12 17 14 6 25 4 21 16 19 10 31 3 22 7 28 9 30 13 18 Roget’s Half-board Solution. method. It is obvious that, if to the number of each such move we add 32, we shall have a corresponding set of moves from33 to 64 which wouldcovertheotherhalfoftheboard; butingeneralthecellnumbered 33 will not be a knight’s move from that numbered32, nor will64 be a knight’s move from1. Euler however proceeded to show how the first32 moves might be determined so that, if the half of the board containing the correspond- ing moves from33 to 64 was twisted through two right angles, the two routes would become united and re-entrant. Ifx and y are the num- bers of a cell reckoned from two consecutive sides of the board, we may call the cell whose distances are respectivelyx and y from the opposite sides a complementary cell. Thus the cells(x, y) and (9 − x, 9 − y) are complementary, wherex and y denote respectively the column and row occupied by the cell. Then in Euler’s solution the numbers in comple- mentary cells differ by32: for instance, the cell(3, 7) is complementary to the cell(6, 2), the one is occupied by57, the other by25. Roget’smethod, whichisdescribedlater, canbealsoappliedtogive half-board solutions. The result is indicated on this page. The close of Euler’s memoir is devoted to showing how the method could be applied to crosses and other rectangular figures. I may note in particular his elegant re-entrant symmetrical solution for a square of100 cells.", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 178 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00180", "bookId": 26839, "start": 377419, "end": 380025, "sha256": "3216917e1974e7abad78ccff8da5756bdde2e5e8eb6619994575c833a64ff105", "text": "[PDF page 179] CH. VI] KNIGHT’S PATH ON A CHESS-BOARD. 163 The next attempt of any special interest is due to Vandermonde*, who reduced the problem to arithmetic. His idea was to cover the board by two or more independent routes taken at random, and then to connect the routes. He defined the position of a cell by a fraction x/y, whose numeratorx is the number of the cell from one side of the board, and whose denominatory is its number from the adjacent side of the board; this is equivalent to saying thatx and y are the co-ordinates of a cell. In a series of fractions denoting a knight’s path, the differences between the numerators of two consecutive fractions can be only one or two, while the corresponding difference between their denominators must be two or one respectively. Alsox and y cannot be less than1 or greater than 8. The notation is convenient, but Vandermonde applied it merely to obtain a particular solution of the problem for a board of 64 cells: the method by which he effected this is analogous to that established by Euler, but it is applicable only to squares of an even order. The route that he arrives at is defined in his notation by the following fractions. 5 5, 4 3, 2 4, 4 5, 5 3, 7 4, 8 2, 6 1, 7 3, 8 1, 6 2, 8 3, 7 1, 5 2, 6 4, 8 5, 7 7, 5 8, 6 6, 5 4, 4 6, 2 5, 1 7, 3 8, 2 6, 1 8, 3 7, 1 6, 2 8, 4 7, 3 5, 1 4, 2 2, 4 1, 3 3, 1 2, 3 1, 2 3, 1 1, 3 2, 1 3, 2 1, 4 2, 3 4, 1 5, 2 7, 4 8, 3 6, 4 4, 5 6, 7 5, 8 7, 6 8, 7 6, 8 8, 6 7, 8 6, 7 8, 5 7, 6 5, 8 4, 7 2, 5 1, 6 3. The path is re-entrant but unsymmetrical. Had he transferred the first three fractions to the end of this series he would have obtained two symmetrical circuits of thirty-two moves joined unsymmetrically, and might have been enabled to advance further in the problem. Van- dermonde also considered the case of a route in a cube. In 1773 Collini† proposed the exclusive use of symmetrical routes arranged without reference to the initial cell, but connected in such a manner as to permit of our starting from it. This is the foundation of the modern manner of attacking the problem. The method was re- invented in 1825 by Pratt‡, and in 1840 by Roget, and has been subse- quently employed by various writers. Neither Collini nor Pratt showed skill in using this method. The rule given by Roget is described later. One of the most ingenious of the solutions of the knight’s path is * L’Histoire de l’Académie des Sciencesfor 1771, Paris, 1774, pp. 566-574. † Solution du Problème du Cavalier au Jeu des échecs, Mannheim, 1773. ‡ Studies of Chess, sixth edition, London, 1825.", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 179 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00181", "bookId": 26839, "start": 380027, "end": 382734, "sha256": "4aef72485ca9e69ad033b3ed85f5101e93428d0b1724d3ae83a153cc07c2ce4f", "text": "[PDF page 180] 164 UNICURSAL PROBLEMS. [CH. VI that given in 1823 by Warnsdorff*. His rule is that the knight must be moved always to one of the cells from which it will command the fewest squares not already traversed. The solution is not symmetrical and not re-entrant; moreover it is difficult to trace practically. The rule has not been proved to be true, but no exception to it is known: apparently it applies also to all rectangular boards which can be covered completely by a knight. It is somewhat curious that in most cases a single false step, except in the last three or four moves, will not affect the result. Warnsdorffaddedthatwhen, bytherule, twoormorecellsareopen to the knight, it may be moved to either or any of them indifferently. This is not so, and with great ingenuity two or three cases of failure have been constructed, but it would require exceptionally bad luck to happen accidentally on such a route. The above methods have been applied to boards of various shapes, especially to boards in the form of rectangles, crosses, and circles†. All the more recent investigations impose additional restrictions: such as to require that the route shall be re-entrant, or more generally that it shall begin and terminate on given cells. The best complete solution with which I am acquainted—and one which I believe is not generally known—is due to Roget‡. It divides the whole route into four circuits, which can be combined so as to enable us to begin on any cell and terminate on any other cell of a different colour. Hence, if we like to select this last cell at a knight’s move from the initial cell, we obtain a re-entrant route. On the other hand, the rule is applicable only to square boards containing(4n)2 cells: for example, it could not be used on the board of the Frenchjeu des dames, which contains 100 cells. Roget began by dividing the board of64 cells into four quarters. Each quarter contains 16 cells, and these 16 cells can be arranged in 4 groups, each group consisting of4 cells which form a closed knight’s path. All the cells in each such path are denoted by the same letter l, e, a, or p, as the case nay be. The path of4 cells indicated by the * Des Rösselsprunges einfachste und allgemeinste Lösung, Schmalkalden, 1823: see Jaenisch, vol.ii, pp. 56–61, 273–289. † See ex. gr.T. Ciccolini’s workDel Cavallo degli Scacchi, Paris, 1836. ‡ Philosophical Magazine, April, 1840, series 3, vol. xvi, pp. 305–309; see also the Quarterly Journal of Mathematics for 1877, vol. xiv, pp. 354–359. Some solutions, founded on Roget’s method, are given in theLeisure Hour, Sept. 13, 1873, pp. 587–590; see alsoIbid., Dec. 20, 1873, pp. 813–815.", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 180 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00182", "bookId": 26839, "start": 382736, "end": 384856, "sha256": "c86e88a312a8463b17d357645d265e219a7bdb3ff40954bfd2be1026bd0b3af7", "text": "[PDF page 181] CH. VI] KNIGHT’S PATH ON A CHESS-BOARD. 165 consonants l and the path indicated by the consonantsp are diamond- shaped: the paths indicated respectively by the vowels e and a are square-shaped, as may be seen by looking at one of the four quarters in figure i below. l e a p l e a p a p l e a p l e e l p a e l p a p a e l p a e l l e a p l e a p a p l e a p l e e l p a e l p a p a e l p a e l Roget’s Solution(i). 34 51 32 15 38 53 18 3 31 14 35 52 17 2 39 54 50 33 16 29 56 37 4 19 13 30 49 36 1 20 55 40 48 63 28 9 44 57 22 5 27 12 45 64 21 8 41 58 62 47 10 25 60 43 6 23 11 26 61 46 7 24 59 42 Roget’s Solution(ii). Now all the16 cells on a complete chess-board which are marked with the same letter can be combined into one circuit, and wherever the circuit begins we can make it end on any other cell in the circuit, provided it is of a different colour to the initial cell. If it is indifferent on what cell the circuit terminates we may make the circuit re-entrant, and in this case we can make the direction of motion round each group (of 4 cells) the same. For example, all the cells markedp can be arranged in the circuit indicated by the successive numbers1 to 16 in figure ii above. Similarly all the cells markeda can be combined into the circuit indicated by the numbers17 to 23; all thel cells into the circuit33 to 48; and all the e cells into the circuit49 to 64. Each of the circuits indicated above is symmetrical and re-entrant. The consonant and the vowel circuits are said to be of opposite kinds. The general problem will be solved if we can combine the four circuits into a route which will start from any given cell, and terminate on the64th move on any other given cell of a different colour. To effect this Roget gave the two following rules. First. If the initial cell and the final cell are denoted the one by a consonant and the other by a vowel, take alternately circuits indicated by consonants and vowels, beginning with the circuit of16 cells indi- cated by the letter of the initial cell and concluding with the circuit indicated by the letter of the final cell.", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 181 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00183", "bookId": 26839, "start": 384858, "end": 387384, "sha256": "2030367a59ca49a3a2967fb583b084a58f51680dbc5cbb73df15331371c43515", "text": "[PDF page 182] 166 UNICURSAL PROBLEMS. [CH. VI Second. If the initial cell and the final cell are denoted both by consonants or both by vowels, first select a cell,Y, in the same circuit as the final cell,Z, and one move from it, next select a cell,X, belonging to one of the opposite circuits and one move fromY. This is always possible. Then, leaving out the cellsZ and Y, it always will be possible, by the rule already given, to travel from the initial cell to the cellX in 62 moves, and thence to move to the final cell on the64th move. In both cases however it must be noticed that the cells in each of the first three circuits will have to be taken in such an order that the circuit does not terminate on a corner, and it may be desirable also that it should not terminate on any of the border cells. This will necessitate some caution. As far as is consistent with these restrictions it is convenient to make these circuits re-entrant, and to take them and every group in them in the same direction of rotation. As an example, suppose that we are to begin on the cell numbered 1 in figure ii on the previous page, which is one of those in ap circuit, and to terminate on the cell numbered64, which is one of those in an e circuit. This falls under the first rule: hence first we take the 16 cells marked p, next the16 cells marked a, then the16 cells marked l, and lastly the16 cells marked e. One way of effecting this is shown in the diagram. Since the cell64 is a knight’s move from the initial cell the route is re-entrant. Also each of the four circuits in the diagram is symmetrical, re-entrant, and taken in the same direction, and the only point where there is any apparent breach in the uniformity of the movement is in the passage from the cell numbered 32 to that numbered 33. A rule for re-entrant routes, similar to that of Roget, has been given by various subsequent writers, especially by De Polignac* and by Laquière†, who have stated it at much greater length. Neither of these authors seems to have been aware of Roget’s theorems. De Polignac, like Roget, illustrates the rule by assigning letters to the various squares in the way explained above, and asserts that a similar rule is applicable to all even squares. Roget’s method can be also applied to two half-boards, as indicated * Comptes Rendus, April, 1861; and Bulletin de la Société Mathématique de France, 1881, vol.ix, pp. 17–24. † Bulletin de la Société Mathématique de France, 1880, vol.viii, pp. 82–102, 132– 158.", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 182 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00184", "bookId": 26839, "start": 387386, "end": 389389, "sha256": "2eb34235b8340014cd1fe0422ddb7261b7f8a3f8b17b4eb21e4829ab4540469a", "text": "[PDF page 183] CH. VI] KNIGHT’S PATH ON A CHESS-BOARD. 167 in the figure given above on page 162. Another way of dividing the board into closed circuits which can be connected was given in1843 by Moon*. He divided the board into a a b c d a b c d c d a b c d a b b a A B C D d c d c C D A B b a a b B A D C c d c d D C B A a b b a d c b a d c d c b a d c b a Moon’s Solution. 63 22 15 40 1 42 59 18 14 39 64 21 60 17 2 43 37 62 23 16 41 4 19 58 24 13 38 61 20 57 44 3 11 36 25 52 29 46 5 56 26 51 12 33 8 55 30 45 35 10 49 28 53 32 47 6 50 27 34 9 48 7 54 31 Jaenisch’s Solution. central square containing42 cells and a surrounding annulus (see figure on this page). The annulus may be divided into four closed circuits, each containing12 cells: these are marked respectively with the letters a, b, c, d. The central square may be divided similarly into four closed circuits, each containing 4 cells, denoted by the letters A, B, C, D. We can connect these routes as follows. If we are moving outwards from the central square to the annulus we can go from a cellA either to b or to c or to d (but not to a) and similarly for the other letters. If we are moving inwards from the annulus to the central square we must go froma to D, or d to A, or b to C, or c to B, as the case may be. Thus if the initial cell is ona, we might take either of the cycles a D b C d A c B , or a D c B d A b C . By following these rules we always can connect the routes into one path, but in general it will not be re-entrant. It is convenient to take the cells in each circuit in one and the same direction, but a circuit in the outer annulus must not end in a corner cell, and to avoid this we may have to alter the direction in which a circuit is taken. Moon’s rule can be modified to cover the case of any doubly even square board, and the path can be made to begin and end on any two given squares, but I do not propose to go further into details. * Cambridge Mathematical Journal, 1843, vol.iii, pp. 233–236.", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 183 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00185", "bookId": 26839, "start": 389391, "end": 391805, "sha256": "b1b968d7480aee30a2b17412192069764a1d93762369d4cc582ba41612aaa30c", "text": "[PDF page 184] 168 UNICURSAL PROBLEMS. [CH. VI The method which Jaenisch gives as the most fundamental is not very different from that of Roget. It leads to eight forms, similar to that in the diagram printed on the previous page, in which the sum of the numbers in every column and every row is260; but although symmetri- cal it is not in my opinion so easy to reproduce as that given by Roget. It is as yet impossible to say how many solutions of the problem exist. Legendre* mentioned the question, but Minding†was the earliest writer to attempt to answer it. More recent investigations have shown that on the one hand the number of possible routes is less‡ than the number of combinations of168 things taken 63 at a time, and on the other hand is greater than31, 054144—since this latter number is the number of re-entrant paths of a particular type§. There are many similar problems in which it is required to deter- mine routes by which a piece moving according to certain laws (ex. gr.a chess-piece such as a king, knight, &c.) can travel from a given cell over a board so as to occupy successively all the cells, or certain specified cells, once and only once, and terminate its route in a given cell. Euler’s method can be applied to find routes of this kind: for in- stance, he applied it to find a re-entrant route by which a piece that moved two cells forward like a castle and then one cell like a bishop would occupy in succession all the black cells on the board. As another instance, a castle, placed on a chess-board ofn2 cells, can always be moved in such a manner that it shall move successively on to every cell once and only once; moreover, starting on any cell, its path can be made to terminate, ifn be even, on any other cell of a different colour, and, if n be odd, on any other cell of the same colour∥. But it will suffice to have discussed the classical problem of the determination of a knight’s path on an ordinary chess-board, and I need not enter on the discussion of other similar problems. * Théorie des Nombres, Paris, 2nd edition, 1830, vol.ii, p. 165. † Cambridge and Dublin Mathematical Journal, 1852, vol. vii, pp. 147–156; and Crelle’s Journal, 1853, vol.xliv, pp. 73–82. ‡ Jaenisch, vol. ii, p. 268. § Bulletin de la Société Mathématique de France, 1881, vol.ix, pp. 1–17. ∥ L’Intermédiaire des mathématiciens, Paris, July, 1901, p. 153.", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 184 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00186", "bookId": 26839, "start": 391807, "end": 392413, "sha256": "8e8dd8f9b4f73e2545e40cd6c74c99b1bdb794c28bb004d5e0b5dd39be947972", "text": "[PDF page 185] PART II. Miscellaneous Essays and Problems. “No man of science should think it a waste of time to learn something of the history of his own subject; nor is the investigation of laborious meth- ods now fallen into disuse, or of errors once com- monly accepted the least valuable of mental disci- plines.” “The most worthless book of a bygone day is a record worthy of preservation. Like a telescopic star, its obscurity may render it unavailable for most purposes; but it serves, in hands which know how to use it, to determine the places of more im- portant bodies.” (De Morgan.) 169", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 185 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00187", "bookId": 26839, "start": 392415, "end": 394137, "sha256": "064cd967c28fe241bbaa6b4bfd04dfb8ac5e1e5afb373bbf1514b0e659c62618", "text": "[PDF page 186] CHAPTER VII. THE MATHEMATICAL TRIPOS. The Mathematical Tripos has played so prominent a part in the history of education at Cambridge and of mathematics in England, that a sketch of its development†may be interesting to general readers. So far as mathematics is concerned the history of the University before Newton may be summed up very briefly. The University was founded towards the end of the twelfth century. Throughout the mid- dle ages the studies were organised on lines similar to those at Paris and Oxford. To qualify for a degree it was necessary to perform var- ious exercises, and especially to keep a number ofacts or to oppose acts kept by other students. An act consisted in effect of a debate in Latin, thrown, at any rate in later times, into syllogistic form. It was commenced by one student, therespondent, stating some proposition, often propounded in the form of a thesis, which was attacked by one or moreopponents, the discussion being controlled by a graduate. The teaching was largely in the hands of young graduates—every master of arts being compelled to reside and teach for at least one year—though no doubt Colleges and private hostels supplemented this instruction in the case of their own students. † The following pages are mostly summarised from my History of the Study of Mathematics at Cambridge, Cambridge 1889. The subject is also treated in Whewell’sLiberal Education, Cambridge, three parts, 1845, 1850, 1853; Wordsworth’sScholae Academicae, Cambridge, 1877; my ownOrigin and His- tory of the Mathematical Tripos, Cambridge, 1880; and Dr Glaisher’s Presiden- tial Address to the London Mathematical Society,Transactions, volxviii, 1886, pp. 4–38. 170", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 186 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00188", "bookId": 26839, "start": 394139, "end": 396722, "sha256": "548b8692541fa2111f09112cdbf1a3006154b2873e2956ddf0883bfea37bfc24", "text": "[PDF page 187] CH. VII] THE MATHEMATICAL TRIPOS. 171 The Reformation in England was mainly the work of Cambridge divines, and in the University the Renaissance was warmly welcomed. In spite of the disorder and confusion of the Tudor period, new studies and a system of professional instruction were introduced. Probably the science (as distinct from the art) of mathematics, save so far as involved in the quadrivium, was still an exotic study, but it was not wholly ne- glected. Tonstall, subsequently the most eminent English arithmetician of his time, migrated, perhaps about 1495, from Balliol College, Ox- ford, to King’s Hall, Cambridge, and in 1530 the University appointed a mathematical lecturer in the person of Paynell of Pembroke Hall. Most of the subsequent English mathematicians of the Tudor period seem to have been educated at Cambridge; of these I may mention Record, who migrated, probably about 1535, from Oxford, Dee, Digges, Blundeville, Buckley, Billingsley, Hill, Bedwell, Hood, Richard and John Harvey, Edward Wright, Briggs, and Oughtred. The Elizabethan statutes re- stricted liberty of thought and action in many ways, but, in spite of the civil and religious disturbances of the early half of the 17th century the mathematical school continued to grow. Horrox, Seth Ward, Foster, Rooke, Gilbert Clerke, Pell, Wallis, Barrow, Dacres, and Morland may be cited as prominent Cambridge mathematicians of the time. Newton’s mathematical career dates from 1665; his reputation, abilities, and influence attracted general attention to the subject. He created a school of mathematics and mathematical physics, among the earliest members of which I note the names of Laughton, Samuel Clarke, Craig, Flamsteed, Whiston, Saunderson, Jurin, Taylor, Cotes, and Robert Smith. Since then Cambridge has been regarded, as in a special sense, the home of English mathematicians, and from 1706 onwards we have fairly complete accounts of the course of reading and work of mathematical students there. Until less than a century ago the form of the method of qualifying for a degree remained substantially unaltered, but the subject-matter of the discussions varied from time to time with the prevalent studies of the place. After the Renaissance some of the statutable exercises were “hud- dled,” that is, were reduced to a mere form. To huddle an act, the proc- tor generally asked some question such asQuid est nomento which the answer usually expected wasNescio. In these exercises considerable license was allowed, particularly if there were any play on the words", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 187 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00189", "bookId": 26839, "start": 396724, "end": 399432, "sha256": "ebab1ed463da342dc4784f6bb804bd39042f7c4e28ea0e003c78e6e851a0d8a2", "text": "[PDF page 188] 172 THE MATHEMATICAL TRIPOS. [CH. VII involved. For example, T. Brasse, of Trinity, was accosted with the question, Quid est aes? to which he answered,Nescio nisi finis ex- aminationis. It should be added that retorts such as these were only allowed in the pretence exercises, and a candidate who in the actual examination was asked to give a definition of happiness and replied an exemption from Payne—that being the name of the moderator then presiding—was plucked for want of discrimination in time and place. In earlier years even the farce of huddling seems to have been unnecessary, for it was said in 1675 that it was not uncommon for the proctors to take “cautions for the performance of the statutable exercises, and ac- cept the forfeit of the money so deposited in lieu of their performance.” In medieval times acts had been usually kept on some scholastic question or on a proposition taken from theSentences. About the end of the fifteenth century religious questions, such as the interpretation of Biblical texts, began to be introduced, some fifty or sixty years later the favourite subjects were drawn either from dogmatic theology or from philosophy. In the seventeenth century the questions were usually philosophical, but in the eighteenth century, under the influence of the Newtonian school, a large proportion of them were mathematical. Further details about these exercises and specimens of acts kept in the 18th century are given in myHistory of Mathematics at Cambridge. Here I will only say that they provided an admirable training in the art of presenting an argument, and in dialectical skill in attack and defence. The mental strain in a contested act was severe. De Morgan, describing his act kept in 1826, wrote*, I was badgered for two hours with arguments given and answered in Latin,—or what we call Latin—against Newton’s first section, Lagrange’s derived functions, and Locke on innate principles. And though I took off everything, and was pronounced by the moderator to have disputed magno honore, I never had such a strain of thought in my life. For the inferior opponents were made as sharp as their betters by their tutors, who kept lists of queer objections drawn from all quarters. HadthelanguageofthediscussionsbeenchangedtoEnglish, aswas repeatedly urged from 1774 onwards, these exercises might have been retained with advantage, but the barbarous Latin and the syllogistic form in which they were carried on prejudiced their retention. About 1830 a custom grew up for the respondent and opponents to meet previously and arrange their arguments together. The discussions * Budget of Paradoxes, by A. De Morgan, London, 1872, p. 305.", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 188 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00190", "bookId": 26839, "start": 399434, "end": 402007, "sha256": "019514f41766a9df3278c9cbb4a1df3ef2644c711e6299e2d7abbc08476107bb", "text": "[PDF page 189] CH. VII] THE MATHEMATICAL TRIPOS. 173 then became an elaborate farce, and were a mere public performance of what had been already rehearsed. Accordingly the moderators of 1839 took the responsibility of abandoning them. This action was singularly high-handed, since a report of May 30, 1838, had recom- mended that they should be continued, and there was no reason why they should not have been reformed and retained as a useful feature in the scheme of study. On the result of the acts a list of those qualified to receive degrees was drawn up. This list was not arranged strictly in order of merit, because the proctors could insert names anywhere in it, but by the beginning of the 18th century this power had become restricted to the right reserved to the vice-chancellor, the senior regent, and each proctor to place in the list one candidate anywhere he liked—a right which con- tinued to exist till 1828, though it was not exercised after 1797. Subject to the granting of these honorary degrees, this final list was arranged in order of merit into wranglers and senior optimes, junior optimes, and poll-men. The bachelors on receiving their degrees took seniority according to their order on this list. The titlewrangler is derived from these contentious discussions; the titleoptime from the customary com- pliment given by the moderator to a successful disputant,Domine..., optime disputasti, or even optime quidem disputasti, and the title of poll-man from the description of this class asοÉ πολλοÐ. The final exercises for the B.A. degree were never huddled, and until 1839 were carried out strictly. University officials were responsi- ble for approving the subject-matter of these acts. Stupid men offered some irrefutable truism, but the ambitious student courted reputation by affirming some paradox. Probably all honour men kept acts, but poll-men were deemed to comply with the regulations by keeping op- ponencies. The proctors were responsible for presiding at these acts, or seeing that competent graduates did so. In and after 1649 two examin- ers were specially appointed for this purpose. In 1680* these examiners were appointed by the Senate with the title of moderator, and with the joint stipend of four shillings for everyone graduating as B.A. during their year of office. In 1688 the joint stipend of the moderators was fixed at £40 a year. The moderators, like the proctors, were nominated by the Colleges in rotation. From the earliest times the proctors had the power of questioning * See Grace of October 25, 1680.", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 189 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00191", "bookId": 26839, "start": 402009, "end": 404569, "sha256": "fa047ce582d2475a582d9e5e424f8d6ac7f2f211dadead9dff499dec08ae40f4", "text": "[PDF page 190] 174 THE MATHEMATICAL TRIPOS. [CH. VII a candidate at the end of a disputation, and probably all candidates for a degree attended the public schools on certain days to give an op- portunity to the proctors, or any master that liked, to examine them*, though the opportunity was not always used. Different candidates at- tended on different days. Probably such examinations were conducted in Latin. But soon after 1710† the moderators or proctors began the custom of summoning on one day in January all candidates whom they proposed to question. The examination was held in public, and from it the Senate-House Examination arose. The examination at this time did not last more than one day, and was, there can be no doubt, partly on philosophy and partly on mathematics. It is believed that it was always conducted in English, and it is likely that its rapid development was largely due to this. This introduction of a regular oral examination seems to have been largely due to the fact that when, in 1710, George I gave the Ely library to the University, it was decided to assign for its reception the old Senate-House—now the Catalogue Room in the Library—and to build a new room for the meetings of the Senate. Pending the building of the new Senate-House the books were stored in the Schools. As the Schools were thus rendered unavailable for keeping acts, considerable difficulty was found in arranging for all the candidates to keep the full number of statutable exercises, and thus obtaining opportunities to compare them one with another: hence the introduction of a supplementary oral examination. The advantages of this examination as providing a ready means of testing the knowledge and abilities of the candidates were so patent that it was retained when the necessity for some system of the kind had passed away, and finally it became systematized into an organized test to which all questionists were subjected. In 1731 the University raised the joint stipend of the moderators to £60 “in consideration of their additional trouble in the Lent Term.” This would seem to indicate that the Senate-House Examination had then taken formal shape, and perhaps that a definite scheme for its conduct had become customary. * Ex. gr. see De la Pryme’s account of his graduation in 1694,Surtees Society, vol. liv, 1870, p. 32. † W. Reneu, in his letters of 1708–1710 describing the course for the B.A. degree, makesnomentionoftheSenate-Houseexamination, andIthinkitisareasonable inference that it had not then been established.", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 190 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00192", "bookId": 26839, "start": 404571, "end": 407160, "sha256": "53c043634bd066600a1c7badaa154de264b2081487145c58e83e67940a910841", "text": "[PDF page 191] CH. VII] THE MATHEMATICAL TRIPOS. 175 As long as the order of the list of those approved for degrees was settled on the result of impressions derived from acts kept by the dif- ferent candidates at different times and on different subjects, it was impossible to arrange the men in strict order of merit, nor was much importance attached to the order. But, with the introduction of an examination of all the candidates on one day, much closer attention was paid to securing a strict order of merit, and more confidence was felt in the published order. It seems to have been consequent on this that in and after 1747 the final lists were freely circulated, and it was further arranged that the names of the honorary optimes should be indicated. In the lists given in the Calendars issued subsequent to 1799 these names are struck out. It is only in exceptional cases that we are acquainted with the true order for the earlier tripos lists, but in a few cases the relative positions of the candidates are known; for example, in 1680 Bentley came out as third though he was put down as sixth in the list of wranglers. Of the detailed history of the examination until the middle of the eighteenth century we know nothing. From 1750 onwards, however, we have more definite accounts of it. At this time, it would seem that all the men from each College were taken together as a class, and questions passed down by the proctors or moderators till they were answered: but the examination remained entirely oral, and technically was regarded as subsidiary to the discussions which had been previously held in the schools. As each class contained men of very different abilities a custom grew up by which every candidate was liable to be taken aside to be questioned by any M.A. who wished to do so, and this was regarded as an important part of the examination. The subjects were mathematics and philosophy. The examination now continued for two days and a half. At the conclusion of the second day the moderators received the reports of those masters of arts who had voluntarily taken part in the examination, and provisionally settled the final list; while the last half- day was used in revising and re-arranging the order of merit. Richard Cumberland has left an account of the tests to which he was subjected when he took his B.A. degree in 1751. Clearly the dis- putations still played an important part, and it is difficult to say what weight was attached to the subsequent Senate-House examination; his reference to it is only of a general character. After saying that he kept", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 191 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00193", "bookId": 26839, "start": 407162, "end": 409858, "sha256": "53d02329487bfa455e99f5d8dfe41f5c558c5ae125415fac324c8c0f34e3dc25", "text": "[PDF page 192] 176 THE MATHEMATICAL TRIPOS. [CH. VII two acts and two opponencies he continues*: The last time I was called upon to keep an act in the schools I sent in three questions to the Moderator, which he withstood as being all mathematical, and required me to conform to the usage of proposing one metaphysical question in the place of that, which I should think fit to withdraw. This was ground I never liked to take, and I appealed against his requisition: the act was accordingly put by till the matter of right should be ascertained by the statutes of the university, and in the result of that enquiry it was given for me, and my question stood.... I yielded now to advice, and paid attention to my health, till we were cited to the senate house to be examined for our Bachelor’s degree. It was hardly ever my lot during that examination to enjoy any respite. I seemed an object singled out as every man’s mark, and was kept perpetually at the table under the process of question and answer. It was found possible by means of the new examination to differen- tiate the better men more accurately than before; and accordingly, in 1753, the first class was subdivided into two, called respectively wran- glers and senior optimes, a division which is still maintained. The semi-official examination by M.A.s was regarded as the more important part of the test, and the most eminent residents in the Uni- versity took part in it. Thus John Fenn, of Caius, 5th wrangler in 1761, writes†: On the following Monday, Tuesday, and Wednesday, we sat in the Senate-house for public examination; during this time I was officially ex- amined by the Proctors and Moderators, and had the honor of being taken out for examination by Mr Abbot, the celebrated mathematical tutor of St John’s College, by the eminent professor of mathematics Mr Waring, of Magdalene, and by Mr Jebb of Peterhouse, a man thoroughly versed in the academical studies. This irregular examination by any master who chose to take part in it constantly gave rise to accusations of partiality. In 1763 the traditional rules for the conduct of the examination took more definite shape. Henceforth the examiners used the disputa- tions only as a means of classifying the men roughly. On the result of their “acts,” and probably partly also of their general reputation, the candidates were divided into eight classes, each arranged in alphabet- ical order. The subsequent position of the men in the class was deter- mined solely by the Senate-House examination. The first two classes * Memoirs of Richard Cumberland, London, 1806, pp. 78, 79. † Quoted by C. Wordsworth,Scholae Academicae, Cambridge, 1877, pp. 30–31.", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 192 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00194", "bookId": 26839, "start": 409860, "end": 412483, "sha256": "bb0316da5e0e97160731b4352906c2e106d0c4850324556dca83995fc42d4385", "text": "[PDF page 193] CH. VII] THE MATHEMATICAL TRIPOS. 177 comprised all who were expected to be wranglers, the next four classes included the other candidates for honours, and the last two classes con- sisted of poll-men only. Practically anyone placed in either of the first two classes was allowed, if he wished, to take an aegrotat senior optime, and thus escape all further examination: this was called gulphing it. All the men from one College were no longer taken together, but each class was examined separately andvivâ voce; and hence, since all the students comprised in each class were of about equal attainments, it was possible to make the examination more effective. Richard Watson, of Trinity, claimed that this change was made by him when acting as moderator in 1763. He says *: There was more room for partiality...then [i.e. in 1759] than there is now; and I attribute the change, in a great degree, to an alteration which I introduced the first year I was moderator [i.e. in 1763], and which has been persevered in ever since. At the time of taking their Bachelor of Arts’ degree, the young men are examined in classes, and the classes are now formed according to the abilities shown by individuals in the schools. By this arrangement, persons of nearly equal merits are examined in the presence of each other, and flagrant acts of partiality cannot take place. Before I made this alteration, they were examined in classes, but the classes consisted of members of the same College, and the best and worst were often examined together. It is probable that before the examination in the Senate-House began a candidate, if manifestly placed in too low a class, was allowed the privilege of challenging the class to which he was assigned. Perhaps this began as a matter of favour, and was only granted in exceptional cases, but a few years later it became a right which every candidate could exercise; and I think that it is partly to its development that the ultimate predominance of the tripos over the other exercises for the degree is due. In the same year, 1763, it was decided that the relative position of the senior and second wranglers, namely, Paley, of Christ’s, and Frere, of Caius, was to be decided by the Senate-House examination and not by the disputations. Henceforward distinction in the Senate- House examination was regarded as the most important honour open to undergraduates. In 1768 Dr Smith, of Trinity College, founded prizes for mathe- matics and natural philosophy open to two commencing bachelors. The * Anecdotes of the Life of Richard Watson by Himself, London, 1817, pp. 18, 19.", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 193 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00195", "bookId": 26839, "start": 412485, "end": 415218, "sha256": "571ec4435d4fc3e1a9164652393d01328a37e05829cc392123dcb510f02a582f", "text": "[PDF page 194] 178 THE MATHEMATICAL TRIPOS. [CH. VII examination followed immediately after the Senate-House examination, andthedistinction, beingmuchcoveted, tendedtoemphasizethemath- ematical side of the normal University education of the best men. Since 1883 the prizes have been awarded on the result of dissertations*. Until now the Senate-House examination had been oral, but about this time, circ. 1770, it began to be the custom to dictate some or all of the questions and to require answers to be written. Only one question was dictated at a time, and a fresh one was not given out until some student had solved that previously read: a custom which by causing perpetual interruptions to take down new questions must have proved very harassing. We are perhaps apt to think that an ex- amination conducted by written papers is so natural that the custom is of long continuance, but I know no record of any in Europe earlier than the eighteenth century. Until 1830 the questions for the Smith’s Prize were dictated. The following description of the Senate-House examination as it existed in 1772 is given by Jebb†. The moderators, some days before the arrival of the time prescribed by the vice-chancellor, meet for the purpose of forming the students into divisionsofsix, eight, orten, accordingtotheirperformanceintheschools, with a view to the ensuing examination. Upon the first of the appointed days, at eight o’clock in the morning, the students enter the senate-house, preceded by a master of arts from each college, who...is called the “father” of the college... After the proctors have called over the names, each of the moderators sends for a division of the students: they sit with him round a table, with pens, ink, and paper, before them: he enters upon his task of examination, and does not dismiss the set till the hour is expired. This examination has now for some years been held in the english language. The examination is varied according to the abilities of the students. The moderator generally begins with proposing some questions from the six books of Euclid, plain trigonometry, and the first rules of algebra. If any person fails in an answer, the question goes to the next. From the elements of mathematics, a transition is made to the four branches of philosophy, viz. mechanics, hydrostatics, apparent astronomy, and op- tics, as explained in the works of Maclaurin, Cotes, Helsham, Hamil- ton, Rutherforth, Keill, Long, Ferguson, and Smith. If the moderator finds the set of questionists, under examination, capable of answering * See Grace of October 25, 1885; and theCambridge University Reporter, October 23 and 30, 1883. † The Works of J. Jebb, London, 1787, vol. ii, pp. 290–297.", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 194 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00196", "bookId": 26839, "start": 415220, "end": 418304, "sha256": "fc8610943b71795863d7ed9dd4f84dbab61bbef40cf8f5537e172dc26f4342dc", "text": "[PDF page 195] CH. VII] THE MATHEMATICAL TRIPOS. 179 him, he proceeds to the eleventh and twelfth books of Euclid, conic sec- tions, spherical trigonometry, the higher parts of algebra, and sir Isaac Newton’s Principia; more particularly those sections, which treat of the motion of bodies in eccentric and revolving orbits; the mutual action of spheres, composed of particles attracting each other according to various laws; the theory of pulses, propagated through elastic mediums; and the stupendous fabric of the world. Having closed the philosophical examina- tion, he sometimes asks a few questions in Locke’s Essay on the human understanding, Butler’s Analogy, or Clarke’s Attributes. But as the high- est academical distinctions are invariably given to the best proficients in mathematics and natural philosophy, a very superficial knowledge in morality and metaphysics will suffice. When the division under examination is one of the highest classes, problems are also proposed, with which the student retires to a distant part of the senate-house; and returns, with his solution upon paper, to the moderator, who, at his leisure, compares it with the solutions of other students, to whom the same problems have been proposed. The extraction of roots, the arithmetic of surds, the invention of divis- ers, the resolution of quadratic, cubic, and biquadratic equations; together with the doctrine of fluxions, and its application to the solution of ques- tions “de maximis et minimis,” to the finding of areas, to the rectification of curves, the investigation of the centers of gravity and oscillation, and to the circumstances of bodies, agitated, according to various laws, by cen- tripetal forces, as unfolded, and exemplified, in the fluxional treatises of Lyons, Saunderson, Simpson, Emerson, Maclaurin, and Newton, generally form the subject matter of these problems. When the clock strikes nine, the questionists are dismissed to break- fast: they return at half past nine, and stay till eleven; they go in again at half past one, and stay till three; and, lastly, they return at half-past three, and stay till five. The hours of attendance are the same upon the subsequent day. On the third day they are finally dismissed at eleven. During the hours of attendance, every division is twice examined in form, once by each of the moderators, who are engaged for the whole time in this employment. As the questionists are examined in divisions of only six or eight at a time, but a small portion of the whole number is engaged, at any partic- ular hour, with the moderators; and, therefore, if there were no further examination, much time would remain unemployed. But the moderator’s inquiry into the merits of the candidates forms the least material part of the examination. The “fathers” of the respective colleges, zealous for the credit of the societies, of which they are the guardians, are incessantly employed in examining those students, who appear most likely to contest the palm of glory with their sons. This part of the process is as follows:", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 195 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00197", "bookId": 26839, "start": 418306, "end": 421190, "sha256": "4db87665d864904c84fca6f487f3dac0d51095379df884ab97723e61431d4040", "text": "[PDF page 196] 180 THE MATHEMATICAL TRIPOS. [CH. VII The father of a college takes a student of a different college aside, and, sometimes for an hour and an half together, strictly examines him in every part of mathematics and philosophy, which he professes to have read. After he hath, from this examination, formed an accurate idea of the student’s abilities and acquired knowledge, he makes a report of his ab- solute or comparative merit to the moderators, and to every other father who shall ask him the question. Besidesthefathers, allmastersofarts, anddoctors, ofwhateverfaculty they be, have the liberty of examining whom they please; and they also report the event of each trial, to every person who shall make the inquiry. The moderators and fathers meet at breakfast, and at dinner. From the variety of reports, taken in connection with their own examination, the former are enabled, about the close of the second day, so far to settle the comparative merits of the candidates, as to agree upon the names of four- and-twenty, who to them appear most deserving of being distinguished by marks of academical approbation. These four-and-twenty [wranglers and senior optimes] are recom- mended to the proctors for their private examination; and, if approved by them, and no reason appears against such placing of them from any subsequent inquiry, their names are set down in two divisions, according to that order, in which they deserve to stand; are afterwards printed; and read over upon a solemn day, in the presence of the vice-chancellor, and of the assembled university. The names of the twelve [junior optimes], who, in the course of the examination, appear next in desert, are also printed, and are read over, in the presence of the vice-chancellor, and of the assembled university, upon a day subsequent to the former... The students, who appear to have merited neither praise nor censure, [the poll-men], pass unnoticed: while those, who have taken no pains to prepare themselves for the examination, and have appeared with discredit in the schools, are distinguished by particular tokens of disgrace. Jebb’s statement about the number of wranglers and senior optimes is only approximate. It may be added that it was now frankly recognized that the exam- ination was competitive*. Also that though it was open to any member of the Senate to take part in it, yet the determination of the relative merit of the students was entirely in the hands of the moderators†. Al- though the examination did not occupy more than three days it must have been a severe physical trial to anyone who was delicate. It was held in winter and in the Senate-House. That building was then noted * “Emulation, which is the principle upon which the plan is constructed.”The Works of J. Jebb, London, 1787, vol. iii, p. 261. † The Works of J. Jebb, London, 1787, vol. iii, p. 272.", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 196 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00198", "bookId": 26839, "start": 421192, "end": 423681, "sha256": "8e2ef4bf077c905b588879d3b1de0336acd9eb40f59135bf9f5588f9fd10ac8e", "text": "[PDF page 197] CH. VII] THE MATHEMATICAL TRIPOS. 181 for its draughts, and was not warmed in any way: and according to tradition, on one occasion the candidates on entering in the morning found the ink in the pots on their desks frozen. The University was not altogether satisfied* with the scheme in force, and in 1779†the scheme of examination was amended in various respects. In particular the examination was extended to four days, a third day being given up entirely to natural religion, moral philosophy, and Locke. It was further announced‡ that a candidate would not re- ceive credit for advanced subjects unless he had satisfied the examiners in Euclid and elementary Natural Philosophy. A system of brackets or “classes quam minimae” was now intro- duced. Under this system the examiners issued on the morning of the fourth day a provisional list of men who had obtained honours, with the names of those of about equal merit bracketed, and that day was devoted to arranging the names in each bracket in order of merit: the examiners being given explicit authority to invite the assistance of oth- ers in this work. Whether at this time a candidate could request to be re-examined with the view of being moved from one bracket to another is uncertain, but later this also was allowed. Under the scheme of 1779 also the number of examiners was in- creased to four, the moderators of one year becoming, as a matter of course, the examiners of the next. Thus of the four examiners in each year, two had taken part in the examination of the previous year, and the continuity of the system of examination was maintained. The names of the moderators appear on the tripos lists, but the names of the examiners were not printed on the lists till some years later. The right of any M.A. to take part in the examination was not affected, though henceforth it was exercised more sparingly, and I be- lieve was not insisted on after 1785. But it became a regular custom for the moderators to invite particular M.A.s to examine and compare specified candidates. Milner, of Queens’, was constantly asked to assist in this way. It was not long before it became an established custom that a candidate, who was dissatisfied with the class in which he had been placed as the result of his disputations, might challenge it before the * See Graces of July 5, 1773, and of February 17, 1774. † See Graces of March 19, 20, 1779. ‡ Notice issued by the Vice-Chancellor, dated May 19, 1779.", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 197 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00199", "bookId": 26839, "start": 423683, "end": 426187, "sha256": "e9c801f0247adeb162f87961eba8d62d3a706ee055fbe25ce2b37e9688bb4492", "text": "[PDF page 198] 182 THE MATHEMATICAL TRIPOS. [CH. VII examination began. This power seems to have been used but rarely; it was, however, a recognition of the fact that a place in the tripos list was to be determined by the Senate-House examination alone, and the examiners soon acquired the habit of settling the preliminary classes without exclusive reference to the previous disputations. The earliest papers actually set in the Senate-House, and now ex- tant, are two problem papers set in 1785 and 1786 by W. Hodson, of Trinity, then a proctor. The autograph copies from which he gave out the questions were luckily preserved, and are in the library* of Trinity College. They must be almost the last problem papers which were dic- tated, instead of being printed and given as a whole to the candidates. The problem paper in 1786 was as follows: 1. To determine the velocity with which a Body must be thrown, in a direc- tion parallel to the Horizon, so as to become a secondary planet to the Earth; as also to describe a parabola, and never return. 2. To demonstrate, supposing the force to vary as 1 D2, how far a body must fall both within and without the Circle to acquire the Velocity with which a body revolves in a Circle. 3. Suppose a body to be turned (sic) upwards with the Velocity with which it revolves in an Ellipse, how high will it ascend? The same is asked supposing it to move in a parabola. 4. Suppose a force varying first as 1 D3, secondly in a greater ratio than1 D2 but less than 1 D3, and thirdly in a less ratio than 1 D2, in each of these Cases to determine whether at all, and where the body parting from the higher Apsid will come to the lower. 5. Todetermineinwhatsituationofthemoon’sApsidtheygomostforwards, and in what situation of her Nodes the Nodes go most backwards, and why? 6. In the cubic equation x3 + qx + r = 0 which wants the second term; supposing x = a + b and 3ab = −q, to determine the value ofx. 7. To find the fluxion of xr × (yn + zm)1/q. 8. To find the fluent of a ˙x a + x. 9. To find the fluxion of the mth power of the Logarithm ofx. 10. Of right-angled Triangles containing a given Area to find that whereof the sum of the two legsAB + BC shall be the least possible. [This and the two following questions are illustrated by diagrams. The angle atB is the right angle.] 11. To find the Surface of the Cone ABC. [The cone is a right one on a circular base.] 12. To rectify the arc DB of the semicircle DBV . * The Challis Manuscripts, iii, 61.", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 198 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00200", "bookId": 26839, "start": 426189, "end": 428819, "sha256": "09e9b21a0c946dfd72ec7ae416459540f53a02574210282d46f09bc7853b026f", "text": "[PDF page 199] CH. VII] THE MATHEMATICAL TRIPOS. 183 In cases of equality in the Senate-House examination the acts were still taken into account in settling the tripos order: and in 1786 when the second, third, and fourth wranglers came out equal in the exami- nation a memorandum was published that the second place was given to that candidate whodialectis magis est versatus, and the third place to that one whoin scholis sophistarum melius disputavit. There seem to have been considerable intervals in the examination by the moderators, and the examinations by the extraneous examin- ers took place in these intervals. Those candidates who at any time were not being examined occupied themselves with amusements, pro- vided they were not too boisterous and obvious: probably dice and cards played a large part in them. Gunning in an amusing account of his examination in 1788 talks of games with a teetotum* in which he took part on the Wednesday (when Locke and Paley formed the sub- jects of examination), but “which was carried on with great spirit...by considerable numbers during the whole of the examination.” About this time, 1790, the custom of printing the problem papers was introduced, but until 1828 the other papers continued to be dic- tated. Since 1827 all the papers have been printed. I insert here the following letter† from William Gooch, of Caius, in which he describes his examination in the Senate-House in 1791. It must be remembered that it is the letter of an undergraduate addressed to his father and mother, and was not intended either for preservation or publication: a fact which certainly does not detract from its value. Monday 1 4 aft. 12. We have been examin’d this Morning in pure Mathematics & I’ve hitherto kept just about even with Peacock which is much more than I expected. We are going at 1 o’clock to be examin’d till 3 in Philosophy. From 1 till 7 I did more than Peacock; But who did most at Modera- tor’s Rooms this Evening from 7 till 9, I don’t know yet;—but I did above three times as much as the Senr Wrangler last year, yet I’m afraid not so much as Peacock. Between One & three o’Clock I wrote up 9 sheets of Scribbling Paper so you may suppose I was pretty fully employ’d. Tuesday Night. I’vebeenshamefullyus’dbyLaxto-day;—Tho’hisanxietyforPeacock must (of course) be very great, I never suspected that his Partially (sic) wd get the better of his Justice. I had entertain’d too high an opinion of * H. Gunning, Reminiscences, second edition, London, 1855, vol. i, p. 82. † C. Wordsworth,Scholae Academicae, Cambridge, 1877, pp. 322–23.", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 199 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00201", "bookId": 26839, "start": 428821, "end": 431596, "sha256": "26f66c01ce272eaf971d619f39f2f8cb0d9a7ec734a532b46c2a3c6c3fc262fc", "text": "[PDF page 200] 184 THE MATHEMATICAL TRIPOS. [CH. VII him to suppose it.—he gave Peacock a long private Examination & then came to me (I hop’d) on the same subject, but ’twas only toBully me as much as he could,—whatever I said (tho’ right) he tried to convert into Nonsense by seeming to misunderstand me. However I don’t entirely dispairofbeingfirst, tho’youseeLaxseemsdetermin’dthatIshallnot.—I had no Idea (before I went into the Senate-House) of being able to contend at all with Peacock. Wednesday evening. Peacock & I are still in perfect Equilibrio & the Examiners themselves can give no guess yet who is likely to be first;—a New Examiner (Wood of St. John’s, who is reckon’d the first Mathematician in the University, for Waring doesn’t reside) was call’d solely to examine Peacock & me only.— but by this new Plan nothing is yet determin’d.—So Wood is to examine us again to-morrow morning. Thursday evening. Peacock is declar’d first & I second,—Smith of this Coll. is either 8th or 9th & Lucas is either 10th or 11th.—Poor Quiz Carver is one of theοÉ πολλοÐ;—I’m perfectlysatisfied that the Senior Wranglership is Peacock’s due, but certainly not so very indisputably as Lax pleases to represent it—I understand that he asserts ’twas 5 to 4 in Peacock’s favor. Now Peacock & I have explain’d to each other how we went on, & canprove indisputably that it wasn’t 20 to 19 in his favor;—Icannot therefore be displeas’d for being plac’d second, tho’ I’m provov’d (sic) with Lax for his false report (so much beneath the Character of a Gentleman.)— N.B. it is my veryparticular Request that you don’t mention Lax’s behaviour to me to any one. Such was the form ultimately taken by the Senate-House exami- nation, a form which it substantially retained without alteration for nearly half-a-century. It soon became the sole test by which candidates were judged. The University was not obliged to grant a degree to any- one who performed the statutable exercises, and it was open to the University to refuse to pass a supplicat for the B.A. degree unless the candidate had presented himself for the Senate-House examination. In 1790 James Blackburn, of Trinity, a questionist of exceptional abilities, was informed that in spite of his good disputations he would not be allowed a degree unless he also satisfied the examiners in the tripos. He accordingly solved one “very hard problem,” though in consequence of a dispute with the authorities he refused to attempt any more.* It will be recollected that the examination was now compulsory on all candidates pursuing the normal course for the B.A. degree. In 1791 * Gunning, Reminiscences, second edition, London, 1855, vol. i, p. 182.", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 200 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00202", "bookId": 26839, "start": 431598, "end": 434214, "sha256": "a0767b5417d699e8b479c660b738cea4c37e7d15648623d5fbc6b5f14227ab2f", "text": "[PDF page 201] CH. VII] THE MATHEMATICAL TRIPOS. 185 the University laid down rules* for its conduct, so far as it concerned poll-men, decreeing that those who passed were to be classified in four divisions or classes, the names in each class to be arranged alphabet- ically, but not to be printed on the official tripos lists. The classes in the final lists must be distinguished from the eight preliminary classes issued before the commencement of the examination. The men in the first six preliminary classes were expected to take honours; those in the seventh and eighth preliminary classes wereprimâ facie poll-men. In 1799 the moderators announced†that for the future they would require every candidate to show a competent knowledge of the first book of Euclid, arithmetic, vulgar and decimal fractions, simple and quadratic equations, and Locke and Paley. Paley’s works seem to be held in esteem by modern divines, and hisEvidences, though not his Philosophy, still remains (1905) one of the subjects of the Previous Ex- amination, but his contemporaries thought less highly of his writings, or at any rate of his Philosophy. Thus Best is quoted by Wordsworth‡ as saying of Paley’sPhilosophy, “The tutors of Cambridge no doubt neutralize by their judicious remarks, when they read it to their pupils, all that is pernicious in its principles”: so also Richard Watson, Bishop of Llandaff, in his anecdotal autobiography§, says, in describing the Senate-House examination in which Paley was senior wrangler, that Paley was afterwards known to the world by many excellent produc- tions, “though there are some...principles in his philosophy which I by no means approve.” In 1800 the moderators extended to all men in the first four pre- liminary classes the privilege of being allowed to attempt the problem papers: hitherto this privilege had been confined to candidates placed in the first two classes. Until 1828 the problem papers were set in the evenings, and in the rooms of the moderator. The University Calendars date from 1796, and from 1802 to 1882 inclusive contain the printed tripos papers of the previous January. The papers from 1801 to 1820 and from 1838 to 1849 inclusive were also published in separate volumes, which are to be found in most public libraries. No problems were ever set to the men in the seventh and * See Grace of April 8, 1791. † Communicated by the moderators to fathers of Colleges on January 18, 1799, and agreed to by the latter. ‡ C. Wordsworth,Scholae Academicae, Cambridge, 1877, p. 123. § Anecdotes of the Life of R. Watson, London, 1817, p. 19.", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 201 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00203", "bookId": 26839, "start": 434216, "end": 437295, "sha256": "79e4da883c3901b583d1f2fead60c6cedae9ac2857504e27ef3cad0f103a99d9", "text": "[PDF page 202] 186 THE MATHEMATICAL TRIPOS. [CH. VII eighth preliminary classes, which contained the poll-men. None of the bookworkpapersofthistimearenowextant, butitisbelievedthatthey contained but few riders. Many of the so-called problems were really pieces of bookwork or easy riders: it must however be remembered that the text-books then in circulation were inferior and incomplete as compared with modern ones. TheCalendar of1802containsadiffuseaccountoftheexamination. It commences as follows: On the Monday morning, a little before eight o’clock, the students, generally about a hundred, enter the Senate-House, preceded by a master of arts, who on this occasion is styled the father of the College to which he belongs. On two pillars at the entrance of the Senate-House are hung the classes and a paper denoting the hours of examination of those who are thought most competent to contend for honours. Immediately after the University clock has struck eight, the names are called over, and the absentees, being marked, are subject to certain fines. The classes to be examinedarecalledout, andproceedtotheirappointedtables, wherethey find pens, ink, and paper provided in great abundance. In this manner, with the utmost order and regularity, two-thirds of the young men are set to work within less than five minutes after the clock has struck eight. There are three chief tables, at which six examiners preside. At the first, the senior moderator of the present year and the junior moderator of the preceding year. At the second, the junior moderator of the present and the senior moderator of the preceding year. At the third, two moderators of the year previous to the two last, or two examiners appointed by the Senate. The two first tables are chiefly allotted to the six first classes; the third, or largest, to theοÉ πολλοÐ. The young men hear the propositions or questions delivered by the examiners; they instantly apply themselves; demonstrate, prove, work out and write down, fairly and legibly (otherwise their labour is of little avail) the answers required. All is silence; nothing heard save the voice of the examiners; or the gentle request of some one, who may wish a repetition of the enunciation. It requires every person to use the utmost dispatch; for as soon as ever the examiners perceive anyone to have finished his paper and subscribed his name to it another question is immediately given... The examiners are not seated, but keep moving round the tables, both to judge how matters proceed and to deliver their questions at proper intervals. The examination, which embraces arithmetic, algebra, flux- ions, the doctrine of infinitesimals and increments, geometry, trigonom- etry, mechanics, hydrostatics, optics, and astronomy, in all their various gradations, is varied according to circumstances: no one can anticipate a question, for in the course of five minutes he may be dragged from Euclid to Newton, from the humble arithmetic of Bonnycastle to the abstruse analytics of Waring. While this examination is proceeding at the three", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 202 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00204", "bookId": 26839, "start": 437297, "end": 440041, "sha256": "f1d8c6982c89287dd1b3b9c68324b0bab5d6070e7ba809e66192986d73a01795", "text": "[PDF page 203] CH. VII] THE MATHEMATICAL TRIPOS. 187 tables between the hours of eight and nine, printed problems are delivered to each person of the first and second classes; these he takes with him to any window he pleases, where there are pens, ink, and paper prepared for his operations. The examination began at eight. At nine o’clock the papers had to be given up, and half-an-hour was allowed for breakfast. At half-past nine the candidates came back, and were examined in the way described above till eleven, when the Senate-House was again cleared. An interval of two hours then took place. At one o’clock all returned to be again examined. At three the Senate-House was cleared for half-an-hour, and, on the return of the candidates, the examination was continued till five. At seven in the evening the first four classes went to the senior moderator’s rooms to solve problems. They were finally dismissed for the day at nine, after eight hours of examination. The work of Tuesday was similar to that of Monday: Wednesday was partly devoted to logic and moral philosophy. At eight o’clock on Thursday morning a first list was published with all candidates of about equal merits bracketed. Until nine o’clock a candidate had the right to challenge anyone above him to an examination to see which was the better. At nine a second list came out, and a candidate’s right of challenge was then confined to the bracket immediately above his own. If he proved himself the equal of the man so challenged his name was transferred to the upper bracket. To challenge and then to fail to substantiate the claim to removal to a higher bracket was considered rather ridiculous. Revised lists were published at 11 a.m., 3 p.m., and 5 p.m., according to the results of the examination during that day. At five the whole examination ended. The proctors, moderators, and examiners then retired to a room under the Public Library to prepare the list of honours, which was sometimes settled without much difficulty in a few hours, but sometimes not before 2 a.m. or 3 a.m. the next morning. The name of the senior wrangler was generally announced at midnight, and the rest of the list the next morning. In 1802 there were eighty-six candidates for honours, and they were divided into fifteen brackets, the first and second brackets containing each one name only, and the third bracket four names. It is clear from the above account that the competition fostered by the examination had developed so much as to threaten to impair its usefulness as guiding the studies of the men. On the other hand, there can be no doubt that the carefully devised arrangements for obtaining an accurate order of merit stimulated the best men to throw all their", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 203 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00205", "bookId": 26839, "start": 440043, "end": 442987, "sha256": "68770a2a14611558e68d634ea8e2bcc62c589abf90be07fe7dfa183ccb89fbb5", "text": "[PDF page 204] 188 THE MATHEMATICAL TRIPOS. [CH. VII energies into the work for the examination. It is easy to point out the usual double-edged result of a strict order of merit. The problem before the University was to retain its advantages while checking any abuses to which it might lead. It was the privilege of the moderators to entertain the proctors and some of the leading resident mathematicians the night before the issue of the final list, and to communicate that list in confidence to their guests. This pleasant custom survived till 1884. I revived the practice in 1890 when acting as senior moderator, but it seems to have now ceased. In 1806 Sir Frederick Pollock was senior wrangler, and in 1869 in answer to an appeal from De Morgan for an account of the mathemat- ical study of men at the beginning of the century he wrote a letter* which is sufficiently interesting to bear reproduction: I shall write in answer to your inquiry,all about my books, my studies, and my degree, and leave you to settle all about the proprieties which my letter may give rise to, as to egotism, modesty, &c. The only books I read the first year were Wood’sAlgebra (as far as quadratic equations), Bon- nycastle’s ditto, andEuclid (Simpson’s). In the second year I read Wood (beyond quadratic equations), and Wood and Vince, for what they called the branches. In the third year I read theJesuit’sNewton and Vince’s Fluxions; these were all thebooks, but there were certain mss. floating about which I copied—which belonged to Dealtry, second wrangler in Kempthorne’s year. I have no doubt that I had read less and seen fewer books than any senior wrangler of about my time, or any period since; but what I knew I knew thoroughly, and it was completely at my fingers’ ends. I consider that I was the lastgeometrical and fluxional senior wran- gler; I was not up to thedifferential calculus, and never acquired it. I went up to college with a knowledge of Euclid and algebra to quadratic equations, nothing more; and I never read any second year’s lore during my first year, nor any third year’s lore during my second; myforte was, that what Idid know Icould produce at any moment withperfect ac- curacy. I could repeat the first book of Euclid word by word and letter by letter. During my first year I was not a ‘reading’ man (so called); I had no expectation of honours or a fellowship, and I attended all the lec- tures on all subjects—Harwood’s anatomical, Woollaston’s chemical, and Farish’s mechanical lectures—but the examination at the end of the first year revealed to me my powers. I was not only in the first class, but it was generally understood I wasfirst in the first class; neither I nor any one for me expected I should get in at all. Now, as I had taken no pains to pre- pare (taking, however, marvellous pains while the examination was going * Memoir of A. de Morgan, London, 1882, pp. 387–392.", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 204 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00206", "bookId": 26839, "start": 442989, "end": 446019, "sha256": "a6e8ecd22966cc931cbd9e2a90d234a3b681ea7206dbd3546d83d54b5438d1f9", "text": "[PDF page 205] CH. VII] THE MATHEMATICAL TRIPOS. 189 on), I knew better than any one else the value of myexamination qualities (great rapidity and perfect accuracy); and I said to myself, ‘If you’re not an ass, you’ll be senior wrangler;’ andI took to ‘reading’ accordingly. A curious circumstance occurred when the Brackets came out in the Senate- house declaring the result of the examination: I saw at the top the name of Walterbracketed alone (as he was); in the bracket below wereFiott, Hustler, Jephson. I looked down and could not find my own name till I got to Bolland, when my pride took fire, and I said, ‘I must have beaten that man, so I will look up again;’ and on looking up carefully I found the nail had been passed through my name, and I was at the top bracketed alone, even above Walter. You may judge what my feelings were at this discovery; it is the only instance of two such brackets, and it made my fortune—that is, made me independent, and gave me an immense college reputation. It was said I was more than half of the examination before any one else. The two moderators were Hornbuckle, of St John’s, and Brown (Saint Brown), of Trinity. The Johnian congratulated me. I said perhaps I might be challenged; he said, ‘Well, if you are you’re quite safe—you may sit down and do nothing, and no one would get up to you in a whole day.’... Latterly the Cambridge examinations seem to turn upon very different matters from what prevailed in my time. I think a Cambridge education has for its object to make good members of society—not to extend science and make profound mathematicians. The tripos questions in the Senate- house ought not to go beyond certain limits, and geometry ought to be cultivated and encouraged much more than it is. To this De Morgan replied: Your letter suggests much, because it gives possibility of answer. The branches of algebra of course mainly refer to the second part of Wood, now called the theory of equations. Waring was his guide. Turner— whom you must remember as head of Pembroke, senior wrangler of 1767— told a young man in the hearing of my informant to be sure and attend to quadratic equations. ‘It was a quadratic,’ said he, ‘made me senior wrangler.’ It seems to me that the Cambridgerevivers were Waring, Paley, Vince, Milner. You had Dealtry’smss. He afterwards published a very good book on fluxions. He merged his mathematical fame in that of a Claphamite Christian. It is something to know that the tutor’sms. was in vogue in 1800–1806. Now—how did you get your conic sections? How much of Newton did you read? From Newton direct, or from tutor’s manuscript? Surely Fiott was our old friend Dr Lee. I missed being a pupil of Hustler by a few weeks. He retired just before I went up in February 1823. The echo of Hornbuckle’s answer to you about the challenge has lighted on Whewell, who, it is said, wanted to challenge Jacob, and was answered that he could not beat [him] if he were to write the whole day", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 205 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00207", "bookId": 26839, "start": 446021, "end": 448694, "sha256": "5461c7c8bfec618e002eefb3ad24acb4b0df5f736b13693e896bae2921f0f886", "text": "[PDF page 206] 190 THE MATHEMATICAL TRIPOS. [CH. VII and the other wrote nothing. I do not believe that Whewell would have listened to any such dissuasion. I doubt your being the last fluxional senior wrangler. So far as I know, Gipps, Langdale, Alderson, Dicey, Neale, may contest this point with you. The answer of Sir Frederick Pollock to these questions is dated August 7, 1869, and is as follows. You have put together asrevivers five very different men. Woodhouse was better than Waring, who could not prove Wilson’s (Judge of C.P.) guess about the property of prime numbers; but Woodhouse (I think) did prove it, and a beautiful proof it is. Vince was a bungler, and I think utterly insensible of mathematical beauty. Now for your questions. I did not get my conic sections from Vince. I copied a ms. of Dealtry. I fell in love with the cone and its sections, and everything about it. I have never forsaken my favourite pursuit; I delighted in such problems as two spheres touching each other and also the inside of a hollow cone, &c. As to Newton, I read a good deal (men now read nothing), but I read much of the notes. I detected a blunder which nobody seemed to be aware of. Tavel, tutor of Trinity, was not; and he argued very favourably of me in consequence. The application of the Principia I got from mss. The blunder was this: in calculating the resistance of a globe at the end of a cylinder oscillating in a resisting medium they had forgotten to notice that there is a difference between the resistance to a globe and a circle of the same diameter. The story of Whewell and Jacob cannot be true. Whewell was a very, very considerable man, I think not agreat man. I have no doubt Jacob beat him in accuracy, but the supposed answercannot be true; it is a mere echo of what actually passed between me and Hornbuckle on the day the Tripos came out—for the truth of which I vouch. I think the examiners are taking toopractical a turn; it is a waste of time to calculateactually a longitude by the help of logarithmic tables and lunar observations. It would be a fault not to knowhow, but a greater to be handy at it. A few minor changes in the Senate-House examinations were made in 1808*. A fifth day was added to the examination. Of the five days thus given up to it three were devoted to mathematics, one to logic, philosophy, and religion, and one to the arrangement of the brackets. Apart from the evening paper the examination on each of the first three days lasted six hours. Of these eighteen hours, eleven were assigned to book-work and seven to problems. The problem papers were set from 6 to 10 in the evening. * See Graces, December 15, 1808.", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 206 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00208", "bookId": 26839, "start": 448696, "end": 451362, "sha256": "6590d6c1877357d32a3002e4a88eda35d7f500397bddc0992d3dadcbdd21e2ed", "text": "[PDF page 207] CH. VII] THE MATHEMATICAL TRIPOS. 191 A letter from Whewell dated January 19, 1816, describes his ex- amination in the Senate-House*. Jacob. Whewell. Such is the order in which we are fixed after a week’s examination...I had before been given to understand that a great deal depended upon being able to write the greatest possible quantity in the smallest time, but of the rapidity which was actually necessary I had formed the most distant idea. I am upon no occasion a quick writer, and upon subjects where I could not go on without sometimes thinking a little I soon found myself considerably behind. I was therefore surprised, and even astonished, to find myself bracketed off, as it is called, in the second place; that is, on the day when a new division of the classes is made for the purpose of having a closer examination of the respective merits of men who come pretty near to each other, I was not classed with anybody, but placed alone in the second bracket. The man who is at the head of the list is of Caius College, and was always expected to be very high, though I do not know that anybody expected to see him so decidedly superior as to be bracketed off by himself. The tendency to cultivate mechanical rapidity was a grave evil, and lasted long after Whewell’s time. According to rumour the highest honours in 1845 were obtained, to the general regret of the University, by assiduous practice in writing†. The devotion of the Cambridge school to geometrical and fluxional methods has led to its isolation from contemporary continental mathe- maticians. Early in the nineteenth century the evil consequence of this began to be recognized; and it was felt to be little less than a scandal that the researches of Lagrange, Laplace, and Legendre were unknown to many Cambridge mathematicians save by repute. An attempt to explain the notation and methods of the calculus as used on the Conti- nent was made by R. Woodhouse, who stands out as the apostle of the new movement. It is doubtful if he could have brought analytical meth- ods into vogue by himself; but his views were enthusiastically adopted by three students, Peacock, Babbage, and Herschel, who succeeded in carrying out the reforms he had suggested. They created an Analytical Society which Babbage explained was formed to advocate “the princi- ples of pure d-ism as opposed to thedot-age of the University.” The character of the instruction in mathematics at the University has at all * S. Douglas, Life of W. Whewell, London, 1881, p. 20. † For a contemporary account of this see C.A. Bristed,Five Years in an English University, New York, 1852, pp. 233–239.", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 207 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00209", "bookId": 26839, "start": 451364, "end": 453996, "sha256": "8906f5f2aa9de4bb341416c31547735a161abbc25f1d9bbac1db30d749c18ff3", "text": "[PDF page 208] 192 THE MATHEMATICAL TRIPOS. [CH. VII times largely depended on the text-books then in use, and the impor- tance of good books of this class was emphasized by a traditional rule that questions should not be set on a new subject in the tripos unless it had been discussed in some treatise suitable and available for Cam- bridge students*. Hence the importance attached to the publication of the work on analytical trigonometry by Woodhouse in 1809, and of the works on the differential calculus issued by members of the Analytical Society in 1816 and 1820. In 1817 Peacock, who was moderator, introduced the symbols for differentiation into the papers set in the Senate-House examination. But his colleague continued to use the fluxional notation. Peacock himself wrote on March 17 of 1817 (i.e. shortly after the examination) on the subject as follows†: I assure you...that I shall never cease to exert myself to the utmost in the cause of reform, and that I will never decline any office which may increase my power to effect it. I am nearly certain of being nominated to the office of Moderator in the year 1818–19, and as I am an examiner in virtue of my office, for the next year I shall pursue a course even more decided than hitherto, since I shall feel that men have been prepared for the change, and will then be enabled to have acquired a better system by the publication of improved elementary books. I have considerable influence as a lecturer, and I will not neglect it. It is by silent perseverance only that we can hope to reduce the many-headed monster of prejudice, and make the University answer her character as the loving mother of good learning and science. In 1818 all candidates for honours, that is, all men in the first six preliminary classes, were allowed to attempt the problems: this change was made by the moderators. In 1819 G. Peacock, who was again moderator, induced his col- league to adopt the new notation. It was employed in the next year by Whewell, and in the following year by Peacock again. Henceforth the calculus in its modern language and analytical methods were freely used, new subjects were introduced, and for many years the examina- tion provided a mathematical training fairly abreast of the times. By this time the disputations had ceased to have any immediate effect on a man’s place in the tripos. Thus Whewell‡, writing about * See ex. gr., the Grace of November 14, 1827, referred to below. † Proceedings of the Royal Society, London, 1859, vol. ix, pp. 538–9. ‡ Whewell’s Writings and Correspondence, ed. Todhunter, London, 1876, vol. ii, p. 36.", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 208 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00210", "bookId": 26839, "start": 453998, "end": 456826, "sha256": "634fb34d58322e45aeb96d4685927cdd9df514b6c18b7a354bd89766bcbc676f", "text": "[PDF page 209] CH. VII] THE MATHEMATICAL TRIPOS. 193 his duties as moderator in 1820, said: You would get very exaggerated ideas of the importance attached to it [an Act] if you were to trust Cumberland; I believe it was formerly more thought of than it is now. It does not, at least immediately, produce any effect on a man’s place in the tripos, and is therefore considerably less attended to than used to be the case, and in most years is not very interesting after the five or six best men: so that I look for a considerable exercise of, or rather demand for, patience on my part. The other part of my duty in the Senate House consists in manufacturing wranglers, senior optimes, etc. and is, while it lasts, very laborious. Of the examination itself in this year he wrote as follows*: The examination in the Senate House begins to-morrow, and is rather close work while it lasts. We are employed from seven in the morning till five in the evening in giving out questions and receiving written answers to them; and when that is over, we have to read over all the papers which we have received in the course of the day, to determine who have done best, which is a business that in numerous years has often kept the examiners up the half of every night; but this year is not particularly numerous. In addition to all this, the examination is conducted in a building which happens to be a very beautiful one, with a marble floor and a highly ornamented ceiling; and as it is on the model of a Grecian temple, and as temples had no chimneys, and as a stove or a fire of any kind might disfigure the building, we are obliged to take the weather as it happens to be, and when it is cold we have the full benefit of it—which is likely to be the case this year. However, it is only a few days, and we have done with it. A sketch of the examination in the previous year from the point of view of an examinee was given by J.M.F. Wright†, but there is nothing of special interest in it. Sir George Airy‡ gave the following sketch of his recollections of the reading and studies of undergraduates of his time and of the tripos of 1823, in which he had been senior wrangler: At length arrived the Monday morning on which the examination for the B.A. degree was to begin.... We were all marched in a body to the Senate-House and placed in the hands of the Moderators. How the “candidates for honours” were separated from theοÉ πολλοÐ I do not know, I presume that the Acts and the Opponencies had something to do with it. The honour candidates were divided into six groups: and of these Nos. 1 and 2 (united), Nos. 3 and 4 (united), and Nos. 5 and 6 (united), * S. Douglas, Life of Whewell, London, 1881, p. 56. † Alma Mater, London, 1827, vol. ii, pp. 58–98. ‡ See Nature, vol. 35, Feb. 24, 1887, pp. 397–399.", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 209 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00211", "bookId": 26839, "start": 456828, "end": 459520, "sha256": "e542c0ffc3f0a70237a7e9244878f927bf8e2a2812b67fdb8b1c6ae66c0ae076", "text": "[PDF page 210] 194 THE MATHEMATICAL TRIPOS. [CH. VII received the questions of one Moderator. No. 1, Nos. 2 and 3 (united), Nos. 4 and 5 (united), and No. 6, received those of the other Moderator. The Moderators were reversed on alternate days. There were no printed question-papers: each examiner had his bound manuscript of questions, and he read out his first question; each of the examinees who thought himself able proceeded to write out his answer, and then orally called out “Done.” The Moderator, as soon as he thought proper, proceeded with another question. I think there was only one course of questions on each day (terminating before 3 o’clock, for the Hall dinner). The examination continued to Friday mid-day. On Saturday morning, about 8 o’clock, the list of honours (manuscript) was nailed on the door of the Senate-House. It must be remembered that for students pursuing the normal course the Senate-House examination still provided the only avenue to a degree. That examination involved a knowledge of the elements of moral philosophy and theology, an acquaintance with the rules of for- mal logic, and the power of reading and writing scholastic Latin, but mathematics was the predominant subject, and this led to a certain one-sidedness in education. The evil of this was generally recognized, and in 1822 various reforms were introduced in the University cur- riculum; in particular the Previous Examination was established for students in their second year, the subjects being prescribed Greek and Latin works, a Gospel, and Paley’sEvidences. Set classical books were introduced in the final examination of poll-men; and another honour or tripos examination was established for classical students. These al- terations came into effect in 1824; and henceforth the Senate-House examination, so far as it related to mathematical students, was known as the Mathematical Tripos. In 1827 the scheme of examination in the Mathematical Tripos was revised. By regulations* which came into operation in January, 1828, another day was added, so that the examination extended over four days, exclusive of the day of arranging the brackets; the number of hours of examination was twenty-three, of which seven were assigned to problems. On the first two days all the candidates had the same questions proposed to them, inclusive of the evening problems, and the examination on those days excluded the higher and more difficult parts of mathematics, in order, in the words of the report, “that the can- didates for honours may not be induced to pursue the more abstruse and profound mathematics, to the neglect of more elementary knowl- * See the Grace, November 14, 1827.", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 210 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00212", "bookId": 26839, "start": 459522, "end": 462140, "sha256": "81b28380581384d68d41c481950f8bb5bc9a73d7fe2fa24ef1748afcb552a668", "text": "[PDF page 211] CH. VII] THE MATHEMATICAL TRIPOS. 195 edge.” Accordingly, only such questions as could be solved without the aid of the differential calculus were set on the first day, and those set on the second day involved only its elementary applications. The classes were reduced to four, determined as before by the exercises in the schools. The regulations of 1827 definitely prescribed that all the papers should be printed. They are also noticeable as being the last which gave the examiners power to askvivâ voce questions, though such questions were restricted to “propositions contained in the math- ematical works commonly in use in the University, or examples and explanations of such propositions.” It was further recommended that no paper should contain more questions than well-prepared students could be expected to answer within the time allowed for it, but that if any candidate, before the end of the time, had answered all the ques- tions in the paper, the examiners might propose additional questions vivâ voce. The power of granting honorary optime degrees now ceased; it had already fallen into abeyance. Henceforth the examination was conducted under definite rules, and I no longer concern myself with the traditions of the examination. In the same year as these changes became effective the examina- tion for the poll degree was separated from the tripos with different sets of papers and a different schedule of subjects*. It was, however, still nominally considered as forming part of the Senate-House examination, and until 1858 those who obtained a poll degree were arranged in four classes, described as fourth, fifth, sixth, and seventh, as if in continu- ation of the junior optimes or third class of the tripos. The year 1828 therefore shews us the Senate-House examination dividing into two dis- tinct parts; one known as the mathematical tripos, the other as the poll examination. In 18511 the classical tripos was made independent of the mathematical tripos, and thus provided a separate avenue to a degree. Historically, the examination usually known as “the General” represents the old Senate-House examination for the poll-men, but gradually it has been moved to an earlier period in the normal course taken by the men. In 1852 another set of examinations, at first called “the professor’s ex- aminations,” and now somewhat modified and known as “the Specials,” was instituted for all poll-men to take before they could qualify for * See Grace, May 21, 1828, confirming a Report of March 27, 1828. 1. ‘1850’ corrected to ‘1851’ as per errata sheet", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 211 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00213", "bookId": 26839, "start": 462142, "end": 464677, "sha256": "f842ce8fea93bce0688ecf760d7625fe2d3da0391176e6623e91889a655f3bfd", "text": "[PDF page 212] 196 THE MATHEMATICAL TRIPOS. [CH. VII a degree. In 1858 the fiction that the poll-examinations were part of the Senate-House examination was abandoned, and subsequently they have been treated as providing an independent method of obtaining the degree: thus now the mathematical tripos is the sole representative of the old Senate-House examination. Since 1858 numerous other ways of obtaining the degree have been established, and it is now possible to get it by shewing proficiency in very special, or even technical subjects. Further changes in the mathematical tripos were introduced in 1833*. The duration of the examination, before the issue of the brack- ets, was extended to five days, and the number of hours of examination on each day was fixed at five and a-half. Seven and a-half hours were assigned to problems. The examination on the first day was confined to subjects that did not require the differential calculus, and only the simplest applications of the calculus were permitted on the second and third days. During the first four days of the examination the same papers were set to all the candidates alike, but on the fifth day the ex- amination was conducted according to classes. No reference was made to vivâ vocequestions, and the preliminary classification of the brackets only survived in a permission to re-examine candidates if it were found necessary. This permissive rule remained in force till 1848, but I believe that in fact it was never used. In December, 1834, a few unimportant details were amended. Mr Earnshaw, the senior moderator in 1836, informed me that he believed that the tripos of that year was the earliest one in which all the papers were marked, and that in previous years the examiners had partly relied on their impression of the answers given. New regulations came into force† in 1839. The examination now lastedforsixdays, andcontinuedasbeforeforfivehoursanda-halfeach day. Eight and a-half hours were assigned to problems. Throughout the whole examination the same papers were set to all candidates, and no reference was made to any preliminary classes. It was no doubt in accordance with the spirit of these changes that the acts in the schools should be abolished, but they were discontinued by the moderators of 1839 without the authority of the Senate. The examination was for the future confined‡ to mathematics. * See the Grace of April 6, 1832. † See Grace of May 30, 1838. ‡ Under a badly-worded grace passed on May 11, 1842, on the recommendation of", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 212 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00214", "bookId": 26839, "start": 464679, "end": 467311, "sha256": "2462dc47bb98f85c169bb0fbe4c48992ec978d334157567946a3d2885b17a05e", "text": "[PDF page 213] CH. VII] THE MATHEMATICAL TRIPOS. 197 In the same year in which the new scheme came into force a pro- posal to again reopen the subject was rejected (March 6). The difficulty of bringing professorial lectures into relation with the needs of students has more than once been before the Univer- sity. The desirability of it was emphasized by a Syndicate in February, 1843, which recommended conferences at stated intervals between the mathematical professors and examiners. This report foreshadowed the creation of a Mathematical Board, but it was rejected by the Senate on March 31. A few years later the scheme of the examination was again recon- structed by regulations* which came into effect in 1848. The dura- tion of the examination was extended to eight days. The examination lasted in all forty-four and a-half hours, twelve of which were devoted to problems. The first three days were assigned to specified elementary subjects; in the papers set on these days riders were to be set as well as bookwork, but the methods of analytical geometry and the calculus were excluded. After the first three days there was a short interval, at the end of which the examiners issued a list of those who had so acquit- ted themselves as to deserve mathematical honours. Only those whose names were contained in this list were admitted to the last five days of the examination, which was devoted to the higher parts of mathe- matics. After the conclusion of the examination the examiners, taking into account the whole eight days, brought out the list arranged in or- der of merit. No provision was made for any rearrangement of this list corresponding to the examination of the brackets. The arrangements of 1848 remained in force till 1873. In the same year as these regulations came into force, a Board of Mathematical Studies (consisting of the mathematical professors, and the moderators and examiners for the current year and the two pre- ceding years) was constituted†by the Senate. From that time forward their minutes supply a permanent record of the changes gradually in- troduced into the tripos. I do not allude to subsequent changes which only concern unimportant details of the examination. a syndicate on theological studies, candidates for mathematical honours were, after 1846, required to attend the poll examination on Paley’s Moral Philosophy, the New Testament and Ecclesiastical History. This had not been the intention of the Senate, and on March 14, 1855, a grace was passed making this clear. * See Grace of May 13, 1846, confirming a report of March 23, 1846. † See Grace of October 31, 1848.", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 213 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00215", "bookId": 26839, "start": 467313, "end": 469805, "sha256": "8b502e7a63c03a26f6a10fdf9bf368803dc96b006954f0e6ad467e923e267083", "text": "[PDF page 214] 198 THE MATHEMATICAL TRIPOS. [CH. VII In May, 1849, the Board issued a report in which, after giving a review of the past and existing state of the mathematical studies in the University, they recommended that the mathematical theories of electricity, magnetism, and heat should not be admitted as subjects of examination. In the following year they issued a second report, in which they recommended the omission of elliptical integrals, Laplace’s coefficients, capillary attraction, and the figure of the earth considered as heterogeneous, as well as a definite limitation of the questions in lunar and planetary theory. In making these recommendations the Board were only giving expression to what had become the practice in the examination. I may, in passing, mention a curious attempt which was made in 1853 and1 1854 to assist candidates in judging of the relative difficulty of the questions asked. This was effected by giving to the candidates, at the same time as the examination paper, a slip of paper on which the marks assigned for the bookwork and rider for each question were printed. I mention the fact merely because these things are rapidly for- gotten and not because it is of any intrinsic value. I possess a complete set of slips which came to me from Dr Todhunter. In 1856 there was an amusing difference of opinion between the Vice-Chancellor and the moderators. The Vice-Chancellor issued a notice to say that for the convenience of the University he had directed the tripos lists to be published at 8.0 a.m. as well as at 9.0 a.m., but when the University arrived at 8.0 the moderators said that they should not read the list until 9.0. Considerablechangesintheschemeofexaminationwereintroduced in 1873. On December 5, 1865, the Board had recommended the ad- dition of Laplace’s coefficients and the figure of the earth considered as heterogeneous as subjects of the examination; the report does not seem to have been brought before the Senate, but attention was called to the fact that certain departments of mathematics and mathematical physics found no place in the tripos schedules, and were neglected by most students. Accordingly a syndicate was appointed on June 6, 1867, to consider the matter, and a scheme drawn up by them was approved in 1868* and came into effect in 1873. The new scheme of examination * See Grace of June 2, 1868. It was carried by a majority of only five in a house of 75. 1. ‘1853 and’ inserted as per errata sheet", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 214 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00216", "bookId": 26839, "start": 469807, "end": 472430, "sha256": "5f067a5751c96c10c4f5fe4d46c61be07c0669d6456c7b474a545bcdf285f38c", "text": "[PDF page 215] CH. VII] THE MATHEMATICAL TRIPOS. 199 was framed on the same lines as that of 1848. The subjects in the first three days were left unchanged, but an extra day was added, devoted to the elements of mathematical physics. The essence of the modifi- cation was the greatly extended range of subjects introduced into the schedule of subjects for the last five days, and their arrangement in divisions, the marks awarded to the five divisions being approximately those awarded to the three days in proportion to2, 1, 1, 1, 2/3 to 1 respectively. Under the new regulations the number of examiners was increased from four to five. The assignment of marks to groups of subjects was made under the impression that the best candidates would concentrate their abilities on a selection of subjects from the various divisions. But it was found that, unless the questions were made extremely difficult, more marks could be obtained by reading superficially all the subjects in the five divisions than by attaining real proficiency in a few of the higher ones: while the wide range of subjects rendered it practically impossible to thoroughly cover all the ground in the time allowed. The failure was so pronounced that in 1877 another syndicate was appointed to consider the mathematical studies and examinations of the University. They presented an elaborate scheme, but on May 13, 1878, some of the most important parts of it were rejected and their subsequent proposals, acceptedonNovember21, 1878(by62to49), representedacompromise which pleased few members of the Senate*. Under the new scheme which came into force in 1882 the tripos was divided into two portions: the first portion was taken at the end of the third year of residence, the range of subjects being practically the same as in the regulations of 1848, and the result brought out in the customary order of merit. The second portion was held in the following January, and was open only to those who had been wranglers in the preceding June. This portion was confined to higher mathematics and appealed chiefly to specialists. The result was brought out in three classes, each arranged in alphabetical order. The moderators and ex- aminers conducted the whole examination without any extraneous aid. In the next year or two further amendments were made†, moving * See Graces of May 17, 1877; May 29, 1878; and November 21, 1878: and the Cambridge University Reporter, April 2, May 14, June 4, October 29, Novem- ber 12, and November 26, 1878. † See the Graces of December 13, 1883; June 12, 1884; February 10, 1885; Octo- ber 29, 1885; and June 1, 1886.", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 215 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00217", "bookId": 26839, "start": 472432, "end": 475054, "sha256": "2b1e88be52946ad796cd4697f2594c43f7fd133561653a8d8f6f907229e9ba1c", "text": "[PDF page 216] 200 THE MATHEMATICAL TRIPOS. [CH. VII the second part to the June of the fourth year, throwing it open to all men who had graduated in the tripos of the previous June, and transferring the conduct of the examination in Part 2 to four examiners nominated by the Board: this put it largely under the control of the professors. The range of subjects of Part 2 was also greatly extended, and candidates were encouraged to select only a few of them. It was further arranged that Part 1 might be taken at the end of a man’s second year of residence, though in that case it would not qualify for a degree. A student who availed himself of this leave could take Part 2 at the end either of his third or of his fourth year as he pleased. The tripos is still (1905) carried on under the scheme of 1886. The general effect of these changes was to destroy the homogeneity of the tripos. Objections to the new scheme were soon raised. Espe- cially, it was said—whether rightly or wrongly—that Part 1 contained too many technical subjects to serve as a general educational training for any save mathematicians; that the distinction of a high place in the historic list produced on its results tended to prevent the best men taking it in their second year, though by this time they had read suf- ficiently to be able to do so; and that Part 2 was so constructed as to appeal only to professional mathematicians, and that thus the higher branches of mathematics were neglected by all save a few specialists. Whatever value be attached to these opinions, the number of stu- dents studying mathematics fell rapidly under the scheme of 1886. In 1899theBoardproposed * furtherchanges. Theseseemedtosomemem- bers of the Senate to be likely to still further decrease the number of men who took up the subject as one of general education. At any rate the two main proposals were rejected (February 15, 1900) by votes of 151 to 130 and 161 to 129. The curious origin of the term tripos has been repeatedly told, and an account of it may fitly close this chapter. Formerly there were three principal occasions on which questionists were admitted to the title or degree of bachelor. The first of these was the comitia priora, held on Ash-Wednesday, for the best men in the year. The next was the comitia posteriora, which was held a few weeks later, and at which any student who had distinguished himself in the quadragesimal exercises subsequenttoAsh-Wednesdayhadhisseniorityreservedtohim. Lastly, there was the comitia minora, for students who had in no special way * See Reports dated November 7, 1899, and January 20, 1900.", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 216 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00218", "bookId": 26839, "start": 475056, "end": 477692, "sha256": "50f11bb99dfeeee97219a28a91ef6dc9e815d97293d271e4a67608de51365b5d", "text": "[PDF page 217] CH. VII] THE MATHEMATICAL TRIPOS. 201 distinguished themselves. In the fifteenth century an important part in the ceremony on each of these occasions was taken by a certain “ould bachilour,” who sat upon a three-legged stool or tripos before the proctors and tested the abilities of the would-be graduates by arguing some question with the “eldest son,” who was selected from them as their representative. To assist the latter in what was often an unequal contest his “father,” that is, the officer of his college who was to present him for his degree, was allowed to come to his assistance. Originally the ceremony was a serious one, and had a certain reli- gious character. It took place in Great St Mary’s Church, and marked the admission of the student to a position with new responsibilities, while the season of Lent was chosen with a view to bring this into prominence. The Puritan party objected to the observance of such ec- clesiastical ceremonies, and in the course of the sixteenth century they introduced much license and buffoonery into the proceedings. The part played by the questionist became purely formal. A serious debate still sometimes took place between the father of the senior questionist and a regent master who represented the University; but the discussion was prefaced by a speech by the bachelor, who came to be called Mr Tripos just as we speak of a judge as the bench, or of a rower as an oar. Ulti- mately public opinion permitted Mr Tripos to say pretty much what he pleased, so long as it was not dull and was scandalous. The speeches he delivered or the verses he recited were generally preserved by the Reg- istrary, and were known as the tripos verses: originally they referred to the subjects of the disputations then propounded. The earliest copies now extant are those for 1575. The University officials, to whom the personal criticisms in which the tripos indulged were by no means pleasing, repeatedly exhorted him to remember “while exercising his privilege of humour, to be modest withal.” In 1740, says Mr Mullinger*, “the authorities after condemn- ing the excessive license of the tripos announced that the comitia at Lent would in future be conducted in the Senate-House; and all mem- bers of the University, of whatever order or degree, were forbidden to assail or mock the disputants with scurrilous jokes or unseemly witti- cisms. About the year 1747–8, the moderators initiated the practice of printing the honour lists on the back of the sheets containing the * J.B. Mullinger, The University of Cambridge, Cambridge, vol. i, 1873, pp. 175, 176.", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 217 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00219", "bookId": 26839, "start": 477694, "end": 479523, "sha256": "6c590d0ad881d696a8362938174a69e972b701e18b0b72d8e34d71d8e3993335", "text": "[PDF page 218] 202 THE MATHEMATICAL TRIPOS. [CH. VII tripos verses, and after the year 1755 this became the invariable prac- tice. By virtue of this purely arbitrary connection these lists themselves became known as the tripos; and eventually the examination itself, of which they represented the results, also became known by the same designation.” The tripos ceased to deliver his speech about 1750, but the issue of tripos verses continued for nearly 150 years longer. During the latter part of this time they consisted of four sets of verses, usually in Latin, butoccasionallyinGreek, inwhichcurrenttopicsintheUniversitywere treated lightly or seriously as the writer thought fit. They were written for the proctors and moderators by undergraduates or commencing bachelors, who were supposed each to receive a pair of white kid gloves in recognition of their labours. Thus gradually the word tripos changed its meaning “from a thing of wood to a man, from a man to a speech, from a speech to sets of verses, from verses to a sheet of coarse foolscap paper, from a paper to a list of names, and from a list of names to a system of examination*.” In 1895 the proctors and moderators, without consulting the Sen- ate, sent in no verses, and thus, in spite of widespread regret, an in- teresting custom of many centuries standing was destroyed. No doubt it may be argued that the custom had never been embodied in statute or ordinance, and thus was not obligatory. Also it may be said that its continuance was not of material benefit to anybody. I do not think that such arguments are conclusive, and personally I regret the disap- pearance of historic ties unless it can be shown that they cause incon- venience, which of course in this case could not be asserted. * Wordsworth, Scholae Academicae, Cambridge, 1877, p. 21.", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 218 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00220", "bookId": 26839, "start": 479525, "end": 481207, "sha256": "d9e714993c52dc4ab946b2d7d083136c3068f0a7a521e7fc01dbbd2535076279", "text": "[PDF page 219] CHAPTER VIII. THREE GEOMETRICAL PROBLEMS. Among the more interesting geometrical problems of antiquity are three questions which attracted the special attention of the early Greek mathematicians. Our knowledge of geometry is derived from Greek sources, and thus these questions have attained a classical position in the history of the subject. The three questions to which I refer are (i) the duplication of a cube, that is, the determination of the side of a cube whose volume is double that of a given cube; (ii) the trisection of an angle; and (iii) the squaring of a circle, that is, the determination of a square whose area is equal to that of a given circle—each problem to be solved by a geometrical construction involving the use of straight lines and circles only, that is, by Euclidean geometry. With the restriction last mentioned all three problems are insol- uble†. To duplicate a cube the length of whose side isa, we have to find a line of lengthx, such that x3 = 2 a3. Again, to trisect a given angle, we may proceed to find the sine of the angle, saya, then, if x is the sine of an angle equal to one-third of the given angle, we have 4x3 = 3 x − a. Thus the first and second problems, when con- sidered analytically, require the solution of a cubic equation; and since a construction by means of circles (whose equations are of the form x2 + y2 + ax + by + c = 0) and straight lines (whose equations are of the form αx + βy + γ = 0) cannot be equivalent to the solution of a cubic equation, it is inferred that the problems are insoluble if in our † F. Klein, Vorträge über ausgewählte Fragen der Elementargeometrie, Leipzig, 1895. 203", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 219 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00221", "bookId": 26839, "start": 481209, "end": 483648, "sha256": "4325a6dd8bba320ca7fd0f4c8cbcd7bcfce57de73b2d2d4949fc33d7e306b5e9", "text": "[PDF page 220] 204 THREE GEOMETRICAL PROBLEMS. [CH. VIII constructions we are restricted to the use of circles and right lines. If the use of the conic sections is permitted, both of these questions can be solved in many ways. The third problem is different in character, but under the same restrictions it also is insoluble. I propose to give some of the constructions which have been pro- posed for solving the first two of these problems. To save space, I shall not draw the necessary diagrams, and in most cases I shall not add the proofs: the latter present but little difficulty. I shall conclude with some historicalnotesonapproximatesolutionsofthequadratureofthecircle. The Duplication of the Cube*. The problem of the duplication of the cube was known in ancient timesastheDelianproblem, inconsequenceofalegendthattheDelians had consulted Plato on the subject. In one form of the story, which is related by Philoponus†, it is asserted that the Athenians in 430b.c., when suffering from the plague of eruptive typhoid fever, consulted the oracle at Delos as to how they could stop it. Apollo replied that they must double the size of his altar which was in the form of a cube. To the unlearned suppliants nothing seemed more easy, and a new altar was constructed either having each of its edges double that of the old one (from which it followed that the volume was increased eight-fold) or by placing a similar cubic altar next to the old one. Whereupon, according to the legend, the indignant god made the pestilence worse than before, and informed a fresh deputation that it was useless to trifle with him, as his new altar must be a cube and have a volume exactly double that of his old one. Suspecting a mystery the Athenians applied to Plato, who referred them to the geometricians. The insertion of Plato’s name is an obvious anachronism. Eratosthenes‡ relates a somewhat similar story, but with Minos as the propounder of the problem. * See Historia Problematis de Cubi DuplicationebyN.T.Reimer, Göttingen, 1798; and Historia Problematis Cubi Duplicandiby C.H. Biering, Copenhagen, 1844: also Das Delische Problem, by A. Sturm, Linz, 1895–7. Some notes on the subject are given in myHistory of Mathematics. † Philoponus ad Aristotelis Analytica Posteriora, bk. i, chap. vii. ‡ Archimedis Opera cum Eutocii Commentariis, ed. Torelli, Oxford, 1792, p. 144; ed. Heiberg, Leipzig, 1880–1, vol.iii, pp. 104–107.", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 220 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00222", "bookId": 26839, "start": 483650, "end": 486372, "sha256": "3486edf24f7acad3e80cb3426cc74092d1f0161b364f56060431a78b08b4daf5", "text": "[PDF page 221] CH. VIII] THE DUPLICATION OF THE CUBE. 205 In an Arab work, the Greek legend was distorted into the following extraordinarily impossible piece of history, which I cite as a curiosity of its kind. “Now in the days of Plato,” says the writer, “a plague broke out among the children of Israel. Then came a voice from heaven to one of their prophets, saying, ‘Let the size of the cubic altar be doubled, and the plague will cease’; so the people made another altar like unto the former, and laid the same by its side. Nevertheless the pestilence continued to increase. And again the voice spake unto the prophet, saying, ‘They have made a second altar like unto the former, and laid it by its side, but that does not produce the duplication of the cube.’ Then applied they to Plato, the Grecian sage, who spake to them, saying, ‘Ye have been neglectful of the science of geometry, and therefore hath God chastised you, since geometry is the most sublime of all the sciences.’ Now, the duplication of a cube depends on a rare problem in geometry, namely...”. And then follows the solution of Apollonius, which is given later. If a is the length of the side of the given cube andx that of the required cube, we havex3 = 2a3, that is,x : a = 3√ 2 : 1. It is probable that the Greeks were aware that the latter ratio is incommensurable, in other words, that no two integers can be found whose ratio is the same as that of 3√ 2 : 1, but it did not therefore follow that they could not find the ratio by geometry: in fact, the side and diagonal of a square are instances of lines whose numerical measures are incommensurable. I proceed now to give some of the geometrical constructions which have been proposed for the duplication of the cube*. With one ex- ception, I confine myself to those which can be effected by the aid of the conic sections. Hippocrates†(circ. 420b.c.) was perhaps the earliest mathemati- cian who made any progress towards solving the problem. He did not give a geometrical construction, but he reduced the question to that of finding two means between one straight line (a), and another twice as long (2a). If these means arex and y, we havea : x = x : y = y : 2a, from which it follows thatx3 = 2a3. It is in this form that the problem * On the application to this problem of the traditional Greek methods of analysis by Hero and Philo (leading to the solution by the use of Apollonius’s circle), by Nicomedes (leading to the solution by the use of the conchoid), and by Pappus (leading to the solution by the use of the cissoid), seeGeometrical Analysisby J. Leslie, Edinburgh, second edition, 1811, pp. 247–250, 453. † Proclus, ed. Friedlein, pp. 212, 213.", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 221 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00223", "bookId": 26839, "start": 486374, "end": 489024, "sha256": "0f35c18fafaf3167d1f83ce283099288c9cf9118122c67d091eed60ae4b43078", "text": "[PDF page 222] 206 THREE GEOMETRICAL PROBLEMS. [CH. VIII is always presented now. Formerly any process of solution by finding these means was called a mesolabum. One of the first solutions of the problem was that given by Archy- tas* in or about the year 400b.c. His construction is equivalent to the following. On the diameterOA of the base of a right circular cylinder describe a semicircle whose plane is perpendicular to the base of the cylinder. Let the plane containing this semicircle rotate round the gen- erator throughO, then the surface traced out by the semicircle will cut the cylinder in a tortuous curve. This curve will itself be cut by a right cone, whose axis isOA and semi-vertical angle is (say)60◦, in a point P, such that the projection ofOP on the base of the cylinder will be to the radius of the cylinder in the ratio of the side of the required cube to that of the given cube. Of course the proof given by Archytas is geo- metrical; and it is interesting to note that in it he shows himself familiar with the results of the propositions Euc.iii, 18,iii, 35, andxi, 19. To show analytically that the construction is correct, takeOA as the axis of x, and the generator of the cylinder drawn throughO as axis of z, then with the usual notation, in polar coordinates, ifa is the radius of the cylinder, we have for the equation of the surface described by the semicircle r = 2a sin θ; for that of the cylinderr sin θ = 2a cos φ; and for that of the conesin θ cos φ = 1 2. These three surfaces cut in a point such that sin3 θ = 1 2, and therefore(r sin θ)3 = 2a3. Hence the volume of the cube whose side isr sin θ is twice that of the cube whose side isa. The construction attributed to Plato†(circ. 360b.c.) depends on the theorem that, if CAB and DAB are two right-angled triangles, having one side,AB, common, their other sides,AD and BC, parallel, and their hypothenuses, AC and BD, at right angles, then if these hypothenuses cut in P, we have P C : P B = P B : P A = P A : P D. Hence, if such a figure can be constructed having P D = 2 P C, the problem will be solved. It is easy to make an instrument by which the figure can be drawn. The next writer whose name is connected with the problem is Menaechmus‡, who in or about 340b.c. gave two solutions of it. In the first of these he pointed out that two parabolas having a common vertex, axes at right angles, and such that the latus rectum * Archimedis Opera, ed. Torelli, p. 143; ed. Heiberg, vol.iii, pp. 98–103. † Ibid., ed. Torelli, p. 135; ed. Heiberg, vol.iii, pp. 66–71. ‡ Ibid., ed. Torelli, pp. 141–143; ed. Heiberg, vol.iii, pp. 92–99.", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 222 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00224", "bookId": 26839, "start": 489026, "end": 491650, "sha256": "e66a964e0ecd27bc516f15bd595ef2461ec3ec9e1d8154eaa7d654bb73a80bea", "text": "[PDF page 223] CH. VIII] THE DUPLICATION OF THE CUBE. 207 of the one is double that of the other will intersect in another point whose abscissa (or ordinate) will give a solution. If we use analysis this is obvious; for, if the equations of the parabolas arey2 = 2ax and x2 = ay, they intersect in a point whose abscissa is given byx3 = 2a3. It is probable that this method was suggested by the form in which Hippocrates had cast the problem: namely, to find x and y so that a : x = x : y = y : 2a, whence we havex2 = ay and y2 = 2ax. The second solution given by Menaechmus was as follows. Describe a parabola of latus rectuml. Next describe a rectangular hyperbola, the length of whose real axis is4l, and having for its asymptotes the tangentatthevertexoftheparabolaandtheaxisoftheparabola. Then the ordinate and the abscissa of the point of intersection of these curves are the mean proportionals betweenl and 2l. This is at once obvious by analysis. The curves arex2 = ly and xy = 2l2. These cut in a point determined by x3 = 2l3 and y3 = 4l3. Hence l : x = x : y = y : 2l. The solution of Apollonius*, which was given about 220b.c., was as follows. The problem is to find two mean proportionals between two given lines. Construct a rectangleOADB, of which the adjacent sides OA and OB are respectively equal to the two given lines. BisectAB in C. With C ascentredescribeacirclecutting OA producedin aandcut- ting OB produced inb, so thataDb shall be a straight line. If this circle can be so described, it will follow thatOA : Bb = Bb : Aa = Aa : OB, that is, Bb and Aa are the two mean proportionals betweenOA and OB. It is impossible to construct the circle by Euclidean geometry, but Apollonius gave a mechanical way of describing it. The only other construction of antiquity to which I will refer is that given by Diocles and Sporus†. It is as follows. Take two sides of a rectangle OA, OB, equal to the two lines between which the means are sought. Suppose OA to be the greater. With centreO and radius OA describe a circle. LetOB produced cut the circumference inC and let AO produced cut it inD. Find a point E on BC so that if DE cuts AB produced in F and cuts the circumference inG, then F E = EG. If E can be found, thenOE is the first of the means betweenOA and OB. Diocles invented the cissoid in order to determineE, but it can be found equally conveniently by the aid of conics. * Ibid., ed. Torelli, p. 137; ed. Heiberg, vol.iii, pp. 76–79. The solution is given in myHistory of Mathematics, London, 1901, p. 84. † Ibid., ed. Torelli, pp. 138, 139, 141; ed. Heiberg, vol.iii, pp. 78–84, 90–93.", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 223 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00225", "bookId": 26839, "start": 491652, "end": 494052, "sha256": "d26b597a80b2fd3c66e5136a194fe7dcb74e4796719a741fb34360643b06dae8", "text": "[PDF page 224] 208 THREE GEOMETRICAL PROBLEMS. [CH. VIII In more modern times several other solutions have been suggested. I may allude in passing to three given by Huygens*, but I will enunciate only those proposed respectively by Vieta, Descartes, Gregory of St Vincent, and Newton. Vieta’s construction is as follows†. Describe a circle, centre O, whose radius is equal to half the length of the larger of the two given lines. In it draw a chord AB equal to the smaller of the two given lines. Produce AB to E so that BE = AB. Through A draw a line AF parallel to OE. Through O draw a line DOCF G, cutting the circumference in D and C, cutting AF in F, and cutting BA produced in G, so that GF = OA. If this line can be drawn then AB : GC = GC : GA = GA : CD. Descartespointedout ‡thatthecurves x2 = ay and x2+y2 = ay+bx cut in a point(x, y) such that a : x = x : y = y : b. Of course this is equivalent to the first solution given by Menaechmus, but Descartes preferred to use a circle rather than a second conic. Gregory’s construction was given in the form of the following the- orem§. The hyperbola drawn through the point of intersection of two sides of a rectangle so as to have the two other sides for its asymptotes meets the circle circumscribing the rectangle in a point whose distances from the asymptotes are the mean proportionals between two adjacent sides of the rectangle. This is the geometrical expression of the propo- sition that the curvesxy = ab and x2 + y2 = ay + bx cut in a point (x, y) such that a : x = x : y = y : b. One of the constructions proposed by Newton is as follows∥. Let OA be the greater of two given lines. BisectOA in B. With centre O and radius OB describe a circle. Take a pointC on the circumference so that BC is equal to the other of the two given lines. FromO draw ODE cutting AC produced in D, and BC produced in E, so that the intercept DE = OB. Then BC : OD = OD : CE = CE : OA. Hence OD and CE are two mean proportionals between any two lines BC and OA. * Opera Varia, Leyden, 1724, pp. 393–396. † Opera Mathematica, ed. Schooten, Leyden, 1646, prop,v, pp. 242–243. ‡ Geometria, bk. iii, ed. Schooten, Amsterdam, 1659, p. 91. § Gregory of St Vincent,Opus Geometricum Quadraturae Circuli, Antwerp, 1647, bk. vi, prop. 138, p. 602. ∥ Arithmetica Universalis, Ralphson’s (second) edition, 1728, p. 242; see also pp. 243, 245.", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 224 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00226", "bookId": 26839, "start": 494054, "end": 496424, "sha256": "819b74e7db9268088a4bde48f15cb6b00eed7126005e6be661068ea8a5e09243", "text": "[PDF page 225] CH. VIII] THE TRISECTION OF AN ANGLE. 209 The Trisection of an Angle*. The trisection of an angle is the second of these classical problems, but tradition has not enshrined its origin in romance. The following two constructions are among the oldest and best known of those which have been suggested; they are quoted by Pappus†, but I do not know to whom they were due originally. The first of them is as follows. LetAOB be the given angle. From any point P in OB draw P M perpendicular to OA. Through P draw P Rparallel toOA. On M P take a pointQ so that ifOQ is produced to cut P Rin R then QR = 2 · OP. If this construction can be made, then AOR = 1 3 AOB. The solution depends on determining the position of R. This was effected by a construction which may be expressed analytically thus. Let the given angle be tan−1(b/a). Construct the hyperbola xy = ab, and the circle(x − a)2 + (y − b)2 = 4(a2 + b2). Of the points where they cut, letx be the abscissa which is greatest, then P R = x − a, and tan−1(b/x) = 1 3 tan−1(b/a). The second construction is as follows. LetAOB be the given angle. Take OB = OA, and with centreO and radius OA describe a circle. Produce AO indefinitely and take a pointC on it external to the circle so that if CB cuts the circumference inD then CD shall be equal to OA. Draw OE parallel to CDB. Then, if this construction can be made, AOE = 1 3 AOB. The ancients determined the position of the point C by the aid of the conchoid: it could be also found by the use of the conic sections. I proceed to give a few other solutions; confining myself to those effected by the aid of conics. Among the other constructions given by Pappus‡I may quote the following. Describe a hyperbola whose eccentricity is two. Let its centre be C and its verticesA and A′. Produce CA ′ to S so that A′S = CA ′. On AS describe a segment of a circle to contain the given angle. Let * On the bibliography of the subject see the supplements toL’Intermédiaire des Mathématiciens, Paris, May and June, 1904. † Pappus, Mathematicae Collectiones, bk. iv, props. 32, 33 (ed. Commandino, Bonn, 1670, pp. 97–99). On the application to this problem of the traditional Greek methods of analysis seeGeometrical Analysis, by J. Leslie, Edinburgh, second edition, 1811, pp. 245–247. ‡ Pappus, bk. iv, prop. 34, pp. 99–104.", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 225 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00227", "bookId": 26839, "start": 496426, "end": 499073, "sha256": "994cd869dda0043b47cd3a1ad21948f45b7f7fe82f189ab8aad4dffe46b598fe", "text": "[PDF page 226] 210 THREE GEOMETRICAL PROBLEMS. [CH. VIII the orthogonal bisector ofAS cut this segment inO. With centre O and radius OA or OS describe a circle. Let this circle cut the branch of the hyperbola throughA′ in P. Then SOP = 1 3 SOA. In modern times one of the earliest of the solutions by a direct use of conics was suggested by Descartes, who effected it by the intersection of a circle and a parabola. His construction* is equivalent to finding the points of intersection other than the origin, of the parabolay2 = 1 4 xand the circlex2+y2− 13 4 x+4ay = 0. The ordinates of these points are given by the equation4y3 = 3y − a. The smaller positive root is the sine of one-third of the angle whose sine isa. The demonstration is ingenious. One of the solutions proposed by Newton is practically equivalent to the third one which is quoted above from Pappus. It is as follows†. Let A be the vertex of one branch of a hyperbola whose eccentricity is two, and letS be the focus of the other branch. OnAS describe the segment of a circle containing an angle equal to the supplement of the given angle. Let this circle cut the S branch of the hyperbola inP. Then P AS will be equal to one-third of the given angle. The following elegant solution is due to Clairaut‡. Let AOB be the givenangle. Take OA = OB, andwithcentre O andradius OA describe a circle. Join AB, and trisect it inH, K, so that AH = HK = KB. Bisect the angle AOB by OC cutting AB in L. Then AH = 2 · HL. With focus A, vertex H, and directrixOC, describe a hyperbola. Let the branch of this hyperbola which passes through H cut the cir- cle in P. Draw P M perpendicular to OC and produce it to cut the circle in Q. Then by the focus and directrix property we have AP : P M = AH : HL = 2 : 1 , ∴ AP = 2 · P M = P Q. Hence, by symmetry, AP = P Q = QR. ∴ AOP = P OQ = QOR. I may conclude by giving the solution which Chasles§regards as the most fundamental. It is equivalent to the following proposition. IfOA and OB are the bounding radii of a circular arcAB, then a rectangular hyperbola having OA for a diameter and passing through the point of intersection ofOB with the tangent to the circle atA will pass through * Geometria, bk. iii, ed. Schooten, Amsterdam, 1659, p. 91. † Arithmetica Universalis, problem xlii, Ralphson’s (second) edition, London, 1728, p. 148; see also pp. 243–245. ‡ I believe that this was first given by Clairaut, but I have mislaid my reference. The construction occurs as an example in theGeometry of Conics, by C. Taylor, Cambridge, 1881, No. 308, p. 126. § Traité des sections coniques, Paris, 1865, art. 37, p. 36.", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 226 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00228", "bookId": 26839, "start": 499075, "end": 501612, "sha256": "77d03d70a59bc267a135aedb2ada664746c9a80d1c0289a6dc3a4d113be5e7b5", "text": "[PDF page 227] CH. VIII] THE QUADRATURE OF THE CIRCLE. 211 one of the two points of trisection of the arc. The Quadrature of the Circle*. The object of the third of the classical problems was the deter- mination of a side of a square whose area should be equal to that of a given circle. The investigation, previous to the last two hundred years, of this question was fruitful in discoveries of allied theorems, but in more re- cent times it has been abandoned by those who are able to realize what is required. The history of this subject has been treated by compe- tent writers in such detail that I shall content myself with a very brief allusion to it. Archimedes showed† (what possibly was known before) that the problem is equivalent to finding the area of a right-angled triangle whose sides are equal respectively to the perimeter of the circle and the radius of the circle. Half the ratio of these lines is a number, usu- ally denoted by π. That this number is incommensurable had been long suspected, and has been now demonstrated. The earliest analytical proof of it was given by Lambert‡ in 1761; in 1803 Legendre§ extended the proof to show thatπ2 was also incommensurable; and recently Lindemann∥ has * See Montucla’sHistoire des Recherches sur la Quadrature du Cercle, edited by P.L. Lacroix, Paris, 1831; also various articles by A. De Morgan, and especially his Budget of Paradoxes, London, 1872. A popular sketch of the subject has been compiled by H. Schubert,Die Quadratur des Zirkels, Hamburg, 1889; and since the publication of the earlier editions of theseRecreationsProf. F. Rudio of Zurich has given an analysis of the arguments of Archimedes, Huygens, Lambert, and Legendre on the subject, with an introduction on the history of the problem, Leipzig, 1892. † Archimedis Opera, ΚÔκλου µèτρησις , prop. i, ed. Torelli, pp. 203–205; ed. Heiberg, vol. i, pp. 258–261, vol.iii, pp. 269–277. ‡ Mémoires de l’Académie de Berlinfor 1761, Berlin, 1768, pp. 265–322. § Legendre’sGeometry, Brewster’s translation, Edinburgh, 1824, pp. 239–245. ∥ Ueber die Zahl π, Mathematische Annalen, Leipzig, 1882, vol. xx, pp. 213– 225. The proof leads to the conclusion that, ifx is a root of a rational integral algebraical equation, then ex cannot be rational: hence, if πi was the root of such an equation,eπi could not be rational; buteπi is equal to−1, and therefore is rational; hence πi cannot be the root of such an algebraical equation, and therefore neither canπ.", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 227 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00229", "bookId": 26839, "start": 501614, "end": 504176, "sha256": "46b32842667ab01d2c49319f7c5f92dd8738205210f99aef0b9a1598a6da077e", "text": "[PDF page 228] 212 THREE GEOMETRICAL PROBLEMS. [CH. VIII shown that π cannot be the root of a rational algebraical equation. An earlier attempt by James Gregory to give a geometrical demon- stration of this is worthy of notice. Gregory proved* that the ratio of the area of any arbitrary sector to that of the inscribed or circum- scribed polygons is not expressible by a finite number of algebraical terms. Hence he inferred that the quadrature was impossible. This was accepted by Montucla, but it is not conclusive, for it is conceiv- able that some particular sector might be squared, and this particular sector might be the whole circle. In connection with Gregory’s proposition above cited, I may add that Newton † proved that in any closed oval an arbitrary sector bounded by the curve and two radii cannot be expressed in terms of the co-ordinates of the extremities of the arc by a finite number of algebraical terms. The argument is condensed and difficult to follow: the same reasoning would show that a closed oval curve cannot be represented by an algebraical equation in polar co-ordinates. From this proposition no conclusion as to the quadrature of the circle is to be drawn, nor did Newton draw any. In the earlier editions of this work I expressed an opinion that the result presupposed a particular definition of the word oval, but on more careful reflection I think that the conclusion is valid without restriction. With the aid of the quadratrix, or the conchoid, or the cissoid, the quadrature of the circle is easy, but the construction of those curves assumes a knowledge of the value ofπ, and thus the question is begged. I need hardly add that, if π represented merely the ratio of the circumference of a circle to its diameter, the determination of its nu- merical value would have but slight interest. It is however a mere accident that π is defined usually in that way, and it really represents a certain number which would enter into analysis from whatever side the subject was approached. I recollect a distinguished professor explaining how different would be the ordinary life of a race of beings born, as easily they might be, so that the fundamental processes of arithmetic, algebra and geometry were different to those which seem to us so evident, but, he added, it is impossible to conceive of a universe in whiche and π should not exist. * Vera Circuli et Hyperbolae Quadratura, Padua, 1668: this is reprinted in Huy- gens’sOpera Varia, Leyden, 1724, pp. 405–462. † Principia, bk. i, section vi, lemma xxviii.", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 228 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00230", "bookId": 26839, "start": 504178, "end": 506883, "sha256": "144c9291e6f23a0a42bbb5a856ef11daa2b8215d480b775de65f1ec76232d63f", "text": "[PDF page 229] CH. VIII] APPROXIMATIONS TO THE V ALUE OF π. 213 I have quoted elsewhere an anecdote, which perhaps will bear rep- etition, that illustrates how little the usual definition ofπ suggests its properties. De Morgan was explaining to an actuary what was the chance that a certain proportion of some group of people would at the end of a given time be alive; and quoted the actuarial formula, involving π, which, in answer to a question, he explained stood for the ratio of the circumference of a circle to its diameter. His acquaintance, who had so far listened to the explanation with interest, interrupted him and exclaimed, “My dear friend, that must be a delusion, what can a circle have to do with the number of people alive at the end of a given time?” In reality the fact that the ratio of the length of the circumference of a circle to its diameter is the number denoted byπ does not afford the best analytical definition ofπ, and is only one of its properties. The use of a single symbol to denote this number3.14159 . . .seems to have been introduced about the beginning of the eighteenth century. W. Jones* in 1706 represented it byπ; a few years later†John Bernoulli denoteditby c; Eulerin1734used p, andin1736used c; Chr. Goldback in 1742 usedπ; and after the publication of Euler’sAnalysis the symbol π was generally employed. The numerical value ofπ can be determined by either of two meth- ods with as close an approximation to the truth as is desired. The first of these methods is geometrical. It consists in calculating the perimeters of polygons inscribed in and circumscribed about a cir- cle, and assuming that the circumference of the circle is intermediate between these perimeters‡. The approximation would be closer if the areas and not the perimeters were employed. The second and modern method rests on the determination of converging infinite series forπ. We may say that theπ-calculators who used the first method re- garded π as equivalent to a geometrical ratio, but those who adopted the modern method treated it as the symbol for a certain number which enters into numerous branches of mathematical analysis. It may be interesting if I add here a list of some of the approxi- mations to the value ofπ given by various writers§. This will indicate * Synopsis Palmariorum Matheseos, London, 1706, pp. 243, 263et seq. † See notes by G. Eneström in theBibliotheca Mathematica, Stockholm, 1889, vol. iii, p. 28;Ibid., 1890, vol.iv, p. 22. ‡ The history of this method has been written by K.E.I. Selander,Historik öfver Ludolphska Talet, Upsala, 1868. § For the methods used in classical times and the results obtained, see the notices", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 229 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00231", "bookId": 26839, "start": 506885, "end": 509556, "sha256": "9fdfb73478a610c902cadc44b0827ac3ee68fa235fdefa91135b9a5b293872a0", "text": "[PDF page 230] 214 THREE GEOMETRICAL PROBLEMS. [CH. VIII incidentally those who have studied the subject to the best advantage. The ancient Egyptians* took 256/81 as the value ofπ, this is equal to 3.1605 . . .; but the rougher approximation of 3 was used by the Babylonians† and by the Jews‡. It is not unlikely that these numbers were obtained empirically. We come next to a long roll of Greek mathematicians who attacked the problem. Whether the researches of the members of the Ionian School, the Pythagoreans, Anaxagoras, Hippias, Antipho, and Bryso led to numerical approximations for the value ofπ is doubtful, and their investigations need not detain us. The quadrature of certain lunes by Hippocrates of Chios is ingenious and correct, but a value ofπ cannot be thence deduced; and it seems likely that the later members of the Athenian School concentrated their efforts on other questions. It is probable that Euclid§, the illustrious founder of the Alexand- rian School, was aware thatπ was greater than3 and less than4, but he did not state the result explicitly. The mathematical treatment of the subject began with Archi- medes, who proved thatπ is less than 3 1 7 and greater than 3 10 71, that is, it lies between 3.1428 . . . and 3.1408 . . .. He established ∥ this by inscribing in a circle and circumscribing about it regular polygons of 96 sides, then determining by geometry the perimeters of these polygons, and finally assuming that the circumference of the circle was intermediate between these perimeters: this leads to the result 6336/2017 1 4 < π < 14688/4673 1 2,1 from which he deduced the lim- of their authors in M. Cantor’sGeschichte der Mathematik, Leipzig, vol.i, 1880. For medieval and modern approximations, see the article by A. De Morgan on the Quadrature of the Circle in vol.xixof thePenny Cyclopaedia, London, 1841; with the additions given by B. de Haan in theVerhandelingen of Amsterdam, 1858, vol.iv, p. 22: the conclusions were tabulated, corrected, and extended by Dr J.W.L. Glaisher in theMessenger of Mathematics, Cambridge, 1873, vol.ii, pp. 119–128; andIbid., 1874, vol.iii, pp. 27–46. * Ein mathematisches Handbuch der alten Aegypter(i.e. the Rhind papyrus), by A. Eisenlohr, Leipzig, 1877, arts. 100–109, 117, 124. † Oppert, Journal Asiatique, August, 1872, and October, 1874. ‡ 1 Kings, ch. 7, ver. 23; 2 Chronicles, ch. 4, ver. 2. § These results can be deduced from Euc. iv, 15, and iv, 8: see also book xii, prop. 16. ∥ Archimedis Opera, ΚÔκλου µèτρησις , prop.iii, ed.Torelli, Oxford, 1792, pp.205– 216; ed. Heiberg, Leipzig, 1880, vol.i, pp. 263-271. 1. Inserted 14688/", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 230 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00232", "bookId": 26839, "start": 509558, "end": 512071, "sha256": "0ce3e3b78b4b869ab53406c1e714b5dc3ce41189e080027d57d5ee502ade6908", "text": "[PDF page 231] CH. VIII] APPROXIMATIONS TO THE V ALUE OF π. 215 its given above. This method is equivalent to using the proposition sin θ < θ < tan θ, where θ = π/96: the values ofsin θ and tan θ were deduced by Archimedes from those ofsin 1 3 π and tan 1 3 π by repeated bisections of the angle. With a polygon ofn sides this process gives a value ofπ correct to at least the integral part of(2 logn−1.19) places of decimals. The result given by Archimedes is correct to2 places of dec- imals. His analysis leads to the conclusion that the perimeters of these polygons for a circle whose diameter is 4970 feet would lie between 15610 feet and 15620 feet—actually it is about15613 feet 9 inches. Apollonius discussed these results, but his criticisms have been lost. Hero of Alexandria gave* the value 3, but he quoted† the result 22/7: possibly the former number was intended only for rough ap- proximations. The only other Greek approximation that I need mention is that given by Ptolemy‡, who asserted thatπ = 3 ◦8′30′′. This is equivalent to taking π = 3 + 8 60 + 30 3600 = 3 17 120 = 3 .141˙6. The Roman surveyors seem to have used3, or sometimes 4, for rough calculations. For closer approximations they often employed3 1 8 instead of 3 1 7, since the fractions then introduced are more convenient in duodecimal arithmetic. On the other hand Gerbert§ recommended the use of 22/7. Before coming to the medieval and modern European mathemati- cians it may be convenient to note the results arrived at in India and the East. Baudhayana∥ took 49/16 as the value ofπ. Arya-Bhata¶, circ. 530, gave62832/20000, which is equal to3.1416. He showed that, ifa is the side of a regular polygon ofn sides inscribed in a circle of unit diameter, and ifb is the side of a regular inscribed polygon of 2n sides, then b2 = 1 2 − 1 2(1 − a2) 1 2. From the side of an inscribed hexagon, he found successively the sides of polygons of12, 24, 48, 96, 192, and 384 sides. The perimeter of the last is given as equalto √ 9.8694, fromwhichhisresultwasobtainedbyapproximation. * Mensurae, ed. Hultsch, Berlin, 1864, p. 188. † Geometria, ed. Hultsch, Berlin, 1864, pp. 115, 136. ‡ Almagest, bk. vi, chap. 7; ed. Halma, vol.i, p. 421. § Œuvres de Gerbert, ed. Olleris, Clermont, 1867, p. 453. ∥ The Sulvasutras by G. Thibaut,Asiatic Society of Bengal, 1875, arts. 26–28. ¶ Leçons de calcul d’Aryabhata, by L. Rodet in theJournal Asiatique, 1879, se- ries 7, vol.xiii, pp. 10, 21.", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 231 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00233", "bookId": 26839, "start": 512073, "end": 514615, "sha256": "53a9efbf1922586ca77937cadbd1ae8a44842e0b6533c8a24e1413072bc80b29", "text": "[PDF page 232] 216 THREE GEOMETRICAL PROBLEMS. [CH. VIII Brahmagupta*, circ. 650, gave √ 10, which is equal to3.1622 . . .. He is said to have obtained this value by inscribing in a circle of unit diameter regular polygons of 12, 24, 48, and 96 sides, and calculat- ing successively their perimeters, which he found to be √ 9.65, √ 9.81,√ 9.86, √ 9.87 respectively; and to have assumed that as the number of sides is increased indefinitely the perimeter would approximate to √ 10. Bhaskara, circ. 1150, gave two approximations. One †—possibly copied from Arya-Bhata, but said to have been calculated afresh by Archimedes’s method from the perimeters of regular polygons of384 sides—is 3927/1250, which is equal to3.1416: the other‡is 754 240, which is equal to3.141˙6, but it is uncertain whether this was not given only as an approximate value. Among the Arabs the values 22/7, √ 10, and 62832/20000 were given by Alkarisimi§, circ. 830; and no doubt were derived from Indian sources. He described the first as an approximate value, the second as used by geometricians, and the third as used by astronomers. In Chinese works the values3, 22 7 , 157 50 are said to occur: probably the last two results were copied from the Arabs. Returning to European mathematicians, we have the following suc- cessive approximations to the value ofπ: many of those prior to the eighteenth century having been calculated originally with the view of demonstrating the incorrectness of some alleged quadrature. Leonardo of Pisa∥, in the thirteenth century, gave forπ the value 1440/458 1 3 which is equal to3.1418 . . .. In the fifteenth century, Pur- bach¶ gave or quoted the value62832/20000, which is equal to3.141˙6; Cusa believed that the accurate value was3 4( √ 3 + √ 6) which is equal to 3.1423 . . .; and, in 1464, Regiomontanus** is said to have given a value equal to 3.14243. * Algebra...from Brahmegupta and Bhascara, trans. byH.T.Colebrooke, London, 1817, chap. xii, art. 40, p. 308. † Ibid., p. 87. ‡ Ibid., p. 95. § The Algebra of Mohammed ben Musa, ed. by F. Rosen, London, 1831, pp. 71–72. ∥ Boncompagni’sScritti di Leonardo, vol. ii (Practica Geometriae), Rome, 1862, p. 90. ¶ Appendix to theDe Triangulisof Regiomontanus, Basle, 1541, p. 131. ** In his correspondence with Cardinal Cusa,De Quadratura Circuli, Nuremberg, 1533, wherein he proved that Cusa’s result was wrong. I cannot quote the exact reference, but the figures are given by competent writers and I have no doubt are correct.", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 232 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00234", "bookId": 26839, "start": 514617, "end": 517205, "sha256": "eda8d135e4f60c6bf70b58352094500f0c0a314a5f5b5a8b01c45b89c9a6348f", "text": "[PDF page 233] CH. VIII] APPROXIMATIONS TO THE V ALUE OF π. 217 Vieta*, in 1579, showed thatπ was greater than31415926535/1010, and less than31415926537/1010. This was deduced from the perimeters of the inscribed and circumscribed polygons of6 × 216 sides, obtained by repeated use of the formula2 sin2 1 2 θ = 1 − cos θ. He also gave† a result equivalent to the formula 2 π = √2 2 √(2 + √2) 2 √{2 + √(2 + √2)} 2 · · · . The father of Adrian Metius‡, in 1585, gave355/113, which is equal to 3.14159292 . . ., and is correct to6 places of decimals. This was a cu- riousandluckyguess, forallthatheprovedwasthat π wasintermediate between 377/120 and 333/106, whereon he jumped to the conclusion that he should obtain the true fractional value by taking the mean of the numerators and the mean of the denominators of these fractions. In 1593 Adrian Romanus§calculated the perimeter of the inscribed regular polygon of 1073, 741824 (i.e. 230) sides, from which he deter- mined the value ofπ correct to 15 places of decimals. L. van Ceulen devoted no inconsiderable part of his life to the subject. In 1596∥ he gave the result to20 places of decimals: this was calculated by finding the perimeters of the inscribed and circumscribed regular polygons of 60 × 233 sides, obtained by the repeated use of a theorem of his discovery equivalent to the formula1−cos A = 2 sin2 1 2 A. I possess a finely executed engraving of him of this date, with the result printed round a circle which is below his portrait. He died in 1610, and by his directions the result to35 places of decimals (which was as far as he had then calculated it) was engraved on his tombstone¶ in St Peter’s Church, Leyden. His posthumous arithmetic** contains the result to32 places; this was obtained by calculating the perimeter of a polygon, the * Canon Mathematicus seu ad Triangula, Paris, 1579, pp. 56, 66: probably this work was printed for private circulation only, it is very rare. † Vietae Opera, ed. Schooten, Leyden, 1646, p. 400. ‡ Arithmeticae libri duo et Geometriae, by A. Metius, Leyden, 1626, pp. 88, 89. [Probably issued originally in 1611.] § Ideae Mathematicae, Antwerp, 1593: a rare work, which I have never been able to consult. ∥ Vanden Circkel, Delf, 1596, fol. 14, p. 1; orDe Circulo, Leyden, 1619, p. 3. ¶ The inscription is quoted by Prof. de Haan in theMessenger of Mathematics, 1874, vol. iii, p. 25. ** De Arithmetische en Geometrische Fondamenten, Leyden, 1615, p.163; orp.144 of the Latin translation by W. Snell, published at Leyden in 1615 under the", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 233 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00235", "bookId": 26839, "start": 517207, "end": 519777, "sha256": "73904b44742a9c2830349b58ba80dfb83dffce9404227a65a65aef784dea5780", "text": "[PDF page 234] 218 THREE GEOMETRICAL PROBLEMS. [CH. VIII number of whose sides is262, i.e. 4, 611686, 018427, 387904. Van Ceulen also compiled a table of the perimeters of various regular polygons. Willebrord Snell*, in 1621, obtained from a polygon of230 sides an approximation to 34 places of decimals. This is less than the numbers given by van Ceulen, but Snell’s method was so superior that he ob- tained his34 places by the use of a polygon from which van Ceulen had obtained only14 (or perhaps16) places. Similarly, Snell obtained from a hexagon an approximation as correct as that for which Archimedes had required a polygon of96 sides, while from a polygon of96 sides he determined the value ofπ correct to seven decimal places instead of the two places obtained by Archimedes. The reason is that Archimedes, havingcalculatedthelengthsofthesidesofinscribedandcircumscribed regular polygons of n sides, assumed that the length of1/nth of the perimeter of the circle was intermediate between them; whereas Snell constructed from the sides of these polygons two other lines which gave closer limits for the corresponding arc. His method depends on the the- orem 3 sinθ/(2 + cos θ) < θ < (2 sin 1 3 θ + tan 1 3 θ), by the aid of which a polygon of n sides gives a value ofπ correct to at least the integral part of (4 logn − .2305) places of decimals, which is more than twice the number given by the older rule. Snell’s proof of his theorem is incorrect, though the result is true. Snell also added a table†of the perimeters of all regular inscribed and circumscribed polygons, the number of whose sides is10×2n where n is not greater than 19 and not less than 3. Most of these were quoted from van Ceulen, but some were recalculated. This list has proved useful in refuting circle-squarers. A similar list was given by James Gregory‡. In 1630 Grienberger§, by the aid of Snell’s theorem, carried the approximation to39 places of decimals. He was the last mathematician who adopted the classical method of finding the perimeters of inscribed and circumscribed polygons. Closer approximations serve no useful title Fundamenta Arithmetica et Geometrica. This was reissued, together with a Latin translation of theVanden Circkel, in 1619, under the titleDe Circulo; in which see pp. 3, 29–32, 92. * Cyclometricus, Leyden, 1621, p. 55. † It is quoted by Montucla, ed. 1831, p. 70. ‡ Vera Circuli et Hyperbolae Quadratura, prop. 29, quoted by Huygens, Opera Varia, Leyden, 1724, p. 447. § Elementa Trigonometrica, Rome, 1630, end of preface.", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 234 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00236", "bookId": 26839, "start": 519779, "end": 522100, "sha256": "32a82e18783f2060a3e1453df3687e67a5f7642ea0b1909a62a70c1871cf4f8b", "text": "[PDF page 235] CH. VIII] APPROXIMATIONS TO THE V ALUE OF π. 219 purpose. Proofs of the theorems used by Snell and other calculators in applying this method were given by Huygens in a work* which may be taken as closing the history of this method. In 1656 Wallis† proved that π 2 = 2 · 2 · 4 · 4 · 6 · 6 · · · 1 · 3 · 3 · 5 · 5 · 7 · 7 · · · , and quoted a proposition given a few years earlier by Viscount Brouncker to the effect that π 4 = 1 + 12 2 + 32 2 + 52 2 + . . . , but neither of these theorems was used to any large extent for cal- culation. Subsequent calculators have relied on converging infinite series, a method that was hardly practicable prior to the invention of the calcu- lus, though Descartes‡ had indicated a geometrical process which was equivalent to the use of such a series. The employment of infinite series was proposed by James Gregory§, who established the theorem that θ = tan θ − 1 3 tan3 θ + 1 5 tan5 θ − · · ·, the result being true only ifθ lies between − 1 4 π and 1 4 π. The first mathematician to make use of Gregory’s series for ob- taining an approximation to the value ofπ was Abraham Sharp∥, who, in 1699, on the suggestion of Halley, determined it to 72 places of * De Circula Magnitudine Inventa, 1654; Opera Varia, pp. 351–387. The proofs are given in G. Pirie’sGeometrical Methods of Approximating the Value ofπ, London, 1877, pp. 21–23. † Arithmetica Infinitorum, Oxford, 1656, prop. 191. An analysis of the investi- gation by Wallis was given by Cayley,Quarterly Journal of mathematics, 1889, vol. xxiii, pp. 165–169. ‡ See Euler’s paper in theNovi Commentarii Academiae Scientiarum, St Peters- burg, 1763, vol.viii, pp. 157–168. § See the letter to Collins, dated Feb. 15, 1671, printed in theCommercium Epis- tolicum, London, 1712, p. 25, and in the Macclesfield Collection,Correspondence of Scientific Men of the Seventeenth Century, Oxford, 1841, vol.ii, p. 216. ∥ See Life of A. Sharpby W. Cudworth, London, 1889, p. 170. Sharp’s work is given in one of the preliminary discourses (p. 53et seq.) prefixed to H. Sherwin’s Mathematical Tables. The tables were issued at London in 1705: probably the discourses were issued at the same time, though the earliest copies I have seen were printed in 1717.", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 235 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00237", "bookId": 26839, "start": 522102, "end": 524608, "sha256": "8824b2bc6356d3d6f47f7461dc10fbfd728c5b1d7a57b8bf387b02eeb5a9eeed", "text": "[PDF page 236] 220 THREE GEOMETRICAL PROBLEMS. [CH. VIII decimals (71 correct). He obtained this value by putting θ = 1 6 π in Gregory’s series. Machin*, earlier than 1706, gave the result to100 places (all cor- rect). He calculated it by the formula 1 4 π = 4 tan−1 1 5 − tan−1 1 239 . De Lagny†, in 1719, gave the result to127 places of decimals (112 correct), calculating it by puttingθ = 1 6 π in Gregory’s series. Hutton‡, in 1776, and Euler§, in 1779, suggested the use of the formulae 1 4 π = tan −1 1 2 + tan−1 1 3 or 1 4 π = 5 tan−1 1 7 + 2 tan−1 3 79, but neither carried the approximation as far as had been done previously. Vega, in 1789∥, gave the value ofπ to 143 places of decimals (126 correct); and, in 1794¶, to 140 places (136 correct). Towards the end of the last century Baron Zach saw in the Radcliffe Library, Oxford, a manuscript by an unknown author which gives the value of π to 154 places of decimals (152 correct). In 1841 Rutherford** calculated it to 208 places of decimals (152 correct), using the formula1 4 π = 4 tan−1 1 5 − tan−1 1 70 + tan−1 1 99. In 1844 Dase††calculated it to205 places of decimals (200 correct), using the formula 1 4 π = tan −1 1 2 + tan−1 1 5 + tan−1 1 8. In 1847 Clausen ‡‡ carried the approximation to 250 places of decimals (248 correct), calculating it independently by the formulae 1 4 π = 2 tan−1 1 3 + tan−1 1 7 and 1 4 π = 4 tan−1 1 5 − tan−1 1 239. In1853Rutherford §§carriedhisformerapproximationto 440places of decimals (all correct), and William Shanks prolonged the approxima- tionto 530places. InthesameyearShankspublishedanapproximation * W. Jones’sSynopsis Palmariorum, London, 1706, p. 243; and Maseres,Scrip- tores Logarithmici, London, 1796, vol.iii, pp. vii–ix, 155–164. † Histoire de l’Académiefor 1719, Paris, 1721, p. 144. ‡ Philosophical Transactions, 1776, vol.lxvi, pp. 476–492. § Nova Acta Academiae Scientiarum Petropolitanaefor 1793, St Petersburg, 1798, vol. xi, pp. 133–149: the memoir was read in 1779. ∥ Nova Acta Academiae Scientiarum Petropolitanaefor 1790, St Petersburg, 1795, vol. ix, p. 41. ¶ Thesaurus Logarithmorum (logarithmisch-trigonometrischer Tafeln), Leipzig, 1794, p. 633. ** Philosophical Transactions, 1841, p. 283. ††Crelle’s Journal, 1844, vol.xxvii, p. 198. ‡‡Schumacher,Astronomische Nachrichten, vol. xxv, col. 207. §§ Proceedings of the Royal Society, Jan. 20, 1853, vol.vi, pp. 273-275.", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 236 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00238", "bookId": 26839, "start": 524610, "end": 526808, "sha256": "4d56252097fe2b0eb6327a2e189730fd061b696ccd9532a112ce171743d5f872", "text": "[PDF page 237] CH. VIII] APPROXIMATIONS TO THE V ALUE OF π. 221 to 607 places*: and in 1873 he carried the approximation to707 places of decimals†. These were calculated from Machin’s formula. In 1853 Richter, presumably in ignorance of what had been done in England, foundthevalueof π to 333places‡ofdecimals( 330correct); in 1854 he carried the approximation to400 places§; and in 1855 carried it to 500 places∥. Of the series and formulae by which these approximations have been calculated, those used by Machin and Dase are perhaps the easiest to employ. Other series which converge rapidly are the following, π 6 = 1 2 + 1 2 · 1 3 · 23 + 1 · 3 2 · 4 · 1 5 · 25 + · · · , and π 4 = 2 + 22 tan−1 1 28 + tan−1 1 443 − 5 tan−1 1 1393 − 10 tan−1 1 11018 , the latter of these is due to Mr Escott¶. As to those writers who believe that they have squared the circle their number is legion and, in most cases, their ignorance profound, but their attempts are not worth discussing here. “Only prove to me that it is impossible,” said one of them, “and I will set about it immediately”; and doubtless the statement that the problem is insoluble has attracted much attention to it. Among the geometrical ways of approximating to the truth the following is one of the simplest. Inscribe in the given circle a square, and to three times the diameter of the circle add a fifth of a side of the square, the result will differ from the circumference of the circle by less than one-seventeen-thousandth part of it. An approximate value ofπ has been obtained experimentally by the theory of probability. On a plane a number of equidistant parallel straight lines, distance aparta, are ruled; and a stick of lengthl, which * Contributions to Mathematics, W. Shanks, London, 1853, pp. 86, 87. † Proceedings of the Royal Society, 1872–3, vol.xxi, p. 318; 1873–4, vol.xxii, p. 45. ‡ Grunert’s Archiv, vol. xxi, p. 119. § Ibid., vol. xxiii, p. 476: the approximation given in vol.xxii, p. 473, is correct only to 330 places. ∥ Ibid., vol. xxv, p. 472; andElbingen Anzeigen, No. 85. ¶ L’Intermédiaire des mathématiciens, Paris, Dec. 1896, vol.iii, p. 276.", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 237 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00239", "bookId": 26839, "start": 526810, "end": 528182, "sha256": "76b69c6f62e8ab32d63d630d75e55e542689cdd8fb649a75d800e15ef19af9e0", "text": "[PDF page 238] 222 THREE GEOMETRICAL PROBLEMS. [CH. VIII is less thana, is dropped on to the plane. The probability that it will fall so as to lie across one of the lines is2l/πa. If the experiment is repeated many hundreds of times, the ratio of the number of favourable cases to the whole number of experiments will be very nearly equal to this fraction: hence the value ofπ can be found. In 1855 Mr A. Smith* of Aberdeen made3204trials, and deducedπ = 3.1553. A pupil of Prof. De Morgan*, from600 trials, deducedπ = 3.137. In 1864 Captain Fox† made 1120 trials with some additional precautions, and obtained as the mean value π = 3 .1419. Other similar methods of approximating to the value ofπ have been indicated. For instance, it is known that if two numbers are written down at random, the probability that they will be prime to each other is 6/π2. Thus, in one case‡ where each of 50 students wrote down 5 pairs of numbers at random,154 of the pairs were found to consist of numbers prime to each other. This gives6/π2 = 154/250, from which we get π = 3 .12. * A. De Morgan, Budget of Paradoxes, London, 1872, pp. 171, 172 [quoted from an article by De Morgan published in 1861]. † Messenger of Mathematics, Cambridge, 1873, vol.ii, pp. 113, 114. ‡ Note onπ by R. Chartres.Philosophical Magazine, London, series 6, vol.xxxix, March, 1904, p. 315.", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 238 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00240", "bookId": 26839, "start": 528184, "end": 530013, "sha256": "2b479c5c039aacb05c0352b913f5228d571641b2213aef6aa6e85d1a461135e9", "text": "[PDF page 239] CHAPTER IX. MERSENNE’S NUMBERS. One of the unsolved riddles of higher arithmetic, to which I have alluded in Chapter I, is the discovery of the method by which Mersenne or his contemporaries determined values ofp which make a number of the form 2p − 1 a prime. It is convenient to describe such primes as Mersenne’s Numbers. In this chapter, for shortness, I use N to denote a number of the form2p − 1. In a memoir in theMessenger of Mathematics in 1891 I gave a brief sketch of the history of the problem. I here repeat the facts in somewhat more detail, and add a sketch of methods used in attacking the problem. Mersenne’s enunciation of the results associated with his name is in the preface to hisCogitata†. The passage is as follows: “Vbi fuerit operae pretium aduerterexxviii numeros a Petro Bungo pro perfectis exhibitos, capite xxviii, libri de Numeris, non esse omnes Perfectos, quippe20sunt imperfecti, adeovt [adeunt?] solos octo perfectos habeat...qui sunt è regione tabulae Bungi, 1, 2, 3, 4, 8, 10, 12, et 29: quique soli perfecti sunt, vt qui Bungum habuerint, errori medicinam faciant. Porrò numeri perfecti adeo rari sunt, vt vndecim dumtaxat potuerint hactenus inueniri: hoc est, alii tres a Bongianis differentes: neque enim vllus est alius perfectus ab illis octo, nisi superes exponentem numerum 62, progressionis duplae ab1 incipientis. Nonus enim perfectus est potes- tas exponentis 68 minus 1. Decimus, potestas exponentis 128, minus 1. Vndecimus denique, potestas258, minus 1, hoc est potestas257, vnitate decurtata, multiplicata per potestatem256. Qui vndecim alios repererit, nouerit se analysim omnem, quae fuerit hactenus, superasse: memineritque interea nullum esse perfectum à17000 † Cogitata Physico-Mathematica, Paris, 1644, praefatio generalis, article 19. 223", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 239 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00241", "bookId": 26839, "start": 530015, "end": 532740, "sha256": "fe77f34ef86d09f2e60849e344dd523e864f64d6e530139769ffdcc28db1598f", "text": "[PDF page 240] 224 MERSENNE’S NUMBERS. [CH. IX potestate ad 32000; & nullum potestatum interuallum tantum assignari posse, quin detur illud absque perfectis. Verbi gratia, si fuerit exponens 1050000, nullus erit numerus progressionis duplae vsque ad2090000, qui perfectis numeris seruiat, hoc est qui minor vnitate, primus existat. Vnde clarum est quàm rari sint perfecti numeri, & quàm merito viris perfectis comparentur; esseque vnam ex maximis totius Matheseos diffi- cultatibus, praescriptam numerorum perfectorum multitudinum exhibere; quemadmodum & agnoscere num dati numeri15, aut20 caracteribus con- stantes, sint primi necne, cùm nequidem saeculum integrum huic examini, quocumque modo hactenus cognito, sufficiat. It is evident that, ifp is not a prime, thenN is composite, and two or more of its factors can be written down by inspection. Hence we may confine ourselves to prime values ofp. Mersenne, in effect, asserted that the only values ofp, not greater than257, which makeN a prime, are 1, 2, 3, 5, 7, 13, 17, 19, 31, 67, 127, 257: I assume that the number67 is a misprint for61. With this correction we have no reason to doubt the truth of the statement, but it has not been definitely established. There are 56 primes not greater than257. The determination of the prime or composite character ofN for the 9 cases whenp is less than 20 presents no difficulty: in only one of them is N composite. For 2 of the remaining 47 cases (namely, whenp = 23 and 37) the decomposition of N had been given by Fermat. For 9 of them (namely, when p = 29, 43, 73, 83, 131, 179, 191, 239, 251) the factors ofN were given by Euler. He also proved thatN was prime whenp = 31. Plana gave the factors ofN when p = 41. Landry and Le Lasseur discovered the factors in 10 cases (namely, whenp = 47, 53, 59, 79, 97, 113, 151, 211, 223, and 233), but their analysis has not been published. Seelhoff showed that N was prime whenp = 61, Cunningham gave the factors when p = 197, and Cole the factors whenp = 67. Statements have been made that the composite character ofN when p = 89, and its prime character whenp = 127 have been proved, but the proofs have not been published or verified. Thus there are21 values of p for which Mersenne’s statement still awaits verification. These are71, 89, 101, 103, 107, 109, 127, 137, 139, 149, 157, 163, 167, 173, 181, 193, 199, 227, 229, 241, 257. For these values N is (according to Mersenne) prime whenp = 127, and257, and is composite for the other values, but as explained above it is probable that the character ofN is known whenp = 89 and 127. To put the matter in another way. According to Mersenne’s state- ment (corrected by the substitution of61 for 67), 44 of the 56 primes", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 240 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00242", "bookId": 26839, "start": 532742, "end": 535323, "sha256": "b7db7508effa0df67333387c202d5a73b7476bf6a1111e743f2605d16ab19407", "text": "[PDF page 241] CH. IX] MERSENNE’S NUMBERS. 225 less than258 make N composite and the remaining12 primes makeN prime. In 25 out of the44 cases in whichN is said to be composite we know its factors, and in19 cases the statement is still unverified. In10 out of the 12 cases in which he said thatN was prime his statement has been verified, and in2 cases it is still unverified. From the wording of the last clause in the above quotation it has been conjectured that the result had been communicated to Mersenne, and that he published it without being aware of how it was proved. In itself this seems probable. He was a good mathematician, but not an exceptional genius. It would be strange if he established a proposition which has baffled Euler, Lagrange, Legendre, Gauss, Jacobi, and other mathematicians of the first rank; but if the proposition is due to Fer- mat, with whom Mersenne was in constant correspondence, the case is altered, and not only is the absence of a demonstration explained, but we cannot be sure that we have attacked the problem on the best lines. The known results as to the prime or composite character ofN, and in the latter case its smallest factor, are given in the table on the following page. The cases that remain as yet unverified are marked with an asterisk. Before describing the methods used for attacking the problem it will be convenient to state in more detail when and by whom these results were established. The factors (if any) of such values ofN as are less than a million can be verified easily: they have been known for a long time, and I need not allude to them in detail. The factors of N when p = 11, 23, and 37 had been indicated by Fermat*, some four years prior to the publication of Mersenne’s work, in a letter dated October 18, 1640. The passage is as follows: Enlaprogressiondouble, sid’unnombrequarré, généralementparlant, vous ôtez 2 ou 8 ou 32 &c., les nombres premiers moindres de l’unite qu’unmultipleduquaternaire, quimesurerontlereste, ferontl’effetrequis. Comme de 25, qui est un quarré, ôtez 2; le reste 23 mesurera la 11e puissance −1; ôtez 2 de 49, le reste 47 mesurera la 23e puissance −1. Ôtez 2 de 225, le reste223 mesurera la 37e puissance −1, &c. The factors of N when p = 29, 43, and 73 were given by Euler† * Oeuvres de Fermat, Paris, vol.ii, 1894, p. 210; orOpera Mathematica, Toulouse, 1679, p. 164; or Brassinne’sPrécis, Paris, 1853, p. 144. † Commentarii Academiae Scientiarum Petropolitanae, 1738, vol. vi, p. 103; or Commentationes Arithmeticae Collectae, vol. i, p. 2.", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 241 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00243", "bookId": 26839, "start": 535325, "end": 536813, "sha256": "d61429f68e6bc96e8f9beb4a59abcfea525f83611c4a8f2954f3a727899dc76e", "text": "[PDF page 242] 226 MERSENNE’S NUMBERS. [CH. IX p Value of N = 2 p − 1 1 1 prime 2 3 prime 3 7 prime 5 31 prime 7 127 prime 11 2047 = 23 × 89 composite 13 8191 prime 17 131071 prime 19 524287 prime 23 8388607 = 47 × 178481 composite Fermat 29 536870911 = 233 × 1103 × 2089 composite Euler 31 2147483647 prime Euler 37 137438953471 = 223 × 616318177 composite Fermat 41 2199023255551 = 13367 × 164511353 composite Plana 43 8796093022207 = 431 × 9719 × 2099863 composite Euler 47 2351 × 4513 × 13264529 composite Landry 53 6361 × 69431 × 20394401 composite Landry 59 179951 × 3203431780337 composite Landry 61 2305843009213693951 prime Seelhoff 67 ≡ 0 (193707721) composite Cole 71 2361183241434822606847 ∗ 73 ≡ 0 (439) composite Euler 79 ≡ 0 (2687) composite Le Lasseur 83 ≡ 0 (167) composite Euler 89 618970019642690137449562111 ∗ 97 ≡ 0 (11447) composite Le Lasseur 101 2535301200456458802993406410751 ∗ 103 10141204801825835211973625643007 ∗ 107 162259276829213363391578010288127 ∗ 109 649037107316853453566312041152511 ∗ 113 ≡ 0 (3391) composite Le Lasseur 127 170141183460469231731687303715884105727 ∗ 131 ≡ 0 (263) composite Euler 137 .................................... ∗ 139 .................................... ∗ 149 .................................... ∗ 151 ≡ 0 (18121) composite Le Lasseur 157 .................................... ∗ 163 .................................... ∗ 167 .................................... ∗", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 242 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00244", "bookId": 26839, "start": 536815, "end": 538996, "sha256": "7118c4750606de8e901ef9a6a957340da7ce572074f9c55cd9e33b66b7f562f4", "text": "[PDF page 243] CH. IX] MERSENNE’S NUMBERS. 227 p Value of N = 2 p − 1 173 .................................... ∗ 179 ≡ 0 (359) composite Euler 181 .................................... ∗ 191 ≡ 0 (383) composite Euler 193 .................................... ∗ 197 ≡ 0 (7487) composite Cunningham 199 .................................... ∗ 211 ≡ 0 (15193) composite Le Lasseur 223 ≡ 0 (18287) composite Le Lasseur 227 .................................... ∗ 229 .................................... ∗ 233 ≡ 0 (1399) composite Le Lasseur 239 ≡ 0 (479) composite Euler 241 .................................... ∗ 251 ≡ 0 (503) composite Euler 257 .................................... ∗ in 1732. The fact that N is composite for the values p = 83, 131, 179, 191, 239, and 251 follows from a proposition enunciated, at the same time, by Euler to the effect that, if4n + 3and 8n + 7are primes, then 24n+3 − 1 ≡ 0 (mod 8 n + 7). This was proved by Lagrange* in his classical memoir of 1775. The proposition also covers the cases of p = 11 and p = 23. This is the only general theorem on the subject which is yet established. The fact that N is prime when p = 31 was proved by Euler† in 1771. Fermat had asserted, in the letter mentioned above, that the only possible prime factors of2p ± 1, when p was prime, were of the form np + 1, where n is an integer. This was proved by Euler‡in 1748, who added that, since 2p ± 1 is odd, every factor of it must be odd, and therefore if p is odd n must be even. But if p is a given number we can definen much more closely, and Euler showed that the prime factors (if any) of231 − 1 were necessarily primes of the form248n + 1 or 248n+63; also they must be less than √ 231 − 1, that is, than46339. * Nouveaux Mémoires de l’Académie des Sciences de Berlin, 1775, pp. 323–356. † Histoire de l’Académie des Sciencesfor 1772, Berlin, 1774, p. 36. See also Legendre, Théorie des Nombres, third edition, Paris, 1830, vol.i, pp. 222–229. ‡ Novi Commentarii Academiae Scientiarum Petropolitanae, vol.i, p. 20; orCom- mentationes Arithmeticae Collectae, St Petersburg, 1849, vol.i, pp. 55, 56.", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 243 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00245", "bookId": 26839, "start": 538998, "end": 541338, "sha256": "b95be5e65adbfae584e9ee45b4ed704082fda3aa93d2ed5ea19b6fd06086dd9a", "text": "[PDF page 244] 228 MERSENNE’S NUMBERS. [CH. IX Hence it is necessary to try only forty divisors to see if231 − 1 is a prime or composite. The factors of N when p = 41 were given by Plana* in 1859. He showed that the prime factors (if any) are primes of the form328n+1 or 328n+247, and lie between1231 and √ 241 − 1, that is,1048573. Hence it is necessary to try only513 divisors to see if241 − 1 is composite: the seventeenth of these divisors gives the required factors. This is the same method of attacking the problem which was used by Euler in 1771, but it would be very laborious to employ it for values ofp greater than 41. Plana † added the forms of the prime divisors ofN, if p is not greater than 101. That N is prime when p = 127 seems to have been verified by Lucas‡in 1876 and 1877. The demonstration has not been published. The discovery of the factors ofN for the valuesp = 47, 53, and59 is due apparently to the late F. Landry, who established theorems on the factors (if any) of numbers of certain forms. Instead of publishing his results he issued a challenge to all mathematicians to solve the general problem. This is contained in a rare pamphlet published at Paris in 1867, of which I possess a copy, in which the factors of certain numbers are given, and on page 8 of which it is implied that he had obtained the factors of 2p − 1 when p = 47, 53, and 59. He seems to have communicated his results to Lucas, who quoted them in the memoir cited below§. The factors of N when p = 79 and 113 were given first by Le Lasseur, and were quoted by Lucas in the same memoir§. A factor of N when p = 233 was discovered later by Le Lasseur, and was quoted by Lucas in 1882∥. The factors ofN when p = 97, 151, 211, and 223 were determined subsequently by Le Lasseur, and were quoted by Lucas¶ in 1883. * G.A.A. Plana, Memorie della Reale Accademia delle Scienze di Torino, Series 2, vol. xx, 1863, p. 130. † Ibid., p. 137. ‡ Sur la Théorie des Nombres Premiers, Turin, 1876, p. 11; andRecherches sur les Ouvrages de Léonard de Pise, Rome, 1877, p. 26, quoted by Lieut.-Colonel A.J.C. Cunningham,Proceedings of the London Mathematical Society, Nov. 14, 1895, vol. xxvii, p. 54. § American Journal of Mathematics, 1878, vol.i, p. 236. ∥ Récréations, 1882–3, vol.i, p. 241. ¶ Ibid., vol. ii, p. 230.", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 244 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00246", "bookId": 26839, "start": 541340, "end": 543673, "sha256": "93e11bb0a979b791ebcdad137fb76a8f69cb9e741218323e174be355e559427e", "text": "[PDF page 245] CH. IX] MERSENNE’S NUMBERS. 229 That N is prime whenp = 61 had been conjectured by Landry and in 1886 a demonstration was offered by Seelhoff*. His demonstration is open to criticism, but the fact has been verified by others†, and may be accepted as proved. That N is composite when p = 89 seems to have been verified by Lucas‡in 1891, but the demonstration has not been published, nor have the actual factors been discovered. That 7487 is a factor ofN when p = 197 was shown by A.J.C. Cun- ningham in 1895§. That N is not prime whenp = 67 seems to have been verified by Lucas∥ in 1876 and 1877. The composite nature of1 N = 2p − 1 when p = 67 was confirmed by E. Fauquembergue¶, and was also implied by Lucas** in 1891. The factors were given by F.N. Cole††in 1903. Bickmore in the memoir‡‡cited below showed that1433 is another factor of N if p = 179; and that 1913 and 5737 are other factors of N if p = 239 . I turn next to consider the methods by which these results can be obtained. It is impossible to believe that the statement made by Mersenne rested on an empirical conjecture, but the riddle as to how it was discovered is still, after nearly 250 years, unsolved. I cannot offer any solution of the riddle. But it may be interesting to indicate some ways which have been used in attacking the problem. * P.H.H. Seelhoff, Zeitschrift für Mathematik und Physik, 1886, vol.xxxi, p. 178. † See Weber-Wellstein, Encyclopaedie der Elementar-Mathematik, p. 48; and F.N. Cole, Bulletin of the American Mathematical Society, December, 1903, p. 136. ‡ Théorie des Nombres, Paris, 1891, p. 376. § Proceedings of the London Mathematical Society, March 14, 1895, vol. xxvi, p. 261. ∥ Sur la Théorie des Nombres Premiers, Turin, 1876, p. 11, quoted by Lieut- Colonel A.J.C. Cunningham,Proceedings of the London Mathematical Society, Nov. 14, 1895, vol.xxvii, p. 54, andRecherches sur les Ouvrages de Léonard de Pise, Rome, 1877, p. 26. ¶ L’Intermédiaire des mathématiciens, Paris, Sept. 1894, vol.i, p. 148. ** Théorie des Nombres, Paris, 1891, p. 376. ††On the Factoring of Large Numbers, Bulletin of the American Mathematical Society, December, 1903, pp. 134–137. ‡‡C.E. Bickmore,Messenger of Mathematics, Cambridge, 1895, vol.xxv, p. 19. 1. Corrected: originally N 2p = 1", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 245 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00247", "bookId": 26839, "start": 543675, "end": 546340, "sha256": "e8bdac89f57f66e16ca9d3797fa4e690606634687970184ba53ddf47c2414f2d", "text": "[PDF page 246] 230 MERSENNE’S NUMBERS. [CH. IX The object is to find a prime divisorq (other thanN and 1) of a number N when N is of the form2p −1 and p is a prime. It can be easily shown that q must be of the form2pt + 1. Also q must be of one of the forms 8i ± 1: for N is of the form 2A2 − B2, where A is even and B odd, hence* any factor of it must be of the form2a2 − b2, that is, of the form 8i±1, and 2 must be a quadratic residue ofq. The theory of residues is, however, of but little use in finding factors of the cases that still await solution, though the possibility some day of finding a complete series of solutions by properties of residues must not be neglected†. Our present knowledge of the means of factorizingN has been summed up in the statement‡that a prime factor of the form2pt+1 can be found directly by rules due to Legendre, Gauss, and Jacobi, whent = 1, 3, 4, 8, or 12; and that a factor of the form2ptt′ + 1 can be found indirectly by a method due to Bickmore whent = 1, 3, 4, 8, or 12, and t′ is an odd integer greater than3. But this only indicates how little has yet been done towards finding a general solution of the problem. First. There is the simple but crude method of trying all possible prime divisors q which are of the form2pt + 1 as well as of one of the forms 8i ± 1. The chief known results for the smaller factors may be summarized by saying that a prime of this form will divideN when t = 1, ifp = 11, 23, 83, 131, 179, 191, 239, or 251; when t = 3, if p = 37, 73, or 233; when t = 5, if p = 43; when t = 15, if p = 113; when t = 17, if p = 79; when t = 19, if p = 29, or 197; when t = 25, if p = 47; when t = 41, if p = 223; when t = 59, if p = 97; when t = 163, if p = 41; when t = 1525, if p = 59; when t = 4, if p = 11, 29, 179, or 239; when t = 8, if p = 11; when t = 12, if p = 239; when t = 36, if p = 29, or211; when t = 60, if p = 53, or 151; and when t = 1445580, if p = 67. Of the 25 cases in which we know that Mersenne’s statement of the composite character ofN is correct all save 3 can be easily verified by trial in this way. For neglecting all values oft not exceeding, say, * Legendre, Théorie des Nombres, third edition, Paris, 1830, vol.i, § 143. In the case of Mersenne’s numbers,B = b = 1. † For methods of finding the residue indices of2see Bickmore,Messenger of Math- ematics, May, 1895, vol.xxv, pp. 15–21; see also Lieut-Colonel A.J.C. Cunning- ham on 2 as a 16-ic residue, Proceedings of the London Mathematical Society, 1895–6, vol.xxvii, pp. 85–122. ‡ Transactions of the British Association for the Advancement of Science(Ipswich Meeting), 1895, p. 614.", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 246 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00248", "bookId": 26839, "start": 546342, "end": 548788, "sha256": "bbfcc934c882150e76a72e89531984a665a6a17b6c9c66757d12f62a6111ce61", "text": "[PDF page 247] CH. IX] MERSENNE’S NUMBERS. 231 60 which make q either composite or not of one of the forms8i ± 1 we have in each case only some20 or so divisors to try. Of the 3 other cases in which Mersenne’s statement of the composite character ofN has been verified, one verification (p = 41) is due to Plana, who frankly confessed that the result was reached “par un heureux hasard”; a second is due to Landry (p = 59), who did not explain how he obtained the factors; and the third is due to Cole (p = 67), who established it by the use of quadratic residues ofN, involving laborious numerical work. Of the 10 cases in which we know that Mersenne’s statement of the prime character of N is correct all save one may be verified by trial in this way, for the number of possible factors is not large. The exception is the case wherep equals 61, which Seelhoff and others have shown to be prime. Thus practically we may say that simple empirical trials would at once lead us to all the conclusions known except in the case ofp = 41 due to Plana, ofp = 59 due to Landry, ofp = 61 due to Seelhoff, and of p = 67 due to Cole. In fact, save for these four results the conclusions of all mathematicians to date could be obtained by anyone by a few hours’ arithmetical work. As p increases the number of factors to be tried increases so fast that, ifp is large, it would be practically impossible to apply the test to obtain large factors. This is an important point, for it has been asserted that in the cases still awaiting verification there are no factors less than 50, 000. Hence, we may take it as reasonably certain that this cannot have been the method by which the result was originally obtained; nor, as here enunciated, is it likely to give many factors not yet known. Of course it is possible there may be ways by which the number of possible values oft might be further limited, and if we could find them we might thus diminish the number of possible factors to be tried, but it will be observed that the values of N which still await verification are very large, for instance, whenp = 257, N contains no less than78 digits. It is hardly necessary to add that ifq is known and is not very large we can determine whether or not it is a factor ofN without the labour of performing the division. For instance, if we want to verify thatq = 13367 is a factor ofN when p = 41, we proceed thus. Take the power of2 nearest to q or to", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 247 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00249", "bookId": 26839, "start": 548790, "end": 550313, "sha256": "33f20ed4dcc7c939e488df0e2e5b4ad3536d59c80c10e5c5af69c57b4a0a28d0", "text": "[PDF page 248] 232 MERSENNE’S NUMBERS. [CH. IX its square-root. We have to the modulusq 214 = 16384 ≡ 3017 ≡ 7 × 431 , ∴ 228 ≡ 49(−1377) ≡ −638 , ∴ 227 ≡ −319 , ∴ 214+27 ≡ (3017)(−319) ≡ 1 , ∴ 241 ≡ 1 . Second. We can proceed by reducing the problem to the solution of an indeterminate equation. It is clear that we can obtain a factor ofN if we can express it as the difference of the squares, or more generally of thenth powers, of two integers u and v. Further, if we can express a multiple ofN, say mN, in this form, we can find a factor ofmN and (with certain obvious limitations as to the value ofm) this will lead to a factor ofN. It may be also added that ifm can be found so thatN/m is expressible as a continued fraction of a certain form, a certain continuant* defined by the form of the continued fraction is a factor ofN. Since N can always be expressed as the difference of two squares, this method seems a natural one by which to attack the problem. If we put N = n2 + a = (n + b)2 − (b2 + 2bn − a), we can make use of the known forms ofu and v, and thus obtain an indeterminate equation between two variablesx and y of the form x2 = (2py + H)2 − 4(K − y) where H and K are numbers which can be easily calculated. Integral values of x and y where y < K will determine values ofu and v, and thus give factors of N. We can also attack the problem by indeterminate equations in an- * See J.G. Birch in theMessenger of Mathematics, August, 1902, vol.xxii, pp. 52– 55.", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 248 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00250", "bookId": 26839, "start": 550315, "end": 552028, "sha256": "bd639ccb29d094ffa9844a879b2efe09f549fe09783fc73cb8e2b54c536f7319", "text": "[PDF page 249] CH. IX] MERSENNE’S NUMBERS. 233 other way. For the factors must be of the form2pt+1 and 8ps+1, hence (2pt + 1)(8ps + 1) = N , = 2p − 1 , = 2(2p−1 − 1) + 1, ∴ 4s + t + 8pst = (2p−1 − 1)/p , = (say)α + 8pβ . Hence 4s + t = α + 8px, and st = β − x , where x ≯ β and t is odd. These results again lead to an indetermi- nate equation. But, in both cases, unless p is small, the resulting equations are intractable. Third. A not uncommon method of attacking problems such as this, dealing with the factorization of large numbers, is through the theory of quadratic forms*. At best this is a difficult method to use, and we have no reason to think that it would have been employed by a mathematician of the seventeenth century. I here content myself with alluding to it. Fourth. There is yet another way in which the problem might be attacked. The problem will be solved if we can find an odd primeq so that to it as modulus2p+y ≡ z, and 2y ≡ z, where y and z may have any values we like to choose. If such values ofq, y, andz can be found, we have2y(2p − 1) ≡ 0. Therefore 2p = 1, that is,q is a divisor ofN. For example, to the modulus23, we have 28 ≡ 3 , 216 ≡ 32 . Also 25 ≡ 32 . Therefore 216 − 25 ≡ 0 , ∴ 211 − 1 ≡ 0 . Without going further into the matter we may say that theà priori determination of the values q, y, and z introduces us to an almost * For a sketch of this see G.B. Mathews,Theory of Numbers, part 1, Cambridge, 1891, pp. 261-271. See also F.N. Cole’s paper, On the Factoring of Large Num- bers, Bulletin of the American Mathematical Society, December, 1903, pp. 134- 137; andQuadratic Partitionsby A.J.C. Cunningham, London, 1904.", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 249 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00251", "bookId": 26839, "start": 552030, "end": 554486, "sha256": "8576cfd2f4ba6f3206dfadd59053dec8af3ef67ec7577663885855a92e1b6d9d", "text": "[PDF page 250] 234 MERSENNE’S NUMBERS. [CH. IX untrodden field. It is just possible (though I should suppose unlikely) that the key to the riddle is to be found on methods of findingq, y, z, to satisfy the above conditions. For instance, if we could say what was the remainder when2x was divided by a primeq of the form2pt + 1, and if the remainders were the same whenx = u and x = v, then to the modulus q we should have,2u ≡ 2v, and therefore2u−v ≡ 1. It should however be noted that Jacobi’sCanon Arithmeticus and the similar canon drawn up by Cunningham would, if carried far enough, enable us to solve the problem by this method. Cunningham’s Canon gives the solution of the congruence2x ≡ R for all prime moduli less than1000, but it is of no use in determining factors ofN larger than 1000. It is however possible that ifR or q have certain forms such a canon might be constructed, and thus lead to a solution of the problem. Fifth. It is noteworthy that the odd values of p specified by Mersenne are primes of one of the four forms2q ± 1 or 2q ± 3, but it is not the case that all primes of these forms makeN a prime, for instance, N is composite ifp = 23 + 3 = 11 or if p = 25 − 3 = 29. This fact has suggested to more than one mathematician the possi- bility that some test as to the prime or composite character ofN when p is of one of these forms may be discoverable. Of course this is merely a conjecture. There is however this to say for it, that we know that Fermat* had paid attention to numbers of this form. Sixth. The numberN when expressed in the binary scale, consists of 1 repeated p times. This has suggested whether the work connected with the determination of factors ofN might not with advantage be expressed in the binary scale. A method based on the use of properties of this scale has been indicated by G. de Longchamps†, but as there given it would be unlikely to lead to the discovery of large divisors. I am, however, inclined to think that greater advantages would be gained by working in a scale whose radix was4p or may-be 8p—the resulting numbers being then expressed by a reasonably small number of digits. In fact when expressed in the latter scale in only one out of the 25 cases in which the factors ofN are known does the smallest factor contain more than two digits. * Ex. gr., see above, page 31. † Comptes rendus de l’Académie des Sciences, Paris, Nov. 1877, vol. lxxxv, pp. 950–952.", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 250 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00252", "bookId": 26839, "start": 554488, "end": 556633, "sha256": "13137f308dcdb3320daa31eb8f7cd7edc43b836efa850b500dbe81d5f0f8e833", "text": "[PDF page 251] CH. IX] MERSENNE’S NUMBERS. 235 Seventh. I have reserved to the last the description of the method which seems to me to be the most hopeful. We know by Fermat’s Theorem that ifx + 1is a prime then2x − 1 is divisible by x + 1. Hence if 2pt + 1 is a prime we have, to the modulus 2pt + 1 22pt − 1 ≡ 0 , ∴ (2p − 1)(1 + 2p + 22p + · · · + 2(2t−1)p) ≡ 0 . Hence, a divisor of2p − 1 will be known, if we can find a value oft such that 2pt + 1 is prime and the second factor is prime to it. This method may be used to establish Euler’s theorem of 1732. For if we putt = 1, and if2p + 1is a prime, we have, to the modulus2p + 1 (2p − 1)(2p + 1) ≡ 0 . Hence 2p ≡ 1 if 2p + 1is prime to2p + 1. This is the case ifp = 4m + 3. Hence 2p + 1 is a factor ofN if p = 11, 23, 83, 131, 179, 191, 239, and 251, for in these cases2p + 1 is prime. The problem of Mersenne’s Numbers is a particular case of the de- termination of the factors ofan −1. This has been the subject of inves- tigations by many mathematicians: an outline of their conclusions has been given by Bickmore*. I ought also to add a reference to the general method suggested by F.W. Lawrence†for the factorization of any high number: it is possible that Fermat used some method analogous to this. Finally, I should add that machines‡ have been devised for inves- tigating whether a number is prime, but I do not know that any have been constructed suitable for numbers as large as those involved in the numbers in question. * Messenger of Mathematics, Cambridge, 1895–6, vol.xxv, pp. 1–44; also 1896–7, vol. xxvi, pp. 1–38; see also a note by Mr E.B. Escott in theMessenger, 1903–4, vol. xxxiii, p. 49. † Ibid., 1894–5, vol.xxiv, pp. 100–109;Quarterly Journal of Mathematics, 1896, vol. xxviii, pp. 285–311; andTransactions of the London Mathematical Society, May 13, 1897, vol.xxviii, pp. 465–475. ‡ F.W. Lawrence, Quarterly Journal of Mathematics , 1896, already quoted, pp. 310–311; see also C.A. Laisant,Comptes Rendus Association Français pour l’avancement des sciences, 1891 (Marseilles), vol.xx, pp. 165–8.", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 251 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00253", "bookId": 26839, "start": 556635, "end": 558410, "sha256": "15e01d6b82ee2218d39325c2ec06bbc704c4c4be8c6f6a5d0a461e44af431ead", "text": "[PDF page 252] CHAPTER X. ASTROLOGY. Astrologers professed to be able to foretell the future, and within certain limits to control it. I propose to give in this chapter a concise account of the rules they used for this purpose†. I have not attempted to discuss the astrology of periods earlier than the middle ages, for the technical laws of the ancient astrology are not known with accuracy. At the same time there is no doubt that, as far back as we have any definite historical information, the art was practised in the East; that thence it was transplanted to Egypt, Greece, and Rome; and that the medieval astrology was founded on it. It is probable that the rules did not differ materially from those described in this chapter‡, and it may be added that the more intelligent thinkers of the old world recognised that the art had no valid pretences to accuracy. I may note also that the history of the development of the art ceases with the general acceptance of the Copernican theory, after which the practice of astrology rapidly became a mere cloak for imposture. † I have relied mainly on theManual of Astrologyby Raphael—whose real name was R.C. Smith—London, 1828, to which the references to Raphael hereafter given apply; and on Cardan’s writings, especially his commentary on Ptolemy’s work and hisGeniturarum Exempla. I am indebted also for various references and gossip to Whewell’sHistory of the Inductive Sciences; to various works by Raphael, published in London between 1825 and 1832; and to a pamphlet by M. Uhlemann, entitledGrundzüge der Astronomie und Astrologie, Leipzig, 1857. ‡ On the influences attributed to the planets, seeThe Dialogue of Bardesan on Fate, translated by W. Cureton in theSpicilegium Syriacum, London, 1855. 236", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 252 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00254", "bookId": 26839, "start": 558412, "end": 560966, "sha256": "de92d0118da710e858bc2c042fcbea2f28fc91e942801e15304a78c372e62e27", "text": "[PDF page 253] CH. X] ASTROLOGY. 237 All the rules of the medieval astrology—to which I confine myself— are based on the Ptolemaic astronomy, and originate in theTetrabiblos* whichissaid, itmaybefalsely, tohavebeenwrittenbyPtolemyhimself. The art was developed by numerous subsequent writers, especially by Albohazen†, and Firmicus. The last of these collected the works of most of his predecessors in a volume‡, which remained a standard authority until the close of the sixteenth century. I may begin by reminding the reader that though there was a fairly general agreement as to the methods of procedure and interpretation— which alone I attempt to describe—yet there was no such thing as a fixed code of rules or a standard text-book. It is therefore difficult to reduce the rules to any precise and definite form, and almost impossi- ble, within the limits of a chapter, to give detailed references. At the same time the practice of the elements of the art was tolerably well established and uniform, and I feel no doubt that my account, as far as it goes, is substantially correct. There were two distinct problems with which astrologers concerned themselves. One was the determination in general outline of the life and fortunes of an enquirer: this was known asnatal astrology, and was effected by the erection of ascheme of nativity. The other was the means of answering any specific question about the individual: this was known ashorary astrology. Both depended on the casting or erecting of a horoscope. The person for whom it was erected was known as the native. A horoscope was cast according to the following rules§. The space between two concentric and similarly situated squares was divided into twelve spaces, as shown in the annexed diagram. These twelve spaces were known technically ashouses; they were numbered consecutively 1, 2, . . . ,12 (see figure); and were described as the first house, the se- cond house, and so on. The dividing lines were termedcusps: the line between the houses 12 and 1 was called the cusp of the first house, the line between the houses1 and 2 was called the cusp of the second house, and so on, finally the line between the houses11 and 12 was called the cusp of the twelfth house. Each house had also a name of its * There is an English translation by J. Wilson, London [n.d.]; and a French trans- lation is given in Halma’s edition of Ptolemy’s works. † De judiciis astrorum, ed. Liechtenstein, Basle, 1571. ‡ Astronomicorum, eight books, Venice, 1499. § Raphael, pp. 91–109.", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 253 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00255", "bookId": 26839, "start": 560968, "end": 562479, "sha256": "5a4ac3f24e4163f20cb1715148221cfb6e4dadbec6855fa20ef40d3066610601", "text": "[PDF page 254] 238 ASTROLOGY. [CH. X 3 4 5 2 1 12 11 10 9 6 7 8 own—thus the first house was called the ascendant house, the eighth house was called the house of death, and so on—but as these names are immaterial for my purpose I shall not define them. Next, the positions which the various astrological signs and planets had occupied at some definite time and place (for instance, the time and place of birth of the native, if his nativity was being cast) were marked on the celestial sphere. This sphere was divided into twelve equal spaces by great circles drawn through the zenith, the angle be- tween any two consecutive circles being30◦. The first circle was drawn through the East point, and the space between it and the next circle towards the North corresponded to the first house, and sometimes was called the first house. The next space, proceeding from East to North, corresponded to the second house, and so on. Each of the twelve spaces between these circles corresponded to one of the twelve houses, and each of the circles to one of the cusps. In delineating* a horoscope, it was usual to begin by inserting the zodiacal signs. A zodiacal sign extends over30◦, and was marked on the cusp which passed through it: by its side was written a number indicating the distance to which its influence extended in the earlier of the two houses divided by the cusp. Next the position of the planets in these signs were calculated, and each planet was marked in its proper * Raphael, pp. 118–131.", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 254 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00256", "bookId": 26839, "start": 562481, "end": 564983, "sha256": "219fd58516f2af3fc8e46632c6361eaa76a966715a3ad2760ea76061b5ee7a15", "text": "[PDF page 255] CH. X] ASTROLOGY. 239 house and near the cusp belonging to the zodiacal sign in which the planet was then situated: it was followed by a number indicating its right ascension measured from the beginning of the sign. The name of the native and the date for which the horoscope was cast were inserted usually in the central square. The diagram near the end of this chapter is a facsimile of the horoscope of Edward VI as cast by Cardan and will serve as an illustration of the above remarks. We are now in a position to explain how a horoscope wasread or interpreted. Each house was associated with certain definite questions and subjects, and the presence or absence in that house of the various signs and planets gave the answer to these questions or information on these subjects. These questions cover nearly every point on which information would be likely to be sought. They may be classified roughly as follows. For the answer, so far as it concerns the native, to all questions con- nected with his life and health, look in house 1; for questions connected with his wealth, refer to house 2; for his kindred and communications to him, refer to 3; for his parents and inheritances, refer to 4; for his children and amusements, refer to 5; for his servants and illnesses, refer to 6; for his marriage and amours, refer to 7; for his death, refer to 8; for his learning, religion and travels, refer to 9; for his trade and repu- tation, refer to 10; for his friends, refer to 11; and finally for questions connected with his enemies, refer to house 12. I proceed to describe briefly the influences of the planets, and shall then mention those of the zodiacal signs; I should note however that in practice the signs were in many respects more influential than the planets. The astrological “planets” were seven in number, and included the Sun and the Moon. They were Saturn or the Great Infortune, Jupiter or the Great Fortune, Mars or the Lesser Infortune, the Sun, Venus or the Lesser Fortune, Mercury, and the Moon: the above order being that of their apparent times of rotation round the earth. Each of them had a double signification. In the first place it im- pressed certain characteristics, such as good fortune, feebleness, &c., on the dealings of the native with the subjects connected with the house in which it was located; and in the second place it imported certain objects into the house which would affect the dealings of the native with the subjects of that house.", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 255 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00257", "bookId": 26839, "start": 564985, "end": 567518, "sha256": "7d7d5ba8b54ebbbb24ca3fff28fced92dcd779249d939280b911fd1e4ec8ddd6", "text": "[PDF page 256] 240 ASTROLOGY. [CH. X To describe the exact influence of each planet in each house would involve a long explanation, but the general effect of their presence may be indicated roughly as follows*. The presence of Saturn is malignant: that of Jupiter is propitious: that of Mars is on the whole injurious: that of the Sun indicates respectability and moderate success: that of Venus is rather favourable: that of Mercury implies rapid practical action: and lastly the presence of the Moon merely faintly reflects the influence of the planet nearest her, and suggests rapid changes and fickleness. Besides the planets, the Moon’s nodes and some of the more prominent fixed stars† also had certain influences. These vague terms may be illustrated by taking a few simple cases. For example, in casting a nativity, the life, health, and general career of the native were determined by the first or ascendant house, whence comes the expression that a man’s fortune is in the ascendant. NowthemostfavourableplanetwasJupiter. Therefore, ifattheinstant of birth Jupiter was in the first house, the native might expect a long, happy, healthy life; and being born under Jupiter he would have a “jovial” disposition. On the other hand, Saturn was the most unlucky of all the planets, and was as potent as malignant. If at the instant of birth he was in the first house, his potency might give the native a long life, but it would be associated with an angry and unhappy temper, a spirit covetous, revengeful, stern, and unloveable, though constant in friendship no less than in hate, which was what astrologers meant by a “saturnine” character. Similarly a native born under Mercury, that is, with Mercury in the first house, would be of a mercurial nature, while anyone born under Mars would have a martial bent. Moreover it was the prevalent opinion that a jovial person would have his horoscope affected by Jupiter, even if that planet had not been in the ascendant at the time of birth. Thus the horoscope of an adult depended to some extent on his character and previous life. It is hardly necessary to point out how easily this doctrine enabled an astrologer to make the prediction of the heavens agree with facts that were known or probable. In the same way the other houses are affected. For instance, no astrologer, who believed in the art, would have wished to start on a long journey when Saturn was in the ninth house or house of travels; * Raphael, pp. 70–90; pp. 204–209. † Raphael, pp. 129–131,", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 256 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00258", "bookId": 26839, "start": 567520, "end": 570088, "sha256": "2060c87a07492b7b2583e5b1f1d32bf95c7ff9cc59170d3c99d783dc93558498", "text": "[PDF page 257] CH. X] ASTROLOGY. 241 and, if at the instant of birth Saturn was in that house, the native always would incur considerable risk on his journeys. Moreover every planet was affected to some extent by its aspect (conjunction, opposition, or quadrature) to every other planet accord- ing to elaborate rules* which depended on their positions and directions of motion: in particular the angular distance between the Sun and the Moon—sometimes known as the “part of fortune”—was regarded as specially important, and this distance affected the whole horoscope. In general, conjunction was favourable, quadrature unfavourable, and opposition ambiguous. Each planet not only influenced the subjects in the house in which it was situated, but also imported certain objects into the house. Thus Saturn was associated with grandparents, paupers, beggars, labourers, sextons, and gravediggers. If, for example, he was present in the fourth house, the native might look for a legacy from some such person; if he was present in the twelfth house, the native must be careful of the consequences of the enmity of any such person; and so on. Similarly Jupiter was associated generally with lawyers, priests, scholars, andclothiers; but, ifhewasconjoinedwithamalignantplanet, he represented knaves, cheats, and drunkards. Mars indicated soldiers (or, if in a watery sign, sailors on ships of war), masons, doctors, smiths, carpenters, cooks, and tailors; but, if afflicted with Mercury or the Moon, he denoted the presence of thieves. The Sun implied the action of kings, goldsmiths, and coiners; but, if afflicted by a malignant planet, he denoted false pretenders. Venus imported musicians, embroiderers, and purveyors of all luxuries; but, if afflicted, prostitutes and bullies. Mercury imported astrologers, philosophers, mathematicians, states- men, merchants, travellers, men of intellect, and cultured workmen; but, if afflicted, he signified the presence of pettifoggers, attorneys, thieves, messengers, footmen, and servants. Lastly, the presence of the Moon introduced sailors and those engaged in inferior offices. I come now to the influence and position of the zodiacal signs. So far as the first house was concerned, the sign of the zodiac which was there present was even more important than the planet or planets, for it was one of the most important indications of the durations of life. Each sign was connected with certain parts of the body—ex. gr. Aries influenced the head, neck and shoulders—and that part of the * Raphael, pp. 132–170.", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 257 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00259", "bookId": 26839, "start": 570090, "end": 572657, "sha256": "bd639c6433ce9ac2f25acf27aac802fe35f1e77b90a2cad12e6123c4012ec55a", "text": "[PDF page 258] 242 ASTROLOGY. [CH. X body was affected according to the house in which the sign was. Fur- ther each sign was associated with certain countries and connected the subjects of the house in which the sign was situated with those coun- tries: ex. gr. Aries was associated especially with events in England, France, Syria, Verona, Naples, &c. The sign in the first house determined also the character and ap- pearance of the native*. Thus the character of a native born under Aries (m) was passionate; under Taurus (f) was dull and cruel; under Gemini (m) was active and ingenious; under Cancer (f) was weak and yielding; under Leo (m) was generous, resolute, and ambitious; under Virgo (f) was sordid and mean; under Libra (m) was amorous and pleasant; under Scorpio (f) was cold and reserved; under Sagittarius (m) was generous, active, and jolly; under Capricorn (f) was weak and narrow; under Aquarius (m) was honest and steady; and under Pisces (f) was phlegmatic and effeminate. Moreover the signs were regarded as alternately masculine and fem- inine, as indicated above by the lettersm or f placed after each sign. A masculine sign is fortunate, and all planets situated in the same house have their good influence rendered thereby more potent and their un- favourable influence mitigated. But all feminine signs are unfortunate, their direct effect is evil, and they tend to nullify all the good influence of any planet which they afflict (i.e. with which they are connected), and to increase all its evil influences, while they also import an element of fickleness into the house and often turn good influences into malig- nant ones. The precise effect of each sign was different on every planet. I think the above account is sufficient to enable the reader to form a general idea of the manner in which a horoscope was cast and inter- preted, andIdonotproposetoenterintofurtherdetails. Thisistheless necessary as the rules—especially as to the relative importance to be assigned to various planets when their influence was conflicting—were so vague that astrologers had little difficulty in finding in the horoscope of a client any fact about his life of which they had information or any trait of character which they suspected him to possess. That this vagueness was utilized by quacks is notorious, but no doubt many an astrologer in all honesty availed himself of it, whether consciously or unconsciously. It must be remembered also that the rules were laid down at a time when men were unacquainted with any exact * Raphael, pp. 61–69.", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 258 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00260", "bookId": 26839, "start": 572659, "end": 575216, "sha256": "35f9d8148bf9f27564004b55ee772383113915ae29f20f842ac16fc9f6242578", "text": "[PDF page 259] CH. X] ASTROLOGY. 243 science, with the possible exception of mathematics, and further that, if astrology had been reduced to a series of inelastic rules applicable to all horoscopes, the number of failures to predict the future correctly would have rapidly led to a recognition of the folly of the art. As it was, the failures were frequent and conspicuous enough to shake the faith of most thoughtful men. Moreover it was a matter of common remark that astrologers showed no greater foresight in meeting the difficulties of life than their neighbours, while they were neither richer, wiser, nor happier for their supposed knowledge. But though such observations were justified by reason they were often forgotten in times of difficulty and danger. A prediction of the future and the promise of definite advice as to the best course of action, revealed by the heavenly bodies themselves, appealed to the strongest desires of all men, and it was with reluctance that the futility of the advice was gradually recognized. The objections to the scheme had been stated clearly by several classical writers. Cicero* pointed out that not one of the futures fore- told for Pompey, Crassus, and Caesar had been verified by their subse- quent lives, and added that the planets, being almost infinitely distant, cannot be supposed to affect us. He also alluded to the fact, which was especially pressed by Pliny†, that the horoscopes of twins are practi- cally identical though their careers are often very different, or as Pliny put it, every hour in every part of the world are born lords and slaves, kings and beggars. In answer tothelatter obvious criticism astrologers replied byquot- ing the anecdote of Publius Nigidius Figulus, a celebrated Roman as- trologer of the time of Julius Caesar. It is said that when an opponent ofthearturged as anobjectionthedifferent fates ofpersonsborn intwo successive instants, Nigidius bade him make two contiguous marks on a potter’s wheel, which was revolving rapidly near them. On stopping the wheel, the two marks were found to be far removed from each other. Nigidius received the name of Figulus, the potter, in remembrance of this story, but his argument, says St Augustine‡, who gives us the nar- rative, was as fragile as the ware which the wheel manufactured. On the other hand Seneca and Tacitus may be cited as being on * Cicero, De Divinatione, ii, 42. † Pliny,Historia Naturalis, vii, 49; xxix, 1. ‡ St Augustine,De Civitate Dei, bk.v, chap. iii;Opera omnia, ed. Migne, vol.vii, p. 143.", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 259 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00261", "bookId": 26839, "start": 575218, "end": 577901, "sha256": "d99be60aa62f23e4cc9b156e601759ec349cbaf81dd4ac72e9c71de352a946d8", "text": "[PDF page 260] 244 ASTROLOGY. [CH. X the whole favourable to the claims of astrology, though both recognized that it was mixed up with knavery and fraud. An instance of successful prediction which is given by the latter of these writers* may be used more correctly as an illustration of how the ordinary professors of the art varied their predictions to suit their clients and themselves. The story deals with the first introduction of the astrologer Thrasyllus to the emperor Tiberius. Those who were brought to Tiberius on any im- portant matter were admitted to an interview in an apartment situated on a lofty cliff in the island of Capreae. They reached this place by a narrow path overhanging the sea, accompanied by a single freedman of great bodily strength; and on their return, if the emperor had conceived any doubts of their trustworthiness, a single blow buried the secret and its victim in the ocean. After Thrasyllus had, in this retreat, stated the results of his art as they concerned the emperor, the latter asked the astrologer whether he had calculated how long he himself had to live. The astrologer examined the aspect of the stars, and while he did this showed, as the narrative states, hesitation, alarm, increasing terror, and at last declared that the present hour was for him critical, perhaps fatal. Tiberius embraced him, and told him he was right in supposing he had been in danger but that he should escape it; and made him thenceforth a confidential counsellor. But Thrasyllus would have been but a sorry astrologer had he not foreseen such a question and prepared an answer which he thought fitted to the character of his patron. A somewhat similar story is told†of Louis XI of France. He sent for a famous astrologer whose death he was meditating, and asked him to show his skill by foretelling his own future. The astrologer replied that his fate was uncertain, but it was so inseparably interwoven with that of his questioner that the latter would survive him but by a few hours, whereon the superstitious monarch not only dismissed him uninjured, but took steps to secure his subsequent safety. The same anecdote is also related of a Scotch student who, being captured by Algerian pirates, predicted to the Sultan that their fates were so involved that he should predecease the Sultan by only a few weeks. This may have been good enough for a barbarian, but with a civilized monarch it * Annales, vi, 22: quoted by Whewell,History of the Inductive Sciences, vol. i, p. 313. † Personal Characteristics from French History, by Baron F. Rothschild, London, 1896, p. 10. The story was introduced by Sir Walter Scott in Quentin Durward (chap. xv).", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 260 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00262", "bookId": 26839, "start": 577903, "end": 580455, "sha256": "cdc016a2961d16d3fa879b06f66a3b740b778ac992609ce922050eb5b31b057c", "text": "[PDF page 261] CH. X] ASTROLOGY. 245 probably would in most cases be less effectual, as certainly it is less artistic, than the answer of Thrasyllus. I may conclude by mentioning a few notable cases of horoscopy. Among the most successful instances of horoscopy enumerated by Raphael* is one by W. Lilly, given in hisMonarchy or No Monarchy, published in 1651, in which he predicted a plague in London so terrible that the number of deaths should exceed the number of coffins and graves, to be followed by “an exorbitant fire.” The prediction was amply verified in 1665 and 1666. In fact Lilly’s success was embarrassing, for the Committee of the House of Commons, which sat to investigate the causes of the fire and ultimately attributed it to the papists, thought that he must have known more about it than he chose to declare, and on Oct. 25, 1666, summoned him before them. I may add that Lilly proved himself a match for his questioners. An even more curious instance of a lucky hit is told of Flamsteed†, the first astronomer royal. It is said that an old lady who had lost some property wearied Flamsteed by her perpetual requests that he would use his observatory to discover her property for her. At last, tired out with her importunities, he determined to show her the folly of her demand by making a prediction, and, after she had found it false, to explain again to her that nothing else could be expected. Accordingly he drew circles and squares round a point that represented her house and filled them with all sorts of mystical symbols. Suddenly striking his stick into the ground he said, “Dig there and you will find it.” The old lady dug in the spot thus indicated, and found her property; and it may be conjectured that she believed in astrology for the rest of her life. Perhaps the belief that the royal observatory was built for such purposes may be still held, for De Morgan, writing in 1850, says that “persons still send to Greenwich to have their fortunes told, and in one case a young gentleman wrote to know who his wife was to be, and what fee he was to remit.” It is easier to give instances of success in horoscopy than of failure. Not only are all ambiguous predictions esteemed to be successful, but it is notorious that prophecies which have been verified by the subsequent * Manual of Astrology, p. 37. † The story, though in a slightly different setting, is given inThe London Chron- icle, Dec. 3, 1771, and it is there stated that Flamsteed attributed the result to the direct action of the devil.", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 261 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00263", "bookId": 26839, "start": 580457, "end": 583191, "sha256": "5f03b830556ebb137e85f8aeb42e8ea9696919fa96911d1caee7c5d3eedf6977", "text": "[PDF page 262] 246 ASTROLOGY. [CH. X course of events are remembered and quoted, while the far more numer- ous instances in which the prophecies have been falsified are forgotten or passed over in silence. Asexceptionallywell-authenticatedinstancesoffailuresImaymen- tion the twelve cases collected by Cardan in hisGeniturarum Exempla. These are good examples because Cardan was not only the most em- inent astrologer of his time, but was a man of science, and perhaps it is not too much to say was accustomed to accurate habits of thought; moreover, as far as I can judge, he was perfectly honest in his belief in astrology. To English readers the most interesting of these is the horoscope of Edward VI of England, the more so as Cardan has left a full account of the affair, and has entered into the reasons of his failure to predict Edward’s death. To show how Cardan came to be mixed up in the transaction I should explain that in 1552 Cardan went to Scotland to prescribe for John Hamilton, the archbishop of St Andrews, who was ill with asthma and dropsy and about whose treatment the physicians had disagreed*. On his return through London, Cardan stopped with Sir John Cheke, the Professor of Greek at Cambridge, who was tutor to the young king. Sixmonthspreviously, Edwardhadbeenattackedbymeaslesandsmall- pox which had made his health even weaker than before. The king’s guardians were especially anxious to know how long he would live, and they asked Cardan to cast Edward’s nativity with particular reference to that point. The Italian was granted an audience in October, of which he wrote a full account in his diary, quoted in theGeniturarum Exempla. The king, says he†, was “of a stature somewhat below the middle height, pale faced, with grey eyes, a grave aspect, decorous, and handsome. He was * Luckily they left voluminous reports on the case and the proper treatment for it. The only point on which there was a general agreement was that the phlegm, in- stead of being expectorated, collected in his Grace’s brains, and that thereby the operations of the intellect were impeded. Cardan was celebrated for his success in lung diseases, and his remedies were fairly successful in curing the asthma. His fee was500 crowns for travelling expenses from Pavia,10 crowns a day, and the right to see other patients; the archbishop actually gave him2300 crowns in money and numerous presents in kind; his fees from other persons during the same time must have amounted to about an equal sum (see Cardan’sDe Libris Propriis, ed. 1557, pp. 159–175;Consilia Medica, Opera, vol. ix, pp. 124–148; De Vita Propria, ed. 1557, pp. 138, 193et seq.). † I quote from Morley’s translation, vol.ii, p. 135et seq.", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 262 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00264", "bookId": 26839, "start": 583193, "end": 584478, "sha256": "143771e1fe52ccdc238fa9938806482861b4086fa34a7526f451b016304cc6d5", "text": "[PDF page 263] CH. X] ASTROLOGY. 247 rather of a bad habit of body than a sufferer from fixed diseases, and had a somewhat projecting shoulder-blade.” But, he continues, he was a boy of most extraordinary wit and promise. He was then but fifteen years old and he was already skilled in music and dialectics, a master of Latin, English, French, and fairly proficient in Greek, Italian, and Spanish. He “filled with the highest expectation every good and learned man, on account of his ingenuity and suavity of manners.... When a royal gravity was called for, you would think that it was an old man you saw, but he was bland and companionable as became his years. He playeduponthelyre, tookconcernforpublicaffairs, wasliberalofmind, and in these respects emulated his father, who, while he studied to be [too] good, managed to seem bad.” And in another place* he describes him as “that boy of wondrous hopes.” At the close of the interview Cardan begged leave to dedicate to Edward a work on which he was then engaged. Asked the subject of the work, Cardan replied that he began by showing the cause of comets. The subsequent conversation, if it is reported correctly, shows good sense and considerable logical skill on the part of the young king. * De Rerum Varietate, p. 285.", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 263 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00265", "bookId": 26839, "start": 584480, "end": 586956, "sha256": "01978619696f479afb55477c97dd8d7f613c21ec569c77c21c456520165486df", "text": "[PDF page 264] 248 ASTROLOGY. [CH. X I have reproduced on the previous page a facsimile of Cardan’s original drawing of Edward’s horoscope. The horoscope was cast and read with unusual care. I need not quote the minute details given about Edward’s character and subsequent career, but obviously the predictions were founded on the impressions derived from the above- mentioned interview. The conclusion about his length of life was that he would certainly live past middle age, though after the age of 55 years 3 months and 17 days various diseases would fall to his lot*. In the following July the king died, and Cardan felt it necessary for his reputation to explain the cause of his error. The title of his dis- sertation isQuae post consideravi de eodem†. In effect his explanation is that a weak nativity can never be predicted from a single horoscope, and that to have ensured success he must have cast the nativity of every one with whom Edward had come intimately into contact; and, failing the necessary information to do so, the horoscope could be regarded only as a probable prediction. This was the argument usually offered to account for non-success. A better defence would have been the one urged by Raphael‡ and by Southey§ that there might be other planets unknown to the astrologer which had influenced the horoscope, but I do not think that medieval astrologers assigned this reason for failure. I have not alluded to the various adjuncts of the art, but astrologers so frequently claimed the power to be able to raise spirits that perhaps I may be pardoned for remarking that I believe some of the more impor- tant and elaborate of these deceptions were effected not infrequently by means of a magic lantern, the pictures being sometimes thrown on to a mirror, and at other times on to a thick cloud of smoke which caused the images to move and finally disappear in a fantastic way capable of many explanations∥. I would conclude by repeating again that though the practice of astrologywassooftenconnectedwithimpudentquackery, yetoneought not to forget that nearly every physician and man of science in medieval Europe was an astrologer. These observers did not consider that its * Geniturarum Exempla, p. 19. † Ibid., p. 23. ‡ The Familiar Astrologer, London, 1832, p. 248. § The Doctor, chap. 92. ∥ See ex. gr.the life of Cellini, chap.xiii, Roscoe’s translation, pp. 144-146. See also Sir David Brewster’sLetters on Natural Magic.", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 264 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00266", "bookId": 26839, "start": 586958, "end": 587315, "sha256": "e9b5070cf9068472009416e9b507bf321330720809c8f1caff892357745c8268", "text": "[PDF page 265] CH. X] ASTROLOGY. 249 rules were definitely established, and they laboriously collected much of the astronomical evidence that was to crush their art. Thus, though there never was a time when astrology was not practised by knaves, there was a period of intellectual development when it was honestly accepted as a difficult but a real science.", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 265 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00267", "bookId": 26839, "start": 587317, "end": 588980, "sha256": "ca88c83d237082a2b5f89e353b59f07a807baf760b4700445345887a8c46bb22", "text": "[PDF page 266] CHAPTER XI. CRYPTOGRAPHS AND CIPHERS. The art of constructing cryptographs or ciphers—intelligible to those who know the key and unintelligible to others—has been studied for centuries. Their usefulness on certain occasions, especially in time of war, is obvious, while it may be a matter of great importance to those from whom the key is concealed to discover it. But the romance connected with the subject, the not uncommon desire to discover a secret, and the implied challenge to the ingenuity of all from whom the key is hidden, have attracted to the subject the attention of many to whom its utility is a matter of indifference. The leading authorities on the subject, few of which are less than a century old, are enumerated in an article by J.E. Bailey in the ninth edition of theEncyclopaedia Britannica, and references to various his- toric ciphers are there given. My knowledge of the subject, however, is limited to ciphers which I have met with in the course of casual read- ing, and I prefer to discuss the subject as it has presented itself to me, with no attempt to make it historically complete and no reference to other authorities. In fact the theory of the subject is not sufficiently important to make it worth while to try to deal with it historically or exhaustively. Most writers use the words cryptograph and cipher as synonymous. I employ them, however, with different meanings, which I proceed to define. A cryptograph may be defined as a manner of writing in which the letters or symbols employed are used in their normal sense, but are so arranged that the communication is intelligible only to those possessing 250", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 266 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00268", "bookId": 26839, "start": 588982, "end": 591211, "sha256": "064d23a8191586c2e68d7ee318788361f996d3d87e08f1dfc5d87aa4ff2a1d69", "text": "[PDF page 267] CH. XI] CRYPTOGRAPHS AND CIPHERS. 251 the key. The word is sometimes used to denote the communication made. A simple example is a communication in which every word is spelt backwards. Thus: ymene deveileb ot eb gniriter troper noitisop no ssorc daor. A cipher may be defined as a manner of writing by characters ar- bitrarily invented or by an arbitrary use of letters, words, or characters in other than their ordinary sense, intelligible only to those possessing the key. The word is sometimes used to denote the communication made. A simple example is when each letter is replaced by the one that immediately follows it in the natural order of the alphabet,a be- ing replaced byb, b by c, and so on, and finallyz by a. In this cipher the above message would read: fofnz cfmjfwfe up cf sfujsjoh sfqpsu qptjujpo po dsptt spbe. In both cryptographs and ciphers the essential feature is that the communication may be freely given to all the world though it is un- intelligible save to those who possess the key. The key must not be accessible to anyone, and if possible it should be known only to those using the cryptograph or cipher. The art of constructing a cryptograph lies in the concealment of the proper order of the essential letters or words: the art of constructing a cipher lies in concealing what letters or words are represented by the symbols used. In an actual commu- nication cipher symbols may be arranged cryptographically, and thus further hinder a reading of the message. Thus the message given above would read in a cryptographic cipher as znfof efwfjmfc pu fc hojsjufs uspqfs opjujtpq op ttpsd ebps. If the message were sent in Latin or some foreign language it would furtherdiminishthechanceofitbeingreadbyastrangerthroughwhose hands it passed. But I may confine myself to messages in English, and for the present to simple cryptographs and ciphers. A communication in cryptograph or cipher must be in writing or in some permanent form. Thus to make small muscular movements— such, ex. gr., as talking on the fingers, or breathing long and short in the Morse dot and dash system, or making use of pre-arranged signs by a fan or stick, or flashing signals by light—do not here concern us.", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 267 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00269", "bookId": 26839, "start": 591213, "end": 593902, "sha256": "f508b9f72c1bb620b5a0faf1de59c90a450308a1f246951c995cb22401a5b561", "text": "[PDF page 268] 252 CRYPTOGRAPHS AND CIPHERS. [CH. XI Again, the mere fact that the message is concealed or conveyed se- cretly does not make it a cryptograph or cipher. The majority of stories dealing with secret communications are concerned with the artfulness with which the message is concealed or conveyed and have nothing to do with cryptographs or ciphers. Many of the ancient instances of se- cret communication are of this type*. Illustrations are to be found in messages conveyed by pigeons, or wrapped round arrows shot over the head of a foe, or written on the paper wrapping of a cigarette, or the use of ink which becomes visible only when the recipient treats the paper on which it is written by some chemical or physical process. Again, a communication in a foreign language or in any recognized notation like shorthand is not an instance of a cipher. A letter in Chi- nese or Polish or Russian might be often used for conveying a secret message from one part of England to another, but it fails to fulfil our test that if published to all the world it would be concealed from ev- eryone, unless submitted to some special investigation. On the other hand, in practice, foreign languages or systems of shorthand which are but little known may serve to conceal a communication better than an easy cipher, for in the last case the key may be found with but little trouble, while in the other cases, though the key may be accessible, it is probable that there are only a few who know where to look for it. An illustration of this is afforded by the system used by Pepys in writing his Diary which is further alluded to below. I proceed to enumerate some of the better known types of cryp- tographs. There are at least three distinct types. The first type com- prises those in which the order of the letters is changed in some pre- arranged manner. The second type comprises those in which the con- cealment is due to the introduction of non-significant letters. The third type comprises those in which the letters used are written in fragments. The types are not exclusive, and any particular cryptograph may com- prise the distinctive feature of two or all the types. A cryptograph of the first type is one in which the successive letters of the message are re-arranged in some pre-determined manner. One of the most obvious cryptographs of this type is to write each word or the message itself backwards. He would, however, be a careless reader who could be deceived by this. Here is an instance in which the * A long list of classical authorities for different devices used in ancient times for concealing messages is given inMercury by J. Wilkins, London, 1641, pp. 27–36.", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 268 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00270", "bookId": 26839, "start": 593904, "end": 595725, "sha256": "d158b731bb24ca70733c3183ace112a1529d2b7a37a00086c9e1b08bae5534a4", "text": "[PDF page 269] CH. XI] CRYPTOGRAPHS 253 whole message is written backwards: tsop yb tnes tnemeerga fo seniltuo smret ruo tpecca yeht. In such a case it is unnecessary to indicate the division into words by leaving spaces between them, and we might divide the letters artifi- cially, as thus: Ts opybtne stne meer gafos eniltu osmret ruot peccaye ht. Systems of this kind which depend on altering the places of letters or lines in some pre-arranged manner have always been common. I quoteacoupleofinstances * fromWilkins’sbooktowhichIhavealready referred—it was a work which seems to have been studied diligently by many of those who took part in the civil disturbances of the 17th century, and gives an excellent account of some of the easier systems of cryptographs and ciphers. The first example I take from him is where the letters which make up the communication are written vertically up or down. Thus the message: The pestilence continues to increasemight be written thus: e i o t n l i t sn t i o e th ac sncnse e r eue cep Again, Wilkins says that the cryptograph may be yet further ob- scured by placing the letters which make up the message in any pre- arranged but discontinuate order. For instance if the message runs to four lines we may put the first letter at the beginning of the first line, the second at the beginning of the fourth line, the third at the end of the first line, the fourth at the end of the fourth line, the fifth at the beginning of the second line, the sixth at the beginning of the third line, the seventh at the end of the second line, the eighth at the end of the third line, and so on. Thus the message: Wee shall make an Irruption upon the Enemie, from the North, at ten of the clock this * Mercury, or the Secret and Swift Messenger, by J. Wilkins, London, 1641, pp. 50–52.", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 269 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00271", "bookId": 26839, "start": 595727, "end": 598048, "sha256": "f032d8d998f5cc46d15960324d6ddcdcf36aaf7a66c83108c3f1e74758453017", "text": "[PDF page 270] 254 CRYPTOGRAPHS AND CIPHERS. [CH. XI night would read thus: Wm rpeta hhs cteinpke haih fonoih kftoe nil anoerr ocgt tthmnu rl eauo mhtei nlen ettes, where, to obscure the message further, it is divided arbitrarily into what appear to be words. Another instance of a cryptograph of this type may be constructed thus. First, bywritingthemessageinlinesofsomearrangedlength, say, for instance, each containing seventeen letters—the letters in successive lines being arranged vertically under those corresponding to them in the upper line—and either leaving no spaces between the words or in- serting some pre-arranged letter or letters or digits between them, such as j, q, z. The message can be then sent as a cryptograph by writing the letters in order in successive vertical lines. This only comes to say- ing that we write successively the 1st, 18th, 35th letters of the original message, and then the 2nd, 19th, 36th letters, and so on. To confuse the decipherer the final reading may be arbitrarily put into what might represent words. If, however, we know the clue number, sayc, it is easy enough to read the communication. For if it divides into the number of letters n times with a remainderr it suffices to re-write the message in lines putting n + 1 letters in each of the firstr lines, and n letters in each of the last c − r lines, and then the communication can be read by reading the columns downwards. For instance, if the following communication, containing 270 letters, were received:Ahtzeipqhgesoa eouazsesewaeqtmusfdtbenzcesjteottqizyczhtzjioarhqettjrfesftnzmroomoh yearziaqneornbreotlennkaerwizesjuasjodezwjzzszjbrrittjnfjlweuzroqyfoht qayeizsleopjidihaloalhpepkrheanazsrvliimosiadygtpekijscerqvvjqjqajqnyji ntkaehsbhsnbgoaotqetqeuuesayqurntpebqstzamztqrj, and the clue num- ber were17 we should put16 letters in each of the first15 lines and 15 letters in each of the last2 lines. The communication could then be discovered by reading the columns downwards: the lettersj, q, and z marking the ends of words. Another cryptograph of this type may be constructed by arrang- ing the letters cyclically, and agreeing that the communication is to be made by selected letters, as, for instance, every seventh, second, sev- enth, second, and so on. Thus if the communication wereAmmunition", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 270 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00272", "bookId": 26839, "start": 598050, "end": 600025, "sha256": "0c6d74a9dc2dd9f1009beb552a6388e3e30df0228b5059c02ae9165129644618", "text": "[PDF page 271] CH. XI] CRYPTOGRAPHS 255 too low to allow of a sortie, which consists of32 letters, the successive significant letters would come in the order7, 9, 16, 18, 25, 27, 2, 4, 13, 15, 24, 28, 5, 8, 20, 22, 1, 6, 21, 26, 11, 14, 32, 10, 31, 12, 17, 23, 3, 29, 30, 19—the numbers being selected as in the decimation problem given above on pages 19–20, and being struck out from the32 cycle as soon as they are determined. The above communication would then read Ttriooalmolaoonmsueoawotnliotifw. This is a good cryptograph, but it is troublesome to construct, especially if the message is long, and for that reason is not to be recommended. A cryptograph of the second type is one in which the message is expressed in ordinary writing, but in it are introduced a number of dummies or non-significant letters or digits thus concealing which of the letters are relevant. One way of picking out those letters which are relevant is by the use of a perforated card of the shape of (say) a sheet of note-paper, which when put over such a sheet permits only such letters as are on certain portionsofittobevisible. Suchacardisknownasa grille. Anexample of a grille with four openings is figured below. A communication made in this way may be easily concealed from anyone who does not possess A B C D a card of the same pattern. If the recipient possesses such a card he has only to apply it in order to read the message. The use of the grille may be rendered less easy to detect if it be used successively in different positions, for instance, with the edgesAB and CD successively put along the top of the paper containing the message. On the next page, for instance, is a message which, with the aid of the grille figured above, is at once intelligible. On applying the grille to it with the lineAB along the top HK we get the first half of the communication, namely,1000 rifles se. On applying the grille with the line CD along the top HK we get the rest of the message,", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 271 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00273", "bookId": 26839, "start": 600027, "end": 602192, "sha256": "8fde3b78b166e4a79db362a96eb2014578629c5c6d029e4d3a51ca686e479d71", "text": "[PDF page 272] 256 CRYPTOGRAPHS AND CIPHERS. [CH. XI namely, nt to L to-day. The other spaces in the paper are filled with non-significant letters or numerals in any way we please. Of course any one using such a grille would not divide the sheet of paper on which the communication was written into cells, but in the figure I have done so in order to render the illustration clearer. 981 264 070 523 479 100 N T T ORI SON SON AHY DT C BF S P U M OLT KF E LJ O EGX AEU QJ T EGO F LE HV E W LA F M L AES REM REM ODA SSE Y ZZ EP D QJ C EKS T IM OEF H K We can avoid the awkward expedient of having to use a perforated card, which may fall into undesired hands, by introducing a certain pre-arranged number of dummies or non-significant letters or symbols between those which make up the message. Thus, to take an extreme case, we might arrange that only every101st letter should form our communication, and the intervening100 letters should be written at random. But such a communication would be101 times longer than the message, a nearly fatal objection if it had to be written in a hurry or telegraphed. Abettermethod, andonewhichisnoteasilydiscoveredby astranger, istoarrangethat(say)onlyeveryalternatesecondandthird letter shall be relevant. Thus the first, third, sixth, eighth, eleventh, etc., letters are those that make up the message. Such a communication would be only two and a half times as long as the message, but even that might be a great disadvantage if time in sending the message was of importance. For a message written at leisure this need not matter much, and in such a code the introduction of a sufficient number of unnecessary letters in some pre-arranged manner gives an effectual means of conveying a message in secret. We can also avoid the use of a perforated card if it be arranged that everynth word shall give the message, the other words being non- significant, though of course inserted as far as possible so as to make the complete communication run as a whole. But the difficulty of compos- ing a document of this kind and its great length render it unsuitable for any purpose except an occasional communication composed at leisure", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 272 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00274", "bookId": 26839, "start": 602194, "end": 604022, "sha256": "377cc03dc393481d0231de1f2de8460d809c04ad01747394cfa2674c7a534ac3", "text": "[PDF page 273] CH. XI] CRYPTOGRAPHS 257 and sent in writing. This method is said to have been used by the Earl of Argyle when plotting against James II. Similarly any system that rests on picking out certain letters in a document, which letters form a communication in ordinary writing, is a cryptograph. Thus a communication conveyed by a newspaper, in which the letters making up the message are indicated by pen dots or pin pricks or in some other agreed way, is a cryptograph. A kind of secret writing which may perhaps be considered to con- stitute a third type of cryptograph is a communication on paper which is legible only when the paper is folded in a particular way. An example is a message written across the edges of a strip of paper wrapped spiral- wise round a stick called ascytale. When the paper is unwound and taken off the stick the letters appear broken, and may seem to consist of arbitrary signs, but by wrapping the paper round a similar stick the message can be again read. This system is said to have been used by the Lacedemonians*. The concealment can never have been effectual against an intelligent reader who got possession of the paper. The defect of the method is that the broken letters at once attract attention and suggest the system used. If the fact can be concealed that the visible symbols are parts of letters the cryptograph would be much improved. As an illustration take the appended communication which is said to have been given to the Young Pretender during his wanderings after Culloden. If it be creased along the lines BB and CC (CC being along the second line of the second score), and then folded over, with B inside, so that the crease C lies over the line A (which is the second line of the first score) thus leaving only the top * For references, see Wilkins, supra, p. 38.", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 273 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00275", "bookId": 26839, "start": 604024, "end": 606580, "sha256": "0abc4490eee70605ed68711ab5d9d8461ceea7c937b1bcfc97e50f528711c267", "text": "[PDF page 274] 258 CRYPTOGRAPHS AND CIPHERS. [CH. XI and bottom of the piece of paper visible, it will be found to readconceal yourself, your foes look for you. I have seen what purports to be the original, but of the truth of the anecdote I know nothing, and the desirability of concealing himself must have been so patent that it was hardly necessary to communicate it by a cryptograph. I proceed next to some of the more common types of ciphers. It is immaterial whether we invent characters to denote the various letters; or whether we employ special symbols to represent them, such as the symbol ( fora, the symbol : forb, and so on; or whether we use the letters in a non-natural sense, such as the letterz for a, the lettery for b, and so on. The rules for reading the cipher will be the same in each case. In early times it was a common practice to invent arbitrary symbols torepresenttheletters. Ifthesymbolsareinventedforthepurposethey provoke attention, hence it would seem that preferably we should use symbols which are not likely to attract special notice. For instance, the symbols may be musical notes, in which case the message would appear as a piece of music. Geometrical figures have also been used for the same purpose. It is not even necessary to employ written signs. Natural objects have often been used, as in a necklace of beads, or a bouquet of flowers, where the different shaped or coloured beads or different flowers stand for different letters or words. An even more subtle form of disguising the cipher is to make the different distances between consecutive knots or beads indicate the different letters. Of all such systems we may say that a careful scrutiny shows that different symbols are being used, and as soon as the various symbols are distinguished one from the other no additional complication is in- troduced, while for practical purposes they are more trouble to send or receive than those written in symbols in current use. Accordingly I confine myself to ciphers written by the use of the current letters and numerals. It is convenient to divide ciphers into four classes. The first class comprises ciphers in which the same letter or word is always represented by the same symbol, and this symbol always represents the same letter or word. The second class comprises ciphers in which the same letter or word is, in some or all cases, represented by more than one symbol, and this symbol always represents the same letter or word. The third class comprises ciphers in which the same symbol represents sometimes", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 274 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00276", "bookId": 26839, "start": 606582, "end": 608961, "sha256": "f545f260608ba1b157704e01067f8e56027ab95df12aa4b15ad0e97f76891d3a", "text": "[PDF page 275] CH. XI] CIPHERS 259 one letter or word and sometimes another. The fourth class comprises ciphers in which each letter or word is always represented by the same symbol, but more than one letter or word may be represented by the same symbol. A cipher of the first type then is one in which the same letter or word is always represented by the same symbol, and this symbol always represents the same letter or word. Perhaps the simplest illustration of a cipher of this type is to em- ploy one language, but written as far as practical in the alphabet of another language. It is said that during the Indian Mutiny messages in English, but written in Greek characters, were used freely, and suc- cessfully baffled the ingenuity of the enemy, into whose hands they fell. If this is true, the intelligence of the Hindoos must have been much less than that with which they are usually credited. The device, how- ever, is an old one, for we are told* that Edward VI was accustomed to make notes in cipher “with Greek characters, to the end that they who waited on him should not read them.” A common cipher of this type is made by using the actual letters of the alphabet, but in a non-natural sense as indicating other letters. Thus we may use each letter to represent the one immediately following it in the natural order of the alphabet—the letters being supposed to be cyclically arranged—a standing forb wherever it occurs,b standing for c, and so on, and finallyz standing for a. Or more generally we may write the letters of the alphabet in a line, and under them re-write the letters in any order we like. For instance a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z o l k m a z s q x e u f y r t h c w b v n i d g j p In such a scheme, we must in our communication replacea by o, b by l, etc. The recipient will prepare a key by rearranging the letters in the second line in their natural order and placing under them the corresponding letter in the first line. Then wherevera comes in the message he receives he will replace it bye; similarly he will replaceb by s, and so on. A cipher of this kind is not uncommonly used in military signalling, the order of the letters being given by the use of a key-word. If, for instance, Pretoria is chosen as the key-word, we write the letters in * Sir John Hayward, Life of Edward VI., edition of 1636, p. 20.", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 275 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00277", "bookId": 26839, "start": 608963, "end": 611430, "sha256": "54178473ac7ec24f3e67f220535e6d0fc7264e5502b1280bf0e903735e087c2b", "text": "[PDF page 276] 260 CRYPTOGRAPHS AND CIPHERS. [CH. XI this order, striking out any which occur more than once, and continue with the unused letters of the alphabet in their natural order, writing the whole in two lines thus: p r e t o i a b c d f g h z y x w v u s q n m l k j Then in using the cipherp is replaced byz and vice versâ, r by y, and so on. A long message in such a cipher would be easily discoverable, but it is rapidly composed by the sender and read by the receiver, and for some purposes may be useful, especially if the discovery of the purport of the message is, after a few hours, immaterial. A summary of the usual rules for reading ciphers of this type, whether written in English, French, German, Italian, Dutch, Latin, or Greek, was given by D.A. Conradus in 1742*; and similar rules have been given by various later writers. In English the letter which occurs most frequently ise. The next most common letters are said to bet, a, o, andi; thenn; thenr, s, andh; thend and l; thenc, w, u, andm; then f, y, g, p, andb; thenv and k; and thenx, q, j, andz. The most common double letters areee, ll, oo, and ss; while in more than half the cases of a double letter at the end of a word, the letter is eitherl or s. Also, t and h form a common conjunction. I need not, however, go here into further details of this kind. Assuming that the division into words is given, that non-significant symbols are not introduced, and that the problem is not complicated by the avoidance of the use of common words, a communication of any considerable length can usually be read with but little difficulty. The hints given by Conradus will at once suggest certain hypotheses as to which letters stand for which. Taking one of these hypotheses we write the message, replacing the symbols by the letters we conjecture that they represent and replace the others by dots. If the hypothesis is tenable, the arrangement will probably suggest some of the missing letters. If, for example, we find two words emphs-all and empht-e where the missing letter is represented by the same symbol, the first word shows us that the missing letter ish, m, ort, and the second word shews us that it must bee, h, i, oro, hence it must beh. Every fresh letter so determined makes the hypothesis more probable and renders * Gentleman’s Magazine, 1742, vol.xii, pp. 133–135, 185–186, 241–242, 473–475. See also theCollected Works of E.A. Poein 4 volumes, vol.i, p. 30et seq.", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 276 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00278", "bookId": 26839, "start": 611432, "end": 614027, "sha256": "3bc908235b67404ed11162dd8fd7d0dcfa12271d4696ee20fb6cb8463977738a", "text": "[PDF page 277] CH. XI] CIPHERS 261 it easier to guess what the remaining symbols represent. The chief difficulty is to get a working hypothesis for the first few letters—if it is the true solution, probably the puzzle will be readily solved—but to make up a working hypothesis for even a few letters requires patience. Ciphers of this class in which the division between the words is given are to be avoided. If we leave a space between such words a would-be decipherer is given an immense help. He will naturally try if a word denoted by a single symbol can be ani or ana, while the words of two or three letters will often stand revealed and so provide a definite groundwork on which he can construct the key. A long word may also betray the secret. For instance, if the decipherer has reason to suspect that the message related to something connected with Birmingham, and he found that a particular word of ten letters had its second and fifth letters alike, as also its fourth and tenth letters, he would naturally see how the key would work if the word represented Birmingham, and on this hypothesis would at once know the letters represented by eight symbols. With reasonable luck this should suffice to enable him to tell if the hypothesis was tenable. The effect of this can be avoided by leaving no spaces between the words, but this might lead to confusion and is not to be recommended. We can also use letters which occur but rarely, such asj, q, x, z, to separate words, and probably this is the best method. Ciphers of this type suggest themselves naturally to those ap- proaching the subject for the first time, and are commonly made by merely shifting the letters a certain number of places forward. If this is done we may decrease the risk of detection by altering the amount of shifting at short (and preferably irregular) intervals. Thus it may be agreed that if initially we shift every letter one place forward then whenever we come to the letter (say)n we shall shift every letter one more place forward. In this way the cipher changes continually, and is essentially changed to one of the third class; but even with this im- provement it is probable that an expert would decode a fairly long message without much difficulty. We can have ciphers for numerals as well as for letters: such ciphers are common in many shops. Any word or sentence containing ten different letters will answer the purpose. Thus, an old tradesman of my acquaintance used the excellent preceptBe just O Man—the first letter representing 1, the second2, and so on. In this cipher the price10/6", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 277 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00279", "bookId": 26839, "start": 614029, "end": 616623, "sha256": "02e42cff67bed84e33880b895c84d8dd390abf0623815c25fa6208388d760aad", "text": "[PDF page 278] 262 CRYPTOGRAPHS AND CIPHERS. [CH. XI would be markedbn/t. This is an instance of a cipher of the first type. A cipher of the second type is one in which the same letter or word is, in some or all cases, represented by more than one symbol, and this symbol always represents the same letter or word. Such ciphers were uncommon before the Renaissance, but the fact that to those who held the key they were not more difficult to write or read than ciphers of the first type, while the key was not so easily discovered, led to their common adoption in the seventeenth century. A simple instance of such a cipher is given by the use of numerals to denote the letters of the alphabet. Thusa may be represented by 11 or by 37 or by 63, b by 12 or by 38 or by 64, and so on, and finally z by 36 or by 62 or by 88, while we can use89 or 90 to signify the end of a word and the numbers91 to 99 to denote words or sentences which constantly occur. Of course in practice no one would employ the numbers in an order like this, which suggests their meaning, but it will serve to illustrate the principle. I have deliberately used numbers of only two digits, as the recipient can then point off the symbols used in twos, and will know that each pair of symbols represents a letter, word, or sentence in the message. A disadvantage of this cipher is that since each letter is denoted by two symbols the length of the message is doubled by putting it in cipher. The cipher can be improved by introducing after every (say) eleventh digit a non-significant digit. If this is done the recipient of the message must erase every twelfth digit before he begins to read the message. With this addition the difficulty of discovering the key is considerably increased. The same principle is sometimes applied with letters instead of numbers. For instance, if we take a word (say) ofn letters, preferably all different, and construct a table as shown below ofn2 cells, each cell is defined by two letters of the key-word. Thus, if we choose the word smoking-cap we shall have100 cells, and each cell is determined uniquely by the two letters denoting its row and column. If we fill these cells in order with the letters of the alphabet we shall have a system similar to that explained above, wherea will be denoted byss or og or no, and so for the other letters. The last22 cells may be used to denote the first 22 letters of the alphabet, or better, three or four of them may be used after the end of a word to show that it is ended, and the rest may be used to denote words or sentences which are likely", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 278 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00280", "bookId": 26839, "start": 616625, "end": 618171, "sha256": "b779275375c6e54e890ef4650130441bde777e4c9bbf60214ff3f1dd86740363", "text": "[PDF page 279] CH. XI] CIPHERS 263 S M O K I N G C A P S a b c d e f g h i j M k l m n o p q r s t O u v w x y z a b c d K e f g h i j k l m n I o p q r s t u v w x N y z a b c d e f g h G i j k l m n o p q r C s t u v w x y z A P to occur frequently. Like the similar cipher with numbers this can be improved by in- troducing after every mth letter any single letter which it is agreed shall be non-significant. To decipher a communication so written it is necessary to know the clue-word and the clue-number. Here for instance is a communication written in the above cipher with the clue-wordsmoking-cap, and with7 as the clue-number:ngmk sigrioicpssamckscakqignassnxmigpoasuiamnocmpaminscnogcpncisyiksk amsssgnncaekknoomkhscpcmscbgpngsiawssgiggndiica 1. In this sentence the letters denoting the 79th, 80th, 81st, and 82nd cells have been used to denote the end of a word, and no use has been made of the last 18 cells. Another cipher of this type is made as follows*. The sender and recipientofthemessagefurnishthemselveswithidenticalcopiesofsome book. Inthecipheronlynumeralsareused, andthesenumeralsindicate the locality of the letters in the book. For example, the first letter in the communication might be indicated by 79–8–5, meaning that it is the 5th letter in the 8th line of the 79th page. But though secrecy might * The method is well known. It is mentioned by E.A. Poe, Collected Works, vol. iii, pp. 338–9, but is much older. 1. The original text read ...sssgnnn..., which leads to gobbledegook in the deci- phered message.", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 279 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00281", "bookId": 26839, "start": 618173, "end": 620808, "sha256": "6448df117e057a51a29e201510404c5052c2548e744aa07c3434c06f12873318", "text": "[PDF page 280] 264 CRYPTOGRAPHS AND CIPHERS. [CH. XI be secured, it would be very tedious to prepare or decode a message, and the method is not as safe as some of those described below. Another cipher of this type is for the sender and receiver to agree on some common book of reference and to agree further on a number which, if desired, may be communicated as part of the message. To employ this cipher the page of the book indicated by the given number must be used. The first letter in it is taken to signifya, the nextb, and so on–any letter which occurs a second time or more frequently being neglected. It may be also arranged that aftern letters of the message have been ciphered, the next n letters shall be written in a similar cipher taken from thepth following page of the book, and so on. Thus the possession of the code-book would be of little use to anyone who did not also know the numbers employed. It is so easy to conceal the clue number that with ordinary prudence it would be almost impossible for an unauthorized person to discover a message sent in this cipher. The clue number may be communicated indirectly in many ways. For instance, it may be arranged that the number to be used shall be the number sent, plus (say)q, or that the number to be used shall be an agreed multiple of the number actually sent. A cipher of the third type is one in which the same symbol rep- resents sometimes one letter or word and sometimes another. Usually such ciphers are easily made or read by those who have the key, but are difficult to discover by those who do not possess it. A simple example is the employment of pre-arranged numbers in shifting forward theletters thatmakethecommunication. For instance, if we agree on the clue number (say)4276, then the first letter in the communication is replaced by the fourth letter which follows it in the natural order of the alphabet: for instance, if it were ana it would be replaced bye. The next letter is replaced by the second letter which follows it in the natural order of the alphabet: for instance, if it were an a it would be replaced byc. The next letter is replaced by the seventh after it. The next by the sixth after it. The next by the fourth, and so on to the end of the message. Of course to read the message the recipient would reverse the process. If the letters of the alphabet are written at uniform intervals along a ruler, and another ruler similarly marked with the digits can slide along it, the letter corresponding to the shifting of any given number of places can be read at once. It would be undesirable to allow the division into words to appear", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 280 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00282", "bookId": 26839, "start": 620810, "end": 623068, "sha256": "4fdb767c144186f40c0219d5323512389f5bdd8407571fd47f1b4dded563e93e", "text": "[PDF page 281] CH. XI] CIPHERS 265 in the message, and either the words must be run on continuously, or preferably the less common lettersj, q, z may be used to mark the division of words. It is also well to conceal the number of digits in the clue-number. This can be done and the cipher much improved by inserting after every (say)mth letter a non-significant letter. Here for instance is a communication written in this cipher with the clue-numbers 4276 and 7: atpznhvaxuxhiepxafwghzniyprpsikbdkzy ygkqprgezuytlkobldifebzmxlpogquyitcmgxkckuexvsqkaziaggsigaytnvvsstyv uaslywgjuzmcsfctqbpwjvaepfxhibwpxiultxlavvtqzoxwkvtuvvfheqbxnpvismp hzmqtuwxjykeevltif . The recipient would begin by striking out every eighth letter. He would then shift back every letter 4, 2, 7, 6, 4, 2, &c., places respectively, and in reading it would leave out the lettersj, q, and z as only marking the ends of words. This is an excellent cipher, and it has the additional merit of not materially lengthening the message. It can be rendered still more diffi- cult by arranging that either or both the clue-numbers shall be changed according to some definite scheme, and it may be further agreed that they shall change automatically every day or week. A somewhat similar system was proposed by Wilkins*. He took a key-word, such asprudentia, and constructed as many alphabets as there were letters in it, each alphabet being arranged cyclically and beginning respectively with the lettersp, r, u, d, e, n, t, i, and a. He thus got a table like the following, giving nine possible letters which might stand for any letter of the alphabet. Using this we may vary the cipher in successive words or letters of the communication. Thus a b c d e f g h i k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z p q r s t u v w x y z a b c d e f g h i k l m n o r s t u v w x y z a b c d e f g h i k l m n o p q u v w x y z a b c d e f g h i k l m n o p q r s t d e f g h i k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z a b c e f g h i k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z a b c d n o p q r s t u v w x y z a b c d e f g h i k l m t u v w x y z a b c d e f g h i k l m n o P q r s i k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z a b c d e f g h a b c d e f g h i k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z * Mercury, by J. Wilkins, London, 1641, pp. 59, 60.", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 281 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00283", "bookId": 26839, "start": 623070, "end": 625428, "sha256": "820249fc0ee75740b21ed86256cccd50b94cf464d5e9beb2fcccf833302e16a7", "text": "[PDF page 282] 266 CRYPTOGRAPHS AND CIPHERS. [CH. XI the messageThe prisoners have mutinied and seized the railway station would, according as the cipher changes in successive words or letters, read asHwt fhziedvhi bupy pxwmqmhg erh ervmrq max zirteig stationor as Hyy svvlwnthm lehx uukzgmiq tvd gvcciq mqe frcoanr atpkcrr. I have taken Wilkins’s key-word, but it is obvious that it would be desirable to omit a wherever it appears in it, since otherwise, if the cipher changes in successive words, some of the words may appear unaltered in the cipher, as is shown in the first of the examples given above. A cipher of the fourth type is one in which each letter is always represented by the same symbol, but more than one letter may be represented by the same symbol. Such ciphers were not uncommon at the beginning of the nineteenth century, and were usually framed by means of a key-sentence containing about as many letters as there are letters in the alphabet. Thus if the key-phrase isThe fox jumped over the garden gate, we write under it the letters of the alphabet in their usual sequence as shown below: T h e f o x j u m p e d o v e r t h e g a r d e n g a t e . a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z a b c . Then we write the message replacinga by t or a, b by h or t, c by e, d by f, and so on. Here is such a message.M foemho nea ge eoo jmdhohg avf teg ev ume afrmeo. But it will be observed that in the ciphera may represent a or u, d may representl or w, e may representc or k or o or s or x, g may representt or z, h may representb or r, o may represent e or m, r may representp or v, andt may representa or b or q. And the recipient, in deciphering it, must judge as best he can which is the right meaning to be assigned to these letters when they appear. An instance of a cipher of the fourth type is afforded by a note sent by the Duchess de Berri to her adherents in Paris, in which she employed the key phrase l e g o u v e r n e m e n t p r o v i s o i r e. a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v x y. Hence in putting her message into cipher she replaceda by l, b by e, c by g, and so on. She forgot however to supply the key to the recipients of the message, but her friend Berryer had little difficulty in reading it by the aid of the rules I have indicated, and thence deduced the key-phrase she had employed.", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 282 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00284", "bookId": 26839, "start": 625430, "end": 627872, "sha256": "026901261400b0c62029853ba17d0f71a1e85ae05cb5532bf30a05a50c73e1c5", "text": "[PDF page 283] CH. XI] CIPHERS 267 Having considered various classes of cryptographs and ciphers I may now consider what features we should regard as important in choosing a cipher intended for practical use. In the first place, it is obvious that the means employed should be such as not to excite suspicion if the communication falls into unautho- rized hands. But this is a counsel of perfection, and almost impossible to attain. In the second place, we may say that, under modern conditions in war, finance, or diplomacy, a cipher may be useless unless it can be tele- graphed or telephoned. If this is deemed important, it will practically restrict us to the use of the 26 letters of the alphabet, the 10 numerical symbols for the digits, to which if we like we may add a few additional marks such as punctuation stops, brackets, &c. The same condition will require that the message should not be unduly lengthened by be- ing turned into cipher. Hence any considerable use of non-significant symbols is to be deprecated. In the third place, the key to the cipher should be such that it can be easily reproduced from memory. For, if the key is so elaborate that those who use it are obliged to preserve it in some tangible and accessible form, unauthorized persons may obtain the power of reading messages. Hence the key should be reproducible at will. Further, it is desirable that the key should be of such a character that it (or a change of it) can be telegraphed or otherwise communicated without the probability of exciting suspicion. In the fourth place, a cipher should be capable of change at short intervals. So that if the reading of one message in it be discovered subsequent messages may be undecipherable even though the system used is unaltered. Lastly, no ambiguity should be possible in deciphering the commu- nication. This will exclude ciphers of the fourth type. Accordingly in choosing a good cipher we should seek for one in which only current letters, symbols, or words are employed; such that its use does not unduly lengthen the message; such that the key to it can be reproduced at will and need not be kept in a form which might betray the secret to an unauthorized person; such that the key to it changes or can be changed at short intervals; and such that it is not ambiguous. Many ciphers of the second and third types fulfil these conditions, but it is generally desirable to avoid ciphers of the first type", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 283 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00285", "bookId": 26839, "start": 627874, "end": 630451, "sha256": "0f66f9626576f718880d707d6b1884ce7bb7536330851503d0a1b79eb0343797", "text": "[PDF page 284] 268 CRYPTOGRAPHS AND CIPHERS. [CH. XI unless circumstances permit of the free use of a code-book. The use of instruments giving a cipher, which is or can be varied constantly and automatically, has been often recommended. Several have been constructed on the lines of the well-known letter-locks*. The possession of the key of the instrument as well as a knowledge of the clue-word is necessary to enable anyone to read a message, but the risk of some instrument, when set, falling into unauthorized hands must be taken into account. Since equally good ciphers can be constructed without the use of mechanical devices I do not think their employment can be recommended. This chapter has already run to such a length that I cannot find space to describe more than one or two ciphers that appear in history or fiction, but, we may say that until recently most of the historical ciphers are not difficult to read. It is said that Julius Caesar in making secret memoranda was ac- customed to move every letter four places forward, writingd for a, e for b, &c. This would be a very easy instance of a cipher of the first type, but it may have been effective at that time. His nephew Augus- tus sometimes used a similar cipher, in which each letter was moved forward one place†. Bacon proposed a cipher in which each letter was denoted by a group of five letters consisting ofA and B only. Since there are 32 such groups, he had 6 symbols to spare, which he could use to separate words or to which he could assign special meanings. A message in this cipher would be five times as long as the original message. This may be compared with the far superior system of the five (or four) digit codebook system in use at the present time. Charles I used ciphers freely in important correspondence—the ma- jority being of the second type. He was foolish enough to take a cabinet containing many confidential letters in cipher, to some of which their * See, for instance, the descriptions of those devised by Sir Charles Wheatstone, given in hisScientific Papers, London, 1879, pp. 342–347; and by Capt. Baz- eries inComptes Rendus, Association Français pour l’avancement des sciences, vol. xx (Marseilles), 1891, p. 160,et seq. † Of some of Caesar’s correspondence, Suetonius says (cap. 56)si quis investi- gare et persequi velit, quartam elementorum literam, id est, d pro a, et perinde reliquas commutet.And of Augustus he says (cap. 88)quoties autem per notas scribit, b pro a, c pro b, ac deinceps eadem ratione, sequentes literas ponit; pro x autem duplex a.", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 284 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00286", "bookId": 26839, "start": 630453, "end": 632673, "sha256": "25ce7a994734dfa8d661a4da3c03f9e5b7287c59cb00575277659e249893b30a", "text": "[PDF page 285] CH. XI] CIPHERS 269 readings were appended, on the field of Naseby, where they fell into the hands of Fairfax*. The House of Commons sent them to a com- mittee presided over by a Mr Tate. It is commonly believed that the Committee referred the papers to J. Wallis†, then Fellow of Queens’ College, Cambridge, and subsequently Savilian Professor at Oxford, who discovered the key to them. At any rate the letters were read. In these ciphers each letter was represented by a number. The clues to some of the ciphers were provided by the King who had writ- ten over the number the letter which it represented, as shown in the following quotation: c a t o l i c k s i n F 11 18 45 35 23 27 11 25 47 28 40 148 haue layed t h i r p u r s e s t o g e t h e r 45 31 27 51 33 62 50 47 7 48 45 35 21 7 46 32 7 51 f o r s u p l y of a r m e s. – – – 15 35 50 a 47 62 33 23 74 k1 17 51 42 7 47 . – – – The published letters show that the King used different ciphers at different times, though perhaps he used the same one in all correspon- dence with any particular person, but the general character of those he employed is the same. The sentence quoted above is taken from a letter from Queen Henrietta Maria of January 26, 1643. In this and another letter a few months latera is represented by 17 or 18,b by 13, c by 11 or 12,d by 5,e by 7 or 8 or 9 or 10,f by 15 or 16,g by 21, h by 31 or 32,i by 27 or 28,k by 25,l by 23 or 24,m by 42 or 44,n by 39 or 40 or 41,o by 35 or 36 or 37 or 38,p by 33 or 34,r by 50 or 51 or 52,s by 47 or 48,t by 45 or 46,u by 62 or 63,w by 58, andy by 74 or 77. Numbers of three digits were used to represent particular people or places. Thus 148 stood forFrance, 189 for theKing, 260 for the Queen, 354 for Prince Rupert, and so on. Further, there were a few special symbols, thusk1 stood for but, n1 for to, and f 1 for is. The numbers 2 to 4 and 65 to 72 were non-significant, and were to be struck out or neglected by the recipient of the message. Each symbol is separated from that which follows it by a full-stop. * First Report of the Royal Commission on Historical Manuscripts, 1870, pp. 2, 4. † See his letters on Cryptography,Opera, vol. iii, pp. 659–672.", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 285 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00287", "bookId": 26839, "start": 632675, "end": 635272, "sha256": "c486ecabdced786a5510160b46e2b430298be066df8d7c9c4b4a4ef0cd8fb746", "text": "[PDF page 286] 270 CRYPTOGRAPHS AND CIPHERS. [CH. XI The Queen seems to have found writing in cipher a great trouble. In the letter from which I have already quoted a sentence she says ... que je suis extrement tourmantee du mal de teete qui fait que je mesteray en syfre par un autre se qui jovois fait moy mesme, and she uses the cipher only for the particular words it was desired to conceal. Thus she writesMr Capell nous a fait voir que sy27, 23, &c., &c. If by this she saved herself trouble, she did it at the cost of rendering the cipher much easier to read. The system used by Charles was in considerable repute during the seventeenth century, but even without extraneous help it is possible for a diligent student to discover the key if the message is fairly long. An excellent illustration of this fact is to be found in the writings of the late Sir Charles Wheatstone. A paper in cipher, every page of which was initialled by Charles I, and countersigned by Lord Digby, was pur- chased some years ago by the British Museum. It was believed to be a state paper of importance. It consists of a series of numbers (about 150 different symbols being used) without any clue to their meaning, or any indication of a division between the words employed. The task of reading it was rendered the more difficult by the supposition, which proved incorrect, that the document was in English; but notwithstand- ing this, Sir Charles Wheatstone discovered the key*. In this cipher a was represented by any of the numbers12, 13, 14, 15, 16, or 17, b by 18 or 19, and so on, while some65 special words were represented by particular numbers. I may note in passing that Charles also used a species of shorthand, in which the letters were represented by four strokes varying in length and position. Essentially the system is simple, though it is troublesome to read or write. The famous diary of Samuel Pepys is commonly said to have been written in cipher, but in reality it is written in shorthand according to a system invented by T. Shelton†. It is however somewhat diffi- cult to read, for the vowels are usually omitted, and Pepys used some arbitrary signs for terminations, particles, and certain words—so far turning it into a cipher. Further, in certain places, when the matter * The document, its translation, and the key used are given in Wheatstone’s Scientific Papers, London, 1879, pp. 321–341. † Tachy-graphy by T. Shelton. The earliest edition I have seen is dated 1641. A somewhat similar system by W. Cartwright was issued by J. Rich under the title Semographie, London, 1644.", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 286 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00288", "bookId": 26839, "start": 635274, "end": 637775, "sha256": "b583703026d035677f38df96bf0c776bcac499c6de7dc096873e67bd7502a876", "text": "[PDF page 287] CH. XI] CIPHERS 271 is such that it can hardly be expressed with decency, he changed from English to a foreign language, or inserted non-significant letters. Shel- ton’s system had been forgotten when attention was first attracted to the diary. Accordingly we may say that, to those who first tried to read it, it was written in cipher, but Pepys’s contemporaries would have properly described it as being written in shorthand, though with a few modifications of his own invention. A system of shorthand specially invented for the purpose is a true cipher. One such system in which each letter is represented either by a dot or by a line of constant length was used by the Earl of Glamorgan, better known by his subsequent title as Marquis of Worcester, in 1645, as also by Charles I. in some of his private correspondence. It is a cipher of the first type and has the defects inherent in almost every cipher of this kind: in fact Glamorgan’s letter was deciphered, and the system discovered by Mr Dircks*. Obsolete systems of shorthand† might be thus used to form an effective cipher. It is always difficult to read a very short message in cipher, since necessarily the clues are few in number. When the Chevalier de Rohan was sent to the Bastille, on suspicion of treason, there was no evidence against him except what might be extracted from Monsieur Latruau- mont. The latter died without making any admission. De Rohan’s friends had arranged with him to communicate the result of Latruau- mont’s examination, and accordingly in sending him some fresh body linen they wrote on one of the shirtsMg dulhxcclgu ghj yxuj, lm ct ulgc alj. Fortwenty-fourhoursdeRohanporedoverthemessage, but, failing to read it, he admitted his guilt, and was executed November 27, 1674. The cipher is a very simple one of the first type, but the commu- nication is so short that unless the key were known it would not be easy to read it. Had de Rohan suspected that the second word was prisonnier, it would have given him 7 out of the 12 letters used, and as the first and third words suggest the symbols used forl and t, he could hardly have failed to read the message. * Life of the Marquis of WorcesterbyH.Dircks, London, 1865. Worcester’ssystem of shorthand was described by him in hisCentury of Inventions, London, 1663, sections 3, 4, 5. † Various systems, including those used in classical and medieval times, are de- scribed in theHistory of Shorthandby T. Anderson, London, 1882.", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 287 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00289", "bookId": 26839, "start": 637777, "end": 638843, "sha256": "fbe693b5bb6dc4c7878da15544f0c45df07ea4f13ebe15d510a6d86921c75cc0", "text": "[PDF page 288] 272 CRYPTOGRAPHS AND CIPHERS. [CH. XI The following cipher is said to have been employed by Marie An- toinette*. I take it that it was used in the method indicated on page 265 AB A O B P C Q D R E S F T G V H X I Y L Z M N CD M Z A N B O C P D Q E R F S G T H V I X L Y EF L N M O A P B Q C R D S E T F V G X H Y I Z GH I N L O M P A Q B R C S D T E V F X G Y H Z IL H N I O L P M Q A R B S C T D V E X F Y G Z MN G N H O I P L Q M R A S B T C V D X E Y F Z OP F N G O H P I Q L R M S A T B V C X D Y E Z QR E N F O G P H Q I R L S M T A V B X C Y D Z ST D N E O F P G Q H R I S L T M V A X B Y C Z VX C N D O E P F Q G R H S I T L V M X A Y B Z YZ B N C O D P E Q F R G S H T I V L X M Y A Z above. If so, the first word in the communication would be rewritten according to the scheme given in the first line,a being replaced byo, and vice versâ, b by p, and so on. The second word would be rewritten according to the scheme in the second line, and so on. * The key is given, but without explanation, inJuniper Hall, by C. Hill, London, 1904, p. 13.", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 288 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00290", "bookId": 26839, "start": 638845, "end": 641490, "sha256": "7c3b10a6f20b8fe72e24c03f16ce93b614e71397f7726814d7ac9a0766310e61", "text": "[PDF page 289] CH. XI] CIPHERS 273 One of the modern systems is the five digit code-book cipher, to which I have already alluded. According to the general belief, it is fre- quently employed in certain official communications at the present day. A code dictionary is prepared in which every word likely to be used is printed, and the words are numbered consecutively00000, 00001, . . . up, if necessary, to99999. Thus each word is represented by a number of five digits, and there are105 such numbers available. The message is first written down in words. Below that it is written in numbers, each word being replaced by the number corresponding to it. To each of these numbers is added some definite prearranged clue-number— the words in the dictionary being assumed to be arranged cyclically, so that if the resulting number exceeds105 it is denoted only by the excess above105. The resulting numbers are sent as a message. On re- ceipt of a message it is divided into consecutive groups of five numbers, each group representing a word. From each number is subtracted the prearranged clue-number, and then the message can be read off by the code dictionary. When a code message is published by the Government receiving it, the construction of the sentences is usually altered before publication, so that the key may not be discoverable by anyone in pos- session of the code-book or who has seen the cipher message. This is a rule applicable to all cryptographs and ciphers. This is a cipher with105 symbols, and as each symbol consists of five digits, a message ofn words is denoted by5n digits, and probably is not longer than the message when written in the ordinary way. Since however the number of words required is less than105, the spare num- bers may be used to represent collocations of words which constantly occur, and if so the cipher message may be slightly shortened. If the clue number is the same all through the message it would be possible by not more than105 trials to discover the message. This is not a serious risk, but, slight though it is, it can be avoided if the clue number is varied; the clue number might, for instance, be781 for the first three words, 791 for the next five words,801 for the next seven words, and so on. Further it may be arranged that the clue numbers shall be changed every day; thus on the seventh day of the month they might be781, 791, &c., and on the eighth day881, 891, &c., and so on. This cipher can however be further improved by inserting at some step, say after each mth digit, an unmeaning digit. For example, if, in the original message written in numbers, we insert a9 after every", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 289 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00291", "bookId": 26839, "start": 641492, "end": 644191, "sha256": "12e52c30b5471722b094f193baf8375221ce0716d4def4d79f892506e97bae77", "text": "[PDF page 290] 274 CRYPTOGRAPHS AND CIPHERS. [CH. XI seven digits we shall get a collection of words (each represented by five digits), most of which would have no connection with the original message, and probably the number of digits used in the message itself would no longer be a multiple of5. Of course the receiver has only to reverse the process in order to read the message. It is however unnecessary to use five symbols for each word. For if we make a similar code with the twenty-six letters of the alphabet instead of the ten digits, four letters for each word or phrase would give us 264, that is,456976 possible variations. Thus the message would be shorter and the power of the code increased. Further, if we like to use the ten digits and the twenty-six letters of the alphabet—all of which are easily telegraphed—we could, by only using three symbols, obtain 363, that is, 46656 possible words, which would be sufficient for all practical purposes. This code, at any rate with these modifications, is undecipher- able by strangers, but it has the disadvantages that those who use it must always have the code dictionary available, and that it takes a considerable time to code or decode a communication. For practical purposes its use would be confined to communications which could be deciphered at leisure in an office, It is especially suitable in the case of communications between officials, each supplied with a competent staff of secretaries or clerks—as from an ambassador to his chief, or a commander in the field to his war office. It is an excellent example of a cipher of the first type, but it is not clear that it possesses any superiority over some of the simple ciphers of the third type. One of the best known writers on the subject of cryptographs and ciphers is E.A. Poe, indeed probably a good many readers have made their first acquaintance with a cipher in his story ofThe Gold Bug, the interest of which turns on reading a simple cipher of the first type. In earlier times J. Tritheim of Spanheim, G. Porta of Naples, Cardan, Niceron, and J. Wilkins occupied much the same position, while when- ever ciphers were freely used skilful decipherers seem to have arisen. Poe wrote an essay on cryptography in which he said that it may be roundly asserted that human ingenuity cannot concoct a cipher which human ingenuity cannot resolve—a conclusion which is hardly justified by the known facts. In an earlier article he once made a similar re- mark so far as ciphers of the first class are concerned, with the implied limitation that only26 symbols may be used. In this sense the obser- vation is correct. His assertion excited some attention, and numerous", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 290 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00292", "bookId": 26839, "start": 644193, "end": 644596, "sha256": "7210a767d7a14bc27b25d0673770d41e67252ddb7cb4f802ba589e6c2435cc71", "text": "[PDF page 291] CH. XI] CIPHERS 275 communications in cipher were sent to him. More than one of his cor- respondents did not play the game fairly, not only employing foreign languages, but using several different ciphers in the same communica- tion. Nevertheless he resolved all except one; and he proved that this last was a fraud, being merely a jargon of random characters, having no meaning whatever.", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 291 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00293", "bookId": 26839, "start": 644598, "end": 646642, "sha256": "4a1c879b77dca86a5ac7bf35d26cb923d3564cee86496cfc9003b7444c4eb372", "text": "[PDF page 292] CHAPTER XII. HYPER-SPACE†. I propose to devote the remaining pages to the consideration, from the point of view of a mathematician, of certain properties of space, time, and matter, and to a sketch of some hypotheses as to their nature. I shall not discuss the metaphysical theories that profess to † On the possibility of the existence of space of more than three dimensions see C.H. Hinton,Scientific Romances, London, 1886, a most interesting work, from whichIhavederivedmuchassistanceincompilingtheearlierpartofthischapter; his later work,The Fourth Dimension, London, 1904, may be also consulted. See also G.F. Rodwell,Nature, May 1, 1873, vol.viii, pp. 8, 9; and E.A. Abbott, Flatland, London, 1884. The theory of Non-Euclidean geometry is due primarily to Lobatschewsky, Geometrische Untersuchungen zur Theorie der Parallellinien, Berlin, 1840 (orig- inallygiveninalecturein1826); toGauss( ex. gr.letterstoSchumacher, May17, 1831, July 12, 1831, and Nov. 28, 1846, printed in Gauss’s collected works); and to J. Bolyai, Appendix to the first volume of his father’sTentamen, Maros- Vásárkely, 1832; though the subject had been discussed by J. Saccheri as long ago as 1733: its development was mainly the work of G.F.B. Riemann,Ueber die Hypothesen welche der Geometrie zu Grunde liegen, written in 1854,Göttinger Abhandlungen, 1866–7, vol.xiii, pp.131–152(translatedinNature, May1and8, 1873, vol.viii, pp. 14–17, 36–37); H.L.F. von Helmholtz,Göttinger Nachrichten, June 3, 1868, pp. 193–221; and E. Beltrami,Saggio di Interpretazione della Ge- ometria non-Euclidea, Naples, 1868, and the Annali di Matematica, series 2, vol. ii, pp. 232–255: see an article by von Helmholtz in theAcademy, Feb. 12, 1870, vol. i, pp. 128–131. Within the last twenty-five years the theory has been treated by several mathematicians. A bibliography of hyper-space, compiled by G.B. Halsted, appeared in the American Journal of Mathematics, vol. i (1878), pp. 261–276, 384–385; and vol. ii (1879), pp. 65–70. 276", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 292 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00294", "bookId": 26839, "start": 646644, "end": 649293, "sha256": "f6ab3c1ea1750831ebf294d427c386d1af4aef6602f6ef4e945fd8d6ecde82a3", "text": "[PDF page 293] CH. XII] HYPER-SPACE. 277 account for the origin of our conceptions of them, for these theories lead to no practical result and rest on assertions which are incapable of definite proof—a foundation which does not commend itself to a scientific student. Space, time, and matter cannot be defined; but the means of measuring them and the investigation of their properties fall within the domain of mathematics. I devote this chapter to considerations connected with space, leav- ing the subjects of time and mass to the following two chapters. I shall confine my remarks on the properties of space to two spec- ulations which recently have attracted considerable attention. These are (i) the possibility of the existence of space of more than three di- mensions, and (ii) the possibility of kinds of geometry, especially of two dimensions, other than those which are treated in the usual text-books. These problems are related. The term hyper-space was used originally of space of more than three dimensions, but now it is often employed to denote also any Non-Euclidean space. I attach the wider meaning to it, and it is in that sense that this chapter is on the subject of hyper-space. In regard to the first of these questions, the conception of a world of more than three dimensions is facilitated by the fact that there is no difficulty in imagining a world confined to only two dimensions—which we may take for simplicity to be a plane, though equally well it might be a spherical or other surface. We may picture the inhabitants of flatland as moving either on the surface of a plane or between two parallel and adjacent planes. They could move in any direction along the plane, but they could not move perpendicularly to it, and would have no consciousness that such a motion was possible. We may suppose them to have no thickness, in which case they would be mere geometrical abstractions: or, preferably, we may think of them as having a small but uniform thickness, in which case they would be realities. Several writers have amused themselves by expounding and illus- trating the conditions of life in such a world. To take a very simple instance, in flatland—or any even dimensional space—a knot is impos- sible, a simple alteration which alone would make some difference in the experience of the inhabitants as compared with our own. If an inhabitant of flatland was able to move in three dimensions, he would be credited with supernatural powers by those who were unable so to move; for he could appear or disappear at will, could (so far as they could tell) create matter or destroy it, and would be free from so", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 293 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00295", "bookId": 26839, "start": 649295, "end": 651940, "sha256": "269ff6454205b4512a3ac729bcdbc5b5516d56b9d29c7532e673d7b122272cbc", "text": "[PDF page 294] 278 HYPER-SPACE. [CH. XII many constraints to which the other inhabitants were subject that his actions would be inexplicable by them. We may go one step lower, and conceive of a world of one dimension—like a long tube—in which the inhabitants could move only forwards and backwards. In such a universe there would be lines of varying lengths, but there could be no geometrical figures. To those who are familiar with space of higher dimensions, life in line-land would seem somewhat dull. It is commonly said that an inhabitant could know only two other individuals; namely, his neighbours, one on each side. If the tube in which he lived was itself of only one dimension, this is true; but we can conceive an arrangement of tubes in two or three dimensions, where an occupant would be conscious of motion in only one dimension, and yet which would permit of more variety in the number of his acquaintances and conditions of existence. Our conscious life is in three dimensions, and naturally the idea occurs whether there may not be a fourth dimension. No inhabitant of flatland could realize what life in three dimensions would mean, though, if he evolved an analytical geometry applicable to the world in which he lived, he might be able to extend it so as to obtain results true of that world in three dimensions which would be to him unknown and incon- ceivable. Similarly we cannot realize what life in four dimensions is like, though we can use analytical geometry to obtain results true of that world, or even of worlds of higher dimensions. Moreover the analogy of our position to the inhabitants of flatland enables us to form some idea of how inhabitants of space of four dimensions would regard us. Just as the inhabitants of flatland might be conceived as being either mere geometrical abstractions, or real and of a uniform thickness in the third dimension, so, if there is a fourth dimension, we may be regarded either as having no thickness in that dimension, in which event we are mere (geometrical) abstractions—as indeed idealist philosophers have asserted to be the case—or as having a uniform thickness in that dimension, in which event we are living in four dimensions although we are not conscious of it. In the latter case it is reasonable to suppose that the thickness in the fourth dimension of bodies in our world is small and possibly constant; it has been conjectured also that it is comparable with the other dimensions of the molecules of matter, and if so it is possible that the constitution of matter and its fundamental properties may supply experimental data which will give a physical", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 294 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00296", "bookId": 26839, "start": 651942, "end": 654443, "sha256": "58757e289171cae1800728416977079acf70e2e31e0f17f22ea139a779dbe4d5", "text": "[PDF page 295] CH. XII] HYPER-SPACE. 279 basis for proving or disproving the existence of this fourth dimension. If we could look down on the inhabitants of flatland we could see their anatomy and what was happening inside them. Similarly an in- habitant of four-dimensional space could see inside us. An inhabitant of flatland could get out of a room, such as a rectan- gle, only through some opening, but, if for a moment he could step into three dimensions, he could reappear on the other side of any bound- aries placed to retain him. Similarly, if we came across persons who could move out of a closed prison-cell without going through any of the openings in it, there might be some reason for thinking that they did it by passing first in the direction of the fourth dimension and then back again into our space. This however is unknown. Again, if a finite solid was passed slowly through flatland, the in- habitants would be conscious only of that part of it which was in their plane. Thus they would see the shape of the object gradually change and ultimately vanish. In the same way, if a body of four dimensions was passed through our space, we should be conscious of it only as a solid body, namely, the section of the body by our space, whose form and appearance gradually changed and perhaps ultimately vanished. It has been suggested that the birth, growth, life, and death of ani- mals may be explained thus as the passage of finite four-dimensional bodies through our three-dimensional space. I believe that this idea is due to Mr Hinton. The same argument is applicable to all material bodies. The im- penetrability and inertia of matter are necessary consequences; the con- servation of energy follows, provided that the velocity with which the bodies move in the fourth dimension is properly chosen: but the inde- structibility of matter rests on the assumption that the body does not pass completely through our space. I omit the details connected with change of density as the size of the section by our space varies. We cannot prove the existence of space of four dimensions, but it is interesting to enquire whether it is probable that such space actu- ally exists. To discuss this, first let us consider how an inhabitant of flatland might find arguments to support the view that space of three dimensions existed, and then let us see whether analogous arguments apply to our world. I commence with considerations based on geometry and then proceed to those founded on physics.", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 295 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00297", "bookId": 26839, "start": 654445, "end": 657082, "sha256": "af37266fa1cbe3339d60d7cb8c6d38020fb4fba581d9bdca5ff8634af0e73de0", "text": "[PDF page 296] 280 HYPER-SPACE. [CH. XII Inhabitants of flatland would find that they could have two tri- angles of which the elements were equal, element to element, and yet which could not be superposed. We know that the explanation of this fact is that, in order to superpose them, one of the triangles would have to be turned over so that its undersurface came on to the upper side, but of course such a movement would be to them inconceivable. Possi- bly however they might have suspected it by noticing that inhabitants of one-dimensional space might experience a similar difficulty in com- paring the equality of two lines,ABC and CB ′A′, each defined by a set of three points. We may suppose that the lines are equal and such that corresponding points in them could be superposed by rotation round C—a movement inconceivable to the inhabitants—but an inhabitant of such a world in moving along fromA to A′ would not arrive at the corresponding points in the two lines in the same relative order, and thus might hesitate to believe that they were equal. Hence inhabitants of flatland might infer by analogy that by turning one of the triangles over through three-dimensional space they could make them coincide. Wehaveasomewhatsimilardifficultyinourgeometry. Wecancon- struct triangles in three dimensions—such as two spherical triangles— whose elements are equal respectively one to the other, but which can- not be superposed. Similarly we may have two spirals whose elements are equal respectively, one having a right-handed twist and the other a left-handed twist, but it is impossible to make one fill exactly the same parts of space as the other does. Again, we may conceive of two solids, such as a right hand and a left hand, which are exactly simi- lar and equal but of which one cannot be made to occupy exactly the same position in space as the other does. Those are difficulties similar to those which would be experienced by the inhabitants of flatland in comparing triangles; and it may be conjectured that in the same way as such difficulties in the geometry of an inhabitant in space of one dimension are explicable by temporarily moving the figure into space of two dimensions by means of a rotation round a point, and as such difficulties in the geometry of flatland are explicable by temporarily moving the figure into space of three dimensions by means of a rota- tion round a line, so such difficulties in our geometry would disappear if we could temporarily move our figures into space of four dimensions by means of a rotation round a plane—a movement which of course is inconceivable to us.", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 296 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00298", "bookId": 26839, "start": 657084, "end": 659621, "sha256": "5beee78bec7ae7c35fa0c6a0ff0cf2658c98eb6294e0f2ac677bee6bf72151a1", "text": "[PDF page 297] CH. XII] HYPER-SPACE. 281 Next we may enquire whether the hypothesis of our existence in a space of four dimensions affords an explanation of any difficulties or apparent inconsistencies in our physical science*. The current concep- tion of the luminiferous ether, the explanation of gravity, and the fact that there are only a finite number of kinds of matter, all the atoms of each kind being similar, present such difficulties and inconsistencies. To see whether the hypothesis of a four-dimensional space gives any aid to their elucidation, we shall do best to consider first the analogous problems in two dimensions. We live on a solid body, which is nearly spherical, and which moves round the sun under an attraction directed to it. To realize a corre- sponding life in flatland we must suppose that the inhabitants live on the rim of a (planetary) disc which rotates round another (solar) disc under an attraction directed towards it. We may suppose that the planetary world thus formed rests on a smooth plane, or other surface of constant curvature; but the pressure on this plane and even its ex- istence would be unknown to the inhabitants, though they would be conscious of their attraction to the centre of the disc on which they lived. Of course they would be also aware of the bodies, solid, liquid, or gaseous, which were on its rim, or on such points of its interior as they could reach. Every particle of matter in such a world would rest on this plane medium. Hence, if any particle was set vibrating, it would give up a part of its motion to the supporting plane. The vibrations thus caused in the plane would spread out in all directions, and the plane wouldcommunicatevibrationstoanyotherparticlesrestingonit. Thus any form of energy caused by vibrations, such as light, radiant heat, electricity, and possibly attraction, could be transmitted from one point to another without the presence of any intervening medium which the inhabitants could detect. If the particles were supported on a uniform elastic plane film, the intensity of the disturbance at any other point would vary inversely as the distance of the point from the source of disturbance; if on a uniform elastic solid medium, it would vary inversely as the square of that distance. But, if the supporting medium was vibrating, then, * See a note by myself in the Messenger of Mathematics, Cambridge, 1891, vol. xxi, pp. 20–24, from which the above argument is extracted. The ques- tion has been treated by Mr Hinton on similar lines.", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 297 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00299", "bookId": 26839, "start": 659623, "end": 662222, "sha256": "aef99164392fc7e683798c4dd471b3616a753475f05d1ba22999fac930ac588e", "text": "[PDF page 298] 282 HYPER-SPACE. [CH. XII wherever a particle rested on it, some of the energy in the plane would be given up to that particle, and thus the vibrations of the intervening medium would be hindered when it was associated with matter. If the inhabitants of this two-dimensional world were sufficiently intelligent to reason about the manner in which energy was transmitted they would be landed in a difficulty. Possibly they might be unable to explain gravitation between two particles—and therefore between the solar disc and their disc—except by supposing vibrations in a rigid medium between the two particles or discs. Again, they might be able to detect that radiant light and heat, such as the solar light and heat, were transmitted by vibrations transverse to the direction from which they came, though they could realize only such vibrations as were in their plane, and they might determine experimentally that in order to transmit such vibrations a medium of great rigidity (which we may call ether) was necessary. Yet in both the above cases they would have also distinct evidence that there was no medium capable of resisting motion in the space around them, or between their disc and the solar disc. The explanationoftheseconflictingresultsliesinthefactthattheiruniverse was supported by a plane, of which they were necessarily unconscious, and that this rigid elastic plane was the ether which transmitted the vibrations. Now suppose that the bodies in our universe have a uniform thick- ness in the fourth dimension, and that in that direction our universe rests on a homogeneous elastic body whose thickness in that direction is small and constant. The transmission of force and radiant energy, without the intervention of an intervening medium, may be explained by the vibrations of the supporting space, even though the vibrations are not themselves in the fourth dimension. Also we should find, as in fact we do, that the vibrations of the luminiferous ether are hindered when it is associated with matter. I have assumed that the thickness of the supporting space is small and uniform, because then the inten- sity of the energy transmitted from a source to any point would vary inversely as the square of the distance, as is the case; whereas if the supporting space was a body of four dimensions, the law would be that of the inverse cube of the distance. The application of this hypothesis to the third difficulty mentioned above—namely, to show why there are in our universe only a finite number of kinds of atoms, all the atoms of each kind having in common", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 298 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00300", "bookId": 26839, "start": 662224, "end": 664542, "sha256": "aca0ab161a73410a38536f15d15e95b11d4a5a6cd9b769e3b6d461ef8aa88950", "text": "[PDF page 299] CH. XII] HYPER-SPACE. 283 a number of sharply defined properties—will be given later*. Thus the assumption of the existence of a four-dimensional homo- geneous elastic body on which our three-dimensional universe rests, affords an explanation of some difficulties in our physical science. It may be thought that it is hopeless to try to realize a figure in four dimensions. Nevertheless attempts have been made to see what the sections of such a figure would look like. If the boundary of a solid isφ(x, y, z) = 0, we can obtain some idea ofitsformbytakingaseriesofplanesectionsbyplanesparallelto z = 0, and mentally superposing them. In four dimensions the boundary of a body would be φ(x, y, z, ω) = 0 , and attempts have been made to realize the form of such a body by making models of a series of solids in three dimensions formed by sections parallel toω = 0. Again, we can represent a solid in perspective by taking sections by three co-ordinate planes. In the case of a four-dimensional body the section by each of the four co-ordinate solids will be a solid, and attempts have been made by drawing these to get an idea of the form of the body. Of course a four-dimensional body will be bounded by solids. The possible forms of regular bodies in four dimensions, analogous to polyhedrons in space of three dimensions, have been discussed by Mr Stringham†. I now turn to the second of the two problems mentioned at the beginning of the chapter: namely, the possibility of there being kinds of geometry other than those which are treated in the usual elementary text-books. This subject is so technical that in a book of this nature I can do little more than give a sketch of the argument on which the idea is based. The Euclidean system of geometry, with which alone most people are acquainted, rests on a number of independent axioms and postu- lates. Those which are necessary for Euclid’s geometry have, within recent years, been investigated and scheduled. They include not only those explicitly given by him, but some others which he unconsciously used. If these are varied, or other axioms are assumed, we get a differ- ent series of propositions, and any consistent body of such propositions * See below, p. 317 (3). † American Journal of Mathematics, 1880, vol.iii, pp. 1–14.", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 299 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00301", "bookId": 26839, "start": 664544, "end": 667120, "sha256": "14ef2e6b7616b2a9cbb4f7e9c1b8f61942ff2d2d1e07dae3498038fd3a674195", "text": "[PDF page 300] 284 HYPER-SPACE. [CH. XII constitutes a system of geometry. Hence there is no limit to the number of possible Non-Euclidean geometries that can be constructed. Among Euclid’s axioms and postulates is one on parallel lines, which is usually stated in the form that if a straight line meets two straight lines, so as to make the two interior angles on the same side of it taken together less than two right angles, then these straight lines being continually produced will at length meet upon that side on which are the angles which are less than two right angles. Expressed in this form the axiom is far from obvious, and from early times numerous attempts have been made to prove it*. All such attempts failed, and it is now known that the axiom cannot be deduced from the other ax- ioms assumed by Euclid. It can be replaced by other statements about parallel lines, such as that the distance between two parallel lines is al- ways the same, but such alternative statements, though perhapsprimâ facie more axiomatic, are not to be preferred to Euclid’s form, since his statement brings out prominently a characteristic feature of the space with which he is concerned. The earliest conception of a body of Non-Euclidean geometry was due to the discovery, made independently by Saccheri, Lobatschewsky, and John Bolyai, that a consistent system of geometry of two dimen- sions can be produced on the assumption that the axiom on parallels is not true, and that through a point a number of straight (that is, geode- tic) lines can be drawn parallel to a given straight line. The resulting geometry is called hyperbolic. Riemann later distinguished between boundlessness of space and its infinity, and showed that another consistent system of geometry of two dimensions can be constructed in which all straight lines are of a fi- nite length, so that a particle moving along a straight line will return to its original position. This leads to a geometry of two dimensions, called elliptic geometry, analogous to the hyperbolic geometry, but character- ized by the fact that through a point no straight line can be drawn which, if produced far enough, will not meet any other given straight line. This can be compared with the geometry of figures drawn on the surface of a sphere. Thus according as no straight line, or only one straight line, or a pencil of straight lines can be drawn through a point parallel to a given * Some of the more interesting and plausible attempts have been collected by J. Richard in hisPhilosophie de Mathématiques, Paris, 1903.", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 300 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00302", "bookId": 26839, "start": 667122, "end": 669728, "sha256": "2b1c50a73eaaf95d2a67e002f975377baf81b8a9524856d796e4704573ec021c", "text": "[PDF page 301] CH. XII] HYPER-SPACE. 285 straight line, we have three systems of geometry of two dimensions known respectively as elliptic, parabolic or homaloidal or Euclidean, and hyperbolic. In the parabolic and hyperbolic systems straight lines are infinitely long. In the elliptic they are finite. In the hyperbolic system there are no similar figures of unequal size; the area of a triangle can be deduced from the sum of its angles, which is always less than two right angles; and there is a finite maximum to the area of a triangle. In the elliptic system all straight lines are of the same finite length; any two lines intersect; and the sum of the angles of a triangle is greater than two right angles. In the elliptic system it is possible to get from one point to a point on the other side of a plane without passing through the plane, namely, by going the other way round the straight line joining the two points; thus a watch-dial moving face upwards continuously forward in a plane in a straight line in the direction from the markvi to the mark xii will finally appear to a stationary observer with its face downwards; and if originally the markiii was to the right of the observer it will finally be on his left hand. In spite of these and other peculiarities of hyperbolic and elliptical geometries, it is impossible to prove by observation that one of them is not true of the space in which we live. For in measurements in each of these geometries we must have a unit of distance; and if we live in a space whose properties are those of either of these geometries, and such that the greatest distances with which we are acquainted (ex. gr. the distances of the fixed stars) are immensely smaller than any unit, natural to the system, then it may be impossible for our observations to detect the discrepancies between the three geometries. It might indeed be possible by observations of the parallaxes of stars to prove that the parabolic system and either the hyperbolic or elliptic system were false, but never can it be proved by measurements that Euclidean geometry is true. Similar difficulties might arise in connection with excessively minute quantities. In short, though the results of Euclidean geometry are more exact than present experiments can verify for finite things, such as those with which we have to deal, yet for much larger things or much smaller things or for parts of space at present inaccessible to us they may not be true. If however we go a step further and ask what is meant by saying that a geometry is true or false, I can only quote the remark of Poincaré,", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 301 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00303", "bookId": 26839, "start": 669730, "end": 672145, "sha256": "d94f51cef674a995072f272582cf580fb3edd0814796e3b4e69f42b813ebda6b", "text": "[PDF page 302] 286 HYPER-SPACE. [CH. XII that the selection of a geometry is really a matter of convenience, and that that geometry is the best which enables us to state the physical laws in the simplest form. This opinion has been strongly controverted, but at any rate it expresses one view of the question. The above refers only to hyper-space of two dimensions. Natu- rally there arises the question whether there are different kinds of Non- Euclidean space of three or more dimensions. Riemann showed that there are three kinds of Non-Euclidean space of three dimensions hav- ing properties analogous to the three kinds of Non-Euclidean space of two dimensions already discussed. These are differentiated by the test whether at every point no geodetical surface, or one geodetical surface, or a fasciculus of geodetical surfaces can be drawn parallel to a given surface: a geodetical surface being defined as such that every geodetic line joining two points on it lies wholly on the surface. It may be added that each of the three systems of geometry of two dimensions described above may be deduced as properties of a surface in each of these three kinds of Non-Euclidean space of three dimensions. It is evident that the properties of Non-Euclidean space of three dimensions are deducible only by the aid of mathematics, and cannot be illustrated materially, for in order to realize or construct surfaces in Non-Euclidean space of two dimensions we think of or use models in space of three dimensions; similarly the only way in which we could construct models illustrating Non-Euclidean space of three dimensions would be by utilizing space of four dimensions. We may proceed yet further and conceive of Non-Euclidean ge- ometries of more than three dimensions, but this remains, as yet, an unworked field. Returning to the former question of Non-Euclidean geometries, I wish again to emphasize the fact that, if the axioms enunciated by Euclid are replaced by others, it is possible to construct other con- sistent systems of geometry. Some of these are interesting, but those which have been mentioned above have a special importance, from the somewhat sensational fact that they lead to no results necessarily in- consistent with the properties, as far as we can observe them, of the space in which we live; we are not at present acquainted with any other systems which are consistent with our experience.", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 302 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00304", "bookId": 26839, "start": 672147, "end": 673835, "sha256": "c1bfc29fc64e3865e3cdc2b7ee152088450a844f260a01251dd382dd35aef07e", "text": "[PDF page 303] CHAPTER XIII. TIME AND ITS MEASUREMENT. Theproblemsconnectedwithtimearetotallydifferentincharacter from those concerning space which I discussed in the last chapter. I there stated that the life of people living in space of one dimension would be uninteresting, and that probably they would find it impossible torealizelifeinspaceofhigherdimensions. Inquestionsconnectedwith time we find ourselves in a somewhat similar position. Mentally, we can realize a past and a future—thus going backwards and forwards— actually we go only forwards. Hence time is analogous to space of one dimension. Were our time of two dimensions, the conditions of our life would be infinitely varied, but we can form no conception of what such a phrase means, and I do not think that any attempts have been made to work it out. I shall concern myself here mainly with questions concerning the measurement of time, and shall treat them rather from a historical than from a philosophical point of view. In order to measure anything we must have an unalterable unit of the same kind, and we must be able to determine how often that unit is contained in the quantity to be measured. Hence only those things can be measured which are capable of addition to things of the same kind. Thus to measure a length we may take a foot-rule, and by applying it to the given length as often as is necessary, we shall find how many feet the length contains. But in comparing lengths we assume as the resultofexperiencethatthelengthofthefoot-ruleisconstant, orrather that any alteration in it can be determined; and, if this assumption was denied, we could not prove it, though, if numerous repetitions of 287", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 303 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00305", "bookId": 26839, "start": 673837, "end": 676424, "sha256": "f418ea8622ba19af540f61def81e69cfa77093f75976be03c0bc0214109d15cd", "text": "[PDF page 304] 288 TIME AND ITS MEASUREMENT. [CH. XIII the experiment under varying conditions always gave the same result, probably we should feel no doubt as to the correctness of our method. Itisevidentthatthemeasurementoftimeisamoredifficultmatter. We cannot keep a unit by us in the same way as we can keep a foot- rule; nor can we repeat the measurement over and over again, for time once passed is gone for ever. Hence we cannot appeal directly to our sensations to justify our measurement. Thus, if we say that a certain duration is four hours, it is only by a process of reasoning that we can show that each of the hours is of the same duration. The establishment of a scientific unit for measuring durations has been a long and slow affair. The process seems to have been as follows. Originally man observed that certain natural phenomena recurred after the interval of a day, say from sunrise to sunrise. Experience—for example, the amount of work that could be done in it—showed that the length of every day was about the same, and, assuming that this wasaccuratelyso, manhadaunitbywhichhecouldmeasuredurations. The present subdivision of a day into hours, minutes, and seconds is artificial, and apparently is derived from the Babylonians. Similarly a month and a year are natural units of time though it is not easy to determine precisely their beginnings and endings. So long as men were concerned merely with durations which were exact multiples of these units or which needed only a rough estimate, this did very well; but as soon as they tried to compare the different units or to estimate durations measured by part of a unit they found difficulties. In particular it cannot have been long before it was noticed that the duration of the same day differed in different places, and that even at the same place different days differed in duration at different times of the year, and thus that the duration of a day was not an invariable unit. The question then arises as to whether we can find a fixed unit by which a duration can be measured, and whether we have any assurance that the seconds and minutes used to-day for that purpose are all of equal duration. To answer this we must see how a mathematician would define a unit of time. Probably he would say that experience leads us to believe that, if a rigid body is set moving in a straight line without any external force acting on it, it will go on moving in that line; and those times are taken to be equal in which it passes over equal spaces: similarly, if it is set rotating about a principal axis passing", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 304 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00306", "bookId": 26839, "start": 676426, "end": 678966, "sha256": "b3b03364e2e61f7fa345879a8e07f7f99339209a9767bf7d2ab0c94705608fe3", "text": "[PDF page 305] CH. XIII] TIME AND ITS MEASUREMENT. 289 through its centre of mass, those times are taken to be equal in which it turns through equal angles. Our experiences are consistent with this statement, and that is as high an authority as a mathematician hopes to get. The spaces and the angles can be measured, and thus durations can be compared. Now the earth may be taken roughly as a rigid body rotating about a principal axis passing through its centre of mass, and subject to no external forces affecting its rotation: hence the time it takes to turn through four right angles,i.e. through 360◦, is always the same; this is called a sidereal day: the time to turn through one twenty-fourth part of360◦, i.e.through 15◦, is an hour: the time to turn throughone-sixtiethpartof 15◦,i.e.through 15′, isaminute: andsoon. If, by the progress of astronomical research, we find that there are external forces affecting the rotation of the earth, mathematics would have to be invoked to find what the time of rotation would be if those forces ceased to act, and this would give us a correction to be applied to the unit chosen. In the same way we may say that although an increase of temperature affects the length of a foot-rule, yet its change of length can be determined, and thus applied as a correction to the foot-rule when it is used as the unit of length. As a matter of fact there is reason to think that the earth takes about one sixty-sixth of a second longer to turn through four right angles now than it did 2500 years ago, and thus the duration of a second is just a trifle longer to- day than was the case when the Romans were laying the foundations of the power of their city. The sidereal day can be determined only by refined astronomical observations and is not a unit suitable for ordinary purposes. The relations of civil life depend mainly on the sun, and he is our natural time keeper. The true solar day is the time occupied by the earth in making one revolution on its axis relative to the sun; it is true noon when the sun is on the meridian. Owing to the motion of the sun relative to the earth, the true solar day is about four minutes longer than a sidereal day. The true solar day is not however always of the same duration. This is inconvenient if we measure time by clocks (as now for nearly two centuries has been usual in Western Europe) and not by sun-dials, and therefore we take the average duration of the true solar day as the measure of a day: this is called the mean solar day. Moreover", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 305 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00307", "bookId": 26839, "start": 678968, "end": 681548, "sha256": "7b33a635cc17e5f5a23d92e0217c68ae181fcf184f19ebcdf7c065575cdcb935", "text": "[PDF page 306] 290 TIME AND ITS MEASUREMENT. [CH. XIII to define the noon of a mean solar day we suppose a point to move uniformly round the ecliptic coinciding with the sun at each apse, and further we suppose a fictitious sun, called the mean sun, to move in the celestial equator so that its distance from the first point of Aries is the same as that of this point: it is mean noon when this mean sun is on the meridian. The mean solar day is divided into hours, minutes, and seconds; and these are the usual units of time in civil life. The time indicated by our clocks and watches is mean solar time; that marked on ordinary sun-dials is true solar time. The difference between them is the equation of time: this may amount at some periods of the year to a little more than a quarter of an hour. In England we take the Greenwich meridian as our origin for longitudes, and instead of local mean solar time we take Greenwich mean solar time as the civil standard. Of course mean time is a comparatively recent invention. The French were the last civilized nation to abandon the use of true time: this was in 1816. Formerly there was no common agreement as to when the day be- gan. In parts of ancient Greece and in Japan the interval from sunrise to sunset was divided into 12 hours, and that from sunset to sunrise into 12 hours. The Jews, Chinese, Athenians, and, for a long time, the Italians, divided their day into 24 hours, beginning at the hour of sun- set, which of course varies every day: this method is said to be still used in certain villages near Naples, except that the day begins half-an-hour after sunset—the clocks being re-set once a week. Similarly the Baby- lonians, Assyrians, Persians, and until recently the modern Greeks and the inhabitants of the Balearic Islands counted the twenty-four hours of the day from sunrise. Until the middle of last century, the inhabitants of Basle reckoned the twenty-four hours from our 11.0 p.m. The ancient Egyptians and Ptolemy counted the twenty-four hours from noon: this is the practice of modern astronomers. In Western Europe the day is taken to begin at midnight—as was first suggested by Hipparchus—and is divided into two equal periods of twelve hours each. The week of seven days is an artificial unit of time. It had its origin in the East, and was introduced into the West by the Roman emper- ors, and, except during the French Revolution, has been subsequently in general use among civilized races. The names of the days are de- rived from the seven astrological planets, arranged, as was customary,", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 306 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00308", "bookId": 26839, "start": 681550, "end": 683996, "sha256": "88114f07f28bbba55c927e2c7bfa7a31f6b640bd371f4b46143ba517581ad359", "text": "[PDF page 307] CH. XIII] TIME AND ITS MEASUREMENT. 291 in the order of their apparent times of rotation round the earth, namely, Saturn, Jupiter, Mars, the Sun, Venus, Mercury, and the Moon. The twenty-four hours of the day were dedicated successively to these plan- ets: and the day was consecrated to the planet of the first hour. Thus if the first hour was dedicated to Saturn, the second would be dedicated to Jupiter, and so on; but the day would be Saturn’s day. The twenty-fourth hour of Saturn’s day would be dedicated to Mars, thus the first hour of the next day would belong to the Sun; and the day would be Sun’s day. Similarly the next day would be Moon’s day; the next, Mars’s day; the next, Mercury’s day: the next, Jupiter’s day; and the next, Venus’s day. The astronomical month is a natural unit of time depending on the motion of the moon, and containing about29 1 2 days. The months of the calendar have been evolved gradually as convenient divisions of time, and their history is given in numerous astronomies. In the original Julian arrangement the months in a leap year contained alternately 31 and 30 days, while in other years February had 29 days. This was altered by Augustus in order that his month should not be inferior to one named after his uncle. The solar tropical year is another natural unit of time. According to a recent determination, it contains 365.242216 days, that is, 365d. 5h. 48m. 47s..4624. The Egyptians knew that it contained between 365 and 366 days, but the Romans did not profit by this information, for Numa is said to have reckoned 355 days as constituting a year—extra months being occasionally intercalated, so that the seasons might recur at about the same period of the year. In 46b.c. Julius Caesar decreed that thenceforth the year should contain 365 days, except that in every fourth or leap year one additional day should be introduced. He ordered this rule to come into force on January 1, 45b.c. The change was made on the advice of Sosigenes of Alexandria. It must be remembered that the year 1a.d. follows immediately 1 b.c., that is, there is no year 0, and thus 45b.c. would be a leap year. All historical dates are given now as if the Julian calendar was reckoned backwards as well as forwards from that year*. As a matter of fact, owing to a mistake in the original decree, the Romans, during the * Herschel, Astronomy, London, 11th ed. 1871, arts. 916–919.", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 307 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00309", "bookId": 26839, "start": 683998, "end": 686448, "sha256": "3615502965fbdf656f52485a85504dff1eb1460f78cade59ccbd6174c71ac6c2", "text": "[PDF page 308] 292 TIME AND ITS MEASUREMENT. [CH. XIII first 36 years after 45b.c., intercalated the extra day every third year, thus producing an error of 3 days. This was remedied by Augustus, who directed that no intercalation of an extra day should be made in any of the twelve yearsa.u.c. 746 to 757 inclusive, but that the intercalation should be again made in the yeara.u.c. 761 (that is, 8 a.d.) and every succeeding fourth year. The Julian calendar made the year, on an average, contain 365.25 days. The actual value is, very approximately, 365.242216 days. Hence the Julian year is too long by about11 1 4 minutes: this produces an error of nearly one day in 128 years. If the extra day in every thirty- secondleapyearhadbeenomitted—aswassuggestedbysomeunknown Persian astronomer—the error would have been less than one day in 100,000 years. It may be added that Sosigenes was aware that his rule made the year slightly too long. The error in the Julian calendar of rather more than eleven min- utes a year gradually accumulated, until in the sixteenth century the seasons arrived some ten days earlier than they should have done. In 1582 Gregory XIII corrected this by omitting ten days from that year, which therefore contained only 355 days. At the same time he decreed that thenceforth every year which was a multiple of a century should be or not be a leap year according as the multiple was or was not divisible by four. The fundamental idea of the reform was due to Lilius, who died before it was carried into effect. The work of framing the new calendar was entrusted to Clavius, who explained the principles and necessary rules in a prolix but accurate work* of over 700 folio pages. The plan adopted was due to a suggestion of Pitatus made in 1552 or perhaps 1537: the alternative and more accurate proposal of Stöffler, made in 1518, to omit one day in every 134 years being rejected by Lilius and Clavius for reasons which are not known. Clavius believed the year to contain 365.2425432 days, but he framed his calendar so that a year, on the average, contained 365.2425 days, which he thought to be wrong by one day in 3323 years: in reality it is a trifle more accurate than this, the error amounting to one day in about 3600 years. The change was unpopular, but Riccioli† tells us that, as those * Romani Calendarii a Greg. XIII, restituti Explicatio, Rome, 1603. † Chronologia Reformata, Bonn, 1669, vol.ii, p. 206.", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 308 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00310", "bookId": 26839, "start": 686450, "end": 688926, "sha256": "69afad3a51111f098809e4833c2d064480ac9fdfa8a94ea246813bd9bd2df6c9", "text": "[PDF page 309] CH. XIII] TIME AND ITS MEASUREMENT. 293 miracles which take place on fixed dates—ex. gr. the liquefaction of the blood of S. Januarius—occurred according to the new calendar, the papal decree was presumed to have a divine sanction—Deo ipso huic correctioni Gregorianae subscribente—and was accepted as a nec- essary evil. In England a bill to carry out the same reform was introduced in 1584, butwaswithdrawnafterbeingreadasecondtime; andthechange was not finally effected till 1752, when eleven days were omitted from that year. In Roman Catholic countries the new style was adopted in 1582. In Scotland the change was made in 1600. In the German Lutheran States it was made in 1700. In England, as I have said above, it was introduced in 1752; and in Ireland it was made in 1782. It is well known that the Greek Church still adheres to the Julian calendar. The Mohammedan year contains 12 lunar months, or354 1 3 days, and thus has no connection with the seasons. The Gregorian change in the calendar was introduced in order to keep Easter at the right time of year. The date of Easter depends on that of the vernal equinox, and as the Julian calendar made the year of an average length of 365.25 days instead of 365.242216 days, the vernal equinox came earlier and earlier in the year, and in 1582 had regreded to within about ten days of February. The rule for determining Easter is as follows*. In 325 the Nicene Council decreed that the Roman practice should be followed; and after 463 (or perhaps, 530) the Roman practice required that Easter-day should be the first Sunday after the full moon which occurs on or next following the vernal equinox—full moon being assumed to occur on the fourteenth day from the day of the preceding new moon (though as a matter of fact it occurs on an average after an interval of rather more than 14 3 4 days), and the vernal equinox being assumed to fall on March 21 (though as a matter of fact it sometimes falls on March 22). This rule and these assumptions were retained by Gregory on the ground that it was inexpedient to alter a rule with which so many traditions were associated; but, in order to save disputes as to the exact instant of the occurrence of the new moon, a mean sun and a mean moon defined by Clavius were used in applying the rule. One consequence of using this mean sun and mean moon and giving an * De Morgan, Companion to the Almanac, London, 1845, pp. 1–36;Ibid., 1846, pp. 1–10.", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 309 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00311", "bookId": 26839, "start": 688928, "end": 691519, "sha256": "ca806ee03003489229ebfc3764299936853ba0d69419466e7b7b62c53ecf178f", "text": "[PDF page 310] 294 TIME AND ITS MEASUREMENT. [CH. XIII artificial definition of full moon is that it may happen, as it did in 1818 and 1845, that the actual full moon occurs on Easter Sunday. In the British Act, 24 Geo. II. cap. 23, the explanatory clause which defines full moon is omitted, but practically full moon has been interpreted to mean the Roman ecclesiastical full moon; hence the Anglican and Roman rules are the same. Until 1774 the German Lutheran States employed the actual sun and moon. Had full moon been taken to mean the fifteenth day of the moon, as is the case in the civil calendar, then the rule might be given in the form that Easter-day is the Sunday on or next after the calendar full moon which occurs next after March 21. Assuming that the Gregorian calendar and tradition are used, there still remains one point in this definition of Easter which might lead to different nations keeping the feast at different times. This arises from the fact that local time is introduced. For instance the difference of local time between Rome and London is about 50 minutes. Thus the instant of the first full moon next after the vernal equinox might occur in Rome on a Sunday morning, say at 12.30 a.m., while in England it would still be Saturday evening, 11.40 p.m., in which case our Easter would be one week earlier than at Rome. Clavius foresaw the difficulty, and the Roman Communion all over the world keep Easter on that day of the month which is determined by the use of the rule at Rome. But presumably the British Parliament intended time to be determined by the Greenwich meridian, and if so the Anglican and Roman dates for Easter might differ by a week; whether such a case has ever arisen or been discussed I do not know, and I leave to ecclesiastics to say how it should be settled. The usual method of calculating the date on which Easter-day falls in any particular year is involved, and possibly the following simple rule* may be unknown to some of my readers. Let m and n be numbers as defined below. (i) Divide the number of the year by4, 7, 19; and let the remainders bea, b, c, respectively. (ii) Divide 19c + m by 30, and let d be the remainder. (iii) Divide 2a + 4b + 6d + n by 7, and let e be the remainder. (iv) Then the Easter full moon occursd days after March 21; and Easter-day is the (22 + d + e)th of March or the(d + e − 9)th day of April, except that if the calculation gives d = 29 and e = 6 (as happens in 1981) then * It is due to Gauss, and his proof is given in Zach’sMonatliche Correspondenz, August, 1800, vol.ii, pp. 221–230.", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 310 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00312", "bookId": 26839, "start": 691521, "end": 694067, "sha256": "acc06d3d92bda8f2bd86ddc83fcd9f5c6329d26db429cc09252da9812aa6cda3", "text": "[PDF page 311] CH. XIII] TIME AND ITS MEASUREMENT. 295 Easter-day is on April 19 and not on April 26, and if the calculation gives d = 28, e = 6, and alsoc > 10 (as happens in 1954) then Easter- day is on April 18 and not on April 25, that is, in these two cases Easter falls one week earlier than the date given by the rule. These two exceptional cases cannot occur in the Julian calendar, and in the Gregorian calendar they occur only very rarely. It remains to state the values of m and n for the particular period. In the Julian calendar we have m = 15, n = 6. In the Gregorian calendar we have, from 1582 to 1699 inclusive,m = 22, n = 2; from 1700 to 1799,m = 23, n = 3; from 1800 to 1899,m = 23, n = 4; from 1900 to 2099,m = 24, n = 5; from 2100 to 2199,m = 24, n = 6; from 2200 to 2299,m = 25, n = 0; from 2300 to 2399,m = 26, n = 1; and from 2400 to 2499,m = 25, n = 1. Thus for the year 1908 we havem = 24, n = 5; hence a = 0, b = 4, c = 8; d = 26; and e = 2: therefore Easter Sunday will be on the 19th of April. After the year 4200 the form of the rule will have to be slightly modified. The dominical letter and the golden number of the ecclesiastical calendar can be at once determined from the values ofb and c. The epact, that is, the moon’s age at the beginning of the year, can be also easily calculated from the above data in any particular case; the general formula was given by Delambre, but its value is required so rarely by any but professional astronomers and almanack-makers that it is unnecessary to quote it here. We can evade the necessity of having to recollect the values ofm and n by noticing that, ifN is the given year, and if{N/x} denotes the integral part of the quotient whenN is divided byx, then m is the remainder when 15 + ξ is divided by 30, andn is the remainder when 6 + η is divided by7: where, in the Julian calendar,ξ = 0, and η = 0; and, in the Gregorian calendar,ξ = {N/100} − { N/400} − { N/300}, and η = {N/100} − { N/400} − 2. If we use these values ofm and n, and if we put fora, b, c, their values, namely,a = N − 4{N/4}, b = N − 7{N/7}, c = N − 19{N/19}, the rule given on the preceding page takes the following form. “Divide 19N − {N/19} + 15 +ξ by 30, and let the remainder bed. Next divide 6(N + d + 1) − {N/4} + η by 7, and let the remainder be e. Then Easter full moon is on thedth day after March 21, and Easter-day is on the (22 + d + e)th of March or the (d + e − 9)th of April as the case may be; except that if the calculation givesd = 29, and e = 6,", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 311 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00313", "bookId": 26839, "start": 694069, "end": 696641, "sha256": "b9d587b6ae4c729881b8d972f6204350e3607af1b4dd2d2bbebdba665d02d68f", "text": "[PDF page 312] 296 TIME AND ITS MEASUREMENT. [CH. XIII or if it gives d = 28, e = 6, and c > 10, then Easter-day is on the (d + e − 16)th of April.” Thus, ifN = 1899, we divide19(1899)−99+15+(18 −4−6) by 30, which givesd = 5, and then we proceed to divide6(1899 + 5 + 1)− 474 +(18 −4−2) by 7, which givese = 6: therefore Easter-day is on April 2. The above rules cover all the cases worked out with so much labour by Clavius and others*. I may add here a rule, quoted by Zeller, for determining the day of the week corresponding to any given date. Suppose that the pth day of theqth month of the yearN anno domini is the rth day of the week, reckoned from the preceding Saturday. Thenr is the remainder when p + 2q + {3(q + 1)/5} + N + {N/4} − η is divided by7; provided January and February are reckoned respectively as the13th and 14th months of the preceding year. For instance, Columbus first landed in the New World on Oct. 12, 1492. Here p = 12, q = 10, N = 1492, η = 0. If we divide12 + 20 + 6 + 1492 + 373 by 7 we get r = 6; hence it was on a Friday. Again, Charles I was executed on Jan. 30, 1649. Here p = 30 , q = 13 , N = 1648, η = 0, and we find r = 3; hence it was on a Tuesday. As another example, the battle of Waterloo was fought on June 18, 1815. Here p = 18, q = 6, N = 1815, η = 12, and we find r = 1; hence it took place on a Sunday. I proceed now to give a short account of some of the means of measuring time which were formerly in use. Of devices for measuring time, the earliest of which we have any positive knowledge are the styles or gnomons erected in Egypt and Asia Minor. These were sticks placed vertically in a horizontal piece of ground, and surrounded by three concentric circles, such that every two hours the end of the shadow of the stick passed from one circle to another. Some of these have been found at Pompeii and Tusculum. The sun-dial is not very different in principle. It consists of a rod or style fixed on a plate or dial; usually, but not necessarily, the style is placed so as to be parallel to the axis of the earth. The shadow of the * Mostoftheabove-mentionedfactsaboutthecalendararetakenfromDelambre’s Astronomie, Paris, 1814, vol.iii, chap. xxxviii; and hisHistoire de l’astronomie moderne, Paris, 1821, vol. i, chap. i: see also A. De Morgan, The Book of Almanacs, London, 1851; S. Butcher,The Ecclesiastical Calendar, Dublin, 1877; and C. Zeller,Acta Mathematica, Stockholm, 1887, vol.ix, pp. 131–136: on the chronological details see J.L. Ideler,Lehrbuch der Chronologie, Berlin, 1831.", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 312 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00314", "bookId": 26839, "start": 696643, "end": 699270, "sha256": "5c5066314db873070f8c42c2cf527c1fa042142ff4fa150bbb096e84732a9cdb", "text": "[PDF page 313] CH. XIII] TIME AND ITS MEASUREMENT. 297 style cast on the plate by the sun falls on lines engraved there which are marked with the corresponding hours. The earliest sun-dial, of which I have read, is that made by Berosus in 540 b.c. One was erected by Meton at Athens in 433b.c. The first sun-dial at Rome was constructed by Papirius Cursor in 306b.c. Portable sun-dials, with a compass fixed in the face, have been long common in the East as well as in Europe. Other portable instruments of a similar kind were in use in medieval Europe, notably the sun-rings, hereafter described, and the sun-cylinders*. I believe it is not generally known that a sun-dial can be so con- structed that the shadow will, for a short time near sunrise and sunset, move backwards on the dial†. This was discovered by Nonez. The ex- planation is as follows. Every day the sun appears to describe a circle round the pole, and the line joining the point of the style to the sun describes a right cone whose axis points to the pole. The section of this cone by the dial is the curve described by the extremity of the shadow, and is a conic. In our latitude the sun is above the horizon for only part of the twenty-four hours, and therefore the extremity of the shadow of the style describes only a part of this conic. LetQQ′ be the arc described by the extremity of the shadow of the style from sunrise at Q to sunset at Q′, and let S be the point of the style and F the foot of the style,i.e. the point where the style meets the plane of the dial. Suppose that the dial is placed so that the tangents drawn from F to the conic QQ′ are real, and that P and P ′, the points of contact of these tangents, lie on the arcQQ′. If these two conditions are fulfilled, then the shadow will regrede through the angleQF P as its extremity moves from Q to P, it will advance through the angle P F P′ as its extremity moves fromP to P ′, and it will regrede through the angle P ′F Q′ as its extremity moves fromP ′ to Q′. If the sun’s apparent diurnal path crosses the horizon—as always happens in temperate and tropical latitudes—and if the plane of the dial is horizontal, the arcQQ′ will consist of the whole of one branch of a hyperbola, and the above conditions will be satisfied ifF is within the space bounded by this branch of the hyperbola and its asymptotes. * Thus Chaucer in the Shipman’s Tale, “by my chilindre it is prime of day,” and Lydgate in theSiege of Thebes, “by my chilyndre I gan anon to see...that it drew to nine.” † Ozanam, 1803 edition, vol.iii, p. 321; 1840 edition, p. 529.", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 313 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00315", "bookId": 26839, "start": 699272, "end": 701844, "sha256": "f91db17b4482b0aa9e8b8db9132b40648f95ab66b31b9f357aca0d9a7a07144d", "text": "[PDF page 314] 298 TIME AND ITS MEASUREMENT. [CH. XIII As a particular case, in a place of latitude12◦ N. on a day when the sun is in the northern tropic (of Cancer) the shadow on a dial whose face is horizontal and style vertical will move backwards for about two hours between sunrise and noon. If, in the case of a given sun-dial placed in a certain position, the conditions are not satisfied, it will be possible to satisfy them by tilting the sun-dial through an angle properly chosen. This was the rational- istic explanation, offered by the French encyclopaedists, of the miracle recorded in connection with Isaiah and Hezekiah*. Suppose, for in- stance, that the style is perpendicular to the face of the dial. Draw the celestial sphere. Suppose that the sun rises atM and culminates at N, and let L be a point between M and N on the sun’s diurnal path. Draw a great circle to touch the sun’s diurnal pathM LN at L, let this great circle cut the celestial meridian inA and A′, and of the arcs AL, A′L suppose that AL is the less and therefore is less than a quadrant. If the style is pointed to A, then, while the sun is ap- proaching L, the shadow will regrede, and after the sun passesL the shadow will advance. Thus if the dial is placed so that a style which is normal to it cuts the meridian midway between the equator and the tropic, then between sunrise and noon on the longest day the shadow will move backwards through an angle sin−1(cos ω sec 1 2 ω) − cot−1{sin ω cos(l − 1 2 ω)(cos2 l − sin2 ω)− 1 2 } , where l is the latitude of the place andω is the obliquity of the ecliptic. The above remarks refer to the sun-dials in ordinary use. In 1892 General Oliver brought out in London a dial with a solid style, the section of the style being a certain curve whose form was determined empirically by the value of the equation of time as compared with the sun’s declination†. The shadow of the style on the dial gives the local mean time, though of course in order to set the dial correctly at any place the latitude of the place must be known: the dial may be also set so as to give the mean time at any other locality whose longitude relative to the place of observation is known. The sun-ring or ring-dial is another instrument for measuring solar time‡. One of the simplest type is figured in the accompanying diagram. * 2 Kings, chap. xx, vv. 9–11. † An account of this sun-dial with a diagram was given inKnowledge, July 1, 1892, pp. 133, 134. ‡ See Ozanam, 1803 edition, vol.iii, p. 317; 1840 edition, p. 526.", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 314 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00316", "bookId": 26839, "start": 701846, "end": 703214, "sha256": "9c1bd15683fe60d355cba8067cebd3457a96341d73f40defc0f2b24b5eeff84b", "text": "[PDF page 315] CH. XIII] TIME AND ITS MEASUREMENT. 299 The sun-ring consists of a thin brass band, about a quarter of an inch wide, bent into the shape of a circle, which slides between two fixed circular rims—the radii of the circles being about one inch. At one point of the band there is a hole; and when the ring is suspended from a fixed point attached to the rims so that it hangs in a vertical plane containing the sun, the light from the sun shines through this hole and makes a bright speck on the opposite inner or concave surface of the ring. On this surface the hours are marked, and, if the ring is properly adjusted, the spot of light will fall on the hour which indicates the solar time. The adjustment for the time of year is made as follows. The rims between which the band can slide are marked on their outer or convex side with the names of the months, and the band containing the hole must be moved between the rims until the hole is opposite to that month for which the ring is being used. For determining times near noon the instrument is reliable, but for other hours in the day it is accurate only if the time of year is properly chosen, usually near one of the equinoxes. This defect may be corrected by marking the hours on a curved brass band affixed to the concave surface of the rims. I possess two specimens of rings of this kind. These", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 315 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00317", "bookId": 26839, "start": 703216, "end": 705766, "sha256": "5044fac45bc7b61cd777ba67ef9932926e5001f2dfea6d1970a7f6d0d9399e68", "text": "[PDF page 316] 300 TIME AND ITS MEASUREMENT. [CH. XIII rings were distributed widely. Of my two specimens, one was bought in the Austrian Tyrol and the other in London. Astrolabes and sea-rings can be used as sun-rings. Clepsydras or water-clocks, andhour-glasses or sand-clocks, afford other means of measuring time. The time occupied by a given amount of some liquid or sand in running through a given orifice under the same conditions is always the same, and by noting the level of the liquid which has run through the orifice, or which remains to run through it, a measure of time can be obtained. The burning of graduated candles gives another way of measuring time, and we have accounts of those used by Alfred the Great for the purpose. Incense sticks were used by the Chinese in a similar way. Modern clocks and watches * comprise a train of wheels turned by a weight, spring, or other motive power, and regulated by a pendulum, balance, fly-wheel, or other moving body whose motion is periodic and time of vibration constant. The direction of rotation of the hands of a clock was selected originally so as to make the hands move in the same direction as the shadow on a sun-dial whose face is horizontal—the dial being situated in our hemisphere. The invention of clocks with wheels is attributed by tradition to Pacificus of Verona, circ. 850, and also to Gerbert, who is said to have made one at Magdeburg in 996: but there is reason to believe that these were sun-clocks. The earliest wheel-clock of which we have historical evidence was one sent by the Sultan of Egypt in 1232 to the Emperor Frederick II, though there seems to be no doubt that they had been made in Italy at least fifty years earlier. The oldest clock in England of which we know anything was one erected in 1288 in or near Westminster Hall out of a fine imposed on a corrupt Lord Chief Justice. The bells, and possibly the clock, were staked by Henry VIII on a throw of dice and lost, but the site was marked by a sun-dial, destroyed about sixty years ago, and bearing the inscription Discite justiciam moniti. In 1292 a clock was erected in Canterbury Cathedral at a cost of £30. One erected at Glastonbury Abbey in 1325 is at present in the Kensington Museum and is in regular action. Another made in 1326 for St Alban’s Abbey showed the astro- nomical phenomena, and seems to have been one of the earliest clocks that did so. One put up at Dover in 1348 is still in good working order. * See Clock and Watch Makingby Lord Grimthorpe, 7th edition, London, 1883.", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 316 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00318", "bookId": 26839, "start": 705768, "end": 708307, "sha256": "4121ac2b69779eff4df3b475ceb51c75e9a578bd583af1826ef36820930a47fb", "text": "[PDF page 317] CH. XIII] TIME AND ITS MEASUREMENT. 301 The clocks at Peterborough and Exeter were of about the same date, and portions of them remainin situ. Most of these early clocks were regulated by horizontal balances: pendulums being then unknown. Of the elaborate clocks of a later date, that at Strasburg made by Dasy- podius in 1571, and that at Lyons constructed by Lippeus in 1598, are especially famous: the former was restored in 1842, though in a manner which destroyed most of the ancient works. In 1370, Vick constructed a clock for Charles V with a weight as motive power and a vibrating escapement—a great improvement on the rough time-keepers of an earlier date. The earliest clock regulated by a pendulum seems to have been made in 1621 by a clockmaker named Harris, of Covent Garden, Lon- don, but the theory of such clocks is due to Huygens*. Galileo had dis- covered previously the isochronism of a pendulum, but did not apply it to the regulation of the motion of clocks. Hooke made such clocks, and possibly discovered independently this use of the pendulum: he invented or re-invented the anchor pallet. A watch may be defined as a clock which will go in any position. Watches, though of a somewhat clumsy design, were made at Nurem- berg by P. Hele early in the sixteenth century—the motive power being a ribbon of steel, wound round a spindle, and connected at one end with a train of wheels which it turned as it unwound—and possibly a few similar time-pieces had been made in the previous century. By the end of the sixteenth century they were not uncommon. At this time they were usually made in the form of fanciful ornaments such as skulls, or as large pendants, but about 1620 the flattened oval form was introduced, rendering them more convenient to carry in a pocket or about the person. In the seventeenth century their construction was greatly improved, notably by the introduction of the spring balance by Huygens in 1674, and independently by Hooke in 1675—both mathe- maticians having discovered that small vibrations of a coiled spring, of which one end is fixed, are practically isochronous. The fusee had been used by R. Zech of Prague in 1525, but was re-invented by Hooke. Clocks and watches are usually moved and regulated in the manner indicated above. Other motive powers and other devices for regulating the motion may be met with occasionally. Of these I may mention a clock in the form of a cylinder, usually attached to another weight as * Horologium Oscillatorium, Paris, 1673.", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 317 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00319", "bookId": 26839, "start": 708309, "end": 710994, "sha256": "1108dcdfbcf0958836e22790d525db57596e7ca64245e872c8f4b856d082e5f8", "text": "[PDF page 318] 302 TIME AND ITS MEASUREMENT. [CH. XIII in Atwood’s machine, which rolls down an inclined plane so slowly that it takes twelve hours to roll down, and the highest point of the face always marks the proper hour*. A water-clock made on a somewhat similar plan is described by Ozanam† as one of the sights of Paris at the beginning of the last century. It was formed of a hollow cylinder divided into various com- partments each containing some mercury, so arranged that the cylinder descended with uniform velocity between two vertical pillars on which the hours were marked at equidistant intervals. Other ingenious ways of concealing the motive power have been described in the columns ofLa Nature‡. Of such mysterious timepieces the following are not uncommon examples, and probably are known to most readers of this book. One kind of clock consists of a glass dial suspended by two thin wires; the hands however are of metal, and the works are concealed in them or in the pivot. Another kind is made of two sheets of glass in a frame containing a spring which gives to the hinder sheet a very slight oscillatory motion–imperceptible except on the closest scrutiny–and each oscillation moves the hands through the requisite angles. Some so-called perpetual motion timepieces were described above on pages 77–78. Lastly, I have seen in France a clock the hands of which were concealed at the back of the dial, and carried small magnets; pieces of steel in the shape of insects were placed on the dial, and, following the magnets, served to indicate the time. The position of the sun relative to the points of the compass de- termines the solar time. Conversely, if we take the time given by a watch as being the solar time—and it will differ from it by only a few minutes at the most—and we observe the position of the sun, we can find the points of the compass§. To do this it is sufficient to point the hour-hand to the sun, and then the direction which bisects the angle between the hour and the figurexii will point due south. For instance, if it is four o’clock in the afternoon, it is sufficient to point the hour- hand (which is then at the figureiiii) to the sun, and the figureii on the watch will indicate the direction of south. Again, if it is eight * Ozanam, 1803 edition, vol. ii, p. 39; 1840 edition, p. 212; orLa Nature, Jan. 23, 1892, pp. 123, 124. † Ozanam, 1803 edition, vol.ii, p. 68; 1840 edition, p. 225. ‡ See especially the volumes issued in 1874, 1877, and 1878. § The rule is given by W.H. Richards,Military Topography, London, 1883, p. 31, though it is not stated quite correctly. I do not know who first enunciated it.", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 318 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00320", "bookId": 26839, "start": 710996, "end": 712739, "sha256": "d131a8804d0a5aaf504e80660a9e88f6f8dcb542e67ddb647d950d57dc14375e", "text": "[PDF page 319] CH. XIII] TIME AND ITS MEASUREMENT. 303 o’clock in the morning, we must point the hour-hand (which is then at the figureviii) to the sun, and the figurex on the watch gives the south point of the compass. Between the hours of six in the morning and six in the evening the angle between the hour andxii which must be bisected is less than 180◦, but at other times the angle to be bisected is greater than180◦; or perhaps it is simpler to say that at other times the rule gives the north point and not the south point. The reason is as follows. At noon the sun is due south, and it makes one complete circuit round the points of the compass in24 hours. The hour-hand of a watch also makes one complete circuit in 12 hours. Hence, if the watch is held in the plane of the ecliptic with its face upwards, and the figurexii on the dial is pointed to the south, both the hour-hand and the sun will be in that direction at noon. Both move round in the same direction, but the angular velocity of the hour-hand is twice as great as that of the sun. Hence the rule. The greatest error due to the neglect of the equation of time is less than2◦. Of course in practice most people, instead of holding the face of the watch in the ecliptic, would hold it horizontal, and in our latitude no serious error would be thus introduced. In the southern hemisphere where at noon the sun is due north the rule requires modification. In such places the hour-hand of a watch (held face upwards in the plane of the ecliptic) and the sun move in opposite directions. Hence, if the watch is held so that the figurexii points to the sun, then the direction which bisects the angle between the hour of the day and the figurexii will point due north.", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 319 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00321", "bookId": 26839, "start": 712741, "end": 714471, "sha256": "b6c73c24180fa730ce79f71b7908aae64149dddb38547c9dcdd0fe4d12b1debb", "text": "[PDF page 320] CHAPTER XIV. MATTER AND ETHER THEORIES. Matter, like space and time, cannot be defined, but either the statement that matter is whatever occupies space or the statement that it is anything which can be seen, touched, or weighed, suggests its more important characteristics to anyone already familiar with it. The means of measuring matter and some of its properties are treated in most text-books on mechanics, and I do not propose to dis- cussthem. Iconfinethechaptertoanaccountofsomeofthehypotheses by physicists as to the ultimate constitution of matter, but I exclude metaphysical conjectures, which from their nature are mere assertions incapable of proof and are not subject to mathematical analysis. The question is intimately associated with the explanation of the phenom- ena of attraction, light, chemistry, electricity, and other branches of physics. I commence with a list of some of the more plausible of the hy- potheses formerly proposed which accounted for the obvious properties of matter, and shall then discuss how far they explain or are consis- tent with other facts†. The interest of the list is largely historical, for within the last few years new views as to the constitution of matter † I have based my account mainly onRecent Advances in Physical Science, by P.G.Tait, Edinburgh, 1876(chaps,xii, xiii); andonthearticle Atom byJ.Clerk Maxwell in the Encyclopaedia Britannica or hisCollected Works, vol.ii, pp. 445– 484: see also W.M. Hicks’s address, Report of the British Association (Ipswich meeting), 1895, vol. lxv, pp. 595–606. For the more recent speculations see J.J. Thomson,Electricity and Matter, Westminster, 1904, and J. Larmor,Aether and Matter, Cambridge, 1900. 304", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 320 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00322", "bookId": 26839, "start": 714473, "end": 716633, "sha256": "55148239f16d66a8b98db1c9e2f7653ba45c271bdba1ea3074b65cc9e240ca24", "text": "[PDF page 321] CH. XIV] MATTER AND ETHER THEORIES. 305 have been propounded, but the details of these more recent hypotheses are so complicated and technical that only professional mathematicians can understand them. Accordingly I allude to them only briefly. I. Hypothesis of Continuous Matter. It may be sup- posed that matter is homogeneous and continuous, in which case there is no limit to the infinite divisibility of bodies. This view was held by Descartes*. This conjecture is consistent with the facts deducible by untrained observation, but there are many other phenomena for which it does not account; moreover there seems to be no way of reconciling such a structure of matter either with the facts of chemical changes or with the results of spectrum analysis. At any rate the theory must be regarded as extremely improbable. II. Atomic Theories. If matter is not continuous we must suppose that every body is composed of aggregates of molecules. If so, it seems probable that each such molecule is built up by the association of two or more atoms, that the number of kinds of atoms is finite, and that the atoms of any particular kind are alike. As to the nature of the atoms the following hypotheses have been made. (i) Popular Atomic Hypothesis. The popular view is that every atom of any particular kind is a minute indivisible article possessing definite qualities, everlasting in its form and properties, and infinitely hard. This statement is plausible, but the difficulties to which it leads appeartobeinsuperable. Infactwehavereasontothinkthattheatoms which form a molecule are composite systems in incessant vibration at a rate characteristic of the molecule, and it is most probable that they are elastic. Newton seems to have hazarded a conjecture of this kind when he suggested† that the difficulties, connected with the fact that the velocity of sound was one-ninth greater than that required by theory, might be overcome if the particles of air were little rigid spheres whose distance from one another under normal conditions was nine times the * Descartes, Principia, vol. ii, pp. 18, 23. † Newton, Principia, bk. ii, prop. 50.", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 321 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00323", "bookId": 26839, "start": 716635, "end": 719128, "sha256": "f97e5e8335726de7302dc57fc9c30bbfd6fd2458f791328da2794e23a5b6090a", "text": "[PDF page 322] 306 MATTER AND ETHER THEORIES. [CH. XIV diameter of any one of them. This was ingenious, but obviously the view is untenable, because, if such a structure of air existed, the air couldnotbecompressedbeyondacertainlimit, namely, about 1/1021st part of its original volume, which has been often exceeded. The true explanation of the difficulty noticed by Newton was given by Laplace. (ii) Boscovich’s Hypothesis.In 1759 Boscovich suggested* that the facts might be explained by supposing that an atom was an in- finitely small indivisible mass which was a centre of force—the law of force being attractive for sensible distances, alternately attractive and repulsive for minute distances, and repulsive for infinitely small dis- tances. In this theory all action between bodies is action at a distance. He explained the apparent extension of bodies by saying that two parts are consecutive (or similarly that two bodies are in contact) when the nearest pair of atoms in them are so close to one another that the repulsion at any point between them is sufficiently great to prevent any other atom coming between them. It is essential to the theory that the atom shall have a mass but shall not have dimensions. This hypothesis is not inconsistent with any known facts, but it has been described, perhaps not unjustly, as a mere mathematical fiction, and certainly it is opposed to the apparent indications of our senses. At any rate it is artificial, though it may be a prejudice to regard that as an argument against its adoption. To some extent this view was accepted by Faraday. Lord Kelvin, better known as Sir William Thomson, has shown† that, if we assume the existence of gravitation, then each of the above hypotheses will account for cohesion. (iii) Hypothesis of an Elastic Solid Ether.Some physicists have tried to explain the known phenomena by properties of the medium through which our impressions are derived. By postulating that all space is filled with a medium possessed of many of the characteristics of an elastic solid, it has been shown by Fresnel, Green, Cauchy, Neu- mann, MacCullagh, and others that a large number of the properties of light and electricity may be explained. In spite of the difficulties to which this hypothesis necessarily leads, and of its inherent improbabil- * Philosophiae naturalis Theoria redacta ad unicam Legem Virium, Vienna, 1759. † Proceedings of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, April 21, 1862, vol.iv, pp. 604– 606.", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 322 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00324", "bookId": 26839, "start": 719130, "end": 721418, "sha256": "1b89a624d7cc7c95269e05b63d3cb613a46aa880cb412fbdab3b3387e27f5a14", "text": "[PDF page 323] CH. XIV] MATTER AND ETHER THEORIES. 307 ity, it has been discussed by Stokes, Lamé, Boussinesq, Sarrau, Lorenz, Lord Rayleigh, and Kirchhoff. This hypothesis has been modified and rendered somewhat more plausible by von Helmholtz, Lommel, Ketteler*, and Voigt, who based their researches on the assumption of a mutual reaction between the ether and the material molecules located in it: on this view the prob- lems connected with refraction and dispersion have been simplified. Fi- nally, Sir William Thomson, in his Baltimore Lectures, 1885, suggested a mechanical analogue to represent the relations between matter and this ether, by which a possible constitution of the ether can be realized. He also suggested later a form oflabile ether, from whose properties most of the more familiar physical phenomena can be deduced, pro- vided the arrangement can be considered stable; a labile ether is an elastic solid, and its properties in two dimensions may be compared with those of a soap-bubble film, in three dimensions. It is, however, difficult to criticise any of these hypotheses as a theory of the constitution of matter until the arrangement of the atoms or their nature is more definitely expressed. III. Dynamical Theories. In recent years the suggestion has been made that the so-called atoms may be forms of motion (ex. gr. permanent eddies) in one elementary material known as the ether; on this view all the atoms are constituted of the same matter, but the physical conditions are different for the different kinds of atoms. It has been said that there is an initial difficulty in any such hypothesis, since the all-pervading elementary fluid must possess inertia, so that to explain matter we assume the existence of a fluid possessing one of the chief characteristics of matter. This is true as far as it goes, but it is not more unreasonable than to attribute all the fundamental properties of matter to the atoms themselves, as is done by many writers. The next paragraph contains a statement of one of the earliest attempts to formulate a dynamical atomic hypothesis. (i) The Vortex Ring Hypothesis. This hypothesis assumes that each atom is a vortex ring in an incompressible frictionless homoge- neous fluid. * Theoretische Optik, Braunschweig, 1885.", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 323 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00325", "bookId": 26839, "start": 721420, "end": 724074, "sha256": "b05b11ee73dae56a9e3468ab94c48fe2ba84cbcffb733288ea7c7f30660d65b0", "text": "[PDF page 324] 308 MATTER AND ETHER THEORIES. [CH. XIV Vortex rings—though, since friction is brought into play, of an im- perfect character—can be produced in air by many smokers. Better specimens can be formed by taking a cardboard box in one side of which a circular hole is cut, filling it with smoke, and hitting the op- posite side sharply. The tendency of the particles forming a ring to maintain their annular connection may be illustrated by placing such a box on one side of a room in a direct line with the flame of a lighted candle on the other side. If properly aimed, the ring will travel across the room and put out the flame. If the box is filled only with air, so that the ring is not visible, the experiment is more effective. In 1858 von Helmholtz* showed that a closed vortex filament in a perfect fluid is indestructible and retains certain characteristics always unaltered. In 1867 Sir William Thomson propounded† the idea that matter consists of vortex rings in a fluid which fills space. If the fluid is perfect we could neither create new vortex rings nor destroy those already created, and thus the permanence of the atoms is explained. Moreover the atoms would be flexible, compressible, and in incessant vibration at a definite fundamental rate. This rate is very rapid, and Sir William Thomson gave the number of vibrations per second of a sodium ring as probably being greater than1014. By a development of this hypothesis Prof. J.J. Thomson‡showed, some years ago, that chemical combination may be explained. He sup- posed that a molecule of a compound is formed by the linking together of vortex filaments representing atoms of different elements: this ar- rangement may be compared with that of helices on an anchor ring. For stability not more than six filaments may be combined together, and their strengths must be equal. Another way of explaining chemi- cal combination on the vortex atom hypothesis has been suggested by W.M. Hicks. It is known§that a spherical mass of fluid, whose interior possesses vortex motion, can move through liquid like a rigid sphere, and he has shown that one of these spherical vortices can swallow up another, thus forming a compound element. * Crelle’s Journal, 1858, vol.l v, pp. 25–55; translated by Tait in thePhilosophical Magazine, June, 1867, supplement, series 4, vol.xxxiii, pp. 485–512. † Proceedings of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, Feb. 18, 1867, vol.vi, pp. 94–105. ‡ A Treatise on the Motion of Vortex Rings, Cambridge, 1883. § See a memoir by M.J.M. Hill in the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, London, 1894, part i, pp. 213–246.", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 324 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00326", "bookId": 26839, "start": 724076, "end": 726620, "sha256": "261ceddc102773702526218e362d42dc6ac79b28c79bf54f44457ee6c170409b", "text": "[PDF page 325] CH. XIV] MATTER AND ETHER THEORIES. 309 (ii) The Vortex Sponge Hypothesis. Any vortex atom hypothe- sis labours under the difficulty of requiring that the density of the fluid ether shall be comparable with that of ordinary matter. In order to obviate this and at the same time to enable it to transmit transver- sal radiations Sir William Thomson suggested what has been termed, not perhaps very happily, the vortex sponge hypothesis*: this rests on the assumption that laminar motion can be propagated through a turbulently moving inviscid liquid. The mathematical difficulties con- nected with such motion have prevented an adequate discussion of this hypothesis, and I therefore confine myself to merely mentioning it. These hypotheses, of vortex motion in a fluid, account for the in- destructibility of matter and for many of its properties. But in order to explain statical electrical attraction it would seem necessary to suppose that the ether is elastic; in other words, that an electric field must be a field of strain. If so, complete fluidity in the ether would be impossible, and hence the above theories are now regarded as untenable. (iii) The Ether-Squirts Hypothesis. Prof. Karl Pearson†has sug- gested another dynamical theory in which an atom is conceived as a point at which ether is pouring into our space from space of four di- mensions. If an observer lived in two dimensional space filled with ether and confined by two parallel and adjacent surfaces, and if through a hole in one of these surfaces fresh ether were squirted into this space, the variations of pressure thereby produced might give the impression of a hard impenetrable body. Similarly an ether-squirt from space of four dimensions into our space might give us the impression of matter. It seems necessary on this hypothesis to suppose that there are also ether-sinks, or atoms of negative mass; but as ether-squirts and ether-sinks would repel one another we may suppose that the latter have moved out of the universe known to our senses. By defining the mass of an atom as the mean rate at which ether is squirting into our space at that point, we can deduce the Newtonian law of gravitation, and by assuming certain periodic variations in the rate of squirting we can deduce some of the phenomena of cohesion, of chemical action, and of electromagnetism and light. But of course the * Philosophical Magazine, London, October, 1887, series 5, vol.xxiv, pp. 342–353. † American Journal of Mathematics, 1891, vol.xiii, pp. 309–362.", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 325 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00327", "bookId": 26839, "start": 726622, "end": 729174, "sha256": "45ce1a4ad77c66f68ed9dfa24a201603d29a311a609b8e1bae4ce714e8a5a596", "text": "[PDF page 326] 310 MATTER AND ETHER THEORIES. [CH. XIV hypothesis rests on the assumption of the existence of a world beyond our senses. (iv) The Electron Hypothesis. MacCullagh, in 1837 and 1839, proposed to account for optical phenomena on the assumption of an elastic ether possessing elasticity of the type required to enable it to re- sist rotation. This suggestion has been recently modified and extended by Dr J. Larmor*, and, as now enunciated, it accounts for many of the electrical and magnetic (as well as the optical) properties of matter. The hypothesis is however very artificial. The assumed ether is a rotationally elastic incompressible fluid. In this fluid Larmor intro- duces monad electric elements orelectrons, which are nuclei of radial rotational strain. He supposes that these electrons constitute the basis of matter. He further supposes that an electrical current consists of a procession of these electrons, and that a magnetic particle is one in which these entities are revolving in minute orbits. Dynamical consid- erations applied to such a system lead to an explanation of nearly all the more obvious phenomena. By further postulating that the orbital motion of electrons in the atom constitute it a fluid vortex it is possi- ble to apply the hydrodynamical pulsatory theory of Bjerknes or Hicks and obtain an explanation of gravitation. Thus on this view mass is explained as an electrical manifestation. Electricity in its turn is explained by the existence of electrons, that is, ofnucleiofstrainintheether, whicharesupposedtobeinincessantand rapid motion. Whilst, to render this possible, properties are attributed to the ether which are apparently inconsistent with our experience of the space it fills. Put thus, the hypothesis seems very artificial. Perhaps the utmost we can say for it is that, from some points of view, it may, so far as analysis goes, be an approximation to the true theory; in any case much work will have to be done before it can be considered established even as a working hypothesis. Most of the above was written in 1891. Since then investigations on radio-activity have opened up new avenues of conjecture which tend to strengthen the electron theory as a working hypothesis. More than thirtyyearsagoClerkMaxwellhadshownthatlightandelectricitywere closely connected phenomena. It was then believed that both were due to waves in the hypothetical ether, but it was supposed that the phe- * Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, London, 1894, pp. 719–822; 1895, pp. 695–743.", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 326 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00328", "bookId": 26839, "start": 729176, "end": 731885, "sha256": "678c5a9e529b0d3d31dc7d5a0f330b9f79003b7db5e19ba61da33ecbae577e32", "text": "[PDF page 327] CH. XIV] MATTER AND ETHER THEORIES. 311 nomena of matter on the one side and of light and electricity on the other were sharply distinguished one from the other. The differences, however, between matter and light tend to disappear as investigations proceed. In 1895 Röntgen established the existence of rays which could produce light, which had the same velocity as light, which were not affected by a magnet, and which could traverse wood and certain other opaque substances like glass. A year later Becquerel showed that ura- nium was constantly emitting rays which, though not affecting the eye as light, were capable of producing an image on a photographic plate. Like Röntgen rays they can go through thin sheets of metal; like heat rays they burn the skin; like electricity they generate ozone from oxy- gen. Passed into the air they enable it to conduct the electric current. Their speed has been measured and found to be rather more than half that of light and electricity. It was soon found that thorium possessed a similar property, but in 1903 Prof. Curie showed that radium possessed radio-activity to an extent previously unsuspected in any body, and in fact the rays were so powerful as to make the substance directly visible. Further experiments showed that numerous bodies are radio-active, but the effects are so much more marked in radium that it is convenient to use that substance for most experimental purposes. Radium gives off no less than three kinds of rays besides a radio- active emanation. In these discharges there appears to be a gradual change from what had been supposed to be an elementary form of matter to another. This leads to the belief that of the known forms of matter some, perhaps even all, are not absolutely stable. On the other hand, it may be that only radio-active bodies are unstable, and that in their disintegration we are watching the final stage in the evolution of stable and constant forms of matter. It may, however, in any case turn out that some, or perhaps all, of the so-called elements may be capable of resolution into different combinations of electrons or electricity. At an earlier date J.J. Thomson had concluded that the glow, seen when an electric current passes through a high vacuum tube, is due to a rush of minute particles across the tube. He calculated their weight, their velocity, and the charge of electricity transported by or repre- sented by them, and found these to be constant. They were deflected like Becquerel rays. All space seems to contain them, and electricity, if not identical with them, is at least carried by them. This suggested that these minute particles might be electrons. If so, they might thus", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 327 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00329", "bookId": 26839, "start": 731887, "end": 734572, "sha256": "eab63f6a94c3b7d8d5bd8103a6be690f15a24c7e4840252fcfd25ea567900632", "text": "[PDF page 328] 312 MATTER AND ETHER THEORIES. [CH. XIV give the ultimate explanation of electricity as well as matter, and the atom of the chemist would be not an irreducible unit of matter, but a system comprising numerous such minute particles. These conclusions are consistent with those subsequently deduced from experiments with radium. In 1904 the hypothesis was carried one stage further. In that year J.J. Thomson investigated the conditions of stability of certain systems of revolving particles; and on the hypothesis that an atom of matter consists of a number of particles carrying negative charges of electricity revolving in orbits within a sphere of positive electrification he deduced many of the properties of the different chemical atoms cor- responding to different possible stable systems of this kind. His scheme led to results agreeing closely with the results of Mendeléeff’s periodic hypothesis. An interesting consequence of this view is that Franklin’s description of electricity as subtle particles pervading all bodies, may turn out to be substantially correct. It is also remarkable that cor- puscles somewhat analogous to those whose existence was suggested in Newton’s corpuscular theory of light should be now supposed to exist in cathode and Becquerel rays. (v) The Bubble Hypothesis*. The difficulty of conceiving the mo- tion of matter through a solid elastic medium has been met in another way, namely, by suggesting that what we call matter is a deficiency of the ether, and that this region of deficiency can move through the ether in a manner somewhat analogous to that in which a bubble can move in a liquid. To express this in technical language we may suppose the ether to consist of an arrangement of minute uniform spherical grains piled together so closely that they cannot change their neighbours, although they can move relatively one to another. Places where the number of grains is less or greater than the number necessary to render the piling normal, move through the medium, as a wave moves through water, though the grains do not move with them. Places where the ether is in excess of the normal amount would repel one another and move away out of our ken, but places where it is below the normal amount would attract each other according to the law of gravity, and constitute par- ticles of matter which would be indestructible. It is alleged that the theory accounts for the known phenomena of gravity, electricity, and light, provided the size of its grains is properly chosen. Reynolds has calculated that for this purpose their diameter should be rather more * O. Reynolds, Submechanics of the Universe, Cambridge, 1903.", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 328 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00330", "bookId": 26839, "start": 734574, "end": 737070, "sha256": "66c49c4feb4c9b14089d7a444ca9dbc73688b171086c93260f04f9bb681d0d5f", "text": "[PDF page 329] CH. XIV] THE CAUSE OF GRA VITY 313 than 5 ×10−18 centimetres, and that the pressure in the medium would be about 104 tons per square centimetre. This theory is in itself more plausible than the electron hypothesis, but its consequences have not yet been fully worked out. Returning from these novel hypotheses to the classical theories of matter, we may now proceed a step further. Before a hypothesis on the structure of matter can be ranked as a scientific theory we may reasonably expect it to afford some explanation of three facts. These are (a) the Newtonian law of attraction; (b) the fact that there are only a finite number of ultimate kinds of matter—such as oxygen, iron, etc.—which can be arranged in a series such that the properties of the successive members are connected by a regular law; and (c) the main results of spectrum analysis. In regard to the first point (a), we can say only that none of the above theories are inconsistent with the known laws of attraction; and as far as the ether-squirts, the electron, and the bubble hypotheses are concerned, they have been elaborated into a form from which the gravitational law of attraction can be deduced. But we may still say that as to the cause of gravity—or indeed of force—we know nothing. Newton, in his Letters to Bentley, while declaring his ignorance of the cause of gravity, refused to admit the possibility of force acting at a finite distance through a vacuum. “You sometimes speak of gravity,” said he*, “as essential and inherent to matter: pray do not ascribe that notion to me, for the cause of gravity is what I do not pretend to know.” And in another place he wrote†, “’Tis inconceivable, that inanimate brute matter should (without the mediation of something elsewhichisnotmaterial)operateuponandaffectothermatterwithout mutual contact; as it must if gravitation in the sense of Epicurus, be essential and inherent in it... That gravity should be innate, inherent, and essential to matter, so that one body may act upon another at a distance thro’ a vacuum, without the mediation of anything else, by and through which their action and force may be conveyed from one to another, is to me so great an absurdity, that I believe no man who has in * Letter dated Jan. 17, 1693. I quote from the original, which is in the Library of Trinity College, Cambridge; it is printed in theLetters to Bentley, London, 1756, p. 20. † Letter dated Feb. 25, 1693;ibid., pp. 25, 26.", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 329 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00331", "bookId": 26839, "start": 737072, "end": 739638, "sha256": "fbb2b95f971f97cc07fdd3dce3727c2b9f23b1c79bb2ec97a7a839aaea68e92d", "text": "[PDF page 330] 314 MATTER AND ETHER THEORIES. [CH. XIV philosophical matters a competent faculty of thinking can ever fall into it. Gravity must be caused by an agent acting constantly according to certain laws, but whether this agent be material or immaterial, I have left to the consideration of my readers.” I have already alluded to conjectural explanations of gravity depen- dent on the ether-squirts, the electron, and the bubble hypotheses. Of other conjectures as to the cause of gravity, three, which do not involve the idea of force acting at a distance, may be here mentioned: (1) The first of these conjectures was propounded by Newton in the Queries at the end of hisOpticks, where he suggested as a possible explanation the existence of a stress in the ether surrounding a particle of matter*. This has been elaborated on a statical basis by Maxwell, who showed† that the stress would have to be at least 3000 times greater than that which the strongest steel would support. Sir William Thom- son (Lord Kelvin) has suggested‡ a dynamical way of producing the stress by supposing that space is filled with an incompressible fluid, constantly being annihilated by each atom of matter at a rate pro- portional to its mass, a constant supply being kept up at an infinite distance. It is true that this avoids Maxwell’s difficulty, but we have no right to introduce such sinks and sources of fluid unless we have other grounds for believing in their existence. The conclusion is that New- ton’s conjecture is very improbable unless we adopt the ether-squirts theory: on that hypothesis it is a plausible explanation. I should add that Maclaurin implies§that though the above expla- nation was Newton’s early opinion, yet his final view was that he could not devise any tenable hypothesis about the cause of gravitation. (2) In 1782 Le Sage of Geneva suggested∥ that gravity was caused by the bombardment of streams of ultramundane corpuscles. These * Quoted by S.P. Rigaud in hisEssay on thePrincipia, Oxford, 1838, appendix, pp. 68–70. On other guesses by Newton see Rigaud, text, pp. 61–62, and refer- ences there given. † Article Attraction, in Encyclopaedia Britannica, or Collected Works, vol. ii, p. 489. ‡ Proceedings of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, Feb. 7, 1870, vol.vii, pp. 60–63. § An Account of Sir Isaac Newton’s Philosophical Discoveries, London, 1748, p. 111. ∥ Mémoires de l’Académie des Sciencesfor 1782, Berlin, 1784, pp. 404–432: see also the first two books of hisTraité de Physique, Geneva, 1818.", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 330 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00332", "bookId": 26839, "start": 739640, "end": 742283, "sha256": "ff2c655515bf77636847edaf372e49a78d54b142ab2fb50760138b3974889992", "text": "[PDF page 331] CH. XIV] THE CAUSE OF GRA VITY 315 corpuscles are supposed to come in all directions from space and to be so small that inter-collisions are rare. Abodybyitselfinspacewouldreceiveonanaverageasmanyblows on one side as on another, and therefore would have no tendency to move. But, if there are two bodies, each will screen the other from some of the bombarding corpuscles. Thus each body will receive more blows on the side remote from the other body than on the side turned towards it. Hence the two bodies will be impelled each towards the other. In order to make this force between two particles vary directly as the product of their masses and inversely as the square of the distance between them, Le Sage showed that it was sufficient to suppose that the mass of a body was proportional to the area of a section at right angles to the direction in which it was attracted. This requires that the constitution of a body shall be molecular, and that the distances between consecutive molecules shall be very large compared with the sizes of the molecules. On the vortex hypothesis we may suppose that the ultramundane corpuscles are vortex rings. This is ingenious, and it is possible that if the corpuscles were per- fectly elastic the theory might be tenable*. But the results of Maxwell’s numerical calculation show, first, that the particles must be imperfectly elastic; second, that merely to produce the effect of the attraction of the earth on a mass of one pound would require that Le Sage’s corpuscles should expend energy at the rate of at least billions†of foot-pounds per second; and third, that it is probable that the effect of such a bombard- ment would be to raise the temperature of all bodies beyond a point consistent with our experience. Finally, it seems probable that the distance between consecutive molecules would have to be considerably greater than is compatible with the results given below. Tait summed up the objections to these two hypotheses by say- ing‡, “One common defect of these attempts is...that they all demand some prime mover, working beyond the limits of the visible universe or inside each atom: creating or annihilating matter, giving additional speed to spent corpuscles, or in some other way supplying the exhaus- tion suffered in the production of gravitation. Another defect is that * See a paper by Sir William Thomson (Lord Kelvin) in theProceedings of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, Dec. 18, 1871, vol.vii, pp. 577–589. † I use billion with the English (and not the French) meaning, that is, a billion = 10 12. ‡ Properties of Matter, London, 1885, art. 164.", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 331 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00333", "bookId": 26839, "start": 742285, "end": 744912, "sha256": "929e3003f7596dcc0b72b35806e9df6e847c084b95dd0ada1561c3b339dfde32", "text": "[PDF page 332] 316 MATTER AND ETHER THEORIES. [CH. XIV they all make gravitation a mere difference-effect, as it were; thereby implying the presence of stores of energy absolutely gigantic in com- parison with anything hitherto observed, or even suspected to exist, in the universe; and therefore demanding the most delicate adjustments, not merely to maintain the conservation of energy which we observe, but to prevent the whole solar and stellar systems from being instan- taneously scattered in fragments through space. In fact, the cause of gravitation remains undiscovered.” (3) There is another conjecture on the cause of gravity which I may mention*. It is possible that the attraction of one particle on another might be explained if both of them rested on a homogeneous elastic body capable of transmitting energy. This is the case if our three-dimensional universe rests in the direction of a fourth dimension on a four-dimensional homogeneous elastic body (which we may call the ether) whose thickness in the fourth dimension is small and constant. The results of spectrum analysis lead us to suppose that every molecule of matter in our universe is in constant vibration. On the above hypothesis these vibrations would cause a disturbance in the supporting space,i.e. in the ether. This disturbance would spread out uniformly in all directions; the intensity diminishing as the square of the distance from the centre of vibration, but the rate of vibration re- maining unaltered. The transmission of light and radiant heat may be explained by such vibrations transversal to the direction of propaga- tion. It is possible that gravity may be caused by vibrations in the supporting space which are wholly longitudinal or are compounded of vibrations which are partly longitudinal and partly transversal in any of the three directions at right angles to the direction of propagation. If we define the mass of a molecule as proportional to the intensity of these vibrations caused by it, then at any other point in space the intensity of the vibration there would vary as the mass of the molecule and inversely as the square of the distance from the molecule; hence, if we may assume that such vibrations of the medium spreading out from any centre would draw to that centre a particle of unit mass at any other point with a force proportional to the intensity of the vibra- tion there, then the Newtonian law of attraction would follow. This conjecture is consistent either with Boscovich’s hypothesis or with the * See an article by myself in the Messenger of Mathematics, Cambridge, 1891, vol. xxi, pp. 20–24.", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 332 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00334", "bookId": 26839, "start": 744914, "end": 747241, "sha256": "fd8e33ba9ab11b77ca7690cecc3125b9f13bdf2baf19283ebfbf62ff9b0ceff7", "text": "[PDF page 333] CH. XIV] FINITE NUMBER OF KINDS OF MATTER 317 vortex theory. It would be interesting if the results of a branch of pure mathematics so abstract as the theory of hyperspace should be found to be closely connected with one of the most fundamental problems of material science. I should sum up the effect of this discussion on gravity on the relative probabilities of the hypotheses as to the constitution of matter enumerated above, by saying that it does not enable us to discriminate between them. The fact that the number of kinds of matter (chemical elements) is finite and the consequences of spectrum analysis are closely related and may be treated together. The results of spectrum analysis show that every molecule of any species of matter, such as hydrogen, vibrates with (so far as we can tell) exactly equal sets of periods of vibration. This then is one of the characteristics of the particular kind of matter, and it is probable that any explanation of why the molecules of each kind have a definite set of periods of vibration will account also for the fact that the number of kinds of matter is finite. Various attempts to explain why the molecules of matter are capa- ble only of certain definite periods of vibration have been made, and it may be interesting if I give them briefly. (1) To begin with, I may note the conjecture that it depends on properties of time. This, however, is impossible, for the continuity of certain spectra proves that in these cases there is nothing which prevents the period of vibration from taking any one of millions of different values: thus no explanation dependent on the nature of time is permissible. (2) It has been suggested that there may have been a sorting agency, and only selected specimens of the infinite number of species formed originally have got into our universe. The objection to this is that no explanation is offered as to what has become of the excluded molecules. (3) The finite number of species might be explained by supposing a physical connection to exist between all the molecules in the universe, just as two clocks whose rates are nearly the same tend to go at the same rate if their cases are connected. Maxwell’s objection to this is that we have no other reason for supposingthatsuchaconnectionexists, butifwearelivinginaspaceof", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 333 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00335", "bookId": 26839, "start": 747243, "end": 749778, "sha256": "7d53abc461e0628016e755488183b51f049aa5599eb904a668bd7fe11855f5cb", "text": "[PDF page 334] 318 MATTER AND ETHER THEORIES. [CH. XIV four dimensions as suggested above in chapterxii, this connection does exist, for all the molecules rest on one and the same body. This body is capable of transmitting vibrations, hence, no matter how the molecules were set vibrating originally, they would fall into certain groups, and all the members of each group would vibrate at the same rate. It was the possibility of obtaining thus a physical connection between the various particles in our universe that first suggested to me the idea of a supporting medium in a fourth dimension. (4) If we accept Boscovich’s hypothesis or that of an elastic solid ether, and if we may lay it down as axiomatic that the mass of every sub-atom is the same, we may conceive that the number of ways of combining the sub-atoms into a permanent system is limited, and that the period of vibration depends on the form in which the sub-atoms are combined into an atom. This view is not inconsistent with any known facts. I may add that it is probable that the chemical atom is the essential vibrating system, for the sodium spectrum, to take one instance, is the same as that of all its compounds. (5) In the same way we may suppose that the vortex rings are formed so that they can have only a definite number of stable forms produced by interlinking or kinking. (6) Similarly we may modify the popular hypothesis by treat- ing the atoms as indivisible aggregates of sub-atoms which are in all respects equal and similar, and can be combined in only a limited num- ber of forms which are permanent. But most of the old difficulties con- nected with the atoms arise again in connection with the sub-atoms. (7) I am not aware that Maxwell discussed any other hypotheses in connection with this point, but it has been suggested recently that, if the various forms of matter were evolved originally out of some one primitive material, then there may have been periodic disturbances in this matter when the atoms were being formed, such that they were produced only at some definite phase in the period*. Thus, if the disturbance is represented by the swinging of a pendu- lum in a resisting medium, it might be supposed that the atoms were formed at the points of maximum amplitude, and we should expect that the atoms successively thrown off would form a series having the prop- erties of its successive members connected by a regular periodic law. * See Crookes on Mendeléeff’s periodic law,Nature, Sept. 2, 1886, vol. xxxiv, pp. 423–432.", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 334 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00336", "bookId": 26839, "start": 749780, "end": 752279, "sha256": "45488a8f7ee7ebb3ff30b480312edcb01a402a22ce8fa5387f7f51dc5e4edea8", "text": "[PDF page 335] CH. XIV] THE SIZE OF MOLECULES OF MATTER. 319 This conjecture, when worked out in some detail, led to the conclusion that some elements which ought to have appeared in the series were missing, but it was possible to predict their properties and to suggest the substances with which they were most likely to be found in com- bination. Guided by these theoretical conclusions a careful chemical analysis revealed the fact that such elements did exist. That this hypothesis has led to new discoveries is something in its favour, but I do not wish to be understood to say that it is a theory which leads to results that have been verified subsequently. I should say rather that we have obtained an analogy which is sufficiently like the truth to suggest new discoveries. Such analogies are often the pre- cursors of laws, so that it is not unreasonable to hope that ere long our knowledge of this border-land of chemistry and physics may be more definite, and thus that molecular physics may be brought within the domain of mathematics. It is however very remarkable that J.J. Thom- son’s conclusions on the stability of the orbital systems he devised should agree so closely with Mendeléeff’s periodic law. On the whole Maxwell thought that the phenomena point to a common origin of all molecules of the same kind, that this was an event not belonging to that order of nature under which we live, but must have originated when or before the existing order was established, and that so long as the present order exists it is immutable. This is equivalent to saying that we have arrived at a point be- yond which our limited experience does not enable us to carry the explanation. That we should be able to form an approximate idea of the size of the molecules of matter is a testimony to the extraordinary advance which mathematical physics has made recently. Sir William Thomson, now Lord Kelvin, whose ingenuity seems to know no limits—has suggested* four distinct methods of attacking the problem. They lead to results which are not very different. The first of these rests on an assertion of Cauchy that the phenom- ena of prismatic colours show that the distance between consecutive molecules of matter is comparable with the wave-lengths of light. Tak- ing the most unfavourable case this would seem to indicate that in a * See Nature, March 31, 1870, vol.i, pp. 531–553; and Tait’sRecent Advances, pp. 303–318. The fourth method had been proposed by Loschmidt in 1863.", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 335 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00337", "bookId": 26839, "start": 752281, "end": 754889, "sha256": "2e815d0158b5ac869bbca35f558a67f689556b63c6d328fef5e46894080a5a87", "text": "[PDF page 336] 320 MATTER AND ETHER THEORIES. [CH. XIV transparent homogeneous solid or liquid medium there are not more than 64 × 1024 molecules in a cubic inch, that is, that the distance between consecutive molecules is greater than1/(4 × 108)th of an inch. The second method is founded on the amount of work required to draw out a film of liquid, such as a soap-bubble, to a given thickness. This can be calculated from experiments in a capillary tube, and it is found that, if a soap-bubble could be drawn out to a thickness of 1/108th of an inch there would be but a few molecules in its thickness. This method is not quantitative. Thirdly, Sir William Thomson proved that the contact phenomena of electricity require that in an alloy of brass the distance between two molecules, one of zinc and one of copper, shall be greater than 1/(7 × 108)th of an inch; hence the number of molecules in a cubic inch of zinc or copper is not greater than35 × 1025. Lastly, the kinetic theory of gases leads to the conclusion that certain phenomena of temperature and viscosity depend, inter alia, on inter-molecular collisions, and so on the sizes and velocities of the molecules, while the average velocity with which the molecules move increases with the temperature. This leads to the conclusion that the distance between two consecutive molecules of a gas at normal pres- sure and temperature is greater than1/(6 × 106)th of an inch, and is less than 1/107th of an inch; while the actual size of the molecule is a trifle greater than 1/(3 × 1020)th of a cubic inch; and the number of molecules in a cubic inch is about3 × 1020. Thusitwouldseemthatacubicinchofgasatordinarypressureand temperature contains about 3 × 1020 molecules, all similar and equal, and each molecule has a volume of about1/(3 ×1025)th of a cubic inch; while a cubic inch of the simplest solid or liquid contains rather less than 1027 molecules, and perhaps each molecule has a volume of about 1/(3 × 1026)th of a cubic inch. For instance, if a pea or a drop of water whose radius is1/16th inch was magnified to the size of the earth, then there would be about thirty molecules in every cubic foot of it, and probably the size of a molecule would be about the same as that of a fives-ball. The average size of the minute drops of water in a very light cloud can be calculated from the coloured rings produced when the sun or moon shines through it. The radius of a drop is about1/30000th of an inch. Such a drop therefore would contain about2 × 1013 separate molecules. In gases and vapours, the number of atoms required to make", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 336 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00338", "bookId": 26839, "start": 754891, "end": 756545, "sha256": "3bd7daf3ce85ade4b2258ae4c11a16c84b79f84128548fa7150068fb5b5471e3", "text": "[PDF page 337] CH. XIV] THE SIZE OF MOLECULES OF MATTER. 321 up one of these molecules can be estimated, but in liquids the number is not as yet known. Loschmidt asserted that a cube whose side is1/4000th of a mil- limetre is the smallest object which can be made visible at the present time. Such a cube of oxygen or nitrogen would contain from 60 to 100 millions of molecules of the gas. Also on an average about 50 elemen- tary molecules of the so-called elements are required to constitute one molecule of organic matter. At least half of every living organism con- sists of water, and we may for the moment suppose that the remainder consists of organic matter. Hence the smallest living being which is vis- ible under the microscope contains from 30 to 50 millions of elementary molecules which are combined in the form of water, and from 30 to 50 millions of elementary molecules which are combined so as to make not more than one million organic molecules. Hence a very simple organism might be built up out of as few as a million similar organic molecules. Maxwell did not consider that this wassufficienttojustifythecurrentconclusionsofphysiologists, andsaid that they must not suppose that structural details of infinitely small di- mensionscanfurnishbythemselvesanexplanationofthevarietyknown to exist in the properties and functions of the most minute organisms; but physiologists have replied that whether their conjectures be right or wrong Maxwell’s argument is vitiated by his non-consideration of differences due to the physical (as opposed to the chemical) structure of the organism and the consequent motions of the component parts.", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 337 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00339", "bookId": 26839, "start": 756547, "end": 757991, "sha256": "d257ae6fe121576c133849fa6783a32528ac77facfa89ad9bd787baf3b234d07", "text": "[PDF page 338] INDEX Abbot, W., 176 Abbott, E.A., 276 Achilles and the Tortoise, 67 Acts or Disputations, chap.vii Agrippa, Cornelius, 122 Ahrens, 97, 103, 123 Airy, Sir Geo., 87, 193 Aix, Labyrinth at, 152 Albohazen on Astrology, 237 Alcuin, 2, 55 Alfred the Great, 300 Alkarisimi on π, 216 Alkborough, Labyrinth at, 152 Anallagmatic Squares, 51 Anaxagoras, 214 Anderson, T., 271 Angular Motion, 69 Anstice, 103, 105–106 Antipho, 214 Apollonius, 205, 207, 215 Archimedes, 72, 211, 214, 218 Archytas on Delian Problem, 206 Argyle, 257 Arithmetic, Higher, 29–34 Arithmetical Fallacies, 20–24 Arithmetical Puzzles, 4–26 — Recreations, chap. i Arya Bhata onπ, 215 Asenby, Labyrinth at, 152 Astrological Planets, 122, 239, 290 Astrology, chap. x Atomic Theories, chap. xiv Atoms, Size of, 319 Attraction, Law of, 313–317 Augustine on Astrology, 243 Augustus, 268, 291, 292 Ayrton on Magic Mirrors, 87 Babbage, C., 191 Bachet’sProblèmes, 2–20, 27–29, 55, 113, 115, 122, 125, 132 Bacon, Francis, 268 Bailey, J.E., 250 Ball, 170, 172, 204, 207, 223, 281 Bardesan on Fate, 236 Barrow, I., 171 Baudhayana on π, 215 Becquerel Rays, 311, 312 Bedwell, T., 171 Beltrami on Space, 276 Benham on Spectrum Top, 87 Bentley, Newton to, 313 Bentley, R., 175 Bernoulli, John, 22 Berosus, 297 Berri, de, 266 Bertrand, J.L.F., 21 Bertrand, L. (of Geneva), 160 Besant on Hauksbee’s Law, 82 Bhaskara on π, 216 Bickmore, C.E., 229, 230, 235 322", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 338 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00340", "bookId": 26839, "start": 757993, "end": 759914, "sha256": "b3fc21d766684cff16555e45faedbfd8f62700c524d8a7bec1e4649a347ff18a", "text": "[PDF page 339] INDEX. 323 Biering on Delian Problem, 204 Billingsley, H., 171 Bills on Kirkman’s Problem, 109 Binary Powers, Fermat on, 31–32 Birch, J.G., 232 Birds, Flight of, 85–86 Bjerknes, 310 Blackburn, J., 184 Blundeville, T., 171 Board, Mathematical, 197, 198 Boat-racing with a rope, 81–82 Bolyai, J., 284 Bonnycastle, J., 188 Bordered Magic Squares, 135–136 Boscovich on Matter, 306, 316, 318 Boughton Green, Labyrinth at, 152 Bouniakowski, V., on shuffling, 110 Bourget, M.J., on shuffling, 110 Bourlet, 18, 19 Boussinesq on Ether, 307 Brackets, in Tripos, 181, 187, 196, 197 Brahmagupta on π, 216 Breton on Mosaics, 152 Brewster, Sir David, 248 Briggs, H., 171 Bristed, C.A., 191 Bromton, 151 Brouncker on π, 219 Brown, J. (Saint), 189 Bryan on Bird Flight, 86 Bryso, 214 Bubble Theory of Matter, 312 Buckley, W., 171 Burnside, Kirkman’s Problem, 103 Butcher on the Calendar, 296 Caesar, Julius, 243, 268, 291 Calendar, the Civil, 291–293 — the Ecclesiastical, 293–296 — the Gregorian, 293–295 — the Julian, 291–292 Calendars, University, 185 Cambridge, Mathematics, chap. vii — Studies at, chap. vii Cantor on π, 214 Cardan, 2, 93, 95, 236, 246–248, 274 Cards, Problems with, 14–15, 26, 55, 109–120 Carpmael, Kirkman’s Problem, 103 Cartwright, W., 270 Cauchy, 48, 306, 319 Cayley, 44, 46, 103, 119, 154, 219 Cellini, 248 Cells of a Chess-board, 158 Centrifugal Force, 71–72 Ceulen, van, onπ, 217, 218 Challis MSS, 182 Charles I, 268–270, 271, 296 Charles V of Germany, 301 Chartres, Labyrinth at, 152 Chartres, R., 21, 41, 222 Chasles on Trisection of Angle, 210 Chaucer on the Sun-cylinder, 297 Cheke, Sir John, 246 Chess-board, Games on , 60–64, 103, 158–168 — knights’ moves on, 63, 158–168 — problems, 25, 60–64, 103, 158–168 Chilcombe, Labyrinth at, 152 Chinese on π, 216 Chinese rings, 93–97 Ciccolini on Chess, 164 Cicero on Astrology, 243", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 339 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00341", "bookId": 26839, "start": 759916, "end": 761916, "sha256": "75da54631b7d0552ed97359170070bbbea4844400c9aa63356645313981383a4", "text": "[PDF page 340] 324 INDEX. Ciphers, chap. xi — Definition of, 251 — Four types of, 258–266 — Historical, 268–275 — Requisites for good, 267–268 Circle, Quadrature of, 211–222 Cissoid, the, 205, 207, 212 Clairaut on Trisection of Angle, 210 Clarke, S., 171 Classical Tripos, 195 Claus, 91 Clausen on π, 220 Clavius on Calendar, 292, 293, 296 Clepsydras, 300 Clerk Maxwell,see Maxwell Clerke, G., 171 Clifford, 70 Clocks, 77, 300–302 Cnossus, Coins of, 151 Coat and Waistcoat Trick, 64 Coccoz, 37, 137 Code-Book Ciphers, 273 Cole, F.N., 224, 226, 229, 231, 233 Colebrooke on Indian Algebra, 216 Collini on Chess, 163 Collins, Letter from J. Gregory, 219 Colour-cube Problem, 51–52 Colouring Maps, 44–46 Columbus, 296 Columbus’s Egg Puzzle, 74 Comberton, Labyrinth at, 152 Compasses, Watches as, 302–303 Competition, in Tripos, 187, 191 Composite Magic Squares, 134 Conchoid, the, 205, 209, 212 Cones moving uphill, 75 Conradus, D.A., 260 Continuity of Matter, 305 Contour-lines, 47 Cotes, R., 171 Counters, Games with, 48–50, 58–63 Craig, J., 171 Crassus, 243 Cretan Labyrinth, 151, 152 Cricket-Ball, Spin on, 85 Crookes on Mendeléeff’s Laws, 318 Cross-fours, 51 Cryptographs, Definition of, 250 — Three types of, 252–258 Cryptography, chap. xi Cube, Duplication of , 204–208 Cubes, Coloured, 51–52 Cubes, Skeleton, 26 Cudworth on Sharp, 219 Cumberland, R., 175–176 Cumulative Vote, 26 Cunningham, A.J.C., 32, 224, 227, 228, 229, 230, 233, 234 Cureton on Syriac Astrology, 236 Curie on radio-activity, 311 Curiosa Physica, 86–87 Cursor, 297 Cusa on π, 216 Cusps, Astrological, 237 Cut on a Tennis-ball, 83–85 Cutting Cards, Problems on, 15 Cylinders, Sun-, 297 Dacres, A., 171 Daedalus, Labyrinth of, 151 D’Alembert, 21, 24 Darwin, G.H., 42 Dase on π, 220 Dasypodius, 301 Day, Definition of, 288 — Commencement of, 290 — Sidereal and Solar, 289 Days of Week from date, 296 Days of Week, Names of, 290–291 Dealtry, W., 188, 189, 190 De Berri, 266", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 340 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00342", "bookId": 26839, "start": 761918, "end": 763931, "sha256": "c58c1f91c17f354860677b24f54456361367197245ad9f37da5f5b36d8bce6e8", "text": "[PDF page 341] INDEX. 325 Decimation, 19–20 Dee, J., 171 De Fonteney on Ferry Problem, 55 De Fouquières, 49 De Haan onπ, 214, 217 De Lagny onπ, 220 De la Hire on Magic Squares, 122, 123, 126–127, 128, 132–134 De la Loubère on Magic Squares, 124–125, 137 Delambre on Calendar, 295, 296 Delannoy, 55, 60 De la Pryme, 174 Delian Problem, 204–208 De Longchamps, G., 234 De Moivre, on Knight’s Move, 159 De Montmort, 1, 159 De Morgan, A., 44, 67, 169, 172, 188, 189, 211, 213, 214, 222, 245, 293 Denary scale of notation, 10, 11 De Parville on Tower of Hanoï, 92 De Polignac on Knight’s Move, 166 De Rohan, 271 De St Laurent, 110 Descartes, 208, 210, 219, 305 Des Ourmes on Magic Squares, 122 Diabolic Squares, 136–137 Dials, Sun-, 296–298 Dickson, L.E., 118 Diego Palomino, 19 Digby, Lord, 270 Digges, T., 171 Diocles on Delian Problem, 207 Diodorus on Lake Moeris, 150 Dircks, H., 271 Dirichlet on Fermat’s Theorem, 33 Dissection, Proofs by, 42–44 Dixon, A.C., 46, 103 Dodecahedron Game, 155–158 Dominical Letter, 295 Dominoes, 48, 141 D’Ons-en-bray, Magic Squares, 122 Doubly Magic Squares, 137 Douglas, S., 191, 193 Drach on Magic Squares, 123 Drayton, 151 Duplication of Cube , 204–208 Durations, see Time Dürer, A., 122 Dynamical Games, 52–64 Earnshaw, S., 87, 196 Easter, Date of, 293–296 Edward VI, 239, 246–248, 259 — Horoscope of, 247 Eight Queens Problem , 97–103 Eisenlohr on Ahmes, 214 Eisenstein, 32 Electrons, 310–312 Elliptic Geometry, 284–285 Eneström on π, 213 Epicurus on Gravitation, 313 Equilibrium, Puzzles on, 72–74 Eratosthenes, 204 Escott, E.B., 235 Ether Theories, 306–310 Ether-Squirts, 309 Etten, van, 2, 10 Euclid, 30, 36, 214 Euclid’s Axioms &c., 284 — Parallel Postulate, 284 Euclidean Geometry, 283–286 Euclidean Space, 283–286 Euclid i. 32, 42 Euclid i. 47, 42 Euler, 29, 30, 32, 48, 122, 123, 136, 140, 159, 160–162, 213, 219, 220, 224, 225, 226, 227 Euler’s Unicursal Problem, 143–149 Examination, Printed, 183, 195", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 341 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00343", "bookId": 26839, "start": 763933, "end": 765906, "sha256": "1e3a3f6367cfbcb5c914ef3bbe5d801d5b12620b5d476d3389da0f46d04cc359", "text": "[PDF page 342] 326 INDEX. Exploration Problems, 26 F allacies, Arithmetical, 20–24 — Geometrical, 35–41 — Mechanical, 67–69, 75–78 Faraday on Matter, 306 Fauquembergue, E., 229 Fenn, J., 176 Fermat on Binary Powers, 31–32 Fermat, P., 29, 31–34, 123, 224, 225, 226, 227, 234 Fermat’s Last Theorem, 32–34 Ferry-boat Problems, 55–57 Fifteen Puzzle, 88–91 Fifteen School-girls, 103–109 Figulus on Astrology, 243 Firmicus on Astrology, 237 Fitzpatrick, J., 59 Flamsteed on Astrology, 245 Flamsteed, J., 171 Flat-land, 277–282 Fluid Motion, 82–86 Fluxions, 179, 182, 186, 188, 189, 191, 192 Fonteney on Ferry Problem, 55 Force, Definition of, 70 Foster, S., 171 Fouquières on Ancient Games, 49 Four-Colour Theorem, 44–46 Fox onπ, 222 Frankenstein on Magic Pencils, 138 Franklin, B., 312 Frederick II of Germany, 300 Frénicle, Magic Squares, 122, 135 Frere, J., 177 Fresnel on Ether, 306 Frolow on Magic Squares, 136 Frost, A.H., 103, 104–105, 123, 136 Galileo on Pendulum, 301 Galton, 21 Games, Dynamical, 52–64 — Statical, 48–52 — with Counters, 58–63 Gases, Theory of, 320 Gauss, 29, 34, 230, 276, 294 Geodesic Problems, 57–58 Geography, Physical, 46–48 Geometrical F allacies, 35–41 Geometrical Recreations, chap. ii Geometry, Non-Euclidean, chap. xii George I of England, 174 Gerbert, 215, 300 Gergonne’s Problem, 115–118 Gill, Kirkman’s Problem, 106–107 Glaisher, J.W.L., 98, 99, 170, 214 Glamorgan, Earl of, 271 Gnomons, 296 Goldbach’s Theorem, 31 Golden Number, 295 Gooch, W., 183 Gra vity, Hypotheses on, 313–317 Green on Ether, 306 Greenwich, Labyrinth at, 153 Gregorian Calendar, 292, 293 Gregory XIII, 292–293 Gregory, Jas., 212, 218 Gregory of St Vincent, 208 Gregory’s Series, 219 Grienberger on π, 218 Grille, The, 255 Grimthorpe on Clocks, 300 Gros on Chinese Rings, 95, 96 Guarini’s Problem, 63 Gun, Report of, 87 Gunning, H., 183, 184 Günther, S., 97, 99, 123 Guthrie on colouring maps, 44", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 342 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00344", "bookId": 26839, "start": 765908, "end": 767872, "sha256": "e7542b146c56c7e0428bf525839456d9ab871a992b5bf84fc62a3691700bbd14", "text": "[PDF page 343] INDEX. 327 Haan, de, onπ, 214, 217 Halley on π, 219 Halsted on Hyper-space, 276 Hamilton, Archbishop, 246 Hamilton, Sir Wm., 155–158 Hamiltonian Game, 155–158 Hampton Court, Maze at, 149, 153 Hanoï, Tower of , 91–93 Harris on pendulum clock, 301 Harvey, J., 171 Harvey, R., 171 Hauksbee’s La w, 82–85 Hayward, J., 259 Heawood on Colouring Maps, 46 Hegesippus on Decimation, 19 Hele, P., 301 Helmholtz, 78, 276, 308 Helmholz, 307 Henrietta Maria, 269 Henry on Unicursal Problems, 143 Henry VIII of England, 247, 300 Hermary, 158 Hero of Alexandria onπ, 205, 215 Herodotus on Lake Moeris, 150 Herschel, Sir John, 191, 291 Hezekiah, 298 Hicks on Matter, 304, 308, 310 Hiero of Syracuse, 72 Higher Arithmetic, 29–34 Hill, C., 272 Hill, M.J.M., 308 Hill, T., 171 Hills and Dales , 46–48 Hinton on Space, 276, 279, 281 Hipparchus on hours of day, 290 Hippias, 214 Hippocrates of Chios, 205, 214 Hodson, W., 182 Holditch on Magic Squares, 123 Homaloidal Geometry, 285 Honorary Optimes, 173, 175, 195 Hood, T., 171 Hooke on Timepieces, 301 Horary Astrology, 237 Hornbuckle, T.W., 189, 190 Horner on Magic Squares, 123 — Rules to cast, 238 Horoscopes, chap. x — Example of, 247 — Rules to cast, 237 — Rules to read, 239–242 Horrox, J., 171 Hour-glasses, 300 Hours, definition of, 289, 290 Houses, Astrological, 237 Huddling, 171, 172 Hudson, C.T., on cards, 118 Hudson, W.H.H., on cards, 111 Hustler, J.D., 189 Hutton, C., 3, 220 Huygens, 208, 211, 212, 218, 219, 301 Hyper-magic Squares, 136–137 Hyper-space, chap. xii Hyperbolic Geometry, 284–285 Icosian Game, 155–158 Ideler on the Calendar, 296 Inertia, 70, 71 Inwards on the Cretan Maze, 151 Isaiah, 298 Jacob, E., 189, 190, 191 Jacobi, 230, 234 Jaenisch, 158, 164, 167, 168 James II of England, 257 Japanese Magic Mirrors, 87 Jebb, J., 176, 178–180 Johnson on Fifteen Puzzle, 88 Jones on π, 220 Jones on π, 213 Josephus on Decimation, 19 Julian Calendar, 291–292", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 343 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00345", "bookId": 26839, "start": 767874, "end": 769734, "sha256": "f15ae67fa440f28dfe87e7f7b7a5acc06b415ed6e62daa0a76730af8cbfb7eed", "text": "[PDF page 344] 328 INDEX. Julian’s Bowers, 152 Julius Caesar, 243, 268 Junior Optimes, 173, 180 Jurin, J., 171 Kelvin, 306, 307, 308, 314, 315, 319 Kempe on Colouring Maps, 45 Ketteler on Ether, 307 Kinetic Theory of Gases, 320 Kirchhoff on Ether, 307 Kirkman, T.P., 103, 108 Kirkman’s Problem, 103–109 Klein, 203 Knight’s Path Problem, 158–168 Knyghton, 151 Königsberg Problem, 143–149 Kummer on Fermat’s Theorem, 33 Labile Ether, 307 Labosne on Magic Squares, 132 Labyrinths, 149–153 Lacroix, 211 Lagny on π, 220 Lagrange, 191, 227 Lagrange’s Theorem, 31 La Hire, 122, 123, 126–127, 128, 132–134 Laisant, C.A., 11, 235 La Loubère, 124–125 Lambert on π, 211 Lambert on π, 211 Lamé, 33, 307 Landry, 224, 226, 228, 229, 231 Langley on Bird Flight, 86 Laplace, 191 Laplace on velocity of sound, 306 Laquière on Knight’s Path, 166 Larmor on Electrons, 304, 310 Latruaumont, 271 Laughton, R., 171 Lawrence, F.W., 235 Lax, W., 183, 184 Lea on Kirkman’s Problem, 109 Leap-year, 291–292 Lebesgue on Fermat’s Theorem, 33 Legendre, 33, 160, 168, 191, 211, 227, 230 Leibnitz on Games, 1 Lejeune Dirichlet on Fermat, 33 Le Lasseur, 224, 226, 227, 228 Leonardo of Pisa onπ, 216 Le Sage on Gravity, 314, 315 Leslie, J., 205, 209 Leurechon, 2 Lilius on the Calendar, 292 Lilly on Astrology, 245 Linde on Knight’s Path, 158 Lindemann on π, 211 Line-land, 278 Lines of Slope, 47 Lippeus, 301 Listing’sTopologie, 65, 145 Liveing on the Spectrum Top, 87 Lobatschewsky, N.I., 276, 284 Locke, J., 181, 183 Lommel on Ether, 307 London and Wise, 153 Lorentz on Ether, 307 Loschmidt on Molecules, 319, 321 Loubère, de la, 124–125 Louis XI of France, 244 Louis XIV of France, 124 Loyd, S., 17 Lucas di Burgo, 2 Lucas, E., 50, 55, 60, 61, 63, 91, 95, 103, 107, 143, 155, 228, 229 Lucca, Labyrinth at, 152 Lydgate on the Sun-cylinder, 297", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 344 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00346", "bookId": 26839, "start": 769736, "end": 771653, "sha256": "38e494dfaab12fac54e89a452b2690acf6e2a936b04541ab305d0658c963cd6d", "text": "[PDF page 345] INDEX. 329 MacCullagh on Ether, 306 Machin’s series forπ, 220, 221 Maclaurin on Newton, 314 MacMahon, 28–29, 51 Magic Bottles, 73 Magic Mirrors, 87 Magic Pencils, 137–140 Magic Squares, chap. v Magic Square Puzzles, 140–142 Magnus on Hauksbee’s Law, 83 Map Colour Theorem , 44–46 Marie Antoinette, 272 Mathematics, Cambridge, chap. vii Mathews, G.B., 233 Matter, Constitution of, chap.xiv — Hypotheses on, 305–313 — Kinds of, limited, 317–319 — Size of Molecules, 319–321 Maxim on Bird Flight, 86 Maxwell’s Demon, 87 Maxwell, J. Clerk, 46, 87, 304, 310, 314, 315, 317, 318, 321 Mazes, 149–153 Mean Time, 289, 290 Mechanical Recreations, chap. iii Medieval Problems, 16–20 Menaechmus, 206 Mendeléeff, 312, 318, 319 Mersenne on Primes, 29 Mersenne’s Numbers, chap. ix, 30, 223, 224 Mesolabum, 206 Metius on π, 217 Meton, 297 Méziriac, see Bachet Milner, I., 181, 189 Minding on Knight’s Path, 168 Minos, 149, 204 Minotaur, 151 Minutes, def. of, 289, 290 Mirrors, Magic, 87 Models, 78 Moderators, chap. vii Mohammed’s sign-manual, 148 Moivre, A. De, 159 Molecules, Size of , 319–321 Money, Question on, 8–9 Monge on Shuffling Cards, 109–111 Months, 291 Montmort, De, 1, 159 Montucla, 3, 50, 72, 73, 122, 123, 132, 133, 159, 211, 212 Moon, R., 123, 167 Morgan, A. De,see De Morgan Morland, S., 171 Morley on Cardan, 246 Mosaic Pavements, 50, 152 Moschopulus, 122, 126 Motion in Fluids, 82–86 Motion, Laws of, 66, 70–75 — Paradoxes on, 67–69 — Perpetual, 75–78 Mousetrap, Game of , 119–120 Müller (Regiomontanus), 216 Mullinger, J.B., 201 Mydorge, 2 Nasik Squares, 136–137 Natal Astrology, 237 Nauck, 97 Neumann on Ether, 306 Newton, 75, 171, 188, 189, 190, 208, 210, 212, 305, 312, 313, 314 Newtonian Laws of Motion, 66–75 Nicene Council on Easter, 293 Niceron, 274 Nicomedes, 205 Nigidius on Astrology, 243 Non-Euclidean Geometry, 283–286", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 345 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00347", "bookId": 26839, "start": 771655, "end": 773689, "sha256": "a7133984d34f0ab6192231d8fa14db01a574e9e16453db2229870228e1100b87", "text": "[PDF page 346] 330 INDEX. Nonez on Sun-dials, 297 Notation, Denary scale of, 10 Noughts and Crosses, 48 Numa on the Year, 291 Numbers, Perfect, 224 — Puzzles with, 4–20 — Theory of, 29–34 Oliver on Sun-dials, 298 Ons-en-bray on Magic Squares, 122 Oppert on π, 214 Optimes, chap. vii, 173, 176, 195 Oram on Eight Queens, 101 Oughtred, W., 171 Oughtred’sRecreations, 2, 10, 13, 16, 18, 73, 74 Ourmes on Magic Squares, 122 Ovid, 150 Ozanam’sRécréations, 2, 10, 16, 20, 43, 50, 55, 64, 72, 73, 74, 75, 77, 79, 93, 122, 123, 132, 140, 159, 297, 298, 302 Ozanam, A.F., on Labyrinths, 152 π, 211–222,see table of contents Pacificus on Clocks, 300 Pacioli di Burgo, 2 Pairs of Cards Trick, 113–115 Paley, W., 177, 183, 185, 189, 194 Palomino, 19 Pappus, 205, 209, 210 Parabolic Geometry, 285 Paradromic Rings, 64–65 Parallels, Theory of, 284 Parmentier on Knight’s Path, 158 Parry on Sound, 87 Parville on Tower of Hanoï, 92 Pa wns, Games with, 58–63 Paynell, N., 171 Pearson on Ether-Squirts, 309 Pein on Ten Queens, 101 Pencils, Magic, 137–140 Pepys, S., 270–271 Perfect Numbers, 30, 224 Permutation Problems, 26 Perpetual Motion, 75–78 Perrin, 11 Perry on Magic Mirrors, 87 Peterson on maps, 46 Philo, 205 Philoponus on Delian Problem, 204 Physical Geography, 46–48 Pierce on Kirkman’s Problem, 103 Pile Problems, 115–119 Pirie on π, 219 Pitatus on the Calendar, 292 Pittenger, 71 Plana, G.A.A., 224, 226, 228, 231 Planets (astrological), 122, 239, 290 — Signification of, 239–241 Plato on Delian Problem, 204, 205, 206 Pliny, 150, 243 Poe, E.A., 260, 263, 274 Poignard, Magic Squares, 122, 123, 127 Poincaré, H., 285 Poitiers, Labyrinth at, 152 Polignac on Knight’s Path, 166 Poll Examinations, 195, 196 Poll-Men, 173 Pollock, F., 188–190 Pompey, 243 Porta, G., 274 Power, Kirkman’s Problem, 103, 105 Pratt on Knight’s Path, 163 Pretender, The Young, 257 Primes, 29 Probabilities and π, 221 Probabilities, Fallacies in, 24, 42 Problem Papers, 182, 183, 185 Ptolemy, 215, 236, 237, 290", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 346 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00348", "bookId": 26839, "start": 773691, "end": 775616, "sha256": "814461bc8cfe1a29b94d8bc46ad44e130936fc0c18c7019fb0e04431e82f4465", "text": "[PDF page 347] INDEX. 331 Purbach on π, 216 Puzzles, Arithmetical, 4–29 — Geometrical, 48–65 — Mechanical, 67–75 Pythagorean Symbol, 148 Quadrature of Circle, 211–222 Queens Problem, Eight , 97–103 Queens, Problems with, 97–103 Racquet-ball, Cut on, 83–85 Railway Puzzles (shunting), 53–54 Ramification, 154, 155 Raphael on Astrology, chap.x Ravenna, Labyrinth at, 152 Rayleigh, 84, 86, 307 Record, R., 171 Regiomontanus on π, 216 Reimer on Delian Problem, 204 Reiss, 26, 63 Relative Motion, 69 Reneu, W., 174 Renton, 42 Reynolds, O., 312 Rhind Papyrus, 214 Riccioli on the Calendar, 292 Rich, J., 270 Richard, J., 69, 284 Richards on use of compass, 302 Richter on π, 221 Riemann, G.F.B., 276, 284, 286 Rigaud, S.P., 314 Ring-Dial, 298–300 Rockliff Marshes, Labyrinth at, 152 Rodet on Arya-Bhata, 215 Rodwell on Hyper-space, 276 Roget, P.M., 162, 163, 164–167 Romanus on π, 217 Rome, Labyrinth at, 152 Röntgen Rays, 311 Rooke, L., 171 Rosamund’s Bower, 150 Rosen on Arab values ofπ, 216 Rothschild, F., 244 Routes on a Chess-board, 25, 158 Row, Counters in a, 48–50, 58–61 Rudio on π, 211 Russell, B.A.W., 68 Rutherford on π, 220 Saccheri, J., 276, 284 Saffron Walden, Labyrinth at, 152 Sailing, Theory of, 79–82 Sand-clocks, 300 Sarrau on Ether, 307 Saunderson, N., 171 Sauveur, Magic Squares, 122, 123, 136 Scale of Notation, Denary, 10 — Puzzles dependent on, 10–12 School-girls, Fifteen, 103–109 Schubert on π, 211 Schumacher, 220 Scott, Sir Walter, 244 Scytale, The, 257 Seconds, def. of, 289, 290 Secret Communications, chap. xi Seelhoff, 224, 226, 229, 231 Selander on π, 213 Senate-House Examination, chap. vii Seneca on Astrology, 243 Senior Optimes, 173, 176, 177 Seventy-seven Puzzle, 44 Shanks on π, 220 Sharp on π, 219 Shelton, T., 270, 271 Sherwin’s Tables, 219 Shuffling Cards, 109–111 Shunting Problems, 53–54 Sidereal Time, 289 Simpson’s Euclid, 188", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 347 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00349", "bookId": 26839, "start": 775618, "end": 777595, "sha256": "5400ae5d52b818c6e3708847583efe9c577877f74157c929ace7ec567be1dae7", "text": "[PDF page 348] 332 INDEX. Sixty-five Puzzle, 42 Skeleton Cubes, 26 Smith, A., onπ, 222 — Hen., on Numbers, 33 — R., 171, 177 — R.C.,see Raphael Snell on π, 218, 219 Solar Time, 289 Sosigenes on Calendar, 291, 292 Sound, Problem in, 87 — Velocity of, 305 Southey on Astrology, 248 Southwark, Labyrinth at, 153 Space, Properties of, chap.xii Spectrum Analysis, 305 Spectrum Top, 87 Spin on Cricket-ball, 85 Spirits, Raising, 248 Sporus on Delian Problem, 207 Sprague on Eleven Queens, 101 Squaring the Circle , 211–222 Stability of Equilibrium, 72–74 Statical Games, 48–52 Steen on the Mousetrap, 119 St Laurent on cards, 110 Stöffler on the Calendar, 292 Stokes on Ether, 307 St Omer, Labyrinth at, 152 Story on the Fifteen Puzzle, 88 Strabo on Lake Moeris, 150 Stringham on Hyper-space, 283 Sturm, A., 204 St Vincent, Gregory of, 208 Styles, 296 Suetonius, 268 Sun-cylinders, 297 Sun-dials, 296–298 Sun-rings, 298–300 Sun, the Mean, 290 Svastika, 152 Swift, 67 Sylvester, 49, 51, 108, 109 Tacitus on Astrology, 243 Tait, 46, 59, 60, 145, 148, 304, 308, 315, 319 Tanner on Shuffling Cards, 110 Tarry, 57, 140, 150 Tartaglia, 2, 16, 20, 27, 55 Tate, 269 Tavel, G.F., 190 Taylor, B., 171 Taylor, Ch., on Trisection, 210 Tennis-ball, Cut on, 83–85 Tesselation, 50–51 Theory of Numbers , chap. ix Thibaut on Baudhayana, 215 Thompson on Magic Squares, 123 Thomson, J.J., 304, 308, 311, 312, 319 Thomson, Sir Wm.,see Kelvin Thrasyllus on Astrology, 244 Three-in-a-row, 48–50 Three-pile Problem, 115–119 Three-Things Problem, 18–19 Tiberius on Astrology, 244 Time, chap. xiii — Equation of, 290 — Measurement of, 287–290 — Units of, 287–291 Tissandier, 70 Todhunter, J., 198 Tonstall, C., 171 Tower of Hanoï , 91–93 Trastevere, Labyrinth at, 152 Trees, Geometrical, 154–155 Treize, Game of, 120 Tricks with Numbers , 4–25 Tripos, Mathematical, chap. vii Tripos, Origin of term, 200–202 Trisection of Angle , 209–211 Tritheim, J., 274", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 348 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00350", "bookId": 26839, "start": 777597, "end": 779385, "sha256": "85aad911807801b75bd480e1eeb850c6774dc2de55fba358c1a29daa0e44e3c6", "text": "[PDF page 349] CH. XIV] INDEX. 333 Trollope on Mazes, 151 Troy-towns, 152 Turton, W.H., 39, 44, 102 Uhlemann on Astrology, 236 Unicursal Problems, chap. vi Van Ceulen onπ, 217, 218 Vandermonde, 63, 158, 163 Van Etten, 2, 10 Vase Problem, 16 Vega onπ, 220 Vick on Clocks, 301 Vieta, 208, 217 Vince, S., 188, 189, 190 Violle, Magic Squares, 122, 136 Virgil, 150 Voigt on Ether, 307 Volpicelli on Knight’s Path, 158 Von Helmholz, 78, 276, 307, 308 Vortex rings, 308 — Spheres, 308 — Sponges, 309 Voting, Question on, 26 Walecki, 107 Walker, G.T., 21 Wallis, J., 93, 95, 171, 219, 269 Ward, S., 171 Waring, E., 176, 184, 186, 189, 190 Warnsdorff, Knight’s Path, 164 Watch Problem, 13 Watches, 77, 290, 300, 301 — as Compasses, 302–303 Water-clocks, 300, 302 Waterloo, Battle of, 296 Watersheds and Watercourses, 48 Watson, R., 177, 185 Waves, Superposition of, 87 Weber-Wellstein, 229 Week, Days of, from date, 296 Week, Names of Days, 290–291 Weights Problem, the , 27–29 Western on Binary Powers, 32 Wheatstone on Ciphers, 268, 270 Whewell, W., 170, 189, 190, 191, 192, 236, 244 Whist, Number of Hands at, 26 Whiston, W., 171 Wiedemann on Lake Moeris, 150 Wilkins on Ciphers, 252, 253, 257, 265, 274 William III of England, 153 Willis on Hauksbee’s law, 82 Wilson on Ptolemy, 237 Wilson’s Theorem, 190 Wing, Labyrinth at, 152 Wood, J., 184, 188, 189 Woodhouse, R., 190, 191, 192 Woolhouse, Kirkman’s Problem, 103 Worcester, Marquis of, 271 Wordsworth, C., 170, 176, 183, 185, 202 Work, 72–75 Wranglers, chap. vii, 173 Wright, E., 171 Wright, J.M.F., 193 Year, Civil, 291–293 Year, Mohammedan, 293 Zach on π, 220 Zech, R., 301 Zeller, 296 Zeno on Motion, 67–68 Zodiac, Signs in Astrology, 238, 241 CAMBRIDGE: PRINTED BY JOHN CLAY, M.A. AT THE UNIVERSITY PRESS.", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 349 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00351", "bookId": 26839, "start": 779387, "end": 781282, "sha256": "0fd53f6378538bcd03e0e15dca26f260f4ab63e14ff328465d39c59d8d28ba3c", "text": "[PDF page 350] 334 A SHORT ACCOUNT OF THE HISTORY OF MATHEMATICS By W.W. ROUSE BALL. [Third Edition. Pp. xxiv + 527. Price 10s. net. ] MACMILLAN AND CO. Ltd., LONDON AND NEW YORK. This book gives an account of the lives and discoveries of those mathe- maticians to whom the development of the subject is mainly due. The use of technicalities has been avoided and the work is intelligible to any one acquainted with the elements of mathematics. The author commences with an account of the origin and progress of Greek mathematics, from which the Alexandrian, the Indian, and the Arab schools may be said to have arisen. Next the mathematics of medieval Europe and the renaissance are described. The latter part of the book is devoted to the history of modern mathematics (begin- ning with the invention of analytical geometry and the infinitesimal calculus), the account of which is brought down to the present time. This excellent summary of the history of mathematics supplies a want which has long been felt in this country. The extremely difficult question, how far such a work should be technical, has been solved with great tact.... The work contains many valuable hints, and is thoroughly readable. The biographies, which include those of most of the men who played important parts in the development of culture, are full and general enough to interest the ordinary reader as well as the specialist. Its value to the latter is much increased by the numerous references to authorities, a good table of contents, and a full and accurate index.—The Saturday Review. Mr. Ball’s book should meet with a hearty welcome, for though we possess other histories of special branches of mathematics, this is the first serious attempt that has been made in the English language to give a systematic account of the origin and development of the science as a whole. It is written too in an attractive", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 350 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00352", "bookId": 26839, "start": 781284, "end": 784611, "sha256": "ecdc741415f42378f6749fa8941ee498d216571aca8770f2a7dea95b886e3b75", "text": "[PDF page 351] 335 style. Technicalities are not too numerous or obtrusive, and the work is interspersed with biographical sketches and anecdotes likely to interest the general reader. Thus the tyro and the advanced mathematician alike may read it with pleasure and profit.—The Athenæum. A wealth of authorities, often far from accordant with each other, renders a work such as this extremely formidable; and students of mathematics have reason to be grateful for the vast amount of information which has been condensed into this short account.... In a survey of so wide extent it is of course impossible to give anything but a bare sketch of the various lines of research, and this circumstance tends to render a narrative scrappy. It says much for Mr. Ball’s descriptive skill that his history reads more like a continuous story than a series of merely consecutive summaries.—The Academy. We can heartily recommend to our mathematical readers, and to others also, Mr. Ball’sHistory of Mathematics. The history of what might be supposed a dry subject is told in the pleasantest and most readable style, and at the same time there is evidence of the most careful research.—The Observatory. All the salient points of mathematical history are given, and many of the results of recent antiquarian research; but it must not be imagined that the book is at all dry. On the contrary the biographical sketches frequently contain amusing anecdotes, and many of the theorems mentioned are very clearly explained so as to bring them within the grasp of those who are only acquainted with elementary mathematics.—Nature. Le style de M. Ball est clair et élégant, de nombreux aperçus rendent facile de suivre le fil de son exposition et de fréquentes citations permettent à celui qui le désire d’approfondir les recherches que l’auteur n’a pu qu’effleurer.... Cet ouvrage pourra devenir très utile comme manuel d’histoire des mathématiques pour les étu- diants, et il ne sera pas déplacé dans les bibliotheques des savants.—Bibliotheca Mathematica. The author modestly describes his work as a compilation, but it is thoroughly well digested, a due proportion is observed between the various parts, and when occasion demands he does not hesitate to give an independent judgment on a dis- puted point. His verdicts in such instances appear to us to be generally sound and reasonable.... To many readers who have not the courage or the opportunity to tackle the ponderous volumes of Montucla or the (mostly) ponderous treatises of German writers on special periods, it may be somewhat of a surprise to find what a wealth of human interest attaches to the history of so “dry” a subject as math- ematics. We are brought into contact with many remarkable men, some of whom have played a great part in other fields, as the names of Gerbert, Wren, Leibnitz, Descartes, Pascal, D’Alembert, Carnot, among others may testify, and with at least one thorough blackguard (Cardan); and Mr. Ball’s pages abound with quaint and amusing touches characteristic of the authors under consideration, or of the times in which they lived.—Manchester Guardian. There can be no doubt that the author has done his work in a very excellent way.... There is no one interested in almost any part of mathematical science who", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 351 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00353", "bookId": 26839, "start": 784613, "end": 785196, "sha256": "6611842d45b90025eca705825e752275be376970a84086cc87092ba138fb7b75", "text": "[PDF page 352] 336 will not welcome such an exposition as the present, at once popularly written and exact, embracing the entire subject.... Mr. Ball’s work is destined to become a standard one on the subject.—The Glasgow Herald. A most interesting book, not only for those who are mathematicians, but for the much larger circle of those who care to trace the course of general scientific progress. It is written in such a way that those who have only an elementary acquaintance with the subject can find on almost every page something of general interest.—The Oxford Magazine.", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 352 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00354", "bookId": 26839, "start": 785198, "end": 787282, "sha256": "3c05422a6fdc547d5f717d596b8aa0a9767454f6783ac6e5d6be285b5fa11758", "text": "[PDF page 353] 337 A PRIMER OF THE HISTORY OF MATHEMATICS By W.W. ROUSE BALL. [Second Edition. Pp. iv + 148. Price 2s. net. ] MACMILLAN AND CO. Ltd., LONDON AND NEW YORK. Thisbook contains a sketch in popular language of the history of math- ematics; it includes some notice of the lives and surroundings of those to whom the development of the subject is mainly due as well as of their discoveries. This Primer is written in the agreeable style with which the author has made us acquainted in his previous essays; and we are sure that all readers of it will be ready to say that Mr. Ball has succeeded in the hope he has formed, that “it may not be uninteresting” even to those who are unacquainted with the leading facts. It is just the book to give an intelligent young student, and should allure him on to the perusal of Mr. Ball’s “Short Account.” The present work is not a mereréchauffé of that, though naturally most of what is here given will be found in equivalent form in the larger work.... The choice of material appears to us to be such as should lend interest to the study of mathematics and increase its educational value, which has been the author’s aim. The book goes well into the pocket, and is excellently printed.—The Academy. We have here a new instance of Mr. Rouse Ball’s skill in giving in a small space an intelligible account of a large subject. In 137 pages we have a sketch of the progress of mathematics from the earliest records up to the middle of this century, and yet it is interesting to read and by no means a mere catalogue.—The Manchester Guardian. It is not often that a reviewer of mathematical works can confess that he has read one of them through from cover to cover without abatement of interest or fa- tigue. But that is true of Mr. Rouse Ball’s wonderfully entertaining little “History of Mathematics,” which we heartily recommend to even the quite rudimentary mathe- matician. The capable mathematical master will not fail to find a dozen interesting facts therein to season his teaching.—The Saturday Review.", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 353 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00355", "bookId": 26839, "start": 787284, "end": 790620, "sha256": "ee778db5c8a6f430e327100625df23e6577e6af87042110b45c609a6ddacc293", "text": "[PDF page 354] 338 A fascinating little volume, which should be in the hands of all who do not pos- sess the more elaborateHistory of Mathematicsby the same author.—The Math- ematical Gazette. This excellent sketch should be in the hands of every student, whether he is studying mathematics or no. In most cases there is an unfortunate lack of knowl- edge upon this subject, and we welcome anything that will help to supply the deficiency. The primer is written in a concise, lucid and easy manner, and gives the reader a general idea of the progress of mathematics that is both interesting and instructive.—The Cambridge Review. Mr. Ball has not been deterred by the existence and success of his larger “His- tory of Mathematics” from publishing a simple compendium in about a quarter of the space.... Of course, what he now gives is a bare outline of the subject, but it is ample for all except the most advanced proficients. There is no question that, as the author says, a knowledge of the history of a science lends interest to its study, and often increases its educational value. We can imagine no better cathartic for any mathematical student who has made some way with the calculus than a careful perusal of this little book.—The Educational Times. The author has done good service to mathematicians by engaging in work in this special field.... The Primer gives, in a brief compass, the history of the advance of this branch of science when under Greek influence, during the Middle Ages, and at the Renaissance, and then goes on to deal with the introduction of modern analysis and its recent developments. It refers to the life and work of the leaders of mathematical thought, adds a new and enlarged value to well-known problems by treating of their inception and history, and lights up with a warm and personal interest a science which some of its detractors have dared to call dull and cold.—The Educational Review. Itisnottoomuchtosaythatthislittleworkshouldbeinthepossessionofevery mathematical teacher.... The Primer gives in a small compass the leading events in the development of mathematics.... At the same time, it is no dry chronicle of facts and theorems. The biographical sketches of the great workers, if short, are pithy, and often amusing. Well-known propositions will attain a new interest for the pupil as he traces their history long before the time of Euclid.—The Journal of Education. This is a work which all who apprehend the value of “mathematics” should read and study..., and those who wish to learn how to think will find advantage in reading it.—The English Mechanic. The subject, so far as our own language is concerned, is almost Mr. Ball’s own, and those who have no leisure to read his former work will find in this Primer a highly-readable and instructive chapter in the history of education. The condensa- tionhasbeenskilfullydone, thereader’sinterestbeingsustainedbytheintroduction of a good deal of far from tedious detail.—The Glasgow Herald. Mr. W.W. Rouse Ball is well known as the author of a very clever history of mathematics, besides useful works on kindred subjects. His latest production isA Primer of the History of Mathematics, abookofonehundredandfortypages, giving in non-technical language a full, concise, and readable narrative of the development", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 354 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00356", "bookId": 26839, "start": 790622, "end": 791363, "sha256": "2ecf2f64914eaafabed7661f9735325f0d4aeae7471fdf32546e4b3445737093", "text": "[PDF page 355] 339 of the science from the days of the Ionian Greeks until the present time. Anyone withaleaningtowardsalgebraicorgeometricalstudieswillbeintenselyinterestedin this account of progress from primitive usages, step by step, to our present elaborate systems. The lives of the men who by their research and discovery helped along the good work are described briefly, but graphically.... The Primer should become a standard text-book.—The Literary World. This is a capital little sketch of a subject on which Mr. Ball is an acknowledged authority, and of which too little is generally known. Mr. Ball, moreover, writes easily and well, and has the art of saying what he has to say in an interesting style.—The School Guardian.", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 355 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00357", "bookId": 26839, "start": 791365, "end": 793445, "sha256": "a9ee951e45e19ffdc7c64190610fb9d52b765b9931b5663fdb91cc03be2952e8", "text": "[PDF page 356] 340 MATHEMATICAL RECREATIONS AND ESSAYS By W.W. ROUSE BALL. [Fourth Edition. Pp. xvi + 402. Price 7s. net. ] MACMILLAN AND CO. Ltd., LONDON AND NEW YORK. This work is divided into two parts; the first is on mathematical recre- ations and puzzles, the second includes some miscellaneous essays and an account of some problems of historical interest. In both parts ques- tions which involve advanced mathematics are excluded. The mathematical recreations include numerous elementary ques- tions and paradoxes, as well as problems such as the proposition that to colour a map not more than four colours are necessary, the explanation of the effect of a cut on a tennis ball, the fifteen puzzle, the eight queens problem, the fifteen school-girls, the construction of magic squares, the theory and history of mazes, and the knight’s path on a chess-board. The second part commences with sketches of the history of the Mathematical Tripos at Cambridge, of the three famous classical prob- lems in geometry (namely, the duplication of the cube, the trisection of an angle, and the quadrature of the circle) and of Mersenne’s Numbers. These are followed by essays on Astrology and Ciphers. The last three chapters are devoted to an account of the hypotheses as to the nature of Space and Mass, and the means of measuring Time. Mr. Ball has already attained a position in the front rank of writers on subjects connected with the history of mathematics, and this brochure will add another to his successes in this field. In it he has collected a mass of information bearing upon matters of more general interest, written in a style which is eminently readable, and at the same time exact. He has done his work so thoroughly that he has left few ears for other gleaners. The nature of the work is completely indicated to the mathematical student by its title. Does he want to revive his acquaintance with the Problèmes Plaisans et Délectablesof Bachet, or theRécréations Mathématiques et Physiques of Ozanam? Let him take Mr. Ball for his companion, and he will have", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 356 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00358", "bookId": 26839, "start": 793447, "end": 796935, "sha256": "2d2591513bbe31ee19d05f5df746fd13cc3e415d90f0c533cfeb1230fdbf43b0", "text": "[PDF page 357] 341 thecreamoftheseworksputbeforehimwithawealthofillustrationquitedelightful. Or, coming to more recent times, he will have full and accurate discussion of ‘the fifteen puzzle,’ ‘Chinese rings,’ ‘the fifteen school-girls problem’et id genus omne. Sufficient space is devoted to accounts of magic squares and unicursal problems (such as mazes, the knight’s path, and geometrical trees). These, and many other problems of equal interest, come under the head of ‘Recreations.’ The problems and speculations include an account of the Three Classical Problems; there is also a brief sketch of Astrology; and interesting outlines of the present state of our knowledge of hyper-space and of the constitution of matter. This enumeration badly indicates the matter handled, but it sufficiently states what the reader may expect to find. Moreover for the use of readers who may wish to pursue the several heads further, Mr. Ball gives detailed references to the sources from whence he has derived his information. These Mathematical Recreations we can commend as suited for mathematicians and equally for others who wish to while away an occasional hour.—The Academy. The idea of writing some such account as that before us must have been present to Mr. Ball’s mind when he was collecting the material which he has so skilfully worked up into hisHistory of Mathematics. We think this because ... many bits of ore which would not suit the earlier work find a fitting niche in this. Howsoever the case may be, we are sure that non-mathematical, as well as mathematical, readers will derive amusement, and, we venture to think, profit withal, from a perusal of it. The author has gone very exhaustively over the ground, and has left us little opportunity of adding to or correcting what he has thus reproduced from his note- books. The work before us is divided into two parts: mathematical recreations and mathematical problems and speculations. All these matters are treated lucidly, and with sufficient detail for the ordinary reader, and for others there is ample store of references.... Our analysis shows how great an extent of ground is covered, and the account is fully pervaded by the attractive charm Mr. Ball knows so well how to infuse into what many persons would look upon as a dry subject.—Nature. A fit sequel to its author’s valuable and interesting works on the history of mathematics. There is a fascination about this volume which results from a happy combination of puzzle and paradox. There is both milk for babes and strong meat for grown men.... A great deal of the information is hardly accessible in any English books; and Mr. Ball would deserve the gratitude of mathematicians for having merely collected the facts. But he has presented them with such lucidity and vivacity of style that there is not a dull page in the book; and he has added minute and full bibliographical references which greatly enhance the value of his work.—The Cambridge Review. Mathematicianswithaturnfortheparadoxesandpuzzlesconnectedwithnum- ber, space, and time, in which their science abounds, will delight inMathematical Recreations and Problems of Past and Present Times.—The Times. Mathematicians have their recreations; and Mr. Ball sets forth the humours of mathematics in a book of deepest interest to the clerical reader, and of no little attractiveness to the layman. The notes attest an enormous amount of research.— The National Observer.", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 357 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00359", "bookId": 26839, "start": 796937, "end": 800219, "sha256": "2748067b39d6cd7bfcdfec59855b13d076a6c3aae96517ad0fcc2f8e3455462e", "text": "[PDF page 358] 342 Mr. Ball, to whom we are already indebted for two excellent Histories of Math- ematics, has just produced a book which will be thoroughly appreciated by those who enjoy the setting of the wits to work.... He has collected a vast amount of information about mathematical quips, tricks, cranks, and puzzles—old and new; and it will be strange if even the most learned do not find something fresh in the assortment.—The Observatory. Mr. Rouse Ball has the true gift of story-telling, and he writes so pleasantly that though we enjoy the fulness of his knowledge we are tempted to forget the considerable amount of labour involved in the preparation of his book. He gives us the history and the mathematics of many problems ... and where the limits of his work prevent him from dealing fully with the points raised, like a true worker he gives us ample references to original memoirs.... The book is warmly to be recommended, and should find a place on the shelves of every one interested in mathematics and on those of every public library.—The Manchester Guardian. A work which will interest all who delight in mathematics and mental exercises generally. The student will often take it up, as it contains many problems which puzzle even clever people.—The English Mechanic and World of Science. This is a book which the general reader should find as interesting as the mathe- matician. At all events, an intelligent enjoyment of its contents presupposes no more knowledge of mathematics than is now-a-days possessed by almost everybody.—The Athenæum. An exceedingly interesting work which, while appealing more directly to those who are somewhat mathematically inclined, it is at the same time calculated to interest the general reader.... Mr. Ball writes in a highly interesting manner on a fascinating subject, the result being a work which is in every respect excellent.— The Mechanical World. É um livro muito interessante, consagrado a recreios mathematicos, alguns dos quaes são muito bellos, e a problemas interessantes da mesma sciencia, que não exige para ser lido grandes conhecimentos mathematicos e que tem em gráo elevado a qualidade de instruir, deleitando ao mesmo tempo.—Journal de sciencias mathematicas, Coimbra. The work is a very judicious and suggestive compilation, not meant mainly for mathematicians, yet made doubly valuable to them by copious references. The style in the main is so compact and clear that what is central in a long argument or process is admirably presented in a few words. One great merit of this, or any other really good book on such a subject, is its suggestiveness; and in running through its pages, one is pretty sure to think of additional problems on the same general lines.—Bulletin of the New York Mathematical Society. A book which deserves to be widely known by those who are fond of solving puzzles ... and will be found to contain an admirable classified collection of inge- nious questions capable of mathematical analysis. As the author is himself a skilful mathematician, and is careful to add an analysis of most of the propositions, it may easily be believed that there is food for study as well as amusement in his pages.... Is in every way worthy of praise.—The School Guardian.", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 358 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00360", "bookId": 26839, "start": 800221, "end": 800853, "sha256": "c0aa3f16fffeed8c2abd628837ac5190e061fc0bdd00b76f4443b7620debc048", "text": "[PDF page 359] 343 Once more the author of aShort History of Mathematics and a History of the Study of Mathematics at Cambridgegives evidence of the width of his reading and of his skill in compilation. From the elementary arithmetical puzzles which were known in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries to those modern ones the mathematical discussion of which has taxed the energies of the ablest investigator, very few questions have been left unrepresented. The sources of the author’s in- formation are indicated with great fulness.... The book is a welcome addition to English mathematical literature.—The Oxford Magazine.", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 359 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00361", "bookId": 26839, "start": 800855, "end": 802953, "sha256": "adfd83f3cbc724b2fd18a71ffe9c35de0c1388c0dd29eb5ea61a7d06ba43b58e", "text": "[PDF page 360] 344 A HISTORY OF THE STUDY OF MATHEMATICS AT CAMBRIDGE By W.W. ROUSE BALL. [Pp. xvi + 264. Price 6s.] THE UNIVERSITY PRESS, CAMBRIDGE. This work contains an account of the development of the study of mathematics in the university of Cambridge from the twelfth century to the middle of the nineteenth century, and a description of the means by which proficiency in that study was tested at various times. The first part of the book is devoted to a brief account of the more eminent of the Cambridge mathematicians, the subject matter of their works, and their methods of exposition. The second part treats of the manner in which mathematics was taught, and of the exercises and examinations required of students in past times. A sketch is given of the origin and history of the Mathematical Tripos; this includes the substance of the earlier parts of the author’s work on that subject, Cambridge, 1880. To explain the relation of mathematics to other departments of study an outline of the general history of the university and the organization of education therein is added. The present volume is very pleasant reading, and though much of it necessarily appeals only to mathematicians, there are parts—e.g. the chapters on Newton, on the growth of the tripos, and on the history of the university—which are full of inter- est for a general reader.... The book is well written, the style is crisp and clear, and there is a humorous appreciation of some of the curious old regulations which have been superseded by time and change of custom. Though it seems light, it must rep- resent an extensive study and investigation on the part of the author, the essential results of which are skilfully given. We can most thoroughly commend Mr. Ball’s volume to all readers who are interested in mathematics or in the growth and the position of the Cambridge school of mathematicians.—The Manchester Guardian. Voici un livre dont la lecture inspire tout d’abord le regret que des travaux analogues n’aient pas été faits pour toutes les Écoles célèbres, et avec autant de soin", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 360 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00362", "bookId": 26839, "start": 802955, "end": 806352, "sha256": "eda1b3ba12069830b74a13f851c18fa0d9f5ffd00bb5b43fcdefd1a1df4905df", "text": "[PDF page 361] 345 et de clarté.... Toutes les parties du livre nous out vivement intéressé.—Bulletin des sciences mathématiques. A book of pleasant and useful reading for both historians and mathematicians. Mr. Ball’s previous researches into this kind of history have already established his reputation, and the book is worthy of the reputation of its author. It is more than a detailed account of the rise and progress of mathematics, for it involves a very exact history of the University of Cambridge from its foundation.—The Educational Times. Mr. Ball is far from confining his narrative to the particular science of which he is himself an acknowledged master, and his account of the study of mathematics becomes a series of biographical portraits of eminent professors and a record not only of the intellectual life of theélite but of the manners, habits, and discussions of the great body of Cambridge men from the sixteenth century to our own.... He has shown how the University has justified its liberal reputation, and how amply prepared it was for the larger freedom which it now enjoys.—The Daily News. Mr. Ball has not only given us a detailed account of the rise and progress of the science with which the name of Cambridge is generally associated but has also written a brief but reliable and interesting history of the university itself from its foundation down to recent times.... The book is pleasant reading alike for the mathematician and the student of history.—St. James’s Gazette. Averyhandyandvaluablebookcontaining, asitdoes, avastdealofinteresting information which could not without inconceivable trouble be found elsewhere.... It is very far from forming merely a mathematical biographical dictionary, the growth of mathematical science being skilfully traced in connection with the suc- cessive names. There are probably very few people who will be able thoroughly to appreciate the author’s laborious researches in all sorts of memoirs and transactions of learned societies in order to unearth the material which he has so agreeably con- densed.... Along with this there is much new matter which, while of great interest to mathematicians, and more especially to men brought up at Cambridge, will be found to throw a good deal of new and important light on the history of education in general.—The Glasgow Herald. Exceedingly interesting to all who care for mathematics.... After giving an account of the chief Cambridge Mathematicians and their works in chronological order, Mr. Rouse Ball goes on to deal with the history of tuition and examinations in the University ... and recounts the steps by which the word “tripos” changed its meaning “from a thing of wood to a man, from a man to a speech, from a speech to two sets of verses, from verses to a sheet of coarse foolscap paper, from a paper to a list of names, and from a list of names to a system of examination.”—Never did word undergo so many alterations.—The Literary World. In giving an account of the development of the study of mathematics in the University of Cambridge, and the means by which mathematical proficiency was tested in successive generations, Mr. Ball has taken the novel plan of devoting the first half of his book to ... the more eminent Cambridge mathematicians, and of reserving to the second part an account of how at various times the subject was", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 361 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00363", "bookId": 26839, "start": 806354, "end": 806755, "sha256": "2b6270df058aee8cb31fb2d0b71264362c0849b53aa2f469a729b289badff48e", "text": "[PDF page 362] 346 taught, and how the result of its study was tested.... Very interesting information is given about the work of the students during the different periods, with specimens of problem-papers as far back as 1802. The book is very enjoyable, and gives a capital and accurate digest of many excellent authorities which are not within the reach of the ordinary reader.—The Scots Observer.", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 362 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00364", "bookId": 26839, "start": 806757, "end": 808578, "sha256": "2d8facd2cc898a1a48dd88b0825b02db02fdd0850a202010af64326b1f654813", "text": "[PDF page 363] 347 AN ESSAY ON THE GENESIS, CONTENTS, AND HISTORY OF NEWTON’S “PRINCIPIA” By W.W. ROUSE BALL. [Pp. x + 175. Price 6s. net. ] MACMILLAN AND CO. Ltd., LONDON AND NEW YORK. This work contains an account of the successive discoveries of Newton on gravitation, the methods he used, and the history of his researches. It commences with a review of the extant authorities dealing with the subject. In the next two chapters the investigations made in 1666 and 1679 are discussed, some of the documents dealing therewith be- ing here printed for the first time. The fourth chapter is devoted to the investigations made in 1684: these are illustrated by Newton’s pro- fessorial lectures (of which the original manuscript is extant) of that autumn, and are summed up in the almost unknown memoir of Febru- ary, 1685, which is here reproduced from Newton’s holograph copy. In the two following chapters the details of the preparation from 1685 to 1687 of the Principia are described, and an analysis of the work is given. The seventh chapter comprises an account of the researches of Newton on gravitation subsequent to the publication of the first edition of thePrincipia, and a sketch of the history of that work. In the last chapter, the extant letters of 1678–1679 between Hooke andNewton, andofthoseof1686–1687betweenHalleyandNewton, are reprinted, and there are also notes on the extant correspondence con- cerning the production of the second and third editions of thePrincipia. For the essay which we have before us, Mr Ball should receive the thanks of all those to whom the name of Newton recalls the memory of a great man. The Principia, besides being a lasting monument of Newton’s life, is also to-day the classic of our mathematical writings, and will be so for some time to come.... The", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 363 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00365", "bookId": 26839, "start": 808580, "end": 811975, "sha256": "6a8d199bd9ca90ce81d2e43a2ae55f81f2abe632ddff311cdb92f0233ffddff7", "text": "[PDF page 364] 348 value of the present work is also enhanced by the fact that, besides containing a few as yet unpublished letters, there are collected in its pages quotations from all documents, thus forming a complete summary of everything that is known on the subject.... The author is so well known a writer on anything connected with the history of mathematics, that we need make no mention of the thoroughness of the essay, while it would be superfluous for us to add that from beginning to end it is pleasantly written and delightful to read. Those well acquainted with thePrincipia will find much that will interest them, while those not so fully enlightened will learn much by reading through the account of the origin and history of Newton’s greatest work.—Nature. An Essay on Newton’s Principiawill suggest to many something solely mathe- matical, and therefore wholly uninteresting. No inference could be more erroneous. Thebookcertainlydealslargelyinscientifictechnicalitieswhichwillinterestexperts only; but it also contains much historical information which might attract many who, from laziness or inability, would be very willing to take all its mathematics for granted. Mr. Ball carefully examines the evidence bearing on the development of Newton’s great discovery, and supplies the reader with abundant quotations from contemporary authorities. Not the least interesting portion of the book is the ap- pendix, or rather appendices, containing copies of the original documents (mostly letters) to which Mr. Ball refers in his historical criticisms. Several of these bear upon the irritating and unfounded claims of Hooke.—The Athenæum. La savante monographie de M. Ball est rédigée avec beaucoup de soin, et à plusieurs égards elle peut servir de modèle pour des écrits de la même nature.— Bibliotheca Mathematica. Newton’sPrincipia has world-wide fame as a classic of mathematical science. But those who know thoroughly the contents and the history of the book are a select company. It was at one time the purpose of Mr. Ball to prepare a new critical edition of the work, accompanied by a prefatory history and notes, and by an analytical commentary. Mathematicians will regret to hear that there is no prospectintheimmediatefutureofseeingthisimportantbookcarriedtocompletion by so competent a hand. They will at the same time welcome Mr. Ball’sEssay on the Principia for the elucidations which it gives of the process by which Newton’s great work originated and took form, and also as an earnest of the completed plan.—The Scotsman. In this essay Mr. Ball presents us with an account highly interesting to math- ematicians and natural philosophers of the origin and history of that remark- able product of a great geniusPhilosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica, ‘The Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy,’ better known by the short term Principia.... Mr. Ball’s essay is one of extreme interest to students of physical sci- ence, and it is sure to be widely read and greatly appreciated.—The Glasgow Herald. To his well-known and scholarly treatises on the History of Mathematics Mr. W.W. Rouse Ball has addedAn Essay on Newton’s Principia. Newton’sPrin- cipia, as Mr. Ball justly observes, is the classic of English mathematical writings; and this sound, luminous, and laborious essay ought to be the classical account", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 364 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00366", "bookId": 26839, "start": 811977, "end": 815585, "sha256": "d09636fd9c1919f2532f93736ea841d8cde2839a22f510971a9d91497c0687df", "text": "[PDF page 365] 349 of the Principia. The essay is the outcome of a critical edition of Newton’s great work, which Mr. Ball tells us that he once contemplated. It is much to be hoped that he will carry out his intention, for no English mathematician is likely to do the work better or in a more reverent spirit.... It is unnecessary to say that Mr. Ball has a complete knowledge of his subject. He writes with an ease and clearness that are rare.—The Scottish Leader. Le volume de M. Rouse Ball renferme tout ce que l’on peut désirer savoir sur l’histoire desPrincipes; c’est d’ailleurs l’œuvre d’un esprit clair, judicieux, et méthodique.—Bulletin des Sciences Mathématiques. Mr. Ball has put into small space a very great deal of interesting matter, and his book ought to meet with a wide circulation among lovers of Newton and the Principia.—The Academy. Admirers of Mr. W.W. Rouse Ball’sShort Account of the History of Mathe- matics will be glad to receive a detailed study of the history of thePrincipia from the same hand. This book, like its predecessors, gives a very lucid account of its subject. We find in it an account of Newton’s investigations in his earlier years, which are to some extent collected in the tractde Motu(the germ of thePrincipia) the text of which Mr. Rouse Ball gives us in full. In a later chapter there is a full analysis of thePrincipia itself, and after that an account of the preparation of the second and third editions. Probably the part of the book which will be found most interesting by the general reader is the account of the correspondence of Newton with Hooke, and with Halley, about the contents or the publication of thePrin- cipia. This correspondence is given in full, so far as it is recoverable. Hooke does not appear to advantage in it. He accuses Newton of stealing his ideas. His vain and envious disposition made his own merits appear great in his eyes, and be-dwarfed the work of others, so that he seems to have believed that Newton’s great perfor- mance was a mere expanding and editing of the ideas of Mr. Hooke—ideas which were meritorious, but after all mere guesses at truth. This, at all events, is the most charitable view we can take of his conduct. Halley, on the contrary, appears as a man to whom we ought to feel most grateful. It almost seems as though Newton’s physical insight and extraordinary mathematical powers might have been largely wasted, as was Pascal’s rare genius, if it had not been for Halley’s single-hearted and self-forgetful efforts to get from his friend’s genius all he could for the enlight- enment of men. It was probably at his suggestion that the writing of thePrincipia was undertaken. When the work was presented to the Royal Society, they under- took its publication, but, being without the necessary funds, the expense fell upon Halley. When Newton, stung by Hooke’s accusations, wished to withdraw a part of the work, Halley’s tact was required to avert the catastrophe. All the drudgery, worry, and expense fell to his share, and was accepted with the most generous good nature. It will be seen that both the technical student and the general reader may find much to interest him in Mr. Rouse Ball’s book.—The Manchester Guardian. Une histoire très bien faite de la genèse du livre immortel de Newton.... Le livre de M. Ball est une monographie précieuse sur un point important de l’histoire des mathématiques. Il contribuera à accroître, si c’est possible, la gloire de Newton, en révélant à beaucoup de lecteurs, avec quelle merveilleuse rapid-", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 365 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00367", "bookId": 26839, "start": 815587, "end": 815715, "sha256": "8359573eb2183f9a49432943d850f40d61148e6757e5295734e7f03aaf27ff26", "text": "[PDF page 366] 350 ité l’illustre géomètre anglais a élevé à la science ce monument immortel, les Principia.—Mathesis.", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 366 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00368", "bookId": 26839, "start": 815717, "end": 818008, "sha256": "967b3876bb017eb7b49a1fd2061b097721eb2c99241a5fed5b68f7e2da00a320", "text": "[PDF page 367] 351 NOTES ON THE HISTORY OF TRINITY COLLEGE, CAMBRIDGE By W.W. ROUSE BALL. [Pp. xiv + 183. Price 2s. 6d. net. ] MACMILLAN AND CO. Ltd., LONDON AND NEW YORK. This booklet gives a popular account of the History of Trinity Col- lege, Cambridge, and so far as the author knows, it is as yet (1905) the only work published on the subject. It was written mainly for the use of his pupils, and contains such information and gossip about the College and life there in past times as he believed would be interesting to most undergraduates and members of the House. This modest and unpretending little volume seems to us to do more for its subject than many of the more formal volumes ... treating of the separate col- leges of the English universities.... In nine short, extremely readable, and truly informing chapters it gives the reader a very vivid account at once of the origin and development of the University of Cambridge, of the rise and gradual supremacy of the colleges, of King’s Hall as founded by Edward II, of the suppression of King’s Hall by Henry VIII on December 17, 1546, the foundation of Trinity College by royal charter on December 19, and the subsequent fortunes of the premier college of Cambridge. The subject is in a way treated under the successive heads of the college, but this is quite subordinate to the handling and characterisation of the subject under four great periods—namely, that during the Middle Ages, that dur- ing the Renaissance, that under the Elizabethan statutes, and that during the last half-century. The colleges arose from the determination of the University to pre- vent students who were very young from seeking lodging, whether under the wing of one or other of the religious orders—a circumstance which shows this University to have been an essentially lay corporation. Early in the sixteenth century the college had absorbed all the members of the University, and henceforth the University was little more than the degree-granting body to students who lived and moved and had their educational being under the colleges.... The University finally took the form of an aggregate of separate and independent corporations, with a federal con- stitution analogous in a rough sort of way to that of the United States of America,", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 367 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00369", "bookId": 26839, "start": 818010, "end": 821162, "sha256": "3d3146ccbca50fdb44f1ed71601854d4b6f4f4fc06ca9b547af8b199df70842a", "text": "[PDF page 368] 352 and different from similar corporations at Paris by the fact that these latter were always subject to University supervision.... There is a good account of the effort now going on to re-assert the University at the expense of the colleges. No one who begins Mr. Ball’s book will lay it down till he has read it from beginning to end.—The Glasgow Herald. It is a sign of the times, and a very satisfactory one, when ... a tutor ... takes the trouble to make the history of his college known to his pupils. Considering the lack of good books about the Universities, we may thank Mr. Ball that he has been good enough to print for a larger circle. Though he modestly calls his book only “Notes,” yet it is eminently readable, and there is plenty of information, as well as abundance of good stories, in its pages.—The Oxford Magazine. Mr. Ball has put not only the pupils for whom he compiled these notes, but the large world of Trinity men, under a great obligation by this compendious but lucid and interesting history of the society to whose service he is devoted. The value of his contribution to our knowledge is increased by the extreme simplicity with which he tells his story, and the very suggestive details which, without much comment, he has selected, with admirable discernment, out of the wealth of materials at his disposal. His initial account of the development of the University is brief but extremely clear, presenting us with facts rather than theories, but establishing, with much distinctness, the essential difference between the hostels, out of which the more modern colleges grew, and that monastic life which poorer students were often tempted to join.—The Guardian. An interesting and valuable book.... It is described by its author as “little more than an orderly transcript” of what, as a Fellow and Tutor of the College, he has been accustomed to tell his pupils. But while it does not pretend either to the form or to the exhaustiveness of a set history, it is scholarly enough to rank as an authority, and far more interesting and readable than most academic histories are. It gives an instructive sketch of the development of the University and of the particular history of Trinity, noting its rise and policy in the earlier centuries of its existence, until, under the misrule of Bentley, it came into a state of disorder which nearly resulted in its dissolution. The subsequent rise of the College and its position in what Mr. Ball calls the Victorian renaissance, are drawn in lines no less suggestive; and the book, as a whole, cannot fail to be welcome to every one who is closely interested in the progress of the College.—The Scotsman. Mr. Ball has succeeded very well in giving in this little volume just what an intelligent undergraduate ought and probably often does desire to know about the buildings and the history of his College.... The debt of the “royal and religious foundation” to Henry VIII is explained with fulness, and there is much interest- ing matter as to the manner of life and the expenses of students in the sixteenth century.—The Manchester Guardian.", "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt", "sourceType": "derived-reading-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false, "pdfPage": 368 }, { "ref": "PG26839.B00370", "bookId": 26839, "start": 821164, "end": 824028, "sha256": "b382043c54ca046bb009fc3062792a054ff175faa9f2f88faa6a37605468db2f", "text": "[PDF page 369] LICENSING. 353 *** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK MATHEMATICAL RECREATIONS *** ***** This file should be named 26839-pdf.pdf or 26839-pdf.zip ***** This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: https://www.gutenberg.org/2/6/8/3/26839/ Updated editions will replace the previous one—the old editions will be renamed. 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You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you will have to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this eBook.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00003", "bookId": 8438, "start": 526, "end": 568, "sha256": "d8f3bfa08f241b40ac8e14070ba099c967d2a68f73cc167a28dab5137d4de8ab", "text": "Title: The Nicomachean ethics of Aristotle", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00004", "bookId": 8438, "start": 572, "end": 589, "sha256": "58f350bc82dd43a5f625e7222bc20f7a1e137fdf65bea0b735c7b10dc892afdd", "text": "Author: Aristotle", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00005", "bookId": 8438, "start": 605, "end": 700, "sha256": "f7ee8cbdecb968837908638b110ee6716de824257854e05c3e38abb462193cb7", "text": "Release date: July 1, 2005 [eBook #8438] Most recently updated: March 27, 2021", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00006", "bookId": 8438, "start": 704, "end": 721, "sha256": "b57efaf39e21b67232bab14763e8c43f8421fb22c0332f8f40796466905aaf80", "text": "Language: English", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00007", "bookId": 8438, "start": 725, "end": 785, "sha256": "d0c0a0911369c390236e0508385b19d0b5d47ef7447e065912b8bb32b116183f", "text": "Other information and formats: www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/8438", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00008", "bookId": 8438, "start": 789, "end": 838, "sha256": "e8f7e4bd68c542c2f66cbb2aad4d715da76c1e80c6a57abdb8311e5faff73a9b", "text": "Credits: Ted Garvin, David Widger and the DP Team", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00009", "bookId": 8438, "start": 844, "end": 924, "sha256": "2262be50938d09b427a0cfee85c2ad724e371d97ee65905941cd196bfed1060b", "text": "*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE NICOMACHEAN ETHICS OF ARISTOTLE ***", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00010", "bookId": 8438, "start": 934, "end": 969, "sha256": "4b544cc018d267484f8ce5fe7e9f62455f116fc17eb7fa0d22ed635fcf7e8e07", "text": "The Nicomachean Ethics of Aristotle", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00011", "bookId": 8438, "start": 973, "end": 985, "sha256": "9c1bdeb896102a2ffff5f0a9aebc0a40764024dbc93b60cafffa9a5998ed818f", "text": "By Aristotle", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00012", "bookId": 8438, "start": 989, "end": 1016, "sha256": "11fccd946dbe524a970a8b20d195afadfc2eb0e02096f4d801ffb0c5962ecaa7", "text": "Introduction by J. A. Smith", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00013", "bookId": 8438, "start": 1022, "end": 1030, "sha256": "437aea62a5bd6ad4762e494c81b88532809a231477c82bdecf6fd6636908b7ab", "text": "Contents", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00014", "bookId": 8438, "start": 1035, "end": 1047, "sha256": "348348036267fa046df6956d6bff62c93c2f7b89c711056c6a8cdcab6dd4a8e7", "text": "INTRODUCTION", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00015", "bookId": 8438, "start": 1052, "end": 1181, "sha256": "848ebf82020f49e719bb044fa7d98c0c7ec5008f7fc1f02220b283c5543b4661", "text": "ARISTOTLE’S ETHICS BOOK I BOOK II BOOK III BOOK IV BOOK V BOOK VI BOOK VII BOOK VIII BOOK IX BOOK X NOTES", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00016", "bookId": 8438, "start": 1191, "end": 1203, "sha256": "348348036267fa046df6956d6bff62c93c2f7b89c711056c6a8cdcab6dd4a8e7", "text": "INTRODUCTION", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00017", "bookId": 8438, "start": 1209, "end": 2118, "sha256": "f057680d7967a6c385d3a3ae7253bc6f0804af7b9c7ba22f5d21b95b8820cb11", "text": "The _Ethics_ of Aristotle is one half of a single treatise of which his _Politics_ is the other half. Both deal with one and the same subject. This subject is what Aristotle calls in one place the “philosophy of human affairs;” but more frequently Political or Social Science. In the two works taken together we have their author’s whole theory of human conduct or practical activity, that is, of all human activity which is not directed merely to knowledge or truth. The two parts of this treatise are mutually complementary, but in a literary sense each is independent and self-contained. The proem to the _Ethics_ is an introduction to the whole subject, not merely to the first part; the last chapter of the _Ethics_ points forward to the _Politics_, and sketches for that part of the treatise the order of enquiry to be pursued (an order which in the actual treatise is not adhered to).", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00018", "bookId": 8438, "start": 2122, "end": 3382, "sha256": "100af8ea836da87fb5a1b0ca71aef987e53e68aaf459a9b41b4ab0bcd38d2979", "text": "The principle of distribution of the subject-matter between the two works is far from obvious, and has been much debated. Not much can be gathered from their titles, which in any case were not given to them by their author. Nor do these titles suggest any very compact unity in the works to which they are applied: the plural forms, which survive so oddly in English (Ethic_s_, Politic_s_), were intended to indicate the treatment within a single work of a _group_ of connected questions. The unity of the first group arises from their centring round the topic of character, that of the second from their connection with the existence and life of the city or state. We have thus to regard the _Ethics_ as dealing with one group of problems and the _Politics_ with a second, both falling within the wide compass of Political Science. Each of these groups falls into sub-groups which roughly correspond to the several books in each work. The tendency to take up one by one the various problems which had suggested themselves in the wide field obscures both the unity of the subject-matter and its proper articulation. But it is to be remembered that what is offered us is avowedly rather an enquiry than an exposition of hard and fast doctrine.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00019", "bookId": 8438, "start": 3386, "end": 5190, "sha256": "1b7cc15ab8d03224b0fcc53d98d6e99cc12367056e921cac398326ee0cb58d3b", "text": "Nevertheless each work aims at a relative completeness, and it is important to observe the relation of each to the other. The distinction is not that the one treats of Moral and the other of Political Philosophy, nor again that the one deals with the moral activity of the individual and the other with that of the State, nor once more that the one gives us the theory of human conduct, while the other discusses its application in practice, though not all of these misinterpretations are equally erroneous. The clue to the right interpretation is given by Aristotle himself, where in the last chapter of the _Ethics_ he is paving the way for the _Politics_. In the _Ethics_ he has not confined himself to the abstract or isolated individual, but has always thought of him, or we might say, in his social and political context, with a given nature due to race and heredity and in certain surroundings. So viewing him he has studied the nature and formation of his character—all that he can make himself or be made by others to be. Especially he has investigated the various admirable forms of human character and the mode of their production. But all this, though it brings more clearly before us what goodness or virtue is, and how it is to be reached, remains mere theory or talk. By itself it does not enable us to become, or to help others to become, good. For this it is necessary to bring into play the great force of the Political Community or State, of which the main instrument is Law. Hence arises the demand for the necessary complement to the _Ethics, i.e._, a treatise devoted to the questions which centre round the enquiry; by what organisation of social or political forces, by what laws or institutions can we best secure the greatest amount of good character?", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00020", "bookId": 8438, "start": 5194, "end": 6566, "sha256": "64f0d6cacdcb76a939063b64c670fc6f1a091d2f93e5f6f2afa8881d8a0a82ec", "text": "We must, however, remember that the production of good character is not the end of either individual or state action: that is the aim of the one and the other because good character is the indispensable condition and chief determinant of happiness, itself the goal of all human doing. The end of all action, individual or collective, is the greatest happiness of the greatest number. There is, Aristotle insists, no difference of kind between the good of one and the good of many or all. The sole difference is one of amount or scale. This does not mean simply that the State exists to secure in larger measure the objects of degree which the isolated individual attempts, but is too feeble, to secure without it. On the contrary, it rather insists that whatever goods society alone enables a man to secure have always had to the individual—whether he realised it or not—the value which, when so secured, he recognises them to possess. The best and happiest life for the individual is that which the State renders possible, and this it does mainly by revealing to him the value of new objects of desire and educating him to appreciate them. To Aristotle or to Plato the State is, above all, a large and powerful educative agency which gives the individual increased opportunities of self-development and greater capacities for the enjoyment of life.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00021", "bookId": 8438, "start": 6570, "end": 7540, "sha256": "839d37f3493770ad79c2f3943b9141ce627041c83ac0ef34e76f8dd94f8f6383", "text": "Looking forward, then, to the life of the State as that which aids support, and combines the efforts of the individual to obtain happiness, Aristotle draws no hard and fast distinction between the spheres of action of Man as individual and Man as citizen. Nor does the division of his discussion into the _Ethics_ and the _Politics_ rest upon any such distinction. The distinction implied is rather between two stages in the life of the civilised man—the stage of preparation for the full life of the adult citizen, and the stage of the actual exercise or enjoyment of citizenship. Hence the _Ethics_, where his attention is directed upon the formation of character, is largely and centrally a treatise on Moral Education. It discusses especially those admirable human qualities which fit a man for life in an organised civic community, which makes him “a good citizen,” and considers how they can be fostered or created and their opposites prevented.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00022", "bookId": 8438, "start": 7544, "end": 8850, "sha256": "3e76b4803b85ef379e1deb85400bbf2ccbea865c3f254f5890bc6a2a650c11f2", "text": "This is the kernel of the _Ethics_, and all the rest is subordinate to this main interest and purpose. Yet “the rest” is not irrelevant; the whole situation in which character grows and operates is concretely conceived. There is a basis of what we should call Psychology, sketched in firm outlines, the deeper presuppositions and the wider issues of human character and conduct are not ignored, and there is no little of what we should call Metaphysics. But neither the Psychology nor the Metaphysics is elaborated, and only so much is brought forward as appears necessary to put the main facts in their proper perspective and setting. It is this combination of width of outlook with close observation of the concrete facts of conduct which gives its abiding value to the work, and justifies the view of it as containing Aristotle’s Moral Philosophy. Nor is it important merely as summing up the moral judgments and speculations of an age now long past. It seizes and dwells upon those elements and features in human practice which are most essential and permanent, and it is small wonder that so much in it survives in our own ways of regarding conduct and speaking of it. Thus it still remains one of the classics of Moral Philosophy, nor is its value likely soon to be exhausted.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00023", "bookId": 8438, "start": 8854, "end": 9865, "sha256": "a485957d26ac54f3723a9601266e7de04c3647bdd7cb36573266dba96815ed94", "text": "As was pointed out above, the proem (Book I., cc. i-iii.) is a prelude to the treatment of the whole subject covered by the _Ethics_ and the _Politics_ together. It sets forth the purpose of the enquiry, describes the spirit in which it is to be undertaken and what ought to be the expectation of the reader, and lastly states the necessary conditions of studying it with profit. The aim of it is the acquisition and propagation of a certain kind of knowledge (science), but this knowledge and the thinking which brings it about are subsidiary to a practical end. The knowledge aimed at is of what is best for man and of the conditions of its realisation. Such knowledge is that which in its consumate form we find in great statesmen, enabling them to organise and administer their states and regulate by law the life of the citizens to their advantage and happiness, but it is the same kind of knowledge which on a smaller scale secures success in the management of the family or of private life.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00024", "bookId": 8438, "start": 9869, "end": 11535, "sha256": "e334853350424b46e31e3e091a171049a8ddb64ac817762e83687b2ad8aed120", "text": "It is characteristic of such knowledge that it should be deficient in “exactness,” in precision of statement, and closeness of logical concatenation. We must not look for a mathematics of conduct. The subject-matter of Human Conduct is not governed by necessary and uniform laws. But this does not mean that it is subject to no laws. There are general principles at work in it, and these can be formulated in “rules,” which rules can be systematised or unified. It is all-important to remember that practical or moral rules are only general and always admit of exceptions, and that they arise not from the mere complexity of the facts, but from the liability of the facts to a certain unpredictable variation. At their very best, practical rules state probabilities, not certainties; a relative constancy of connection is all that exists, but it is enough to serve as a guide in life. Aristotle here holds the balance between a misleading hope of reducing the subject-matter of conduct to a few simple rigorous abstract principles, with conclusions necessarily issuing from them, and the view that it is the field of operation of inscrutable forces acting without predictable regularity. He does not pretend to find in it absolute uniformities, or to deduce the details from his principles. Hence, too, he insists on the necessity of experience as the source or test of all that he has to say. Moral experience—the actual possession and exercise of good character—is necessary truly to understand moral principles and profitably to apply them. The mere intellectual apprehension of them is not possible, or if possible, profitless.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00025", "bookId": 8438, "start": 11539, "end": 11777, "sha256": "3ce86d87ff8fb8cb9eec846ca08fce8c31f6ebf304a734054ed810dda670d15d", "text": "The _Ethics_ is addressed to students who are presumed both to have enough general education to appreciate these points, and also to have a solid foundation of good habits. More than that is not required for the profitable study of it.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00026", "bookId": 8438, "start": 11781, "end": 13235, "sha256": "4ad40e94884d2b64bd5ee5f8007f58df151fe4570e8b7a9b3fac58085fc665d5", "text": "If the discussion of the nature and formation of character be regarded as the central topic of the _Ethics_, the contents of Book I., cc. iv.-xii. may be considered as still belonging to the introduction and setting, but these chapters contain matter of profound importance and have exercised an enormous influence upon subsequent thought. They lay down a principle which governs all Greek thought about human life, viz. that it is only intelligible when viewed as directed towards some end or good. This is the Greek way of expressing that all human life involves an ideal element—something which it is not yet and which under certain conditions it is to be. In that sense Greek Moral Philosophy is essentially idealistic. Further it is always assumed that all human practical activity is directed or “oriented” to a _single_ end, and that that end is knowable or definable in advance of its realisation. To know it is not merely a matter of speculative interest, it is of the highest practical moment for only in the light of it can life be duly guided, and particularly only so can the state be properly organised and administered. This explains the stress laid throughout by Greek Moral Philosophy upon the necessity of knowledge as a condition of the best life. This knowledge is not, though it includes knowledge of the nature of man and his circumstances, it is knowledge of what is best—of man’s supreme end or good.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00027", "bookId": 8438, "start": 13239, "end": 13697, "sha256": "a8e95b6beb279f8420c9c5b53d170825410d6cdd509e3a014fd52d01a3263189", "text": "But this end is not conceived as presented to him by a superior power nor even as something which _ought_ to be. The presentation of the Moral Ideal as Duty is almost absent. From the outset it is identified with the object of desire, of what we not merely judge desirable but actually do desire, or that which would, if realised, satisfy human desire. In fact it is what we all, wise and simple, agree in naming “Happiness” (Welfare or Well-being)", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00028", "bookId": 8438, "start": 13701, "end": 15513, "sha256": "3509b4debd82cf8455325ae75561ddbc6b6abf7bf55f8cc12dc009fd1dc520dc", "text": "In what then does happiness consist? Aristotle summarily sets aside the more or less popular identifications of it with abundance of physical pleasures, with political power and honour, with the mere possession of such superior gifts or attainments as normally entitle men to these, with wealth. None of these can constitute the end or good of man as such. On the other hand, he rejects his master Plato’s conception of a good which is the end of the whole universe, or at least dismisses it as irrelevant to his present enquiry. The good towards which all human desires and practical activities are directed must be one conformable to man’s special nature and circumstances and attainable by his efforts. There is in Aristotle’s theory of human conduct no trace of Plato’s “other worldliness”, he brings the moral ideal in Bacon’s phrase down to “right earth”—and so closer to the facts and problems of actual human living. Turning from criticism of others he states his own positive view of Happiness, and, though he avowedly states it merely in outline his account is pregnant with significance. Human Happiness lies in activity or energising, and that in a way peculiar to man with his given nature and his given circumstances, it is not theoretical, but practical: it is the activity not of reason but still of a being who possesses reason and applies it, and it presupposes in that being the development, and not merely the natural possession, of certain relevant powers and capacities. The last is the prime condition of successful living and therefore of satisfaction, but Aristotle does not ignore other conditions, such as length of life, wealth and good luck, the absence or diminution of which render happiness not impossible, but difficult of attainment.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00029", "bookId": 8438, "start": 15517, "end": 16794, "sha256": "ebcc5657ea646f71fe2b4e8e8c988d39873943a87603861ea0c31725d3a11dc0", "text": "It is interesting to compare this account of Happiness with Mill’s in _Utilitarianism_. Mill’s is much the less consistent: at times he distinguishes and at times he identifies, happiness, pleasure, contentment, and satisfaction. He wavers between belief in its general attainability and an absence of hopefulness. He mixes up in an arbitrary way such ingredients as “not expecting more from life than it is capable of bestowing,” “mental cultivation,” “improved laws,” etc., and in fact leaves the whole conception vague, blurred, and uncertain. Aristotle draws the outline with a firmer hand and presents a more definite ideal. He allows for the influence on happiness of conditions only partly, if at all, within the control of man, but he clearly makes the man positive determinant of man’s happiness he in himself, and more particularly in what he makes directly of his own nature, and so indirectly of his circumstances. “‘Tis in ourselves that we are thus or thus” But once more this does not involve an artificial or abstract isolation of the individual moral agent from his relation to other persons or things from his context in society and nature, nor ignore the relative dependence of his life upon a favourable environment.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00030", "bookId": 8438, "start": 16798, "end": 18769, "sha256": "d3707948aa0e935a6bde0f02b794ab166e3e831d0567c18fb6953df6f8bc055d", "text": "The main factor which determines success or failure in human life is the acquisition of certain powers, for Happiness is just the exercise or putting forth of these in actual living, everything else is secondary and subordinate. These powers arise from the due development of certain natural aptitudes which belong (in various degrees) to human nature as such and therefore to all normal human beings. In their developed form they are known as virtues (the Greek means simply “goodnesses,” “perfections,” “excellences,” or “fitnesses”), some of them are physical, but others are psychical, and among the latter some, and these distinctively or peculiarly human, are “rational,” _i e_, presuppose the possession and exercise of mind or intelligence. These last fall into two groups, which Aristotle distinguishes as Goodnesses of Intellect and Goodnesses of Character. They have in common that they all excite in us admiration and praise of their possessors, and that they are not natural endowments, but acquired characteristics But they differ in important ways. (1) the former are excellences or developed powers of the reason as such—of that in us which sees and formulates laws, rules, regularities systems, and is content in the vision of them, while the latter involve a submission or obedience to such rules of something in us which is in itself capricious and irregular, but capable of regulation, viz our instincts and feelings, (2) the former are acquired by study and instruction, the latter by discipline. The latter constitute “character,” each of them as a “moral virtue” (literally “a goodness of character”), and upon them primarily depends the realisation of happiness. This is the case at least for the great majority of men, and for all men their possession is an indispensable basis of the best, _i e_, the most desirable life. They form the chief or central subject-matter of the _Ethics_.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00031", "bookId": 8438, "start": 18773, "end": 19445, "sha256": "043b3d3affd8007f3ae11fd83d1822bc6ad3513df7e212ccf398eb0e77e0e268", "text": "Perhaps the truest way of conceiving Aristotle’s meaning here is to regard a moral virtue as a form of obedience to a maxim or rule of conduct accepted by the agent as valid for a class of recurrent situations in human life. Such obedience requires knowledge of the rule and acceptance of it _as the rule_ of the agent’s own actions, but not necessarily knowledge of its ground or of its systematic connexion with other similarly known and similarly accepted rules (It may be remarked that the Greek word usually translated “reason,” means in almost all cases in the _Ethics_ such a rule, and not the faculty which apprehends, formulates, considers them).", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00032", "bookId": 8438, "start": 19449, "end": 19941, "sha256": "71a725ab3f7d37c1b7d597fd4d14ecef9bdcb5d8e5b38b0865cb824a3ae5555d", "text": "The “moral virtues and vices” make up what we call character, and the important questions arise: (1) What is character? and (2) How is it formed? (for character in this sense is not a natural endowment; it is formed or produced). Aristotle deals with these questions in the reverse order. His answers are peculiar and distinctive—not that they are absolutely novel (for they are anticipated in Plato), but that by him they are for the first time distinctly and clearly formulated.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00033", "bookId": 8438, "start": 19945, "end": 21189, "sha256": "930b6ca63bb51f64baf5709ce4190b7c95ad3147ca0f61920e03c25bd3220a24", "text": "(1.) Character, good or bad, is produced by what Aristotle calls “habituation,” that is, it is the result of the repeated doing of acts which have a similar or common quality. Such repetition acting upon natural aptitudes or propensities gradually fixes them in one or other of two opposite directions, giving them a bias towards good or evil. Hence the several acts which determine goodness or badness of character must be done in a certain way, and thus the formation of good character requires discipline and direction from without. Not that the agent himself contributes nothing to the formation of his character, but that at first he needs guidance. The point is not so much that the process cannot be safely left to Nature, but that it cannot be entrusted to merely intellectual instruction. The process is one of assimilation, largely by imitation and under direction and control. The result is a growing understanding of what is done, a choice of it for its own sake, a fixity and steadiness of purpose. Right acts and feelings become, through habit, easier and more pleasant, and the doing of them a “second nature.” The agent acquires the power of doing them freely, willingly, more and more “of himself.”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00034", "bookId": 8438, "start": 21193, "end": 22254, "sha256": "e45702d925d29b5bbe34178c94232fccb1fdf966c9a12eba3bc9e79d6655cd69", "text": "But what are “right” acts? In the first place, they are those that conform to a rule—to the right rule, and ultimately to reason. The Greeks never waver from the conviction that in the end moral conduct is essentially reasonable conduct. But there is a more significant way of describing their “rightness,” and here for the first time Aristotle introduces his famous “Doctrine of the Mean.” Reasoning from the analogy of “right” physical acts, he pronounces that rightness always means adaptation or adjustment to the special requirements of a situation. To this adjustment he gives a quantitative interpretation. To do (or to feel) what is right in a given situation is to do or to feel just the amount required—neither more nor less: to do wrong is to do or to feel too much or too little—to fall short of or over-shoot, “a mean” determined by the situation. The repetition of acts which lie in the mean is the cause of the formation of each and every “goodness of character,” and for this “rules” can be given.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00035", "bookId": 8438, "start": 22258, "end": 23674, "sha256": "80a3af8dd29fb6bfa260b55a0180dc70c979eeacf5985809aba728116c10cc88", "text": "(2) What then is a “moral virtue,” the result of such a process duly directed? It is no mere mood of feeling, no mere liability to emotion, no mere natural aptitude or endowment, it is a permanent _state_ of the agent’s self, or, as we might in modern phrase put it, of his will, it consists in a steady self-imposed obedience to a rule of action in certain situations which frequently recur in human life. The rule prescribes the control and regulation within limits of the agent’s natural impulses to act and feel thus and thus. The situations fall into groups which constitute the “fields” of the several “moral virtues”, for each there is a rule, conformity to which secures rightness in the individual acts. Thus the moral ideal appears as a code of rules, accepted by the agent, but as yet _to him_ without rational justification and without system or unity. But the rules prescribe no mechanical uniformity: each within its limits permits variety, and the exactly right amount adopted to the requirements of the individual situation (and every actual situation is individual) must be determined by the intuition of the moment. There is no attempt to reduce the rich possibilities of right action to a single monotonous type. On the contrary, there are acknowledged to be many forms of moral virtue, and there is a long list of them, with their correlative vices enumerated.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00036", "bookId": 8438, "start": 23678, "end": 24430, "sha256": "12722e36012a8da5a3cba01d6136af0eed369a34f11ac1f69951a5777554da11", "text": "The Doctrine of the Mean here takes a form in which it has impressed subsequent thinkers, but which has less importance than is usually ascribed to it. In the “Table of the Virtues and Vices,” each of the virtues is flanked by two opposite vices, which are respectively the excess and defect of that which in due measure constitutes the virtue. Aristotle tries to show that this is the case in regard to every virtue named and recognised as such, but his treatment is often forced and the endeavour is not very successful. Except as a convenient principle of arrangement of the various forms of praiseworthy or blameworthy characters, generally acknowledged as such by Greek opinion, this form of the doctrine is of no great significance.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00037", "bookId": 8438, "start": 24434, "end": 26728, "sha256": "2a67956ac0ea5a4fd3ae27b5e0189e07175e03aff9c9e621125ed6a2358535e0", "text": "Books III-V are occupied with a survey of the moral virtues and vices. These seem to have been undertaken in order to verify in detail the general account, but this aim is not kept steadily in view. Nor is there any well-considered principle of classification. What we find is a sort of portrait-gallery of the various types of moral excellence which the Greeks of the author’s age admired and strove to encourage. The discussion is full of acute, interesting and sometimes profound observations. Some of the types are those which are and will be admired at all times, but others are connected with peculiar features of Greek life which have now passed away. The most important is that of Justice or the Just Man, to which we may later return. But the discussion is preceded by an attempt to elucidate some difficult and obscure points in the general account of moral virtue and action (Book III, cc i-v). This section is concerned with the notion of Responsibility. The discussion designedly excludes what we may call the metaphysical issues of the problem, which here present themselves, it moves on the level of thought of the practical man, the statesman, and the legislator. Coercion and ignorance of relevant circumstances render acts involuntary and exempt their doer from responsibility, otherwise the act is voluntary and the agent responsible, choice or preference of what is done, and inner consent to the deed, are to be presumed. Neither passion nor ignorance of the right rule can extenuate responsibility. But there is a difference between acts done voluntarily and acts done of _set_ choice or purpose. The latter imply Deliberation. Deliberation involves thinking, thinking out means to ends: in deliberate acts the whole nature of the agent consents to and enters into the act, and in a peculiar sense they are his, they _are_ him in action, and the most significant evidence of what he is. Aristotle is unable wholly to avoid allusion to the metaphysical difficulties and what he does here say upon them is obscure and unsatisfactory. But he insists upon the importance in moral action of the agent’s inner consent, and on the reality of his individual responsibility. For his present purpose the metaphysical difficulties are irrelevant.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00038", "bookId": 8438, "start": 26732, "end": 28852, "sha256": "5b48569a45bf814d23bdbbf620adaa5ecd20764e9976520ee67c363f65ec12c5", "text": "The treatment of Justice in Book V has always been a source of great difficulty to students of the _Ethics_. Almost more than any other part of the work it has exercised influence upon mediaeval and modern thought upon the subject. The distinctions and divisions have become part of the stock-in-trade of would be philosophic jurists. And yet, oddly enough, most of these distinctions have been misunderstood and the whole purport of the discussion misconceived. Aristotle is here dealing with justice in a restricted sense viz as that special goodness of character which is required of every adult citizen and which can be produced by early discipline or habituation. It is the temper or habitual attitude demanded of the citizen for the due exercise of his functions as taking part in the administration of the civic community—as a member of the judicature and executive. The Greek citizen was only exceptionally, and at rare intervals if ever, a law-maker while at any moment he might be called upon to act as a judge (juryman or arbitrator) or as an administrator. For the work of a legislator far more than the moral virtue of justice or fairmindedness was necessary, these were requisite to the rarer and higher “intellectual virtue” of practical wisdom. Then here, too, the discussion moves on a low level, and the raising of fundamental problems is excluded. Hence “distributive justice” is concerned not with the large question of the distribution of political power and privileges among the constituent members or classes of the state but with the smaller questions of the distribution among those of casual gains and even with the division among private claimants of a common fund or inheritance, while “corrective justice” is concerned solely with the management of legal redress. The whole treatment is confused by the unhappy attempt to give a precise mathematical form to the principles of justice in the various fields distinguished. Still it remains an interesting first endeavour to give greater exactness to some of the leading conceptions of jurisprudence.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00039", "bookId": 8438, "start": 28856, "end": 30793, "sha256": "9a0d3567ef36329ef798f880f87ebf04b5847c9b068c8e9babc97fbb451d9424", "text": "Book VI appears to have in view two aims: (1) to describe goodness of intellect and discover its highest form or forms; (2) to show how this is related to goodness of character, and so to conduct generally. As all thinking is either theoretical or practical, goodness of intellect has _two_ supreme forms—Theoretical and Practical Wisdom. The first, which apprehends the eternal laws of the universe, has no direct relation to human conduct: the second is identical with that master science of human life of which the whole treatise, consisting of the _Ethics_ and the _Politics_, is an exposition. It is this science which supplies the right rules of conduct Taking them as they emerge in and from practical experience, it formulates them more precisely and organises them into a system where they are all seen to converge upon happiness. The mode in which such knowledge manifests itself is in the power to show that such and such rules of action follow from the very nature of the end or good for man. It presupposes and starts from a clear conception of the end and the wish for it as conceived, and it proceeds by a deduction which is dehberation writ large. In the man of practical wisdom this process has reached its perfect result, and the code of right rules is apprehended as a system with a single principle and so as something wholly rational or reasonable He has not on each occasion to seek and find the right rule applicable to the situation, he produces it at once from within himself, and can at need justify it by exhibiting its rationale, _i.e._ , its connection with the end. This is the consummate form of reason applied to conduct, but there are minor forms of it, less independent or original, but nevertheless of great value, such as the power to think out the proper cause of policy in novel circumstances or the power to see the proper line of treatment to follow in a court of law.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00040", "bookId": 8438, "start": 30797, "end": 31922, "sha256": "2295f6540370eac790dd90a2976854a1ce5f76204cc1ceaad04dc392c2da80d6", "text": "The form of the thinking which enters into conduct is that which terminates in the production of a rule which declares some means to the end of life. The process presupposes _(a)_ a clear and just apprehension of the nature of that end—such as the _Ethics_ itself endeavours to supply; _(b)_ a correct perception of the conditions of action, _(a)_ at least is impossible except to a man whose character has been duly formed by discipline; it arises only in a man who has acquired moral virtue. For such action and feeling as forms bad character, blinds the eye of the soul and corrupts the moral principle, and the place of practical wisdom is taken by that parody of itself which Aristotle calls “cleverness”—the “wisdom” of the unscrupulous man of the world. Thus true practical wisdom and true goodness of character are interdependent; neither is genuinely possible or “completely” present without the other. This is Aristotle’s contribution to the discussion of the question, so central in Greek Moral Philosophy, of the relation of the intellectual and the passionate factors in conduct.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00041", "bookId": 8438, "start": 31926, "end": 32962, "sha256": "c0a787c12e12bb48d7690a8ef24185acca6dedcec5bfc2f96a97a4b33457a834", "text": "Aristotle is not an intuitionist, but he recognises the implication in conduct of a direct and immediate apprehension both of the end and of the character of his circumstances under which it is from moment to moment realised. The directness of such apprehension makes it analogous to sensation or sense-perception; but it is on his view in the end due to the existence or activity in man of that power in him which is the highest thing in his nature, and akin to or identical with the divine nature—mind, or intelligence. It is this which reveals to us what is best for us—the ideal of a happiness which is the object of our real wish and the goal of all our efforts. But beyond and above the practical ideal of what is best _for man_ begins to show itself another and still higher ideal—that of a life not distinctively human or in a narrow sense practical, yet capable of being participated in by man even under the actual circumstances of this world. For a time, however, this further and higher ideal is ignored.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00042", "bookId": 8438, "start": 32966, "end": 35149, "sha256": "b3d12a96f5a370b181c8aac0f1f5b7620d98166c56c4987c39a3d39564129a2c", "text": "The next book (Book VII.), is concerned partly with moral conditions, in which the agent seems to rise above the level of moral virtue or fall below that of moral vice, but partly and more largely with conditions in which the agent occupies a middle position between the two. Aristotle’s attention is here directed chiefly towards the phenomena of “Incontinence,” weakness of will or imperfect self-control. This condition was to the Greeks a matter of only too frequent experience, but it appeared to them peculiarly difficult to understand. How can a man know what is good or best for him, and yet chronically fail to act upon his knowledge? Socrates was driven to the paradox of denying the possibility, but the facts are too strong for him. Knowledge of the right rule may be present, nay the rightfulness of its authority may be acknowledged, and yet time after time it may be disobeyed; the will may be good and yet overmastered by the force of desire, so that the act done is contrary to the agent’s will. Nevertheless the act may be the agent’s, and the will therefore divided against itself. Aristotle is aware of the seriousness and difficulty of the problem, but in spite of the vividness with which he pictures, and the acuteness with which he analyses, the situation in which such action occurs, it cannot be said that he solves the problem. It is time that he rises above the abstract view of it as a conflict between reason and passion, recognising that passion is involved in the knowledge which in conduct prevails or is overborne, and that the force which leads to the wrong act is not blind or ignorant passion, but always has some reason in it. But he tends to lapse back into the abstraction, and his final account is perplexed and obscure. He finds the source of the phenomenon in the nature of the desire for bodily pleasures, which is not irrational but has something rational in it. Such pleasures are not necessarily or inherently bad, as has sometimes been maintained; on the contrary, they are good, but only in certain amounts or under certain conditions, so that the will is often misled, hesitates, and is lost.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00043", "bookId": 8438, "start": 35153, "end": 35690, "sha256": "f3029bd17c1da3c0e1a84e8c860f9250e277f4ec2b164bf683728689a428c2e7", "text": "Books VIII. and IX. (on Friendship) are almost an interruption of the argument. The subject-matter of them was a favourite topic of ancient writers, and the treatment is smoother and more orderly than elsewhere in the _Ethics_. The argument is clear, and may be left without comment to the readers. These books contain a necessary and attractive complement to the somewhat dry account of Greek morality in the preceding books, and there are in them profound reflections on what may be called the metaphysics of friendship or love.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00044", "bookId": 8438, "start": 35694, "end": 36738, "sha256": "04000307e60770737c91a792a3223354c402c0d5b1577933055b96934954ac0d", "text": "At the beginning of Book X. we return to the topic of Pleasure, which is now regarded from a different point of view. In Book VII. the antagonists were those who over-emphasised the irrationality or badness of Pleasure: here it is rather those who so exaggerate its value as to confuse or identify it with the good or Happiness. But there is offered us in this section much more than criticism of the errors of others. Answers are given both to the psychological question, “What is Pleasure?” and to the ethical question, “What is its value?” Pleasure, we are told, is the natural concomitant and index of perfect activity, distinguishable but inseparable from it—“the activity of a subject at its best acting upon an object at its best.” It is therefore always and in itself a good, but its value rises and falls with that of the activity with which it is conjoined, and which it intensifies and perfects. Hence it follows that the highest and best pleasures are those which accompany the highest and best activity.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00045", "bookId": 8438, "start": 36742, "end": 38377, "sha256": "3af64edae6b4de40b5c0e5efe1e66f591042372bd5114cab49251a7c09b82db4", "text": "Pleasure is, therefore, a necessary element in the best life, but it is not the whole of it nor the principal ingredient. The value of a life depends upon the nature and worth of the activity which it involves; given the maximum of full free action, the maximum of pleasure necessary follows. But on what sort of life is such activity possible? This leads us back to the question, What is happiness? In what life can man find the fullest satisfaction for his desires? To this question Aristotle gives an answer which cannot but surprise us after what has preceded. True Happiness, great satisfaction, cannot be found by man in any form of “practical” life, no, not in the fullest and freest exercise possible of the “moral virtues,” not in the life of the citizen or of the great soldier or statesman. To seek it there is to court failure and disappointment. It is to be found in the life of the onlooker, the disinterested spectator; or, to put it more distinctly, “in the life of the philosopher, the life of scientific and philosophic contemplation.” The highest and most satisfying form of life possible to man is “the contemplative life”; it is only in a secondary sense and for those incapable of their life, that the practical or moral ideal is the best. It is time that such a life is not distinctively human, but it is the privilege of man to partake in it, and such participation, at however rare intervals and for however short a period, is the highest Happiness which human life can offer. All other activities have value only because and in so far as they render _this_ life possible.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00046", "bookId": 8438, "start": 38381, "end": 39162, "sha256": "5d4a474b5d70e08d5f576d4f46df78f63e744f79951a45c3bba0e1ba99748ed9", "text": "But it must not be forgotten that Aristotle conceives of this life as one of intense activity or energising: it is just this which gives it its supremacy. In spite of the almost religious fervour with which he speaks of it (“the most orthodox of his disciples” paraphrases his meaning by describing its content as “the service and vision of God”), it is clear that he identified it with the life of the philosopher, as he understood it, a life of ceaseless intellectual activity in which at least at times all the distractions and disturbances inseparable from practical life seemed to disappear and become as nothing. This ideal was partly an inheritance from the more ardent idealism of his master Plato, but partly it was the expression of personal experience.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00047", "bookId": 8438, "start": 39166, "end": 40134, "sha256": "98a69a80da8739eae3a92c891e3442595204b8eb89c2fbe9cdced94f5059adaa", "text": "The nobility of this ideal cannot be questioned; the conception of the end of man or a life lived for truth—of a life blissfully absorbed in the vision of truth—is a lofty and inspiring one. But we cannot resist certain criticisms upon its presentation by Aristotle: (1) the relation of it to the lower ideal of practice is left somewhat obscure; (2) it is described in such a way as renders its realisation possible only to a gifted few, and under exceptional circumstances; (3) it seems in various ways, as regards its content, to be unnecessarily and unjustifiably limited. But it must be borne in mind that this is a first endeavour to determine its principle, and that similar failures have attended the attempts to describe the “religious” or the “spiritual” ideals of life, which have continually been suggested by the apparently inherent limitations of the “practical” or “moral” life, which is the subject of Moral Philosophy.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00048", "bookId": 8438, "start": 40138, "end": 40587, "sha256": "1086324ab14c6bea43521fe172c9f8390ca25e1d6bc64066fc29426ed67d5130", "text": "The Moral Ideal to those who have most deeply reflected on it leads to the thought of an Ideal beyond and above it, which alone gives it meaning, but which seems to escape from definite conception by man. The richness and variety of this Ideal ceaselessly invite, but as ceaselessly defy, our attempts to imprison it in a definite formula or portray it in detailed imagination. Yet the thought of it is and remains inexpungable from our minds.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00049", "bookId": 8438, "start": 40591, "end": 42024, "sha256": "44e7be82f3754f1b7b3ac8eaaac997ca7793c46cb6cd34d0e0a1d4e7e9d0a6f2", "text": "This conception of the best life is not forgotten in the _Politics_ The end of life in the state is itself well-living and well-doing—a life which helps to produce the best life The great agency in the production of such life is the State operating through Law, which is Reason backed by Force. For its greatest efficiency there is required the development of a science of legislation. The main drift of what he says here is that the most desirable thing would be that the best reason of the community should be embodied in its laws. But so far as that is not possible, it still is true that anyone who would make himself and others better must become a miniature legislator—must study the general principles of law, morality, and education. The conception of πολιτικὴ with which he opened the _Ethics_ would serve as a guide to a father educating his children as well as to the legislator legislating for the state. Finding in his predecessors no developed doctrine on this subject, Aristotle proposes himself to undertake the construction of it, and sketches in advance the programme of the _Politics_ in the concluding sentence of the _Ethics_ His ultimate object is to answer the questions, What is the best form of Polity, how should each be constituted, and what laws and customs should it adopt and employ? Not till this answer is given will “the philosophy of human affairs” be complete.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00050", "bookId": 8438, "start": 42028, "end": 43716, "sha256": "d084368cbef27593229006454df6a2100ca9cf94cfee4e99e9e9de8b333860d8", "text": "On looking back it will be seen that the discussion of the central topic of the nature and formation of character has expanded into a Philosophy of Human Conduct, merging at its beginning and end into metaphysics The result is a Moral Philosophy set against a background of Political Theory and general Philosophy. The most characteristic features of this Moral Philosophy are due to the fact of its essentially teleological view of human life and action: (1) Every human activity, but especially every human practical activity, is directed towards a simple End discoverable by reflection, and this End is conceived of as the object of universal human desire, as something to be enjoyed, not as something which ought to be done or enacted. Anstotle’s Moral Philosophy is not hedonistic but it is eudæmomstic, the end is the enjoyment of Happiness, not the fulfilment of Duty. (2) Every human practical activity derives its value from its efficiency as a means to that end, it is good or bad, right or wrong, as it conduces or fails to conduce to Happiness Thus his Moral Philosophy is essentially utilitarian or prudential Right action presupposes Thought or Thinking, partly on the development of a clearer and distincter conception of the end of desire, partly as the deduction from that of rules which state the normally effective conditions of its realisation. The thinking involved in right conduct is calculation—calculation of means to an end fixed by nature and foreknowable Action itself is at its best just the realisation of a scheme preconceived and thought out beforehand, commending itself by its inherent attractiveness or promise of enjoyment.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00051", "bookId": 8438, "start": 43720, "end": 45530, "sha256": "5452e8cbc75c7eacdd4a4cee6933ec6c1be7b77ab688e02431b881033a1cb9f0", "text": "This view has the great advantage of exhibiting morality as essentially reasonable, but the accompanying disadvantage of lowering it into a somewhat prosaic and unideal Prudentialism, nor is it saved from this by the tacking on to it, by a sort of after-thought, of the second and higher Ideal—an addition which ruins the coherence of the account without really transmuting its substance The source of our dissatisfaction with the whole theory lies deeper than in its tendency to identify the end with the maximum of enjoyment or satisfaction, or to regard the goodness or badness of acts and feelings as lying solely in their efficacy to produce such a result It arises from the application to morality of the distinction of means and end For this distinction, for all its plausibility and usefulness in ordinary thought and speech, cannot finally be maintained In morality—and this is vital to its character—everything is both means and end, and so neither in distinction or separation, and all thinking about it which presupposes the finality of this distinction wanders into misconception and error. The thinking which really matters in conduct is not a thinking which imaginatively forecasts ideals which promise to fulfil desire, or calculates means to their attainment—that is sometimes useful, sometimes harmful, and always subordinate, but thinking which reveals to the agent the situation in which he is to act, both, that is, the universal situation on which as man he always and everywhere stands, and the ever-varying and ever-novel situation in which he as this individual, here and now, finds himself. In such knowledge of given or historic fact lie the natural determinants of his conduct, in such knowledge alone lies the condition of his freedom and his good.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00052", "bookId": 8438, "start": 45534, "end": 46026, "sha256": "4bf458f65ee17ea6317486c8ac1eb4d9b75b394e458f6e8f292e1a3f4e77afe6", "text": "But this does not mean that Moral Philosophy has not still much to learn from Aristotle’s _Ethics_. The work still remains one of the best introductions to a study of its important subject-matter, it spreads before us a view of the relevant facts, it reduces them to manageable compass and order, it raises some of the central problems, and makes acute and valuable suggestions towards their solution. Above all, it perpetually incites to renewed and independent reflection upon them.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00053", "bookId": 8438, "start": 46030, "end": 46041, "sha256": "25c3b34114a7d9bd46fabe01db2c1f983a9e849fdd6d3d8d19f9e9fc3533c38c", "text": "J. A. SMITH", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00054", "bookId": 8438, "start": 46046, "end": 46099, "sha256": "7aa6c611dacae65500ea8e95a202cceea4f24d379e09a9aa777a7f87871a048c", "text": "The following is a list of the works of Aristotle:—", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00055", "bookId": 8438, "start": 46103, "end": 46573, "sha256": "f81d439264f37401a20e2ad510b13e7ebbd1a6b8adcd53f7ce7a0cb0bc833c20", "text": "First edition of works (with omission of Rhetorica, Poetica, and second book of Economica), 5 vols by Aldus Manutius, Venice, 1495 8, re impression supervised by Erasmus and with certain corrections by Grynaeus (including Rhetorica and Poetica), 1531, 1539, revised 1550, later editions were followed by that of Immanuel Bekker and Brandis (Greek and Latin), 5 vols. The 5th vol contains the Index by Bomtz, 1831-70, Didot edition (Greek and Latin), 5 vols 1848 74", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00056", "bookId": 8438, "start": 46577, "end": 46810, "sha256": "99efdc2b3f5a4c87e08432d43b41f6a9d86217a520e2d1de1df569c0277cb059", "text": "ENGLISH TRANSLATIONS Edited by T Taylor, with Porphyry’s Introduction, 9 vols, 1812, under editorship of J A Smith and W D Ross, II vols, 1908-31, Loeb editions Ethica, Rhetorica, Poetica, Physica, Politica, Metaphysica, 1926-33", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00057", "bookId": 8438, "start": 46814, "end": 47297, "sha256": "944608c319da81ece458abbf70cca203d231d44c85983e8950cbad08b02e7916", "text": "Later editions of separate works _De Anima_ Torstrik, 1862, Trendelenburg, 2nd edition, 1877, with English translation, L Wallace, 1882, Biehl, 1884, 1896, with English, R D Hicks, 1907 _Ethica_ J S Brewer (Nicomachean), 1836, W E Jelf, 1856, J F T Rogers, 1865, A Grant, 1857 8, 1866, 1874, 1885, E Moore, 1871, 1878, 4th edition, 1890, Ramsauer (Nicomachean), 1878, Susemihl, 1878, 1880, revised by O Apelt, 1903, A Grant, 1885, I Bywater (Nicomachean), 1890, J Burnet, 1900", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00058", "bookId": 8438, "start": 47301, "end": 47380, "sha256": "e30266a19de1da55c4aa1aa2e6e5757a80e2260bbbd25d0b18ad380d85985dcf", "text": "_Historia Animalium_ Schneider, 1812, Aubert and Wimmer, 1860; Dittmeyer, 1907", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00059", "bookId": 8438, "start": 47384, "end": 47429, "sha256": "fb5e8e8acdb78e01264b0a6944602c54b7ba063aae5045514a6791ec1d86f779", "text": "_Metaphysica_ Schwegler, 1848, W Christ, 1899", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00060", "bookId": 8438, "start": 47433, "end": 47456, "sha256": "4c2136c588d4e4a1addf4bde12bfe076e2adf3975ab8c112e2471d2b817eb15f", "text": "_Organon_ Waitz, 1844 6", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00061", "bookId": 8438, "start": 47460, "end": 47699, "sha256": "06130eb5e590d177ae73d842fddb233e513395919aa2ef0a44afbb5ed2929f67", "text": "_Poetica_ Vahlen, 1867, 1874, with Notes by E Moore, 1875, with English translation by E R Wharton, 1883, 1885, Uberweg, 1870, 1875, with German translation, Susemihl, 1874, Schmidt, 1875, Christ, 1878, I Bywater, 1898, T G Tucker, 1899", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00062", "bookId": 8438, "start": 47703, "end": 47965, "sha256": "367c4832470300cfe7b255d1d3a6d95a3b2a2ffa142821dea2b474d5ed31008c", "text": "_De Republica Athenientium_ Text and facsimile of Papyrus, F G Kenyon, 1891, 3rd edition, 1892, Kaibel and Wilamowitz-Moellendorf, 1891, 3rd edition, 1898, Van Herwerden and Leeuwen (from Kenyon’s text), 1891, Blass, 1892, 1895, 1898, 1903, J E Sandys, 1893", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00063", "bookId": 8438, "start": 47969, "end": 48081, "sha256": "3b551b37782df580e721e421024b73d8f94e4163f0ca7f670a9d68573f3d5ad8", "text": "_Politica_ Susemihl, 1872, with German, 1878, 3rd edition, 1882, Susemihl and Hicks, 1894, etc, O Immisch, 1909", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00064", "bookId": 8438, "start": 48085, "end": 48109, "sha256": "34816c562322d0d6e3412181dbd3634dc2cb977864588050c97128ec1cf2cd84", "text": "_Physica_ C Prantl, 1879", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00065", "bookId": 8438, "start": 48113, "end": 48214, "sha256": "28edeb7384a3ac74a20e8f70f0c7cd7d45dcc3224813cc9cc3bbf818f6687ea4", "text": "_Rhetorica_ Stahr, 1862, Sprengel (with Latin text), 1867, Cope and Sandys, 1877, Roemer, 1885, 1898", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00066", "bookId": 8438, "start": 48218, "end": 51036, "sha256": "09ce1231b9ddb634bdb5f059491a1dd13144c6986a524c1c59dc442ce2638613", "text": "ENGLISH TRANSLATIONS OF ONE OR MORE WORKS De Anima (with Parva Naturalia), by W A Hammond, 1902 Ethica Of Morals to Nicomachus, by E Pargiter, 1745, with Politica by J Gillies, 1797, 1804, 1813, with Rhetorica and Poetica, by T Taylor, 1818, and later editions Nicomachean Ethics, 1819, mainly from text of Bekker by D P Chase, 1847, revised 1861, and later editions, with an introductory essay by G H Lewes (Camelot Classics) 1890, re-edited by J M Mitchell (New Universal Library), 1906, 1910, by R W Browne (Bohn’s Classical Library), 1848, etc, by R Williams, 1869, 1876, by W M Hatch and others (with translation of paraphrase attributed to Andronicus of Rhodes), edited by E Hatch, 1879 by F H Peters, 1881, J E C Welldon, 1892, J Gillies (Lubbock’s Hundred Books) 1893 Historia Animalium, by R Creswell (Bonn’s Classical Library) 1848, with Treatise on Physiognomy, by T Taylor, 1809 Metaphysica, by T Taylor, 1801, by J H M Mahon (Bohn’s Classical Library), 1848 Organon, with Porphyry’s Introduction, by O F Owen (Bohn’s Classical Library), 1848 Posterior Analytics, E Poste, 1850, E S Bourchier, 1901, On Fallacies, E Poste, 1866 Parva Naturaha (Greek and English), by G R T Ross, 1906, with De Anima, by W A Hammond, 1902 Youth and Old Age, Life and Death and Respiration, W Ogle 1897 Poetica, with Notes from the French of D Acier, 1705, by H J Pye, 1788, 1792, T Twining, 1789, 1812, with Preface and Notes by H Hamilton, 1851, Treatise on Rhetorica and Poetica, by T Hobbes (Bohn’s Classical Library), 1850, by Wharton, 1883 (see Greek version), S H Butcher, 1895, 1898, 3rd edition, 1902, E S Bourchier, 1907, by Ingram Bywater, 1909 De Partibus Animalium, W Ogle, 1882 De Republica Athenientium, by E Poste, 1891, F G Kenyon, 1891, T J Dymes, 1891 De Virtutibus et Vitus, by W Bridgman, 1804 Politica, from the French of Regius, 1598, by W Ellis, 1776, 1778, 1888 (Morley’s Universal Library), 1893 (Lubbock’s Hundred Books) by E Walford (with Æconomics, and Life by Dr Gillies), (Bohn’s Classical Library), 1848, J E. C. Welldon, 1883, B Jowett, 1885, with Introduction and Index by H W C Davis, 1905, Books i iii iv (vii) from Bekker’s text by W E Bolland, with Introduction by A Lang, 1877. Problemata (with writings of other philosophers), 1597, 1607, 1680, 1684, etc. Rhetorica, A summary by T Hobbes, 1655 (?), new edition, 1759, by the translators of the Art of Thinking, 1686, 1816, by D M Crimmin, 1812, J Gillies, 1823, Anon 1847, J E C Welldon, 1886, R C Jebb, with Introduction and Supplementary Notes by J E Sandys, 1909 (see under Poetica and Ethica). Secreta Secretorum (supposititious work), Anon 1702, from the Hebrew version by M Gaster, 1907, 1908. Version by Lydgate and Burgh, edited by R Steele (E E T S), 1894, 1898.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00067", "bookId": 8438, "start": 51040, "end": 52044, "sha256": "f71ddfaa4b78d1e2fd4be2de79675ceb34e51d0d9b0d5dcd6373d0ccdd2f2998", "text": "LIFE, ETC J W Blakesley, 1839, A Crichton (Jardine’s Naturalist’s Library), 1843, JS Blackie, Four Phases of Morals, Socrates, Aristotle, etc, 1871, G Grote, Aristotle, edited by A Bain and G C Robertson, 1872, 1880, E Wallace, Outlines of the Philosophy of Aristotle, 1875, 1880, A Grant (Ancient Classics for English readers), 1877, T Davidson, Aristotle and Ancient Educational Ideals (Great Educators), 1892, F Sewall, Swedenborg and Aristotle, 1895, W A Heidel, The Necessary and the Contingent of the Aristotelian System (University of Chicago Contributions to Philosophy), 1896, F W Bain, On the Realisation of the Possible, and the Spirit of Aristotle, 1899, J H Hyslop, The Ethics of the Greek Philosophers, etc (Evolution of Ethics), 1903, M V Williams, Six Essays on the Platonic Theory of Knowledge as expounded in the later dialogues and reviewed by Aristotle, 1908, J M Watson, Aristotle’s Criticism of Plato, 1909 A E Taylor, Aristotle, 1919, W D Ross, Aristotle, 1923.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00068", "bookId": 8438, "start": 52054, "end": 52074, "sha256": "4aee80a04f5bcd2b9d3da1e2e403fd30c1d6c8fa921dbf86dad85ff0b2a3c9d6", "text": "ARISTOTLE’S ETHICS", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00069", "bookId": 8438, "start": 52084, "end": 52090, "sha256": "b93d3cfc64ab87ddc4d33cfb6d6d51038341f84c20a980eeacba257a7bd075ac", "text": "BOOK I", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00070", "bookId": 8438, "start": 52094, "end": 52104, "sha256": "5a35eafc731a2640e14da7e928f9e9a89afe4fe2a1f9a9a349887b8fb6d795cd", "text": "Chapter I.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00071", "bookId": 8438, "start": 52110, "end": 52373, "sha256": "9292eb12eb397b2d2e9df9c79eb6d99ba301313f7f2977f0bbd1f12a0c9b9a18", "text": "Every art, and every science reduced to a teachable form, and in like manner every action and moral choice, aims, it is thought, at some good: for which reason a common and by no means a bad description of the Chief Good is, “that which all things aim at.”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00072", "bookId": 8438, "start": 52377, "end": 52957, "sha256": "2e6ddd6dc1cbef6d47a5b65db3734bd8f10ccee22ad8b1032d792c62ff1ae99e", "text": "Now there plainly is a difference in the Ends proposed: for in some cases they are acts of working, and in others certain works or tangible results beyond and beside the acts of working: and where there are certain Ends beyond and beside the actions, the works are in their nature better than the acts of working. Again, since actions and arts and sciences are many, the Ends likewise come to be many: of the healing art, for instance, health; of the ship-building art, a vessel; of the military art, victory; and of domestic management, wealth; are respectively the Ends.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00073", "bookId": 8438, "start": 52961, "end": 53467, "sha256": "958f326f77c899e6414b10d2ccb2aed0c92e4b35d60e3bb31c0001e97807190b", "text": "And whatever of such actions, arts, or sciences range under some one faculty (as under that of horsemanship the art of making bridles, and all that are connected with the manufacture of horse-furniture in general; this itself again, and every action connected with war, under the military art; and in the same way others under others), in all such, the Ends of the master-arts are more choice-worthy than those ranging under them, because it is with a view to the former that the latter are pursued.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00074", "bookId": 8438, "start": 53471, "end": 53694, "sha256": "cc6954b34c636b6e8b1f7bec39335f01e95b1b0ce96c299f74e12d8dc2834bc0", "text": "(And in this comparison it makes no difference whether the acts of working are themselves the Ends of the actions, or something further beside them, as is the case in the arts and sciences we have been just speaking of.)", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00075", "bookId": 8438, "start": 53698, "end": 54087, "sha256": "5750ab65f5841b5b52681d8c8103da2c19644b34c27512c74c6d34fef6ce8a26", "text": "Since then of all things which may be done there is some one End which we desire for its own sake, and with a view to which we desire everything else; and since we do not choose in all instances with a further End in view (for then men would go on without limit, and so the desire would be unsatisfied and fruitless), this plainly must be the Chief Good, _i.e._ the best thing of all.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00076", "bookId": 8438, "start": 54091, "end": 54419, "sha256": "207034de09ad112229bdded9e5bc6aaf081c2987618c7431d09b91cbfa1858c6", "text": "Surely then, even with reference to actual life and conduct, the knowledge of it must have great weight; and like archers, with a mark in view, we shall be more likely to hit upon what is right: and if so, we ought to try to describe, in outline at least, what it is and of which of the sciences and faculties it is the End.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00077", "bookId": 8438, "start": 54423, "end": 55479, "sha256": "a4da8a6ab6528fdd863183af3fd34b9b1267255470cd4687de50d154b5dcaa04", "text": "Now one would naturally suppose it to be the End of that which is most commanding and most inclusive: and to this description, πολιτικὴ[1] plainly answers: for this it is that determines which of the sciences should be in the communities, and which kind individuals are to learn, and what degree of proficiency is to be required. Again; we see also ranging under this the most highly esteemed faculties, such as the art military, and that of domestic management, and Rhetoric. Well then, since this uses all the other practical sciences, and moreover lays down rules as to what men are to do, and from what to abstain, the End of this must include the Ends of the rest, and so must be The Good of Man. And grant that this is the same to the individual and to the community, yet surely that of the latter is plainly greater and more perfect to discover and preserve: for to do this even for a single individual were a matter for contentment; but to do it for a whole nation, and for communities generally, were more noble and godlike.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00078", "bookId": 8438, "start": 55483, "end": 56282, "sha256": "d75ecc6e603ea723c8cc804dcb7f722075a6672d02d99588180491def94fd16f", "text": "Such then are the objects proposed by our treatise, which is of the nature of πολιτικὴ: and I conceive I shall have spoken on them satisfactorily, if they be made as distinctly clear as the nature of the subject-matter will admit: for exactness must not be looked for in all discussions alike, any more than in all works of handicraft. Now the notions of nobleness and justice, with the examination of which πολιτικὴ is concerned, admit of variation and error to such a degree, that they are supposed by some to exist conventionally only, and not in the nature of things: but then, again, the things which are allowed to be goods admit of a similar error, because harm comes to many from them: for before now some have perished through wealth, and others through valour.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00079", "bookId": 8438, "start": 56286, "end": 56875, "sha256": "ab9bd5b4bd6b873a3447a5614971062b3326d7c77cca6d2502a3839cf7fad73c", "text": "We must be content then, in speaking of such things and from such data, to set forth the truth roughly and in outline; in other words, since we are speaking of general matter and from general data, to draw also conclusions merely general. And in the same spirit should each person receive what we say: for the man of education will seek exactness so far in each subject as the nature of the thing admits, it being plainly much the same absurdity to put up with a mathematician who tries to persuade instead of proving, and to demand strict demonstrative reasoning of a Rhetorician.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00080", "bookId": 8438, "start": 56879, "end": 57107, "sha256": "6855c94f74cb0fdd90ff3cad9b1c54e0c507931ea620fbad7369bf5aaf42c7ae", "text": "Now each man judges well what he knows, and of these things he is a good judge: on each particular matter then he is a good judge who has been instructed in _it_, and in a general way the man of general mental cultivation.[2]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00081", "bookId": 8438, "start": 57111, "end": 57479, "sha256": "fd7049447bbda134e01742d312a1aebe88aa2ad212f1255a78d746e4cb5a1850", "text": "Hence the young man is not a fit student of Moral Philosophy, for he has no experience in the actions of life, while all that is said presupposes and is concerned with these: and in the next place, since he is apt to follow the impulses of his passions, he will hear as though he heard not, and to no profit, the end in view being practice and not mere knowledge.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00082", "bookId": 8438, "start": 57483, "end": 57969, "sha256": "7efce9526936f7de301d64125fdb6cde1fbaac041a404ca7f2aeae530fe12d08", "text": "And I draw no distinction between young in years, and youthful in temper and disposition: the defect to which I allude being no direct result of the time, but of living at the beck and call of passion, and following each object as it rises.[3] For to them that are such the knowledge comes to be unprofitable, as to those of imperfect self-control: but, to those who form their desires and act in accordance with reason, to have knowledge on these points must be very profitable.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00083", "bookId": 8438, "start": 57973, "end": 58140, "sha256": "449c1fe212dcdc882dd3876facc4bb5211c1cf70cf4b1ab8919bcbd6f6128ef2", "text": "Let thus much suffice by way of preface on these three points, the student, the spirit in which our observations should be received, and the object which we propose.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00084", "bookId": 8438, "start": 58144, "end": 58155, "sha256": "9ce6d96fa540de49002e2340d430460f2ee679453301a35db1cf5cf6c0ed967f", "text": "Chapter II.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00085", "bookId": 8438, "start": 58159, "end": 58443, "sha256": "6a175f51e371b634211262c2545dad580abdc4631fa5927ed48a3097f5a9bc10", "text": "And now, resuming the statement with which we commenced, since all knowledge and moral choice grasps at good of some kind or another, what good is that which we say πολιτικὴ aims at? or, in other words, what is the highest of all the goods which are the objects of action?", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00086", "bookId": 8438, "start": 58447, "end": 59315, "sha256": "7b76338729f02e90c6a9a6eec74edbc6e9cb813a0f1d75a35796b431ae1c9215", "text": "So far as name goes, there is a pretty general agreement: for HAPPINESS both the multitude and the refined few call it, and “living well” and “doing well” they conceive to be the same with “being happy;” but about the Nature of this Happiness, men dispute, and the multitude do not in their account of it agree with the wise. For some say it is some one of those things which are palpable and apparent, as pleasure or wealth or honour; in fact, some one thing, some another; nay, oftentimes the same man gives a different account of it; for when ill, he calls it health; when poor, wealth: and conscious of their own ignorance, men admire those who talk grandly and above their comprehension. Some again held it to be something by itself, other than and beside these many good things, which is in fact to all these the cause of their being good.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00087", "bookId": 8438, "start": 59319, "end": 59503, "sha256": "20775f43133ccf460f5a99a3a4f92bbab7adddcb756c92c1e16918a51bdecb7a", "text": "Now to sift all the opinions would be perhaps rather a fruitless task; so it shall suffice to sift those which are most generally current, or are thought to have some reason in them.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00088", "bookId": 8438, "start": 59507, "end": 59821, "sha256": "3ca6e321f24074dc305c97ac89a7c42c0e5cfc8f9af66628bbd1cc5818402d4d", "text": "And here we must not forget the difference between reasoning from principles, and reasoning to principles: for with good cause did Plato too doubt about this, and enquire whether the right road is from principles or to principles, just as in the racecourse from the judges to the further end, or _vice versâ_.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00089", "bookId": 8438, "start": 59825, "end": 60544, "sha256": "e289c5bfb322e4bb30d456a83044ad368d5d360d6e8f377f5be6ce44c0003824", "text": "Of course, we must begin with what is known; but then this is of two kinds, what we _do_ know, and what we _may_ know:[5] perhaps then as individuals we must begin with what we _do_ know. Hence the necessity that he should have been well trained in habits, who is to study, with any tolerable chance of profit, the principles of nobleness and justice and moral philosophy generally. For a principle is a matter of fact, and if the fact is sufficiently clear to a man there will be no need in addition of the reason for the fact. And he that has been thus trained either has principles already, or can receive them easily: as for him who neither has nor can receive them, let him hear his sentence from Hesiod:", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00090", "bookId": 8438, "start": 60548, "end": 60768, "sha256": "03a921a1797f812358edaf3708e32bff49dced88e0cac95c640742eeabe27e4a", "text": "He is best of all who of himself conceiveth all things; Good again is he too who can adopt a good suggestion; But whoso neither of himself conceiveth nor hearing from another Layeth it to heart;—he is a useless man.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00091", "bookId": 8438, "start": 60772, "end": 60784, "sha256": "c8c3757d774efbadade98d84b627377e281082435aed3cf63f66253a8af48e64", "text": "Chapter III.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00092", "bookId": 8438, "start": 60788, "end": 60823, "sha256": "89cc254fcb88e6e37dc32e316096cf139bda04e2a9147678a5e5c4d29e8bd917", "text": "But to return from this digression.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00093", "bookId": 8438, "start": 60827, "end": 61241, "sha256": "0fbd036926d868eb22d9bf7efe0bfd7aa547b644a4984c461201517fde6750ef", "text": "Now of the Chief Good (_i.e._ of Happiness) men seem to form their notions from the different modes of life, as we might naturally expect: the many and most low conceive it to be pleasure, and hence they are content with the life of sensual enjoyment. For there are three lines of life which stand out prominently to view: that just mentioned, and the life in society, and, thirdly, the life of contemplation.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00094", "bookId": 8438, "start": 61245, "end": 61814, "sha256": "b829aae38ed77b778b2f0c839af29d87ae8769b905f9d53e1d6701b4e17eb343", "text": "Now the many are plainly quite slavish, choosing a life like that of brute animals: yet they obtain some consideration, because many of the great share the tastes of Sardanapalus. The refined and active again conceive it to be honour: for this may be said to be the end of the life in society: yet it is plainly too superficial for the object of our search, because it is thought to rest with those who pay rather than with him who receives it, whereas the Chief Good we feel instinctively must be something which is our own, and not easily to be taken from us.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00095", "bookId": 8438, "start": 61818, "end": 62523, "sha256": "e74908805674eefc77a0a8da3bb7b8f0974b8d2b67946b91a0a09c458e8add32", "text": "And besides, men seem to pursue honour, that they may believe themselves to be good:[6] for instance, they seek to be honoured by the wise, and by those among whom they are known, and for virtue: clearly then, in the opinion at least of these men, virtue is higher than honour. In truth, one would be much more inclined to think this to be the end of the life in society; yet this itself is plainly not sufficiently final: for it is conceived possible, that a man possessed of virtue might sleep or be inactive all through his life, or, as a third case, suffer the greatest evils and misfortunes: and the man who should live thus no one would call happy, except for mere disputation’s sake.[7]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00096", "bookId": 8438, "start": 62527, "end": 62634, "sha256": "5ddb7e6a695dcc8129c0f76b87119a031ff3e433df6ad2dcbb5c25ecabeb5683", "text": "And for these let thus much suffice, for they have been treated of at sufficient length in my Encyclia.[8]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00097", "bookId": 8438, "start": 62638, "end": 62759, "sha256": "d42edbe3e7bb1b919c224114b75eaabf51a7024136ffcf9277675c0154cda8c3", "text": "A third line of life is that of contemplation, concerning which we shall make our examination in the following pages.[9]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00098", "bookId": 8438, "start": 62763, "end": 63213, "sha256": "b49e284037a5bad94bc3e16ca683d9f7d1587dfbb1cb29dc27290094cafb740e", "text": "As for the life of money-making, it is one of constraint, and wealth manifestly is not the good we are seeking, because it is for use, that is, for the sake of something further: and hence one would rather conceive the forementioned ends to be the right ones, for men rest content with them for their own sakes. Yet, clearly, they are not the objects of our search either, though many words have been wasted on them.[10] So much then for these.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00099", "bookId": 8438, "start": 63217, "end": 64266, "sha256": "e6b61a29056f4fe7038d8c3d8b60c7a4639cf4e1315c406ccbde61802742d246", "text": "Again, the notion of one Universal Good (the same, that is, in all things), it is better perhaps we should examine, and discuss the meaning of it, though such an enquiry is unpleasant, because they are friends of ours who have introduced these εἴδη.[11] Still perhaps it may appear better, nay to be our duty where the safety of the truth is concerned, to upset if need be even our own theories, specially as we are lovers of wisdom: for since both are dear to us, we are bound to prefer the truth. Now they who invented this doctrine of εἴδη, did not apply it to those things in which they spoke of priority and posteriority, and so they never made any ἰδέα of numbers; but good is predicated in the categories of Substance, Quality, and Relation; now that which exists of itself, i.e. Substance, is prior in the nature of things to that which is relative, because this latter is an off-shoot, as it were, and result of that which is; on their own principle then there cannot be a common ἰδέα in the case of these.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00100", "bookId": 8438, "start": 64270, "end": 64810, "sha256": "e647fee66ccffcedb208a19e6077583f85c7fa71a67b3040e6059f62b6888755", "text": "In the next place, since good is predicated in as many ways as there are modes of existence [for it is predicated in the category of Substance, as God, Intellect—and in that of Quality, as The Virtues—and in that of Quantity, as The Mean—and in that of Relation, as The Useful—and in that of Time, as Opportunity—and in that of Place, as Abode; and other such like things], it manifestly cannot be something common and universal and one in all: else it would not have been predicated in all the categories, but in one only.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00101", "bookId": 8438, "start": 64814, "end": 66025, "sha256": "761683ec476b6fb40b538a8f6bc6810a9d3d6c2da81d7431a0602c3e7d863aaa", "text": "Thirdly, since those things which range under one ἰδέα are also under the cognisance of one science, there would have been, on their theory, only one science taking cognisance of all goods collectively: but in fact there are many even for those which range under one category: for instance, of Opportunity or Seasonableness (which I have before mentioned as being in the category of Time), the science is, in war, generalship; in disease, medical science; and of the Mean (which I quoted before as being in the category of Quantity), in food, the medical science; and in labour or exercise, the gymnastic science. A person might fairly doubt also what in the world they mean by very-this that or the other, since, as they would themselves allow, the account of the humanity is one and the same in the very-Man, and in any individual Man: for so far as the individual and the very-Man are both Man, they will not differ at all: and if so, then very-good and any particular good will not differ, in so far as both are good. Nor will it do to say, that the eternity of the very-good makes it to be more good; for what has lasted white ever so long, is no whiter than what lasts but for a day.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00102", "bookId": 8438, "start": 66029, "end": 66255, "sha256": "a92378b7a4a89ebb634e4e7c1b30f2edd5f1d2fc9edd29f1b6d36180569b6d72", "text": "No. The Pythagoreans do seem to give a more credible account of the matter, who place “One” among the goods in their double list of goods and bads:[12] which philosophers, in fact, Speusippus[13] seems to have followed.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00103", "bookId": 8438, "start": 66259, "end": 66940, "sha256": "fbff5773c632398a464053971269d9a6b07989ab5b8471ad34a71e036b7f71a0", "text": "But of these matters let us speak at some other time. Now there is plainly a loophole to object to what has been advanced, on the plea that the theory I have attacked is not by its advocates applied to all good: but those goods only are spoken of as being under one ἰδέα, which are pursued, and with which men rest content simply for their own sakes: whereas those things which have a tendency to produce or preserve them in any way, or to hinder their contraries, are called good because of these other goods, and after another fashion. It is manifest then that the goods may be so called in two senses, the one class for their own sakes, the other because of these.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00104", "bookId": 8438, "start": 66944, "end": 67557, "sha256": "9613e6f262c47ed36dd336c5550473ac5f0a5583fa587b0767156dfb026cbf7f", "text": "Very well then, let us separate the independent goods from the instrumental, and see whether they are spoken of as under one ἰδέα. But the question next arises, what kind of goods are we to call independent? All such as are pursued even when separated from other goods, as, for instance, being wise, seeing, and certain pleasures and honours (for these, though we do pursue them with some further end in view, one would still place among the independent goods)? or does it come in fact to this, that we can call nothing independent good except the ἰδέα, and so the concrete of it will be nought?", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00105", "bookId": 8438, "start": 67561, "end": 67958, "sha256": "65e4f9c107108f24b032f8c896a324fd17b41ce75dbf49ea54df9e415969e437", "text": "If, on the other hand, these are independent goods, then we shall require that the account of the goodness be the same clearly in all, just as that of the whiteness is in snow and white lead. But how stands the fact? Why of honour and wisdom and pleasure the accounts are distinct and different in so far as they are good. The Chief Good then is not something common, and after one ἰδέα.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00106", "bookId": 8438, "start": 67962, "end": 68738, "sha256": "64a8eae908af6424194a3f0f54b12b5413bf600240a6627aeea00828ac1a68d7", "text": "But then, how does the name come to be common (for it is not seemingly a case of fortuitous equivocation)? Are different individual things called good by virtue of being from one source, or all conducing to one end, or rather by way of analogy, for that intellect is to the soul as sight to the body, and so on? However, perhaps we ought to leave these questions now, for an accurate investigation of them is more properly the business of a different philosophy. And likewise respecting the ἰδέα: for even if there is some one good predicated in common of all things that are good, or separable and capable of existing independently, manifestly it cannot be the object of human action or attainable by Man; but we are in search now of something that is so.[14]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00107", "bookId": 8438, "start": 68742, "end": 69062, "sha256": "c853aed4ee497daf1e44e0f7f2bbf26d01880bb245bc8b22d8ce93767401b02d", "text": "It may readily occur to any one, that it would be better to attain a knowledge of it with a view to such concrete goods as are attainable and practical, because, with this as a kind of model in our hands, we shall the better know what things are good for us individually, and when we know them, we shall attain them.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00108", "bookId": 8438, "start": 69066, "end": 69948, "sha256": "8748e7573b92efeff27af42dfa158d6ccb7212e2f5425e1830c2ad09bd1759b7", "text": "Some plausibility, it is true, this argument possesses, but it is contradicted by the facts of the Arts and Sciences; for all these, though aiming at some good, and seeking that which is deficient, yet pretermit the knowledge of it: now it is not exactly probable that all artisans without exception should be ignorant of so great a help as this would be, and not even look after it; neither is it easy to see wherein a weaver or a carpenter will be profited in respect of his craft by knowing the very-good, or how a man will be the more apt to effect cures or to command an army for having seen the ἰδέα itself. For manifestly it is not health after this general and abstract fashion which is the subject of the physician’s investigation, but the health of Man, or rather perhaps of this or that man; for he has to heal individuals.—Thus much on these points.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00109", "bookId": 8438, "start": 69952, "end": 69963, "sha256": "3186d98bcee8266853ace5b1a5e20557973e585ee48419d596c2b2610a3f68b2", "text": "Chapter IV.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00110", "bookId": 8438, "start": 69967, "end": 70728, "sha256": "6a0dc277063e80c9294e3b4fff9dbd8cae874d65eb4b446255b112b57aa28838", "text": "And now let us revert to the Good of which we are in search: what can it be? for manifestly it is different in different actions and arts: for it is different in the healing art and in the art military, and similarly in the rest. What then is the Chief Good in each? Is it not “that for the sake of which the other things are done?” and this in the healing art is health, and in the art military victory, and in that of house-building a house, and in any other thing something else; in short, in every action and moral choice the End, because in all cases men do everything else with a view to this. So that if there is some one End of all things which are and may be done, this must be the Good proposed by doing, or if more than one, then these.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00111", "bookId": 8438, "start": 70732, "end": 70876, "sha256": "acbf0e2b27f210f8a6f165e2465804167ef9ac629c641fac085315244cd8f8c9", "text": "Thus our discussion after some traversing about has come to the same point which we reached before. And this we must try yet more to clear up.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00112", "bookId": 8438, "start": 70880, "end": 71281, "sha256": "5b3be8d709354f9f0ebeb403e6eea5484e6299c295a39e431058e9574d2addd8", "text": "Now since the ends are plainly many, and of these we choose some with a view to others (wealth, for instance, musical instruments, and, in general, all instruments), it is clear that all are not final: but the Chief Good is manifestly something final; and so, if there is some one only which is final, this must be the object of our search: but if several, then the most final of them will be it.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00113", "bookId": 8438, "start": 71285, "end": 71712, "sha256": "20d66553968549b44e81b76a1874ae3d7b7eaadd2cbc057ef35d468b01aafd1c", "text": "Now that which is an object of pursuit in itself we call more final than that which is so with a view to something else; that again which is never an object of choice with a view to something else than those which are so both in themselves and with a view to this ulterior object: and so by the term “absolutely final,” we denote that which is an object of choice always in itself, and never with a view to any other.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00114", "bookId": 8438, "start": 71716, "end": 72261, "sha256": "6601aed342f8e37f1a720d1911e17f8813be3496cfdd65c609ff09968a392a1a", "text": "And of this nature Happiness is mostly thought to be, for this we choose always for its own sake, and never with a view to anything further: whereas honour, pleasure, intellect, in fact every excellence we choose for their own sakes, it is true (because we would choose each of these even if no result were to follow), but we choose them also with a view to happiness, conceiving that through their instrumentality we shall be happy: but no man chooses happiness with a view to them, nor in fact with a view to any other thing whatsoever.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00115", "bookId": 8438, "start": 72265, "end": 73397, "sha256": "14a26beaa45e56cfb99548ccd412c4de7f9c9d0077f539afd7f4abe5302c3c9a", "text": "The same result[15] is seen to follow also from the notion of self-sufficiency, a quality thought to belong to the final good. Now by sufficient for Self, we mean not for a single individual living a solitary life, but for his parents also and children and wife, and, in general, friends and countrymen; for man is by nature adapted to a social existence. But of these, of course, some limit must be fixed: for if one extends it to parents and descendants and friends’ friends, there is no end to it. This point, however, must be left for future investigation: for the present we define that to be self-sufficient “which taken alone makes life choice-worthy, and to be in want of nothing;” now of such kind we think Happiness to be: and further, to be most choice-worthy of all things; not being reckoned with any other thing,[16] for if it were so reckoned, it is plain we must then allow it, with the addition of ever so small a good, to be more choice-worthy than it was before:[17] because what is put to it becomes an addition of so much more good, and of goods the greater is ever the more choice-worthy.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00116", "bookId": 8438, "start": 73401, "end": 73525, "sha256": "6567551afb4186392c06acdac291da505e15c01c4ea29b0ac08952a65ca258a3", "text": "So then Happiness is manifestly something final and self-sufficient, being the end of all things which are and may be done.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00117", "bookId": 8438, "start": 73529, "end": 73539, "sha256": "89204e68d094a6a77f968119f40fec5f77d7676bf38cb1b47cd0ab87d3d2fea2", "text": "Chapter V.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00118", "bookId": 8438, "start": 73543, "end": 74040, "sha256": "045fb4d622bed6eb79023a05eed2d6edb1e539e99313dbbeab6d78b72ec85d63", "text": "But, it may be, to call Happiness the Chief Good is a mere truism, and what is wanted is some clearer account of its real nature. Now this object may be easily attained, when we have discovered what is the work of man; for as in the case of flute-player, statuary, or artisan of any kind, or, more generally, all who have any work or course of action, their Chief Good and Excellence is thought to reside in their work, so it would seem to be with man, if there is any work belonging to him.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00119", "bookId": 8438, "start": 74044, "end": 74414, "sha256": "985c2f18b7c46eb24890386604f063dbf87f11eccc37cfb2f988f3e7e0e7108b", "text": "Are we then to suppose, that while carpenter and cobbler have certain works and courses of action, Man as Man has none, but is left by Nature without a work? or would not one rather hold, that as eye, hand, and foot, and generally each of his members, has manifestly some special work; so too the whole Man, as distinct from all these, has some work of his own?[18]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00120", "bookId": 8438, "start": 74418, "end": 76097, "sha256": "788f5455262d842b9429edbc5e8072979094162e300e3c267ab2625585918ab1", "text": "What then can this be? not mere life, because that plainly is shared with him even by vegetables, and we want what is peculiar to him. We must separate off then the life of mere nourishment and growth, and next will come the life of sensation: but this again manifestly is common to horses, oxen, and every animal. There remains then a kind of life of the Rational Nature apt to act: and of this Nature there are two parts denominated Rational, the one as being obedient to Reason, the other as having and exerting it. Again, as this life is also spoken of in two ways,[19] we must take that which is in the way of actual working, because this is thought to be most properly entitled to the name. If then the work of Man is a working of the soul in accordance with reason, or at least not independently of reason, and we say that the work of any given subject, and of that subject good of its kind, are the same in kind (as, for instance, of a harp-player and a good harp-player, and so on in every case, adding to the work eminence in the way of excellence; I mean, the work of a harp-player is to play the harp, and of a good harp-player to play it well); if, I say, this is so, and we assume the work of Man to be life of a certain kind, that is to say a working of the soul, and actions with reason, and of a good man to do these things well and nobly, and in fact everything is finished off well in the way of the excellence which peculiarly belongs to it: if all this is so, then the Good of Man comes to be “a working of the Soul in the way of Excellence,” or, if Excellence admits of degrees, in the way of the best and most perfect Excellence.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00121", "bookId": 8438, "start": 76101, "end": 76291, "sha256": "4379f01040ebe9f55bd2157bd30895694e1c63ce655ccf2b4f779c2c2d7d5f22", "text": "And we must add, ἐν βίῳ τελείῳ;[20] for as it is not one swallow or one fine day that makes a spring, so it is not one day or a short time that makes a man blessed and happy.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00122", "bookId": 8438, "start": 76295, "end": 76725, "sha256": "93048302b80232cfa0ef01f11ba63b7fccbf32a092bfed1b985869627bf48a5a", "text": "Let this then be taken for a rough sketch of the Chief Good: since it is probably the right way to give first the outline, and fill it in afterwards. And it would seem that any man may improve and connect what is good in the sketch, and that time is a good discoverer and co-operator in such matters: it is thus in fact that all improvements in the various arts have been brought about, for any man may fill up a deficiency.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00123", "bookId": 8438, "start": 76729, "end": 77162, "sha256": "96c663e3db6871a0b41da4eea5d485edae29f57abebd143faf7f3b3cbab74eab", "text": "You must remember also what has been already stated, and not seek for exactness in all matters alike, but in each according to the subject-matter, and so far as properly belongs to the system. The carpenter and geometrician, for instance, enquire into the right line in different fashion: the former so far as he wants it for his work, the latter enquires into its nature and properties, because he is concerned with the truth.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00124", "bookId": 8438, "start": 77166, "end": 77266, "sha256": "717dd770f90aabe38f8bcb66995d64667e1dcef45d95dc7ac31f2bfc67bd877c", "text": "So then should one do in other matters, that the incidental matters may not exceed the direct ones.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00125", "bookId": 8438, "start": 77270, "end": 77530, "sha256": "e5577d134f71fc68e7adb1e6b12dd9a30e69e66d43a17509c318d746ad3b8d5b", "text": "And again, you must not demand the reason either in all things alike,[21] because in some it is sufficient that the fact has been well demonstrated, which is the case with first principles; and the fact is the first step, _i.e._ starting-point or principle.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00126", "bookId": 8438, "start": 77534, "end": 78021, "sha256": "7506f2fc32c7a132db956e7e42744e31c87c5d78ee5e54af1daf00e7138ee874", "text": "And of these first principles some are obtained by induction, some by perception,[22] some by a course of habituation, others in other different ways. And we must try to trace up each in their own nature, and take pains to secure their being well defined, because they have great influence on what follows: it is thought, I mean, that the starting-point or principle is more than half the whole matter, and that many of the points of enquiry come simultaneously into view thereby.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00127", "bookId": 8438, "start": 78025, "end": 78036, "sha256": "bb240dadd686b141825e647280d2d4b72d5f6bbd0f26d00f1faf792e029c0892", "text": "Chapter VI.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00128", "bookId": 8438, "start": 78040, "end": 78334, "sha256": "4dd0cbd23abe44689de8e768947e1511d613725dd05d7c529436e3423897f182", "text": "We must now enquire concerning Happiness, not only from our conclusion and the data on which our reasoning proceeds, but likewise from what is commonly said about it: because with what is true all things which really are are in harmony, but with that which is false the true very soon jars.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00129", "bookId": 8438, "start": 78338, "end": 79185, "sha256": "e2a4dc9350b172745ecc6d65ee617b0029bec331893a06568a10ad982904d820", "text": "Now there is a common division of goods into three classes; one being called external, the other two those of the soul and body respectively, and those belonging to the soul we call most properly and specially good. Well, in our definition we assume that the actions and workings of the soul constitute Happiness, and these of course belong to the soul. And so our account is a good one, at least according to this opinion, which is of ancient date, and accepted by those who profess philosophy. Rightly too are certain actions and workings said to be the end, for thus it is brought into the number of the goods of the soul instead of the external. Agreeing also with our definition is the common notion, that the happy man lives well and does well, for it has been stated by us to be pretty much a kind of living well and doing well.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00130", "bookId": 8438, "start": 79189, "end": 79282, "sha256": "228cdb3624e6f25d05ecf3c1e9a9aa3723554bb7ea6ba57de358ed7cdfc28d89", "text": "And further, the points required in Happiness are found in combination in our account of it.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00131", "bookId": 8438, "start": 79286, "end": 79548, "sha256": "a148daeb9be8e376bec38be04eae06f5f6f481a84596ab1a920a9a51188b9739", "text": "For some think it is virtue, others practical wisdom, others a kind of scientific philosophy; others that it is these, or else some one of them, in combination with pleasure, or at least not independently of it; while others again take in external prosperity.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00132", "bookId": 8438, "start": 79552, "end": 79804, "sha256": "ea6513db8fa8630830ecfc12552dfaac5b50a0970ee2814cb2bbaaf1b97bb019", "text": "Of these opinions, some rest on the authority of numbers or antiquity, others on that of few, and those men of note: and it is not likely that either of these classes should be wrong in all points, but be right at least in some one, or even in most.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00133", "bookId": 8438, "start": 79808, "end": 79976, "sha256": "c9d5406df3ca34af88ad69113ba398e9a41df7da249ee665b2648b5826e8c2db", "text": "Now with those who assert it to be Virtue (Excellence), or some kind of Virtue, our account agrees: for working in the way of Excellence surely belongs to Excellence.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00134", "bookId": 8438, "start": 79980, "end": 80638, "sha256": "d789db8a5c769aa6727a862a755b8a6cf85531e910df8891480e0d5bc60a9972", "text": "And there is perhaps no unimportant difference between conceiving of the Chief Good as in possession or as in use, in other words, as a mere state or as a working. For the state or habit[23] may possibly exist in a subject without effecting any good, as, for instance, in him who is asleep, or in any other way inactive; but the working cannot so, for it will of necessity act, and act well. And as at the Olympic games it is not the finest and strongest men who are crowned, but they who enter the lists, for out of these the prize-men are selected; so too in life, of the honourable and the good, it is they who act who rightly win the prizes.[24]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00135", "bookId": 8438, "start": 80642, "end": 81401, "sha256": "d1d4c298dce2d6f6aa323c59eac186d27ccc05caef5211e9faeb492cf35defc1", "text": "Their life too is in itself pleasant: for the feeling of pleasure is a mental sensation, and that is to each pleasant of which he is said to be fond: a horse, for instance, to him who is fond of horses, and a sight to him who is fond of sights: and so in like manner just acts to him who is fond of justice, and more generally the things in accordance with virtue to him who is fond of virtue. Now in the case of the multitude of men the things which they individually esteem pleasant clash, because they are not such by nature, whereas to the lovers of nobleness those things are pleasant which are such by nature: but the actions in accordance with virtue are of this kind, so that they are pleasant both to the individuals and also in themselves.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00136", "bookId": 8438, "start": 81405, "end": 82116, "sha256": "a2279d036b0b708a7e12832bd5ba32f0a65e6af0e6b2c47e4e3795132aed47fc", "text": "So then their life has no need of pleasure as a kind of additional appendage, but involves pleasure in itself. For, besides what I have just mentioned, a man is not a good man at all who feels no pleasure in noble actions,[25] just as no one would call that man just who does not feel pleasure in acting justly, or liberal who does not in liberal actions, and similarly in the case of the other virtues which might be enumerated: and if this be so, then the actions in accordance with virtue must be in themselves pleasurable. Then again they are certainly good and noble, and each of these in the highest degree; if we are to take as right the judgment of the good man, for he judges as we have said.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00137", "bookId": 8438, "start": 82120, "end": 82273, "sha256": "a821180bdeed34714af52b7162bfff41d74837b2b6fbd0f355491b1db64a57e7", "text": "Thus then Happiness is most excellent, most noble, and most pleasant, and these attributes are not separated as in the well-known Delian inscription—", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00138", "bookId": 8438, "start": 82277, "end": 82404, "sha256": "f1969aed3579db7db384c1f7bc822c53fd3c44da09e039c463b63c37830bb5ff", "text": "“Most noble is that which is most just, but best is health; And naturally most pleasant is the obtaining one’s desires.”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00139", "bookId": 8438, "start": 82410, "end": 82533, "sha256": "fe945ff4ff7c2c5c08a9abcede99c933ef9ad6a26355d8de7875aa2b2b06199b", "text": "For all these co-exist in the best acts of working: and we say that Happiness is these, or one, that is, the best of them.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00140", "bookId": 8438, "start": 82537, "end": 83378, "sha256": "2fd75c3be97efd0b3c0453a71e3bc2f2ee664952a3c4ad032bfcac2e33f8052b", "text": "Still[26] it is quite plain that it does require the addition of external goods, as we have said: because without appliances it is impossible, or at all events not easy, to do noble actions: for friends, money, and political influence are in a manner instruments whereby many things are done: some things there are again a deficiency in which mars blessedness; good birth, for instance, or fine offspring, or even personal beauty: for he is not at all capable of Happiness who is very ugly, or is ill-born, or solitary and childless; and still less perhaps supposing him to have very bad children or friends, or to have lost good ones by death. As we have said already, the addition of prosperity of this kind does seem necessary to complete the idea of Happiness; hence some rank good fortune, and others virtue, with Happiness.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00141", "bookId": 8438, "start": 83382, "end": 83394, "sha256": "e3a88405865f388fd2bbf6c4cfc5874d7991e8951df2fcbc0435b1fbb2f839f3", "text": "Chapter VII.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00142", "bookId": 8438, "start": 83398, "end": 83625, "sha256": "a316c6a9b5280b6ffc8f7871a7287ac0fdd2d2331d2b6d67200bab46944f957c", "text": "And hence too a question is raised, whether it is a thing that can be learned, or acquired by habituation or discipline of some other kind, or whether it comes in the way of divine dispensation, or even in the way of chance.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00143", "bookId": 8438, "start": 83629, "end": 84234, "sha256": "e1314184e6af2e31256f9c799bd663f0ab4d68dacf121b7b5375f7a85d401bb8", "text": "Now to be sure, if anything else is a gift of the Gods to men, it is probable that Happiness is a gift of theirs too, and specially because of all human goods it is the highest. But this, it may be, is a question belonging more properly to an investigation different from ours:[27] and it is quite clear, that on the supposition of its not being sent from the Gods direct, but coming to us by reason of virtue and learning of a certain kind, or discipline, it is yet one of the most Godlike things; because the prize and End of virtue is manifestly somewhat most excellent, nay divine and blessed.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00144", "bookId": 8438, "start": 84238, "end": 84410, "sha256": "9d0690ff01f249e3a72551f0077e20602e0425c46519764bb11300444ff278b2", "text": "It will also on this supposition be widely participated, for it may through learning and diligence of a certain kind exist in all who have not been maimed[28] for virtue.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00145", "bookId": 8438, "start": 84414, "end": 84827, "sha256": "a8421a6c19c54c0c020cde50119d0ef095c4876abb23e5c6f027c0cdb05e9a53", "text": "And if it is better we should be happy thus than as a result of chance, this is in itself an argument that the case is so; because those things which are in the way of nature, and in like manner of art, and of every cause, and specially the best cause, are by nature in the best way possible: to leave them to chance what is greatest and most noble would be very much out of harmony with all these facts.[29]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00146", "bookId": 8438, "start": 84831, "end": 85145, "sha256": "48cdaa08a250a74279cb2a69101b6c1df7db20408b83c6e64b08b1e36c38f545", "text": "The question may be determined also by a reference to our definition of Happiness, that it is a working of the soul in the way of excellence or virtue of a certain kind: and of the other goods, some we must have to begin with, and those which are co-operative and useful are given by nature as instruments.[30]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00147", "bookId": 8438, "start": 85149, "end": 85434, "sha256": "dc613ed0ec7c257277ddc0aee1a0b6fb4164ffffd2970f2760df45f3c720df62", "text": "These considerations will harmonise also with what we said at the commencement: for we assumed the End of πολιτικὴ to be most excellent: now this bestows most care on making the members of the community of a certain character; good that is and apt to do what is honourable.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00148", "bookId": 8438, "start": 85438, "end": 85755, "sha256": "2b10a39dfa144ad7b9d47a4ea47d007a11b08bb266c564fedccbf9009652cb65", "text": "With good reason then neither ox nor horse nor any other brute animal do we call happy, for none of them can partake in such working: and for this same reason a child is not happy either, because by reason of his tender age he cannot yet perform such actions: if the term is applied, it is by way of anticipation.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00149", "bookId": 8438, "start": 85759, "end": 86152, "sha256": "39e2996ecabca5326d88f6f6e474d07588602870025f90c2f9b0b7970d7bc332", "text": "For to constitute Happiness, there must be, as we have said, complete virtue and a complete life: for many changes and chances of all kinds arise during a life, and he who is most prosperous may become involved in great misfortunes in his old age, as in the heroic poems the tale is told of Priam: but the man who has experienced such fortune and died in wretchedness, no man calls happy.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00150", "bookId": 8438, "start": 86156, "end": 86169, "sha256": "d004d8c3a629800899066ec30aebdc9b11ed7932971144d5b44dd4b9f1c6f736", "text": "Chapter VIII.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00151", "bookId": 8438, "start": 86173, "end": 86459, "sha256": "db9022a01bbcbb03a89a23748232b9ffb7a08ba73878144813e7c2fe51495c45", "text": "Are we then to call no man happy while he lives, and, as Solon would have us, look to the end? And again, if we are to maintain this position, is a man then happy when he is dead? or is not this a complete absurdity, specially in us who say Happiness is a working of a certain kind?", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00152", "bookId": 8438, "start": 86463, "end": 86973, "sha256": "6e579b12b58895c5cc3620483b3cebe38fc9fce248b32f4cbd4e6b2d87f1d526", "text": "If on the other hand we do not assert that the dead man is happy, and Solon does not mean this, but only that one would then be safe in pronouncing a man happy, as being thenceforward out of the reach of evils and misfortunes, this too admits of some dispute, since it is thought that the dead has somewhat both of good and evil (if, as we must allow, a man may have when alive but not aware of the circumstances), as honour and dishonour, and good and bad fortune of children and descendants generally.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00153", "bookId": 8438, "start": 86977, "end": 87689, "sha256": "54a0281fabd912824a1b7aba108a21012c27dedd027d7da85b592db9fe667dd2", "text": "Nor is this view again without its difficulties: for, after a man has lived in blessedness to old age and died accordingly, many changes may befall him in right of his descendants; some of them may be good and obtain positions in life accordant to their merits, others again quite the contrary: it is plain too that the descendants may at different intervals or grades stand in all manner of relations to the ancestors.[31] Absurd indeed would be the position that even the dead man is to change about with them and become at one time happy and at another miserable. Absurd however it is on the other hand that the affairs of the descendants should in no degree and during no time affect the ancestors.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00154", "bookId": 8438, "start": 87693, "end": 87807, "sha256": "99686702ea2efa4b3fcc35239ecc96c3266ae5b19ba7cbbbba82ee7586b81c9a", "text": "But we must revert to the point first raised,[32] since the present question will be easily determined from that.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00155", "bookId": 8438, "start": 87811, "end": 88508, "sha256": "2c6debf36b36d73bde0bdaceed159b1f7e87df40424910ee430d51f60b52cbf8", "text": "If then we are to look to the end and then pronounce the man blessed, not as being so but as having been so at some previous time, surely it is absurd that when he _is_ happy the truth is not to be asserted of him, because we are unwilling to pronounce the living happy by reason of their liability to changes, and because, whereas we have conceived of happiness as something stable and no way easily changeable, the fact is that good and bad fortune are constantly circling about the same people: for it is quite plain, that if we are to depend upon the fortunes of men, we shall often have to call the same man happy, and a little while after miserable, thus representing our happy man,", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00156", "bookId": 8438, "start": 88512, "end": 88558, "sha256": "e7a1bf93945674b54b519116c4568557d45f3531488e4ebf2218f4d2039c34b4", "text": "“Chameleon-like, and based on rottenness.”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00157", "bookId": 8438, "start": 88564, "end": 88895, "sha256": "d1a3096e907770b5e5ce6f7444ad410416108d46e4b19f71a254af9a9759b410", "text": "Is not this the solution? that to make our sentence dependent on the changes of fortune, is no way right: for not in them stands the well, or the ill, but though human life needs these as accessories (which we have allowed already), the workings in the way of virtue are what determine Happiness, and the contrary the contrary.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00158", "bookId": 8438, "start": 88899, "end": 89801, "sha256": "aea6fb8e25889135170e3ea6acd4ca385bec6df1301473cc7762e0ca8630cdc6", "text": "And, by the way, the question which has been here discussed, testifies incidentally to the truth of our account of Happiness.[33] For to nothing does a stability of human results attach so much as it does to the workings in the way of virtue, since these are held to be more abiding even than the sciences: and of these last again[34] the most precious are the most abiding, because the blessed live in them most and most continuously, which seems to be the reason why they are not forgotten. So then this stability which is sought will be in the happy man, and he will be such through life, since always, or most of all, he will be doing and contemplating the things which are in the way of virtue: and the various chances of life he will bear most nobly, and at all times and in all ways harmoniously, since he is the truly good man, or in the terms of our proverb “a faultless cube.”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00159", "bookId": 8438, "start": 89805, "end": 90480, "sha256": "6427d8f6f9940317dc608ae34ff766720341130b4481dc3eda494cd6e993791d", "text": "And whereas the incidents of chance are many, and differ in greatness and smallness, the small pieces of good or ill fortune evidently do not affect the balance of life, but the great and numerous, if happening for good, will make life more blessed (for it is their nature to contribute to ornament, and the using of them comes to be noble and excellent), but if for ill, they bruise as it were and maim the blessedness: for they bring in positive pain, and hinder many acts of working. But still, even in these, nobleness shines through when a man bears contentedly many and great mischances not from insensibility to pain but because he is noble and high-spirited.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00160", "bookId": 8438, "start": 90484, "end": 91212, "sha256": "851b462d3a33dac7f19cb1dbf31de903dc7f4532ef2bfa59300f154ae6d8a174", "text": "And if, as we have said, the acts of working are what determine the character of the life, no one of the blessed can ever become wretched, because he will never do those things which are hateful and mean. For the man who is truly good and sensible bears all fortunes, we presume, becomingly, and always does what is noblest under the circumstances, just as a good general employs to the best advantage the force he has with him; or a good shoemaker makes the handsomest shoe he can out of the leather which has been given him; and all other good artisans likewise. And if this be so, wretched never can the happy man come to be: I do not mean to say he will be blessed should he fall into fortunes like those of Priam.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00161", "bookId": 8438, "start": 91216, "end": 91628, "sha256": "d71c12e3725f4f106f6e343b8c22426492372596642947f95372c128959542f6", "text": "Nor, in truth, is he shifting and easily changeable, for on the one hand from his happiness he will not be shaken easily nor by ordinary mischances, but, if at all, by those which are great and numerous; and, on the other, after such mischances he cannot regain his happiness in a little time; but, if at all, in a long and complete period, during which he has made himself master of great and noble things.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00162", "bookId": 8438, "start": 91632, "end": 91917, "sha256": "70ec1816022268eedc6fbc1546c15d2bd1a2d8358c73fab9da0ab650129bbafc", "text": "Why then should we not call happy the man who works in the way of perfect virtue, and is furnished with external goods sufficient for acting his part in the drama of life:[35] and this during no ordinary period but such as constitutes a complete life as we have been describing it.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00163", "bookId": 8438, "start": 91921, "end": 92252, "sha256": "ff50f3d85b85508e373dee36c95b6fc1034dc95ffef630d455dffef5bf1ccae8", "text": "Or we must add, that not only is he to live so, but his death must be in keeping with such life, since the future is dark to us, and Happiness we assume to be in every way an end and complete. And, if this be so, we shall call them among the living blessed who have and will have the things specified, but blessed _as Men_.[36]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00164", "bookId": 8438, "start": 92256, "end": 92317, "sha256": "b37b5ebc3fefcab769b3e84bc03bce83f7f62dddda5374ed2486b65cc2f94ac1", "text": "On these points then let it suffice to have denned thus much.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00165", "bookId": 8438, "start": 92321, "end": 92332, "sha256": "592ec521344802b54bcc4f362dcb57feb55da0d05682ea5774b06c9cd5ee0ce4", "text": "Chapter IX.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00166", "bookId": 8438, "start": 92336, "end": 92540, "sha256": "46a2b62d45b2d410d0ca939a459ba125a76ee5a45c2daa78f247278a93c76f76", "text": "Now that the fortunes of their descendants, and friends generally, contribute nothing towards forming the condition of the dead, is plainly a very heartless notion, and contrary to the current opinions.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00167", "bookId": 8438, "start": 92544, "end": 92803, "sha256": "103129737d5f30f8b9fe90bf8208318bd39a973d8f59d42798c8b2aef119aa45", "text": "But since things which befall are many, and differ in all kinds of ways, and some touch more nearly, others less, to go into minute particular distinctions would evidently be a long and endless task: and so it may suffice to speak generally and in outline.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00168", "bookId": 8438, "start": 92807, "end": 93743, "sha256": "df231d76236eb019cb75dc1b0f0a02fceb819e15a668d333e8bcbd0d5f9eabbe", "text": "If then, as of the misfortunes which happen to one’s self, some have a certain weight and turn the balance of life, while others are, so to speak, lighter; so it is likewise with those which befall all our friends alike; if further, whether they whom each suffering befalls be alive or dead makes much more difference than in a tragedy the presupposing or actual perpetration of the various crimes and horrors, we must take into our account this difference also, and still more perhaps the doubt concerning the dead whether they really partake of any good or evil; it seems to result from all these considerations, that if anything does pierce the veil and reach them, be the same good or bad, it must be something trivial and small, either in itself or to them; or at least of such a magnitude or such a kind as neither to make happy them that are not so otherwise, nor to deprive of their blessedness them that are.[37]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00169", "bookId": 8438, "start": 93747, "end": 93941, "sha256": "4cedc58e5d6027215fd6ed5d5cf6cc6f952874051c7ce6f34b357dd375518f4f", "text": "It is plain then that the good or ill fortunes of their friends do affect the dead somewhat: but in such kind and degree as neither to make the happy unhappy nor produce any other such effect.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00170", "bookId": 8438, "start": 93945, "end": 93955, "sha256": "1004a834f009008ccc92e737e9a371a7a5488da6be86d63d2eae33426b5b37ef", "text": "Chapter X.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00171", "bookId": 8438, "start": 93959, "end": 94161, "sha256": "e039c163e8f4779f91f661a9a1aa9c4b52aa96c439fa61e48facef213c4f71e1", "text": "Having determined these points, let us examine with respect to Happiness, whether it belongs to the class of things praiseworthy or things precious; for to that of faculties[38] it evidently does not.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00172", "bookId": 8438, "start": 94165, "end": 95375, "sha256": "9688b0a10a7fabdca7926a91aeb6e94b5577b1d9dc4b315bb4851a6a97db1258", "text": "Now it is plain that everything which is a subject of praise is praised for being of a certain kind and bearing a certain relation to something else: for instance, the just, and the valiant, and generally the good man, and virtue itself, we praise because of the actions and the results: and the strong man, and the quick runner, and so forth, we praise for being of a certain nature and bearing a certain relation to something good and excellent (and this is illustrated by attempts to praise the gods; for they are presented in a ludicrous aspect[39] by being referred to our standard, and this results from the fact, that all praise does, as we have said, imply reference to a standard). Now if it is to such objects that praise belongs, it is evident that what is applicable to the best objects is not praise, but something higher and better: which is plain matter of fact, for not only do we call the gods blessed and happy, but of men also we pronounce those blessed who most nearly resemble the gods. And in like manner in respect of goods; no man thinks of praising Happiness as he does the principle of justice, but calls it blessed, as being somewhat more godlike and more excellent.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00173", "bookId": 8438, "start": 95379, "end": 95935, "sha256": "9ac1cc18009dd6901c5148aa252261ce8090f87430ba3e5e1e649efe9472ee5b", "text": "Eudoxus[40] too is thought to have advanced a sound argument in support of the claim of pleasure to the highest prize: for the fact that, though it is one of the good things, it is not praised, he took for an indication of its superiority to those which are subjects of praise: a superiority he attributed also to a god and the Chief Good, on the ground that they form the standard to which everything besides is referred. For praise applies to virtue, because it makes men apt to do what is noble; but encomia to definite works of body or mind.[41]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00174", "bookId": 8438, "start": 95939, "end": 96429, "sha256": "13d712b2fb6edbb4d26b008789016cae327c7813aed244b4fb8caf8eae86f401", "text": "However, it is perhaps more suitable to a regular treatise on encomia to pursue this topic with exactness: it is enough for our purpose that from what has been said it is evident that Happiness belongs to the class of things precious and final. And it seems to be so also because of its being a starting-point; which it is, in that with a view to it we all do everything else that is done; now the starting-point and cause of good things we assume to be something precious and divine.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00175", "bookId": 8438, "start": 96433, "end": 96444, "sha256": "e01eea13bd5151db5300b85b2bf5667b50440b182b04dc56f48ea5ab17de6a93", "text": "Chapter XI.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00176", "bookId": 8438, "start": 96448, "end": 97079, "sha256": "f26585c7ac967342966d3cdd422ccbfe547417f8385fc75278a1230ad99482bf", "text": "Moreover, since Happiness is a kind of working of the soul in the way of perfect Excellence, we must enquire concerning Excellence: for so probably shall we have a clearer view concerning Happiness; and again, he who is really a statesman is generally thought to have spent most pains on this, for he wishes to make the citizens good and obedient to the laws. (For examples of this class we have the lawgivers of the Cretans and Lacedæmonians and whatever other such there have been.) But if this investigation belongs properly to πολιτικὴ, then clearly the enquiry will be in accordance with our original design.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00177", "bookId": 8438, "start": 97083, "end": 97264, "sha256": "b572ef84b304894f5823bc506d07b7979c6eee21ff0f6782ee430ce1456888b5", "text": "Well, we are to enquire concerning Excellence, _i.e._ Human Excellence of course, because it was the Chief Good of Man and the Happiness of Man that we were enquiring of just now.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00178", "bookId": 8438, "start": 97268, "end": 97392, "sha256": "b06e5861139a0d2bb8ad0869fa439dc46295cf8c6b786424e570c54f0210b2c1", "text": "And by Human Excellence we mean not that of man’s body but that of his soul; for we call Happiness a working of the Soul.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00179", "bookId": 8438, "start": 97396, "end": 97764, "sha256": "ac5f7ad0917c0222d044223f186b50f5b73ec49626789ed84ac75afe770b66a9", "text": "And if this is so, it is plain that some knowledge of the nature of the Soul is necessary for the statesman, just as for the oculist a knowledge of the whole body, and the more so in proportion as πολιτικὴ is more precious and higher than the healing art: and in fact physicians of the higher class do busy themselves much with the knowledge of the body.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00180", "bookId": 8438, "start": 97768, "end": 98067, "sha256": "c77259258dc531d8a9bf1ea03d50cfa24d6c377313eef6beebb8931cd54d25ce", "text": "So then the statesman is to consider the nature of the Soul: but he must do so with these objects in view, and so far only as may suffice for the objects of his special enquiry: for to carry his speculations to a greater exactness is perhaps a task more laborious than falls within his province.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00181", "bookId": 8438, "start": 98071, "end": 98924, "sha256": "87401ca9b73f5a799d41e5fba4eace40361cf0f3fa7a3106eda14b45ac75683f", "text": "In fact, the few statements made on the subject in my popular treatises are quite enough, and accordingly we will adopt them here: as, that the Soul consists of two parts, the Irrational and the Rational (as to whether these are actually divided, as are the parts of the body, and everything that is capable of division; or are only metaphysically speaking two, being by nature inseparable, as are convex and concave circumferences, matters not in respect of our present purpose). And of the Irrational, the one part seems common to other objects, and in fact vegetative; I mean the cause of nourishment and growth (for such a faculty of the Soul one would assume to exist in all things that receive nourishment, even in embryos, and this the same as in the perfect creatures; for this is more likely than that it should be a different one).", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00182", "bookId": 8438, "start": 98928, "end": 99713, "sha256": "50688c432d9e0b70c9342593aa2f241693e48db19fce0a2645319b65b8630f13", "text": "Now the Excellence of this manifestly is not peculiar to the human species but common to others: for this part and this faculty is thought to work most in time of sleep, and the good and bad man are least distinguishable while asleep; whence it is a common saying that during one half of life there is no difference between the happy and the wretched; and this accords with our anticipations, for sleep is an inactivity of the soul, in so far as it is denominated good or bad, except that in some wise some of its movements find their way through the veil and so the good come to have better dreams than ordinary men. But enough of this: we must forego any further mention of the nutritive part, since it is not naturally capable of the Excellence which is peculiarly human.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00183", "bookId": 8438, "start": 99717, "end": 100759, "sha256": "d9cc8f86cd1ceebf0f5f2d70222a9bc04b299ffd4eac521420ab4c84a97d52c5", "text": "And there seems to be another Irrational Nature of the Soul, which yet in a way partakes of Reason. For in the man who controls his appetites, and in him who resolves to do so and fails, we praise the Reason or Rational part of the Soul, because it exhorts aright and to the best course: but clearly there is in them, beside the Reason, some other natural principle which fights with and strains against the Reason. (For in plain terms, just as paralysed limbs of the body when their owners would move them to the right are borne aside in a contrary direction to the left, so is it in the case of the Soul, for the impulses of men who cannot control their appetites are to contrary points: the difference is that in the case of the body we do see what is borne aside but in the case of the soul we do not. But, it may be, not the less[42] on that account are we to suppose that there is in the Soul also somewhat besides the Reason, which is opposed to this and goes against it; as to _how_ it is different, that is irrelevant.)", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00184", "bookId": 8438, "start": 100763, "end": 101028, "sha256": "ff8a7ca870d0389e2440b91254d9c03d5d2a85e1130786925e1ce20996c9334c", "text": "But of Reason this too does evidently partake, as we have said: for instance, in the man of self-control it obeys Reason: and perhaps in the man of perfected self-mastery,[43] or the brave man, it is yet more obedient; in them it agrees entirely with the Reason.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00185", "bookId": 8438, "start": 101032, "end": 101462, "sha256": "92886534e04504749d2f050f80351b59f6b9f4f15d709ec66a6cb524c6c42133", "text": "So then the Irrational is plainly twofold: the one part, the merely vegetative, has no share of Reason, but that of desire, or appetition generally, does partake of it in a sense, in so far as it is obedient to it and capable of submitting to its rule. (So too in common phrase we say we have λόγος of our father or friends, and this in a different sense from that in which we say we have λόγος of mathematics.)[44]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00186", "bookId": 8438, "start": 101466, "end": 101785, "sha256": "7331a7bbe3ed507728fa075c2d379dcaf656d58d03d60502044b01fca24ac1b2", "text": "Now that the Irrational is in some way persuaded by the Reason, admonition, and every act of rebuke and exhortation indicate. If then we are to say that this also has Reason, then the Rational, as well as the Irrational, will be twofold, the one supremely and in itself, the other paying it a kind of filial regard.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00187", "bookId": 8438, "start": 101789, "end": 102320, "sha256": "43ce4a9eb8575649d7e70d7df7cce93351e132256be3bcc3240dfc4a49a53fbb", "text": "The Excellence of Man then is divided in accordance with this difference: we make two classes, calling the one Intellectual, and the other Moral; pure science, intelligence, and practical wisdom—Intellectual: liberality, and perfected self-mastery—Moral: in speaking of a man’s Moral character, we do not say he is a scientific or intelligent but a meek man, or one of perfected self-mastery: and we praise the man of science in right of his mental state;[45] and of these such as are praiseworthy we call Excellences.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00188", "bookId": 8438, "start": 102330, "end": 102337, "sha256": "2a53cbfc962ade2635c6d512e71c353710827f73c775a668beab5f85ba8d328a", "text": "BOOK II", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00189", "bookId": 8438, "start": 102341, "end": 102351, "sha256": "5a35eafc731a2640e14da7e928f9e9a89afe4fe2a1f9a9a349887b8fb6d795cd", "text": "Chapter I.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00190", "bookId": 8438, "start": 102357, "end": 102733, "sha256": "53222927b9d7285fd526c4927524cee8d1f6458ee89047ee06d20019322ddedc", "text": "Well: human Excellence is of two kinds, Intellectual and Moral:[1] now the Intellectual springs originally, and is increased subsequently, from teaching (for the most part that is[2]), and needs therefore experience and time; whereas the Moral comes from custom, and so the Greek term denoting it is but a slight deflection from the term denoting custom in that language.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00191", "bookId": 8438, "start": 102737, "end": 103426, "sha256": "c09dbae457c2c9bbc2adeb579d3f40ada55ab803fd1993e0a16e736262f285b7", "text": "From this fact it is plain that not one of the Moral Virtues comes to be in us merely by nature: because of such things as exist by nature, none can be changed by custom: a stone, for instance, by nature gravitating downwards, could never by custom be brought to ascend, not even if one were to try and accustom it by throwing it up ten thousand times; nor could file again be brought to descend, nor in fact could anything whose nature is in one way be brought by custom to be in another. The Virtues then come to be in us neither by nature, nor in despite of nature,[3] but we are furnished by nature with a capacity for receiving themu and are perfected in them through custom.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00192", "bookId": 8438, "start": 103430, "end": 104297, "sha256": "ea90c922b3379424514dd54dc06e4e9c960ae385b2e1f6d5b210752395f42aa2", "text": "Again, in whatever cases we get things by nature, we get the faculties first and perform the acts of working afterwards; an illustration of which is afforded by the case of our bodily senses, for it was not from having often seen or heard that we got these senses, but just the reverse: we had them and so exercised them, but did not have them because we had exercised them. But the Virtues we get by first performing single acts of working, which, again, is the case of other things, as the arts for instance; for what we have to make when we have learned how, these we learn how to make by making: men come to be builders, for instance, by building; harp-players, by playing on the harp: exactly so, by doing just actions we come to be just; by doing the actions of self-mastery we come to be perfected in self-mastery; and by doing brave actions brave.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00193", "bookId": 8438, "start": 104301, "end": 104646, "sha256": "4b1da171208727eb77cbcd2ea191dcc14539f3e6add5d058bca7f7c42ed7d289", "text": "And to the truth of this testimony is borne by what takes place in communities: because the law-givers make the individual members good men by habituation, and this is the intention certainly of every law-giver, and all who do not effect it well fail of their intent; and herein consists the difference between a good Constitution and a bad.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00194", "bookId": 8438, "start": 104650, "end": 105143, "sha256": "11909ef43ef45d86f5e442a663ab6777b459bce6ecc4a22bebf4a4c8390a6fa1", "text": "Again, every Virtue is either produced or destroyed from and by the very same circumstances: art too in like manner; I mean it is by playing the harp that both the good and the bad harp-players are formed: and similarly builders and all the rest; by building well men will become good builders; by doing it badly bad ones: in fact, if this had not been so, there would have been no need of instructors, but all men would have been at once good or bad in their several arts without them.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00195", "bookId": 8438, "start": 105147, "end": 105437, "sha256": "13910b92bd4e96db3f50d6cee34d33eb19ef45467922c714e919e8c9fca2620c", "text": "So too then is it with the Virtues: for by acting in the various relations in which we are thrown with our fellow men, we come to be, some just, some unjust: and by acting in dangerous positions and being habituated to feel fear or confidence, we come to be, some brave, others cowards.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00196", "bookId": 8438, "start": 105441, "end": 105942, "sha256": "eee0c2a5d52b571845349209fdc6fab17e48b2400586aa9b4350a7fc0afdd603", "text": "Similarly is it also with respect to the occasions of lust and anger: for some men come to be perfected in self-mastery and mild, others destitute of all self-control and passionate; the one class by behaving in one way under them, the other by behaving in another. Or, in one word, the habits are produced from the acts of working like to them: and so what we have to do is to give a certain character to these particular acts, because the habits formed correspond to the differences of these.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00197", "bookId": 8438, "start": 105946, "end": 106122, "sha256": "16713b4af79e29c621e04707125891cdf10ef3866b48690cdf6075f0abb0576d", "text": "So then, whether we are accustomed this way or that straight from childhood, makes not a small but an important difference, or rather I would say it makes all the difference.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00198", "bookId": 8438, "start": 106126, "end": 106137, "sha256": "9ce6d96fa540de49002e2340d430460f2ee679453301a35db1cf5cf6c0ed967f", "text": "Chapter II.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00199", "bookId": 8438, "start": 106141, "end": 106537, "sha256": "77227182a3bf2c745bcba4768beaf373f303bdec2e41c87a3d5701b4caa9b6e1", "text": "Since then the object of the present treatise is not mere speculation, as it is of some others (for we are enquiring not merely that we may know what virtue is but that we may become virtuous, else it would have been useless), we must consider as to the particular actions how we are to do them, because, as we have just said, the quality of the habits that shall be formed depends on these.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00200", "bookId": 8438, "start": 106541, "end": 106783, "sha256": "a5dd321a9f96f43a532e45565bedfd1837b1244ac467412c39295aba8fc9cb26", "text": "Now, that we are to act in accordance with Right Reason is a general maxim, and may for the present be taken for granted: we will speak of it hereafter, and say both what Right Reason is, and what are its relations to the other virtues.[4]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00201", "bookId": 8438, "start": 106787, "end": 107627, "sha256": "6051108666ab2465289263efb1336b36d3c26e69ad8989398c2415ea85642f9f", "text": "But let this point be first thoroughly understood between us, that all which can be said on moral action must be said in outline, as it were, and not exactly: for as we remarked at the commencement, such reasoning only must be required as the nature of the subject-matter admits of, and matters of moral action and expediency have no fixedness any more than matters of health. And if the subject in its general maxims is such, still less in its application to particular cases is exactness attainable:[5] because these fall not under any art or system of rules, but it must be left in each instance to the individual agents to look to the exigencies of the particular case, as it is in the art of healing, or that of navigating a ship. Still, though the present subject is confessedly such, we must try and do what we can for it.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00202", "bookId": 8438, "start": 107631, "end": 108091, "sha256": "a6c1abababc9adaf2506e3c17a2b9e33878ce839af3e3729ad312ec7dcd8256f", "text": "First then this must be noted, that it is the nature of such things to be spoiled by defect and excess; as we see in the case of health and strength (since for the illustration of things which cannot be seen we must use those that can), for excessive training impairs the strength as well as deficient: meat and drink, in like manner, in too great or too small quantities, impair the health: while in due proportion they cause, increase, and preserve it.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00203", "bookId": 8438, "start": 108095, "end": 108740, "sha256": "11fb4a71feba2b7815adcc1963b8e7f27c5f2933dbf81d64ee7a191861f9902b", "text": "Thus it is therefore with the habits of perfected Self-Mastery and Courage and the rest of the Virtues: for the man who flies from and fears all things, and never stands up against anything, comes to be a coward; and he who fears nothing, but goes at everything, comes to be rash. In like manner too, he that tastes of every pleasure and abstains from none comes to lose all self-control; while he who avoids all, as do the dull and clownish, comes as it were to lose his faculties of perception: that is to say, the habits of perfected Self-Mastery and Courage are spoiled by the excess and defect, but by the mean state are preserved.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00204", "bookId": 8438, "start": 108744, "end": 109606, "sha256": "abc2bd67ec3ecb692cf905ba59bba577d815883a47784b082bd03b30a7d479d4", "text": "Furthermore, not only do the origination, growth, and marring of the habits come from and by the same circumstances, but also the acts of working after the habits are formed will be exercised on the same: for so it is also with those other things which are more directly matters of sight, strength for instance: for this comes by taking plenty of food and doing plenty of work, and the man who has attained strength is best able to do these: and so it is with the Virtues, for not only do we by abstaining from pleasures come to be perfected in Self-Mastery, but when we have come to be so we can best abstain from them: similarly too with Courage: for it is by accustoming ourselves to despise objects of fear and stand up against them that we come to be brave; and after we have come to be so we shall be best able to stand up against such objects.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00205", "bookId": 8438, "start": 109610, "end": 110052, "sha256": "7bd0f33a7153c6a8cb25a746501baae0e940a8cc64b33cfa3bc421cc4dbf911c", "text": "And for a test of the formation of the habits we must take the pleasure or pain which succeeds the acts; for he is perfected in Self-Mastery who not only abstains from the bodily pleasures but is glad to do so; whereas he who abstains but is sorry to do it has not Self-Mastery: he again is brave who stands up against danger, either with positive pleasure or at least without any pain; whereas he who does it with pain is not brave.[6]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00206", "bookId": 8438, "start": 110056, "end": 111680, "sha256": "fbcb3911ff7a52328bdb671c515043a281d536988c1f0832f475f442a3f2e608", "text": "For Moral Virtue has for its object-matter pleasures and pains, because by reason of pleasure we do what is bad, and by reason of pain decline doing what is right (for which cause, as Plato observes, men should have been trained straight from their childhood to receive pleasure and pain from proper objects, for this is the right education). Again: since Virtues have to do with actions and feelings, and on every feeling and every action pleasure and pain follow, here again is another proof that Virtue has for its object-matter pleasure and pain. The same is shown also by the fact that punishments are effected through the instrumentality of these; because they are of the nature of remedies, and it is the nature of remedies to be the contraries of the ills they cure. Again, to quote what we said before: every habit of the Soul by its very nature has relation to, and exerts itself upon, things of the same kind as those by which it is naturally deteriorated or improved: now such habits do come to be vicious by reason of pleasures and pains, that is, by men pursuing or avoiding respectively, either such as they ought not, or at wrong times, or in wrong manner, and so forth (for which reason, by the way, some people define the Virtues as certain states of impassibility and utter quietude,[7] but they are wrong because they speak without modification, instead of adding “as they ought,” “as they ought not,” and “when,” and so on). Virtue then is assumed to be that habit which is such, in relation to pleasures and pains, as to effect the best results, and Vice the contrary.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00207", "bookId": 8438, "start": 111684, "end": 112311, "sha256": "7e265e697802d0656597aedb54a2ec13229255701a21dd213fdea0732758bae3", "text": "The following considerations may also serve to set this in a clear light. There are principally three things moving us to choice and three to avoidance, the honourable, the expedient, the pleasant; and their three contraries, the dishonourable, the hurtful, and the painful: now the good man is apt to go right, and the bad man wrong, with respect to all these of course, but most specially with respect to pleasure: because not only is this common to him with all animals but also it is a concomitant of all those things which move to choice, since both the honourable and the expedient give an impression of pleasure.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00208", "bookId": 8438, "start": 112315, "end": 112466, "sha256": "fdb85356ee6b46cfb77c902762fe327ad56a4265528f59e3d6b0936045cfe112", "text": "Again, it grows up with us all from infancy, and so it is a hard matter to remove from ourselves this feeling, engrained as it is into our very life.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00209", "bookId": 8438, "start": 112470, "end": 113231, "sha256": "4f7bace76812d18ff2b1c5196dfaf7e255c40e80d959e8610bd03a5a546b1278", "text": "Again, we adopt pleasure and pain (some of us more, and some less) as the measure even of actions: for this cause then our whole business must be with them, since to receive right or wrong impressions of pleasure and pain is a thing of no little importance in respect of the actions. Once more; it is harder, as Heraclitus says, to fight against pleasure than against anger: now it is about that which is more than commonly difficult that art comes into being, and virtue too, because in that which is difficult the good is of a higher order: and so for this reason too both virtue and moral philosophy generally must wholly busy themselves respecting pleasures and pains, because he that uses these well will be good, he that does so ill will be bad.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00210", "bookId": 8438, "start": 113235, "end": 113546, "sha256": "ff25903cc47ee4d6cf8f5aa6e43b4bc6a9d2687c4c993a4363ded1f979eedf96", "text": "Let us then be understood to have stated, that Virtue has for its object-matter pleasures and pains, and that it is either increased or marred by the same circumstances (differently used) by which it is originally generated, and that it exerts itself on the same circumstances out of which it was generated.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00211", "bookId": 8438, "start": 113550, "end": 113562, "sha256": "c8c3757d774efbadade98d84b627377e281082435aed3cf63f66253a8af48e64", "text": "Chapter III.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00212", "bookId": 8438, "start": 113566, "end": 114307, "sha256": "a1d0a929a6140680903f97a10ba6971dc5f821973a42198430d62e3af37958ca", "text": "Now I can conceive a person perplexed as to the meaning of our statement, that men must do just actions to become just, and those of self-mastery to acquire the habit of self-mastery; “for,” he would say, “if men are doing the actions they have the respective virtues already, just as men are grammarians or musicians when they do the actions of either art.” May we not reply by saying that it is not so even in the case of the arts referred to: because a man may produce something grammatical either by chance or the suggestion of another; but then only will he be a grammarian when he not only produces something grammatical but does so grammarian-wise, _i.e._ in virtue of the grammatical knowledge he himself possesses.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00213", "bookId": 8438, "start": 114311, "end": 115411, "sha256": "0f29ac2a594639c2e354cf103d0694d180eae2b25df02755e1e4526d72c42a49", "text": "Again, the cases of the arts and the virtues are not parallel: because those things which are produced by the arts have their excellence in themselves, and it is sufficient therefore that these when produced should be in a certain state: but those which are produced in the way of the virtues, are, strictly speaking, actions of a certain kind (say of Justice or perfected Self-Mastery), not merely if in themselves they are in a certain state but if also he who does them does them being himself in a certain state, first if knowing what he is doing, next if with deliberate preference, and with such preference for the things’ own sake; and thirdly if being himself stable and unapt to change. Now to constitute possession of the arts these requisites are not reckoned in, excepting the one point of knowledge: whereas for possession of the virtues knowledge avails little or nothing, but the other requisites avail not a little, but, in fact, are all in all, and these requisites as a matter of fact do come from oftentimes doing the actions of Justice and perfected Self-Mastery.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00214", "bookId": 8438, "start": 115415, "end": 115697, "sha256": "50670fecbcbc65eb4722a6eb3dee614be6fd1b7e7582651ab04bd8700de7e9a8", "text": "The facts,[8] it is true, are called by the names of these habits when they are such as the just or perfectly self-mastering man would do; but he is not in possession of the virtues who merely does these facts, but he who also so does them as the just and self-mastering do them.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00215", "bookId": 8438, "start": 115701, "end": 116312, "sha256": "991f8c16bd400d30395b5c33b6ded3f55c5baa6d262713ac9579bef3a69f5997", "text": "We are right then in saying, that these virtues are formed in a man by his doing the actions; but no one, if he should leave them undone, would be even in the way to become a good man. Yet people in general do not perform these actions, but taking refuge in talk they flatter themselves they are philosophising, and that they will so be good men: acting in truth very like those sick people who listen to the doctor with great attention but do nothing that he tells them: just as these then cannot be well bodily under such a course of treatment, so neither can those be mentally by such philosophising.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00216", "bookId": 8438, "start": 116316, "end": 116327, "sha256": "3186d98bcee8266853ace5b1a5e20557973e585ee48419d596c2b2610a3f68b2", "text": "Chapter IV.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00217", "bookId": 8438, "start": 116331, "end": 116543, "sha256": "4ed96d870e7507cd78c9a5de9b0ec47327bab435bd0cbfc2bbcafbda7beb7ae6", "text": "Next, we must examine what Virtue is.[9] Well, since the things which come to be in the mind are, in all, of three kinds, Feelings, Capacities, States, Virtue of course must belong to one of the three classes.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00218", "bookId": 8438, "start": 116547, "end": 117241, "sha256": "28c24e58f374b77311cb58ca6e546c753a64b6fcf1300f0b1385e47e5aeba334", "text": "By Feelings, I mean such as lust, anger, fear, confidence, envy, joy, friendship, hatred, longing, emulation, compassion, in short all such as are followed by pleasure or pain: by Capacities, those in right of which we are said to be capable of these feelings; as by virtue of which we are able to have been made angry, or grieved, or to have compassionated; by States, those in right of which we are in a certain relation good or bad to the aforementioned feelings; to having been made angry, for instance, we are in a wrong relation if in our anger we were too violent or too slack, but if we were in the happy medium we are in a right relation to the feeling. And so on of the rest.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00219", "bookId": 8438, "start": 117245, "end": 117416, "sha256": "15d9b52b21a1026ac32e3a411eae6dd68123bef60fff42181d3f0a223f586725", "text": "Now Feelings neither the virtues nor vices are, because in right of the Feelings we are not denominated either good or bad, but in right of the virtues and vices we are.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00220", "bookId": 8438, "start": 117420, "end": 117673, "sha256": "99c4669fcc9b85749ab0f6d15bdab6d848bdcdfe5d3435f60ff94f4e602ba6c2", "text": "Again, in right of the Feelings we are neither praised nor blamed,[10] (for a man is not commended for being afraid or being angry, nor blamed for being angry merely but for being so in a particular way), but in right of the virtues and vices we are.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00221", "bookId": 8438, "start": 117677, "end": 117826, "sha256": "5030cc832c36aaedfaa8d965748a2b0c17eb1ed188e29551e2c0132cd26c87f9", "text": "Again, both anger and fear we feel without moral choice, whereas the virtues are acts of moral choice, or at least certainly not independent of it.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00222", "bookId": 8438, "start": 117830, "end": 117978, "sha256": "d143710daf0701305365ad2d0bd13328d079b3ff01922287e830c97cb4fb3a1b", "text": "Moreover, in right of the Feelings we are said to be moved, but in right of the virtues and vices not to be moved, but disposed, in a certain way.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00223", "bookId": 8438, "start": 117982, "end": 118135, "sha256": "fd52dfa06c8eabcf4c079d1311217fc5daae27ad9641e73a694bddadcf4d77d9", "text": "And for these same reasons they are not Capacities, for we are not called good or bad merely because we are able to feel, nor are we praised or blamed.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00224", "bookId": 8438, "start": 118139, "end": 118252, "sha256": "78f39b2dc577d44cf153c10d5c888a5351359a0816830cfb425e9cd79bb3c758", "text": "And again, Capacities we have by nature, but we do not come to be good or bad by nature, as we have said before.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00225", "bookId": 8438, "start": 118256, "end": 118353, "sha256": "d00c729178871d3b7ca016872336f5bdc2fcacc625e246bbdc2f4e0d26a3c93e", "text": "Since then the virtues are neither Feelings nor Capacities, it remains that they must be States.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00226", "bookId": 8438, "start": 118357, "end": 118367, "sha256": "89204e68d094a6a77f968119f40fec5f77d7676bf38cb1b47cd0ab87d3d2fea2", "text": "Chapter V.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00227", "bookId": 8438, "start": 118371, "end": 118520, "sha256": "47106f145ee3149611cea7dffc0347ded0acf80a265fa49ff0d8b59009a0fec8", "text": "Now what the genus of Virtue is has been said; but we must not merely speak of it thus, that it is a state but say also what kind of a state it is.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00228", "bookId": 8438, "start": 118524, "end": 119262, "sha256": "9e78df4dfddb74839ec0d91a8a4fd4508d49b0066fcaaf92d50b9f3ff3b729f0", "text": "We must observe then that all excellence makes that whereof it is the excellence both to be itself in a good state and to perform its work well. The excellence of the eye, for instance, makes both the eye good and its work also: for by the excellence of the eye we see well. So too the excellence of the horse makes a horse good, and good in speed, and in carrying his rider, and standing up against the enemy. If then this is universally the case, the excellence of Man, i.e. Virtue, must be a state whereby Man comes to be good and whereby he will perform well his proper work. Now how this shall be it is true we have said already, but still perhaps it may throw light on the subject to see what is its characteristic nature.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00229", "bookId": 8438, "start": 119266, "end": 120098, "sha256": "50ada320546458e611ba503f0569b8e8b525f8414795472127cfd3ebb0b605d8", "text": "In all quantity then, whether continuous or discrete,[11] one may take the greater part, the less, or the exactly equal, and these either with reference to the thing itself, or relatively to us: and the exactly equal is a mean between excess and defect. Now by the mean of the thing, _i.e._ absolute mean, I denote that which is equidistant from either extreme (which of course is one and the same to all), and by the mean relatively to ourselves, that which is neither too much nor too little for the particular individual. This of course is not one nor the same to all: for instance, suppose ten is too much and two too little, people take six for the absolute mean; because it exceeds the smaller sum by exactly as much as it is itself exceeded by the larger, and this mean is according to arithmetical proportion.[12]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00230", "bookId": 8438, "start": 120102, "end": 120552, "sha256": "79371633ca528bf7a59814600a63eae2adf6f2f251323467d5fc835f4e499d7f", "text": "But the mean relatively to ourselves must not be so found ; for it does not follow, supposing ten minæ[13] is too large a quantity to eat and two too small, that the trainer will order his man six; because for the person who is to take it this also may be too much or too little: for Milo it would be too little, but for a man just commencing his athletic exercises too much: similarly too of the exercises themselves, as running or wrestling.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00231", "bookId": 8438, "start": 120556, "end": 120699, "sha256": "6e477cc17c735ea9408a43400baa7a89a2ff743c7f936eebc66f8e0879e1c010", "text": "So then it seems every one possessed of skill avoids excess and defect, but seeks for and chooses the mean, not the absolute but the relative.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00232", "bookId": 8438, "start": 120703, "end": 121225, "sha256": "6abb5cbf708380a5874017f194dbb80be0c435e6a42a49ed3ff3f4ad0d7f3e27", "text": "Now if all skill thus accomplishes well its work by keeping an eye on the mean, and bringing the works to this point (whence it is common enough to say of such works as are in a good state, “one cannot add to or take ought from them,” under the notion of excess or defect destroying goodness but the mean state preserving it), and good artisans, as we say, work with their eye on this, and excellence, like nature, is more exact and better than any art in the world, it must have an aptitude to aim at the mean.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00233", "bookId": 8438, "start": 121229, "end": 121778, "sha256": "66c62c733e15377426f1fb20b5019455846575fc3233c0a550b15b5001469b44", "text": "It is moral excellence, _i.e._ Virtue, of course which I mean, because this it is which is concerned with feelings and actions, and in these there can be excess and defect and the mean: it is possible, for instance, to feel the emotions of fear, confidence, lust, anger, compassion, and pleasure and pain generally, too much or too little, and in either case wrongly; but to feel them when we ought, on what occasions, towards whom, why, and as, we should do, is the mean, or in other words the best state, and this is the property of Virtue.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00234", "bookId": 8438, "start": 121782, "end": 122170, "sha256": "975935ec4e5263a17845e0955c6a9e76d47d325e7bbb6459b37014fb2623699a", "text": "In like manner too with respect to the actions, there may be excess and defect and the mean. Now Virtue is concerned with feelings and actions, in which the excess is wrong and the defect is blamed but the mean is praised and goes right; and both these circumstances belong to Virtue. Virtue then is in a sense a mean state, since it certainly has an aptitude for aiming at the mean.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00235", "bookId": 8438, "start": 122174, "end": 122575, "sha256": "09b0bfee03c96850b3b5ab020788ceff24b40bf5e5aafdecb19cddf278df9065", "text": "Again, one may go wrong in many different ways (because, as the Pythagoreans expressed it, evil is of the class of the infinite, good of the finite), but right only in one; and so the former is easy, the latter difficult; easy to miss the mark, but hard to hit it: and for these reasons, therefore, both the excess and defect belong to Vice, and the mean state to Virtue; for, as the poet has it,", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00236", "bookId": 8438, "start": 122579, "end": 122637, "sha256": "e2faf07391bf6dab8bf99dd687f2965a624f4ea3b950e4ecbea2e39a8f8a9698", "text": "“Men may be bad in many ways, But good in one alone.”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00237", "bookId": 8438, "start": 122641, "end": 122652, "sha256": "bb240dadd686b141825e647280d2d4b72d5f6bbd0f26d00f1faf792e029c0892", "text": "Chapter VI.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00238", "bookId": 8438, "start": 122656, "end": 122827, "sha256": "44f721453ce53dc5cf982b20d8ea10313833c9e5eac335c1a9d3b6b6e2610521", "text": "Virtue then is “a state apt to exercise deliberate choice, being in the relative mean, determined by reason, and[14] as the man of practical wisdom would determine.”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00239", "bookId": 8438, "start": 122831, "end": 123164, "sha256": "2c597592a02fef60b710df079722fd0171aeee6a7fa62e8eebac720af0a43637", "text": "It is a middle state between too faulty ones, in the way of excess on one side and of defect on the other: and it is so moreover, because the faulty states on one side fall short of, and those on the other exceed, what is right, both in the case of the feelings and the actions; but Virtue finds, and when found adopts, the mean.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00240", "bookId": 8438, "start": 123168, "end": 123341, "sha256": "47df3d772893c8b66751b8ff68e969e849cc795beb7c1573dde8051f39d9cacd", "text": "And so, viewing it in respect of its essence and definition, Virtue is a mean state; but in reference to the chief good and to excellence it is the highest state possible.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00241", "bookId": 8438, "start": 123345, "end": 123760, "sha256": "b163d283a1878deed73d4f8d306056f75e9472b764a75080ec7ee4cf6d4af956", "text": "But it must not be supposed that every action or every feeling is capable of subsisting in this mean state, because some there are which are so named as immediately to convey the notion of badness, as malevolence, shamelessness, envy; or, to instance in actions, adultery, theft, homicide; for all these and suchlike are blamed because they are in themselves bad, not the having too much or too little of them.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00242", "bookId": 8438, "start": 123764, "end": 124020, "sha256": "818c5eafddd425b0e7dbb12578fe128d21dfe2257d099615179bdb65ada556a1", "text": "In these then you never can go right, but must always be wrong: nor in such does the right or wrong depend on the selection of a proper person, time, or manner (take adultery for instance), but simply doing any one soever of those things is being wrong.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00243", "bookId": 8438, "start": 124024, "end": 124319, "sha256": "3bef23217d41761d84a0358f6c696e8b3e169ebb08462e9aba2b8870edfa2441", "text": "You might as well require that there should be determined a mean state, an excess and a defect in respect of acting unjustly, being cowardly, or giving up all control of the passions: for at this rate there will be of excess and defect a mean state; of excess, excess; and of defect, defect.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00244", "bookId": 8438, "start": 124323, "end": 124693, "sha256": "20f3a02e36c8aa8d994d613e1f9a5ea24d48245608f7b28d8b788c880034f5de", "text": "But just as of perfected self-mastery and courage there is no excess and defect, because the mean is in one point of view the highest possible state, so neither of those faulty states can you have a mean state, excess, or defect, but howsoever done they are wrong: you cannot, in short, have of excess and defect a mean state, nor of a mean state excess and defect.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00245", "bookId": 8438, "start": 124697, "end": 124709, "sha256": "e3a88405865f388fd2bbf6c4cfc5874d7991e8951df2fcbc0435b1fbb2f839f3", "text": "Chapter VII.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00246", "bookId": 8438, "start": 124713, "end": 125077, "sha256": "a1d624e94240124f51844515f868396eefba28e252b1557b5540ebf95b30050a", "text": "It is not enough, however, to state this in general terms, we must also apply it to particular instances, because in treatises on moral conduct general statements have an air of vagueness, but those which go into detail one of greater reality: for the actions after all must be in detail, and the general statements, to be worth anything, must hold good here.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00247", "bookId": 8438, "start": 125081, "end": 125144, "sha256": "b8070d3bb8d1816f97f6fd9f700b30a2b90bf9d7a40f6b519a0b5f2f0abe0e53", "text": "We must take these details then from the well-known scheme.[15]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00248", "bookId": 8438, "start": 125148, "end": 125198, "sha256": "3aa8567038aecbaa4252afeaf66bcccc3aafcc7761c1b8ab46eb0e16c7f478d0", "text": "I. In respect of fears and confidence or boldness:", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00249", "bookId": 8438, "start": 125202, "end": 125470, "sha256": "f713e05c18f31659de61b3c5ae0b2cf2c55ee9f09ae0d9781f0885c435910375", "text": "The Mean state is Courage: men may exceed, of course, either in absence of fear or in positive confidence: the former has no name (which is a common case), the latter is called rash: again, the man who has too much fear and too little confidence is called a coward.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00250", "bookId": 8438, "start": 125474, "end": 125567, "sha256": "861e5f0202ce50c110edeea06b312262b33a71ec2de4b2624dffb8a7bb5cf7ad", "text": "II. In respect of pleasures and pains (but not all, and perhaps fewer pains than pleasures):", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00251", "bookId": 8438, "start": 125571, "end": 125894, "sha256": "fc5b0388e71f5f447711e73fd453eda231b440c29a4514bfbe902859a29ecc35", "text": "The Mean state here is perfected Self-Mastery, the defect total absence of Self-control. As for defect in respect of pleasure, there are really no people who are chargeable with it, so, of course, there is really no name for such characters, but, as they are conceivable, we will give them one and call them insensible.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00252", "bookId": 8438, "start": 125898, "end": 125952, "sha256": "186548f3b5a1e1d36e8519625c5b78dd8329ab8510e851f947073137c15d1325", "text": "III. In respect of giving and taking wealth[16] (_a_):", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00253", "bookId": 8438, "start": 125956, "end": 126445, "sha256": "e047bc91e44f9e239028f56267bf870b405c57f07bedc51eaee6f71831212772", "text": "The mean state is Liberality, the excess Prodigality, the defect Stinginess: here each of the extremes involves really an excess and defect contrary to each other: I mean, the prodigal gives out too much and takes in too little, while the stingy man takes in too much and gives out too little. (It must be understood that we are now giving merely an outline and summary, intentionally: and we will, in a later part of the treatise, draw out the distinctions with greater exactness.)", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00254", "bookId": 8438, "start": 126449, "end": 126478, "sha256": "7988fda31681952da408513f87723f185e2049f4830e9a99cb71f79f6f39f961", "text": "IV. In respect of wealth (b):", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00255", "bookId": 8438, "start": 126482, "end": 126944, "sha256": "1fb2fc96bceab6d24019d8ed4d05a9e3303b15d1711128481fac415d362cfe68", "text": "There are other dispositions besides these just mentioned; a mean state called Munificence (for the munificent man differs from the liberal, the former having necessarily to do with great wealth, the latter with but small); the excess called by the names either of Want of taste or Vulgar Profusion, and the defect Paltriness (these also differ from the extremes connected with liberality, and the manner of their difference shall also be spoken of later).", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00256", "bookId": 8438, "start": 126948, "end": 126990, "sha256": "0513197caa5fcfba939b170e11fc6a085486ca3c83a6dfac29ca6cf4cbfcc956", "text": "V. In respect of honour and dishonour (a):", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00257", "bookId": 8438, "start": 126994, "end": 127116, "sha256": "3a8a7fe80ce47a7aabad1d5692f3564c6fa7f4ab8eb24626b0fa0908053f73a9", "text": "The mean state Greatness of Soul, the excess which may be called χαυνότης,[17] and the defect Littleness of Soul.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00258", "bookId": 8438, "start": 127120, "end": 127163, "sha256": "453738d9f5bae52e8bb95bc7db4a79ed060e257463fe1700cebd1726a08b6c26", "text": "VI. In respect of honour and dishonour (b):", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00259", "bookId": 8438, "start": 127167, "end": 128188, "sha256": "664fcb3b3735c9c58110b7dde56d242d87088ef4c392df5295a17deedee9128d", "text": "Now there is a state bearing the same relation to Greatness of Soul as we said just now Liberality does to Munificence, with the difference that is of being about a small amount of the same thing: this state having reference to small honour, as Greatness of Soul to great honour; a man may, of course, grasp at honour either more than he should or less; now he that exceeds in his grasping at it is called ambitious, he that falls short unambitious, he that is just as he should be has no proper name: nor in fact have the states, except that the disposition of the ambitious man is called ambition. For this reason those who are in either extreme lay claim to the mean as a debateable land, and we call the virtuous character sometimes by the name ambitious,[18] sometimes by that of unambitious, and we commend sometimes the one and sometimes the other. Why we do it shall be said in the subsequent part of the treatise; but now we will go on with the rest of the virtues after the plan we have laid down.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00260", "bookId": 8438, "start": 128192, "end": 128217, "sha256": "8bb9ed1b9a26a398622c0067415de60333e67371ee852ed95f1df5d774697834", "text": "VII. In respect of anger:", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00261", "bookId": 8438, "start": 128221, "end": 128594, "sha256": "7fd5d2103aa7d76361eb45784f2ae59d997399e27835df94533a762e3f340ec5", "text": "Here too there is excess, defect, and a mean state; but since they may be said to have really no proper names, as we call the virtuous character Meek, we will call the mean state Meekness, and of the extremes, let the man who is excessive be denominated Passionate, and the faulty state Passionateness, and him who is deficient Angerless, and the defect Angerlessness.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00262", "bookId": 8438, "start": 128598, "end": 129189, "sha256": "a6cfa6b426eb8e82bcca9437e089ee3c6af8bccd5cda1ef20e5591caf279436f", "text": "There are also three other mean states, having some mutual resemblance, but still with differences; they are alike in that they all have for their object-matter intercourse of words and deeds, and they differ in that one has respect to truth herein, the other two to what is pleasant; and this in two ways, the one in relaxation and amusement, the other in all things which occur in daily life. We must say a word or two about these also, that we may the better see that in all matters the mean is praiseworthy, while the extremes are neither right nor worthy of praise but of blame.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00263", "bookId": 8438, "start": 129193, "end": 129378, "sha256": "48086c373bda132d2077329de79c150636b4f65609565c074c2855423f034d3e", "text": "Now of these, it is true, the majority have really no proper names, but still we must try, as in the other cases, to coin some for them for the sake of clearness and intelligibleness.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00264", "bookId": 8438, "start": 129382, "end": 129405, "sha256": "5112d20e678af02450a546c1e37ee51afcca59327afcc97a04962a747d2a3028", "text": "I. In respect of truth:", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00265", "bookId": 8438, "start": 129410, "end": 129685, "sha256": "07cd54e47e1a791c7da847ce74674f46ff55df4e2a659e01c593756e2a57a983", "text": "The man who is in the mean state we will call Truthful, and his state Truthfulness, and as to the disguise of truth, if it be on the side of exaggeration, Braggadocia, and him that has it a Braggadocio; if on that of diminution, Reserve and Reserved shall be the terms.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00266", "bookId": 8438, "start": 129689, "end": 129763, "sha256": "9fcad0e637d98b7f11529ed8e455bef44bb28fedd17c8256550602d4ae33a863", "text": "II. In respect of what is pleasant in the way of relaxation or amusement.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00267", "bookId": 8438, "start": 129767, "end": 129981, "sha256": "1acc08fd5448ad36742d0d3ef71a6c6bc2a28f154f4dec17d0ebc72f3026c733", "text": "The mean state shall be called Easy-pleasantry, and the character accordingly a man of Easy-pleasantry; the excess Buffoonery, and the man a Buffoon; the man deficient herein a Clown, and his state Clownishness.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00268", "bookId": 8438, "start": 129985, "end": 130035, "sha256": "f5f195b5f010e8d531cc2da497d912d9472d2ec58adf7fe81d175721fed385f6", "text": "III. In respect of what is pleasant in daily life.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00269", "bookId": 8438, "start": 130039, "end": 130319, "sha256": "c52eb14b01e76ef545d847223ed7edf873bac7a09b1f1100753c6820f8fc6075", "text": "He that is as he should be may be called Friendly, and his mean state Friendliness: he that exceeds, if it be without any interested motive, somewhat too Complaisant, if with such motive, a Flatterer: he that is deficient and in all instances unpleasant, Quarrelsome and Cross.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00270", "bookId": 8438, "start": 130323, "end": 130808, "sha256": "2dc5c4d8408c40316cb684e00715df136ca2e5bb88a22be47811d79bafcafc17", "text": "There are mean states likewise in feelings and matters concerning them. Shamefacedness, for instance, is no virtue, still a man is praised for being shamefaced: for in these too the one is denominated the man in the mean state, the other in the excess; the Dumbfoundered, for instance, who is overwhelmed with shame on all and any occasions: the man who is in the defect, _i.e._ who has no shame at all in his composition, is called Shameless: but the right character Shamefaced.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00271", "bookId": 8438, "start": 130812, "end": 131284, "sha256": "c536e93ffa7640ca597945f1b1f0fcb1d7918d3be98b9e3e5bc93c08d0d39809", "text": "Indignation against successful vice,[19] again, is a state in the mean between Envy and Malevolence: they all three have respect to pleasure and pain produced by what happens to one’s neighbour: for the man who has this right feeling is annoyed at undeserved success of others, while the envious man goes beyond him and is annoyed at all success of others, and the malevolent falls so far short of feeling annoyance that he even rejoices [at misfortune of others].", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00272", "bookId": 8438, "start": 131288, "end": 131582, "sha256": "bab6c07c50c0f80ddf08494de46ffab54a148b17193958404701b9bfa7cb3326", "text": "But for the discussion of these also there will be another opportunity, as of Justice too, because the term is used in more senses than one. So after this we will go accurately into each and say how they are mean states: and in like manner also with respect to the Intellectual Excellences.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00273", "bookId": 8438, "start": 131586, "end": 131599, "sha256": "d004d8c3a629800899066ec30aebdc9b11ed7932971144d5b44dd4b9f1c6f736", "text": "Chapter VIII.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00274", "bookId": 8438, "start": 131603, "end": 132592, "sha256": "5b7d26ce203213e3816fb951fadc6afac8de1e3390ee0bfb90eee27bca5c674c", "text": "Now as there are three states in each case, two faulty either in the way of excess or defect, and one right, which is the mean state, of course all are in a way opposed to one another; the extremes, for instance, not only to the mean but also to one another, and the mean to the extremes: for just as the half is greater if compared with the less portion, and less if compared with the greater, so the mean states, compared with the defects, exceed, whether in feelings or actions, and _vice versa_. The brave man, for instance, shows as rash when compared with the coward, and cowardly when compared with the rash; similarly too the man of perfected self-mastery, viewed in comparison with the man destitute of all perception, shows like a man of no self-control, but in comparison with the man who really has no self-control, he looks like one destitute of all perception: and the liberal man compared with the stingy seems prodigal, and by the side of the prodigal, stingy.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00275", "bookId": 8438, "start": 132596, "end": 133099, "sha256": "f5979790037d310db7278c1638429fe1f69bcdc7751870b6db441d4f075f3b7e", "text": "And so the extreme characters push away, so to speak, towards each other the man in the mean state; the brave man is called a rash man by the coward, and a coward by the rash man, and in the other cases accordingly. And there being this mutual opposition, the contrariety between the extremes is greater than between either and the mean, because they are further from one another than from the mean, just as the greater or less portion differ more from each other than either from the exact half.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00276", "bookId": 8438, "start": 133103, "end": 133438, "sha256": "f709c4604482bfbb511834d4eb722ebbc0f06cde0090973e0d2788c79d9519af", "text": "Again, in some cases an extreme will bear a resemblance to the mean; rashness, for instance, to courage, and prodigality to liberality; but between the extremes there is the greatest dissimilarity. Now things which are furthest from one another[20] are defined to be contrary, and so the further off the more contrary will they be.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00277", "bookId": 8438, "start": 133442, "end": 133771, "sha256": "b7ec49bbdc95eb31852f6117faaf20399b63c17f20cce22c3388cabfb77903e8", "text": "Further: of the extremes in some cases the excess, and in others the defect, is most opposed to the mean: to courage, for instance, not rashness which is the excess, but cowardice which is the defect; whereas to perfected self-mastery not insensibility which is the defect but absence of all self-control which is the excess.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00278", "bookId": 8438, "start": 133775, "end": 134658, "sha256": "208693728816f51bd7c887b68f292aa41222fb6297dae8025c1477c793a32699", "text": "And for this there are two reasons to be given; one from the nature of the thing itself, because from the one extreme being nearer and more like the mean, we do not put this against it, but the other; as, for instance, since rashness is thought to be nearer to courage than cowardice is, and to resemble it more, we put cowardice against courage rather than rashness, because those things which are further from the mean are thought to be more contrary to it. This then is one reason arising from the thing itself; there is another arising from our own constitution and make: for in each man’s own case those things give the impression of being more contrary to the mean to which we individually have a natural bias. Thus we have a natural bias towards pleasures, for which reason we are much more inclined to the rejection of all self-control, than to self-discipline.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00279", "bookId": 8438, "start": 134662, "end": 134836, "sha256": "10f6d8f0889cc981b71a34cecc7e74ffe1a682d36b053e263c48d120d45dc725", "text": "These things then to which the bias is, we call more contrary, and so total want of self-control (the excess) is more contrary than the defect is to perfected self-mastery.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00280", "bookId": 8438, "start": 134840, "end": 134851, "sha256": "592ec521344802b54bcc4f362dcb57feb55da0d05682ea5774b06c9cd5ee0ce4", "text": "Chapter IX.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00281", "bookId": 8438, "start": 134855, "end": 135164, "sha256": "9c2b2c5b782a1fe251a4afce3f84af51c5fae884e1331878c33054ca7e9813c3", "text": "Now that Moral Virtue is a mean state, and how it is so, and that it lies between two faulty states, one in the way of excess and another in the way of defect, and that it is so because it has an aptitude to aim at the mean both in feelings and actions, all this has been set forth fully and sufficiently.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00282", "bookId": 8438, "start": 135168, "end": 135703, "sha256": "ac03651d09d659adefda02282a434966d7305e0f84c2def28ef706905e525cf6", "text": "And so it is hard to be good: for surely hard it is in each instance to find the mean, just as to find the mean point or centre of a circle is not what any man can do, but only he who knows how: just so to be angry, to give money, and be expensive, is what any man can do, and easy: but to do these to the right person, in due proportion, at the right time, with a right object, and in the right manner, this is not as before what any man can do, nor is it easy; and for this cause goodness is rare, and praiseworthy, and noble.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00283", "bookId": 8438, "start": 135707, "end": 135896, "sha256": "8908baa4fcfb36a5ad6c5d30f4e88dea8752ee5faad1bc95a0851b7ef46ca444", "text": "Therefore he who aims at the mean should make it his first care to keep away from that extreme which is more contrary than the other to the mean; just as Calypso in Homer advises Ulysses,", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00284", "bookId": 8438, "start": 135900, "end": 135954, "sha256": "f796f6c4f379e24394a31d26a6e3b7b024adcb0d4079fb8568a1bfc0e4f04569", "text": "“Clear of this smoke and surge thy barque direct;”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00285", "bookId": 8438, "start": 135958, "end": 136224, "sha256": "31eca924afb85806c41d03d06f9181286105f3cbb430f69440eca499c5e63526", "text": "because of the two extremes the one is always more, and the other less, erroneous; and, therefore, since to hit exactly on the mean is difficult, one must take the least of the evils as the safest plan;[21] and this a man will be doing, if he follows this method.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00286", "bookId": 8438, "start": 136228, "end": 136619, "sha256": "77f0b7efaf982ac7f4f1fe786422796b0aa74f24d7dc77fc578126ebaab9f616", "text": "We ought also to take into consideration our own natural bias; which varies in each man’s case, and will be ascertained from the pleasure and pain arising in us. Furthermore, we should force ourselves off in the contrary direction, because we shall find ourselves in the mean after we have removed ourselves far from the wrong side, exactly as men do in straightening bent timber.[22]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00287", "bookId": 8438, "start": 136623, "end": 136759, "sha256": "d6cc57d4a91eba63471d93f81cae5ce917b135fa24c18c04d7f41583da4dd28d", "text": "But in all cases we must guard most carefully against what is pleasant, and pleasure itself, because we are not impartial judges of it.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00288", "bookId": 8438, "start": 136763, "end": 136957, "sha256": "c75617de56bf67c202caea923601c20350cd69e7e4e44b534f2c51c70f4f1b6a", "text": "We ought to feel in fact towards pleasure as did the old counsellors towards Helen, and in all cases pronounce a similar sentence; for so by sending it away from us, we shall err the less.[23]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00289", "bookId": 8438, "start": 136961, "end": 137076, "sha256": "d60ad3c2cadda5377cb41470ee28194a47e7b717459fc9cb5de25fe1fb2c71c6", "text": "Well, to speak very briefly, these are the precautions by adopting which we shall be best able to attain the mean.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00290", "bookId": 8438, "start": 137080, "end": 137495, "sha256": "0a3884b9a5eec9f56a32ed73d7329c75abfc97b8eac79e9eba204b9e36106b3f", "text": "Still, perhaps, after all it is a matter of difficulty, and specially in the particular instances: it is not easy, for instance, to determine exactly in what manner, with what persons, for what causes, and for what length of time, one ought to feel anger: for we ourselves sometimes praise those who are defective in this feeling, and we call them meek; at another, we term the hot-tempered manly and spirited.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00291", "bookId": 8438, "start": 137499, "end": 137993, "sha256": "9666b69da2b30a0442f1eff35a43aa936eaadada5f925fbd15ae4e5008725ec7", "text": "Then, again, he who makes a small deflection from what is right, be it on the side of too much or too little, is not blamed, only he who makes a considerable one; for he cannot escape observation. But to what point or degree a man must err in order to incur blame, it is not easy to determine exactly in words: nor in fact any of those points which are matter of perception by the Moral Sense: such questions are matters of detail, and the decision of them rests with the Moral Sense.[24]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00292", "bookId": 8438, "start": 137997, "end": 138263, "sha256": "3ce287257a760652c3f739e25f63df1c4fb3d5115fc8817905568fe976b8a77b", "text": "At all events thus much is plain, that the mean state is in all things praiseworthy, and that practically we must deflect sometimes towards excess sometimes towards defect, because this will be the easiest method of hitting on the mean, that is, on what is right.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00293", "bookId": 8438, "start": 138273, "end": 138281, "sha256": "06de55f2a20249a368a757d548c19d28b0b1a51874ac220d4b5bf822336bd6ce", "text": "BOOK III", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00294", "bookId": 8438, "start": 138285, "end": 138295, "sha256": "5a35eafc731a2640e14da7e928f9e9a89afe4fe2a1f9a9a349887b8fb6d795cd", "text": "Chapter I.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00295", "bookId": 8438, "start": 138299, "end": 138778, "sha256": "e8e4b78d818377ccb16785d1aeb2e7d21c495beabee1a1640f3fd8d31aa40607", "text": "Now since Virtue is concerned with the regulation of feelings and actions, and praise and blame arise upon such as are voluntary, while for the involuntary allowance is made, and sometimes compassion is excited, it is perhaps a necessary task for those who are investigating the nature of Virtue to draw out the distinction between what is voluntary and what involuntary; and it is certainly useful for legislators, with respect to the assigning of honours and punishments.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00296", "bookId": 8438, "start": 138782, "end": 139175, "sha256": "92c92a253ac8e4f450ef432409075d45d0a89dfdc49d4116ad450861770d721c", "text": "Involuntary actions then are thought to be of two kinds, being done either on compulsion, or by reason of ignorance. An action is, properly speaking, compulsory, when the origination is external to the agent, being such that in it the agent (perhaps we may more properly say the patient) contributes nothing; as if a wind were to convey you anywhere, or men having power over your person.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00297", "bookId": 8438, "start": 139179, "end": 139564, "sha256": "92b1cea142516ab01882d1e526d40216a7e7ba0314300477466febf10ea573d0", "text": "But when actions are done, either from fear of greater evils, or from some honourable motive, as, for instance, if you were ordered to commit some base act by a despot who had your parents or children in his power, and they were to be saved upon your compliance or die upon your refusal, in such cases there is room for a question whether the actions are voluntary or involuntary.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00298", "bookId": 8438, "start": 139568, "end": 139802, "sha256": "5a07f3c5fb5e9c0172b631e710676bbc784c2ab7e9aa8831bd2096163b59c282", "text": "A similar question arises with respect to cases of throwing goods overboard in a storm: abstractedly no man throws away his property willingly, but with a view to his own and his shipmates’ safety any one would who had any sense.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00299", "bookId": 8438, "start": 139806, "end": 140356, "sha256": "7a142ed940879776fd0d30cac463e447914649fa33ed77761a028bbafbeb68d9", "text": "The truth is, such actions are of a mixed kind, but are most like voluntary actions; for they are choice-worthy at the time when they are being done, and the end or object of the action must be taken with reference to the actual occasion. Further, we must denominate an action voluntary or involuntary at the time of doing it: now in the given case the man acts voluntarily, because the originating of the motion of his limbs in such actions rests with himself; and where the origination is in himself it rests with himself to do or not to do.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00300", "bookId": 8438, "start": 140360, "end": 140502, "sha256": "c92c13169ab7ba8825204dcf081a9b5572dc33e9e4e7227a9cd1b3c321120ede", "text": "Such actions then are voluntary, though in the abstract perhaps involuntary because no one would choose any of such things in and by itself.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00301", "bookId": 8438, "start": 140506, "end": 140799, "sha256": "48634aa4325f7cbe02472dc65c38359a28e5c07d078349d6fded714a15e5146a", "text": "But for such actions men sometimes are even praised, as when they endure any disgrace or pain to secure great and honourable equivalents; if _vice versâ_, then they are blamed, because it shows a base mind to endure things very disgraceful for no honourable object, or for a trifling one.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00302", "bookId": 8438, "start": 140803, "end": 141007, "sha256": "427b94c2fb2163bc3c0824cd8a183ab74dfd046b3567323a30bf0102acbf6c78", "text": "For some again no praise is given, but allowance is made; as where a man does what he should not by reason of such things as overstrain the powers of human nature, or pass the limits of human endurance.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00303", "bookId": 8438, "start": 141011, "end": 141249, "sha256": "6a98474fe0b5a207d5f4dbce99ed3fd2ca1269d5b5fefe4da273041e2c7ad2ba", "text": "Some acts perhaps there are for which compulsion cannot be pleaded, but a man should rather suffer the worst and die; how absurd, for instance, are the pleas of compulsion with which Alcmaeon in Euripides’ play excuses his matricide!", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00304", "bookId": 8438, "start": 141253, "end": 141597, "sha256": "7fa8647e100594595d4c42f6505154ecf523c6163d751bea19eb23c8b5f58cb0", "text": "But it is difficult sometimes to decide what kind of thing should be chosen instead of what, or what endured in preference to what, and much moreso to abide by one’s decisions: for in general the alternatives are painful, and the actions required are base, and so praise or blame is awarded according as persons have been compelled or no.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00305", "bookId": 8438, "start": 141601, "end": 142203, "sha256": "74c2dfdfc649c11d7c2682ac4b0a00756d7b44983ff80b86ec0b7d70ce464c81", "text": "What kind of actions then are to be called compulsory? may we say, simply and abstractedly whenever the cause is external and the agent contributes nothing; and that where the acts are in themselves such as one would not wish but choice-worthy at the present time and in preference to such and such things, and where the origination rests with the agent, the actions are in themselves involuntary but at the given time and in preference to such and such things voluntary; and they are more like voluntary than involuntary, because the actions consist of little details, and these are voluntary.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00306", "bookId": 8438, "start": 142207, "end": 142350, "sha256": "33a8bd48f78227725a94cb99b09497fd760ca287ee01cd292d6d361eed7b4d29", "text": "But what kind of things one ought to choose instead of what, it is not easy to settle, for there are many differences in particular instances.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00307", "bookId": 8438, "start": 142354, "end": 142580, "sha256": "48409dcc5c56d43d05c373ee5848448c2985dbc8ec52505c11a991b958e00d23", "text": "But suppose a person should say, things pleasant and honourable exert a compulsive force (for that they are external and do compel); at that rate every action is on compulsion, because these are universal motives of action.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00308", "bookId": 8438, "start": 142584, "end": 142739, "sha256": "2dec32a196b0f1ba403c3989052a71449ee17796cc34e620c30a2be53c5dd952", "text": "Again, they who act on compulsion and against their will do so with pain; but they who act by reason of what is pleasant or honourable act with pleasure.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00309", "bookId": 8438, "start": 142743, "end": 142965, "sha256": "8551ac5491afd9df0e0b9bf934d3972440e6a874d896ad2a6f5a7224930772a0", "text": "It is truly absurd for a man to attribute his actions to external things instead of to his own capacity for being easily caught by them;[1] or, again, to ascribe the honourable to himself, and the base ones to pleasure.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00310", "bookId": 8438, "start": 142969, "end": 143088, "sha256": "bfab959a5a5fe8e049859a28d3790fdad07f0be8bf63d3e6874683e9c20e5a3a", "text": "So then that seems to be compulsory “whose origination is from without, the party compelled contributing nothing.”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00311", "bookId": 8438, "start": 143092, "end": 143103, "sha256": "9ce6d96fa540de49002e2340d430460f2ee679453301a35db1cf5cf6c0ed967f", "text": "Chapter II.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00312", "bookId": 8438, "start": 143107, "end": 143501, "sha256": "714bc9c95e1168ac02340d1b631529383173cab8f590cf4179c3797a1d66a64e", "text": "Now every action of which ignorance is the cause is not-voluntary, but that only is involuntary which is attended with pain and remorse; for clearly the man who has done anything by reason of ignorance, but is not annoyed at his own action, cannot be said to have done it _with_ his will because he did not know he was doing it, nor again _against_ his will because he is not sorry for it.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00313", "bookId": 8438, "start": 143505, "end": 143824, "sha256": "1746971bf256282b09417ac65b56d0a87ad1e429e52e0aa9df72d85685b65504", "text": "So then of the class “acting by reason of ignorance,” he who feels regret afterwards is thought to be an involuntary agent, and him that has no such feeling, since he certainly is different from the other, we will call a not-voluntary agent; for as there is a real difference it is better to have a proper name.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00314", "bookId": 8438, "start": 143828, "end": 144130, "sha256": "cc14fadcbf2c57a9440771617e281aa0056ab3b79140ed831d549eada862e892", "text": "Again, there seems to be a difference between acting _because of_ ignorance and acting _with_ ignorance: for instance, we do not usually assign ignorance as the cause of the actions of the drunken or angry man, but either the drunkenness or the anger, yet they act not knowingly but with ignorance.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00315", "bookId": 8438, "start": 144134, "end": 144276, "sha256": "17dd5c2af35ded49cd026110a9dcb3acf10016bc805107523356f1ba0644ca6f", "text": "Again, every bad man is ignorant what he ought to do and what to leave undone, and by reason of such error men become unjust and wholly evil.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00316", "bookId": 8438, "start": 144280, "end": 144790, "sha256": "3cbafcd4b1ffc31cd4e38ba84512741e0b602fed8826771e2f97b500577f476a", "text": "Again, we do not usually apply the term involuntary when a man is ignorant of his own true interest;[2] because ignorance which affects moral choice[3] constitutes depravity but not involuntariness: nor does any ignorance of principle (because for this men are blamed) but ignorance in particular details, wherein consists the action and wherewith it is concerned, for in these there is both compassion and allowance, because he who acts in ignorance of any of them acts in a proper sense involuntarily.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00317", "bookId": 8438, "start": 144794, "end": 145109, "sha256": "84fcfd40e111f9b33e25d007b5aef60a35e5a49f26429cf9eba7cd6967bc4646", "text": "It may be as well, therefore, to define these particular details; what they are, and how many; viz. who acts, what he is doing, with respect to what or in what, sometimes with what, as with what instrument, and with what result;[4] as that of preservation, for instance, and how, as whether softly or violently.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00318", "bookId": 8438, "start": 145113, "end": 145862, "sha256": "f06547c1f10099a1a74857cf6db874fdbb4d795697e0b229c5e9b5c0647d3520", "text": "All these particulars, in one and the same case, no man in his senses could be ignorant of; plainly not of the agent, being himself. But what he is doing a man may be ignorant, as men in speaking say a thing escaped them unawares; or as Aeschylus did with respect to the Mysteries, that he was not aware that it was unlawful to speak of them; or as in the case of that catapult accident the other day the man said he discharged it merely to display its operation. Or a person might suppose a son to be an enemy, as Merope did; or that the spear really pointed was rounded off; or that the stone was a pumice; or in striking with a view to save might kill; or might strike when merely wishing to show another, as people do in sham-fighting.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00319", "bookId": 8438, "start": 145866, "end": 146188, "sha256": "fb1d8e6632f71e8a613a7f9d067c944042ca239682e899c9f3d88bf03d8bfa1f", "text": "Now since ignorance is possible in respect to all these details in which the action consists, he that acted in ignorance of any of them is thought to have acted involuntarily, and he most so who was in ignorance as regards the most important, which are thought to be those in which the action consists, and the result.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00320", "bookId": 8438, "start": 146192, "end": 146363, "sha256": "a9713c1a93b1c9bf9438d8387c231f6f8364e337b0a273e184b0d8d4241283af", "text": "Further, not only must the ignorance be of this kind, to constitute an action involuntary, but it must be also understood that the action is followed by pain and regret.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00321", "bookId": 8438, "start": 146367, "end": 146379, "sha256": "c8c3757d774efbadade98d84b627377e281082435aed3cf63f66253a8af48e64", "text": "Chapter III.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00322", "bookId": 8438, "start": 146383, "end": 146622, "sha256": "d0b900edbbb5cfbdee821864770f5668b7c39df3bfb375193d3661c524c8dc3e", "text": "Now since all involuntary action is either upon compulsion or by reason of ignorance, Voluntary Action would seem to be “that whose origination is in the agent, he being aware of the particular details in which the action consists.”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00323", "bookId": 8438, "start": 146626, "end": 146745, "sha256": "031aa412a0c212b1298c7bcbf68290c0b90f25b344f42ea5b58e7faea2f201c5", "text": "For, it may be, men are not justified by calling those actions involuntary, which are done by reason of Anger or Lust.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00324", "bookId": 8438, "start": 146749, "end": 147393, "sha256": "fe909cd23961eac81e1622588923bffd5b18ea00fa67a95af640f277d5fd190a", "text": "Because, in the first place, if this be so no other animal but man, and not even children, can be said to act voluntarily. Next, is it meant that we never act voluntarily when we act from Lust or Anger, or that we act voluntarily in doing what is right and involuntarily in doing what is discreditable? The latter supposition is absurd, since the cause is one and the same. Then as to the former, it is a strange thing to maintain actions to be involuntary which we are bound to grasp at: now there are occasions on which anger is a duty,[5] and there are things which we are bound to lust after,[6] health, for instance, and learning.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00325", "bookId": 8438, "start": 147397, "end": 147545, "sha256": "88f5f492eb5ff602c73dddafa439a75826c943f9953fbd0c3d053a1069fe533c", "text": "Again, whereas actions strictly involuntary are thought to be attended with pain, those which are done to gratify lust are thought to be pleasant.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00326", "bookId": 8438, "start": 147549, "end": 147967, "sha256": "3f124e74d92e9b2ce09b4023469167cf0b86fc4d06bc4a0dbc4551e4c6fffae2", "text": "Again: how does the involuntariness make any difference[7] between wrong actions done from deliberate calculation, and those done by reason of anger? for both ought to be avoided, and the irrational feelings are thought to be just as natural to man as reason, and so of course must be such actions of the individual as are done from Anger and Lust. It is absurd then to class these actions among the involuntary.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00327", "bookId": 8438, "start": 147971, "end": 147982, "sha256": "3186d98bcee8266853ace5b1a5e20557973e585ee48419d596c2b2610a3f68b2", "text": "Chapter IV.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00328", "bookId": 8438, "start": 147986, "end": 148260, "sha256": "5d49d94ca456214df62f24b1486fcd0cbb54bba34d1b1378eea03b7b412381ee", "text": "Having thus drawn out the distinction between voluntary and involuntary action our next step is to examine into the nature of Moral Choice, because this seems most intimately connected with Virtue and to be a more decisive test of moral character than a man’s acts are.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00329", "bookId": 8438, "start": 148264, "end": 148562, "sha256": "d6f0af10f494738cb0971b2676df31dd8cd051a7da50c05485492b52c0a99dff", "text": "Now Moral Choice is plainly voluntary, but the two are not co-extensive, voluntary being the more comprehensive term; for first, children and all other animals share in voluntary action but not in Moral Choice; and next, sudden actions we call voluntary but do not ascribe them to Moral Choice.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00330", "bookId": 8438, "start": 148566, "end": 149016, "sha256": "2466738f176a8ce77826da25f41eb80e556d4021903c81f37c2b73ddf9e934e9", "text": "Nor do they appear to be right who say it is lust or anger, or wish, or opinion of a certain kind; because, in the first place, Moral Choice is not shared by the irrational animals while Lust and Anger are. Next; the man who fails of self-control acts from Lust but not from Moral Choice; the man of self-control, on the contrary, from Moral Choice, not from Lust. Again: whereas Lust is frequently opposed to Moral Choice, Lust is not to Lust.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00331", "bookId": 8438, "start": 149020, "end": 149269, "sha256": "8e76f9f48eb3c4b503f222d7fe55f54cb49ccad15015a2b81e75bbabc1e7ebd4", "text": "Lastly: the object-matter of Lust is the pleasant and the painful, but of Moral Choice neither the one nor the other. Still less can it be Anger, because actions done from Anger are thought generally to be least of all consequent on Moral Choice.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00332", "bookId": 8438, "start": 149273, "end": 149578, "sha256": "1368a43c679c9adecff0ff0d836a4c64018426cb42bb17d3e3395fae7d6bd6e1", "text": "Nor is it Wish either, though appearing closely connected with it; because, in the first place, Moral Choice has not for its objects impossibilities, and if a man were to say he chose them he would be thought to be a fool; but Wish may have impossible things for its objects, immortality for instance.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00333", "bookId": 8438, "start": 149582, "end": 149855, "sha256": "bb50ee754d134c8a39f86407622af61affa09f2d5912d67d1ab192981c58ca88", "text": "Wish again may be exercised on things in the accomplishment of which one’s self could have nothing to do, as the success of any particular actor or athlete; but no man chooses things of this nature, only such as he believes he may himself be instrumental in procuring.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00334", "bookId": 8438, "start": 149859, "end": 150237, "sha256": "74f371ee2b3ea0ced357995ed119ea1d20dd8ebd53825438a7a6a7ab7532ffcb", "text": "Further: Wish has for its object the End rather, but Moral Choice the means to the End; for instance, we wish to be healthy but we choose the means which will make us so; or happiness again we wish for, and commonly say so, but to say we choose is not an appropriate term, because, in short, the province of Moral Choice seems to be those things which are in our own power.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00335", "bookId": 8438, "start": 150241, "end": 150537, "sha256": "f1a960dd857b25cf6731275643212aaa3551be39993a11624bfc1487fed1ff41", "text": "Neither can it be Opinion; for Opinion is thought to be unlimited in its range of objects, and to be exercised as well upon things eternal and impossible as on those which are in our own power: again, Opinion is logically divided into true and false, not into good and bad as Moral Choice is.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00336", "bookId": 8438, "start": 150541, "end": 150789, "sha256": "db2ca3d04d26fe23f2922598cc37f30f6537795ce95e82c395af010fe1bf7be0", "text": "However, nobody perhaps maintains its identity with Opinion simply; but it is not the same with opinion of any kind,[8] because by choosing good and bad things we are constituted of a certain character, but by having opinions on them we are not.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00337", "bookId": 8438, "start": 150793, "end": 150947, "sha256": "631e0078427f1fdd605d5c6a66af0d303cb03dc77f12e3b16584761d9d8b4fc9", "text": "Again, we choose to take or avoid, and so on, but we opine what a thing is, or for what it is serviceable, or how; but we do not opine to take or avoid.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00338", "bookId": 8438, "start": 150951, "end": 151101, "sha256": "fcc7d7b8c72eb5758f3d6f7b5ed952f1a91306f067ab64cd7b6996ccf0ba7ccb", "text": "Further, Moral Choice is commended rather for having a right object than for being judicious, but Opinion for being formed in accordance with truth.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00339", "bookId": 8438, "start": 151105, "end": 151232, "sha256": "7167fe52ced8f723611e428f8e9ec3585fa20634e5f42e61746af3d5b7516d63", "text": "Again, we choose such things as we pretty well know to be good, but we form opinions respecting such as we do not know at all.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00340", "bookId": 8438, "start": 151236, "end": 151422, "sha256": "1cc2bc823380bbf3fdc28f128aca81a1fc4f60b6aae3a576ffb6ebb79970d91b", "text": "And it is not thought that choosing and opining best always go together, but that some opine the better course and yet by reason of viciousness choose not the things which they should.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00341", "bookId": 8438, "start": 151426, "end": 151645, "sha256": "b95aecdbef1936d77c3ec9eb7273f47da9377e99dce6ceb2d961ca1342eeca8e", "text": "It may be urged, that Opinion always precedes or accompanies Moral Choice; be it so, this makes no difference, for this is not the point in question, but whether Moral Choice is the same as Opinion of a certain kind.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00342", "bookId": 8438, "start": 151649, "end": 152136, "sha256": "1742a0553deea110132f590c36886336ff305a0290eb366aeff95563eab97dce", "text": "Since then it is none of the aforementioned things, what is it, or how is it characterised? Voluntary it plainly is, but not all voluntary action is an object of Moral Choice. May we not say then, it is “that voluntary which has passed through a stage of previous deliberation?” because Moral Choice is attended with reasoning and intellectual process. The etymology of its Greek name seems to give a hint of it, being when analysed “chosen in preference to somewhat else.”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00343", "bookId": 8438, "start": 152140, "end": 152150, "sha256": "89204e68d094a6a77f968119f40fec5f77d7676bf38cb1b47cd0ab87d3d2fea2", "text": "Chapter V.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00344", "bookId": 8438, "start": 152154, "end": 152488, "sha256": "7e10c184d6e953fd4c7372a76fa3024febe0630e69dd694168d22f45037c17c9", "text": "Well then; do men deliberate about everything, and is anything soever the object of Deliberation, or are there some matters with respect to which there is none? (It may be as well perhaps to say, that by “object of Deliberation” is meant such matter as a sensible man would deliberate upon, not what any fool or madman might.)", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00345", "bookId": 8438, "start": 152492, "end": 152636, "sha256": "21eefe44ca7f2c77e9d628da75db3adadd8a28880ca5bde24d7cc8215082158f", "text": "Well: about eternal things no one deliberates; as, for instance, the universe, or the incommensurability of the diameter and side of a square.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00346", "bookId": 8438, "start": 152640, "end": 152817, "sha256": "eb6a412fed3ca489f9726712ab5cbb32485bccba7ca944f18d7a42f84ebbd53b", "text": "Nor again about things which are in motion but which always happen in the same way either necessarily, or naturally, or from some other cause, as the solstices or the sunrise.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00347", "bookId": 8438, "start": 152821, "end": 152927, "sha256": "04c0653a91941dfb4959d6081353ddbc36821fc14ef8a6ffe418fa11ace9ee4f", "text": "Nor about those which are variable, as drought and rains; nor fortuitous matters, as finding of treasure.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00348", "bookId": 8438, "start": 152931, "end": 153134, "sha256": "02dacda5ad398f215a50c38a6e721d907795f4e7bc16cadd0f313e6afdfcaf4b", "text": "Nor in fact even about all human affairs; no Lacedæmonian, for instance, deliberates as to the best course for the Scythian government to adopt; because in such cases we have no power over the result.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00349", "bookId": 8438, "start": 153138, "end": 153269, "sha256": "f1c1ecd655d0e2e68cb8a2f3cf23fb2a6145df9c13495b72c713d1d4052e39f9", "text": "But we do deliberate respecting such practical matters as are in our own power (which are what are left after all our exclusions).", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00350", "bookId": 8438, "start": 153273, "end": 153417, "sha256": "7c527609bf3c04d7d4db6523ef7029ba6089d61d1074b9c0b23a4a41c7c483ac", "text": "I have adopted this division because causes seem to be divisible into nature, necessity, chance, and moreover intellect, and all human powers.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00351", "bookId": 8438, "start": 153421, "end": 153594, "sha256": "d90091abfcfe07adfae20bdaea9b64b80904107d9fc121e470b7a95954a9b74b", "text": "And as man in general deliberates about what man in general can effect, so individuals do about such practical things as can be effected through their own instrumentality.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00352", "bookId": 8438, "start": 153598, "end": 154230, "sha256": "cbc5d1f6021539bba045a8821485c5d3b70fb668f4c2c5e6f797f0e59040cd5b", "text": "Again, we do not deliberate respecting such arts or sciences as are exact and independent: as, for instance, about written characters, because we have no doubt how they should be formed; but we do deliberate on all buch things as are usually done through our own instrumentality, but not invariably in the same way; as, for instance, about matters connected with the healing art, or with money-making; and, again, more about piloting ships than gymnastic exercises, because the former has been less exactly determined, and so forth; and more about arts than sciences, because we more frequently doubt respecting the former.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00353", "bookId": 8438, "start": 154234, "end": 154522, "sha256": "0edb8d67a5d52fe7cb896e6fc2ba079a1d9398dccb27d3b2b321573cb0d043de", "text": "So then Deliberation takes place in such matters as are under general laws, but still uncertain how in any given case they will issue, _i.e._ in which there is some indefiniteness; and for great matters we associate coadjutors in counsel, distrusting our ability to settle them alone.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00354", "bookId": 8438, "start": 154526, "end": 155731, "sha256": "532122c5b7b95993fc82a5666978fe5dffbf376f4d4bce0a39340a3e3e5fab2f", "text": "Further, we deliberate not about Ends, but Means to Ends. No physician, for instance, deliberates whether he will cure, nor orator whether he will persuade, nor statesman whether he will produce a good constitution, nor in fact any man in any other function about his particular End; but having set before them a certain End they look how and through what means it may be accomplished: if there is a choice of means, they examine further which are easiest and most creditable; or, if there is but one means of accomplishing the object, then how it may be through this, this again through what, till they come to the first cause; and this will be the last found; for a man engaged in a process of deliberation seems to seek and analyse, as a man, to solve a problem, analyses the figure given him. And plainly not every search is Deliberation, those in mathematics to wit, but every Deliberation is a search, and the last step in the analysis is the first in the constructive process. And if in the course of their search men come upon an impossibility, they give it up; if money, for instance, be necessary, but cannot be got: but if the thing appears possible they then attempt to do it.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00355", "bookId": 8438, "start": 155735, "end": 156158, "sha256": "1de8653d2f5bbc5837ac91436d035e730f9dfca3e5aaecb15b2bafe77332bda5", "text": "And by possible I mean what may be done through our own instrumentality (of course what may be done through our friends is through our own instrumentality in a certain sense, because the origination in such cases rests with us). And the object of search is sometimes the necessary instruments, sometimes the method of using them; and similarly in the rest sometimes through what, and sometimes how or through what.[9]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00356", "bookId": 8438, "start": 156162, "end": 156466, "sha256": "72e42ad0493a3eaf4568ac384db97d0b332aad83c61695fe5de1569f5de467eb", "text": "So it seems, as has been said, that Man is the originator of his actions; and Deliberation has for its object whatever may be done through one’s own instrumentality, and the actions are with a view to other things; and so it is, not the End, but the Means to Ends on which Deliberation is employed.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00357", "bookId": 8438, "start": 156470, "end": 156711, "sha256": "057a94d7c5ee3899ace5e0147747f46c59ff54578716d60ab024417b090b4bfc", "text": "Nor, again, is it employed on matters of detail, as whether the substance before me is bread, or has been properly cooked; for these come under the province of sense, and if a man is to be always deliberating, he may go on _ad infinitum_.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00358", "bookId": 8438, "start": 156715, "end": 157398, "sha256": "26ed3fcc74bfda6a05e167fb1d8f0134bdedcffd1160c65dae4940b45a53e96e", "text": "Further, exactly the same matter is the object both of Deliberation and Moral Choice; but that which is the object of Moral Choice is thenceforward separated off and definite,[10] because by object of Moral Choice is denoted that which after Deliberation has been preferred to something else: for each man leaves off searching how he shall do a thing when he has brought the origination up to himself, _i.e_. to the governing principle in himself,[11] because it is this which makes the choice. A good illustration of this is furnished by the old regal constitutions which Homer drew from, in which the Kings would announce to the commonalty what they had determined before.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00359", "bookId": 8438, "start": 157402, "end": 157781, "sha256": "0a7fa18bb4bcebd6a4628ee457b22f8d18fbfb6ae36ad1aba5852f9edd67ee1c", "text": "Now since that which is the object of Moral Choice is something in our own power, which is the object of deliberation and the grasping of the Will, Moral Choice must be “a grasping after something in our own power consequent upon Deliberation:” because after having deliberated we decide, and then grasp by our Will in accordance with the result of our deliberation.[12]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00360", "bookId": 8438, "start": 157785, "end": 157899, "sha256": "8ddd38e2c69be9dca1ab6a5a181c871717c52ca471d5bd0b78ca24c9579be80a", "text": "Let this be accepted as a sketch of the nature and object of Moral Choice, that object being “Means to Ends.”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00361", "bookId": 8438, "start": 157903, "end": 157914, "sha256": "bb240dadd686b141825e647280d2d4b72d5f6bbd0f26d00f1faf792e029c0892", "text": "Chapter VI.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00362", "bookId": 8438, "start": 157918, "end": 158133, "sha256": "b551800abd3c866d550c49a742c4b545ceb2df4e0121212c88c13cd87908094b", "text": "That Wish has for its object-matter the End, has been already stated; but there are two opinions respecting it; some thinking that its object is real good, others whatever impresses the mind with a notion of good.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00363", "bookId": 8438, "start": 158137, "end": 158764, "sha256": "95932c122c336b75d98f0b6593c904a42c8291c31ea7249138e2e43e664a1716", "text": "Now those who maintain that the object of Wish is real good are beset by this difficulty, that what is wished for by him who chooses wrongly is not really an object of Wish (because, on their theory, if it is an object of wish, it must be good, but it is, in the case supposed, evil). Those who maintain, on the contrary, that that which impresses the mind with a notion of good is properly the object of Wish, have to meet this difficulty, that there is nothing naturally an object of Wish but to each individual whatever seems good to him; now different people have different notions, and it may chance contrary ones.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00364", "bookId": 8438, "start": 158768, "end": 159420, "sha256": "2519bd016e3a6d7525c7a82536e5e6645a67a57658415bb78bded219321a6b56", "text": "But, if these opinions do not satisfy us, may we not say that, abstractedly and as a matter of objective truth, the really good is the object of Wish, but to each individual whatever impresses his mind with the notion of good.[13] And so to the good man that is an object of Wish which is really and truly so, but to the bad man anything may be; just as physically those things are wholesome to the healthy which are really so, but other things to the sick. And so too of bitter and sweet, and hot and heavy, and so on. For the good man judges in every instance correctly, and in every instance the notion conveyed to his mind is the true one.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00365", "bookId": 8438, "start": 159424, "end": 159679, "sha256": "8862ec3389c1ae66c13fb0c0fb489335389a513279f958994b72003b31b0ff1e", "text": "For there are fair and pleasant things peculiar to, and so varying with, each state; and perhaps the most distinguishing characteristic of the good man is his seeing the truth in every instance, he being, in fact, the rule and measure of these matters.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00366", "bookId": 8438, "start": 159683, "end": 159909, "sha256": "18b5698c8807d80e2997118a0794fd3fae2c96367da024034e3032d098a60ff4", "text": "The multitude of men seem to be deceived by reason of pleasure, because though it is not really a good it impresses their minds with the notion of goodness, so they choose what is pleasant as good and avoid pain as an evil.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00367", "bookId": 8438, "start": 159913, "end": 159925, "sha256": "e3a88405865f388fd2bbf6c4cfc5874d7991e8951df2fcbc0435b1fbb2f839f3", "text": "Chapter VII.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00368", "bookId": 8438, "start": 159929, "end": 160218, "sha256": "1093a0c2be1bb3641878a1c545d559fa0d0086e02ad4eb04bb9f928bdb956105", "text": "Now since the End is the object of Wish, and the means to the End of Deliberation and Moral Choice, the actions regarding these matters must be in the way of Moral Choice, _i.e._ voluntary: but the acts of working out the virtues are such actions, and therefore Virtue is in our power.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00369", "bookId": 8438, "start": 160222, "end": 160509, "sha256": "bdd74e1745a274df784769dcac80c8b6044f603195d810e599f662dae690ea2e", "text": "And so too is Vice: because wherever it is in our power to do it is also in our power to forbear doing, and _vice versâ_: therefore if the doing (being in a given case creditable) is in our power, so too is the forbearing (which is in the same case discreditable), and _vice versâ_.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00370", "bookId": 8438, "start": 160513, "end": 160719, "sha256": "0bdc183654cfdb143238d6f7f82c54f4b2d0755b513ae42a78617dd0b8edef4b", "text": "But if it is in our power to do and to forbear doing what is creditable or the contrary, and these respectively constitute the being good or bad, then the being good or vicious characters is in our power.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00371", "bookId": 8438, "start": 160723, "end": 161068, "sha256": "85af6b0b3b5cbb60895df92b8e3feeb1dd4dfc88dfa387f3fe6810dadfef2069", "text": "As for the well-known saying, “No man voluntarily is wicked or involuntarily happy,” it is partly true, partly false; for no man is happy against his will, of course, but wickedness is voluntary. Or must we dispute the statements lately made, and not say that Man is the originator or generator of his actions as much as of his children?", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00372", "bookId": 8438, "start": 161072, "end": 161310, "sha256": "70b392c91199f8596c99e98c0257abbe1518c21ba5c421f8d3b3869520ad50c5", "text": "But if this is matter of plain manifest fact, and we cannot refer our actions to any other originations beside those in our own power, those things must be in our own power, and so voluntary, the originations of which are in ourselves.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00373", "bookId": 8438, "start": 161314, "end": 161986, "sha256": "99288dd22f83b2616163a2c2003022dffd04774caa00e8a1fbf0c5de5bd925a6", "text": "Moreover, testimony seems to be borne to these positions both privately by individuals, and by law-givers too, in that they chastise and punish those who do wrong (unless they do so on compulsion, or by reason of ignorance which is not self-caused), while they honour those who act rightly, under the notion of being likely to encourage the latter and restrain the former. But such things as are not in our own power, _i.e._ not voluntary, no one thinks of encouraging us to do, knowing it to be of no avail for one to have been persuaded not to be hot (for instance), or feel pain, or be hungry, and so forth, because we shall have those sensations all the same.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00374", "bookId": 8438, "start": 161990, "end": 162321, "sha256": "d9f37fc4424ab69fa35c487b5e78d865520f3fef1a6451560976c0a386e8337b", "text": "And what makes the case stronger is this: that they chastise for the very fact of ignorance, when it is thought to be self-caused; to the drunken, for instance, penalties are double, because the origination in such case lies in a man’s own self: for he might have helped getting drunk, and this is the cause of his ignorance.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00375", "bookId": 8438, "start": 162325, "end": 162665, "sha256": "5ede56d3aaae647bb1fdf589f97ff6e4b1bc22f4de73cb5ac013607018761210", "text": "Again, those also who are ignorant of legal regulations which they are bound to know, and which are not hard to know, they chastise; and similarly in all other cases where neglect is thought to be the cause of the ignorance, under the notion that it was in their power to prevent their ignorance, because they might have paid attention.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00376", "bookId": 8438, "start": 162669, "end": 163200, "sha256": "6270482fbb3a998c5f277eb1a09cfa95a10e229776b476e515b2f526d8f25b87", "text": "But perhaps a man is of such a character that he cannot attend to such things: still men are themselves the causes of having become such characters by living carelessly, and also of being unjust or destitute of self-control, the former by doing evil actions, the latter by spending their time in drinking and such-like; because the particular acts of working form corresponding characters, as is shown by those who are practising for any contest or particular course of action, for such men persevere in the acts of working.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00377", "bookId": 8438, "start": 163204, "end": 163361, "sha256": "8c0615c5099e3347e519bc48cde9a63f2aa08bfc1b78f640aac7d35c19b7341c", "text": "As for the plea, that a man did not know that habits are produced from separate acts of working, we reply, such ignorance is a mark of excessive stupidity.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00378", "bookId": 8438, "start": 163365, "end": 164437, "sha256": "aee66a131f66ed7d3445ccd59bd41a0c6857736de8977a393308bfb544ecbe2c", "text": "Furthermore, it is wholly irrelevant to say that the man who acts unjustly or dissolutely does not _wish_ to attain the habits of these vices: for if a man wittingly does those things whereby he must become unjust he is to all intents and purposes unjust voluntarily; but he cannot with a wish cease to be unjust and become just. For, to take the analogous case, the sick man cannot with a wish be well again, yet in a supposable case he is voluntarily ill because he has produced his sickness by living intemperately and disregarding his physicians. There was a time then when he might have helped being ill, but now he has let himself go he cannot any longer; just as he who has let a stone out of his hand cannot recall it,[14] and yet it rested with him to aim and throw it, because the origination was in his power. Just so the unjust man, and he who has lost all self-control, might originally have helped being what they are, and so they are voluntarily what they are; but now that they are become so they no longer have the power of being otherwise.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00379", "bookId": 8438, "start": 164441, "end": 165178, "sha256": "77c03e31fe5abf2af2caa2c4fd505015624743872b3bd38d22ac8ef1aee810c5", "text": "And not only are mental diseases voluntary, but the bodily are so in some men, whom we accordingly blame: for such as are naturally deformed no one blames, only such as are so by reason of want of exercise, and neglect: and so too of weakness and maiming: no one would think of upbraiding, but would rather compassionate, a man who is blind by nature, or from disease, or from an accident; but every one would blame him who was so from excess of wine, or any other kind of intemperance. It seems, then, that in respect of bodily diseases, those which depend on ourselves are censured, those which do not are not censured; and if so, then in the case of the mental disorders, those which are censured must depend upon ourselves.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00380", "bookId": 8438, "start": 165182, "end": 166321, "sha256": "aacd01f24d727be31d5c8b68ff8f09f34cafa3a1a1ee1534c6e10bf7b26286a3", "text": "But suppose a man to say, “that (by our own admission) all men aim at that which conveys to their minds an impression of good, and that men have no control over this impression, but that the End impresses each with a notion correspondent to his own individual character; that to be sure if each man is in a way the cause of his own moral state, so he will be also of the kind of impression he receives: whereas, if this is not so, no one is the cause to himself of doing evil actions, but he does them by reason of ignorance of the true End, supposing that through their means he will secure the chief good. Further, that this aiming at the End is no matter of one’s own choice, but one must be born with a power of mental vision, so to speak, whereby to judge fairly and choose that which is really good; and he is blessed by nature who has this naturally well: because it is the most important thing and the fairest, and what a man cannot get or learn from another but will have such as nature has given it; and for this to be so given well and fairly would be excellence of nature in the highest and truest sense.”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00381", "bookId": 8438, "start": 166325, "end": 166580, "sha256": "9f6ec1fe13dc2fc948605dc83f7389350795c41bbf6a1e691c090d20fa5f347f", "text": "If all this be true, how will Virtue be a whit more voluntary than Vice? Alike to the good man and the bad, the End gives its impression and is fixed by nature or howsoever you like to say, and they act so and so, referring everything else to this End.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00382", "bookId": 8438, "start": 166584, "end": 167003, "sha256": "206c965f5f6daeaa656acac617f01c734da169a3d62cc34ea95be0a6652c26e1", "text": "Whether then we suppose that the End impresses each man’s mind with certain notions not merely by nature, but that there is somewhat also dependent on himself; or that the End is given by nature, and yet Virtue is voluntary because the good man does all the rest voluntarily, Vice must be equally so; because his own agency equally attaches to the bad man in the actions, even if not in the selection of the End.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00383", "bookId": 8438, "start": 167007, "end": 167305, "sha256": "62e232761d6937e55df5336cb2eb6edca83476fd09f22d17a2aeb87fd52d2cae", "text": "If then, as is commonly said, the Virtues are voluntary (because we at least cooperate[15] in producing our moral states, and we assume the End to be of a certain kind according as we are ourselves of certain characters), the Vices must be voluntary also, because the cases are exactly similar.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00384", "bookId": 8438, "start": 167309, "end": 167322, "sha256": "d004d8c3a629800899066ec30aebdc9b11ed7932971144d5b44dd4b9f1c6f736", "text": "Chapter VIII.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00385", "bookId": 8438, "start": 167326, "end": 167701, "sha256": "e9c442b39e1643ce60b1f3825f044e451af311359466d9ac8c6bed1a25d2823d", "text": "Well now, we have stated generally respecting the Moral Virtues, the genus (in outline), that they are mean states, and that they are habits, and how they are formed, and that they are of themselves calculated to act upon the circumstances out of which they were formed, and that they are in our own power and voluntary, and are to be done so as right Reason may direct.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00386", "bookId": 8438, "start": 167705, "end": 168143, "sha256": "fb1dcc6e0c0a210481834a92f367204ae9ed8cc2337e6149c379c26d46737c8a", "text": "But the particular actions and the habits are not voluntary in the same sense; for of the actions we are masters from beginning to end (supposing of course a knowledge of the particular details), but only of the origination of the habits, the addition by small particular accessions not being cognisiable (as is the case with sicknesses): still they are voluntary because it rested with us to use our circumstances this way or that.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00387", "bookId": 8438, "start": 168147, "end": 168158, "sha256": "592ec521344802b54bcc4f362dcb57feb55da0d05682ea5774b06c9cd5ee0ce4", "text": "Chapter IX.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00388", "bookId": 8438, "start": 168162, "end": 168377, "sha256": "b0d4b1fafaaa9200bf7fb1d98f8f6e10675b31d57fd1eb5bd34ed5072f50b7b0", "text": "Here we will resume the particular discussion of the Moral Virtues, and say what they are, what is their object-matter, and how they stand respectively related to it: of course their number will be thereby shown.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00389", "bookId": 8438, "start": 168381, "end": 168681, "sha256": "516a1eaee5e50e61b3035f31afb3a3e4b3916678a13fbcc73cb0c4fee7180262", "text": "First, then, of Courage. Now that it is a mean state, in respect of fear and boldness, has been already said: further, the objects of our fears are obviously things fearful or, in a general way of statement, evils; which accounts for the common definition of fear, viz. “expectation of evil.”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00390", "bookId": 8438, "start": 168685, "end": 169480, "sha256": "7450e68589e7536b80734957fe935235bb12e70df2e95b1512bb081cd24cbc17", "text": "Of course we fear evils of all kinds: disgrace, for instance, poverty, disease, desolateness, death; but not all these seem to be the object-matter of the Brave man, because there are things which to fear is right and noble, and not to fear is base; disgrace, for example, since he who fears this is a good man and has a sense of honour, and he who does not fear it is shameless (though there are those who call him Brave by analogy, because he somewhat resembles the Brave man who agrees with him in being free from fear); but poverty, perhaps, or disease, and in fact whatever does not proceed from viciousness, nor is attributable to his own fault, a man ought not to fear: still, being fearless in respect of these would not constitute a man Brave in the proper sense of the term.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00391", "bookId": 8438, "start": 169484, "end": 169675, "sha256": "50a925497382d4a460bef544ef6fb8deaeb229cb852a2e8684da9bd468864416", "text": "Yet we do apply the term[16] in right of the similarity of the cases; for there are men who, though timid in the dangers of war, are liberal men and are stout enough to face loss of wealth.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00392", "bookId": 8438, "start": 169679, "end": 169850, "sha256": "bd0b338160a5c9e23f92b599329e676571ed798c022cac551d5582d190c912e8", "text": "And, again, a man is not a coward for fearing insult to his wife or children, or envy, or any such thing; nor is he a Brave man for being bold when going to be scourged.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00393", "bookId": 8438, "start": 169854, "end": 170578, "sha256": "73e31d668180863291d1d44ffe658251b827d32d2fceab5f21ac238ad1d1e876", "text": "What kind of fearful things then do constitute the object-matter of the Brave man? first of all, must they not be the greatest, since no man is more apt to withstand what is dreadful. Now the object of the greatest dread is death, because it is the end of all things, and the dead man is thought to be capable neither of good nor evil. Still it would seem that the Brave man has not for his object-matter even death in every circumstance; on the sea, for example, or in sickness: in what circumstances then? must it not be in the most honourable? now such is death in war, because it is death in the greatest and most honourable danger; and this is confirmed by the honours awarded in communities, and by monarchs.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00394", "bookId": 8438, "start": 170582, "end": 170787, "sha256": "7969ecf39af562fd33059b4108dbf75151f6f6198e2f93d90cb4a401e865f73e", "text": "He then may be most properly denominated Brave who is fearless in respect of honourable death and such sudden emergencies as threaten death; now such specially are those which arise in the course of war.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00395", "bookId": 8438, "start": 170791, "end": 171352, "sha256": "5304578e25785685ab42d1813fbd7f71fbfa2bcb575c7722b9595bff170505ae", "text": "It is not meant but that the Brave man will be fearless also on the sea (and in sickness), but not in the same way as sea-faring men; for these are light-hearted and hopeful by reason of their experience, while landsmen though Brave are apt to give themselves up for lost and shudder at the notion of such a death: to which it should be added that Courage is exerted in circumstances which admit of doing something to help one’s self, or in which death would be honourable; now neither of these requisites attach to destruction by drowning or sickness.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00396", "bookId": 8438, "start": 171356, "end": 171366, "sha256": "1004a834f009008ccc92e737e9a371a7a5488da6be86d63d2eae33426b5b37ef", "text": "Chapter X.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00397", "bookId": 8438, "start": 171370, "end": 171743, "sha256": "c573a97f8d4546c6372d65cbe3ac9f2d2f84e046dd1c84b50ef796dc9bf9e8f6", "text": "Again, fearful is a term of relation, the same thing not being so to all, and there is according to common parlance somewhat so fearful as to be beyond human endurance: this of course would be fearful to every man of sense, but those objects which are level to the capacity of man differ in magnitude and admit of degrees, so too the objects of confidence or boldness.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00398", "bookId": 8438, "start": 171747, "end": 172032, "sha256": "3ee8d09d738225f0f3722cd9d42c62315ee167dcea37b7c0992b9a4c14cd29a6", "text": "Now the Brave man cannot be frighted from his propriety (but of course only so far as he is man); fear such things indeed he will, but he will stand up against them as he ought and as right reason may direct, with a view to what is honourable, because this is the end of the virtue.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00399", "bookId": 8438, "start": 172036, "end": 172604, "sha256": "b1f7b4c3ca03a10471d895a836d742cda7de19c2dd520e008454f898a16e459e", "text": "Now it is possible to fear these things too much, or too little, or again to fear what is not really fearful as if it were such. So the errors come to be either that a man fears when he ought not to fear at all, or that he fears in an improper way, or at a wrong time, and so forth; and so too in respect of things inspiring confidence. He is Brave then who withstands, and fears, and is bold, in respect of right objects, from a right motive, in right manner, and at right times: since the Brave man suffers or acts as he ought and as right reason may direct.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00400", "bookId": 8438, "start": 172608, "end": 172837, "sha256": "99dfc084f8619c167c4f33ed889efef239257e46f8449f5ee6fc5c2fdfc77598", "text": "Now the end of every separate act of working is that which accords with the habit, and so to the Brave man Courage; which is honourable; therefore such is also the End, since the character of each is determined by the End.[17]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00401", "bookId": 8438, "start": 172841, "end": 172965, "sha256": "3670f37d07f8d2c9383c16a46cba58d2bf15e63408730224e7d008f55add2ffc", "text": "So honour is the motive from which the Brave man withstands things fearful and performs the acts which accord with Courage.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00402", "bookId": 8438, "start": 172969, "end": 173260, "sha256": "7583fea674760239f910c3178530405ac483ad22ac5ea791856472ff3fbe1139", "text": "Of the characters on the side of Excess, he who exceeds in utter absence of fear has no appropriate name (I observed before that many states have none), but he would be a madman or inaccessible to pain if he feared nothing, neither earthquake, nor the billows, as they tell of the Celts.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00403", "bookId": 8438, "start": 173264, "end": 173769, "sha256": "ad12192696045498f7717492fc9ba6f627355bd803d6ff27458f4b6bfe4adb7b", "text": "He again who exceeds in confidence in respect of things fearful is rash. He is thought moreover to be a braggart, and to advance unfounded claims to the character of Brave: the relation which the Brave man really bears to objects of fear this man wishes to appear to bear, and so imitates him in whatever points he can; for this reason most of them exhibit a curious mixture of rashness and cowardice; because, affecting rashness in these circumstances, they do not withstand what is truly fearful.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00404", "bookId": 8438, "start": 173773, "end": 174200, "sha256": "9205d378e413f1d1d14c97cc7586c2b3ce802349f5d42ab64fab88bd01b3af3e", "text": "The man moreover who exceeds in feeling fear is a coward, since there attach to him the circumstances of fearing wrong objects, in wrong ways, and so forth. He is deficient also in feeling confidence, but he is most clearly seen as exceeding in the case of pains; he is a fainthearted kind of man, for he fears all things: the Brave man is just the contrary, for boldness is the property of the light-hearted and hopeful.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00405", "bookId": 8438, "start": 174204, "end": 174616, "sha256": "38cf14f84dff869485ff192b10b9cefcad25e685aa71d3b41ce0892fa16b63fc", "text": "So the coward, the rash, and the Brave man have exactly the same object-matter, but stand differently related to it: the two first-mentioned respectively exceed and are deficient, the last is in a mean state and as he ought to be. The rash again are precipitate, and, being eager before danger, when actually in it fall away, while the Brave are quick and sharp in action, but before are quiet and composed.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00406", "bookId": 8438, "start": 174620, "end": 175211, "sha256": "d85832e6a57e65d358a9855ba01365f435257a7a74ec84296ceb1237983f1d17", "text": "Well then, as has been said, Courage is a mean state in respect of objects inspiring boldness or fear, in the circumstances which have been stated, and the Brave man chooses his line and withstands danger either because to do so is honourable, or because not to do so is base. But dying to escape from poverty, or the pangs of love, or anything that is simply painful, is the act not of a Brave man but of a coward; because it is mere softness to fly from what is toilsome, and the suicide braves the terrors of death not because it is honourable but to get out of the reach of evil.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00407", "bookId": 8438, "start": 175215, "end": 175226, "sha256": "e01eea13bd5151db5300b85b2bf5667b50440b182b04dc56f48ea5ab17de6a93", "text": "Chapter XI.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00408", "bookId": 8438, "start": 175230, "end": 175400, "sha256": "0101ea8b6bd8004f6680a4c6b787b7a824210aece25e89879d96c04df58f894c", "text": "Courage proper is somewhat of the kind I have described, but there are dispositions, differing in five ways,[18] which also bear in common parlance the name of Courage.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00409", "bookId": 8438, "start": 175404, "end": 175856, "sha256": "49556cb89fc14c3b69ce3b3812edb068dc98a350093bad7265a96e841b762636", "text": "We will take first that which bears most resemblance to the true, the Courage of Citizenship, so named because the motives which are thought to actuate the members of a community in braving danger are the penalties and disgrace held out by the laws to cowardice, and the dignities conferred on the Brave; which is thought to be the reason why those are the bravest people among whom cowards are visited with disgrace and the Brave held in honour.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00410", "bookId": 8438, "start": 175860, "end": 175970, "sha256": "40513ce93fbb1fa6c8b21f5364ad351a179a3195b734f7a37fb34aaf3dda091b", "text": "Such is the kind of Courage Homer exhibits in his characters; Diomed and Hector for example. The latter says,", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00411", "bookId": 8438, "start": 175974, "end": 176033, "sha256": "7aeaced310f8b4e5416541800fef5db55662c22660cf5e3f64a0a6b9db9e3b69", "text": "“Polydamas will be the first to fix Disgrace upon me.”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00412", "bookId": 8438, "start": 176039, "end": 176052, "sha256": "0f663fb2e1b1b6d7b54517741020ca95b1b6d543f57588a2dff9d03813d71663", "text": "Diomed again,", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00413", "bookId": 8438, "start": 176056, "end": 176140, "sha256": "37ec108cb67c2156c11df07e125d005604591cba797d655c9417cab3a6db5477", "text": "“For Hector surely will hereafter say, Speaking in Troy, Tydides by my hand”—", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00414", "bookId": 8438, "start": 176146, "end": 176359, "sha256": "218b2f3ef835f171821344b5e1963f6139d329c36473d72030fa10a39d48bcc5", "text": "This I say most nearly resembles the Courage before spoken of, because it arises from virtue, from a feeling of shame, and a desire of what is noble (that is, of honour), and avoidance of disgrace which is base.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00415", "bookId": 8438, "start": 176363, "end": 176752, "sha256": "0b571d3de45454b9dfbdce2c24fb573b18b0795f09697e494ec2aca2af600f7d", "text": "In the same rank one would be inclined to place those also who act under compulsion from their commanders; yet are they really lower, because not a sense of honour but fear is the motive from which they act, and what they seek to avoid is not that which is base but that which is simply painful: commanders do in fact compel their men sometimes, as Hector says (to quote Homer again),", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00416", "bookId": 8438, "start": 176756, "end": 176867, "sha256": "fa9c9e9ca679e7cec4c12c513d786368ff255d9af5ccc500d6496f6497e15538", "text": "“But whomsoever I shall find cowering afar from the fight, The teeth of dogs he shall by no means escape.”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00417", "bookId": 8438, "start": 176873, "end": 177139, "sha256": "43717b828bdbe7d5c9045eb5aeaf485b74a3cd702448f2ce85f07ba797676e57", "text": "Those commanders who station staunch troops by doubtful ones,[19] or who beat their men if they flinch, or who draw their troops up in line with the trenches, or other similar obstacles, in their rear, do in effect the same as Hector, for they all use compulsion.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00418", "bookId": 8438, "start": 177143, "end": 177216, "sha256": "86ae6e4318946b8a4fdad43c587f68f32b279b4c66239d2c95024696e05c95dc", "text": "But a man is to be Brave, not on compulsion, but from a sense of honour.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00419", "bookId": 8438, "start": 177220, "end": 177388, "sha256": "b6cfbc640f8d238ad4668155e01f943ae3894587118cd651edb41b5385db66ee", "text": "In the next place, Experience and Skill in the various particulars is thought to be a species of Courage: whence Socrates also thought that Courage was knowledge.[20]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00420", "bookId": 8438, "start": 177392, "end": 178310, "sha256": "4683e65510447fc098244a1a20400b08fd80f732ba8420a723e4b29bf8e21d85", "text": "This quality is exhibited of course by different men under different circumstances, but in warlike matters, with which we are now concerned, it is exhibited by the soldiers (“the regulars”): for there are, it would seem, many things in war of no real importance[21] which these have been constantly used to see; so they have a show of Courage because other people are not aware of the real nature of these things. Then again by reason of their skill they are better able than any others to inflict without suffering themselves, because they are able to use their arms and have such as are most serviceable both with a view to offence and defence: so that their case is parallel to that of armed men fighting with unarmed or trained athletes with amateurs, since in contests of this kind those are the best fighters, not who are the bravest men, but who are the strongest and are in the best condition.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00421", "bookId": 8438, "start": 178314, "end": 178994, "sha256": "abe7c58853bed96aaf2a74e4bfa1bfe3f794b0cf99e05cbc0edd679c1c683c03", "text": "In fact, the regular troops come to be cowards whenever the danger is greater than their means of meeting it; supposing, for example, that they are inferior in numbers and resources: then they are the first to fly, but the mere militia stand and fall on the ground (which as you know really happened at the Hermæum),[22] for in the eyes of these flight was disgraceful and death preferable to safety bought at such a price: while “the regulars” originally went into the danger under a notion of their own superiority, but on discovering their error they took to flight,[23] having greater fear of death than of disgrace; but this is not the feeling of the Brave man.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00422", "bookId": 8438, "start": 178998, "end": 179594, "sha256": "60aaccdc7166396a8a579993ca8b6ec58ee1940deabd37ddced5d53a72af1e5d", "text": "Thirdly, mere Animal Spirit is sometimes brought under the term Courage: they are thought to be Brave who are carried on by mere Animal Spirit, as are wild beasts against those who have wounded them, because in fact the really Brave have much Spirit, there being nothing like it for going at danger of any kind; whence those frequent expressions in Homer, “infused strength into his spirit,” “roused his strength and spirit,” or again, “and keen strength in his nostrils,” “his blood boiled:” for all these seem to denote the arousing and impetuosity of the Animal Spirit.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00423", "bookId": 8438, "start": 179598, "end": 180478, "sha256": "dee4c80b45c88118f220fc5e02eb31b189ac25f30ba08f79c0272d12deef1626", "text": "Now they that are truly Brave act from a sense of honour, and this Animal Spirit co-operates with them; but wild beasts from pain, that is because they have been wounded, or are frightened; since if they are quietly in their own haunts, forest or marsh, they do not attack men. Surely they are not Brave because they rush into danger when goaded on by pain and mere Spirit, without any view of the danger: else would asses be Brave when they are hungry, for though beaten they will not then leave their pasture: profligate men besides do many bold actions by reason of their lust. We may conclude then that they are not Brave who are goaded on to meet danger by pain and mere Spirit; but still this temper which arises from Animal Spirit appears to be most natural, and would be Courage of the true kind if it could have added to it moral choice and the proper motive.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00424", "bookId": 8438, "start": 180482, "end": 180811, "sha256": "63e5e6cd077ebb047b0c9542d3796ed6c0ced741b055fb18153141381bbc9021", "text": "So men also are pained by a feeling of anger, and take pleasure in revenge; but they who fight from these causes may be good fighters, but they are not truly Brave (in that they do not act from a sense of honour, nor as reason directs, but merely from the present feeling), still they bear some resemblance to that character.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00425", "bookId": 8438, "start": 180815, "end": 181559, "sha256": "7a399655186562fd17a841f65a990f4c19b674d44eeb8d8111be508bed5d88ad", "text": "Nor, again, are the Sanguine and Hopeful therefore Brave: since their boldness in dangers arises from their frequent victories over numerous foes. The two characters are alike, however, in that both are confident; but then the Brave are so from the afore-mentioned causes, whereas these are so from a settled conviction of their being superior and not likely to suffer anything in return (they who are intoxicated do much the same, for they become hopeful when in that state); but when the event disappoints their expectations they run away: now it was said to be the character of a Brave man to withstand things which are fearful to man or produce that impression, because it is honourable so to do and the contrary is dishonourable.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00426", "bookId": 8438, "start": 181563, "end": 181992, "sha256": "87b16b030ed70b3ffe992e7d8fc5cc50a00690cbdc7d31c4f0ea7312c0e3a5c9", "text": "For this reason it is thought to be a greater proof of Courage to be fearless and undisturbed under the pressure of sudden fear than under that which may be anticipated, because Courage then comes rather from a fixed habit, or less from preparation: since as to foreseen dangers a man might take his line even from calculation and reasoning, but in those which are sudden he will do so according to his fixed habit of mind.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00427", "bookId": 8438, "start": 181996, "end": 182483, "sha256": "1095c13be85a0549d97f9b1398e305b92ffc81bd85d34dbbfa86ec7ff2fd2ac6", "text": "Fifthly and lastly, those who are acting under Ignorance have a show of Courage and are not very far from the Hopeful; but still they are inferior inasmuch as they have no opinion of themselves; which the others have, and therefore stay and contest a field for some little time; but they who have been deceived fly the moment they know things to be otherwise than they supposed, which the Argives experienced when they fell on the Lacedæmonians, taking them for the men of Sicyon.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00428", "bookId": 8438, "start": 182487, "end": 182499, "sha256": "db01c17d92611b3315f68e3df6f0d948914af69a6cdab38f6908ed40f82a0968", "text": "Chapter XII.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00429", "bookId": 8438, "start": 182503, "end": 182622, "sha256": "7aecc8db44b773be4b68f3fb7b9683333bba4246d1bea8bf89c87956d0eb294e", "text": "We have described then what kind of men the Brave are, and what they who are thought to be, but are not really, Brave.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00430", "bookId": 8438, "start": 182626, "end": 183056, "sha256": "abfe1f0d3dcba715a292426a07051a8fd79e38d29199edcafd1ff3e8898acb80", "text": "It must be remarked, however, that though Courage has for its object-matter boldness and fear it has not both equally so, but objects of fear much more than the former; for he that under pressure of these is undisturbed and stands related to them as he ought is better entitled to the name of Brave than he who is properly affected towards objects of confidence. So then men are termed Brave for withstanding painful things.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00431", "bookId": 8438, "start": 183060, "end": 183230, "sha256": "83f48c3080a5d1cd7d40d0318a00a95ee80b704144e6405908cbcfc74ad62a17", "text": "It follows that Courage involves pain and is justly praised, since it is a harder matter to withstand things that are painful than to abstain from such as are pleasant.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00432", "bookId": 8438, "start": 183234, "end": 183741, "sha256": "6b40175a220665501120f1617f05220f6e8427c87319c5031fc90baba2481c05", "text": "It must not be thought but that the End and object of Courage is pleasant, but it is obscured by the surrounding circumstances: which happens also in the gymnastic games; to the boxers the End is pleasant with a view to which they act, I mean the crown and the honours; but the receiving the blows they do is painful and annoying to flesh and blood, and so is all the labour they have to undergo; and, as these drawbacks are many, the object in view being small appears to have no pleasantness in it.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00433", "bookId": 8438, "start": 183745, "end": 184606, "sha256": "573051078a84e728dd7e484bf971509968cc572189e596af4f55828939ae95d6", "text": "If then we may say the same of Courage, of course death and wounds must be painful to the Brave man and against his will: still he endures these because it is honourable so to do or because it is dishonourable not to do so. And the more complete his virtue and his happiness so much the more will he be pained at the notion of death: since to such a man as he is it is best worth while to live, and he with full consciousness is deprived of the greatest goods by death, and this is a painful idea. But he is not the less Brave for feeling it to be so, nay rather it may be he is shown to be more so because he chooses the honour that may be reaped in war in preference to retaining safe possession of these other goods. The fact is that to act with pleasure does not belong to all the virtues, except so far as a man realises the End of his actions.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00434", "bookId": 8438, "start": 184610, "end": 184841, "sha256": "db3689e2ce5137caf182ce21a7775ea552a3508975d5525b5d48589a19d7cd7d", "text": "But there is perhaps no reason why not such men should make the best soldiers, but those who are less truly Brave but have no other good to care for: these being ready to meet danger and bartering their lives against small gain.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00435", "bookId": 8438, "start": 184845, "end": 185015, "sha256": "db5004dfaf53146bfadd0060a4b265376989431304b4f29057e36e1adf3725ab", "text": "Let thus much be accepted as sufficient on the subject of Courage; the true nature of which it is not difficult to gather, in outline at least, from what has been said.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00436", "bookId": 8438, "start": 185019, "end": 185032, "sha256": "588a571e829638e8248bfd35aafd53209c9178c9c58044b9af926b30c5263bc2", "text": "Chapter XIII.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00437", "bookId": 8438, "start": 185036, "end": 185202, "sha256": "8a1849eb2a4e9a0512aceb3314bf7743d58c2ca9e148cf8950d7be70d1ddde00", "text": "Next let us speak of Perfected Self-Mastery, which seems to claim the next place to Courage, since these two are the Excellences of the Irrational part of the Soul.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00438", "bookId": 8438, "start": 185206, "end": 185514, "sha256": "8788e3dde336bf6fe3fe6b71939f4beb9b588a54ab50b1e2c14b701f22af271f", "text": "That it is a mean state, having for its object-matter Pleasures, we have already said (Pains being in fact its object-matter in a less degree and dissimilar manner), the state of utter absence of self-control has plainly the same object-matter; the next thing then is to determine what kind of Pleasures.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00439", "bookId": 8438, "start": 185518, "end": 186231, "sha256": "0d6e84b32808ddd294dfd39a3564338bf6a42cd7afa8d12d7629815d44bed45a", "text": "Let Pleasures then be understood to be divided into mental and bodily: instances of the former being love of honour or of learning: it being plain that each man takes pleasure in that of these two objects which he has a tendency to like, his body being no way affected but rather his intellect. Now men are not called perfectly self-mastering or wholly destitute of self-control in respect of pleasures of this class: nor in fact in respect of any which are not bodily; those for example who love to tell long stories, and are prosy, and spend their days about mere chance matters, we call gossips but not wholly destitute of self-control, nor again those who are pained at the loss of money or friends.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00440", "bookId": 8438, "start": 186235, "end": 186679, "sha256": "06917adbadc6d3ee88e2d0ca85ef048b8ab7822ef96253c119ed9168e7f01634", "text": "It is bodily Pleasures then which are the object-matter of Perfected Self-Mastery, but not even all these indifferently: I mean, that they who take pleasure in objects perceived by the Sight, as colours, and forms, and painting, are not denominated men of Perfected Self-Mastery, or wholly destitute of self-control; and yet it would seem that one may take pleasure even in such objects, as one ought to do, or excessively, or too little.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00441", "bookId": 8438, "start": 186683, "end": 186907, "sha256": "2b2213851c7537895329f7945c48359b6ec455b6c51773560629af99ed872fc8", "text": "So too of objects perceived by the sense of Hearing; no one applies the terms before quoted respectively to those who are excessively pleased with musical tunes or acting, or to those who take such pleasure as they ought.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00442", "bookId": 8438, "start": 186911, "end": 187534, "sha256": "f8965168bc24e9135c7d717a7b119bdcf7f2a71539f8b518ef5e6fc0526bbd9f", "text": "Nor again to those persons whose pleasure arises from the sense of Smell, except incidentally:[24] I mean, we do not say men have no self-control because they take pleasure in the scent of fruit, or flowers, or incense, but rather when they do so in the smells of unguents and sauces: since men destitute of self-control take pleasure herein, because hereby the objects of their lusts are recalled to their imagination (you may also see other men take pleasure in the smell of food when they are hungry): but to take pleasure in such is a mark of the character before named since these are objects of desire to him.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00443", "bookId": 8438, "start": 187538, "end": 188093, "sha256": "bfcbd5a5a49740aee8966020663b1a7be23cf5196ddee6d0454c80c7298fb573", "text": "Now not even brutes receive pleasure in right of these senses, except incidentally. I mean, it is not the scent of hares’ flesh but the eating it which dogs take pleasure in, perception of which pleasure is caused by the sense of Smell. Or again, it is not the lowing of the ox but eating him which the lion likes; but of the fact of his nearness the lion is made sensible by the lowing, and so he appears to take pleasure in this. In like manner, he has no pleasure in merely seeing or finding a stag or wild goat, but in the prospect of a meal.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00444", "bookId": 8438, "start": 188097, "end": 188324, "sha256": "8750a05d4d8a20315294704ae84835d57042cbaf459eb96636aa1f709a94052b", "text": "The habits of Perfect Self-Mastery and entire absence of self-control have then for their object-matter such pleasures as brutes also share in, for which reason they are plainly servile and brutish: they are Touch and Taste.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00445", "bookId": 8438, "start": 188328, "end": 188539, "sha256": "ac13b626df025723031e45be75a55d9e17df46160774862a28381a0a87a70afe", "text": "But even Taste men seem to make little or no use of; for to the sense of Taste belongs the distinguishing of flavours; what men do, in fact, who are testing the quality of wines or seasoning “made dishes.”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00446", "bookId": 8438, "start": 188543, "end": 189003, "sha256": "a9715707ec0ac486db848ffbcb81cb727473b00593adfaa75a4cf251560e6774", "text": "But men scarcely take pleasure at all in these things, at least those whom we call destitute of self-control do not, but only in the actual enjoyment which arises entirely from the sense of Touch, whether in eating or in drinking, or in grosser lusts. This accounts for the wish said to have been expressed once by a great glutton, “that his throat had been formed longer than a crane’s neck,” implying that his pleasure was derived from the Touch.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00447", "bookId": 8438, "start": 189007, "end": 189681, "sha256": "b40843eb254dfa16ddbe08ff10dd027f60a5a805495425078bc56a631c3f9304", "text": "The sense then with which is connected the habit of absence of self-control is the most common of all the senses, and this habit would seem to be justly a matter of reproach, since it attaches to us not in so far as we are men but in so far as we are animals. Indeed it is brutish to take pleasure in such things and to like them best of all; for the most respectable of the pleasures arising from the touch have been set aside; those, for instance, which occur in the course of gymnastic training from the rubbing and the warm bath: because the touch of the man destitute of self-control is not indifferently of _any_ part of the body but only of particular parts.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00448", "bookId": 8438, "start": 189685, "end": 190781, "sha256": "84771ce64a33effd4d2d5c17e19ec3120c50dd0267b10f79016c5d00d50ada65", "text": "Now of lusts or desires some are thought to be universal, others peculiar and acquired; thus desire for food is natural since every one who really needs desires also food, whether solid or liquid, or both (and, as Homer says, the man in the prime of youth needs and desires intercourse with the other sex); but when we come to this or that particular kind, then neither is the desire universal nor in all men is it directed to the same objects. And therefore the conceiving of such desires plainly attaches to us as individuals. It must be admitted, however, that there is something natural in it: because different things are pleasant to different men and a preference of some particular objects to chance ones is universal. Well then, in the case of the desires which are strictly and properly natural few men go wrong and all in one direction, that is, on the side of too much: I mean, to eat and drink of such food as happens to be on the table till one is overfilled is exceeding in quantity the natural limit, since the natural desire is simply a supply of a real deficiency.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00449", "bookId": 8438, "start": 190785, "end": 190923, "sha256": "6b6b085f3c599905295e9cd5ab47f5057d5e321a38d46ec5e017b2138c4e62fc", "text": "For this reason these men are called belly-mad, as filling it beyond what they ought, and it is the slavish who become of this character.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00450", "bookId": 8438, "start": 190927, "end": 191502, "sha256": "c88bafaea0b562178ab0537dc7d1f6fd75493db2d658c0fd7d2598a84fd1b648", "text": "But in respect of the peculiar pleasures many men go wrong and in many different ways; for whereas the term “fond of so and so” implies either taking pleasure in wrong objects, or taking pleasure excessively, or as the mass of men do, or in a wrong way, they who are destitute of all self-control exceed in all these ways; that is to say, they take pleasure in some things in which they ought not to do so (because they are properly objects of detestation), and in such as it is right to take pleasure in they do so more than they ought and as the mass of men do.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00451", "bookId": 8438, "start": 191506, "end": 192134, "sha256": "e83095580db76b504053c11ee894303180f81e6241434b8c2cfd02a1c3bacb38", "text": "Well then, that excess with respect to pleasures is absence of self-control, and blameworthy, is plain. But viewing these habits on the side of pains, we find that a man is not said to have the virtue for withstanding them (as in the case of Courage), nor the vice for not withstanding them; but the man destitute of self-control is such, because he is pained more than he ought to be at not obtaining things which are pleasant (and thus his pleasure produces pain to him), and the man of Perfected Self-Mastery is such in virtue of not being pained by their absence, that is, by having to abstain from what is pleasant.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00452", "bookId": 8438, "start": 192138, "end": 192578, "sha256": "22c01db57123687003b1bd1470e1343d73b59d30a6ad1ef12388523fdcb94b95", "text": "Now the man destitute of self-control desires either all pleasant things indiscriminately or those which are specially pleasant, and he is impelled by his desire to choose these things in preference to all others; and this involves pain, not only when he misses the attainment of his objects but, in the very desiring them, since all desire is accompanied by pain. Surely it is a strange case this, being pained by reason of pleasure.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00453", "bookId": 8438, "start": 192582, "end": 193117, "sha256": "2f2b4fc059e26f0cda658519b9391fb1cbf23ebe19edb3313b90f222f01bbc7a", "text": "As for men who are defective on the side of pleasure, who take less pleasure in things than they ought, they are almost imaginary characters, because such absence of sensual perception is not natural to man: for even the other animals distinguish between different kinds of food, and like some kinds and dislike others. In fact, could a man be found who takes no pleasure in anything and to whom all things are alike, he would be far from being human at all: there is no name for such a character because it is simply imaginary.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00454", "bookId": 8438, "start": 193121, "end": 194074, "sha256": "4787f6686d8085af185e0e72ce8d8ef12f8b8940c4b9727fdd32071145068c69", "text": "But the man of Perfected Self-Mastery is in the mean with respect to these objects: that is to say, he neither takes pleasure in the things which delight the vicious man, and in fact rather dislikes them, nor at all in improper objects; nor to any great degree in any object of the class; nor is he pained at their absence; nor does he desire them; or, if he does, only in moderation, and neither more than he ought, nor at improper times, and so forth; but such things as are conducive to health and good condition of body, being also pleasant, these he will grasp at in moderation and as he ought to do, and also such other pleasant things as do not hinder these objects, and are not unseemly or disproportionate to his means; because he that should grasp at such would be liking such pleasures more than is proper; but the man of Perfected Self-Mastery is not of this character, but regulates his desires by the dictates of right reason.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00455", "bookId": 8438, "start": 194078, "end": 194090, "sha256": "09d996dee640cc1d9a06bd1549a3a944c7cefcc38a34f9f77ddb525af08e9a73", "text": "Chapter XIV.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00456", "bookId": 8438, "start": 194094, "end": 194500, "sha256": "b90fd02db60a6574d94a3052d06f6ad87e5d05dff5b4ad0d33a873b43a158286", "text": "Now the vice of being destitute of all Self-Control seems to be more truly voluntary than Cowardice, because pleasure is the cause of the former and pain of the latter, and pleasure is an object of choice, pain of avoidance. And again, pain deranges and spoils the natural disposition of its victim, whereas pleasure has no such effect and is more voluntary and therefore more justly open to reproach.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00457", "bookId": 8438, "start": 194504, "end": 194792, "sha256": "c7a3ed576b02da1b18fd19cc4bebd0364f3c3b602612ef2a5ca0b9a4ae09147b", "text": "It is so also for the following reason; that it is easier to be inured by habit to resist the objects of pleasure, there being many things of this kind in life and the process of habituation being unaccompanied by danger; whereas the case is the reverse as regards the objects of fear.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00458", "bookId": 8438, "start": 194796, "end": 195158, "sha256": "e7fb79a2572015d13a1a4aa028b3522c538fcf24d96276d0c95e160f51ae4089", "text": "Again, Cowardice as a confirmed habit would seem to be voluntary in a different way from the particular instances which form the habit; because it is painless, but these derange the man by reason of pain so that he throws away his arms and otherwise behaves himself unseemly, for which reason they are even thought by some to exercise a power of compulsion.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00459", "bookId": 8438, "start": 195162, "end": 195405, "sha256": "6e003aa3baa1db5cb9b6a0d5a8710e43a7726b1d033484b55041deac5c18af4b", "text": "But to the man destitute of Self-Control the particular instances are on the contrary quite voluntary, being done with desire and direct exertion of the will, but the general result is less voluntary: since no man desires to form the habit.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00460", "bookId": 8438, "start": 195409, "end": 196129, "sha256": "59c068c2f6350a9c0bec8365abe481712f98cc3621d9a929deef9bfbb1000371", "text": "The name of this vice (which signifies etymologically unchastened-ness) we apply also to the faults of children, there being a certain resemblance between the cases: to which the name is primarily applied, and to which secondarily or derivatively, is not relevant to the present subject, but it is evident that the later in point of time must get the name from the earlier. And the metaphor seems to be a very good one; for whatever grasps after base things, and is liable to great increase, ought to be chastened; and to this description desire and the child answer most truly, in that children also live under the direction of desire and the grasping after what is pleasant is most prominently seen in these.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00461", "bookId": 8438, "start": 196133, "end": 196650, "sha256": "0e9721ede131981f2390c88216d79638f8337867170f03c084b2d8854a860479", "text": "Unless then the appetite be obedient and subjected to the governing principle it will become very great: for in the fool the grasping after what is pleasant is insatiable and undiscriminating; and every acting out of the desire increases the kindred habit, and if the desires are great and violent in degree they even expel Reason entirely; therefore they ought to be moderate and few, and in no respect to be opposed to Reason. Now when the appetite is in such a state we denominate it obedient and chastened.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00462", "bookId": 8438, "start": 196654, "end": 196811, "sha256": "9c41ccb485368968e40aecfc915abb35efffa665388c4c243baa19a27b5f41ac", "text": "In short, as the child ought to live with constant regard to the orders of its educator, so should the appetitive principle with regard to those of Reason.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00463", "bookId": 8438, "start": 196815, "end": 197188, "sha256": "5c10cdec1fa3573490546ffb8389762be2f2f3b29a2d11319528ca08636125bf", "text": "So then in the man of Perfected Self-Mastery, the appetitive principle must be accordant with Reason: for what is right is the mark at which both principles aim: that is to say, the man of perfected self-mastery desires what he ought in right manner and at right times, which is exactly what Reason directs. Let this be taken for our account of Perfected Self-Mastery.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00464", "bookId": 8438, "start": 197198, "end": 197205, "sha256": "3e7da02c6ff74328d8a5f74d17fa78703c6fe842904d1a916e62c1f62ff38236", "text": "BOOK IV", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00465", "bookId": 8438, "start": 197209, "end": 197219, "sha256": "5a35eafc731a2640e14da7e928f9e9a89afe4fe2a1f9a9a349887b8fb6d795cd", "text": "Chapter I.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00466", "bookId": 8438, "start": 197225, "end": 197665, "sha256": "edc6db6989a707b1b49a92b7ccc658f924d918d36eae3b59c7a413ec40c6c0fe", "text": "We will next speak of Liberality. Now this is thought to be the mean state, having for its object-matter Wealth: I mean, the Liberal man is praised not in the circumstances of war, nor in those which constitute the character of perfected self-mastery, nor again in judicial decisions, but in respect of giving and receiving Wealth, chiefly the former. By the term Wealth I mean “all those things whose worth is measured by money.”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00467", "bookId": 8438, "start": 197669, "end": 198147, "sha256": "31cec1e2f89514af6f38eee235f89adb379edc506ac1a99d6c62b6352830ac08", "text": "Now the states of excess and defect in regard of Wealth are respectively Prodigality and Stinginess: the latter of these terms we attach invariably to those who are over careful about Wealth, but the former we apply sometimes with a complex notion; that is to say, we give the name to those who fail of self-control and spend money on the unrestrained gratification of their passions; and this is why they are thought to be most base, because they have many vices at once.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00468", "bookId": 8438, "start": 198151, "end": 198656, "sha256": "bc98413d46ce001bc6ed505c4e293a36abc60e119c3daa4fbca31fd55cd1853b", "text": "It must be noted, however, that this is not a strict and proper use of the term, since its natural etymological meaning is to denote him who has one particular evil, viz. the wasting his substance: he is unsaved (as the term literally denotes) who is wasting away by his own fault; and this he really may be said to be; the destruction of his substance is thought to be a kind of wasting of himself, since these things are the means of living. Well, this is our acceptation of the term Prodigality.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00469", "bookId": 8438, "start": 198660, "end": 198943, "sha256": "4e9a405febadf5aa7311562654d419e8f42fad7651a9181e153bd715d1b0c46c", "text": "Again. Whatever things are for use may be used well or ill, and Wealth belongs to this class. He uses each particular thing best who has the virtue to whose province it belongs: so that he will use Wealth best who has the virtue respecting Wealth, that is to say, the Liberal man.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00470", "bookId": 8438, "start": 198947, "end": 199648, "sha256": "d99ac7b302be41742359439aaa1d4c203c922ea632004b70c2a3a8895c095fc8", "text": "Expenditure and giving are thought to be the using of money, but receiving and keeping one would rather call the possessing of it. And so the giving to proper persons is more characteristic of the Liberal man, than the receiving from proper quarters and forbearing to receive from the contrary. In fact generally, doing well by others is more characteristic of virtue than being done well by, and doing things positively honourable than forbearing to do things dishonourable; and any one may see that the doing well by others and doing things positively honourable attaches to the act of giving, but to that of receiving only the being done well by or forbearing to do what is dishonourable.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00471", "bookId": 8438, "start": 199652, "end": 199930, "sha256": "8c318aeb35cf6d6fd6ae6d65710bb53773cb862b7441821de2703f108cc0b5b0", "text": "Besides, thanks are given to him who gives, not to him who merely forbears to receive, and praise even more. Again, forbearing to receive is easier than giving, the case of being too little freehanded with one’s own being commoner than taking that which is not one’s own.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00472", "bookId": 8438, "start": 199934, "end": 200156, "sha256": "7ada8b22ff5e2b445ca1bd59c51f0c3973a1e605b8e91fa86b351e6efc636dbb", "text": "And again, it is they who give that are denominated Liberal, while they who forbear to receive are commended, not on the score of Liberality but of just dealing, while for receiving men are not, in fact, praised at all.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00473", "bookId": 8438, "start": 200160, "end": 200322, "sha256": "58bb95a5b0a79d73f7f0d10bfd310ca70fd6b6a4f3ecfb54492c2010c018b8db", "text": "And the Liberal are liked almost best of all virtuous characters, because they are profitable to others, and this their profitableness consists in their giving.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00474", "bookId": 8438, "start": 200326, "end": 200855, "sha256": "96114920ebd895b1a5ffd043d9988ae6d889e771c48eaca66021cc51c8a28099", "text": "Furthermore: all the actions done in accordance with virtue are honourable, and done from the motive of honour: and the Liberal man, therefore, will give from a motive of honour, and will give rightly; I mean, to proper persons, in right proportion, at right times, and whatever is included in the term “right giving:” and this too with positive pleasure, or at least without pain, since whatever is done in accordance with virtue is pleasant or at least not unpleasant, most certainly not attended with positive pain.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00475", "bookId": 8438, "start": 200859, "end": 201874, "sha256": "7175b4733e247eadd3b9bb9b623253bb0f2ad5c11720968e64d5c86a50570ad4", "text": "But the man who gives to improper people, or not from a motive of honour but from some other cause, shall be called not Liberal but something else. Neither shall he be so denominated who does it with pain: this being a sign that he would prefer his wealth to the honourable action, and this is no part of the Liberal man’s character; neither will such an one receive from improper sources, because the so receiving is not characteristic of one who values not wealth: nor again will he be apt to ask, because one who does kindnesses to others does not usually receive them willingly; but from proper sources (his own property, for instance) he will receive, doing this not as honourable but as necessary, that he may have somewhat to give: neither will he be careless of his own, since it is his wish through these to help others in need: nor will he give to chance people, that he may have wherewith to give to those to whom he ought, at right times, and on occasions when it is honourable so to do.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00476", "bookId": 8438, "start": 201878, "end": 202077, "sha256": "442b90c3d42a270fbd94625379229217987b55a9c605f2795f8f6c8e98379eff", "text": "Again, it is a trait in the Liberal man’s character even to exceed very much in giving so as to leave too little for himself, it being characteristic of such an one not to have a thought of self.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00477", "bookId": 8438, "start": 202081, "end": 202405, "sha256": "8906f8c698daccaf205f235bd3d067bf0ee5ec8f5594fad978c003060510b2ea", "text": "Now Liberality is a term of relation to a man’s means, for the Liberal-ness depends not on the amount of what is given but on the moral state of the giver which gives in proportion to his means. There is then no reason why he should not be the more Liberal man who gives the less amount, if he has less to give out of.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00478", "bookId": 8438, "start": 202409, "end": 202657, "sha256": "3d749d70adef0345e02053d76ad7bf8440957699470d12689ae79e6b10814ffe", "text": "Again, they are thought to be more Liberal who have inherited, not acquired for themselves, their means; because, in the first place, they have never experienced want, and next, all people love most their own works, just as parents do and poets.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00479", "bookId": 8438, "start": 202661, "end": 203085, "sha256": "81350ccc80629e25112b61822fd34f689875fd68090cf823242115a2e5f64efe", "text": "It is not easy for the Liberal man to be rich, since he is neither apt to receive nor to keep but to lavish, and values not wealth for its own sake but with a view to giving it away. Hence it is commonly charged upon fortune that they who most deserve to be rich are least so. Yet this happens reasonably enough; it is impossible he should have wealth who does not take any care to have it, just as in any similar case.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00480", "bookId": 8438, "start": 203089, "end": 203645, "sha256": "f3be13cdf0daaf5a9f4c175e2982e05d1268c765122587037d48edf91fd2808c", "text": "Yet he will not give to improper people, nor at wrong times, and so on: because he would not then be acting in accordance with Liberality, and if he spent upon such objects, would have nothing to spend on those on which he ought: for, as I have said before, he is Liberal who spends in proportion to his means, and on proper objects, while he who does so in excess is prodigal (this is the reason why we never call despots prodigal, because it does not seem to be easy for them by their gifts and expenditure to go beyond their immense possessions).", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00481", "bookId": 8438, "start": 203649, "end": 204301, "sha256": "07d60fe844aaa0a1e16b22b3a23e3d1325b651cf37155151b4d7513165a3c502", "text": "To sum up then. Since Liberality is a mean state in respect of the giving and receiving of wealth, the Liberal man will give and spend on proper objects, and in proper proportion, in great things and in small alike, and all this with pleasure to himself; also he will receive from right sources, and in right proportion: because, as the virtue is a mean state in respect of both, he will do both as he ought, and, in fact, upon proper giving follows the correspondent receiving, while that which is not such is contrary to it. (Now those which follow one another come to co-exist in the same person, those which are contraries plainly do not.)", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00482", "bookId": 8438, "start": 204305, "end": 204553, "sha256": "60308a6dbe9408350170892dc93c7f7fe9aa7b4cc4e68ed23397f7a44fe17f8f", "text": "Again, should it happen to him to spend money beyond what is needful, or otherwise than is well, he will be vexed, but only moderately and as he ought; for feeling pleasure and pain at right objects, and in right manner, is a property of Virtue.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00483", "bookId": 8438, "start": 204557, "end": 204843, "sha256": "b36ff10b0692f37f6fbbe6fef6b8b95f177e1608b0ebd14adf5d7bfa934c1ee2", "text": "The Liberal man is also a good man to have for a partner in respect of wealth: for he can easily be wronged, since he values not wealth, and is more vexed at not spending where he ought to have done so than at spending where he ought not, and he relishes not the maxim of Simonides.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00484", "bookId": 8438, "start": 204847, "end": 204858, "sha256": "9ce6d96fa540de49002e2340d430460f2ee679453301a35db1cf5cf6c0ed967f", "text": "Chapter II.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00485", "bookId": 8438, "start": 204862, "end": 205037, "sha256": "d2208dd9f8681e5abdb27b83a91deafa61d9247fa7eb1a5d6b29034d12499334", "text": "But the Prodigal man goes wrong also in these points, for he is neither pleased nor pained at proper objects or in proper manner, which will become more plain as we proceed.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00486", "bookId": 8438, "start": 205041, "end": 205426, "sha256": "5812a15465685c68210bcceb1b0969cb0d97022ca5a07f3c7600fd14a536ada5", "text": "We have said already that Prodigality and Stinginess are respectively states of excess and defect, and this in two things, giving and receiving (expenditure of course we class under giving). Well now, Prodigality exceeds in giving and forbearing to receive and is deficient in receiving, while Stinginess is deficient in giving and exceeds in receiving, but it is in small things.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00487", "bookId": 8438, "start": 205430, "end": 206446, "sha256": "d84bba1dc28ec22e629b046e15830ee5e4e71f6a2c2acaf902744120480318ac", "text": "The two parts of Prodigality, to be sure, do not commonly go together; it is not easy, I mean, to give to all if you receive from none, because private individuals thus giving will soon find their means run short, and such are in fact thought to be prodigal. He that should combine both would seem to be no little superior to the Stingy man: for he may be easily cured, both by advancing in years, and also by the want of means, and he may come thus to the mean: he has, you see, already the _facts_ of the Liberal man, he gives and forbears to receive, only he does neither in right manner or well. So if he could be wrought upon by habituation in this respect, or change in any other way, he would be a real Liberal man, for he will give to those to whom he should, and will forbear to receive whence he ought not. This is the reason too why he is thought not to be low in moral character, because to exceed in giving and in forbearing to receive is no sign of badness or meanness, but only of folly.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00488", "bookId": 8438, "start": 206450, "end": 207159, "sha256": "9401764071cfcca664d965c026cba8a8dbd3e56521fb9a2d4f872344a75a08d8", "text": "Well then, he who is Prodigal in this fashion is thought far superior to the Stingy man for the aforementioned reasons, and also because he does good to many, but the Stingy man to no one, not even to himself. But most Prodigals, as has been said, combine with their other faults that of receiving from improper sources, and on this point are Stingy: and they become grasping, because they wish to spend and cannot do this easily, since their means soon run short and they are necessitated to get from some other quarter; and then again, because they care not for what is honourable, they receive recklessly, and from all sources indifferently, because they desire to give but care not how or whence.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00489", "bookId": 8438, "start": 207163, "end": 207811, "sha256": "e7f6019057b62ee087136ff915c6483a2e092f2d25cef45f579c1054866e3d6a", "text": "And for this reason their givings are not Liberal, inasmuch as they are not honourable, nor purely disinterested, nor done in right fashion; but they oftentimes make those rich who should be poor, and to those who are quiet respectable kind of people they will give nothing, but to flatterers, or those who subserve their pleasures in any way, they will give much. And therefore most of them are utterly devoid of self-restraint; for as they are open-handed they are liberal in expenditure upon the unrestrained gratification of their passions, and turn off to their pleasures because they do not live with reference to what is honourable.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00490", "bookId": 8438, "start": 207815, "end": 207968, "sha256": "995c7ec3ab2744073b4de360e877e04dd6ac8fc20e0275b14e7b48c5f2480d0c", "text": "Thus then the Prodigal, if unguided, slides into these faults; but if he could get care bestowed on him he might come to the mean and to what is right.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00491", "bookId": 8438, "start": 207972, "end": 208813, "sha256": "84c3d16ee4cecaf1f01e52e74e5e8775515885ac03b367c8d5cc79a4b526fc0a", "text": "Stinginess, on the contrary, is incurable: old age, for instance, and incapacity of any kind, is thought to make people Stingy; and it is more congenial to human nature than Prodigality, the mass of men being fond of money rather than apt to give: moreover it extends far and has many phases, the modes of stinginess being thought to be many. For as it consists of two things, defect of giving and excess of receiving, everybody does not have it entire, but it is sometimes divided, and one class of persons exceed in receiving, the other are deficient in giving. I mean those who are designated by such appellations as sparing, close-fisted, niggards, are all deficient in giving; but other men’s property they neither desire nor are willing to receive, in some instances from a real moderation and shrinking from what is base.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00492", "bookId": 8438, "start": 208817, "end": 209334, "sha256": "4af6f736034afdcac617ce6f5bd0bb14325774b5a6d32ff03f37181427715f01", "text": "There are some people whose motive, either supposed or alleged, for keeping their property is this, that they may never be driven to do anything dishonourable: to this class belongs the skinflint, and every one of similar character, so named from the excess of not-giving. Others again decline to receive their neighbour’s goods from a motive of fear; their notion being that it is not easy to take other people’s things yourself without their taking yours: so they are content neither to receive nor give.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00493", "bookId": 8438, "start": 209338, "end": 209983, "sha256": "1efcf363ea404a7dd071989a6bcfb6dfd297022b5d93ccdddc9b807ffa6e73af", "text": "The other class again who are Stingy in respect of receiving exceed in that they receive anything from any source; such as they who work at illiberal employments, brothel keepers, and such-like, and usurers who lend small sums at large interest: for all these receive from improper sources, and improper amounts. Their common characteristic is base-gaining, since they all submit to disgrace for the sake of gain and that small; because those who receive great things neither whence they ought, nor what they ought (as for instance despots who sack cities and plunder temples), we denominate wicked, impious, and unjust, but not Stingy.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00494", "bookId": 8438, "start": 209987, "end": 210323, "sha256": "136d5d195937b47256e32f9a8626b909f98ffc192a5e74f8c1f6235dc2451cca", "text": "Now the dicer and bath-plunderer and the robber belong to the class of the Stingy, for they are given to base gain: both busy themselves and submit to disgrace for the sake of gain, and the one class incur the greatest dangers for the sake of their booty, while the others make gain of their friends to whom they ought to be giving.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00495", "bookId": 8438, "start": 210327, "end": 210711, "sha256": "4a24ade5b1f27ecfea64802dd6bcabbfeff05db64356998624c245e88324a844", "text": "So both classes, as wishing to make gain from improper sources, are given to base gain, and all such receivings are Stingy. And with good reason is Stinginess called the contrary of Liberality: both because it is a greater evil than Prodigality, and because men err rather in this direction than in that of the Prodigality which we have spoken of as properly and completely such.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00496", "bookId": 8438, "start": 210715, "end": 210807, "sha256": "5db128fa17f50f444805a8fe0d09697aa75cec28c9cf055972c68d1e3ce815ae", "text": "Let this be considered as what we have to say respecting Liberality and the contrary vices.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00497", "bookId": 8438, "start": 210811, "end": 210823, "sha256": "c8c3757d774efbadade98d84b627377e281082435aed3cf63f66253a8af48e64", "text": "Chapter III.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00498", "bookId": 8438, "start": 210827, "end": 211653, "sha256": "fbf0109f01ff3dffc8c3d6a4a444d4e09cb039ff2ef2bed98e6a78e80499a3ef", "text": "Next in order would seem to come a dissertation on Magnificence, this being thought to be, like liberality, a virtue having for its object-matter Wealth; but it does not, like that, extend to all transactions in respect of Wealth, but only applies to such as are expensive, and in these circumstances it exceeds liberality in respect of magnitude, because it is (what the very name in Greek hints at) fitting expense on a large scale: this term is of course relative: I mean, the expenditure of equipping and commanding a trireme is not the same as that of giving a public spectacle: “fitting” of course also is relative to the individual, and the matter wherein and upon which he has to spend. And a man is not denominated Magnificent for spending as he should do in small or ordinary things, as, for instance,", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00499", "bookId": 8438, "start": 211657, "end": 211702, "sha256": "839f0aa52be3ceac08262ad21409701226371ef32513e27130b23795dc6e051d", "text": "“Oft to the wandering beggar did I give,”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00500", "bookId": 8438, "start": 211708, "end": 212400, "sha256": "1b9b3224eb87334d95036665f0f3654730af84d8449e2f423eeab0ec312bd417", "text": "but for doing so in great matters: that is to say, the Magnificent man is liberal, but the liberal is not thereby Magnificent. The falling short of such a state is called Meanness, the exceeding it Vulgar Profusion, Want of Taste, and so on; which are faulty, not because they are on an excessive scale in respect of right objects but, because they show off in improper objects, and in improper manner: of these we will speak presently. The Magnificent man is like a man of skill, because he can see what is fitting, and can spend largely in good taste; for, as we said at the commencement, the confirmed habit is determined by the separate acts of working, and by its object-matter.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00501", "bookId": 8438, "start": 212404, "end": 213054, "sha256": "5a7476c6a29c0486fa70cf8113cdba7d270e8193d51fbd58476774ebf588ab7b", "text": "Well, the expenses of the Magnificent man are great and fitting: such also are his works (because this secures the expenditure being not great merely, but befitting the work). So then the work is to be proportionate to the expense, and this again to the work, or even above it: and the Magnificent man will incur such expenses from the motive of honour, this being common to all the virtues, and besides he will do it with pleasure and lavishly; excessive accuracy in calculation being Mean. He will consider also how a thing may be done most beautifully and fittingly, rather, than for how much it may be done, and how at the least expense.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00502", "bookId": 8438, "start": 213058, "end": 214250, "sha256": "9eebda1ee5d36118a8a7f4f3aecde22f7be763647dae3186268033d143a85b28", "text": "So the Magnificent man must be also a liberal man, because the liberal man will also spend what he ought, and in right manner: but it is the Great, that is to say tke large scale, which is distinctive of the Magnificent man, the object-matter of liberality being the same, and without spending more money than another man he will make the work more magnificent. I mean, the excellence of a possession and of a work is not the same: as a piece of property that thing is most valuable which is worth most, gold for instance; but as a work that which is great and beautiful, because the contemplation of such an object is admirable, and so is that which is Magnificent. So the excellence of a work is Magnificence on a large scale. There are cases of expenditure which we call honourable, such as are dedicatory offerings to the gods, and the furnishing their temples, and sacrifices, and in like manner everything that has reference to the Deity, and all such public matters as are objects of honourable ambition, as when men think in any case that it is their duty to furnish a chorus for the stage splendidly, or fit out and maintain a trireme, or give a general public feast.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00503", "bookId": 8438, "start": 214254, "end": 214783, "sha256": "533cc048ebc2b246f5847a6fb16b1c72df64adfb522243476e9d92dcaf689eb2", "text": "Now in all these, as has been already stated, respect is had also to the rank and the means of the man who is doing them: because they should be proportionate to these, and befit not the work only but also the doer of the work. For this reason a poor man cannot be a Magnificent man, since he has not means wherewith to spend largely and yet becomingly; and if he attempts it he is a fool, inasmuch as it is out of proportion and contrary to propriety, whereas to be in accordance with virtue a thing must be done rightly.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00504", "bookId": 8438, "start": 214787, "end": 215084, "sha256": "b67306c3c8d3e2a08e2a35dd610eaaaf9723908e2b229498b83ce2658533a68e", "text": "Such expenditure is fitting moreover for those to whom such things previously belong, either through themselves or through their ancestors or people with whom they are connected, and to the high-born or people of high repute, and so on: because all these things imply greatness and reputation.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00505", "bookId": 8438, "start": 215088, "end": 215697, "sha256": "6bf001f0269dfc6b8a306545120ace832fc8703a9fb5dbe92a827d1aa43560f9", "text": "So then the Magnificent man is pretty much as I have described him, and Magnificence consists in such expenditures: because they are the greatest and most honourable: and of private ones such as come but once for all, marriage to wit, and things of that kind; and any occasion which engages the interest of the community in general, or of those who are in power; and what concerns receiving and despatching strangers; and gifts, and repaying gifts: because the Magnificent man is not apt to spend upon himself but on the public good, and gifts are pretty much in the same case as dedicatory offerings.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00506", "bookId": 8438, "start": 215701, "end": 216250, "sha256": "fc901dda97d1380acc470588cc63a8f19e0b732609b40e5015a98b261670f9c8", "text": "It is characteristic also of the Magnificent man to furnish his house suitably to his wealth, for this also in a way reflects credit; and again, to spend rather upon such works as are of long duration, these being most honourable. And again, propriety in each case, because the same things are not suitable to gods and men, nor in a temple and a tomb. And again, in the case of expenditures, each must be great of its kind, and great expense on a great object is most magnificent, that is in any case what is great in these particular things.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00507", "bookId": 8438, "start": 216254, "end": 216676, "sha256": "30d0f234c15c2468a974abfa1e6578b65d8acf1f517197b449f3f280ceddd6d7", "text": "There is a difference too between greatness of a work and greatness of expenditure: for instance, a very beautiful ball or cup is magnificent as a present to a child, while the price of it is small and almost mean. Therefore it is characteristic of the Magnificent man to do magnificently whatever he is about: for whatever is of this kind cannot be easily surpassed, and bears a proper proportion to the expenditure.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00508", "bookId": 8438, "start": 216680, "end": 216713, "sha256": "391979c214792486a54ef3d31ee25f681184c49cd968e25ffb82094e668ba2d4", "text": "Such then is the Magnificent man.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00509", "bookId": 8438, "start": 216717, "end": 217382, "sha256": "603e4710182c05aafd4f3bb826201300e587fe9dddd9646a41ea5ae9a110a34c", "text": "The man who is in the state of excess, called one of Vulgar Profusion, is in excess because he spends improperly, as has been said. I mean in cases requiring small expenditure he lavishes much and shows off out of taste; giving his club a feast fit for a wedding-party, or if he has to furnish a chorus for a comedy, giving the actors purple to wear in the first scene, as did the Megarians. And all such things he will do, not with a view to that which is really honourable, but to display his wealth, and because he thinks he shall be admired for these things; and he will spend little where he ought to spend much, and much where he should spend little.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00510", "bookId": 8438, "start": 217386, "end": 217735, "sha256": "39592409eb070207819c5e2405a2a96ba8a014e87ca738c4f727aa260ed53377", "text": "The Mean man will be deficient in every case, and even where he has spent the most he will spoil the whole effect for want of some trifle; he is procrastinating in all he does, and contrives how he may spend the least, and does even that with lamentations about the expense, and thinking that he does all things on a greater scale than he ought.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00511", "bookId": 8438, "start": 217739, "end": 217875, "sha256": "b31f6257266268e024f9b518d6b6be8100d8f6618301e1e2cd0bc5992d73a57c", "text": "Of course, both these states are faulty, but they do not involve disgrace because they are neither hurtful to others nor very unseemly.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00512", "bookId": 8438, "start": 217879, "end": 217890, "sha256": "3186d98bcee8266853ace5b1a5e20557973e585ee48419d596c2b2610a3f68b2", "text": "Chapter IV.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00513", "bookId": 8438, "start": 217894, "end": 218147, "sha256": "6292da20b3942d8e7c18c2333db25bcedf59079e9a10bf40635d0ff3dc9635a6", "text": "The very name of Great-mindedness implies, that great things are its object-matter; and we will first settle what kind of things. It makes no difference, of course, whether we regard the moral state in the abstract or as exemplified in an individual.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00514", "bookId": 8438, "start": 218151, "end": 218669, "sha256": "169ed0b5be08d9093e29169ed1a10bfc2df9426b8cb82cfdf8a4ca56c25d5577", "text": "Well then, he is thought to be Great-minded who values himself highly and at the same time justly, because he that does so without grounds is foolish, and no virtuous character is foolish or senseless. Well, the character I have described is Great-minded. The man who estimates himself lowly, and at the same time justly, is modest; but not Great-minded, since this latter quality implies greatness, just as beauty implies a large bodily conformation while small people are neat and well made but not beautiful.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00515", "bookId": 8438, "start": 218673, "end": 219111, "sha256": "2c205e231108bf517c13c9aa4304fab01330ff1cf871f140ad1970671bdfac43", "text": "Again, he who values himself highly without just grounds is a Vain man: though the name must not be applied to every case of unduly high self-estimation. He that values himself below his real worth is Small-minded, and whether that worth is great, moderate, or small, his own estimate falls below it. And he is the strongest case of this error who is really a man of great worth, for what would he have done had his worth been less?", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00516", "bookId": 8438, "start": 219115, "end": 220157, "sha256": "5c6b1771391838f8f185dc354c6c0b27e053dfa1fe545d73a75b39d6bd110307", "text": "The Great-minded man is then, as far as greatness is concerned, at the summit, but in respect of propriety he is in the mean, because he estimates himself at his real value (the other characters respectively are in excess and defect). Since then he justly estimates himself at a high, or rather at the highest possible rate, his character will have respect specially to one thing: this term “rate” has reference of course to external goods: and of these we should assume that to be the greatest which we attribute to the gods, and which is the special object of desire to those who are in power, and which is the prize proposed to the most honourable actions: now honour answers to these descriptions, being the greatest of external goods. So the Great-minded man bears himself as he ought in respect of honour and dishonour. In fact, without need of words, the Great-minded plainly have honour for their object-matter: since honour is what the great consider themselves specially worthy of, and according to a certain rate.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00517", "bookId": 8438, "start": 220161, "end": 221196, "sha256": "7af7f5705f76c0398b2c0890b9557184f7a91fe7d8e3df34b9bba4609e9b9215", "text": "The Small-minded man is deficient, both as regards himself, and also as regards the estimation of the Great-minded: while the Vain man is in excess as regards himself, but does not get beyond the Great-minded man. Now the Great-minded man, being by the hypothesis worthy of the greatest things, must be of the highest excellence, since the better a man is the more is he worth, and he who is best is worth the most: it follows then, that to be truly Great-minded a man must be good, and whatever is great in each virtue would seem to belong to the Great-minded. It would no way correspond with the character of the Great-minded to flee spreading his hands all abroad; nor to injure any one; for with what object in view will he do what is base, in whose eyes nothing is great? in short, if one were to go into particulars, the Great-minded man would show quite ludicrously unless he were a good man: he would not be in fact deserving of honour if he were a bad man, honour being the prize of virtue and given to the good.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00518", "bookId": 8438, "start": 221200, "end": 221504, "sha256": "e6b1acd35224f636fb253566dcf8d70d487cc7c576d7042f0976eb137a3e7558", "text": "This virtue, then, of Great-mindedness seems to be a kind of ornament of all the other virtues, in that it makes them better and cannot be without them; and for this reason it is a hard matter to be really and truly Great-minded; for it cannot be without thorough goodness and nobleness of character.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00519", "bookId": 8438, "start": 221508, "end": 222066, "sha256": "3994f227172f25c46b5e4afa0d94be51b7b5fa58c23724355d4520f6c772183d", "text": "Honour then and dishonour are specially the object-matter of the Great-minded man: and at such as is great, and given by good men, he will be pleased moderately as getting his own, or perhaps somewhat less for no honour can be quite adequate to perfect virtue: but still he will accept this because they have nothing higher to give him. But such as is given by ordinary people and on trifling grounds he will entirely despise, because these do not come up to his deserts: and dishonour likewise, because in his case there cannot be just ground for it.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00520", "bookId": 8438, "start": 222070, "end": 222804, "sha256": "6da257c8c716c2b6726ec271065207491dab0d4ec8978e402695936d877e6e53", "text": "Now though, as I have said, honour is specially the object-matter of the Great-minded man, I do not mean but that likewise in respect of wealth and power, and good or bad fortune of every kind, he will bear himself with moderation, fall out how they may, and neither in prosperity will he be overjoyed nor in adversity will he be unduly pained. For not even in respect of honour does he so bear himself; and yet it is the greatest of all such objects, since it is the cause of power and wealth being choice-worthy, for certainly they who have them desire to receive honour through them. So to whom honour even is a small thing to him will all other things also be so; and this is why such men are thought to be supercilious.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00521", "bookId": 8438, "start": 222808, "end": 223239, "sha256": "d25ec54f28fa7ed48048dc2cda02f3057a3d40213ec9e49d67eef1796e37967d", "text": "It seems too that pieces of good fortune contribute to form this character of Great-mindedness: I mean, the nobly born, or men of influence, or the wealthy, are considered to be entitled to honour, for they are in a position of eminence and whatever is eminent by good is more entitled to honour: and this is why such circumstances dispose men rather to Great-mindedness, because they receive honour at the hands of some men.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00522", "bookId": 8438, "start": 223243, "end": 223662, "sha256": "ccc8fd9f848129546e66e6451c09e42cbbb2c90a0167756ed2de9dfa702375d4", "text": "Now really and truly the good man alone is entitled to honour; only if a man unites in himself goodness with these external advantages he is thought to be more entitled to honour: but they who have them without also having virtue are not justified in their high estimate of themselves, nor are they rightly denominated Great-minded; since perfect virtue is one of the indispensable conditions to such & character.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00523", "bookId": 8438, "start": 223666, "end": 224267, "sha256": "78c738775ab8f97583f05ea90c4a39a262dcd2058e4b5fca38ec9ae77912d78d", "text": "Further, such men become supercilious and insolent, it not being easy to bear prosperity well without goodness; and not being able to bear it, and possessed with an idea of their own superiority to others, they despise them, and do just whatever their fancy prompts; for they mimic the Great-minded man, though they are not like him, and they do this in such points as they can, so without doing the actions which can only flow from real goodness they despise others. Whereas the Great-minded man despises on good grounds (for he forms his opinions truly), but the mass of men do it at random.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00524", "bookId": 8438, "start": 224271, "end": 225414, "sha256": "6d9c362cf30d23adb747d6315263a741f2c50a8856b8aac95e99a4f5d3c3d46c", "text": "Moreover, he is not a man to incur little risks, nor does he court danger, because there are but few things he has a value for; but he will incur great dangers, and when he does venture he is prodigal of his life as knowing that there are terms on which it is not worth his while to live. He is the sort of man to do kindnesses, but he is ashamed to receive them; the former putting a man in the position of superiority, the latter in that of inferiority; accordingly he will greatly overpay any kindness done to him, because the original actor will thus be laid under obligation and be in the position of the party benefited. Such men seem likewise to remember those they have done kindnesses to, but not those from whom they have received them: because he who has received is inferior to him who has done the kindness and our friend wishes to be superior; accordingly he is pleased to hear of his own kind acts but not of those done to himself (and this is why, in Homer, Thetis does not mention to Jupiter the kindnesses she had done him, nor did the Lacedæmonians to the Athenians but only the benefits they had received).", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00525", "bookId": 8438, "start": 225418, "end": 225952, "sha256": "888bafe7b8aad90759842c6c7e5214230a673a61d3cd17ea68c997a69421ccd5", "text": "Further, it is characteristic of the Great-minded man to ask favours not at all, or very reluctantly, but to do a service very readily; and to bear himself loftily towards the great or fortunate, but towards people of middle station affably; because to be above the former is difficult and so a grand thing, but to be above the latter is easy; and to be high and mighty towards the former is not ignoble, but to do it towards those of humble station would be low and vulgar; it would be like parading strength against the weak.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00526", "bookId": 8438, "start": 225956, "end": 226610, "sha256": "8f37f67a09674ab526b7416918ee2deecc5372ce86d1f5ae167635f02790bcc4", "text": "And again, not to put himself in the way of honour, nor to go where others are the chief men; and to be remiss and dilatory, except in the case of some great honour or work; and to be concerned in few things, and those great and famous. It is a property of him also to be open, both in his dislikes and his likings, because concealment is a consequent of fear. Likewise to be careful for reality rather than appearance, and talk and act openly (for his contempt for others makes him a bold man, for which same reason he is apt to speak the truth, except where the principle of reserve comes in), but to be reserved towards the generality of men.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00527", "bookId": 8438, "start": 226614, "end": 227317, "sha256": "5353d889e3f0b03d36f16752cdc9509265b46da8a938c1d4fb2fdcab6667a7a2", "text": "And to be unable to live with reference to any other but a friend; because doing so is servile, as may be seen in that all flatterers are low and men in low estate are flatterers. Neither is his admiration easily excited, because nothing is great in his eyes; nor does he bear malice, since remembering anything, and specially wrongs, is no part of Great-mindedness, but rather overlooking them; nor does he talk of other men; in fact, he will not speak either of himself or of any other; he neither cares to be praised himself nor to have others blamed; nor again does he praise freely, and for this reason he is not apt to speak ill even of his enemies except to show contempt and insolence.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00528", "bookId": 8438, "start": 227321, "end": 227725, "sha256": "8033bff4124952bf0910cdcce709d93e4b8776dca2d24705cffd9ab0d752b5a0", "text": "And he is by no means apt to make laments about things which cannot be helped, or requests about those which are trivial; because to be thus disposed with respect to these things is consequent only upon real anxiety about them. Again, he is the kind of man to acquire what is beautiful and unproductive rather than what is productive and profitable: this being rather the part of an independent man.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00529", "bookId": 8438, "start": 227729, "end": 228036, "sha256": "64adcd848f015cd72610a65521011bf3dd5307416baa01c7d3016bba355034f4", "text": "Also slow motion, deep-toned voice, and deliberate style of speech, are thought to be characteristic of the Great-minded man: for he who is earnest about few things is not likely to be in a hurry, nor he who esteems nothing great to be very intent: and sharp tones and quickness are the result of these.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00530", "bookId": 8438, "start": 228040, "end": 228050, "sha256": "89204e68d094a6a77f968119f40fec5f77d7676bf38cb1b47cd0ab87d3d2fea2", "text": "Chapter V.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00531", "bookId": 8438, "start": 228054, "end": 228355, "sha256": "7e0595cadebc71a52e42cae939d03d4e8d9c2219987fa3194f4cdc213409c9f9", "text": "This then is my idea of the Great-minded man; and he who is in the defect is a Small-minded man, he who is in the excess a Vain man. However, as we observed in respect of the last character we discussed, these extremes are not thought to be vicious exactly, but only mistaken, for they do no harm.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00532", "bookId": 8438, "start": 228359, "end": 229088, "sha256": "dcc636e07a45812e7d7470249eb093bdcece8c38aaa7b0ab3a936af4b75bc1cf", "text": "The Small-minded man, for instance, being really worthy of good deprives himself of his deserts, and seems to have somewhat faulty from not having a sufficiently high estimate of his own desert, in fact from self-ignorance: because, but for this, he would have grasped after what he really is entitled to, and that is good. Still such characters are not thought to be foolish, but rather laggards. But the having such an opinion of themselves seems to have a deteriorating effect on the character: because in all cases men’s aims are regulated by their supposed desert, and thus these men, under a notion of their own want of desert, stand aloof from honourable actions and courses, and similarly from external goods.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00533", "bookId": 8438, "start": 229092, "end": 229574, "sha256": "a5253fa6ace36dc35a5335387eddac24d416b77b9b9939338253d301a70d9d5f", "text": "But the Vain are foolish and self-ignorant, and that palpably: because they attempt honourable things, as though they were worthy, and then they are detected. They also set themselves off, by dress, and carriage, and such-like things, and desire that their good circumstances may be seen, and they talk of them under the notion of receiving honour thereby. Small-mindedness rather than Vanity is opposed to Great-mindedness, because it is more commonly met with and is worse.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00534", "bookId": 8438, "start": 229578, "end": 229589, "sha256": "bb240dadd686b141825e647280d2d4b72d5f6bbd0f26d00f1faf792e029c0892", "text": "Chapter VI.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00535", "bookId": 8438, "start": 229593, "end": 230258, "sha256": "86f34eaa5a8c0443e955f6be3885021887c466b6110c9d3bd369b5545df218d4", "text": "Well, the virtue of Great-mindedness has for its object great Honour, as we have said: and there seems to be a virtue having Honour also for its object (as we stated in the former book), which may seem to bear to Great-mindedness the same relation that Liberality does to Magnificence: that is, both these virtues stand aloof from what is great but dispose us as we ought to be disposed towards moderate and small matters. Further: as in giving and receiving of wealth there is a mean state, an excess, and a defect, so likewise in grasping after Honour there is the more or less than is right, and also the doing so from right sources and in right manner.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00536", "bookId": 8438, "start": 230262, "end": 230679, "sha256": "9538769f6bcba44b49de49fd0e45e955d56458cf6f2a2e266469a576a1fcdade", "text": "For we blame the lover of Honour as aiming at Honour more than he ought, and from wrong sources; and him who is destitute of a love of Honour as not choosing to be honoured even for what is noble. Sometimes again we praise the lover of Honour as manly and having a love for what is noble, and him who has no love for it as being moderate and modest (as we noticed also in the former discussion of these virtues).", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00537", "bookId": 8438, "start": 230683, "end": 230982, "sha256": "0cdd51245f36226c4bfef39f07d67a282b5bc912038bed62b022992e85c6a614", "text": "It is clear then that since “Lover of so and so” is a term capable of several meanings, we do not always denote the same quality by the term “Lover of Honour;” but when we use it as a term of commendation we denote more than the mass of men are; when for blame more than a man should be.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00538", "bookId": 8438, "start": 230986, "end": 231706, "sha256": "70799c33776e17ae671cd403b7f9b3d7a4fcbfe74c6fbf1d36d886f424582a9a", "text": "And the mean state having no proper name the extremes seem to dispute for it as unoccupied ground: but of course where there is excess and defect there must be also the mean. And in point of fact, men do grasp at Honour more than they should, and less, and sometimes just as they ought; for instance, this state is praised, being a mean state in regard of Honour, but without any appropriate name. Compared with what is called Ambition it shows like a want of love for Honour, and compared with this it shows like Ambition, or compared with both, like both faults: nor is this a singular case among the virtues. Here the extreme characters appear to be opposed, because the mean has no name appropriated to it.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00539", "bookId": 8438, "start": 231710, "end": 231722, "sha256": "e3a88405865f388fd2bbf6c4cfc5874d7991e8951df2fcbc0435b1fbb2f839f3", "text": "Chapter VII.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00540", "bookId": 8438, "start": 231726, "end": 232000, "sha256": "4d6f1a70cd592f064bacdbe6f635a9c718d662804817a86b48a98e0ffa933954", "text": "Meekness is a mean state, having for its object-matter Anger: and as the character in the mean has no name, and we may almost say the same of the extremes, we give the name of Meekness (leaning rather to the defect, which has no name either) to the character in the mean.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00541", "bookId": 8438, "start": 232004, "end": 233253, "sha256": "5b451fb88f509c36367b92c4a84a6547c77c0d40168faca4ad852aca1a759492", "text": "The excess may be called an over-aptness to Anger: for the passion is Anger, and the producing causes many and various. Now he who is angry at what and with whom he ought, and further, in right manner and time, and for proper length of time, is praised, so this Man will be Meek since Meekness is praised. For the notion represented by the term Meek man is the being imperturbable, and not being led away by passion, but being angry in that manner, and at those things, and for that length of time, which Reason may direct. This character however is thought to err rather on the side of defect, inasmuch as he is not apt to take revenge but rather to make allowances and forgive. And the defect, call it Angerlessness or what you will, is blamed: I mean, they who are not angry at things at which they ought to be angry are thought to be foolish, and they who are angry not in right manner, nor in right time, nor with those with whom they ought; for a man who labours under this defect is thought to have no perception, nor to be pained, and to have no tendency to avenge himself, inasmuch as he feels no anger: now to bear with scurrility in one’s own person, and patiently see one’s own friends suffer it, is a slavish thing.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00542", "bookId": 8438, "start": 233257, "end": 233666, "sha256": "31949651646eb2e1dcd0ecb67705ddad92d532162b36bc21a9faa1784beaa24f", "text": "As for the excess, it occurs in all forms; men are angry with those with whom, and at things with which, they ought not to be, and more than they ought, and too hastily, and for too great a length of time. I do not mean, however, that these are combined in any one person: that would in fact be impossible, because the evil destroys itself, and if it is developed in its full force it becomes unbearable.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00543", "bookId": 8438, "start": 233670, "end": 234063, "sha256": "0bf2e9286da28e2bf212f49de317b07d30b1101af674089a4997504821e8eda3", "text": "Now those whom we term the Passionate are soon angry, and with people with whom and at things at which they ought not, and in an excessive degree, but they soon cool again, which is the best point about them. And this results from their not repressing their anger, but repaying their enemies (in that they show their feeings by reason of their vehemence), and then they have done with it.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00544", "bookId": 8438, "start": 234067, "end": 234235, "sha256": "4024c932c217a3e256c679bfdfaf3e8020680a99fd29465921bfb2b4f6e51775", "text": "The Choleric again are excessively vehement, and are angry at everything, and on every occasion; whence comes their Greek name signifying that their choler lies high.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00545", "bookId": 8438, "start": 234239, "end": 234760, "sha256": "8b60f060deca6102bd0f69ace653f117875aacafca82019212a8635c819ca9a1", "text": "The Bitter-tempered are hard to reconcile and keep their anger for a long while, because they repress the feeling: but when they have revenged themselves then comes a lull; for the vengeance destroys their anger by producing pleasure in lieu of pain. But if this does not happen they keep the weight on their minds: because, as it does not show itself, no one attempts to reason it away, and digesting anger within one’s self takes time. Such men are very great nuisances to themselves and to their best friends.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00546", "bookId": 8438, "start": 234764, "end": 234961, "sha256": "59d2e0823ea3addf18248e4299ea51d366186610df42bceeeca029b683f5b615", "text": "Again, we call those Cross-grained who are angry at wrong objects, and in excessive degree, and for too long a time, and who are not appeased without vengeance or at least punishing the offender.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00547", "bookId": 8438, "start": 234965, "end": 235211, "sha256": "3d1065ed351bb225137a3ac464b0d732bc81280ac15694c5d92bae0afc2c3525", "text": "To Meekness we oppose the excess rather than the defect, because it is of more common occurrence: for human nature is more disposed to take than to forgo revenge. And the Cross-grained are worse to live with [than they who are too phlegmatic].", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00548", "bookId": 8438, "start": 235215, "end": 236298, "sha256": "df6a7cc719de107b692fcbbf1b103bbd09c5af1a20f4069e3c94a7cd87b3686a", "text": "Now, from what has been here said, that is also plain which was said before. I mean, it is no easy matter to define how, and with what persons, and at what kind of things, and how long one ought to be angry, and up to what point a person is right or is wrong. For he that transgresses the strict rule only a little, whether on the side of too much or too little, is not blamed: sometimes we praise those who are deficient in the feeling and call them Meek, sometimes we call the irritable Spirited as being well qualified for government. So it is not easy to lay down, in so many words, for what degree or kind of transgression a man is blameable: because the decision is in particulars, and rests therefore with the Moral Sense. Thus much, however, is plain, that the mean state is praiseworthy, in virtue of which we are angry with those with whom, and at those things with which, we ought to be angry, and in right manner, and so on; while the excesses and defects are blameable, slightly so if only slight, more so if greater, and when considerable very blameable.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00549", "bookId": 8438, "start": 236302, "end": 236372, "sha256": "a6ec259717ab65049a538989dd385616262b2370055761c4aaefe34340bc4962", "text": "It is clear, therefore, that the mean state is what we are to hold to.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00550", "bookId": 8438, "start": 236376, "end": 236486, "sha256": "6af732594387f84952fe9e3b0297225bded4a39a337953ab09aad46ae752f945", "text": "This then is to be taken as our account of the various moral states which have Anger for their object-matter.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00551", "bookId": 8438, "start": 236490, "end": 236503, "sha256": "d004d8c3a629800899066ec30aebdc9b11ed7932971144d5b44dd4b9f1c6f736", "text": "Chapter VIII.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00552", "bookId": 8438, "start": 236507, "end": 236967, "sha256": "7fa085daa5d5ca696a82fb6899816dd6363935db88de5db77136b366574bc394", "text": "Next, as regards social intercourse and interchange of words and acts, some men are thought to be Over-Complaisant who, with a view solely to giving pleasure, agree to everything and never oppose, but think their line is to give no pain to those they are thrown amongst: they, on the other hand, are called Cross and Contentious who take exactly the contrary line to these, and oppose in everything, and have no care at all whether they give pain or not.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00553", "bookId": 8438, "start": 236971, "end": 238030, "sha256": "b456e1366eef984da161c0acc32a0ebc668bc012d8dfcdbeb58782d43d68c37c", "text": "Now it is quite clear of course, that the states I have named are blameable, and that the mean between them is praiseworthy, in virtue of which a man will let pass what he ought as he ought, and also will object in like manner. However, this state has no name appropriated, but it is most like Friendship; since the man who exhibits it is just the kind of man whom we would call the amiable friend, with the addition of strong earnest affection; but then this is the very point in which it differs from Friendship, that it is quite independent of any feeling or strong affection for those among whom the man mixes: I mean, that he takes everything as he ought, not from any feeling of love or hatred, but simply because his natural disposition leads him to do so; he will do it alike to those whom he does know and those whom he does not, and those with whom he is intimate and those with whom he is not; only in each case as propriety requires, because it is not fitting to care alike for intimates and strangers, nor again to pain them alike.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00554", "bookId": 8438, "start": 238034, "end": 238266, "sha256": "b5fa27891857176be547b636a87099d9ad009688beb8e8e758f42f25c98a7811", "text": "It has been stated in a general way that his social intercourse will be regulated by propriety, and his aim will be to avoid giving pain and to contribute to pleasure, but with a constant reference to what is noble and expedient.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00555", "bookId": 8438, "start": 238270, "end": 238520, "sha256": "4c2670a1e769373c15cd60997f890b5165d63f049a8dfc88903f9f8ab65c1f4c", "text": "His proper object-matter seems to be the pleasures and pains which arise out of social intercourse, but whenever it is not honourable or even hurtful to him to contribute to pleasure, in these instances he will run counter and prefer to give pain.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00556", "bookId": 8438, "start": 238524, "end": 238727, "sha256": "8391d345cfc810cf554437b91018f4808c20cc1f7cd8e592435077d0e4775ef0", "text": "Or if the things in question involve unseemliness to the doer, and this not inconsiderable, or any harm, whereas his opposition will cause some little pain, here he will not agree but will run counter.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00557", "bookId": 8438, "start": 238731, "end": 239158, "sha256": "28faab4317c26cd23e86f747f53f653de284485f696d3dd43cec8590c863bb15", "text": "Again, he will regulate differently his intercourse with great men and with ordinary men, and with all people according to the knowledge he has of them; and in like manner, taking in any other differences which may exist, giving to each his due, and in itself preferring to give pleasure and cautious not to give pain, but still guided by the results, I mean by what is noble and expedient according as they preponderate.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00558", "bookId": 8438, "start": 239162, "end": 239235, "sha256": "b773b1616cbee1603d43596d2090249efeb4f67f53c501c656137b6876a46cac", "text": "Again, he will inflict trifling pain with a view to consequent pleasure.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00559", "bookId": 8438, "start": 239239, "end": 239829, "sha256": "eeebed387b3c9c52a4fd46fc39dd050ac64c164d0517f3c57158313c5e447aeb", "text": "Well, the man bearing the mean character is pretty well such as I have described him, but he has no name appropriated to him: of those who try to give pleasure, the man who simply and disinterestedly tries to be agreeable is called Over-Complaisant, he who does it with a view to secure some profit in the way of wealth, or those things which wealth may procure, is a Flatterer: I have said before, that the man who is “always non-content” is Cross and Contentious. Here the extremes have the appearance of being opposed to one another, because the mean has no appropriate name.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00560", "bookId": 8438, "start": 239833, "end": 239844, "sha256": "592ec521344802b54bcc4f362dcb57feb55da0d05682ea5774b06c9cd5ee0ce4", "text": "Chapter IX.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00561", "bookId": 8438, "start": 239848, "end": 240319, "sha256": "8517af4c514c15ed9f9ff335e28f39fc8a57bad4368688cd8a33039ecdc85889", "text": "The mean state which steers clear of Exaggeration has pretty much the same object-matter as the last we described, and likewise has no name appropriated to it. Still it may be as well to go over these states: because, in the first place, by a particular discussion of each we shall be better acquainted with the general subject of moral character, and next we shall be the more convinced that the virtues are mean states by seeing that this is universally the case.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00562", "bookId": 8438, "start": 240323, "end": 240589, "sha256": "a6663d81884240b664c4924f48d0bfd52376385f03fa6c499ee227011177d1db", "text": "In respect then of living in society, those who carry on this intercourse with a view to pleasure and pain have been already spoken of; we will now go on to speak of those who are True or False, alike in their words and deeds and in the claims which they advance.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00563", "bookId": 8438, "start": 240593, "end": 241116, "sha256": "a4688a723b300d124664588a49895010c315c5e20673401bf90623cfb949c6a7", "text": "Now the Exaggerator is thought to have a tendency to lay claim to things reflecting credit on him, both when they do not belong to him at all and also in greater degree than that in which they really do: whereas the Reserved man, on the contrary, denies those which really belong to him or else depreciates them, while the mean character being a Plain-matter-of-fact person is Truthful in life and word, admitting the existence of what does really belong to him and making it neither greater nor less than the truth.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00564", "bookId": 8438, "start": 241120, "end": 241376, "sha256": "d17dae637e094ccad6e3ba8e47a81857b4a04f3d14446be8f0c0d0d4a3c111cc", "text": "It is possible of course to take any of these lines either with or without some further view: but in general men speak, and act, and live, each according to his particular character and disposition, unless indeed a man is acting from any special motive.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00565", "bookId": 8438, "start": 241380, "end": 241642, "sha256": "04b16187dd3e7d98eabdfda036588da10245a8363925a3285a5609e48ae09522", "text": "Now since falsehood is in itself low and blameable, while truth is noble and praiseworthy, it follows that the Truthful man (who is also in the mean) is praiseworthy, and the two who depart from strict truth are both blameable, but especially the Exaggerator.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00566", "bookId": 8438, "start": 241646, "end": 242080, "sha256": "1c27f71433b1ef305afeeaebaddeeaaa65b2c9c943b3339919bbc36df6c7bfb8", "text": "We will now speak of each, and first of the Truthful man: I call him Truthful, because we are not now meaning the man who is true in his agreements nor in such matters as amount to justice or injustice (this would come within the province of a different virtue), but, in such as do not involve any such serious difference as this, the man we are describing is true in life and word simply because he is in a certain moral state.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00567", "bookId": 8438, "start": 242084, "end": 242576, "sha256": "2e5438ebe520d3b6f0597a7d1fe21c0d16cbc41cd158f27dec4f09eeb3e3d797", "text": "And he that is such must be judged to be a good man: for he that has a love for Truth as such, and is guided by it in matters indifferent, will be so likewise even more in such as are not indifferent; for surely he will have a dread of falsehood as base, since he shunned it even in itself: and he that is of such a character is praiseworthy, yet he leans rather to that which is below the truth, this having an appearance of being in better taste because exaggerations are so hateful.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00568", "bookId": 8438, "start": 242580, "end": 243040, "sha256": "6d3cb5dadd2fc6b37602c629a0b86f6779de8126edc435827506b590f9c464ee", "text": "As for the man who lays claim to things above what really belongs to him _without_ any special motive, he is like a base man because he would not otherwise have taken pleasure in falsehood, but he shows as a fool rather than as a knave. But if a man does this _with_ a special motive, suppose for honour or glory, as the Braggart does, then he is not so very blameworthy, but if, directly or indirectly, for pecuniary considerations, he is more unseemly.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00569", "bookId": 8438, "start": 243044, "end": 243769, "sha256": "13748dfcd9f763b789a81454a50857b4f36d33f888d467bd02fa338e96ccb4ff", "text": "Now the Braggart is such not by his power but by his purpose, that is to say, in virtue of his moral state, and because he is a man of a certain kind; just as there are liars who take pleasure in falsehood for its own sake while others lie from a desire of glory or gain. They who exaggerate with a view to glory pretend to such qualities as are followed by praise or highest congratulation; they who do it with a view to gain assume those which their neighbours can avail themselves of, and the absence of which can be concealed, as a man’s being a skilful soothsayer or physician; and accordingly most men pretend to such things and exaggerate in this direction, because the faults I have mentioned are in them.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00570", "bookId": 8438, "start": 243773, "end": 244251, "sha256": "1fb8486d27346f776947b4891c354f4545031e7800694c834a89f0c319646c67", "text": "The Reserved, who depreciate their own qualities, have the appearance of being more refined in their characters, because they are not thought to speak with a view to gain but to avoid grandeur: one very common trait in such characters is their denying common current opinions, as Socrates used to do. There are people who lay claim falsely to small things and things the falsity of their pretensions to which is obvious; these are called Factotums and are very despicable.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00571", "bookId": 8438, "start": 244255, "end": 244736, "sha256": "3a12197711df836d075923407c6623c230da2b1e68c0dfa98624ebee25c077c7", "text": "This very Reserve sometimes shows like Exaggeration; take, for instance, the excessive plainness of dress affected by the Lacedæmonians: in fact, both excess and the extreme of deficiency partake of the nature of Exaggeration. But they who practise Reserve in moderation, and in cases in which the truth is not very obvious and plain, give an impression of refinement. Here it is the Exaggerator (as being the worst character) who appears to be opposed to the Truthful Man.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00572", "bookId": 8438, "start": 244740, "end": 244750, "sha256": "1004a834f009008ccc92e737e9a371a7a5488da6be86d63d2eae33426b5b37ef", "text": "Chapter X.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00573", "bookId": 8438, "start": 244754, "end": 245244, "sha256": "1df19871bead094f84381ca9b5c7e24b765a9026ccdbf2e3cfea44173d50eeb7", "text": "Next, as life has its pauses and in them admits of pastime combined with Jocularity, it is thought that in this respect also there is a kind of fitting intercourse, and that rules may be prescribed as to the kind of things one should say and the manner of saying them; and in respect of hearing likewise (and there will be a difference between the saying and hearing such and such things). It is plain that in regard to these things also there will be an excess and defect and a mean.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00574", "bookId": 8438, "start": 245248, "end": 245914, "sha256": "0761b5d5e78b48fa8779f889520db653e9b8b6540cc8a0927405f6c6baf20282", "text": "Now they who exceed in the ridiculous are judged to be Buffoons and Vulgar, catching at it in any and every way and at any cost, and aiming rather at raising laughter than at saying what is seemly and at avoiding to pain the object of their wit. They, on the other hand, who would not for the world make a joke themselves and are displeased with such as do are thought to be Clownish and Stern. But they who are Jocular in good taste are denominated by a Greek term expressing properly ease of movement, because such are thought to be, as one may say, motions of the moral character; and as bodies are judged of by their motions so too are moral characters.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00575", "bookId": 8438, "start": 245918, "end": 246223, "sha256": "c672503149aed688e142e0f0d983dad2df04cf44e2a24065145b212ee8d708cb", "text": "Now as the ridiculous lies on the surface, and the majority of men take more pleasure than they ought in Jocularity and Jesting, the Buffoons too get this name of Easy Pleasantry, as if refined and gentlemanlike; but that they differ from these, and considerably too, is plain from what has been said.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00576", "bookId": 8438, "start": 246227, "end": 246873, "sha256": "dac0a9656c9e3652b80a97d8e1bb9202d8f6c7425dfde2b1779eb4e4058b952c", "text": "One quality which belongs to the mean state is Tact: it is characteristic of a man of Tact to say and listen to such things as are fit for a good man and a gentleman to say and listen to: for there are things which are becoming for such a one to say and listen to in the way of Jocularity, and there is a difference between the Jocularity of the Gentleman and that of the Vulgarian; and again, between that of the educated and uneducated man. This you may see from a comparison of the Old and New Comedy: in the former obscene talk made the fun; in the latter it is rather innuendo: and this is no slight difference _as regards decency_.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00577", "bookId": 8438, "start": 246877, "end": 247169, "sha256": "153fb6e7c98fa25c13128a302942e364774415ab074816160a1d446820b60eb6", "text": "Well then, are we to characterise him who jests well by his saying what is becoming a gentleman, or by his avoiding to pain the object of his wit, or even by his giving him pleasure? or will not such a definition be vague, since different things are hateful and pleasant to different men?", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00578", "bookId": 8438, "start": 247173, "end": 247755, "sha256": "cda39438413765dd2cc9e5c53bb0b9b76762c0e6b991437f2d3da47c307105e6", "text": "Be this as it may, whatever he says such things will he also listen to, since it is commonly held that a man will do what he will bear to hear: this must, however, be limited; a man will not do quite all that he will hear: because jesting is a species of scurrility and there are some points of scurrility forbidden by law; it may be certain points of jesting should have been also so forbidden. So then the refined and gentlemanlike man will bear himself thus as being a law to himself. Such is the mean character, whether denominated the man of Tact or of Easy Pleasantry.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00579", "bookId": 8438, "start": 247759, "end": 248021, "sha256": "916a2bd04c51b42e3d0c475a29df072fe0a93a6e070e0267204f7065e35a06a1", "text": "But the Buffoon cannot resist the ridiculous, sparing neither himself nor any one else so that he can but raise his laugh, saying things of such kind as no man of refinement would say and some which he would not even tolerate if said by others in his hearing.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00580", "bookId": 8438, "start": 248025, "end": 248163, "sha256": "78380eb5bdf6c95690bd2800c3fc0db0a2a047e975a7e7b695d8f5005712d2e5", "text": "The Clownish man is for such intercourse wholly useless: inasmuch as contributing nothing jocose of his own he is savage with all who do.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00581", "bookId": 8438, "start": 248167, "end": 248246, "sha256": "08f0f4730a66b74ae3246a3907d5dd927cbca38adf94de8c6505a0c33fde47f0", "text": "Yet some pause and amusement in life are generally judged to be indispensable.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00582", "bookId": 8438, "start": 248250, "end": 248612, "sha256": "d304352a5bec65d39b9a3b07a2b7e1845081df6627793d583e7b0a8ae331ba08", "text": "The three mean states which have been described do occur in life, and the object-matter of all is interchange of words and deeds. They differ, in that one of them is concerned with truth, and the other two with the pleasurable: and of these two again, the one is conversant with the jocosities of life, the other with all other points of social intercourse.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00583", "bookId": 8438, "start": 248616, "end": 248627, "sha256": "e01eea13bd5151db5300b85b2bf5667b50440b182b04dc56f48ea5ab17de6a93", "text": "Chapter XI.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00584", "bookId": 8438, "start": 248631, "end": 249041, "sha256": "76d7ddbb339ba57e790e460bc4b2dd3c7daae8258a76995bf5ff771551f26a9b", "text": "To speak of Shame as a Virtue is incorrect, because it is much more like a feeling than a moral state. It is defined, we know, to be “a kind of fear of disgrace,” and its effects are similar to those of the fear of danger, for they who feel Shame grow red and they who fear death turn pale. So both are evidently in a way physical, which is thought to be a mark of a feeling rather than a moral state.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00585", "bookId": 8438, "start": 249045, "end": 250176, "sha256": "e5f7b2601ebc92811fdfed2890d533983647f98148acabf6647a9fb647625e11", "text": "Moreover, it is a feeling not suitable to every age, but only to youth: we do think that the young should be Shamefaced, because since they live at the beck and call of passion they do much that is wrong and Shame acts on them as a check. In fact, we praise such young men as are Shamefaced, but no one would ever praise an old man for being given to it, inasmuch as we hold that he ought not to do things which cause Shame; for Shame, since it arises at low bad actions, does not at all belong to the good man, because such ought not to be done at all: nor does it make any difference to allege that some things are disgraceful really, others only because they are thought so; for neither should be done, so that a man ought not to be in the position of feeling Shame. In truth, to be such a man as to do anything disgraceful is the part of a faulty character. And for a man to be such that he would feel Shame if he should do anything disgraceful, and to think that this constitutes him a good man, is absurd: because Shame is felt at voluntary actions only, and a good man will never voluntarily do what is base.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00586", "bookId": 8438, "start": 250180, "end": 250563, "sha256": "466028a041b1e3415842a31c52bd942aa93a2c7bb47247fe70d1b8746e63cb2f", "text": "True it is, that Shame may be good on a certain supposition, as “if a man should do such things, he would feel Shame:” but then the Virtues are good in themselves, and not merely in supposed cases. And, granted that impudence and the not being ashamed to do what is disgraceful is base, it does not the more follow that it is good for a man to do such things and feel Shame.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00587", "bookId": 8438, "start": 250567, "end": 250694, "sha256": "617ea4d4de2a098d76064ec285813909bda4ed91ebcd3a964317b76f7c7ed282", "text": "Nor is Self-Control properly a Virtue, but a kind of mixed state: however, all about this shall be set forth in a future Book.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00588", "bookId": 8438, "start": 250704, "end": 250710, "sha256": "c38d6ed66b495d14dc14d9fe4f82a0b9e1a0740215355d2e389211d8039beb66", "text": "BOOK V", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00589", "bookId": 8438, "start": 250714, "end": 250724, "sha256": "5a35eafc731a2640e14da7e928f9e9a89afe4fe2a1f9a9a349887b8fb6d795cd", "text": "Chapter I.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00590", "bookId": 8438, "start": 250730, "end": 251105, "sha256": "53fa34c7d06debd2de1318be3aaf4d5eaae84a9316162a7ec3ca3762586c01ff", "text": "Now the points for our enquiry in respect of Justice and Injustice are, what kind of actions are their object-matter, and what kind of a mean state Justice is, and between what points the abstract principle of it, i.e. the Just, is a mean. And our enquiry shall be, if you please, conducted in the same method as we have observed in the foregoing parts of this Treatise.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00591", "bookId": 8438, "start": 251109, "end": 251487, "sha256": "66cdcee2367941d1bed9efc144674898f52f8e68b1339b7b8d416a7ec3e1c164", "text": "We see then that all men mean by the term Justice a moral state such that in consequence of it men have the capacity of doing what is just, and actually do it, and wish it:[1] similarly also with respect to Injustice, a moral state such that in consequence of it men do unjustly and wish what is unjust: let us also be content then with these as a ground-work sketched out.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00592", "bookId": 8438, "start": 251491, "end": 251892, "sha256": "fa6c56a7fb6713c212c2fd6454fa8d3cc62c9e806096a926c29774c83ff4f79b", "text": "I mention the two, because the same does not hold with regard to States whether of mind or body as with regard to Sciences or Faculties: I mean that whereas it is thought that the same Faculty or Science embraces contraries, a State will not: from health, for instance, not the contrary acts are done but the healthy ones only; we say a man walks healthily when he walks as the healthy man would.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00593", "bookId": 8438, "start": 251896, "end": 252420, "sha256": "7cca1fc7af997606a2e790acb9b20304cb6598006c69ce6935ebc4455cef67db", "text": "However, of the two contrary states the one may be frequently known from the other, and oftentimes the states from their subject-matter: if it be seen clearly what a good state of body is, then is it also seen what a bad state is, and from the things which belong to a good state of body the good state itself is seen, and _vice versâ_. If, for instance, the good state is firmness of flesh it follows that the bad state is flabbiness of flesh; and whatever causes firmness of flesh is connected with the good state.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00594", "bookId": 8438, "start": 252424, "end": 253135, "sha256": "885411072543809dce8eb9d7ae56f9e7844aa63c6ea59c82ec1347efdf798a7e", "text": "It follows moreover in general,[2] that if of two contrary terms the one is used in many senses so also will the other be; as, for instance, if “the Just,” then also “the Unjust.” Now Justice and Injustice do seem to be used respectively in many senses, but, because the line of demarcation between these is very fine and minute,[3] it commonly escapes notice that they are thus used, and it is not plain and manifest as where the various significations of terms are widely different for in these last the visible difference is great, for instance, the word κλεὶς is used equivocally to denote the bone which is under the neck of animals and the instrument with which people close doors.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00595", "bookId": 8438, "start": 253139, "end": 253533, "sha256": "dfe67da2ad327593319ffadfd3438241736ef21e42ede5e8adcd564e122b475d", "text": "Let it be ascertained then in how many senses the term “Unjust man” is used. Well, he who violates the law, and he who is a grasping man, and the unequal man, are all thought to be Unjust and so manifestly the Just man will be, the man who acts according to law, and the equal man “The Just” then will be the lawful and the equal, and “the Unjust” the unlawful and the unequal.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00596", "bookId": 8438, "start": 253537, "end": 253994, "sha256": "9bcb1b419ffd13a77c128d5ad408c4b9b750ade5b7eb92d639cd6e0f205189be", "text": "Well, since the Unjust man is also a grasping man, he will be so, of course, with respect to good things, but not of every kind, only those which are the subject-matter of good and bad fortune and which are in themselves always good but not always to the individual.[4] Yet men pray for and pursue these things: this they should not do but pray that things which are in the abstract good may be so also to them, and choose what is good for themselves.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00597", "bookId": 8438, "start": 253998, "end": 254455, "sha256": "4ec226946eff04ab64830c6090ab5b85e8fdce45b74b163c0aec6a3937d5f9a6", "text": "But the Unjust man does not always choose actually the greater part, but even sometimes the less; as in the case of things which are simply evil: still, since the less evil is thought to be in a manner a good and the grasping is after good, therefore even in this case he is thought to be a grasping man, _i.e._ one who strives for more good than fairly falls to his share: of course he is also an unequal man, this being an inclusive and common term.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00598", "bookId": 8438, "start": 254459, "end": 254470, "sha256": "9ce6d96fa540de49002e2340d430460f2ee679453301a35db1cf5cf6c0ed967f", "text": "Chapter II.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00599", "bookId": 8438, "start": 254474, "end": 255077, "sha256": "345946ca4596f3897e1e411a52b41f9116c046f0dec35b6c840b4002112bec6e", "text": "We said that the violator of Law is Unjust, and the keeper of the Law Just: further, it is plain that all Lawful things are in a manner Just, because by Lawful we understand what have been defined by the legislative power and each of these we say is Just. The Laws too give directions on all points, aiming either at the common good of all, or that of the best, or that of those in power (taking for the standard real goodness or adopting some other estimate); in one way we mean by Just, those things which are apt to produce and preserve happiness and its ingredients for the social community.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00600", "bookId": 8438, "start": 255081, "end": 255606, "sha256": "09732a65ba336ff52968f07495f0b1dbfd13f3e13b03ed37d578c97d8a47ea4f", "text": "Further, the Law commands the doing the deeds not only of the brave man (as not leaving the ranks, nor flying, nor throwing away one’s arms), but those also of the perfectly self-mastering man, as abstinence from adultery and wantonness; and those of the meek man, as refraining from striking others or using abusive language: and in like manner in respect of the other virtues and vices commanding some things and forbidding others, rightly if it is a good law, in a way somewhat inferior if it is one extemporised.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00601", "bookId": 8438, "start": 255610, "end": 255802, "sha256": "8dbe6a8b8aed5077048f67550c210c0bff7c71395bab6c3109ae8a0d18628fd5", "text": "Now this Justice is in fact perfect Virtue, yet not simply so but as exercised towards one’s neighbour: and for this reason Justice is thought oftentimes to be the best of the Virtues, and", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00602", "bookId": 8438, "start": 255806, "end": 255877, "sha256": "4ff94a8ae3a3a5ae654a046a0daa6c2f3e7ccecddb523889860570586bb21420", "text": "“neither Hesper nor the Morning-star So worthy of our admiration:”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00603", "bookId": 8438, "start": 255883, "end": 255930, "sha256": "d226fa444d3ec630df11b95ec81120c2f673566a03347739aa18b512742df3dd", "text": "and in a proverbial saying we express the same;", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00604", "bookId": 8438, "start": 255934, "end": 255978, "sha256": "ca541d084b409c43c3769effcdb48dcfad50b71e58e99806792ac1622e91b6c6", "text": "“All virtue is in Justice comprehended.”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00605", "bookId": 8438, "start": 255984, "end": 256433, "sha256": "139a609f6a61544dbcc8c3bb2c0790393672f3d74fdd93328869cd7b1251248a", "text": "And it is in a special sense perfect Virtue because it is the practice of perfect Virtue. And perfect it is because he that has it is able to practise his virtue towards his neighbour and not merely on himself; I mean, there are many who can practise virtue in the regulation of their own personal conduct who are wholly unable to do it in transactions with their neighbour. And for this reason that saying of Bias is thought to be a good one,", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00606", "bookId": 8438, "start": 256437, "end": 256472, "sha256": "85519c2350e72a19650a1f722275a4ee610ba0ab9cd32b09559832ff03988d4d", "text": "“Rule will show what a man is;”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00607", "bookId": 8438, "start": 256478, "end": 257060, "sha256": "c11a263649637fd3ac3d1b730a065ee2d478ef4de86ec271881fae54a7200c8e", "text": "for he who bears Rule is necessarily in contact with others, i.e. in a community. And for this same reason Justice alone of all the Virtues is thought to be a good to others, because it has immediate relation to some other person, inasmuch as the Just man does what is advantageous to another, either to his ruler or fellow-subject. Now he is the basest of men who practises vice not only in his own person,[5] but towards his friends also; but he the best who practises virtue not merely in his own person but towards his neighbour, for this is a matter of some difficulty.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00608", "bookId": 8438, "start": 257064, "end": 257522, "sha256": "e36fa70d38f195e0394276adf2e3a15d51b1b3b87910fa368b6329485cb2f05c", "text": "However, Justice in this sense is not a part of Virtue but is co-extensive with Virtue; nor is the Injustice which answers to it a part of Vice but co-extensive with Vice. Now wherein Justice in this sense differs from Virtue appears from what has been said: it is the same really, but the point of view is not the same: in so far as it has respect to one’s neighbour it is Justice, in so far as it is such and such a moral state it is simply Virtue.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00609", "bookId": 8438, "start": 257526, "end": 257538, "sha256": "c8c3757d774efbadade98d84b627377e281082435aed3cf63f66253a8af48e64", "text": "Chapter III.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00610", "bookId": 8438, "start": 257542, "end": 258565, "sha256": "4e7769ec717e7cfab48fcea4eadc5b7387498cabb5e0300f2ff5f797e88ffdf9", "text": "But the object of our enquiry is Justice, in the sense in which it is a part of Virtue (for there is such a thing, as we commonly say), and likewise with respect to particular Injustice. And of the existence of this last the following consideration is a proof: there are many vices by practising which a man acts unjustly, of course, but does not grasp at more than his share of good; if, for instance, by reason of cowardice he throws away his shield, or by reason of ill-temper he uses abusive language, or by reason of stinginess does not give a friend pecuniary assistance; but whenever he does a grasping action, it is often in the way of none of these vices, certainly not in all of them, still in the way of some vice or other (for we blame him), and in the way of Injustice. There is then some kind of Injustice distinct from that co-extensive with Vice and related to it as a part to a whole, and some “Unjust” related to that which is co-extensive with violation of the law as a part to a whole.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00611", "bookId": 8438, "start": 258569, "end": 258951, "sha256": "3b8bae3f588879ba4d4a0de7cbf919e959747251c693d79750f900865c5fb5ab", "text": "Again, suppose one man seduces a man’s wife with a view to gain and actually gets some advantage by it,[6] and another does the same from impulse of lust, at an expense of money and damage; this latter will be thought to be rather destitute of self-mastery than a grasping man, and the former Unjust but not destitute of self-mastery: now why? plainly because of his gaining.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00612", "bookId": 8438, "start": 258955, "end": 259232, "sha256": "8f88edf96e62df105e67da3f7b80709a545f14c4a1986ae7671edc8476c3e674", "text": "Again, all other acts of Injustice we refer to some particular depravity, as, if a man commits adultery, to abandonment to his passions; if he deserts his comrade, to cowardice; if he strikes another, to anger: but if he gains by the act to no other vice than to Injustice.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00613", "bookId": 8438, "start": 259236, "end": 259715, "sha256": "7ac1424eef0c17283a1b35269a061173164c54edbe0ef3352c8e6ebdcbd1fdee", "text": "Thus it is clear that there is a kind of Injustice different from and besides that which includes all Vice, having the same name because the definition is in the same genus; for both have their force in dealings with others, but the one acts upon honour, or wealth, or safety, or by whatever one name we can include all these things, and is actuated by pleasure attendant on gain, while the other acts upon all things which constitute the sphere of the good man’s action.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00614", "bookId": 8438, "start": 259719, "end": 259730, "sha256": "3186d98bcee8266853ace5b1a5e20557973e585ee48419d596c2b2610a3f68b2", "text": "Chapter IV.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00615", "bookId": 8438, "start": 259734, "end": 259962, "sha256": "ab1b46e6ee70e9362849b2c3ae6876bb372f436fec51e31e3efd2a1997535075", "text": "Now that there is more than one kind of Justice, and that there is one which is distinct from and besides that which is co-extensive with, Virtue, is plain: we must next ascertain what it is, and what are its characteristics.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00616", "bookId": 8438, "start": 259966, "end": 260739, "sha256": "54298f05812b6cda5d06d7c9340cd0fc7b0bd61668858b068784a930806ec7a1", "text": "Well, the Unjust has been divided into the unlawful and the unequal, and the Just accordingly into the lawful and the equal: the aforementioned Injustice is in the way of the unlawful. And as the unequal and the more[7] are not the same, but differing as part to whole (because all more is unequal, but not all unequal more), so the Unjust and the Injustice we are now in search of are not the same with, but other than, those before mentioned, the one being the parts, the other the wholes; for this particular Injustice is a part of the Injustice co-extensive with Vice, and likewise this Justice of the Justice co-extensive with Virtue. So that what we have now to speak of is the particular Justice and Injustice, and likewise the particular Just and Unjust.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00617", "bookId": 8438, "start": 260743, "end": 261459, "sha256": "1f0e34223cda06fab3d00357532f2195b581c4fd0e208831d4273df70684e30c", "text": "Here then let us dismiss any further consideration of the Justice ranking as co-extensive with Virtue (being the practice of Virtue in all its bearings towards others), and of the co-relative Injustice (being similarly the practice of Vice). It is clear too, that we must separate off the Just and the Unjust involved in these: because one may pretty well say that most lawful things are those which naturally result in action from Virtue in its fullest sense, because the law enjoins the living in accordance with each Virtue and forbids living in accordance with each Vice. And the producing causes of Virtue in all its bearings are those enactments which have been made respecting education for society.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00618", "bookId": 8438, "start": 261463, "end": 261775, "sha256": "4ad4c373c1a3826f99ec0276f5c32a55d1d0d7f95dd3f006a386e27410c32dac", "text": "By the way, as to individual education, in respect of which a man is simply good without reference to others, whether it is the province of πολιτικὴ or some other science we must determine at a future time: for it may be it is not the same thing to be a good man and a good citizen in every case.[8]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00619", "bookId": 8438, "start": 261779, "end": 261789, "sha256": "89204e68d094a6a77f968119f40fec5f77d7676bf38cb1b47cd0ab87d3d2fea2", "text": "Chapter V.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00620", "bookId": 8438, "start": 261793, "end": 262211, "sha256": "515002aba5bac29cc3465addbe5729987c899add70ae051c621df0bf441f999a", "text": "Now of the Particular Justice, and the Just involved in it, one species is that which is concerned in the distributions of honour, or wealth, or such other things as are to be shared among the members of the social community (because in these one man as compared with another may have either an equal or an unequal share), and the other is that which is Corrective in the various transactions between man and man.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00621", "bookId": 8438, "start": 262215, "end": 262500, "sha256": "a971a3e4ae31f5aabc27a85325313ec196e8065d9ba4307ae087fb6acfcdf93f", "text": "And of this latter there are two parts: because of transactions some are voluntary and some involuntary; voluntary, such as follow; selling, buying, use, bail, borrowing, deposit, hiring: and this class is called voluntary because the origination of these transactions is voluntary.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00622", "bookId": 8438, "start": 262504, "end": 262769, "sha256": "d8cd917f41615649160569c8158d9d846d979a705877a0028b50e9ebc72ff951", "text": "The involuntary again are either such as effect secrecy; as theft, adultery, poisoning, pimping, kidnapping of slaves, assassination, false witness; or accompanied with open violence; as insult, bonds, death, plundering, maiming, foul language, slanderous abuse.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00623", "bookId": 8438, "start": 262773, "end": 262784, "sha256": "bb240dadd686b141825e647280d2d4b72d5f6bbd0f26d00f1faf792e029c0892", "text": "Chapter VI.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00624", "bookId": 8438, "start": 262788, "end": 263698, "sha256": "7e218412c8ec3c7d6c5fba0caa6a42f51e0c369c521e934f7c2870db2125ea03", "text": "Well, the unjust man we have said is unequal, and the abstract “Unjust” unequal: further, it is plain that there is some mean of the unequal, that is to say, the equal or exact half (because in whatever action there is the greater and the less there is also the equal, i.e. the exact half). If then the Unjust is unequal the Just is equal, which all must allow without further proof: and as the equal is a mean the Just must be also a mean. Now the equal implies two terms at least: it follows then that the Just is both a mean and equal, and these to certain persons; and, in so far as it is a mean, between certain things (that is, the greater and the less), and, so far as it is equal, between two, and in so far as it is just it is so to certain persons. The Just then must imply four terms at least, for those[9] to which it is just are two, and the terms representing the things are two.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00625", "bookId": 8438, "start": 263702, "end": 264524, "sha256": "f7f4d8d79f4e545ef19b624f0c602750cfaf6380352c78b1f4618202ac470693", "text": "And there will be the same equality between the terms representing the persons, as between those representing the things: because as the latter are to one another so are the former: for if the persons are not equal they must not have equal shares; in fact this is the very source of all the quarrelling and wrangling in the world, when either they who are equal have and get awarded to them things not equal, or being not equal those things which are equal. Again, the necessity of this equality of ratios is shown by the common phrase “according to rate,” for all agree that the Just in distributions ought to be according to some rate: but what that rate is to be, all do not agree; the democrats are for freedom, oligarchs for wealth, others for nobleness of birth, and the aristocratic party for virtue.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00626", "bookId": 8438, "start": 264528, "end": 266104, "sha256": "45ed97c36e4b969d8385082036adaf14139b0e884511ca4a75565adc47cb9934", "text": "The Just, then, is a certain proportionable thing. For proportion does not apply merely to number in the abstract,[10] but to number generally, since it is equality of ratios, and implies four terms at least (that this is the case in what may be called discrete proportion is plain and obvious, but it is true also in continual proportion, for this uses the one term as two, and mentions it twice; thus A:B:C may be expressed A:B::B:C. In the first, B is named twice; and so, if, as in the second, B is actually written twice, the proportionals will be four): and the Just likewise implies four terms at the least, and the ratio between the two pair of terms is the same, because the persons and the things are divided similarly. It will stand then thus, A:B::C:D, and then permutando A:C::B:D, and then (supposing C and D to represent the things) A+C:B+D::A:B. The distribution in fact consisting in putting together these terms thus: and if they are put together so as to preserve this same ratio, the distribution puts them together justly.[11] So then the joining together of the first and third and second and fourth proportionals is the Just in the distribution, and this Just is the mean relatively to that which violates the proportionate, for the proportionate is a mean and the Just is proportionate. Now mathematicians call this kind of proportion geometrical: for in geometrical proportion the whole is to the whole as each part to each part. Furthermore this proportion is not continual, because the person and thing do not make up one term.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00627", "bookId": 8438, "start": 266108, "end": 266673, "sha256": "976a86f663cecb01f2907a263cf98403beadeebdc924fbf72d969703a4159000", "text": "The Just then is this proportionate, and the Unjust that which violates the proportionate; and so there comes to be the greater and the less: which in fact is the case in actual transactions, because he who acts unjustly has the greater share and he who is treated unjustly has the less of what is good: but in the case of what is bad this is reversed: for the less evil compared with the greater comes to be reckoned for good, because the less evil is more choice-worthy than the greater, and what is choice-worthy is good, and the more so the greater good.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00628", "bookId": 8438, "start": 266677, "end": 266718, "sha256": "e0a86d24860287f3ba637793b3fc97562f8af99c026e5043a0defd3730891b77", "text": "This then is the one species of the Just.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00629", "bookId": 8438, "start": 266722, "end": 266734, "sha256": "e3a88405865f388fd2bbf6c4cfc5874d7991e8951df2fcbc0435b1fbb2f839f3", "text": "Chapter VII.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00630", "bookId": 8438, "start": 266738, "end": 267265, "sha256": "bac8d1e5b63d80daee90b520378eb7c7895e17e8839889fb7aea58f8ffb2e96f", "text": "And the remaining one is the Corrective, which arises in voluntary as well as involuntary transactions. Now this just has a different form from the aforementioned; for that which is concerned in distribution of common property is always according to the aforementioned proportion: I mean that, if the division is made out of common property, the shares will bear the same proportion to one another as the original contributions did: and the Unjust which is opposite to this Just is that which violates the proportionate.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00631", "bookId": 8438, "start": 267269, "end": 268186, "sha256": "e71fc2f078718d29f482724e377120169c3f4a10124aa1cb5ae12a1aaf34d7a4", "text": "But the Just which arises in transactions between men is an equal in a certain sense, and the Unjust an unequal, only not in the way of that proportion but of arithmetical.[12] Because it makes no difference whether a robbery, for instance, is committed by a good man on a bad or by a bad man on a good, nor whether a good or a bad man has committed adultery: the law looks only to the difference created by the injury and treats the men as previously equal, where the one does and the other suffers injury, or the one has done and the other suffered harm. And so this Unjust, being unequal, the judge endeavours to reduce to equality again, because really when the one party has been wounded and the other has struck him, or the one kills and the other dies, the suffering and the doing are divided into unequal shares; well, the judge tries to restore equality by penalty, thereby taking from the gain.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00632", "bookId": 8438, "start": 268190, "end": 268513, "sha256": "5207d9fbd28ca7aee8eb5092a5edd9324b624f0381799b7ef3c4dc46a4c4c5b3", "text": "For these terms gain and loss are applied to these cases, though perhaps the term in some particular instance may not be strictly proper, as gain, for instance, to the man who has given a blow, and loss to him who has received it: still, when the suffering has been estimated, the one is called loss and the other gain.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00633", "bookId": 8438, "start": 268517, "end": 269346, "sha256": "395e23a848972fc60f7f95cbc9875ea181e1d0d4174e113832cdd6686427d427", "text": "And so the equal is a mean between the more and the less, which represent gain and loss in contrary ways (I mean, that the more of good and the less of evil is gain, the less of good and the more of evil is loss): between which the equal was stated to be a mean, which equal we say is Just: and so the Corrective Just must be the mean between loss and gain. And this is the reason why, upon a dispute arising, men have recourse to the judge: going to the judge is in fact going to the Just, for the judge is meant to be the personification of the Just.[13] And men seek a judge as one in the mean, which is expressed in a name given by some to judges (μεσίδιοι, or middle-men) under the notion that if they can hit on the mean they shall hit on the Just. The Just is then surely a mean since the judge is also.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00634", "bookId": 8438, "start": 269350, "end": 269783, "sha256": "a989a3de8e079ac008b1e53bf2d31b2ec9fd2cdabf2a990eda0fecbf5bf52709", "text": "So it is the office of a judge to make things equal, and the line, as it were, having been unequally divided, he takes from the greater part that by which it exceeds the half, and adds this on to the less. And when the whole is divided into two exactly equal portions then men say they have their own, when they have gotten the equal; and the equal is a mean between the greater and the less according to arithmetical equality.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00635", "bookId": 8438, "start": 269787, "end": 270770, "sha256": "7665768a3e4537ab1d253f84ebda2fd956e23d885389a38e74361bf595e4fae8", "text": "This, by the way, accounts for the etymology of the term by which we in Greek express the ideas of Just and Judge; (δίκαιον quasi δίχαιον, that is in two parts, and δικάστης quasi διχάστης, he who divides into two parts). For when from one of two equal magnitudes somewhat has been taken and added to the other, this latter exceeds the former by twice that portion: if it had been merely taken from the former and not added to the latter, then the latter would have exceeded the former only by that one portion; but in the other case, the greater exceeds the mean by one, and the mean exceeds also by one that magnitude from which the portion was taken. By this illustration, then, we obtain a rule to determine what one ought to take from him who has the greater, and what to add to him who has the less. The excess of the mean over the less must be added to the less, and the excess of the greater over the mean be taken from the greater.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00636", "bookId": 8438, "start": 270774, "end": 271532, "sha256": "96b9fa4982b3edcce420232f93537b27f058f03d8a86d2c46efa378b39b33353", "text": "Thus let there be three straight lines equal to one another. From one of them cut off a portion, and add as much to another of them. The whole line thus made will exceed the remainder of the first-named line, by twice the portion added, and will exceed the untouched line by that portion.[14] And these terms loss and gain are derived from voluntary exchange: that is to say, the having more than what was one’s own is called gaining, and the having less than one’s original stock is called losing; for instance, in buying or selling, or any other transactions which are guaranteed by law: but when the result is neither more nor less, but exactly the same as there was originally,[15] people say they have their own, and neither lose nor gain.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00637", "bookId": 8438, "start": 271536, "end": 271738, "sha256": "9ff883d21018f7f6664f443f84ae0806a9825b03aec69c72f9243511dc20dace", "text": "So then the Just we have been speaking of is a mean between loss and gain arising in involuntary transactions; that is, it is the having the same after the transaction as one had before it took place.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00638", "bookId": 8438, "start": 271742, "end": 271755, "sha256": "d004d8c3a629800899066ec30aebdc9b11ed7932971144d5b44dd4b9f1c6f736", "text": "Chapter VIII.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00639", "bookId": 8438, "start": 271761, "end": 272144, "sha256": "e1b469768dc18bf788c3305546349711a70a4bd6e3bf14b77bb32e5ce0d51fa1", "text": "There are people who have a notion that Reciprocation is simply just, as the Pythagoreans said: for they defined the Just simply and without qualification as “That which reciprocates with another.” But this simple Reciprocation will not fit on either to the Distributive Just, or the Corrective (and yet this is the interpretation they put on the Rhadamanthian rule of Just,", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00640", "bookId": 8438, "start": 272148, "end": 272239, "sha256": "ab0f60a5138ba578554c78f5be17f0ad76b98e6f744a74ea28c3d001c29546a1", "text": "If a man should suffer what he hath done, then there would be straightforward justice;”)", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00641", "bookId": 8438, "start": 272245, "end": 272554, "sha256": "40bca2487676a903fb2315bad2661ac166f7684bbde02e5e91d2cc1cdf2e7514", "text": "for in many cases differences arise: as, for instance, suppose one in authority has struck a man, he is not to be struck in turn; or if a man has struck one in authority, he must not only be struck but punished also.[16] And again, the voluntariness or involuntariness of actions makes a great difference.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00642", "bookId": 8438, "start": 272558, "end": 273098, "sha256": "2f5d377bac04799b9151f47f6ec93c90eabd4455a60a2361c81378cfcb5e1f25", "text": "But in dealings of exchange such a principle of Justice as this Reciprocation forms the bond of union, but then it must be Reciprocation according to proportion and not exact equality, because by proportionate reciprocity of action the social community is held together, For either Reciprocation of evil is meant, and if this be not allowed it is thought to be a servile condition of things: or else Reciprocation of good, and if this be not effected then there is no admission to participation which is the very bond of their union.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00643", "bookId": 8438, "start": 273102, "end": 273461, "sha256": "3c1bb30ee6c91f87f11fcf12b53893f5b93a02da99c82ee99bbc3fb481ddb143", "text": "And this is the moral of placing the Temple of the Graces (χάριτες) in the public streets; to impress the notion that there may be requital, this being peculiar to χάρις[17] because a man ought to requite with a good turn the man who has done him a favour and then to become himself the originator of another χάρις, by doing him a favour.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00644", "bookId": 8438, "start": 273465, "end": 273813, "sha256": "743e2c14a56a2749408062adc1293cf1742d15e496c3883bfef41a42416ad50d", "text": "Now the acts of mutual giving in due proportion may be represented by the diameters of a parallelogram, at the four angles of which the parties and their wares are so placed that the side connecting the parties be opposite to that connecting the wares, and each party be connected by one side with his own ware, as in the accompanying diagram.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00645", "bookId": 8438, "start": 273818, "end": 273832, "sha256": "a7d04715f7b106d0798812fbf3e6f78563c35d0e503460e8ad87770a7742cba1", "text": "[Illustration]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00646", "bookId": 8438, "start": 273836, "end": 274797, "sha256": "0dcc7940267e227948eddb838b668187b422d3b03eb3aa4263e1075f3de179d7", "text": "The builder is to receive from the shoemaker of his ware, and to give him of his own: if then there be first proportionate equality, and _then_ the Reciprocation takes place, there will be the just result which we are speaking of: if not, there is not the equal, nor will the connection stand: for there is no reason why the ware of the one may not be better than that of the other, and therefore before the exchange is made they must have been equalised. And this is so also in the other arts: for they would have been destroyed entirely if there were not a correspondence in point of quantity and quality between the producer and the consumer. For, we must remember, no dealing arises between two of the same kind, two physicians, for instance; but say between a physician and agriculturist, or, to state it generally, between those who are different and not equal, but these of course must have been equalised before the exchange can take place.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00647", "bookId": 8438, "start": 274801, "end": 275748, "sha256": "3754b232eb013f84ec573c38b60f20eb5996fb55e9f5fa4c4a1a391463fc2bc5", "text": "It is therefore indispensable that all things which can be exchanged should be capable of comparison, and for this purpose money has come in, and comes to be a kind of medium, for it measures all things and so likewise the excess and defect; for instance, how many shoes are equal to a house or a given quantity of food. As then the builder to the shoemaker, so many shoes must be to the house (or food, if instead of a builder an agriculturist be the exchanging party); for unless there is this proportion there cannot be exchange or dealing, and this proportion cannot be unless the terms are in some way equal; hence the need, as was stated above, of some one measure of all things. Now this is really and truly the Demand for them, which is the common bond of all such dealings. For if the parties were not in want at all or not similarly of one another’s wares, there would either not be any exchange, or at least not the same.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00648", "bookId": 8438, "start": 275752, "end": 276028, "sha256": "c3bad9d5c93a69cf4d2da9e15b93f4ec3cec8e80b6e2c77497a6a9dc3a69be2b", "text": "And money has come to be, by general agreement, a representative of Demand: and the account of its Greek name νομισμα is this, that it is what it is not naturally but by custom or law (νόμος), and it rests with us to change its value, or make it wholly useless.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00649", "bookId": 8438, "start": 276032, "end": 276733, "sha256": "e79ce573d17473a1e87388abc1f025152c6f75e793c4cbe0bca50778e3f3162b", "text": "Very well then, there will be Reciprocation when the terms have been equalised so as to stand in this proportion; Agriculturist : Shoemaker : : wares of Shoemaker : wares of Agriculturist; but you must bring them to this form of proportion when they exchange, otherwise the one extreme will combine both exceedings of the mean:[18] but when they have exactly their own then they are equal and have dealings, because the same equality can come to be in their case. Let A represent an agriculturist, C food, B a shoemaker, D his wares equalised with A’s. Then the proportion will be correct, A:B::C:D; _now_ Reciprocation will be practicable, if it were not, there would have been no dealing.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00650", "bookId": 8438, "start": 276737, "end": 277066, "sha256": "f1732dbd735e4aba54128a8ef378e358fc6b6692569a1d11b53f7ad1429ac02e", "text": "Now that what connects men in such transactions is Demand, as being some one thing, is shown by the fact that, when either one does not want the other or neither want one another, they do not exchange at all: whereas they do[19] when one wants what the other man has, wine for instance, giving in return corn for exportation.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00651", "bookId": 8438, "start": 277070, "end": 278462, "sha256": "b5203c9fdcaee2be776f0cbb662b9e7c8c7bb0bb743a49463209e5fce758ea2b", "text": "And further, money is a kind of security to us in respect of exchange at some future time (supposing that one wants nothing now that we shall have it when we do): the theory of money being that whenever one brings it one can receive commodities in exchange: of course this too is liable to depreciation, for its purchasing power is not always the same, but still it is of a more permanent nature than the commodities it represents. And this is the reason why all things should have a price set upon them, because thus there may be exchange at any time, and if exchange then dealing. So money, like a measure, making all things commensurable equalises them: for if there was not exchange there would not have been dealing, nor exchange if there were not equality, nor equality if there were not the capacity of being commensurate: it is impossible that things so greatly different should be really commensurate, but we can approximate sufficiently for all practical purposes in reference to Demand. The common measure must be some one thing, and also from agreement (for which reason it is called νόμισμα), for this makes all things commensurable: in fact, all things are measured by money. Let B represent ten minæ, A a house worth five minæ, or in other words half B, C a bed worth 1/10th of B: it is clear then how many beds are equal to one house, namely, five.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00652", "bookId": 8438, "start": 278466, "end": 278643, "sha256": "145c9c3f3fcecb210d3eafa842294ffc2032aead8a647ca85683dd8de157994e", "text": "It is obvious also that exchange was thus conducted before the existence of money: for it makes no difference whether you give for a house five beds or the price of five beds.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00653", "bookId": 8438, "start": 278647, "end": 278658, "sha256": "592ec521344802b54bcc4f362dcb57feb55da0d05682ea5774b06c9cd5ee0ce4", "text": "Chapter IX.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00654", "bookId": 8438, "start": 278662, "end": 278927, "sha256": "25b6d936648219058f1d87c3cf78a3de4e8fcab2a2421b40590460ffae289a35", "text": "We have now said then what the abstract Just and Unjust are, and these having been defined it is plain that just acting is a mean between acting unjustly and being acted unjustly towards: the former being equivalent to having more, and the latter to having less.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00655", "bookId": 8438, "start": 278931, "end": 279127, "sha256": "5c6b068e00371936357e9c22db5eeb0163e98b695e6f75402a14b41f8655f6e1", "text": "But Justice, it must be observed, is a mean state not after the same manner as the forementioned virtues, but because it aims at producing the mean, while Injustice occupies _both_ the extremes.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00656", "bookId": 8438, "start": 279131, "end": 279596, "sha256": "9a7fd43aa3a591f9eb5b00375b391df97495f1edd0afc73b3df528bcee71dea7", "text": "And Justice is the moral state in virtue of which the just man is said to have the aptitude for practising the Just in the way of moral choice, and for making division between, himself and another, or between two other men, not so as to give to himself the greater and to his neighbour the less share of what is choice-worthy and contrariwise of what is hurtful, but what is proportionably equal, and in like manner when adjudging the rights of two other men.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00657", "bookId": 8438, "start": 279600, "end": 280281, "sha256": "a24a16950c3bbd4db56b9f8a3601791a83d3590233eb160e73f900286d4b3157", "text": "Injustice is all this with respect to the Unjust: and since the Unjust is excess or defect of what is good or hurtful respectively, in violation of the proportionate, therefore Injustice is both excess and defect because it aims at producing excess and defect; excess, that is, in a man’s own case of what is simply advantageous, and defect of what is hurtful: and in the case of other men in like manner generally speaking, only that the proportionate is violated not always in one direction as before but whichever way it happens in the given case. And of the Unjust act the less is being acted unjustly towards, and the greater the acting unjustly towards others.[20]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00658", "bookId": 8438, "start": 280285, "end": 280424, "sha256": "a816de14c5111fbf13b3b30b30e41a92fd2d9b5a2e1534c058fb1e3b28d6d0a8", "text": "Let this way of describing the nature of Justice and Injustice, and likewise the Just and the Unjust generally, be accepted as sufficient.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00659", "bookId": 8438, "start": 280428, "end": 280438, "sha256": "1004a834f009008ccc92e737e9a371a7a5488da6be86d63d2eae33426b5b37ef", "text": "Chapter X.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00660", "bookId": 8438, "start": 280442, "end": 280689, "sha256": "97844de08a698a547f7778080091605730377a27702aa230d76084fc7ebe9919", "text": "[Again, since a man may do unjust acts and not yet have formed a character of injustice, the question arises whether a man is unjust in each particular form of injustice, say a thief, or adulterer, or robber, by doing acts of a given character.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00661", "bookId": 8438, "start": 280693, "end": 281210, "sha256": "3b504f8c2845ae67b65a216d827497c5b3931f3e3a57f9b5ac7a143fb3736352", "text": "We may say, I think, that this will not of itself make any difference; a man may, for instance, have had connection with another’s wife, knowing well with whom he was sinning, but he may have done it not of deliberate choice but from the impulse of passion: of course he acts unjustly, but he has not necessarily formed an unjust character: that is, he may have stolen yet not be a thief; or committed an act of adultery but still not be an adulterer, and so on in other cases which might be enumerated.][21]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00662", "bookId": 8438, "start": 281214, "end": 281604, "sha256": "c54a15d3f8b5fed71074134877a411e3dac33653920742eed108267476578700", "text": "Of the relation which Reciprocation bears to the Just we have already spoken: and here it should be noticed that the Just which we are investigating is both the Just in the abstract and also as exhibited in Social Relations, which latter arises in the case of those who live in communion with a view to independence and who are free and equal either proportionately or numerically.[22]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00663", "bookId": 8438, "start": 281608, "end": 281926, "sha256": "25947f01b2dc46ffab21e90bb2db4fffda6adc88209fde0dd53e65231e906c83", "text": "It follows then that those who are not in this position have not among themselves the Social Just, but still Just of some kind and resembling that other. For Just implies mutually acknowledged law, and law the possibility of injustice, for adjudication is the act of distinguishing between the Just and the Unjust.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00664", "bookId": 8438, "start": 281930, "end": 282295, "sha256": "cab23476642404bb325552f3b0c1d8987b49bec13c203531ffa81417b96342e1", "text": "And among whomsoever there is the possibility of injustice among these there is that of acting unjustly; but it does not hold conversely that injustice attaches to all among whom there is the possibility of acting unjustly, since by the former we mean giving one’s self the larger share of what is abstractedly good and the less of what is abstractedly evil.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00665", "bookId": 8438, "start": 282299, "end": 283091, "sha256": "0853c5d7a5d8f956b021c4412902b3a8297d4afc1dde1a53bdd447b29ee5ec46", "text": "This, by the way, is the reason why we do not allow a man to govern, but Principle, because a man governs for himself and comes to be a despot: but the office of a ruler is to be guardian of the Just and therefore of the Equal. Well then, since he seems to have no peculiar personal advantage, supposing him a Just man, for in this case he does not allot to himself the larger share of what is abstractedly good unless it falls to his share proportionately (for which reason he really governs for others, and so Justice, men say, is a good not to one’s self so much as to others, as was mentioned before), therefore some compensation must be given him, as there actually is in the shape of honour and privilege; and wherever these are not adequate there rulers turn into despots.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00666", "bookId": 8438, "start": 283095, "end": 283812, "sha256": "6a39ac0707ace9cbf963954887a33fb819329a5d2345fb2afae2f46789299d11", "text": "But the Just which arises in the relations of Master and Father, is not identical with, but similar to, these; because there is no possibility of injustice towards those things which are absolutely one’s own; and a slave or child (so long as this last is of a certain age and not separated into an independent being), is, as it were, part of a man’s self, and no man chooses to hurt himself, for which reason there cannot be injustice towards one’s own self: therefore neither is there the social Unjust or Just, which was stated to be in accordance with law and to exist between those among whom law naturally exists, and these were said to be they to whom belongs equality of ruling and being ruled.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00667", "bookId": 8438, "start": 283816, "end": 284027, "sha256": "b4f40d90960608c5fd5b5ecdc9ae45dcd526c7975fb9090af414d6ba355506dd", "text": "Hence also there is Just rather between a man and his wife than between a man and his children or slaves; this is in fact the Just arising in domestic relations: and this too is different from the Social Just.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00668", "bookId": 8438, "start": 284031, "end": 284553, "sha256": "54ef2f6b3acefe40a4efaafa7ff28fc2dc785808383371133f2b17ae18fc89c4", "text": "Further, this last-mentioned Just is of two kinds, natural and conventional; the former being that which has everywhere the same force and does not depend upon being received or not; the latter being that which originally may be this way or that indifferently but not after enactment: for instance, the price of ransom being fixed at a mina, or the sacrificing a goat instead of two sheep; and again, all cases of special enactment, as the sacrificing to Brasidas as a hero; in short, all matters of special decree.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00669", "bookId": 8438, "start": 284557, "end": 284858, "sha256": "6211a44bcd26d0984de6b1def1b1301b8d2a327ad4bb1cec1ae54c0e636fd7e1", "text": "But there are some men who think that all the Justs are of this latter kind, and on this ground: whatever exists by nature, they say, is unchangeable and has everywhere the same force; fire, for instance, burns not here only but in Persia as well, but the Justs they see changed in various places.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00670", "bookId": 8438, "start": 284862, "end": 285151, "sha256": "23c5d6d061daac8ea6c39dc60ae5cf2a71b83f3220b8682b8447db1cf25712e8", "text": "Now this is not really so, and yet it is in a way (though among the gods perhaps by no means): still even amongst ourselves there is somewhat existing by nature: allowing that everything is subject to change, still there is that which does exist by nature, and that which does not.[23]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00671", "bookId": 8438, "start": 285155, "end": 285575, "sha256": "16acc483a8f75edfd9a10a70bc846bb000ce05e69a12dc8453e5d997d657d88b", "text": "Nay, we may go further, and say that it is practically plain what among things which can be otherwise does exist by nature, and what does not but is dependent upon enactment and conventional, even granting that both are alike subject to be changed: and the same distinctive illustration will apply to this and other cases; the right hand is naturally the stronger, still some men may become equally strong in both.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00672", "bookId": 8438, "start": 285579, "end": 286045, "sha256": "fc65503cdb8e500dfb5560b0a4f557485e7631ade05f12b4cedb404af24ed1b0", "text": "A parallel may be drawn between the Justs which depend upon convention and expedience, and measures; for wine and corn measures are not equal in all places, but where men buy they are large, and where these same sell again they are smaller: well, in like manner the Justs which are not natural, but of human invention, are not everywhere the same, for not even the forms of government are, and yet there is one only which by nature would be best in all places.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00673", "bookId": 8438, "start": 286049, "end": 286060, "sha256": "e01eea13bd5151db5300b85b2bf5667b50440b182b04dc56f48ea5ab17de6a93", "text": "Chapter XI.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00674", "bookId": 8438, "start": 286064, "end": 286950, "sha256": "75f885f0b678abfd397a12563029ebf0ad3ff5a14bf37a991015d718204b4457", "text": "Now of Justs and Lawfuls each bears to the acts which embody and exemplify it the relation of an universal to a particular; the acts being many, but each of the principles only singular because each is an universal. And so there is a difference between an unjust act and the abstract Unjust, and the just act and the abstract Just: I mean, a thing is unjust in itself, by nature or by ordinance; well, when this has been embodied in act, there is an unjust act, but not till then, only some unjust thing.[24] And similarly of a just act. (Perhaps δικαιοπράγημα is more correctly the common or generic term for just act, the word δικαίωμα, which I have here used, meaning generally and properly the act corrective of the unjust act.) Now as to each of them, what kinds there are, and how many, and what is their object-matter, we must examine afterwards.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00675", "bookId": 8438, "start": 286954, "end": 287329, "sha256": "d2b98fb46d7d3c0734b7c1e6c5c475113eec3440d2a06c7e57076dac43e1f865", "text": "For the present we proceed to say that, the Justs and the Unjusts being what have been mentioned, a man is said to act unjustly or justly when he embodies these abstracts in voluntary actions, but when in involuntary, then he neither acts unjustly or justly except accidentally; I mean that the being just or unjust is really only accidental to the agents in such cases.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00676", "bookId": 8438, "start": 287333, "end": 287652, "sha256": "d8b428f8b846dbc403e5d1105bc038c584ccf4684320907b54793efd504413fb", "text": "So both unjust and just actions are limited by the being voluntary or the contrary: for when an embodying of the Unjust is voluntary, then it is blamed and is at the same time also an unjust action: but, if voluntariness does not attach, there will be a thing which is in itself unjust but not yet an unjust action.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00677", "bookId": 8438, "start": 287656, "end": 288748, "sha256": "992d7567d4304ae0f34bdd10edc22a282fdf0f2d23dfc67b2789b22ca12cc0fc", "text": "By voluntary, I mean, as we stated before, whatsoever of things in his own power a man does with knowledge, and the absence of ignorance as to the person to whom, or the instrument with which, or the result with which he does; as, for instance, whom he strikes, what he strikes him with, and with what probable result; and each of these points again, not accidentally nor by compulsion; as supposing another man were to seize his hand and strike a third person with it, here, of course, the owner of the hand acts not voluntarily, because it did not rest with him to do or leave undone: or again, it is conceivable that the person struck may be his father, and he may know that it is a man, or even one of the present company, whom he is striking, but not know that it is his father. And let these same distinctions be supposed to be carried into the case of the result and in fact the whole of any given action. In fine then, that is involuntary which is done through ignorance, or which, not resulting from ignorance, is not in the agent’s control or is done on compulsion.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00678", "bookId": 8438, "start": 288752, "end": 288946, "sha256": "2946eb9f7e6dfbb0d4675e6c81a3e2eea22a74a994b3ac9474edacc2a7da84d4", "text": "I mention these cases, because there are many natural things which we do and suffer knowingly but still no one of which is either voluntary or involuntary, growing old, or dying, for instance.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00679", "bookId": 8438, "start": 288950, "end": 289432, "sha256": "2272b3975aeed0693190c483d418af3226bfcc2ef4e8e91fa732a3d21229897c", "text": "Again, accidentality may attach to the unjust in like manner as to the just acts. For instance, a man may have restored what was deposited with him, but against his will and from fear of the consequences of a refusal: we must not say that he either does what is just, or does justly, except accidentally: and in like manner the man who through compulsion and against his will fails to restore a deposit, must be said to do unjustly, or to do what is unjust, accidentally only.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00680", "bookId": 8438, "start": 289436, "end": 290292, "sha256": "d1f1ed236613b0d6209760c9d18b2a00056c1de3f96c1065e7022200ee6a4f85", "text": "Again, voluntary actions we do either from deliberate choice or without it; from it, when we act from previous deliberation; without it, when without any previous deliberation. Since then hurts which may be done in transactions between man and man are threefold, those mistakes which are attended with ignorance are, when a man either does a thing not to the man to whom he meant to do it, or not the thing he meant to do, or not with the instrument, or not with the result which he intended: either he did not think he should hit him at all, or not with this, or this is not the man he thought he should hit, or he did not think this would be the result of the blow but a result has followed which he did not anticipate; as, for instance, he did it not to wound but merely to prick him; or it is not the man whom, or the way in which, he meant.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00681", "bookId": 8438, "start": 290296, "end": 291170, "sha256": "5d7581acbbae5b3c787b024707db636c73802f2e8991b14b9a29c4f8a0990e11", "text": "Now when the hurt has come about contrary to all reasonable expectation, it is a Misadventure; when though not contrary to expectation yet without any viciousness, it is a Mistake; for a man makes a mistake when the origination of the cause rests with himself, he has a misadventure when it is external to himself. When again he acts with knowledge, but not from previous deliberation, it is an unjust action; for instance, whatever happens to men from anger or other passions which are necessary or natural: for when doing these hurts or making these mistakes they act unjustly of course and their actions are unjust, still they are not yet confirmed unjust or wicked persons by reason of these, because the hurt did not arise from depravity in the doer of it: but when it does arise from deliberate choice, then the doer is a confirmed unjust and depraved man.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00682", "bookId": 8438, "start": 291174, "end": 291973, "sha256": "ef94a2c9d1e71dc459b820cb735f04291a1b177d4d36727e0c8b3d80fcae7a8a", "text": "And on this principle acts done from anger are fairly judged not to be from malice prepense, because it is not the man who acts in wrath who is the originator really but he who caused his wrath. And again, the question at issue in such cases is not respecting the fact but respecting the justice of the case, the occasion of anger being a notion of injury.[25] I mean, that the parties do not dispute about the fact, as in questions of contract (where one of the two must be a rogue, unless real forgetfulness can be pleaded), but, admitting the fact, they dispute on which side the justice of the case lies (the one who plotted against the other, _i.e._ the real aggressor, of course, cannot be ignorant),[26] so that the one thinks there is injustice committed while the other does not.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00683", "bookId": 8438, "start": 291977, "end": 292338, "sha256": "8530d74882f27be4159dda0e71fa8202da95867bf262cd46cbd63b6358d0578b", "text": "Well then, a man acts unjustly if he has hurt another of deliberate purpose, and he who commits such acts of injustice is _ipso facto_ an unjust character when they are in violation of the proportionate or the equal; and in like manner also a man is a just character when he acts justly of deliberate purpose, and he does act justly if he acts voluntarily.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00684", "bookId": 8438, "start": 292342, "end": 292692, "sha256": "ce0b1cd3f5049d622ae349f71dffd5da300ddf0fdb6d4ba06ead6155d6ba0787", "text": "Then as for involuntary acts of harm, they are either such as are excusable or such as are not: under the former head come all errors done not merely in ignorance but from ignorance; under the latter all that are done not from ignorance but in ignorance caused by some passion which is neither natural nor fairly attributable to human infirmity.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00685", "bookId": 8438, "start": 292696, "end": 292708, "sha256": "db01c17d92611b3315f68e3df6f0d948914af69a6cdab38f6908ed40f82a0968", "text": "Chapter XII.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00686", "bookId": 8438, "start": 292712, "end": 292864, "sha256": "a9cb567527805eede46ae917ee21b1c2772db6089568fa23650e2e7925174cbb", "text": "Now a question may be raised whether we have spoken with sufficient distinctness as to being unjustly dealt with, and dealing unjustly towards others.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00687", "bookId": 8438, "start": 292868, "end": 292956, "sha256": "34a49c672741b5628678a53272b89fb7dee73af39c0beaa907eba32e29ed858c", "text": "First, whether the case is possible which Euripides has put, saying somewhat strangely,", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00688", "bookId": 8438, "start": 292960, "end": 293097, "sha256": "2cd257b4492e1946f246100690dd51e03576859f4175e748098c42737b8f251f", "text": "“My mother he hath slain; the tale is short, Either he willingly did slay her willing, Or else with her will but against his own.”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00689", "bookId": 8438, "start": 293103, "end": 293330, "sha256": "b99f38e0a6476769a7052c64f231567d4551128c9b395eb758068ab75fd9d277", "text": "I mean then, is it really possible for a person to be unjustly dealt with with his own consent, or must every case of being unjustly dealt with be against the will of the sufferer as every act of unjust dealing is voluntary?", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00690", "bookId": 8438, "start": 293334, "end": 293519, "sha256": "3668a6fba1ba42efbaea7eab3648b4aec11127c041354aea1ad56890ac848e2e", "text": "And next, are cases of being unjustly dealt with to be ruled all one way as every act of unjust dealing is voluntary? or may we say that some cases are voluntary and some involuntary?", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00691", "bookId": 8438, "start": 293523, "end": 293753, "sha256": "0c1062722d2083db1e6325500d2ba1261d9f447622c400014e1ee6ad5df53366", "text": "Similarly also as regards being justly dealt with: all just acting is voluntary, so that it is fair to suppose that the being dealt with unjustly or justly must be similarly opposed, as to being either voluntary or involuntary.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00692", "bookId": 8438, "start": 293757, "end": 294629, "sha256": "c2acc49ceadf98da10382ba6e11c24413031be2608fc3e4f8955d9f9a28c05f5", "text": "Now as for being justly dealt with, the position that every case of this is voluntary is a strange one, for some are certainly justly dealt with without their will.[27] The fact is a man may also fairly raise this question, whether in every case he who has suffered what is unjust is therefore unjustly dealt with, or rather that the case is the same with suffering as it is with acting; namely that in both it is possible to participate in what is just, but only accidentally. Clearly the case of what is unjust is similar: for doing things in themselves unjust is not identical with acting unjustly, nor is suffering them the same as being unjustly dealt with. So too of acting justly and being justly dealt with, since it is impossible to be unjustly dealt with unless some one else acts unjustly or to be justly dealt with unless some one else acts justly.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00693", "bookId": 8438, "start": 294633, "end": 295296, "sha256": "347caa49646f2758114d728256cf49b07016286ce6e9045a15ffeea6ee86e380", "text": "Now if acting unjustly is simply “hurting another voluntarily” (by which I mean, knowing whom you are hurting, and wherewith, and how you are hurting him), and the man who fails of self-control voluntarily hurts himself, then this will be a case of being voluntarily dealt unjustly with, and it will be possible for a man to deal unjustly with himself. (This by the way is one of the questions raised, whether it is possible for a man to deal unjustly with himself.) Or again, a man may, by reason of failing of self-control, receive hurt from another man acting voluntarily, and so here will be another case of being unjustly dealt with voluntarily.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00694", "bookId": 8438, "start": 295300, "end": 295580, "sha256": "8e34b81f189d43decc6d70555aa7fec68f20b40279e886d05c336e4366bed876", "text": "The solution, I take it, is this: the definition of being unjustly dealt with is not correct, but we must add, to the hurting with the knowledge of the person hurt and the instrument and the manner of hurting him, the fact of its being against the wish of the man who is hurt.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00695", "bookId": 8438, "start": 295584, "end": 295966, "sha256": "af867c407117ce980ba35abd053243346ee9491bd90eeb5a5608b4f74e1afbbc", "text": "So then a man may be hurt and suffer what is in itself unjust voluntarily, but unjustly dealt with voluntarily no man can be: since no man wishes to be hurt, not even he who fails of self-control, who really acts contrary to his wish: for no man wishes for that which he does not _think_ to be good, and the man who fails of self-control does not what he thinks he ought to do.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00696", "bookId": 8438, "start": 295970, "end": 296340, "sha256": "e19e9bc16f35b7e632b030daf1e26a21ea3a7b9e497b13a9ab52ce233f4cba99", "text": "And again, he that gives away his own property (as Homer says Glaucus gave to Diomed, “armour of gold for brass, armour worth a hundred oxen for that which was worth but nine”) is not unjustly dealt with, because the giving rests entirely with himself; but being unjustly dealt with does not, there must be some other person who is dealing unjustly towards him.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00697", "bookId": 8438, "start": 296344, "end": 296430, "sha256": "197f26e8f5cd3acd2b8c8928e653dd84850725d29d9a6e7b5513b1f151924f9b", "text": "With respect to being unjustly dealt with then, it is clear that it is not voluntary.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00698", "bookId": 8438, "start": 296434, "end": 296447, "sha256": "588a571e829638e8248bfd35aafd53209c9178c9c58044b9af926b30c5263bc2", "text": "Chapter XIII.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00699", "bookId": 8438, "start": 296451, "end": 296723, "sha256": "c9d2bc83243f8a083679e897f3cfa37fc5317f8b27340b822516b7492748da3f", "text": "There remain yet two points on which we purposed to speak: first, is he chargeable with an unjust act who in distribution has _given_ the larger share to one party contrary to the proper rate, or he that _has_ the larger share? next, can a man deal unjustly by himself?", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00700", "bookId": 8438, "start": 296727, "end": 297145, "sha256": "2b230e74b37726f9ba20e0fd473c34d6d4db26696f35d6c64e7fddd0a6a6baf7", "text": "In the first question, if the first-named alternative is possible and it is the distributor who acts unjustly and not he who has the larger share, then supposing that a person knowingly and willingly gives more to another than to himself here is a case of a man dealing unjustly by himself; which, in fact, moderate men are thought to do, for it is a characteristic of the equitable man to take less than his due.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00701", "bookId": 8438, "start": 297149, "end": 297585, "sha256": "ad1335f68db0bee0e33688f8377e2c93f0f5eb37c818e19400ed9ce9d844a3a4", "text": "Is not this the answer? that the case is not quite fairly stated, because of some other good, such as credit or the abstract honourable, in the supposed case the man did get the larger share. And again, the difficulty is solved by reference to the definition of unjust dealing: for the man suffers nothing contrary to his own wish, so that, on this score at least, he is not unjustly dealt with, but, if anything, he is hurt only.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00702", "bookId": 8438, "start": 297589, "end": 298222, "sha256": "7ab35f86389b721afbdc5e330f3e93ca5b95879fb511a8e6980ed2bf2a79fa03", "text": "It is evident also that it is the distributor who acts unjustly and not the man who has the greater share: because the mere fact of the abstract Unjust attaching to what a man does, does not constitute unjust action, but the doing this voluntarily: and voluntariness attaches to that quarter whence is the origination of the action, which clearly is in the distributor not in the receiver. And again the term doing is used in several senses; in one sense inanimate objects kill, or the hand, or the slave by his master’s bidding; so the man in question does not act unjustly but does things which are in themselves unjust.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00703", "bookId": 8438, "start": 298226, "end": 298979, "sha256": "be419f6f440a1bd5347aaa28396648c658b9be57de7b52f87ffccdb18f6c085c", "text": "Again, suppose that a man has made a wrongful award in ignorance; in the eye of the law he does not act unjustly nor is his awarding unjust, but yet he is in a certain sense: for the Just according to law and primary or natural Just are not coincident: but, if he knowingly decided unjustly, then he himself as well as the receiver got the larger share, that is, either of favour from the receiver or private revenge against the other party: and so the man who decided unjustly from these motives gets a larger share, in exactly the same sense as a man would who received part of the actual matter of the unjust action: because in this case the man who wrongly adjudged, say a field, did not actually get land but money by his unjust decision.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00704", "bookId": 8438, "start": 298983, "end": 298995, "sha256": "09d996dee640cc1d9a06bd1549a3a944c7cefcc38a34f9f77ddb525af08e9a73", "text": "Chapter XIV.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00705", "bookId": 8438, "start": 298999, "end": 300071, "sha256": "10374f663468fc005a218dc2307be0a3d6da64987323f8b1450e87cf06e8e049", "text": "Now men suppose that acting Unjustly rests entirely with themselves, and conclude that acting Justly is therefore also easy. But this is not really so; to have connection with a neighbour’s wife, or strike one’s neighbour, or give the money with one’s hand, is of course easy and rests with one’s self: but the doing these acts with certain inward dispositions neither is easy nor rests entirely with one’s self. And in like way, the knowing what is Just and what Unjust men think no great instance of wisdom because it is not hard to comprehend those things of which the laws speak. They forget that these are not Just actions, except accidentally: to be Just they must be done and distributed in a certain manner: and this is a more difficult task than knowing what things are wholesome; for in this branch of knowledge it is an easy matter to know honey, wine, hellebore, cautery, or the use of the knife, but the knowing how one should administer these with a view to health, and to whom and at what time, amounts in fact to being a physician.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00706", "bookId": 8438, "start": 300075, "end": 300825, "sha256": "1086281b2563b7c1f3f769875c24b73d0d6c451d9c7123c9b5747a6696aafaff", "text": "From this very same mistake they suppose also, that acting Unjustly is equally in the power of the Just man, for the Just man no less, nay even more, than the Unjust, may be able to do the particular acts; he may be able to have intercourse with a woman or strike a man; or the brave man to throw away his shield and turn his back and run this way or that. True: but then it is not the mere doing these things which constitutes acts of cowardice or injustice (except accidentally), but the doing them with certain inward dispositions: just as it is not the mere using or not using the knife, administering or not administering certain drugs, which constitutes medical treatment or curing, but doing these things in a certain particular way.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00707", "bookId": 8438, "start": 300829, "end": 301315, "sha256": "87f4362e6e410fb3bf8869cedee73e02ff315eb32887207d3b7f275ed9f9063d", "text": "Again the abstract principles of Justice have their province among those who partake of what is abstractedly good, and can have too much or too little of these.[28] Now there are beings who cannot have too much of them, as perhaps the gods; there are others, again, to whom no particle of them is of use, those who are incurably wicked to whom all things are hurtful; others to whom they are useful to a certain degree: for this reason then the province of Justice is among _Men_.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00708", "bookId": 8438, "start": 301319, "end": 301330, "sha256": "78d0d9013961345b100349b340996a27f5b77927b8ba2513e83c60f40410125f", "text": "Chapter XV.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00709", "bookId": 8438, "start": 301334, "end": 302139, "sha256": "4a532513d0843dcbe5a7184ed3fa150a71b25db332db7879f685c30306ba69cb", "text": "We have next to speak of Equity and the Equitable, that is to say, of the relations of Equity to Justice and the Equitable to the Just; for when we look into the matter the two do not appear identical nor yet different in kind; and we sometimes commend the Equitable and the man who embodies it in his actions, so that by way of praise we commonly transfer the term also to other acts instead of the term good, thus showing that the more Equitable a thing is the better it is: at other times following a certain train of reasoning we arrive at a difficulty, in that the Equitable though distinct from the Just is yet praiseworthy; it seems to follow either that the Just is not good or the Equitable not Just, since they are by hypothesis different; or if both are good then they are identical.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00710", "bookId": 8438, "start": 302143, "end": 302585, "sha256": "c14d6665b973d623d0272c40144e9fcf04567b46208f272fef35a8e657f487a0", "text": "This is a tolerably fair statement of the difficulty which on these grounds arises in respect of the Equitable; but, in fact, all these may be reconciled and really involve no contradiction: for the Equitable is Just, being also better than one form of Just, but is not better than the Just as though it were different from it in kind: Just and Equitable then are identical, and, both being good, the Equitable is the better of the two.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00711", "bookId": 8438, "start": 302589, "end": 303342, "sha256": "40b4948ab8b3e4071662e3f1da10c770baceffad209f706ef25e2e64493e9cf0", "text": "What causes the difficulty is this; the Equitable is Just, but not the Just which is in accordance with written law, being in fact a correction of that kind of Just. And the account of this is, that every law is necessarily universal while there are some things which it is not possible to speak of rightly in any universal or general statement. Where then there is a necessity for general statement, while a general statement cannot apply rightly to all cases, the law takes the generality of cases, being fully aware of the error thus involved; and rightly too notwithstanding, because the fault is not in the law, or in the framer of the law, but is inherent in the nature of the thing, because the matter of all action is necessarily such.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00712", "bookId": 8438, "start": 303346, "end": 304019, "sha256": "b43dc09e179dfa771bc26810154df0c33fa849f3078b8fd8d05711a0a46563d1", "text": "When then the law has spoken in general terms, and there arises a case of exception to the general rule, it is proper, in so far as the lawgiver omits the case and by reason of his universality of statement is wrong, to set right the omission by ruling it as the lawgiver himself would rule were he there present, and would have provided by law had he foreseen the case would arise. And so the Equitable is Just but better than one form of Just; I do not mean the abstract Just but the error which arises out of the universality of statement: and this is the nature of the Equitable, “a correction of Law, where Law is defective by reason of its universality.”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00713", "bookId": 8438, "start": 304023, "end": 304498, "sha256": "b7757b2e8f6a07fffc601b021d0e58ec090c00ac25cba99890e95581b0f8e71c", "text": "This is the reason why not all things are according to law, because there are things about which it is simply impossible to lay down a law, and so we want special enactments for particular cases. For to speak generally, the rule of the undefined must be itself undefined also, just as the rule to measure Lesbian building is made of lead: for this rule shifts according to the form of each stone and the special enactment according to the facts of the case in question.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00714", "bookId": 8438, "start": 304502, "end": 304961, "sha256": "149514d1ba7676f039b498951168fde4bf9d91bcb477b32f62ff3cdc246139fe", "text": "It is clear then what the Equitable is; namely that it is Just but better than one form of Just: and hence it appears too who the Equitable man is: he is one who has a tendency to choose and carry out these principles, and who is not apt to press the letter of the law on the worse side but content to waive his strict claims though backed by the law: and this moral state is Equity, being a species of Justice, not a different moral state from Justice.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00715", "bookId": 8438, "start": 304965, "end": 304977, "sha256": "32775f562a3ead8154953e390573cfb59030c98398104a0a3ffe71d040c77bbe", "text": "Chapter XVI.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00716", "bookId": 8438, "start": 304981, "end": 305159, "sha256": "8aa4da78cdac33a208f39dcc692f278139a5cd9234277c26aa78769cf9c67fac", "text": "The answer to the second of the two questions indicated above, “whether it is possible for a man to deal unjustly by himself,” is obvious from what has been already stated.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00717", "bookId": 8438, "start": 305163, "end": 306047, "sha256": "9f950879661cb6b6acc5a034eefa6f3c718a7618c1b90ecbd69d303df18cd7f6", "text": "In the first place, one class of Justs is those which are enforced by law in accordance with Virtue in the most extensive sense of the term: for instance, the law does not bid a man kill himself; and whatever it does not bid it forbids: well, whenever a man does hurt contrary to the law (unless by way of requital of hurt), voluntarily, i.e. knowing to whom he does it and wherewith, he acts Unjustly. Now he that from rage kills himself, voluntarily, does this in contravention of Right Reason, which the law does not permit. He therefore acts Unjustly: but towards whom? towards the Community, not towards himself (because he suffers with his own consent, and no man can be Unjustly dealt with with his own consent), and on this principle the Community punishes him; that is a certain infamy is attached to the suicide as to one who acts Unjustly towards the Community.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00718", "bookId": 8438, "start": 306051, "end": 306639, "sha256": "e11f37ba5532319eebae568134eb02b71d530c932755296d9ae0ca612fe9f943", "text": "Next, a man cannot deal Unjustly by himself in the sense in which a man is Unjust who only does Unjust acts without being entirely bad (for the two things are different, because the Unjust man is in a way bad, as the coward is, not as though he were chargeable with badness in the full extent of the term, and so he does not act Unjustly in this sense), because if it were so then it would be possible for the same thing to have been taken away from and added to the same person:[29] but this is really not possible, the Just and the Unjust always implying a plurality of persons.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00719", "bookId": 8438, "start": 306643, "end": 306929, "sha256": "f6d1e4a526f227c7737c7d1aebbbf8ac329ef448dd691307ac9d3ae88b0cad10", "text": "Again, an Unjust action must be voluntary, done of deliberate purpose, and aggressive (for the man who hurts because he has first suffered and is merely requiting the same is not thought to act Unjustly), but here the man does to himself and suffers the same things at the same time.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00720", "bookId": 8438, "start": 306933, "end": 307026, "sha256": "fb5f85ea0967fd2051a069b5df2e12341bd6752b9933a0746776f84297962ba6", "text": "Again, it would imply the possibility of being Unjustly dealt with with one’s own consent.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00721", "bookId": 8438, "start": 307030, "end": 307237, "sha256": "b6ee55846fbc14aaf817cc683053b925afdedc7f7b0b0e86e7982dbcfd08356b", "text": "And, besides all this, a man cannot act Unjustly without his act falling under some particular crime; now a man cannot seduce his own wife, commit a burglary on his own premises, or steal his own property.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00722", "bookId": 8438, "start": 307241, "end": 307380, "sha256": "91b09f692dce2c1a9b397419b28024f7957c8d16c476a6dac0df9713c5098703", "text": "After all, the general answer to the question is to allege what was settled respecting being Unjustly dealt with with one’s own consent.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00723", "bookId": 8438, "start": 307384, "end": 307397, "sha256": "f5b5ff223df919697018efa12cdf6211517e26875744b53c18edc109886782f2", "text": "Chapter XVII.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00724", "bookId": 8438, "start": 307401, "end": 307988, "sha256": "eec0257b75edbee0dee92154f7214a82950b23ad568d6e57af6f344ada70fe65", "text": "It is obvious, moreover, that being Unjustly dealt by and dealing Unjustly by others are both wrong; because the one is having less, the other having more, than the mean, and the case is parallel to that of the healthy in the healing art, and that of good condition in the art of training: but still the dealing Unjustly by others is the worst of the two, because this involves wickedness and is blameworthy; wickedness, I mean, either wholly, or nearly so (for not all voluntary wrong implies injustice), but the being Unjustly dealt by does not involve wickedness or injustice.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00725", "bookId": 8438, "start": 307992, "end": 308406, "sha256": "b2a0aa7f76276e2c0b60d78503e3c6b664fa5209d759ab758078c0a0a3d8cba5", "text": "In itself then, the being Unjustly dealt by is the least bad, but accidentally it may be the greater evil of the two. However, scientific statement cannot take in such considerations; a pleurisy, for instance, is called a greater physical evil than a bruise: and yet this last may be the greater accidentally; it may chance that a bruise received in a fall may cause one to be captured by the enemy and slain.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00726", "bookId": 8438, "start": 308410, "end": 308800, "sha256": "12f1544ef6347233a4f16ed790d30d9590354b44ffebd2e68945250b7d7a394b", "text": "Further: Just, in the way of metaphor and similitude, there may be I do not say between a man and himself exactly but between certain parts of his nature; but not Just of every kind, only such as belongs to the relation of master and slave, or to that of the head of a family. For all through this treatise the rational part of the Soul has been viewed as distinct from the irrational.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00727", "bookId": 8438, "start": 308804, "end": 309137, "sha256": "443cc5bb2bb28c537fe730af8e71f1cd617c9afd30f847480e0d7747f1bd001f", "text": "Now, taking these into consideration, there is thought to be a possibility of injustice towards one’s self, because herein it is possible for men to suffer somewhat in contradiction of impulses really their own; and so it is thought that there is Just of a certain kind between these parts mutually, as between ruler and ruled.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00728", "bookId": 8438, "start": 309141, "end": 309278, "sha256": "11f7c193a89d2a4de3f99c4f78e675b4aa0219ef7cb0cdc37f55867f9b2a92a1", "text": "Let this then be accepted as an account of the distinctions which we recognise respecting Justice and the rest of the moral virtues.[30]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00729", "bookId": 8438, "start": 309288, "end": 309295, "sha256": "4a5d98f1ac4c8feef770b87d1c6fb6d7ea9706fa5e44e6041afa9f867f23f6c7", "text": "BOOK VI", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00730", "bookId": 8438, "start": 309299, "end": 309309, "sha256": "5a35eafc731a2640e14da7e928f9e9a89afe4fe2a1f9a9a349887b8fb6d795cd", "text": "Chapter I.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00731", "bookId": 8438, "start": 309315, "end": 309543, "sha256": "69272202fb3ad9adde8dfed448b780b35f7330bb7e6996d834454bdd574dbb87", "text": "Having stated in a former part of this treatise that men should choose the mean instead of either the excess or defect, and that the mean is according to the dictates of Right Reason; we will now proceed to explain this term.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00732", "bookId": 8438, "start": 309547, "end": 309916, "sha256": "4de4871df678184387876bb11c59347472847e8ed6f47879c91bd9f2aa4f8333", "text": "For in all the habits which we have expressly mentioned, as likewise in all the others, there is, so to speak, a mark with his eye fixed on which the man who has Reason tightens or slacks his rope;[1] and there is a certain limit of those mean states which we say are in accordance with Right Reason, and lie between excess on the one hand and defect on the other.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00733", "bookId": 8438, "start": 309920, "end": 310539, "sha256": "8a4b04ffab3beb5cd69644ad61a11127e098a03cc494ef2b2888a856fc37527e", "text": "Now to speak thus is true enough but conveys no very definite meaning: as, in fact, in all other pursuits requiring attention and diligence on which skill and science are brought to bear; it is quite true of course to say that men are neither to labour nor relax too much or too little, but in moderation, and as Right Reason directs; yet if this were all a man had he would not be greatly the wiser; as, for instance, if in answer to the question, what are proper applications to the body, he were to be told, “Oh! of course, whatever the science of medicine, and in such manner as the physician, directs.”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00734", "bookId": 8438, "start": 310543, "end": 310773, "sha256": "9c2d622686539f5b88844c1efbc0c8b71c001a2d7ea87da52cf03d38149ce69e", "text": "And so in respect of the mental states it is requisite not merely that this should be true which has been already stated, but further that it should be expressly laid down what Right Reason is, and what is the definition of it.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00735", "bookId": 8438, "start": 310777, "end": 310788, "sha256": "9ce6d96fa540de49002e2340d430460f2ee679453301a35db1cf5cf6c0ed967f", "text": "Chapter II.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00736", "bookId": 8438, "start": 310792, "end": 311212, "sha256": "1d3608d8deb2b1514209fd62a300bc0f74389d7e37ae5c00c1ffbdd3c1f4e5eb", "text": "Now in our division of the Excellences of the Soul, we said there were two classes, the Moral and the Intellectual: the former we have already gone through; and we will now proceed to speak of the others, premising a few words respecting the Soul itself. It was stated before, you will remember, that the Soul consists of two parts, the Rational, and Irrational: we must now make a similar division of the Rational.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00737", "bookId": 8438, "start": 311216, "end": 312098, "sha256": "dc15534abad9bff139e5ea5ad00b1d8800b6b0a47cd4346383e7687b4bc4ac3d", "text": "Let it be understood then that there are two parts of the Soul possessed of Reason; one whereby we realise those existences whose causes cannot be otherwise than they are, and one whereby we realise those which can be otherwise than they are,[2] (for there must be, answering to things generically different, generically different parts of the soul naturally adapted to each, since these parts of the soul possess their knowledge in virtue of a certain resemblance and appropriateness in themselves to the objects of which they are percipients);[3] and let us name the former, “that which is apt to know,” the latter, “that which is apt to calculate” (because deliberating and calculating are the same, and no one ever deliberates about things which cannot be otherwise than they are: and so the Calculative will be one part of the Rational faculty of the soul).", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00738", "bookId": 8438, "start": 312102, "end": 312272, "sha256": "7c35df4350d8014328c2f99c2958acd11a0bddcf99457e9718654832e37212fe", "text": "We must discover, then, which is the best state of each of these, because that will be the Excellence of each; and this again is relative to the work each has to do.[4]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00739", "bookId": 8438, "start": 312276, "end": 312586, "sha256": "7904b1791b1424e98ccbe10623c5ca601ff55ec607cc3a92b3cc0ffa5aa0b937", "text": "There are in the Soul three functions on which depend moral action and truth; Sense, Intellect, Appetition, whether vague Desire or definite Will. Now of these Sense is the originating cause of no moral action, as is seen from the fact that brutes have Sense but are in no way partakers of moral action.[5]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00740", "bookId": 8438, "start": 312590, "end": 312991, "sha256": "21e502fb5c6a5be111fd94a19afd40e55b09c08300e1a8ebc582e19dffbf9076", "text": "[Intellect and Will are thus connected,] what in the Intellectual operation is Affirmation and Negation that in the Will is Pursuit and Avoidance, And so, since Moral Virtue is a State apt to exercise Moral Choice and Moral Choice is Will consequent on deliberation, the Reason must be true and the Will right, to constitute good Moral Choice, and what the Reason affirms the Will must pursue.[6]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00741", "bookId": 8438, "start": 312995, "end": 313496, "sha256": "353203d47545dfc6131f5a37a9c5e4fc920a98126653100c5235d90ff9729157", "text": "Now this Intellectual operation and this Truth is what bears upon Moral Action; of course truth and falsehood must be the good and the bad of that Intellectual Operation which is purely Speculative, and concerned neither with action nor production, because this is manifestly the work of every Intellectual faculty, while of the faculty which is of a mixed Practical and Intellectual nature, the work is that Truth which, as I have described above, corresponds to the right movement of the Will.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00742", "bookId": 8438, "start": 313500, "end": 313924, "sha256": "ed80d4e8c8b346839746f1b38aa2dcb3dc10cc57b1d6fc4211a4a919dd44d961", "text": "Now the starting-point of moral action is Moral Choice, (I mean, what actually sets it in motion, not the final cause,)[7] and of Moral Choice, Appetition, and Reason directed to a certain result: and thus Moral Choice is neither independent of intellect, i. e. intellectual operation, nor of a certain moral state: for right or wrong action cannot be, independently of operation of the Intellect, and moral character.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00743", "bookId": 8438, "start": 313928, "end": 314647, "sha256": "2f8be79fcbfed5eddc66e5bfcd183a526353d89d55238bc3a747a156d32a9d55", "text": "But operation of the Intellect by itself moves nothing, only when directed to a certain result, i. e. exercised in Moral Action: (I say nothing of its being exercised in production, because this function is originated by the former: for every one who makes makes with a view to somewhat further; and that which is or may be made, is not an End in itself, but only relatively to somewhat else, and belonging to some one:[8] whereas that which is or may be done is an End in itself, because acting well is an End in itself, and this is the object of the Will,) and so Moral Choice is either[9] Intellect put in a position of Will-ing, or Appetition subjected to an Intellectual Process. And such a Cause is Man.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00744", "bookId": 8438, "start": 314651, "end": 314990, "sha256": "9dcdb745cf67bdd2600084c969935d7bb0898a7d4c6a2cb20c5964d16a0d59d1", "text": "But nothing which is done and past can be the object of Moral Choice; for instance, no man chooses to have sacked Troy; because, in fact, no one ever deliberates about what is past, but only about that which is future, and which may therefore be influenced, whereas what has been cannot not have been: and so Agathon is right in saying", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00745", "bookId": 8438, "start": 314994, "end": 315071, "sha256": "e85515f6dac5d54c17d02997af839bc8af0e64be966d0f874dba32fb738a18ed", "text": "“Of this alone is Deity bereft, To make undone whatever hath been done.”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00746", "bookId": 8438, "start": 315077, "end": 315239, "sha256": "a1c9513510efc4bc42f90280167ea134ca60bf87095556ca68ddf4087f8a9154", "text": "Thus then Truth is the work of both the Intellectual Parts of the Soul; those states therefore are the Excellences of each in which each will best attain truth.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00747", "bookId": 8438, "start": 315243, "end": 315255, "sha256": "c8c3757d774efbadade98d84b627377e281082435aed3cf63f66253a8af48e64", "text": "Chapter III.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00748", "bookId": 8438, "start": 315259, "end": 315606, "sha256": "03ffe165a3d2e8f18887b57445cbd39c18cb984cb700980d5a9725cf154ae745", "text": "Commencing then from the point stated above we will now speak of these Excellences again. Let those faculties whereby the Soul attains truth in Affirmation or Negation, be assumed to be in number five:[10] viz. Art, Knowledge, Practical Wisdom, Science, Intuition: (Supposition and Opinion I do not include, because by these one may go wrong.)", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00749", "bookId": 8438, "start": 315610, "end": 316027, "sha256": "f48e3ef7c236fd7069ddeb25b99923e3eb3a0e028eda275fc703a5b44830fab6", "text": "What Knowledge is, is plain from the following of considerations, if one is to speak accurately, instead of being led away by resemblances. For we all conceive that what we strictly speaking know, cannot be otherwise than it is, because as to those things which can be otherwise than they are, we are uncertain whether they are or are not, the moment they cease to be within the sphere of our actual observation.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00750", "bookId": 8438, "start": 316031, "end": 316246, "sha256": "bbb8cf7b9f9544005b14f4e3d97156faf8835e84368b3c18e38c6e0cef362019", "text": "So then, whatever comes within the range of Knowledge is by necessity, and therefore eternal, (because all things are so which exist necessarily,) and all eternal things are without beginning, and indestructible.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00751", "bookId": 8438, "start": 316250, "end": 316785, "sha256": "86a7791f7625be9f086d6bbf23aa91702da7ed262195c2ae91c036ff21880acc", "text": "Again, all Knowledge is thought to be capable of being taught, and what comes within its range capable of being learned. And all teaching is based upon previous knowledge; (a statement you will find in the Analytics also,)[11] for there are two ways of teaching, by Syllogism and by Induction. In fact. Induction is the source of universal propositions, and Syllogism reasons from these universals.[12] Syllogism then may reason from principles which cannot be themselves proved Syllogistically: and therefore must by Induction.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00752", "bookId": 8438, "start": 316789, "end": 317165, "sha256": "eed696af1ce9c18a6852c7775f90da78424439f84ed2b83dd217f0f8d7aa56e1", "text": "So Knowledge is “a state or mental faculty apt to demonstrate syllogistically,” &c. as in the Analytics:[13] because a man, strictly and properly speaking, _knows_, when he establishes his conclusion in a certain way, and the principles are known to him: for if they are not better known to him than the conclusion, such knowledge as he has will be merely accidental.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00753", "bookId": 8438, "start": 317169, "end": 317224, "sha256": "86462e023d30326257d4006d9018be3fcad4b51c51f32b605219320f9ef0c07f", "text": "Let thus much be accepted as a definition of Knowledge.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00754", "bookId": 8438, "start": 317228, "end": 317239, "sha256": "3186d98bcee8266853ace5b1a5e20557973e585ee48419d596c2b2610a3f68b2", "text": "Chapter IV.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00755", "bookId": 8438, "start": 317243, "end": 318116, "sha256": "33c96808bdb1c2df21b5109f3c1dc48dc14d576afaca11a25ce4a845e361eafe", "text": "Matter which may exist otherwise than it actually does in any given case (commonly called Contingent) is of two kinds, that which is the object of Making, and that which is the object of Doing; now Making and Doing are two different things (as we show in the exoteric treatise), and so that state of mind, conjoined with Reason, which is apt to Do, is distinct from that also conjoined with Reason, which is apt to Make: and for this reason they are not included one by the other, that is, Doing is not Making, nor Making Doing.[14] Now[15] as Architecture is an Art, and is the same as “a certain state of mind, conjoined with Reason, which is apt to Make,” and as there is no Art which is not such a state, nor any such state which is not an Art, Art, in its strict and proper sense, must be “a state of mind, conjoined with true Reason, apt to Make.”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00756", "bookId": 8438, "start": 318120, "end": 318339, "sha256": "235d71274efba86266f66e8165652a11e14ebdc4559d31ade43c58396ee36336", "text": "Now all Art has to do with production, and contrivance, and seeing how any of those things may be produced which may either be or not be, and the origination of which rests with the maker and not with the thing made.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00757", "bookId": 8438, "start": 318343, "end": 318718, "sha256": "ae28a31515576deb6af5406eb0b1146e9ee2f4cdd0896fbe937fbda8eb0ae87c", "text": "And, so neither things which exist or come into being necessarily, nor things in the way of nature, come under the province of Art, because these are self-originating. And since Making and Doing are distinct, Art must be concerned with the former and not the latter. And in a certain sense Art and Fortune are concerned with the same things, as, Agathon says by the way,", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00758", "bookId": 8438, "start": 318722, "end": 318769, "sha256": "2dd53389d29623ede5a6a67bef53cac56d4652b97fd3d4f23062eff4e06704b5", "text": "“Art Fortune loves, and is of her beloved.”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00759", "bookId": 8438, "start": 318775, "end": 319003, "sha256": "59b1f5f545eecc2490d81f2665d5bcddc1bdfbcc2479c313924c786613909435", "text": "So Art, as has been stated, is “a certain state of mind, apt to Make, conjoined with true Reason;” its absence, on the contrary, is the same state conjoined with false Reason, and both are employed upon Contingent matter.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00760", "bookId": 8438, "start": 319007, "end": 319017, "sha256": "89204e68d094a6a77f968119f40fec5f77d7676bf38cb1b47cd0ab87d3d2fea2", "text": "Chapter V.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00761", "bookId": 8438, "start": 319021, "end": 319151, "sha256": "f8543656b84504b5c6525035d4416613b26416da8367531c5037bdfe95dc26b2", "text": "As for Practical Wisdom, we shall ascertain its nature by examining to what kind of persons we in common language ascribe it.[16]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00762", "bookId": 8438, "start": 319155, "end": 320272, "sha256": "49ff7a0936d9cf9c2d1868af3188261a9f12d135fbe75d4e8d9444cf9e450914", "text": "It is thought then to be the property of the Practically Wise man to be able to deliberate well respecting what is good and expedient for himself, not in any definite line,[17] as what is conducive to health or strength, but what to living well. A proof of this is that we call men Wise in this or that, when they calculate well with a view to some good end in a case where there is no definite rule. And so, in a general way of speaking, the man who is good at deliberation will be Practically Wise. Now no man deliberates respecting things which cannot be otherwise than they are, nor such as lie not within the range of his own action: and so, since Knowledge requires strict demonstrative reasoning, of which Contingent matter does not admit (I say Contingent matter, because all matters of deliberation must be Contingent and deliberation cannot take place with respect to things which are Necessarily), Practical Wisdom cannot be Knowledge nor Art; nor the former, because what falls under the province of Doing must be Contingent; not the latter, because Doing and Making are different in kind.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00763", "bookId": 8438, "start": 320276, "end": 320579, "sha256": "e472121106b4fdec330670db64c5af52f72e4353bde534c1b8b5f0782598a0b7", "text": "It remains then that it must be “a state of mind true, conjoined with Reason, and apt to Do, having for its object those things which are good or bad for Man:” because of Making something beyond itself is always the object, but cannot be of Doing because the very well-doing is in itself an End.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00764", "bookId": 8438, "start": 320583, "end": 321124, "sha256": "7a4c69b5f6b123ef1c1ed4bb405a78adf77ec838a125b7e8459e1370287813d6", "text": "For this reason we think Pericles and men of that stamp to be Practically Wise, because they can see what is good for themselves and for men in general, and we also think those to be such who are skilled in domestic management or civil government. In fact, this is the reason why we call the habit of perfected self-mastery by the name which in Greek it bears, etymologically signifying “that which preserves the Practical Wisdom:” for what it does preserve is the Notion I have mentioned, _i.e._ of one’s own true interest.[18]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00765", "bookId": 8438, "start": 321128, "end": 321368, "sha256": "0fd1da00892c5910f9d921d518e8242d3e396a39d829e9f1aa4f741c8dadc26e", "text": "For it is not every kind of Notion which the pleasant and the painful corrupt and pervert, as, for instance, that “the three angles of every rectilineal triangle are equal to two right angles,” but only those bearing on moral action.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00766", "bookId": 8438, "start": 321372, "end": 321884, "sha256": "aee3a89b27bb058fabd6fac3ddead8ed4a23bac6db762ba4173cce6c771e58e4", "text": "For the Principles of the matters of moral action are the final cause of them:[19] now to the man who has been corrupted by reason of pleasure or pain the Principle immediately becomes obscured, nor does he see that it is his duty to choose and act in each instance with a view to this final cause and by reason of it: for viciousness has a tendency to destroy the moral Principle: and so Practical Wisdom must be “a state conjoined with reason, true, having human good for its object, and apt to do.”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00767", "bookId": 8438, "start": 321888, "end": 322195, "sha256": "1e0d07d012f2ed0f1ba50e76b7cc5ebd724186c2590d32cb44301f584b7cf073", "text": "Then again Art admits of degrees of excellence, but Practical Wisdom does not:[20] and in Art he who goes wrong purposely is preferable to him who does so unwittingly,[21] but not so in respect of Practical Wisdom or the other Virtues. It plainly is then an Excellence of a certain kind, and not an Art.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00768", "bookId": 8438, "start": 322199, "end": 322605, "sha256": "50604a127fe65257332f42b97e63382e5195bc3ebb413015b1b432bc2f521e07", "text": "Now as there are two parts of the Soul which have Reason, it must be the Excellence of the Opinionative [which we called before calculative or deliberative], because both Opinion and Practical Wisdom are exercised upon Contingent matter. And further, it is not simply a state conjoined with Reason, as is proved by the fact that such a state may be forgotten and so lost while Practical Wisdom cannot.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00769", "bookId": 8438, "start": 322609, "end": 322620, "sha256": "bb240dadd686b141825e647280d2d4b72d5f6bbd0f26d00f1faf792e029c0892", "text": "Chapter VI.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00770", "bookId": 8438, "start": 322624, "end": 323340, "sha256": "d0c5b3ba9e21d1cec26fe2b5e5a10054bae1b67a23ad5ee72c5bb8b1ff65d0c9", "text": "Now Knowledge is a conception concerning universals and Necessary matter, and there are of course certain First Principles in all trains of demonstrative reasoning (that is of all Knowledge because this is connected with reasoning): that faculty, then, which takes in the first principles of that which comes under the range of Knowledge, cannot be either Knowledge, or Art, or Practical Wisdom: not Knowledge, because what is the object of Knowledge must be derived from demonstrative reasoning; not either of the other two, because they are exercised upon Contingent matter only. Nor can it be Science which takes in these, because the Scientific Man must in some cases depend on demonstrative Reasoning.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00771", "bookId": 8438, "start": 323344, "end": 323707, "sha256": "4a0cc44554009f33e986e92732904a2c09adda42a80720f85cd40f72aaf365f3", "text": "It comes then to this: since the faculties whereby we always attain truth and are never deceived when dealing with matter Necessary or even Contingent are Knowledge, Practical Wisdom, Science, and Intuition, and the faculty which takes in First Principles cannot be any of the three first; the last, namely Intuition, must be it which performs this function.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00772", "bookId": 8438, "start": 323711, "end": 323723, "sha256": "e3a88405865f388fd2bbf6c4cfc5874d7991e8951df2fcbc0435b1fbb2f839f3", "text": "Chapter VII.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00773", "bookId": 8438, "start": 323727, "end": 324355, "sha256": "9dd04639540eb303ceadeb1180fc6ec7559146e34d261563865ab69d5132c787", "text": "Science is a term we use principally in two meanings: in the first place, in the Arts we ascribe it to those who carry their arts to the highest accuracy;[22] Phidias, for instance, we call a Scientific or cunning sculptor; Polycleitus a Scientific or cunning statuary; meaning, in this instance, nothing else by Science than an excellence of art: in the other sense, we think some to be Scientific in a general way, not in any particular line or in any particular thing, just as Homer says of a man in his Margites; “Him the Gods made neither a digger of the ground, nor ploughman, nor in any other way Scientific.”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00774", "bookId": 8438, "start": 324359, "end": 324742, "sha256": "0658e2ea1c30d0a632cc526d9590c488b93ccf0fe4bafb328ce9453395df1045", "text": "So it is plain that Science must mean the most accurate of all Knowledge; but if so, then the Scientific man must not merely know the deductions from the First Principles but be in possession of truth respecting the First Principles. So that Science must be equivalent to Intuition and Knowledge; it is, so to speak, Knowledge of the most precious objects, _with a head on_.[23]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00775", "bookId": 8438, "start": 324746, "end": 325517, "sha256": "dcbf5914278f09804cc8a12d3c265c9a0e34207314248792903006e9d82c5d34", "text": "I say of the most precious things, because it is absurd to suppose πολιτικὴ,[24] or Practical Wisdom, to be the highest, unless it can be shown that Man is the most excellent of all that exists in the Universe. Now if “healthy” and “good” are relative terms, differing when applied to men or to fish, but “white” and “straight” are the same always, men must allow that the Scientific is the same always, but the Practically Wise varies: for whatever provides all things well for itself, to this they would apply the term Practically Wise, and commit these matters to it; which is the reason, by the way, that they call some brutes Practically Wise, such that is as plainly have a faculty of forethought respecting their own subsistence.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00776", "bookId": 8438, "start": 325521, "end": 325951, "sha256": "05aa18930d9aaf1bc9ec783f4e36f597b24ae58553b0f32809d9b3c0b6570c2a", "text": "And it is quite plain that Science and πολιτικὴ cannot be identical: because if men give the name of Science to that faculty which is employed upon what is expedient for themselves, there will be many instead of one, because there is not one and the same faculty employed on the good of all animals collectively, unless in the same sense as you may say there is one art of healing with respect to all living beings.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00777", "bookId": 8438, "start": 325955, "end": 326184, "sha256": "2d9ec8b2ef10dfb0fa8a59d87c8c2ec5b038077f0c08bc4b1d90b0c670be63bb", "text": "If it is urged that man is superior to all other animals, that makes no difference: for there are many other things more Godlike in their nature than Man, as, most obviously, the elements of which the Universe is composed.[25]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00778", "bookId": 8438, "start": 326188, "end": 326711, "sha256": "2590ac2e8ad134010ca074f035e9184a4b45ac2fb7a02f4641f05862970967e5", "text": "It is plain then that Science is the union of Knowledge and Intuition, and has for its objects those things which are most precious in their nature. Accordingly, Anexagoras, Thales, and men of that stamp, people call Scientific, but not Practically Wise because they see them ignorant of what concerns themselves; and they say that what they know is quite out of the common run certainly, and wonderful, and hard, and very fine no doubt, but still useless because they do not seek after what is good for them as men.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00779", "bookId": 8438, "start": 326715, "end": 326728, "sha256": "d004d8c3a629800899066ec30aebdc9b11ed7932971144d5b44dd4b9f1c6f736", "text": "Chapter VIII.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00780", "bookId": 8438, "start": 326732, "end": 327326, "sha256": "b8f7c7c59a88226d28ce30a95948f0dfaa711a05056e3c36b73ac54377d74479", "text": "But Practical Wisdom is employed upon human matters, and such as are objects of deliberation (for we say, that to deliberate well is most peculiarly the work of the man who possesses this Wisdom), and no man deliberates about things which cannot be otherwise than they are, nor about any save those that have some definite End and this End good resulting from Moral Action; and the man to whom we should give the name of Good in Counsel, simply and without modification, is he who in the way of calculation has a capacity for attaining that of practical goods which is the best for Man.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00781", "bookId": 8438, "start": 327330, "end": 328255, "sha256": "f045b51395e941c397c218525884e4d0a1d9502ce41380eb6cdb018e20df9677", "text": "Nor again does Practical Wisdom consist in a knowledge of general principles only, but it is necessary that one should know also the particular details, because it is apt to act, and action is concerned with details: for which reason sometimes men who have not much knowledge are more practical than others who have; among others, they who derive all they know from actual experience: suppose a man to know, for instance, that light meats are easy of digestion and wholesome, but not what kinds of meat are light, he will not produce a healthy state; that man will have a much better chance of doing so, who knows that the flesh of birds is light and wholesome. Since then Practical Wisdom is apt to act, one ought to have both kinds of knowledge, or, if only one, the knowledge of details rather than of Principles. So there will be in respect of Practical Wisdom the distinction of supreme and subordinate.[26]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00782", "bookId": 8438, "start": 328259, "end": 328373, "sha256": "2fa3dba00ad46c9bbd1b7cb95ca6660906773380a24c95f2406937625b046087", "text": "Further: πολιτικὴ and Practical Wisdom are the same mental state, but the point of view is not the same.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00783", "bookId": 8438, "start": 328377, "end": 328957, "sha256": "600ed98d8c4d74740b615114011bd20f326d349999f684ba78a7edfbd142c1a1", "text": "Of Practical Wisdom exerted upon a community that which I would call the Supreme is the faculty of Legislation; the subordinate, which is concerned with the details, generally has the common name πολιτικὴ, and its functions are Action and Deliberation (for the particular enactment is a matter of action, being the ultimate issue of this branch of Practical Wisdom, and therefore people commonly say, that these men alone are really engaged in government, because they alone act, filling the same place relatively to legislators, that workmen do to a master).[27]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00784", "bookId": 8438, "start": 328961, "end": 329620, "sha256": "1fb8475ca5a049dcf6b69d2cae8c72a37d7bd30ecc2352e8bea3c603e6e5b90f", "text": "Again, that is thought to be Practical Wisdom in the most proper sense which has for its object the interest of the Individual: and this usually appropriates the common name: the others are called respectively Domestic Management, Legislation, Executive Government divided into two branches, Deliberative and Judicial.[28] Now of course, knowledge for one’s self is one kind of knowledge, but it admits of many shades of difference: and it is a common notion that the man who knows and busies himself about his own concerns merely is the man of Practical Wisdom, while they who extend their solicitude to society at large are considered meddlesome.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00785", "bookId": 8438, "start": 329624, "end": 330336, "sha256": "85ef227b0d1e929bc71c8986d5147b0090876d01ed672a75b2736914892d2528", "text": "Euripides has thus embodied this sentiment; “How,” says one of his Characters, “How foolish am I, who whereas I might have shared equally, idly numbered among the multitude of the army *** for them that are busy and meddlesome [Jove hates],” because the generality of mankind seek their own good and hold that this is their proper business. It is then from this opinion that the notion has arisen that such men are the Practically-Wise. And yet it is just possible that the good of the individual cannot be secured independently of connection with a family or a community. And again, how a man should manage his own affairs is sometimes not quite plain, and must be made a matter of enquiry.[29]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00786", "bookId": 8438, "start": 330340, "end": 330762, "sha256": "d646f42bb5647ef990d015250674f0f2af6e209063f4e8d4bc80fee130ff706b", "text": "A corroboration of what I have said is[30] the fact, that the young come to be geometricians, and mathematicians, and Scientific in such matters, but it is not thought that a young man can come to be possessed of Practical Wisdom: now the reason is, that this Wisdom has for its object particular facts, which come to be known from experience, which a young man has not because it is produced only by length of time.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00787", "bookId": 8438, "start": 330766, "end": 331174, "sha256": "7475510b963bd750685374895a39f9f832fba54c2b5b3d4062256111bcc2db7d", "text": "By the way, a person might also enquire,[31] why a boy may be made a mathematician but not Scientific or a natural philosopher. Is not this the reason? that mathematics are taken in by the process of abstraction, but the principles of Science[32] and natural philosophy must be gained by experiment; and the latter young men talk of but do not realise, while the nature of the former is plain and clear.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00788", "bookId": 8438, "start": 331178, "end": 331459, "sha256": "a741a4c531038de037f09ab4bed83207c0e70c0a074aee0493188217534a6eb1", "text": "Again, in matter of practice, error attaches either to the general rule, in the process of deliberation, or to the particular fact: for instance, this would be a general rule, “All water of a certain gravity is bad;” the particular fact, “this water is of that gravity.”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00789", "bookId": 8438, "start": 331463, "end": 331631, "sha256": "35de07c124a292f0aefcc2e317c642cecbb5863eea82e8250ff3904ba6d080ad", "text": "And that Practical Wisdom is not Knowledge is plain, for it has to do with the ultimate issue,[33] as has been said, because every object of action is of this nature.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00790", "bookId": 8438, "start": 331635, "end": 332110, "sha256": "b460629f5669898039eafd65a3908e852a45fb2dc810329ed5d19bfeb34ab7e5", "text": "To Intuition it is opposed, for this takes in those principles which cannot be proved by reasoning, while Practical Wisdom is concerned with the ultimate particular fact which cannot be realised by Knowledge but by Sense; I do not mean one of the five senses, but the same by which we take in the mathematical fact, that no rectilineal figure can be contained by less than three lines, i.e. that a triangle is the ultimate figure, because here also is a stopping point.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00791", "bookId": 8438, "start": 332114, "end": 332196, "sha256": "35460512a583b62c212ccf5508bbbc42a7472ae48533057414863ea2aa5b6587", "text": "This however is Sense rather than Practical Wisdom, which is of another kind.[34]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00792", "bookId": 8438, "start": 332200, "end": 332211, "sha256": "592ec521344802b54bcc4f362dcb57feb55da0d05682ea5774b06c9cd5ee0ce4", "text": "Chapter IX.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00793", "bookId": 8438, "start": 332215, "end": 332656, "sha256": "9092c77ff060d010bbb78fa9ab6dfbb6e1ff2cd77daed19172d945a1aaedb67c", "text": "Now the acts of enquiring and deliberating differ, though deliberating is a kind of enquiring. We ought to ascertain about Good Counsel likewise what it is, whether a kind of Knowledge, or Opinion, or Happy Conjecture, or some other kind of faculty. Knowledge it obviously is not, because men do not enquire about what they know, and Good Counsel is a kind of deliberation, and the man who is deliberating is enquiring and calculating.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00794", "bookId": 8438, "start": 332660, "end": 332918, "sha256": "ee2bb93f225ad9b1f48782ceb1fc94316d5293a6c96c4a4a9a1f7ea0a09f5373", "text": "Neither is it Happy Conjecture; because this is independent of reasoning, and a rapid operation; but men deliberate a long time, and it is a common saying that one should execute speedily what has been resolved upon in deliberation, but deliberate slowly.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00795", "bookId": 8438, "start": 332922, "end": 333084, "sha256": "f0b5996db18688886155bb20a19f026f31e8d5bb8d3687c9976b6f096d9b9f4a", "text": "Quick perception of causes[35] again is a different faculty from good counsel, for it is a species of Happy Conjecture. Nor is Good Counsel Opinion of any kind.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00796", "bookId": 8438, "start": 333088, "end": 333459, "sha256": "4793b1269dd4ff0c322a1dc5f80c77c693e999ff30e0f40ce41a74ddb45f46b6", "text": "Well then, since he who deliberates ill goes wrong, and he who deliberates well does so rightly, it is clear that Good Counsel is rightness of some kind, but not of Knowledge nor of Opinion: for Knowledge cannot be called right because it cannot be wrong, and Rightness of Opinion is Truth: and again, all which is the object of opinion is definitely marked out.[36]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00797", "bookId": 8438, "start": 333463, "end": 333843, "sha256": "868954371e1018b17bfb25ca7a9294642d37178a48c5b33fa190736a33fab117", "text": "Still, however, Good Counsel is not independent of Reason, Does it remain then that it is a rightness of Intellectual Operation simply, because this does not amount to an assertion; and the objection to Opinion was that it is not a process of enquiry but already a definite assertion; whereas whosoever deliberates, whether well or ill, is engaged in enquiry and calculation.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00798", "bookId": 8438, "start": 333847, "end": 334458, "sha256": "dcfc027c62276d6527d33e21f380fb8ff282c4b06079a60e99bf6df94d5e3cbc", "text": "Well, Good Counsel is a Rightness of deliberation, and so the first question must regard the nature and objects of deliberation. Now remember Rightness is an equivocal term; we plainly do not mean Rightness of any kind whatever; the ἀκρατὴς, for instance, or the bad man, will obtain by his calculation what he sets before him as an object, and so he may be said to have deliberated _rightly_ in one sense, but will have attained a great evil. Whereas to have deliberated well is thought to be a good, because Good Counsel is Rightness of deliberation of such a nature as is apt to attain good.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00799", "bookId": 8438, "start": 334462, "end": 334739, "sha256": "ab3a6607618da76c33ce0b90c6fb082afaed5b43ba3e10d30f557008423354d2", "text": "But even this again you may get by false reasoning, and hit upon the right effect though not through right means,[37] your middle term being fallacious: and so neither will this be yet Good Counsel in consequence of which you get what you ought but not through proper means.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00800", "bookId": 8438, "start": 334743, "end": 335027, "sha256": "c6ac9f61fd169970a235c54e778ae318b7180e10dba89289872af513efd684a5", "text": "Again, one man may hit on a thing after long deliberation, another quickly. And so that before described will not be yet Good Counsel, but the Rightness must be with reference to what is expedient; and you must have a proper end in view, pursue it in a right manner and right time.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00801", "bookId": 8438, "start": 335031, "end": 335307, "sha256": "7e7e3101cf2c64280400b39fd5cd12cf53eec549c09c915072e74d3a0bc5f75b", "text": "Once more. One may deliberate well either generally or towards some particular End.[38] Good counsel in the general then is that which goes right towards that which is the End in a general way of consideration; in particular, that which does so towards some particular End.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00802", "bookId": 8438, "start": 335311, "end": 335527, "sha256": "3bb0eb124667cae464594de6e910dd1b398d02f9c52963aebac35626994633d5", "text": "Since then deliberating well is a quality of men possessed of Practical Wisdom, Good Counsel must be “Rightness in respect of what conduces to a given End, of which[39] Practical Wisdom is the true conception.”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00803", "bookId": 8438, "start": 335531, "end": 335541, "sha256": "1004a834f009008ccc92e737e9a371a7a5488da6be86d63d2eae33426b5b37ef", "text": "Chapter X.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00804", "bookId": 8438, "start": 335545, "end": 335668, "sha256": "6d0ad64e4c99db7e2a56b2574a1c4f25117ef20f0bf5465f1e91fee62e158018", "text": "There is too the faculty of Judiciousness, and also its absence, in virtue of which we call men Judicious or the contrary.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00805", "bookId": 8438, "start": 335672, "end": 336143, "sha256": "6d72e0c34258349ab5a6fbfbfc008baa178bdd727ab3b76dce9a748bdc17a323", "text": "Now Judiciousness is neither entirely identical with Knowledge or Opinion (for then all would have been Judicious), nor is it any one specific science, as medical science whose object matter is things wholesome; or geometry whose object matter is magnitude: for it has not for its object things which always exist and are immutable, nor of those things which come into being just any which may chance; but those in respect of which a man might doubt and deliberate.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00806", "bookId": 8438, "start": 336147, "end": 337193, "sha256": "cab50fbf915172b617a89da74e0263ec370daaf2be0f78514a3a33757468aece", "text": "And so it has the same object matter as Practical Wisdom; yet the two faculties are not identical, because Practical Wisdom has the capacity for commanding and taking the initiative, for its End is “what one should do or not do:” but Judiciousness is only apt to decide upon suggestions (though we do in Greek put “well” on to the faculty and its concrete noun, these really mean exactly the same as the plain words), and Judiciousness is neither the having Practical Wisdom, nor attaining it: but just as learning is termed συνιέναι when a man uses his knowledge, so judiciousness consists in employing the Opinionative faculty in judging concerning those things which come within the province of Practical Wisdom, when another enunciates them; and not judging merely, but judging well (for εὐ and καλῶς mean exactly the same thing). And the Greek name of this faculty is derived from the use of the term συνιέναι in learning: μανθάνειν and συνιέναι being often used as synonymous.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00807", "bookId": 8438, "start": 337197, "end": 337696, "sha256": "750f195c14b4344e1e437157a3fec5c9747684e4925ba71ed936a19a500254e9", "text": "The faculty called γνώμη,[40] in right of which we call men εὐγνώμονες, or say they have γνώμη, is “the right judgment of the equitable man.” A proof of which is that we most commonly say that the equitable man has a tendency to make allowance, and the making allowance in certain cases is equitable. And συγγνώμη (the word denoting allowance) is right γνώμη having a capacity of making equitable decisions, By “right” I mean that of the Truthful man.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00808", "bookId": 8438, "start": 337700, "end": 337711, "sha256": "e01eea13bd5151db5300b85b2bf5667b50440b182b04dc56f48ea5ab17de6a93", "text": "Chapter XI.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00809", "bookId": 8438, "start": 337715, "end": 338457, "sha256": "863baff54079dcd6c20efb08fe0e10cc64f78ad3ff3ac79b03fb0205e031a8b3", "text": "Now all these mental states[41] tend to the same object, as indeed common language leads us to expect: I mean, we speak of γνώμη, Judiciousness, Practical Wisdom, and Practical Intuition, attributing the possession of γνώμη and Practical Intuition to the same Individuals whom we denominate Practically-Wise and Judicious: because all these faculties are employed upon the extremes,[42] i.e. on particular details; and in right of his aptitude for deciding on the matters which come within the province of the Practically-Wise, a man is Judicious and possessed of good γνώμη; i.e. he is disposed to make allowance, for considerations of equity are entertained by all good men alike in transactions with their fellows.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00810", "bookId": 8438, "start": 338461, "end": 338704, "sha256": "0cb6948591227e5c0e706f9fa8ae39ef6026464eb839093f7804790c1384739c", "text": "And all matters of Moral Action belong to the class of particulars, otherwise called extremes: for the man of Practical Wisdom must know them, and Judiciousness and γνώμη are concerned with matters of Moral Actions, which are extremes.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00811", "bookId": 8438, "start": 338708, "end": 339326, "sha256": "e914c215bee435f85ec12315134af999d71aebeba7585f702821507062c1ef2f", "text": "Intuition, moreover, takes in the extremes at both ends:[43] I mean, the first and last terms must be taken in not by reasoning but by Intuition [so that Intuition comes to be of two kinds], and that which belongs to strict demonstrative reasonings takes in immutable, i.e. Necessary, first terms; while that which is employed in practical matters takes in the extreme, the Contingent, and the minor Premiss:[44] for the minor Premisses are the source of the Final Cause, Universals being made up out of Particulars.[45] To take in these, of course, we must have Sense, i.e. in other words Practical Intuition.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00812", "bookId": 8438, "start": 339330, "end": 339883, "sha256": "8eefcce8d442efd36d8effe6b4a5cc2b5976db8db58ac49741460af0660542d1", "text": "And for this reason these are thought to be simply gifts of nature; and whereas no man is thought to be Scientific by nature, men are thought to have γνώμη, and Judiciousness, and Practical Intuition: a proof of which is that we think these faculties are a consequence even of particular ages, and this given age has Practical Intuition and γνώμη, we say, as if under the notion that nature is the cause. And thus Intuition is both the beginning and end, because the proofs are based upon the one kind of extremes and concern the other.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00813", "bookId": 8438, "start": 339887, "end": 340152, "sha256": "af808a38661d0549e1a2fad652edce73312ea3b0662971e372dac2fe037185fa", "text": "And so[46] one should attend to the undemonstrable dicta and opinions of the skilful, the old and the Practically-Wise, no less than to those which are based on strict reasoning, because they see aright, having gained their power of moral vision from experience.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00814", "bookId": 8438, "start": 340156, "end": 340168, "sha256": "db01c17d92611b3315f68e3df6f0d948914af69a6cdab38f6908ed40f82a0968", "text": "Chapter XII.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00815", "bookId": 8438, "start": 340172, "end": 341217, "sha256": "ae47df9a9a4928b8daee5efd57ae842352b1495cfa82eaa6e3a54436282ecc7a", "text": "Well, we have now stated the nature and objects of Practical Wisdom and Science respectively, and that they belong each to a different part of the Soul. But I can conceive a person questioning their utility. “Science,” he would say, “concerns itself with none of the causes of human happiness (for it has nothing to do with producing anything): Practical Wisdom has this recommendation, I grant, but where is the need of it, since its province is those things which are just and honourable, and good for man, and these are the things which the good man as such does; but we are not a bit the more apt to do them because we know them, since the Moral Virtues are Habits; just as we are not more apt to be healthy or in good condition from mere knowledge of what relates to these (I mean,[47] of course, things so called not from their producing health, etc., but from their evidencing it in a particular subject), for we are not more apt to be healthy and in good condition merely from knowing the art of medicine or training.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00816", "bookId": 8438, "start": 341221, "end": 341754, "sha256": "cff1a5b224393850a87ee5fc033a4d1f73906b38e2a92e689fe5591ed51093cc", "text": "“If it be urged that _knowing what is_ good does not by itself make a Practically-Wise man but _becoming_ good; still this Wisdom will be no use either to those that are good, and so have it already, or to those who have it not; because it will make no difference to them whether they have it themselves or put themselves under the guidance of others who have; and we might be contented to be in respect of this as in respect of health: for though we wish to be healthy still we do not set about learning the art of healing.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00817", "bookId": 8438, "start": 341758, "end": 341966, "sha256": "82dde065bbde2fcd7050687e835dd85fd855ece9eb2ddd32751ffeb7ecea8b4d", "text": "“Furthermore, it would seem to be strange that, though lower in the scale than Science, it is to be its master; which it is, because whatever produces results takes the rule and directs in each matter.”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00818", "bookId": 8438, "start": 341970, "end": 342052, "sha256": "428f047d4b77d6257b0b534e1f589ffc9f101686f08b973ad30dcba7bdd54f3d", "text": "This then is what we are to talk about, for these are the only points now raised.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00819", "bookId": 8438, "start": 342056, "end": 342236, "sha256": "70d07bbeaded0ec048dcdca0947e24041c7f6de8f286f9b1dc34802c9281204e", "text": "Now first we say that being respectively Excellences of different parts of the Soul they must be choice-worthy, even on the supposition that they neither of them produce results.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00820", "bookId": 8438, "start": 342240, "end": 342506, "sha256": "4f3ff987978e689d841ec697a7bd5ed50404c85c4afd4b02ad6987292a097b76", "text": "In the next place we say that they _do_ produce results; that Science makes Happiness, not as the medical art but as healthiness makes health:[48] because, being a part of Virtue in its most extensive sense, it makes a man happy by being possessed and by working.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00821", "bookId": 8438, "start": 342510, "end": 342856, "sha256": "40d4e48e4091289b26142f7bcabd4bbbae438d4a2c8976030ec03c8ebc07e601", "text": "Next, Man’s work _as Man_ is accomplished by virtue of Practical Wisdom and Moral Virtue, the latter giving the right aim and direction, the former the right means to its attainment;[49] but of the fourth part of the Soul, the mere nutritive principle, there is no such Excellence, because nothing is in its power to do or leave undone.[50]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00822", "bookId": 8438, "start": 342860, "end": 343801, "sha256": "aad7d21310a05c8feddd7f7de1c8d68886019243197bb3987e1cbc248d9a8791", "text": "As to our not being more apt to do what is noble and just by reason of possessing Practical Wisdom, we must begin a little higher up,[51] taking this for our starting-point. As we say that men may do things in themselves just and yet not be just men; for instance, when men do what the laws require of them, either against their will, or by reason of ignorance or something else, at all events not for the sake of the things themselves; and yet they do what they ought and all that the good man should do; so it seems that to be a good man one must do each act in a particular frame of mind, I mean from Moral Choice and for the sake of the things themselves which are done. Now it is Virtue which makes the Moral Choice right, but whatever is naturally required to carry out that Choice comes under the province not of Virtue but of a different faculty. We must halt, as it were, awhile, and speak more clearly on these points.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00823", "bookId": 8438, "start": 343805, "end": 344233, "sha256": "58c187cff572fca3251755c0f6084e8092a8970cac55e4650da95457ba31a48e", "text": "There is then a certain faculty, commonly named Cleverness, of such a nature as to be able to do and attain whatever conduces to _any_ given purpose: now if that purpose be a good one the faculty is praiseworthy; if otherwise, it goes by a name which, denoting strictly the ability, implies the willingness to do _anything_; we accordingly call the Practically-Wise Clever, and also those who can and will do anything.[52]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00824", "bookId": 8438, "start": 344237, "end": 344942, "sha256": "a36e9f2b2dd57a64bc41a16956e3cbddf7e7a26d97547705a1c860cb44ce7ed7", "text": "Now Practical Wisdom is not identical with Cleverness, nor is it without this power of adapting means to ends: but this Eye of the Soul (as we may call it) does not attain its proper state without goodness, as we have said before and as is quite plain, because the syllogisms into which Moral Action may be analysed have for their Major Premiss,[53] “since —— is the End and the Chief Good”[54] (fill up the blank with just anything you please, for we merely want to exhibit the Form, so that anything will do), but _how_ this blank should be filled is seen only by the good man: because Vice distorts the moral vision and causes men to be deceived in respect of practical principles.[55]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00825", "bookId": 8438, "start": 344946, "end": 345038, "sha256": "9e73d331be173a488fbb91513ba4fe2fbac34f12097625b98899f9f75e9ce366", "text": "It is clear, therefore, that a man cannot be a Practically-Wise, without being a good, man.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00826", "bookId": 8438, "start": 345042, "end": 346261, "sha256": "4b580ac3cdf625f88f648706eb33b2625292f9933c3af05e0a0749e9a775cd9e", "text": "We must enquire again also about Virtue: for it may be divided into Natural Virtue and Matured, which two bear to each other a relation similar to that which Practical Wisdom bears to Cleverness, one not of identity but resemblance. I speak of Natural Virtue, because men hold that each of the moral dispositions attach to us all somehow by nature: we have dispositions[56] towards justice, self-mastery and courage, for instance, immediately from our birth: but still we seek Goodness in its highest sense as something distinct from these, and that these dispositions should attach to us in a somewhat different fashion.[57] Children and brutes have these natural states, but then they are plainly hurtful unless combined with an intellectual element: at least thus much is matter of actual experience and observation, that as a strong body destitute of sight must, if set in motion, fall violently because it has not sight, so it is also in the case we are considering: but if it can get the intellectual element it then excels in acting. Just so the Natural State of Virtue, being like this strong body, will then be Virtue in the highest sense when it too is combined with the intellectual element.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00827", "bookId": 8438, "start": 346265, "end": 346521, "sha256": "ad9248b9946ef3fe0038bd1f44e8c4f9abedb02d1ec5d1bad0730719edb1fb91", "text": "So that, as in the case of the Opinionative faculty, there are two forms, Cleverness and Practical Wisdom; so also in the case of the Moral there are two, Natural Virtue and Matured; and of these the latter cannot be formed without Practical Wisdom.[58]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00828", "bookId": 8438, "start": 346525, "end": 346820, "sha256": "bee4dd6fd0d0f65c86fb038da7de86619da7a36fcab9e0f054396e8baf729589", "text": "This leads some to say that all the Virtues are merely intellectual Practical Wisdom, and Socrates was partly right in his enquiry and partly wrong: wrong in that he thought all the Virtues were merely intellectual Practical Wisdom, right in saying they were not independent of that faculty.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00829", "bookId": 8438, "start": 346824, "end": 347638, "sha256": "7cbd1659492c25258c3e253b6f8bc2f6061321a9c661d8a0d60f2c630528abb5", "text": "A proof of which is that now all, in defining Virtue, add on the “state” [mentioning also to what standard it has reference, namely that] “which is accordant with Right Reason:” now “right” means in accordance with Practical Wisdom. So then all seem to have an instinctive notion that that state which is in accordance with Practical Wisdom is Virtue; however, we must make a slight change in their statement, because that state is Virtue, not merely which is in accordance with but which implies the possession of Right Reason; which, upon such matters, is Practical Wisdom. The difference between us and Socrates is this: he thought the Virtues were reasoning processes (_i.e._ that they were all instances of Knowledge in its strict sense), but we say they imply the possession of Reason.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00830", "bookId": 8438, "start": 347642, "end": 347798, "sha256": "e83fc34ef3a0a01dc0ba8e51b34c48fcfef6b75caca7239065d068d5b0276162", "text": "From what has been said then it is clear that one cannot be, strictly speaking, good without Practical Wisdom nor Practically-Wise without moral goodness.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00831", "bookId": 8438, "start": 347802, "end": 348332, "sha256": "359c55d24fcc8d36eceb89644eb21c6aa82ff04c830c699a929b859835b828d9", "text": "And by the distinction between Natural and Matured Virtue one can meet the reasoning by which it might be argued “that the Virtues are separable because the same man is not by nature most inclined to all at once so that he will have acquired this one before he has that other:” we would reply that this is possible with respect to the Natural Virtues but not with respect to those in right of which a man is denominated simply good: because they will all belong to him together with the one faculty of Practical Wisdom.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00832", "bookId": 8438, "start": 348336, "end": 348661, "sha256": "c35c69765cbd16d891fca85a12967722c3c41a005fc55868dd435f33fe2f68aa", "text": "It is plain too that even had it not been apt to act we should have needed it, because it is the Excellence of a part of the Soul; and that the moral choice cannot be right independently of Practical Wisdom and Moral Goodness; because this gives the right End, that causes the doing these things which conduce to the End.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00833", "bookId": 8438, "start": 348665, "end": 348925, "sha256": "8be024ee37a585aed08e132386607356fdba4175e288ec149f065d655bf35240", "text": "Then again, it is not Master of Science (i.e. of the superior part of the Soul), just as neither is the healing art Master of health; for it does not make use of it, but looks how it may come to be: so it commands for the sake of it but does not command it.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00834", "bookId": 8438, "start": 348929, "end": 349088, "sha256": "84d7ca7a8751823f23787c770b99ce8752bf70843b91cb2a533a7f9143c0525a", "text": "The objection is, in fact, about as valid as if a man should say πολιτικὴ governs the gods because it gives orders about all things in the communty.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00835", "bookId": 8438, "start": 349092, "end": 349100, "sha256": "c7d7d0ad74ae42888b3524491d03621282b5c64962027fe533fda12d7640e5fb", "text": "APPENDIX", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00836", "bookId": 8438, "start": 349104, "end": 349164, "sha256": "3c467ea2429c7e852325a33ab742bec5d11bafec9c1ac5f1fad1073ca7e88885", "text": "On ἐπισπήμη, from I. Post. Analyt. chap. i. and ii.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00837", "bookId": 8438, "start": 349170, "end": 349232, "sha256": "a25d643d3651c3a7d9d0e28807550678a10efe40f44e85bfa45cad7f96ea6643", "text": "(Such parts only are translated as throw light on the Ethics.)", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00838", "bookId": 8438, "start": 349236, "end": 349842, "sha256": "6d22b5569c0327dfeb302c6d884e417138eee67f019ebe0356d5c49fe43d01ce", "text": "All teaching, and all intellectual learning, proceeds on the basis of previous knowledge, as will appear on an examination of all. The Mathematical Sciences, and every other system, draw their conclusions in this method. So too of reasonings, whether by syllogism, or induction: for both teach through what is previously known, the former assuming the premisses as from wise men, the latter proving universals from the evidentness of the particulars. In like manner too rhetoricians persuade, either through examples (which amounts to induction), or through enthymemes (which amounts to syllogism).", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00839", "bookId": 8438, "start": 349847, "end": 349855, "sha256": "96fe2a1a9483d45020e04b88b405eb29f19b27fed1ecea6c4f102c25b49705d0", "text": "CHAP. II", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00840", "bookId": 8438, "start": 349861, "end": 350629, "sha256": "44f28f939b5cfde0ed4312bf2e88c34f768c1045d8e363d0275b0c1b218b62c3", "text": "Well, we suppose that we _know_ things (in the strict and proper sense of the word) when we suppose ourselves to know the cause by reason of which the thing is to be the cause of it; and that this cannot be otherwise. It is plain that the idea intended to be conveyed by the term _knowing_ is something of this kind; because they who do not really know suppose themselves thus related to the matter in hand and they who do know really are so that of whatsoever there is properly speaking Knowledge this cannot be otherwise than it is Whether or no there is another way of knowing we will say afterwards, but we do say that we know through demonstration, by which I mean a syllogism apt to produce Knowledge, i.e. in right of which through having it, we know.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00841", "bookId": 8438, "start": 350633, "end": 350973, "sha256": "63b7d89bb6c438e7124f114aa6c527cf641438430188aa310b5b5db6f0a24eb2", "text": "If Knowledge then is such as we have described it, the Knowledge produced by demonstrative reasoning must be drawn from premisses _true_ and _first_, and _incapable of syllogistic proof_, and _better known_, and _prior in order of time_, and _causes of the conclusion_, for so the principles will be akin to the conclusion demonstrated.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00842", "bookId": 8438, "start": 350977, "end": 351109, "sha256": "46917212dbb3e4055d55b01bedd53b57314514f490366a9d308a5d3efa5b5e1d", "text": "(Syllogism, of course there may be without such premisses, but it will not be demonstration because it will not produce knowledge).", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00843", "bookId": 8438, "start": 351113, "end": 351187, "sha256": "cea0d6aa87c8efd3b9bb83d85dec46b4e8a9c375364bc9cb915e1ed5dd373c65", "text": "_True_, they must be, because it is impossible to know that which is not.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00844", "bookId": 8438, "start": 351191, "end": 351406, "sha256": "e2f2ad9eeaabb51c59a3b53c3208e080fbcf4bf930d02d1454f6727889480e3e", "text": "_First_, that is indemonstrable, because, if demonstrable, he cannot be said to _know_ them who has no demonstration of them for knowing such things as are demonstrable is the same as having demonstration of them.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00845", "bookId": 8438, "start": 351410, "end": 352091, "sha256": "f42c905480b272d295552374e6e09fb4dfbbb20eac2b7acafb0ed23daa57a470", "text": "_Causes_ they must be, and _better known_, and _prior_ in time, _causes_, because we then know when we are acquainted with the cause, and _prior_, if causes, and _known beforehand_, not merely comprehended in idea but known to exist (The terms prior, and better known, bear two senses for _prior by nature_ and _prior relatively to ourselves_ are not the same, nor _better known by nature_, and _better known to us_ I mean, by _prior_ and _better known relatively to ourselves_, such things as are nearer to sensation, but abstractedly so such as are further Those are furthest which are most universal those nearest which are particulars, and these are mutually opposed.)", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00846", "bookId": 8438, "start": 352095, "end": 352562, "sha256": "0c31057a9191e1988f1ef8e5db9202302821c108c11d42e58e86f21a2386608a", "text": "And by _first_, I mean _principles akin to the conclusion_, for principle means the same as first And the principle or first step in demonstration is a proposition incapable of syllogistic proof, _i.e._ one to which there is none prior. Now of such syllogistic principles I call that a θέσις which you cannot demonstrate, and which is unnecessary with a view to learning something else. That which is necessary in order to learn something else is an Axiom.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00847", "bookId": 8438, "start": 352566, "end": 353196, "sha256": "0b28fe74e34f3f965f10d5a48a86838a4d3061ba95a4bc8a807faaf1953f7b05", "text": "Further, since one is to believe and know the thing by having a syllogism of the kind called demonstration, and what constitutes it to be such is the nature of the premisses, it is necessary not merely to _know before_, but to _know better than the conclusion_, either all or at least some of, the principles, because that which is the cause of a quality inhering in something else always inheres itself more as the cause of our loving is itself more lovable. So, since the principles are the cause of our knowing and behoving we know and believe them more, because by reason of them we know also the conclusion following.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00848", "bookId": 8438, "start": 353200, "end": 353572, "sha256": "a695c6d4697192d752ad6baa980033fa3d2151fd4a64767d9be1bffef6c1cf93", "text": "Further: the man who is to have the Knowledge which comes through demonstration must not merely know and believe his principles better than he does his conclusion, but he must believe nothing more firmly than the contradictories of those principles out of which the contrary fallacy may be constructed: since he who _knows_, is to be simply and absolutely infallible.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00849", "bookId": 8438, "start": 353582, "end": 353590, "sha256": "8d8022b1f003a6511ed8c9cd1d351d77996dd51f059d144f9c6a321c926120f3", "text": "BOOK VII", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00850", "bookId": 8438, "start": 353594, "end": 353604, "sha256": "5a35eafc731a2640e14da7e928f9e9a89afe4fe2a1f9a9a349887b8fb6d795cd", "text": "Chapter I.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00851", "bookId": 8438, "start": 353610, "end": 354531, "sha256": "c469c6d08c47c1f6fe5471b426110c07f6fddd94bdc092446db0bff2069182ab", "text": "Next we must take a different point to start from,[1] and observe that of what is to be avoided in respect of moral character there are three forms; Vice, Imperfect Self-Control, and Brutishness. Of the two former it is plain what the contraries are, for we call the one Virtue, the other Self-Control; and as answering to Brutishness it will be most suitable to assign Superhuman, i.e. heroical and godlike Virtue, as, in Homer, Priam says of Hector “that he was very excellent, nor was he like the offspring of mortal man, but of a god.” and so, if, as is commonly said, men are raised to the position of gods by reason of very high excellence in Virtue, the state opposed to the Brutish will plainly be of this nature: because as brutes are not virtuous or vicious so neither are gods; but the state of these is something more precious than Virtue, of the former something different in kind from Vice.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00852", "bookId": 8438, "start": 354535, "end": 355386, "sha256": "e82efcc7f4beb569b332768363afeccba1860d4fe25fe39d1242eff6fb3d3a07", "text": "And as, on the one hand, it is a rare thing for a man to be godlike (a term the Lacedæmonians are accustomed to use when they admire a man exceedingly; σεῖος ἀνὴρ they call him), so the brutish man is rare; the character is found most among barbarians, and some cases of it are caused by disease or maiming; also such men as exceed in vice all ordinary measures we therefore designate by this opprobrious term. Well, we must in a subsequent place make some mention of this disposition, and Vice has been spoken of before: for the present we must speak of Imperfect Self-Control and its kindred faults of Softness and Luxury, on the one hand, and of Self-Control and Endurance on the other; since we are to conceive of them, not as being the same states exactly as Virtue and Vice respectively, nor again as differing in kind.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00853", "bookId": 8438, "start": 355390, "end": 355868, "sha256": "d0b433ad62915bb5bcde5c785d7f9c4434f3b432d3ffd6ae71474ce104d8e0d8", "text": "And we should adopt the same course as before, i.e. state the phenomena, and, after raising and discussing difficulties which suggest themselves, then exhibit, if possible, all the opinions afloat respecting these affections of the moral character; or, if not all, the greater part and the most important: for we may consider we have illustrated the matter sufficiently when the difficulties have been solved, and such theories as are most approved are left as a residuum.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00854", "bookId": 8438, "start": 355872, "end": 355927, "sha256": "db11f777c66953e0a57de73f1a61f921be3fe27e9733bce23acef1b8acf0cf0c", "text": "The chief points may be thus enumerated. It is thought,", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00855", "bookId": 8438, "start": 355931, "end": 356108, "sha256": "bf6ae68dcf5e8b35c104a5b4883565bd136f342a12eb2170675fe6d6b8c7fa44", "text": "I. That Self-Control and Endurance belong to the class of things good and praiseworthy, while Imperfect Self-Control and Softness belong to that of things low and blameworthy.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00856", "bookId": 8438, "start": 356112, "end": 356300, "sha256": "780f7f776b4d544b1811bc1839115f6077a27cf223e4853f8ac6c10aab56a0b1", "text": "II. That the man of Self-Control is identical with the man who is apt to abide by his resolution, and the man of Imperfect Self-Control with him who is apt to depart from his resolution.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00857", "bookId": 8438, "start": 356304, "end": 356552, "sha256": "263f39a7a51f2d06e3a7d5b5887aecfef5daf7ec2b8ff8c477fc7d6967fd3cab", "text": "III. That the man of Imperfect Self-Control does things at the instigation of his passions, knowing them to be wrong, while the man of Self-Control, knowing his lusts to be wrong, refuses, by the influence of reason, to follow their suggestions.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00858", "bookId": 8438, "start": 356556, "end": 356746, "sha256": "b020f9f4f086e30295e89c1bd19ac1c67e7ce24a9ae68bb6a015e21bdfca797b", "text": "IV. That the man of Perfected Self-Mastery unites the qualities of Self-Control and Endurance, and some say that every one who unites these is a man of Perfect Self-Mastery, others do not.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00859", "bookId": 8438, "start": 356750, "end": 356905, "sha256": "255928cb840b7e6dc37e7786ccc64fe59d3955014c990f19eb075dd94c4c2031", "text": "V. Some confound the two characters of the man who has _no_ Self-Control, and the man of _Imperfect Self-Control_, while others distinguish between them.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00860", "bookId": 8438, "start": 356909, "end": 357097, "sha256": "d518dcebcd616979a43e1f8f68c8fcd5a44c9df0f1d4353ec407080fd05dc45c", "text": "VI. It is sometimes said that the man of Practical Wisdom cannot be a man of Imperfect Self-Control, sometimes that men who are Practically Wise and Clever are of Imperfect Self-Control.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00861", "bookId": 8438, "start": 357101, "end": 357260, "sha256": "784f720622bb43e71c76fc6ece7b443399ecf61efc8ecd16bc7171e1cc00629c", "text": "VII. Again, men are said to be of Imperfect Self-Control, not simply but with the addition of the thing wherein, as in respect of anger, of honour, and gain.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00862", "bookId": 8438, "start": 357264, "end": 357313, "sha256": "10122bc684d2270fae0795e628a311b529ed86a14e8a31bfa56082eb66691b84", "text": "These then are pretty well the common statements.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00863", "bookId": 8438, "start": 357317, "end": 357328, "sha256": "9ce6d96fa540de49002e2340d430460f2ee679453301a35db1cf5cf6c0ed967f", "text": "Chapter II.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00864", "bookId": 8438, "start": 357334, "end": 357457, "sha256": "c8f5eb3902090f224842f34a286fc2e2282cca9c9616aa1455ce73fb25cf5981", "text": "Now a man may raise a question as to the nature of the right conception in violation of which a man fails of Self-Control.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00865", "bookId": 8438, "start": 357461, "end": 357957, "sha256": "86911b2e336f552242707445aa47822dd5730ebd03ead935c4ccfb4ebe7e325f", "text": "That he can so fail when _knowing_ in the strict sense what is right some say is impossible: for it is a strange thing, as Socrates thought, that while Knowledge is present in his mind something else should master him and drag him about like a slave. Socrates in fact contended generally against the theory, maintaining there is no such state as that of Imperfect Self-Control, for that no one acts contrary to what is best conceiving it to be best but by reason of ignorance what is best.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00866", "bookId": 8438, "start": 357961, "end": 358303, "sha256": "bfb04dbef9736e9ed0d350125448ff5617c0df60811cd09b7ee7f3e98c2b0b5c", "text": "With all due respect to Socrates, his account of the matter is at variance with plain facts, and we must enquire with respect to the affection, if it be caused by ignorance what is the nature of the ignorance: for that the man so failing does not suppose his acts to be right before he is under the influence of passion is quite plain.[2]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00867", "bookId": 8438, "start": 358307, "end": 358665, "sha256": "19c1c27b44b7f1aea9120be9d11b0adea8a45e8422f004bd83fd3b81feda7ddf", "text": "There are people who partly agree with Socrates and partly not: that nothing can be stronger than Knowledge they agree, but that no man acts in contravention of his conviction of what is better they do not agree; and so they say that it is not Knowledge, but only Opinion, which the man in question has and yet yields to the instigation of his pleasures.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00868", "bookId": 8438, "start": 358669, "end": 358953, "sha256": "c1d7f3cdb8e401f0f715035fb2b67b010d4b8e56ee977ec8049834247ea82ab0", "text": "But then, if it is Opinion and not Knowledge, that is it the opposing conception be not strong but only mild (as in the case of real doubt), the not abiding by it in the face of strong lusts would be excusable: but wickedness is not excusable, nor is anything which deserves blame.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00869", "bookId": 8438, "start": 358957, "end": 359576, "sha256": "dc67f38a44884eae27fbd43187d3860bab9c39be1e10086a0592af8495671aab", "text": "Well then, is it Practical Wisdom which in this case offers opposition: for that is the strongest principle? The supposition is absurd, for we shall have the same man uniting Practical Wisdom and Imperfect Self-Control, and surely no single person would maintain that it is consistent with the character of Practical Wisdom to do voluntarily what is very wrong; and besides we have shown before that the very mark of a man of this character is aptitude to act, as distinguished from mere knowledge of what is right; because he is a man conversant with particular details, and possessed of all the other virtues.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00870", "bookId": 8438, "start": 359580, "end": 360215, "sha256": "450df943492b4e72825de2303b9ad94588eb6e21bdefd72f36936e0881d61422", "text": "Again, if the having strong and bad lusts is necessary to the idea of the man of Self-Control, this character cannot be identical with the man of Perfected Self-Mastery, because the having strong desires or bad ones does not enter into the idea of this latter character: and yet the man of Self-Control must have such: for suppose them good; then the moral state which should hinder a man from following their suggestions must be bad, and so Self-Control would not be in all cases good: suppose them on the other hand to be weak and not wrong, it would be nothing grand; nor anything great, supposing them to be wrong and weak.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00871", "bookId": 8438, "start": 360219, "end": 360689, "sha256": "790c52c5c6625aeb241e1d77d050fd6477d8bcd78cf110c9b24a5ebf46c48f3a", "text": "Again, if Self-Control makes a man apt to abide by all opinions without exception, it may be bad, as suppose the case of a false opinion: and if Imperfect Self-Control makes a man apt to depart from all without exception, we shall have cases where it will be good; take that of Neoptolemus in the Philoctetes of Sophocles, for instance: he is to be praised for not abiding by what he was persuaded to by Ulysses, because he was pained at being guilty of falsehood.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00872", "bookId": 8438, "start": 360693, "end": 361112, "sha256": "e676a19fbfee356610a724119d02cd159cbb0d277cbe76df81dee1d611308fe7", "text": "Or again, false sophistical reasoning presents a difficulty: for because men wish to prove paradoxes that they may be counted clever when they succeed, the reasoning that has been used becomes a difficulty: for the intellect is fettered; a man being unwilling to abide by the conclusion because it does not please his judgment, but unable to advance because he cannot disentangle the web of sophistical reasoning.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00873", "bookId": 8438, "start": 361116, "end": 361495, "sha256": "05202af621e08fff01b4f0ac299ca869746cc79cb21312c3188ea52ac79a12c6", "text": "Or again, it is conceivable on this supposition that folly joined with Imperfect Self-Control may turn out, in a given case, goodness: for by reason of his imperfection of self-control a man acts in a way which contradicts his notions; now his notion is that what is really good is bad and ought not to be done; and so he will eventually do what is good and not what is bad.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00874", "bookId": 8438, "start": 361499, "end": 362201, "sha256": "16d272af24d83ca07369f61b0d32619466185593893a9a7f2f7aa8b2f25a2f83", "text": "Again, on the same supposition, the man who acting on conviction pursues and chooses things because they are pleasant must be thought a better man than he who does so not by reason of a quasi-rational conviction but of Imperfect Self-Control: because he is more open to cure by reason of the possibility of his receiving a contrary conviction. But to the man of Imperfect Self-Control would apply the proverb, “when water chokes, what should a man drink then?” for had he never been convinced at all in respect of what he does,[3] then by a conviction in a contrary direction he might have stopped in his course; but now though he has had convictions he notwithstanding acts against them.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00875", "bookId": 8438, "start": 362205, "end": 362489, "sha256": "c045d71c4e3e6b068e8efcf41db18f948ad13820780f07143fd3820b839343e6", "text": "Again, if any and every thing is the object-matter of Imperfect and Perfect Self-Control, who is the man of Imperfect Self-Control simply? because no one unites all cases of it, and we commonly say that some men are so simply, not adding any particular thing in which they are so.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00876", "bookId": 8438, "start": 362493, "end": 362736, "sha256": "77d378fd2f8aed5827c12f3d610e9eac4e743d00ff4a4739983e7f199a3bef72", "text": "Well, the difficulties raised are pretty near such as I have described them, and of these theories we must remove some and leave others as established; because the solving of a difficulty is a positive act of establishing something as true.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00877", "bookId": 8438, "start": 362740, "end": 362752, "sha256": "c8c3757d774efbadade98d84b627377e281082435aed3cf63f66253a8af48e64", "text": "Chapter III.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00878", "bookId": 8438, "start": 362756, "end": 363304, "sha256": "b786afd6ea4c55a8cc386eadac4fccd6cf82cbb2d2312bb91a57f8d3a4c66428", "text": "Now we must examine first whether men of Imperfect Self-Control act with a knowledge of what is right or not: next, if with such knowledge, in what sense; and next what are we to assume is the object-matter of the man of Imperfect Self-Control, and of the man of Self-Control; I mean, whether pleasure and pain of all kinds or certain definite ones; and as to Self-Control and Endurance, whether these are designations of the same character or different. And in like manner we must go into all questions which are connected with the present.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00879", "bookId": 8438, "start": 363308, "end": 364494, "sha256": "f3c5382e61d9b93ec026627a6886dcd46c6856a751deca13bf20aaa33317e831", "text": "But the real starting point of the enquiry is, whether the two characters of Self-Control and Imperfect Self-Control are distinguished by their object-matter, or their respective relations to it. I mean, whether the man of Imperfect Self-Control is such simply by virtue of having such and such object-matter; or not, but by virtue of his being related to it in such and such a way, or by virtue of both: next, whether Self-Control and Imperfect Self-Control are unlimited in their object-matter: because he who is designated without any addition a man of Imperfect Self-Control is not unlimited in his object-matter, but has exactly the same as the man who has lost all Self-Control: nor is he so designated because of his relation to this object-matter merely (for then his character would be identical with that just mentioned, loss of all Self-Control), but because of his relation to it being such and such. For the man who has lost all Self-Control is led on with deliberate moral choice, holding that it is his line to pursue pleasure as it rises: while the man of Imperfect Self-Control does not think that he ought to pursue it, but does pursue it all the same.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00880", "bookId": 8438, "start": 364498, "end": 365164, "sha256": "de54ec3b446c307141a14d30500c365ba306c19db95b14b3954c4858014a725c", "text": "Now as to the notion that it is True Opinion and not Knowledge in contravention of which men fail in Self-Control, it makes no difference to the point in question, because some of those who hold Opinions have no doubt about them but suppose themselves to have accurate Knowledge; if then it is urged that men holding Opinions will be more likely than men who have Knowledge to act in contravention of their conceptions, as having but a moderate belief in them; we reply, Knowledge will not differ in this respect from Opinion: because some men believe their own Opinions no less firmly than others do their positive Knowledge: Heraclitus is a case in point.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00881", "bookId": 8438, "start": 365168, "end": 365607, "sha256": "bee48b8fe2abc67abcaae2ba83a628dbec054c3cee6d35bdbd3cbecd50cd5a62", "text": "Rather the following is the account of it: the term _knowing_ has two senses; both the man who does not use his Knowledge, and he who does, are said to _know_: there will be a difference between a man’s acting wrongly, who though possessed of Knowledge does not call it into operation, and his doing so who has it and actually exercises it: the latter is a strange case, but the mere having, if not exercising, presents no anomaly.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00882", "bookId": 8438, "start": 365611, "end": 365906, "sha256": "457bfcb671fae73694ffcfa619255b0868df7eb3d84c3984ba4a974265430c30", "text": "Again, as there are two kinds of propositions affecting action,[4] universal and particular, there is no reason why a man may not act against his Knowledge, having both propositions in his mind, using the universal but not the particular, for the particulars are the objects of moral action.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00883", "bookId": 8438, "start": 365910, "end": 366566, "sha256": "f7cfc51d80b4e3fab6ce683fdeb0da5dd5681844e62c90dd2d723c975023e1ca", "text": "There is a difference also in universal propositions;[5] a universal proposition may relate partly to a man’s self and partly to the thing in question: take the following for instance; “dry food is good for every man,” this may have the two minor premisses, “this is a man,” and “so and so is dry food;” but whether a given substance is so and so a man either has not the Knowledge or does not exert it. According to these different senses there will be an immense difference, so that for a man to _know_ in the one sense, and yet act wrongly, would be nothing strange, but in any of the other senses it would be a matter for wonder.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00884", "bookId": 8438, "start": 366570, "end": 367169, "sha256": "fb204e828d71c14bafe82f77286b4d1e869b04f426b442836098175f036b5ce1", "text": "Again, men may have Knowledge in a way different from any of those which have been now stated: for we constantly see a man’s state so differing by having and not using Knowledge, that he has it in a sense and also has not; when a man is asleep, for instance, or mad, or drunk: well, men under the actual operation of passion are in exactly similar conditions; for anger, lust, and some other such-like things, manifestly make changes even in the body, and in some they even cause madness; it is plain then that we must say the men of Imperfect Self-Control are in a state similar to these.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00885", "bookId": 8438, "start": 367173, "end": 367658, "sha256": "1ef2259d8dcadb83d3b6c2bac6ebfbd718716ac48c3343dad58af3bf67b4c864", "text": "And their saying what embodies Knowledge is no proof of their actually then exercising it, because they who are under the operation of these passions repeat demonstrations; or verses of Empedocles,[6] just as children, when first learning, string words together, but as yet know nothing of their meaning, because they must grow into it, and this is a process requiring time: so that we must suppose these men who fail in Self-Control to say these moral sayings just as actors do.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00886", "bookId": 8438, "start": 367662, "end": 368188, "sha256": "6618824166aa3326985cf58463e26e7a56bbe7a03143d3f4354458322bc29121", "text": "Furthermore, a man may look at the account of the phænomenon in the following way, from an examination of the actual working of the mind: All action may be analysed into a syllogism, in which the one premiss is an universal maxim and the other concerns particulars of which Sense [moral or physical, as the case may be] is cognisant: now when one results from these two, it follows necessarily that, as far as theory goes the mind must assert the conclusion, and in practical propositions the man must act accordingly.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00887", "bookId": 8438, "start": 368192, "end": 369276, "sha256": "b757cc1419a2e5a6f948a98ecac8bca560aec9793ba27cbda4041abbe0aefa4e", "text": "For instance, let the universal be, “All that is sweet should be tasted,” the particular, “This is sweet;” it follows necessarily that he who is able and is not hindered should not only draw, but put in practice, the conclusion “This is to be tasted.” When then there is in the mind one universal proposition forbidding to taste, and the other “All that is sweet is pleasant” with its minor “This is sweet” (which is the one that really works), and desire happens to be in the man, the first universal bids him avoid this but the desire leads him on to taste; for it has the power of moving the various organs: and so it results that he fails in Self-Control, in a certain sense under the influence of Reason and Opinion not contrary in itself to Reason but only accidentally so; because it is the desire that is contrary to Right Reason, but not the Opinion:[7] and so for this reason brutes are not accounted of Imperfect Self-Control, because they have no power of conceiving universals but only of receiving and retaining particular impressions.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00888", "bookId": 8438, "start": 369280, "end": 370349, "sha256": "6840dd827b8526e378768f1c60875332a07c835950f9f64983526a755d8f9d5f", "text": "As to the manner in which the ignorance is removed and the man of Imperfect Self-Control recovers his Knowledge, the account is the same as with respect to him who is drunk or asleep, and is not peculiar to this affection, so physiologists[8] are the right people to apply to. But whereas the minor premiss of every practical syllogism is an opinion on matter cognisable by Sense and determines the actions; he who is under the influence of passion either has not this, or so has it that his having does not amount to _knowing_ but merely saying, as a man when drunk might repeat Empedocles’ verses; and because the minor term[9] is neither universal, nor is thought to have the power of producing Knowledge in like manner as the universal term: and so the result which Socrates was seeking comes out, that is to say, the affection does not take place in the presence of that which is thought to be specially and properly Knowledge, nor is this dragged about by reason of the affection, but in the presence of that Knowledge which is conveyed by Sense.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00889", "bookId": 8438, "start": 370353, "end": 370566, "sha256": "7555cbe5074e34770905464e409d2d0db829b5f59c8411879d6d1cd27f616d30", "text": "Let this account then be accepted of the question respecting the failure in Self-Control, whether it is with Knowledge, and the manner in which such failure is possible or not, though a man possesses Knowledge.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00890", "bookId": 8438, "start": 370570, "end": 370581, "sha256": "3186d98bcee8266853ace5b1a5e20557973e585ee48419d596c2b2610a3f68b2", "text": "Chapter IV.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00891", "bookId": 8438, "start": 370585, "end": 370873, "sha256": "a6e8d0345d5276fc2988c6e367bdccb0bb86e78d2db32cda65fba7669b64c1a7", "text": "The next question to be discussed is whether there is a character to be designated by the term “of Imperfect Self-Control” simply, or whether all who are so are to be accounted such, in respect of some particular thing; and, if there is such a character, what is his object-matter.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00892", "bookId": 8438, "start": 370877, "end": 371036, "sha256": "89553802d0a78171a5f9bc767a6763e7502d177b566d5f425f4770edb5380175", "text": "Now that pleasures and pains are the object-matter of men of Self-Control and of Endurance, and also of men of Imperfect Self-Control and Softness, is plain.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00893", "bookId": 8438, "start": 371040, "end": 371421, "sha256": "f570c91d8ee6f268d21ff22acf991a9623bd560ca92633bcf13addc0db105278", "text": "Further, things which produce pleasure are either necessary, or objects of choice in themselves but yet admitting of excess. All bodily things which produce pleasure are necessary; and I call such those which relate to food and other grosser appetities, in short such bodily things as we assumed were the Object-matter of absence of Self-Control and of Perfected Self-Mastery.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00894", "bookId": 8438, "start": 371425, "end": 372513, "sha256": "9e296c9609c261a75405f9f5b341999770118dc42f49db7e4a3999ae935c40ef", "text": "The other class of objects are not necessary, but objects of choice in themselves: I mean, for instance, victory, honour, wealth, and such-like good or pleasant things. And those who are excessive in their liking for such things contrary to the principle of Right Reason which is in their own breasts we do not designate men of Imperfect Self-Control simply, but with the addition of the thing wherein, as in respect of money, or gain, or honour, or anger, and not simply; because we consider them as different characters and only having that title in right of a kind of resemblance (as when we add to a man’s name “conqueror in the Olympic games” the account of him as Man differs but little from the account of him as the Man who conquered in the Olympic games, but still it is different). And a proof of the real difference between these so designated with an addition and those simply so called is this, that Imperfect Self-Control is blamed, not as an error merely but also as being a vice, either wholly or partially; but none of these other cases is so blamed.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00895", "bookId": 8438, "start": 372517, "end": 373131, "sha256": "273dea19c76cf3de7e8118c70412f3ce6690cb0cbe488f4b50e13ab394129160", "text": "But of those who have for their object-matter the bodily enjoyments, which we say are also the object-matter of the man of Perfected Self-Mastery and the man who has lost all Self-Control, he that pursues excessive pleasures and too much avoids[10] things which are painful (as hunger and thirst, heat and cold, and everything connected with touch and taste), not from moral choice but in spite of his moral choice and intellectual conviction, is termed “a man of Imperfect Self-Control,” not with the addition of any particular object-matter as we do in respect of want of control of anger but simply.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00896", "bookId": 8438, "start": 373135, "end": 374204, "sha256": "2e38d902526d663964018ce33f076bd516ad09f73bec829cd5e77772a0049e98", "text": "And a proof that the term is thus applied is that the kindred term “Soft” is used in respect of these enjoyments but not in respect of any of those others. And for this reason we put into the same rank the man of Imperfect Self-Control, the man who has lost it entirely, the man who has it, and the man of Perfected Self-Mastery; but not any of those other characters, because the former have for their object-matter the same pleasures and pains: but though they have the same object-matter, they are not related to it in the same way, but two of them act upon moral choice, two without it. And so we should say that man is more entirely given up to his passions who pursues excessive pleasures, and avoids moderate pains, being either not at all, or at least but little, urged by desire, than the man who does so because his desire is very strong: because we think what would the former be likely to do if he had the additional stimulus of youthful lust and violent pain consequent on the want of those pleasures which we have denominated necessary?", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00897", "bookId": 8438, "start": 374208, "end": 374729, "sha256": "c8f947ae415eea8ce69c7713cef1c782be8ea647065daf42cbefb006a88a92ac", "text": "Well then, since of desires and pleasures there are some which are in kind honourable and good (because things pleasant are divisible, as we said before, into such as are naturally objects of choice, such as are naturally objects of avoidance, and such as are in themselves indifferent, money, gain, honour, victory, for instance); in respect of all such and those that are indifferent, men are blamed not merely[11] for being affected by or desiring or liking them, but for exceeding in any way in these feelings.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00898", "bookId": 8438, "start": 374733, "end": 375315, "sha256": "c1638b0ec36ccd12b2fdc89340869924a5e55e740524f9cb52396c24b80ab3d2", "text": "And so they are blamed, whosoever in spite of Reason are mastered by, that is pursue, any object, though in its nature noble and good; they, for instance, who are more earnest than they should be respecting honour, or their children or parents; not but what these are good objects and men are praised for being earnest about them: but still they admit of excess; for instance, if any one, as Niobe did, should fight even against the gods, or feel towards his father as Satyrus, who got therefrom the nickname of φιλοπάτωρ, because he was thought to be very foolish.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00899", "bookId": 8438, "start": 375319, "end": 375688, "sha256": "a84b627cb2d15eb74b8081d90a96a53abf106865b10b7ce31a795fe77d9a5834", "text": "Now depravity there is none in regard of these things, for the reason assigned above, that each of them in itself is a thing naturally choice-worthy, yet the excesses in respect of them are wrong and matter for blame: and similarly there is no Imperfect Self-Control in respect of these things; that being not merely a thing that should be avoided but blameworthy.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00900", "bookId": 8438, "start": 375692, "end": 376525, "sha256": "450fa4cd11b31fe4987e7839d3056050fe186823c1a6c8f5201de6c1ea48a3ad", "text": "But because of the resemblance of the affection to the Imperfection of Self-Control the term is used with the addition in each case of the particular object-matter, just as men call a man a bad physician, or bad actor, whom they would not think of calling simply bad. As then in these cases we do not apply the term simply because each of the states is not a vice, but only like a vice in the way of analogy,[12] so it is plain that in respect of Imperfect Self-Control and Self-Control we must limit the names to those states which have the same object-matter as Perfected Self-Mastery and utter loss of Self-Control, and that we do apply it to the case of anger only in the way of resemblance: for which reason, with an addition, we designate a man of Imperfect Self-Control in respect of anger, as of honour or of gain.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00901", "bookId": 8438, "start": 376529, "end": 376539, "sha256": "89204e68d094a6a77f968119f40fec5f77d7676bf38cb1b47cd0ab87d3d2fea2", "text": "Chapter V.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00902", "bookId": 8438, "start": 376543, "end": 377032, "sha256": "6b71fde8064572809a5c5850fbb68a045d18066c10b0602612c3ad6267f2c2c2", "text": "As there are some things naturally pleasant, and of these two kinds; those, namely, which are pleasant generally, and those which are so relatively to particular kinds of animals and men; so there are others which are not naturally pleasant but which come to be so in consequence either of maimings, or custom, or depraved natural tastes: and one may observe moral states similar to those we have been speaking of, having respectively these classes of things for their object-matter.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00903", "bookId": 8438, "start": 377036, "end": 377893, "sha256": "9d0898c5b9cf10bebf3fadb76141cc367f04d8c9c6425e4b2e4ea096dab48afb", "text": "I mean the Brutish, as in the case of the female who, they say, would rip up women with child and eat the foetus; or the tastes which are found among the savage tribes bordering on the Pontus, some liking raw flesh, and some being cannibals, and some lending one another their children to make feasts of; or what is said of Phalaris. These are instances of Brutish states, caused in some by disease or madness; take, for instance, the man who sacrificed and ate his mother, or him who devoured the liver of his fellow-servant. Instances again of those caused by disease or by custom, would be, plucking out of hair, or eating one’s nails, or eating coals and earth.[13] Now wherever nature is really the cause no one would think of calling men of Imperfect Self-Control, ... nor, in like manner, such as are in a diseased state through custom.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00904", "bookId": 8438, "start": 377897, "end": 378875, "sha256": "3d882cfc097b6ae3abc56700882f2e831831f9d91801aa588605f5e861f59b48", "text": "The having any of these inclinations is something foreign to what is denominated Vice, just as Brutishness is: and when a man has them his mastering them is not properly Self-Control, nor his being mastered by them Imperfection of Self-Control in the proper sense, but only in the way of resemblance; just as we may say a man of ungovernable wrath fails of Self-Control in respect of anger but not simply fails of Self-Control. For all excessive folly, cowardice, absence of Self-Control, or irritability, are either Brutish or morbid. The man, for instance, who is naturally afraid of all things, even if a mouse should stir, is cowardly after a Brutish sort; there was a man again who, by reason of disease, was afraid of a cat: and of the fools, they who are naturally destitute of Reason and live only by Sense are Brutish, as are some tribes of the far-off barbarians, while others who are so by reason of diseases, epileptic or frantic, are in morbid states.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00905", "bookId": 8438, "start": 378879, "end": 379489, "sha256": "f1ba43c44183aeccc0d8eef2ad5044e88eb3fc7bfc798397d3054a7767a97c74", "text": "So then, of these inclinations, a man may sometimes merely have one without yielding to it: I mean, suppose that Phalaris had restrained his unnatural desire to eat a child: or he may both have and yield to it. As then Vice when such as belongs to human nature is called Vice simply, while the other is so called with the addition of “brutish” or “morbid,” but not simply Vice, so manifestly there is Brutish and Morbid Imperfection of Self-Control, but that alone is entitled to the name without any qualification which is of the nature of utter absence of Self-Control, as it is found in Man.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00906", "bookId": 8438, "start": 379493, "end": 379504, "sha256": "bb240dadd686b141825e647280d2d4b72d5f6bbd0f26d00f1faf792e029c0892", "text": "Chapter VI.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00907", "bookId": 8438, "start": 379508, "end": 379940, "sha256": "ff9b7cda64091653966a883c08c7f0e33ce69ee38195b0922a12e81b04a7b0e0", "text": "It is plain then that the object-matter of Imperfect Self-Control and Self-Control is restricted to the same as that of utter absence of Self-Control and that of Perfected Self-Mastery, and that the rest is the object-matter of a different species so named metaphorically and not simply: we will now examine the position, “that Imperfect Self-Control in respect of Anger is less disgraceful than that in respect of Lusts.”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00908", "bookId": 8438, "start": 379944, "end": 380945, "sha256": "d2fa2b87f69f9edb2717d52f2f80aef05723b0c9285c995c52716e7be6c94d61", "text": "In the first place, it seems that Anger does in a way listen to Reason but mishears it; as quick servants who run out before they have heard the whole of what is said and then mistake the order; dogs, again, bark at the slightest stir, before they have seen whether it be friend or foe; just so Anger, by reason of its natural heat and quickness, listening to Reason, but without having heard the command of Reason, rushes to its revenge. That is to say, Reason or some impression on the mind shows there is insolence or contempt[14] in the offender, and then Anger, reasoning as it were that one ought to fight against what is such, fires up immediately: whereas Lust, if Reason or Sense, as the case may be, merely says a thing is sweet, rushes to the enjoyment of it: and so Anger follows Reason in a manner, but Lust does not and is therefore more disgraceful: because he that cannot control his anger yields in a manner to Reason, but the other to his Lust and not to Reason at all.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00909", "bookId": 8438, "start": 380949, "end": 381672, "sha256": "1532a3e6e69aab46482c46f65f334ac85bc16a9ed255b3ad7203c75bfffdb690", "text": "Again, a man is more excusable for following such desires as are natural, just as he is for following such Lusts as are common to all and to that degree in which they are common. Now Anger and irritability are more natural than Lusts when in excess and for objects not necessary. (This was the ground of the defence the man made who beat his father, “My father,” he said, “used to beat his, and his father his again, and this little fellow here,” pointing to his child, “will beat me when he is grown a man: it runs in the family.” And the father, as he was being dragged along, bid his son leave off beating him at the door, because he had himself been used to drag his father so far and no farther.)", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00910", "bookId": 8438, "start": 381676, "end": 381862, "sha256": "38f887056d3fa47d2d02b2b76b51eebb7436d1cb0934dfd1a7354a9ac18510c9", "text": "Again, characters are less unjust in proportion as they involve less insidiousness. Now the Angry man is not insidious, nor is Anger, but quite open: but Lust is: as they say of Venus,", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00911", "bookId": 8438, "start": 381866, "end": 381912, "sha256": "ebee696a04d5751159db618ee24af7794ee06c9bede36646740a6b5afb1ef2b9", "text": "“Cyprus-born Goddess, _weaver of deceits_”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00912", "bookId": 8438, "start": 381918, "end": 381959, "sha256": "956363d44816ddf688eabf048df1afa937df0952026e94ba097f93bdc1b3ddd7", "text": "Or Homer of the girdle called the Cestus,", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00913", "bookId": 8438, "start": 381963, "end": 382020, "sha256": "2bf32d69ba7e7a96b317fc03084d500e8023c343f6e58f8b68fc082b1286e11e", "text": "“Persuasiveness _cheating_ e’en the subtlest mind.”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00914", "bookId": 8438, "start": 382026, "end": 382218, "sha256": "16957ac11c12587e863c98783b7dca1946e265b80d0f9a00022a17afc678c8ec", "text": "And so since this kind of Imperfect Self-Control is more unjust, it is also more disgraceful than that in respect of Anger, and is simply Imperfect Self-Control, and Vice in a certain sense.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00915", "bookId": 8438, "start": 382222, "end": 382590, "sha256": "7d7c6ee378cba22ae53c3985bc25b1e7494d25f78d7e4924e29e9530ae351915", "text": "Again, no man feels pain in being insolent, but every one who acts through Anger does act with pain; and he who acts insolently does it with pleasure. If then those things are most unjust with which we have most right to be angry, then Imperfect Self-Control, arising from Lust, is more so than that arising from Anger: because in Anger there is no insolence.[15]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00916", "bookId": 8438, "start": 382594, "end": 383055, "sha256": "792c873a846c031b07142f19d5ec41e2780c83a722cd429a97ea7cda9e895648", "text": "Well then, it is clear that Imperfect Self-Control in respect of Lusts is more disgraceful than that in respect of Anger, and that the object-matter of Self-Control, and the Imperfection of it, are bodily Lusts and pleasures; but of these last we must take into account the differences; for, as was said at the commencement, some are proper to the human race and natural both in kind and degree, others Brutish, and others caused by maimings and diseases.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00917", "bookId": 8438, "start": 383059, "end": 383525, "sha256": "c7ae18cc1cc1cf56468d43ac8446bdf72b0e0e434c711716e94088b7ee95d6f4", "text": "Now the first of these only are the object-matter of Perfected Self-Mastery and utter absence of Self-Control; and therefore we never attribute either of these states to Brutes (except metaphorically, and whenever any one kind of animal differs entirely from another in insolence, mischievousness, or voracity), because they have not moral choice or process of deliberation, but are quite different from that kind of creature just as are madmen from other men.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00918", "bookId": 8438, "start": 383529, "end": 383746, "sha256": "8dd79e0d93181b2682761fec9f6b94e21f699467ad6cc7336f328d6d7e63646d", "text": "Brutishness is not so low in the scale as Vice, yet it is to be regarded with more fear: because it is not that the highest principle has been corrupted, as in the human creature, but the subject has it not at all.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00919", "bookId": 8438, "start": 383750, "end": 384190, "sha256": "367a159e42cf5272a83ce6d87c3b6e6f569ca5822c3246a37194210b2d0fac64", "text": "It is much the same, therefore, as if one should compare an inanimate with an animate being, which were the worse: for the badness of that which has no principle of origination is always less harmful; now Intellect is a principle of origination. A similar case would be the comparing injustice and an unjust man together: for in different ways each is the worst: a bad man would produce ten thousand times as much harm as a bad brute.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00920", "bookId": 8438, "start": 384194, "end": 384206, "sha256": "e3a88405865f388fd2bbf6c4cfc5874d7991e8951df2fcbc0435b1fbb2f839f3", "text": "Chapter VII.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00921", "bookId": 8438, "start": 384210, "end": 384940, "sha256": "9de6c2e4ecea1e867cb4ef1e2437c0f63a8491b7c6939ba0b33ab96834b976e0", "text": "Now with respect to the pleasures and pains which come to a man through Touch and Taste, and the desiring or avoiding such (which we determined before to constitute the object-matter of the states of utter absence of Self-Control and Perfected Self-Mastery), one may be so disposed as to yield to temptations to which most men would be superior, or to be superior to those to which most men would yield: in respect of pleasures, these characters will be respectively the man of Imperfect Self-Control, and the man of Self-Control; and, in respect of pains, the man of Softness and the man of Endurance: but the moral state of most men is something between the two, even though they lean somewhat to the worse characters.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00922", "bookId": 8438, "start": 384944, "end": 385726, "sha256": "491fd647780bca5d9c8240f327d5b027430aabac9f4b0052a8c2ca9a4f8aff34", "text": "Again, since of the pleasures indicated some are necessary and some are not, others are so to a certain degree but not the excess or defect of them, and similarly also of Lusts and pains, the man who pursues the excess of pleasant things, or such as are in themselves excess, or from moral choice, for their own sake, and not for anything else which is to result from them, is a man utterly void of Self-Control: for he must be incapable of remorse, and so incurable, because he that has not remorse is incurable. (He that has too little love of pleasure is the opposite character, and the man of Perfected Self-Mastery the mean character.) He is of a similar character who avoids the bodily pains, not because he _cannot_, but because he _chooses not to_, withstand them.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00923", "bookId": 8438, "start": 385730, "end": 386629, "sha256": "05de8e2a64b3f1d003ffe175272270f21d73c1cdbfa44e708bafc663fa3dcf83", "text": "But of the characters who go wrong without _choosing_ so to do, the one is led on by reason of pleasure, the other because he avoids the pain it would cost him to deny his lust; and so they are different the one from the other. Now every one would pronounce a man worse for doing something base without any impulse of desire, or with a very slight one, than for doing the same from the impulse of a very strong desire; for striking a man when not angry than if he did so in wrath: because one naturally says, “What would he have done had he been under the influence of passion?” (and on this ground, by the bye, the man utterly void of Self-Control is worse than he who has it imperfectly). However, of the two characters which have been mentioned,[16] [as included in that of utter absence of Self-Control], the one is rather Softness, the other properly the man of no Self-Control.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00924", "bookId": 8438, "start": 386633, "end": 387018, "sha256": "9cad0b6c79c3c89ab1c91ed873de3045f30740c5d46edd37c0af9f41c81d584b", "text": "Furthermore, to the character of Imperfect Self-Control is opposed that of Self-Control, and to that of Softness that of Endurance: because Endurance consists in continued resistance but Self-Control in actual mastery, and continued resistance and actual mastery are as different as not being conquered is from conquering; and so Self-Control is more choice-worthy than Endurance.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00925", "bookId": 8438, "start": 387022, "end": 388219, "sha256": "1537fb4b837ac44a587f2f5c1002615a4f7593918c45076ed0a5ac2b0cc0b476", "text": "Again, he who fails when exposed to those temptations against which the common run of men hold out, and are well able to do so, is Soft and Luxurious (Luxury being a kind of Softness): the kind of man, I mean, to let his robe drag in the dirt to avoid the trouble of lifting it, and who, aping the sick man, does not however suppose himself wretched though he is like a wretched man. So it is too with respect to Self-Control and the Imperfection of it: if a man yields to pleasures or pains which are violent and excessive it is no matter for wonder, but rather for allowance if he made what resistance he could (instances are, Philoctetes in Theodectes’ drama when wounded by the viper; or Cercyon in the Alope of Carcinus, or men who in trying to suppress laughter burst into a loud continuous fit of it, as happened, you remember, to Xenophantus), but it is a matter for wonder when a man yields to and cannot contend against those pleasures or pains which the common herd are able to resist; always supposing his failure not to be owing to natural constitution or disease, I mean, as the Scythian kings are constitutionally Soft, or the natural difference between the sexes.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00926", "bookId": 8438, "start": 388223, "end": 388498, "sha256": "87dd0446939ea06877ef1f31c9c370da2625ce8134a0c8698fc3c0b48a683919", "text": "Again, the man who is a slave to amusement is commonly thought to be destitute of Self-Control, but he really is Soft; because amusement is an act of relaxing, being an act of resting, and the character in question is one of those who exceed due bounds in respect of this.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00927", "bookId": 8438, "start": 388502, "end": 389431, "sha256": "c48f5cdcade7c3656680599f70ef214debafcc531c4a015d7fed3a9ac81b9176", "text": "Moreover of Imperfect Self-Control there are two forms, Precipitancy and Weakness: those who have it in the latter form though they have made resolutions do not abide by them by reason of passion; the others are led by passion because they have never formed any resolutions at all: while there are some who, like those who by tickling themselves beforehand get rid of ticklishness, having felt and seen beforehand the approach of temptation, and roused up themselves and their resolution, yield not to passion; whether the temptation be somewhat pleasant or somewhat painful. The Precipitate form of Imperfect Self-Control they are most liable to who are constitutionally of a sharp or melancholy temperament: because the one by reason of the swiftness, the other by reason of the violence, of their passions, do not wait for Reason, because they are disposed to follow whatever notion is impressed upon their minds.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00928", "bookId": 8438, "start": 389435, "end": 390118, "sha256": "7323e5d8afb68038cb01eabbf4dc0fbf1d0e8c9b673d0b30f5882325f027c7e0", "text": "Again, the man utterly destitute of Self-Control, as was observed before, is not given to remorse: for it is part of his character that he abides by his moral choice: but the man of Imperfect Self-Control is almost made up of remorse: and so the case is not as we determined it before, but the former is incurable and the latter may be cured: for depravity is like chronic diseases, dropsy and consumption for instance, but Imperfect Self-Control is like acute disorders: the former being a continuous evil, the latter not so. And, in fact, Imperfect Self-Control and Confirmed Vice are different in kind: the latter being imperceptible to its victim, the former not so.[17]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00929", "bookId": 8438, "start": 390122, "end": 390555, "sha256": "36d95f03861e2a164e4cd5fcac1db5a47ba723b007e2ab3d06ec1c5e2aab64e9", "text": "But, of the different forms of Imperfect Self-Control, those are better who are carried off their feet by a sudden access of temptation than they who have Reason but do not abide by it; these last being overcome by passion less in degree, and not wholly without premeditation as are the others: for the man of Imperfect Self-Control is like those who are soon intoxicated and by little wine and less than the common run of men.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00930", "bookId": 8438, "start": 390559, "end": 391049, "sha256": "fb6bb669a30806c64c44f44f56eeb5ea1cb1dd1925960ccddf21b9602cb3b561", "text": "Well then, that Imperfection of Self-Control is not Confirmed Viciousness is plain: and yet perhaps it is such in a way, because in one sense it is contrary to moral choice and in another the result of it:[18] at all events, in respect of the actions, the case is much like what Demodocus said of the Miletians. “The people of Miletus are not fools, but they do just the kind of things that fools do;” and so they of Imperfect Self-Control are not unjust, but they do unjust acts.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00931", "bookId": 8438, "start": 391053, "end": 392017, "sha256": "d110b44cc4fa3aac0cb6bce40a279a8630226e0919c8238b56b11ccfd81c38cb", "text": "But to resume. Since the man of Imperfect Self-Control is of such a character as to follow bodily pleasures in excess and in defiance of Right Reason, without acting on any deliberate conviction, whereas the man utterly destitute of Self-Control does act upon a conviction which rests on his natural inclination to follow after these pleasures; the former may be easily persuaded to a different course, but the latter not: for Virtue and Vice respectively preserve and corrupt the moral principle; now the motive is the principle or starting point in moral actions, just as axioms and postulates are in mathematics: and neither in morals nor mathematics is it Reason which is apt to teach the principle; but Excellence, either natural or acquired by custom, in holding right notions with respect to the principle. He who does this in morals is the man of Perfected Self-Mastery, and the contrary character is the man utterly destitute of Self-Control.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00932", "bookId": 8438, "start": 392021, "end": 392730, "sha256": "c3db44ac97a07c39a61736f6f1032ff926aa3ceb759dc01c68aa11b7b63078d1", "text": "Again, there is a character liable to be taken off his feet in defiance of Right Reason because of passion; whom passion so far masters as to prevent his acting in accordance with Right Reason, but not so far as to make him be convinced that it is his proper line to follow after such pleasures without limit: this character is the man of Imperfect Self- Control, better than he who is utterly destitute of it, and not a bad man simply and without qualification: because in him the highest and best part, i.e. principle, is preserved: and there is another character opposed to him who is apt to abide by his resolutions, and not to depart from them; at all events, not at the instigation of passion.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00933", "bookId": 8438, "start": 392734, "end": 392840, "sha256": "972adb12b385bc956baa9a92c76196f9847d1c498b1794f6b161873898ec6da9", "text": "It is evident then from all this, that Self-Control is a good state and the Imperfection of it a bad one.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00934", "bookId": 8438, "start": 392844, "end": 392857, "sha256": "d004d8c3a629800899066ec30aebdc9b11ed7932971144d5b44dd4b9f1c6f736", "text": "Chapter VIII.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00935", "bookId": 8438, "start": 392861, "end": 393261, "sha256": "04e0ef1f59d97c60bfcc2736a93d78b2f4fbc1a071e9fd63a1bbecba9b20a343", "text": "Next comes the question, whether a man is a man of Self-Control for abiding by his conclusions and moral choice be they of what kind they may, or only by the right one; or again, a man of Imperfect Self-Control for not abiding by his conclusions and moral choice be they of whatever kind; or, to put the case we did before, is he such for not abiding by false conclusions and wrong moral choice?", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00936", "bookId": 8438, "start": 393265, "end": 393933, "sha256": "c95918366078a431a4757e34b99f826cfe6378681c65e265dd5da9a1ffdd155a", "text": "Is not this the truth, that _incidentally_ it is by conclusions and moral choice of any kind that the one character abides and the other does not, but _per se_ true conclusions and right moral choice:[19] to explain what is meant by incidentally, and _per se_; suppose a man chooses or pursues this thing for the sake of that, he is said to pursue and choose that _per se_, but this only incidentally. For the term _per se_ we use commonly the word “simply,” and so, in a way, it is opinion of any kind soever by which the two characters respectively abide or not, but he is “simply” entitled to the designations who abides or not by the true opinion.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00937", "bookId": 8438, "start": 393937, "end": 394996, "sha256": "c2b9b92f1788abd979f1a74be3c63cb99e834b04505bcb14d7ed63ce8b7c25e4", "text": "There are also people, who have a trick of abiding by their, own opinions, who are commonly called Positive, as they who are hard to be persuaded, and whose convictions are not easily changed: now these people bear some resemblance to the character of Self-Control, just as the prodigal to the liberal or the rash man to the brave, but they are different in many points. The man of Self-Control does not change by reason of passion and lust, yet when occasion so requires he will be easy of persuasion: but the Positive man changes not at the call of Reason, though many of this class take up certain desires and are led by their pleasures. Among the class of Positive are the Opinionated, the Ignorant, and the Bearish: the first, from the motives of pleasure and pain: I mean, they have the pleasurable feeling of a kind of victory in not having their convictions changed, and they are pained when their decrees, so to speak, are reversed: so that, in fact, they rather resemble the man of Imperfect Self-Control than the man of Self-Control.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00938", "bookId": 8438, "start": 395000, "end": 395376, "sha256": "792543994c2e479767c138de50872ff4712310889bb89435beadd8a93626ff1b", "text": "Again, there are some who depart from their resolutions not by reason of any Imperfection of Self-Control; take, for instance, Neoptolemus in the Philoctetes of Sophocles. Here certainly pleasure was the motive of his departure from his resolution, but then it was one of a noble sort: for to be truthful was noble in his eyes and he had been persuaded by Ulysses to lie.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00939", "bookId": 8438, "start": 395380, "end": 395574, "sha256": "a46e53b9b6327a967a64b078cc773956688eddd7f0a104a63b82dc36fa5590e4", "text": "So it is not every one who acts from the motive of pleasure who is utterly destitute of Self-Control or base or of Imperfect Self-Control, only he who acts from the impulse of a base pleasure.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00940", "bookId": 8438, "start": 395578, "end": 395589, "sha256": "592ec521344802b54bcc4f362dcb57feb55da0d05682ea5774b06c9cd5ee0ce4", "text": "Chapter IX.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00941", "bookId": 8438, "start": 395593, "end": 396079, "sha256": "a2e2c6acdccc679c54de4899c3d90092278dd1070316cc30bacc1866b0104a91", "text": "Moreover as there is a character who takes less pleasure than he ought in bodily enjoyments, and he also fails to abide by the conclusion of his Reason,[20] the man of Self-Control is the mean between him and the man of Imperfect Self-Control: that is to say, the latter fails to abide by them because of somewhat too much, the former because of somewhat too little; while the man of Self-Control abides by them, and never changes by reason of anything else than such conclusions.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00942", "bookId": 8438, "start": 396083, "end": 396440, "sha256": "926b938a0ae121aa959ba9c8073adbb6c6f0e21c095ba3570d0309b65045071a", "text": "Now of course since Self-Control is good both the contrary States must be bad, as indeed they plainly are: but because the one of them is seen in few persons, and but rarely in them, Self-Control comes to be viewed as if opposed only to the Imperfection of it, just as Perfected Self-Mastery is thought to be opposed only to utter want of Self-Control.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00943", "bookId": 8438, "start": 396444, "end": 396964, "sha256": "dfefcb2595888fa3b729e70d89a107a3373d4d82b84bc3635cad3639f61297ef", "text": "Again, as many terms are used in the way of similitude, so people have come to talk of the Self-Control of the man of Perfected Self-Mastery in the way of similitude: for the man of Self-Control and the man of Perfected Self-Mastery have this in common, that they do nothing against Right Reason on the impulse of bodily pleasures, but then the former has bad desires, the latter not; and the latter is so constituted as not even to feel pleasure contrary to his Reason, the former feels but does not yield to it.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00944", "bookId": 8438, "start": 396968, "end": 397226, "sha256": "42a79d2bae46fac8752fa33655f656759cb8f75a2df2beacbb2fbbe334b72812", "text": "Like again are the man of Imperfect Self-Control and he who is utterly destitute of it, though in reality distinct: both follow bodily pleasures, but the latter under a notion that it is the proper line for him to take, his former without any such notion.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00945", "bookId": 8438, "start": 397230, "end": 398029, "sha256": "487218accf156ee25ab6cbb6d46bdb4331ea616bb6797a5411734b2228bd1900", "text": "And it is not possible for the same man to be at once a man of Practical Wisdom and of Imperfect Self-Control: because the character of Practical Wisdom includes, as we showed before, goodness of moral character. And again, it is not knowledge merely, but aptitude for action, which constitutes Practical Wisdom: and of this aptitude the man of Imperfect Self-Control is destitute. But there is no reason why the Clever man should not be of Imperfect Self-Control: and the reason why some men are occasionally thought to be men of Practical Wisdom, and yet of Imperfect Self-Control, is this, that Cleverness differs from Practical Wisdom in the way I stated in a former book, and is very near it so far as the intellectual element is concerned but differs in respect of the moral choice.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00946", "bookId": 8438, "start": 398033, "end": 398683, "sha256": "e7b70b6a6722ef753f076bd34ee18eb1fd1a8c4176fbaf4832b69a2d88752d08", "text": "Nor is the man of Imperfect Self-Control like the man who both has and calls into exercise his knowledge, but like the man who, having it, is overpowered by sleep or wine. Again, he acts voluntarily (because he knows, in a certain sense, what he does and the result of it), but he is not a confirmed bad man, for his moral choice is good, so he is at all events only half bad. Nor is he unjust, because he does not act with deliberate intent: for of the two chief forms of the character, the one is not apt to abide by his deliberate resolutions, and the other, the man of constitutional strength of passion, is not apt to deliberate at all.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00947", "bookId": 8438, "start": 398687, "end": 398876, "sha256": "8293ddcd9b24380be8ac07b237b1458f9ae5ca52adc63383416a41880c19a8d1", "text": "So in fact the man of Imperfect Self-Control is like a community which makes all proper enactments, and has admirable laws, only does not act on them, verifying the scoff of Anaxandrides,", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00948", "bookId": 8438, "start": 398880, "end": 398938, "sha256": "88f26d08dd71cb723a73a1ccb9eacd3071ec5453695be608bbbd6db720fa18ff", "text": "“That State did will it, which cares nought for laws;”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00949", "bookId": 8438, "start": 398944, "end": 399044, "sha256": "f5ae3ae42c30804e220ebef9aa3703cd5102d5f1bf62ec6010d87bbfa5b17cf7", "text": "whereas the bad man is like one which acts upon its laws, but then unfortunately they are bad ones.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00950", "bookId": 8438, "start": 399048, "end": 399265, "sha256": "c4e4501a6dc20914e4629f3d2a19ab7f599476faea501e111dbf448412166cd2", "text": "Imperfection of Self-Control and Self-Control, after all, are above the average state of men; because he of the latter character is more true to his Reason, and the former less so, than is in the power of most men.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00951", "bookId": 8438, "start": 399269, "end": 399713, "sha256": "37a40065a42c3b79b387a2a5ddcaaccea605471eab9afb202d081a9d05b6c53a", "text": "Again, of the two forms of Imperfect Self-Control that is more easily cured which they have who are constitutionally of strong passions, than that of those who form resolutions and break them; and they that are so through habituation than they that are so naturally; since of course custom is easier to change than nature, because the very resemblance of custom to nature is what constitutes the difficulty of changing it; as Evenus says,", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00952", "bookId": 8438, "start": 399717, "end": 399806, "sha256": "0a62a64caeed23f3b53c4c190d06e375570694c96e26aa302e2c18d647e4f2c8", "text": "“Practice, I say, my friend, doth long endure, And at the last is even very nature.”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00953", "bookId": 8438, "start": 399812, "end": 399970, "sha256": "1404c2dcba4b9f8c52beb4fee9cc27c3bdfc6e2fd884c2a31dc97fc6d08f5c88", "text": "We have now said then what Self-Control is, what Imperfection of Self-Control, what Endurance, and what Softness, and how these states are mutually related.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00954", "bookId": 8438, "start": 399974, "end": 400023, "sha256": "5297239ecfd67fa3bc8599cde664b72937b156ab9ce6c119e4351fb0da344259", "text": "APPENDIX. Book VII. Chapters 12 to 15. (Bekker.)", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00955", "bookId": 8438, "start": 400027, "end": 400251, "sha256": "8ce9e5b6d391694abbbc4518aa0d63ed6e5e2b9758b204071adfd73bd5543258", "text": "To consider the subject of Pleasure and Pain falls within the province of the Social-Science Philosopher, since he it is who has to fix the Master-End which is to guide us in dominating any object absolutely evil or good.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00956", "bookId": 8438, "start": 400255, "end": 400640, "sha256": "7589f8d93be842101790c974becc6f2a94a3a9846c547f07e91d7363e1422123", "text": "But we may say more: an enquiry into their nature is absolutely necessary. First, because we maintained that Moral Virtue and Moral Vice are both concerned with Pains and Pleasures: next, because the greater part of mankind assert that Happiness must include Pleasure (which by the way accounts for the word they use, μακάριος; χαίρειν being the root of that word).", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00957", "bookId": 8438, "start": 400644, "end": 400958, "sha256": "6ae2577471e4e01922f6cf74e9efea349aaabadf90a2992aad63d74aedfb0576", "text": "Now some hold that no one Pleasure is good, either in itself or as a matter of result, because Good and Pleasure are not identical. Others that some Pleasures are good but the greater number bad. There is yet a third view; granting that every Pleasure is good, still the Chief Good cannot possibly be Pleasure.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00958", "bookId": 8438, "start": 400962, "end": 401048, "sha256": "853fb5aee534f6276cc5b97f52e6c13bdf3048541741cff3cfff7e597bafee65", "text": "In support of the first opinion (that Pleasure is utterly not-good) it is urged that:", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00959", "bookId": 8438, "start": 401052, "end": 401228, "sha256": "942e7b44715ebcd7490251a0ebf9980655918dff170cadf7e1bb1786a1683cec", "text": "1. Every Pleasure is a sensible process towards a complete state; but no such process is akin to the end to be attained: _e.g._ no process of building to the completed house.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00960", "bookId": 8438, "start": 401232, "end": 401286, "sha256": "1ae43f191db32572aa4389fd1b0c728eccf4086c6424e56932c5a4176e52cb1e", "text": "2. The man of Perfected Self-Mastery avoids Pleasures.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00961", "bookId": 8438, "start": 401290, "end": 401371, "sha256": "315217befb1859ea1e551b22c3b1fe780791bb469f933d1a78a31fb532df0528", "text": "3. The man of Practical Wisdom aims at avoiding Pain, not at attaining Pleasure.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00962", "bookId": 8438, "start": 401375, "end": 401505, "sha256": "a9c78ef7b5d491629a246948cd711838ec299ee1031c6d693608919df4146ca1", "text": "4. Pleasures are an impediment to thought, and the more so the more keenly they are felt. An obvious instance will readily occur.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00963", "bookId": 8438, "start": 401509, "end": 401598, "sha256": "0ed384220ce031ed38417267b8a077ffbeb336f73e8cc60e2f1b580f927c03c9", "text": "5. Pleasure cannot be referred to any Art: and yet every good is the result of some Art.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00964", "bookId": 8438, "start": 401602, "end": 401642, "sha256": "873d037ddee4b8f5473a8a8dae12736c33d57612afaa676669665b96cbb33629", "text": "6. Children and brutes pursue Pleasures.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00965", "bookId": 8438, "start": 401646, "end": 401834, "sha256": "d8c43676d63c5dbc1c6a8ba0d4ab13aa9d9fb42cdab92588fedfc2eb21eb3e68", "text": "In support of the second (that not all Pleasures are good), That there are some base and matter of reproach, and some even hurtful: because some things that are pleasant produce disease.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00966", "bookId": 8438, "start": 401838, "end": 401962, "sha256": "db20700feaa6e448eb5540cb7ff9fb36761a62c1b5a607bbcb2cfb355f9f7492", "text": "In support of the third (that Pleasure is not the Chief Good), That it is not an End but a process towards creating an End.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00967", "bookId": 8438, "start": 401966, "end": 402030, "sha256": "4aa926cc45fcf62f249539b3ec920a92b3cc329a07612e373f921df6ba3da87c", "text": "This is, I think, a fair account of current views on the matter.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00968", "bookId": 8438, "start": 402034, "end": 402163, "sha256": "e839f910dee10b501ab3b651193ff38e68eb6d3fada1a04716a38c55ff42a4d8", "text": "But that the reasons alleged do not prove it either to be not-good or the Chief Good is plain from the following considerations.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00969", "bookId": 8438, "start": 402167, "end": 402607, "sha256": "bed6ab55c5f06429c4bc03329e14846a89ba35f6033bd91bafc4537397c3f5f7", "text": "First. Good being either absolute or relative, of course the natures and states embodying it will be so too; therefore also the movements and the processes of creation. So, of those which are thought to be bad some will be bad absolutely, but relatively not bad, perhaps even choice-worthy; some not even choice-worthy relatively to any particular person, only at certain times or for a short time but not in themselves choice-worthy.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00970", "bookId": 8438, "start": 402611, "end": 402797, "sha256": "d4d500d9bc547b2110f51927f1606207dc4cb724ce183b60ea8271c176395ddc", "text": "Others again are not even Pleasures at all though they produce that impression on the mind: all such I mean as imply pain and whose purpose is cure; those of sick people, for instance.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00971", "bookId": 8438, "start": 402801, "end": 403330, "sha256": "cd035f1c94333cb54ee25dedc6db89bc9fabd6d6e29397af8405c744d83e2158", "text": "Next, since Good may be either an active working or a state, those [κινήσεις or γενέσεις] which tend to place us in our natural state are pleasant incidentally because of that tendency: but the active working is really in the desires excited in the remaining (sound) part of our state or nature: for there are Pleasures which have no connection with pain or desire: the acts of contemplative intellect, for instance, in which case there is no deficiency in the nature or state of him who performs the acts.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00972", "bookId": 8438, "start": 403334, "end": 403960, "sha256": "56caad1f5ced85b01228ace84f7651cc1524ac8e1ef465704608009674b2c6c2", "text": "A proof of this is that the same pleasant thing does not produce the sensation of Pleasure when the natural state is being filled up or completed as when it is already in its normal condition: in this latter case what give the sensation are things pleasant _per se_, in the former even those things which are contrary. I mean, you find people taking pleasure in sharp or bitter things of which no one is naturally or in itself pleasant; of course not therefore the Pleasures arising from them, because it is obvious that as is the classification of pleasant things such must be that of the Pleasures arising from them.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00973", "bookId": 8438, "start": 403964, "end": 404536, "sha256": "d308f4281237066aa70027f3c5247201e1b2e84a3ea44865762dfa15e1ba9e7f", "text": "Next, it does not follow that there must be something else better than any given pleasure because (as some say) the End must be better than the process which creates it. For it is not true that all Pleasures are processes or even attended by any process, but (some are) active workings or even Ends: in fact they result not from our coming to be something but from our using our powers. Again, it is not true that the End is, in every case, distinct from the process: it is true only in the case of such processes as conduce to the perfecting of the natural state.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00974", "bookId": 8438, "start": 404540, "end": 404952, "sha256": "4d74615c3172f0f65126882a95ec96a26826efc2de37d6175fd5ae59c2c09397", "text": "For which reason it is wrong to say that Pleasure is “a sensible process of production.” For “process etc.” should be substituted “active working of the natural state,” for “sensible” “unimpeded.” The reason of its being thought to be a “process etc.” is that it is good in the highest sense: people confusing “active working” and “process,” whereas they really are distinct.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00975", "bookId": 8438, "start": 404956, "end": 405570, "sha256": "2270ecf193b1f157e3be0d875be9173423fa7bf63ebb99ffd44948726bdf68e6", "text": "Next, as to the argument that there are bad Pleasures because some things which are pleasant are also hurtful to health, it is the same as saying that some healthful things are bad for “business.” In this sense, of course, both may be said to be bad, but then this does not make them out to be bad _simpliciter_: the exercise of the pure Intellect sometimes hurts a man’s health: but what hinders Practical Wisdom or any state whatever is, not the Pleasure peculiar to, but some Pleasure foreign to it: the Pleasures arising from the exercise of the pure Intellect or from learning only promote each.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00976", "bookId": 8438, "start": 405574, "end": 405804, "sha256": "11f33920da50d6852bd869c29b44dec537cbbe9a0bfe92e30afaf09252253c26", "text": "Next. “No Pleasure is the work of any Art.” What else would you expect? No active working is the work of any Art, only the faculty of so working. Still the perfumer’s Art or the cook’s are thought to belong to Pleasure.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00977", "bookId": 8438, "start": 405808, "end": 405964, "sha256": "65d4625b553eb3ba0a5f6d73cce0c0e0966a620261f05209d37fe05980a8b32a", "text": "Next. “The man of Perfected Self-Mastery avoids Pleasures.” “The man of Practical Wisdom aims at escaping Pain rather than at attaining Pleasure.”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00978", "bookId": 8438, "start": 405968, "end": 406011, "sha256": "1307613452befe2c03a190635380e07b28f3bb87f9a6c7e334fbfbb89b1961b5", "text": "“Children and brutes pursue Pleasures.”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00979", "bookId": 8438, "start": 406015, "end": 406042, "sha256": "b295401a639d153cac069a54be6a66026813ba1005dfd2f682061530e5e8e8ee", "text": "One answer will do for all.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00980", "bookId": 8438, "start": 406046, "end": 406691, "sha256": "e396d3055a4d4ec78395f2669a14b92b5ab47a34ed40378460a8106328aaaa6a", "text": "We have already said in what sense all Pleasures are good _per se_ and in what sense not all are good: it is the latter class that brutes and children pursue, such as are accompanied by desire and pain, that is the bodily Pleasures (which answer to this description) and the excesses of them: in short, those in respect of which the man utterly destitute of Self-Control is thus utterly destitute. And it is the absence of the pain arising from these Pleasures that the man of Practical Wisdom aims at. It follows that these Pleasures are what the man of Perfected Self-Mastery avoids: for obviously he has Pleasures peculiarly his own.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00981", "bookId": 8438, "start": 406695, "end": 406978, "sha256": "c94c8944f2dad3838a6da4c5891f3458286343b2c8701361b3841181a04f4f15", "text": "Then again, it is allowed that Pain is an evil and a thing to be avoided partly as bad _per se_, partly as being a hindrance in some particular way. Now the contrary of that which is to be avoided, _quâ_ it is to be avoided, _i.e._ evil, is good. Pleasure then must be _a_ good.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00982", "bookId": 8438, "start": 406982, "end": 407274, "sha256": "05de13f3051ff43f5192c45990106b78da7edabe8e3f0a40cfed6224820571fa", "text": "The attempted answer of Speusippus, “that Pleasure may be opposed and yet not contrary to Pain, just as the greater portion of any magnitude is contrary to the less but only opposed to the exact half,” will not hold: for he cannot say that Pleasure is identical with evil of any kind.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00983", "bookId": 8438, "start": 407278, "end": 407472, "sha256": "eec50149558c3d178959d6e82285ef3609eae670b26cb96860b319c81d692673", "text": "Again. Granting that some Pleasures are low, there is no reason why some particular Pleasure may not be very good, just as some particular Science may be although there are some which are low.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00984", "bookId": 8438, "start": 407476, "end": 407841, "sha256": "8479c99956df8367199684f8b242e3fe115ca359216b335d67f8514b24513b05", "text": "Perhaps it even follows, since each state may have active working unimpeded, whether the active workings of all be Happiness or that of some one of them, that this active working, if it be unimpeded, must be choice-worthy: now Pleasure is exactly this. So that the Chief Good may be Pleasure of some kind, though most Pleasures be (let us assume) low _per se_.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00985", "bookId": 8438, "start": 407845, "end": 408680, "sha256": "d26099efb2ce9083d00ad249a0dbf8b0bb3754777c62a8cc87dbd313cadf9f47", "text": "And for this reason all men think the happy life is pleasant, and interweave Pleasure with Happiness. Reasonably enough: because Happiness is perfect, but no impeded active working is perfect; and therefore the happy man needs as an addition the goods of the body and the goods external and fortune that in these points he may not be fettered. As for those who say that he who is being tortured on the wheel, or falls into great misfortunes is happy provided only he be good, they talk nonsense, whether they mean to do so or not. On the other hand, because fortune is needed as an addition, some hold good fortune to be identical with Happiness: which it is not, for even this in excess is a hindrance, and perhaps then has no right to be called good fortune since it is good only in so far as it contributes to Happiness.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00986", "bookId": 8438, "start": 408684, "end": 408811, "sha256": "1ded3876aac85335c28af2ffc109ebd17154c0a0dc43baff17d8a5ec3b5fc09a", "text": "The fact that all animals, brute and human alike, pursue Pleasure, is some presumption of its being in a sense the Chief Good;", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00987", "bookId": 8438, "start": 408815, "end": 409459, "sha256": "5369c27de8d60ec8bf9506e71f167486f58c0d495aad8bcf7da058fb4bdeb31e", "text": "(“There must be something in what most folks say,”) only as one and the same nature or state neither is nor is thought to be the best, so neither do all pursue the same Pleasure, Pleasure nevertheless all do. Nay further, what they pursue is, perhaps, not what they think nor what they would say they pursue, but really one and the same: for in all there is some instinct above themselves. But the bodily Pleasures have received the name exclusively, because theirs is the most frequent form and that which is universally partaken of; and so, because to many these alone are known they believe them to be the only ones which exist.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00988", "bookId": 8438, "start": 409463, "end": 409815, "sha256": "3949850385ac2f84c6d6a00856198e5ad2f4c29862e5e0c959337816f50c8ca9", "text": "It is plain too that, unless Pleasure and its active working be good, it will not be true that the happy man’s life embodies Pleasure: for why will he want it on the supposition that it is not good and that he can live even with Pain? because, assuming that Pleasure is not good, then Pain is neither evil nor good, and so why should he avoid it?", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00989", "bookId": 8438, "start": 409819, "end": 409950, "sha256": "d59ba98a3e0a4422e2685c4c8b59c0ed2a7c5d605fcb34ace86d2dda870cfdbb", "text": "Besides, the life of the good man is not more pleasurable than any other unless it be granted that his active workings are so too.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00990", "bookId": 8438, "start": 409954, "end": 410232, "sha256": "aa264b2cf441818efe17fd95d7effe35e02ab3c26223a81e2957d8a6dc2f7db2", "text": "Some enquiry into the bodily Pleasures is also necessary for those who say that some Pleasures, to be sure, are highly choice-worthy (the good ones to wit), but not the bodily Pleasures; that is, those which are the object-matter of the man utterly destitute of Self-Control.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00991", "bookId": 8438, "start": 410236, "end": 410357, "sha256": "9cce311d19565d0448b76c0cdecab8fa95054b0d7be8326a306952d25b78e092", "text": "If so, we ask, why are the contrary Pains bad? they cannot be (on their assumption) because the contrary of bad is good.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00992", "bookId": 8438, "start": 410361, "end": 411240, "sha256": "ddf04c3a407537cf785ce1a88dddf0fa97ab344c50f4eac46b7a52261e2a4537", "text": "May we not say that the necessary bodily Pleasures are good in the sense in which that which is not-bad is good? or that they are good only up to a certain point? because such states or movements as cannot have too much of the better cannot have too much of Pleasure, but those which can of the former can also of the latter. Now the bodily Pleasures do admit of excess: in fact the low bad man is such because he pursues the excess of them instead of those which are necessary (meat, drink, and the objects of other animal appetites do give pleasure to all, but not in right manner or degree to all). But his relation to Pain is exactly the contrary: it is not excessive Pain, but Pain at all, that he avoids [which makes him to be in this way too a bad low man], because only in the case of him who pursues excessive Pleasure is Pain contrary to excessive Pleasure.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00993", "bookId": 8438, "start": 411244, "end": 411650, "sha256": "1a8db90174bd0b4be7e11df5a8f03ee250da4a6fd4f2df0490d565dd532d3a14", "text": "It is not enough however merely to state the truth, we should also show how the false view arises; because this strengthens conviction. I mean, when we have given a probable reason why that impresses people as true which really is not true, it gives them a stronger conviction of the truth. And so we must now explain why the bodily Pleasures appear to people to be more choice-worthy than any others.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00994", "bookId": 8438, "start": 411654, "end": 412088, "sha256": "86bd6279c8e06724ac730f0d30e7ccb36cdce0f262293581520c533cfc76722a", "text": "The first obvious reason is, that bodily Pleasure drives out Pain; and because Pain is felt in excess men pursue Pleasure in excess, _i.e._ generally bodily Pleasure, under the notion of its being a remedy for that Pain. These remedies, moreover, come to be violent ones; which is the very reason they are pursued, since the impression they produce on the mind is owing to their being looked at side by side with their contrary.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00995", "bookId": 8438, "start": 412092, "end": 412205, "sha256": "a3ee77e407722c071f310eddba479ffdac73dc212d9d1028aa7414d22b0e00ba", "text": "And, as has been said before, there are the two following reasons why bodily Pleasure is thought to be not-good.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00996", "bookId": 8438, "start": 412209, "end": 412344, "sha256": "079a559f775bb9f918a39fe24cc71d70492870fc40833963dd07a518a50a05f6", "text": "1. Some Pleasures of this class are actings of a low nature, whether congenital as in brutes, or acquired by custom as in low bad men.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00997", "bookId": 8438, "start": 412348, "end": 412526, "sha256": "8304519af0781548967a1b08769f0464613878593fe50582c0587082bc9c5b76", "text": "2. Others are in the nature of cures, cures that is of some deficiency; now of course it is better to have [the healthy state] originally than that it should accrue afterwards.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00998", "bookId": 8438, "start": 412530, "end": 412647, "sha256": "fdae88d5557b2a30e7b6e128cb7b90ae52c0ece1a819ce4f5f1a3952b4097ead", "text": "(But some Pleasures result when natural states are being perfected: these therefore are good as a matter of result.)", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B00999", "bookId": 8438, "start": 412651, "end": 413207, "sha256": "3ef2b3c47414b3ec1a4b2b44a7c04f125eb8ff2fcf6d984dbc254a679f5d02c3", "text": "Again, the very fact of their being violent causes them to be pursued by such as can relish no others: such men in fact create violent thirsts for themselves (if harmless ones then we find no fault, if harmful then it is bad and low) because they have no other things to take pleasure in, and the neutral state is distasteful to some people constitutionally; for toil of some kind is inseparable from life, as physiologists testify, telling us that the acts of seeing or hearing are painful, only that we are used to the pain and do not find it out.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01000", "bookId": 8438, "start": 413211, "end": 413753, "sha256": "9a16ac4987373d16dedbedb85da58154732d7bacae668145fcc715d806ed5d4d", "text": "Similarly in youth the constant growth produces a state much like that of vinous intoxication, and youth is pleasant. Again, men of the melancholic temperament constantly need some remedial process (because the body, from its temperament, is constantly being worried), and they are in a chronic state of violent desire. But Pleasure drives out Pain; not only such Pleasure as is directly contrary to Pain but even any Pleasure provided it be strong: and this is how men come to be utterly destitute of Self-Mastery, _i.e._ low and bad.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01001", "bookId": 8438, "start": 413757, "end": 414234, "sha256": "b68a6d45cd0a97b6a11713114622a536d105008953a5dabbb8bab1b7fbf4efa8", "text": "But those Pleasures which are unconnected with Pains do not admit of excess: _i.e._ such as belong to objects which are naturally pleasant and not merely as a matter of result: by the latter class I mean such as are remedial, and the reason why these are thought to be pleasant is that the cure results from the action in some way of that part of the constitution which remains sound. By “pleasant naturally” I mean such as put into action a nature which is pleasant.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01002", "bookId": 8438, "start": 414238, "end": 414798, "sha256": "868fa9a86a045eba4ece2da9aa0cb60034333cde94a2d46d49879ed90b368006", "text": "The reason why no one and the same thing is invariably pleasant is that our nature is, not simple, but complex, involving something different from itself (so far as we are corruptible beings). Suppose then that one part of this nature be doing something, this something is, to the other part, unnatural: but, if there be an equilibrium of the two natures, then whatever is being done is indifferent. It is obvious that if there be any whose nature is simple and not complex, to such a being the same course of acting will always be the most pleasurable.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01003", "bookId": 8438, "start": 414802, "end": 415017, "sha256": "83ef945d1354cdafcb4eb715d7eba29a5dedb4f8849ba808d5c893fbb30e6cb7", "text": "For this reason it is that the Divinity feels Pleasure which is always one, _i.e._ simple: not motion merely but also motionlessness acts, and Pleasure resides rather in the absence than in the presence of motion.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01004", "bookId": 8438, "start": 415021, "end": 415272, "sha256": "ef2f6450e406757d04a3102f157c93a1a4cad73a81ec7a8ac74058b8c33e2fab", "text": "The reason why the Poet’s dictum “change is of all things most pleasant” is true, is “a baseness in our blood;” for as the bad man is easily changeable, bad must be also the nature that craves change, _i.e._ it is neither simple nor good.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01005", "bookId": 8438, "start": 415276, "end": 415461, "sha256": "52f44e974c67818afa7f3581cf968e687d78c39e47a19f882fda740e452807ff", "text": "We have now said our say about Self-Control and its opposite; and about Pleasure and Pain. What each is, and how the one set is good the other bad. We have yet to speak of Friendship.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01006", "bookId": 8438, "start": 415471, "end": 415480, "sha256": "5066db4f7d94ceecad6fcdd82ef1833df9388ce2a24b9b4afa89c67d21980bed", "text": "BOOK VIII", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01007", "bookId": 8438, "start": 415484, "end": 415494, "sha256": "5a35eafc731a2640e14da7e928f9e9a89afe4fe2a1f9a9a349887b8fb6d795cd", "text": "Chapter I.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01008", "bookId": 8438, "start": 415500, "end": 416296, "sha256": "ee45dff146ab99a645f9bfe72ff9f936bbbe5d6388571973d8c3f01e14e92d60", "text": "Next would seem properly to follow a dissertation on Friendship: because, in the first place, it is either itself a virtue or connected with virtue; and next it is a thing most necessary for life, since no one would choose to live without friends though he should have all the other good things in the world: and, in fact, men who are rich or possessed of authority and influence are thought to have special need of friends: for where is the use of such prosperity if there be taken away the doing of kindnesses of which friends are the most usual and most commendable objects? Or how can it be kept or preserved without friends? because the greater it is so much the more slippery and hazardous: in poverty moreover and all other adversities men think friends to be their only refuge.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01009", "bookId": 8438, "start": 416300, "end": 416662, "sha256": "a28a96eb5005e4ff6ff00c24eb1c611377739a9d201d7a12d1bf7e1c2f8d4cb5", "text": "Furthermore, Friendship helps the young to keep from error: the old, in respect of attention and such deficiencies in action as their weakness makes them liable to; and those who are in their prime, in respect of noble deeds (“They _two_ together going,” Homer says, you may remember), because they are thus more able to devise plans and carry them out.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01010", "bookId": 8438, "start": 416666, "end": 417130, "sha256": "7ff67ecd994d8ae8f18b4800b36f47eb17e0c1cb33a1efb0d41b55c791e6ada0", "text": "Again, it seems to be implanted in us by Nature: as, for instance, in the parent towards the offspring and the offspring towards the parent (not merely in the human species, but likewise in birds and most animals), and in those of the same tribe towards one another, and specially in men of the same nation; for which reason we commend those men who love their fellows: and one may see in the course of travel how close of kin and how friendly man is to man.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01011", "bookId": 8438, "start": 417134, "end": 417408, "sha256": "247c9d7777643248038d078d8add60e75219c781092cb8e5d7d2bdcb69093a71", "text": "Furthermore, Friendship seems to be the bond of Social Communities, and legislators seem to be more anxious to secure it than Justice even. I mean, Unanimity is somewhat like to Friendship, and this they certainly aim at and specially drive out faction as being inimical.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01012", "bookId": 8438, "start": 417412, "end": 417654, "sha256": "33296f3cb70a8f1b94706e86639c16db1437da11db3ed8a63efeb200c1004387", "text": "Again, where people are in Friendship Justice is not required;[1] but, on the other hand, though they are just they need Friendship in addition, and that principle which is most truly just is thought to partake of the nature of Friendship.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01013", "bookId": 8438, "start": 417658, "end": 417931, "sha256": "59d72b6b78ad198f6b9ed56ac81a98f87f48b7d8856e09e9bf14857d82878e82", "text": "Lastly, not only is it a thing necessary but honourable likewise: since we praise those who are fond of friends, and the having numerous friends is thought a matter of credit to a man; some go so far as to hold, that “good man” and “friend” are terms synonymous.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01014", "bookId": 8438, "start": 417935, "end": 417946, "sha256": "9ce6d96fa540de49002e2340d430460f2ee679453301a35db1cf5cf6c0ed967f", "text": "Chapter II.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01015", "bookId": 8438, "start": 417950, "end": 418304, "sha256": "563b3ae8880ea24bde624043fbd77400e965ac3716d1495c685d78ebcde1c931", "text": "Yet the disputed points respecting it are not few: some men lay down that it is a kind of resemblance, and that men who are like one another are friends: whence come the common sayings, “Like will to like,” “Birds of a feather,” and so on. Others, on the contrary, say, that all such come under the maxim, “Two of a trade never agree.”[2]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01016", "bookId": 8438, "start": 418308, "end": 418415, "sha256": "d0ff9f52632996a156553684db16ceeb4d278c5c024078b035d6969c903b4008", "text": "Again, some men push their enquiries on these points higher and reason physically: as Euripides, who says,", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01017", "bookId": 8438, "start": 418419, "end": 418566, "sha256": "bfc6482f2efedd881088144b4e9c337e2871bdd386f6a1fb5202635cb222c5a1", "text": "“The earth by drought consumed doth love the rain, And the great heaven, overcharged with rain, Doth love to fall in showers upon the earth.”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01018", "bookId": 8438, "start": 418572, "end": 418777, "sha256": "509445299ca9cd9437bdf1b4ba44cd87918098aa627ff905a0554769f5f879ef", "text": "Heraclitus, again, maintains, that “contrariety is expedient, and that the best agreement arises from things differing, and that all things come into being in the way of the principle of antagonism.”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01019", "bookId": 8438, "start": 418781, "end": 418877, "sha256": "863cc76b9f8bb3967af9d2a579f4de2f2ff1818bb719e3e92a3a561a187ffa77", "text": "Empedocles, among others, in direct opposition to these, affirms, that “like aims at like.”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01020", "bookId": 8438, "start": 418881, "end": 419517, "sha256": "c2fd33e37168a3a7f0fd6bf99b56bc91e20549832213a39e8aefe356e0e9397a", "text": "These physical questions we will take leave to omit, inasmuch as they are foreign to the present enquiry; and we will examine such as are proper to man and concern moral characters and feelings: as, for instance, “Does Friendship arise among all without distinction, or is it impossible for bad men to be friends?” and, “Is there but one species of Friendship, or several?” for they who ground the opinion that there is but one on the fact that Friendship admits of degrees hold that upon insufficient proof; because things which are different in species admit likewise of degrees (on this point we have spoken before).", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01021", "bookId": 8438, "start": 419521, "end": 419533, "sha256": "c8c3757d774efbadade98d84b627377e281082435aed3cf63f66253a8af48e64", "text": "Chapter III.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01022", "bookId": 8438, "start": 419537, "end": 420009, "sha256": "14cd11a9626ba14b74cc121314681b19ff2c5fd98f222ed09049bc3ef932de21", "text": "Our view will soon be cleared on these points when we have ascertained what is properly the object-matter of Friendship: for it is thought that not everything indiscriminately, but some peculiar matter alone, is the object of this affection; that is to say, what is good, or pleasurable, or useful. Now it would seem that that is useful through which accrues any good or pleasure, and so the objects of Friendship, as absolute Ends, are the good and the pleasurable.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01023", "bookId": 8438, "start": 420013, "end": 420741, "sha256": "569a639ef525f112206cbfef825fe2311924afdebae49229468919438ea6cee4", "text": "A question here arises; whether it is good absolutely or that which is good to the individuals, for which men feel Friendship (these two being sometimes distinct): and similarly in respect of the pleasurable. It seems then that each individual feels it towards that which is good to himself, and that abstractedly it is the real good which is the object of Friendship, and to each individual that which is good to each. It comes then to this; that each individual feels Friendship not for what _is_ but for that which _conveys to his mind the impression of being_ good to himself. But this will make no real difference, because that which is truly the object of Friendship will also convey this impression to the mind.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01024", "bookId": 8438, "start": 420745, "end": 421706, "sha256": "af37410679552f8300289a972ace6688d637c9a0a9f3340a30ce46fae13dc945", "text": "There are then three causes from which men feel Friendship: but the term is not applied to the case of fondness for things inanimate because there is no requital of the affection nor desire for the good of those objects: it certainly savours of the ridiculous to say that a man fond of wine wishes well to it: the only sense in which it is true being that he wishes it to be kept safe and sound for his own use and benefit.[3] But to the friend they say one should wish all good for his sake. And when men do thus wish good to another (he not reciprocating the feeling), people call them Kindly; because Friendship they describe as being “Kindliness between persons who reciprocate it.” But must they not add that the feeling must be mutually known? for many men are kindly disposed towards those whom they have never seen but whom they conceive to be amiable or useful: and this notion amounts to the same thing as a real feeling between them.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01025", "bookId": 8438, "start": 421710, "end": 422097, "sha256": "99d9d12ba628c932be0bbb35ce9a344ae39f1aaef7a4c0f4790d654d3c05307f", "text": "Well, these are plainly Kindly-disposed towards one another: but how can one call them friends while their mutual feelings are unknown to one another? to complete the idea of Friendship, then, it is requisite that they have kindly feelings towards one another, and wish one another good from one of the aforementioned causes, and that these kindly feelings should be mutually known.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01026", "bookId": 8438, "start": 422101, "end": 422112, "sha256": "3186d98bcee8266853ace5b1a5e20557973e585ee48419d596c2b2610a3f68b2", "text": "Chapter IV.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01027", "bookId": 8438, "start": 422116, "end": 422367, "sha256": "88fd2232b051fcc03bc086662152660103923edb946d7c138ac6dbe6bfdf0115", "text": "As the motives to Friendship differ in kind so do the respective feelings and Friendships. The species then of Friendship are three, in number equal to the objects of it, since in the line of each there may be “mutual affection mutually known.”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01028", "bookId": 8438, "start": 422371, "end": 422640, "sha256": "56fac03b58a937ace45d388eb878510ea7ff0d744b6966956f1f35aff8b6f46a", "text": "Now they who have Friendship for one another desire one another’s good according to the motive of their Friendship; accordingly they whose motive is utility have no Friendship for one another really, but only in so far as some good arises to them from one another.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01029", "bookId": 8438, "start": 422644, "end": 423302, "sha256": "0f613351b858e2a42bca1e3cf5b6b642c5fab29748fe30ff8e191dbfccb6b6ab", "text": "And they whose motive is pleasure are in like case: I mean, they have Friendship for men of easy pleasantry, not because they are of a given character but because they are pleasant to themselves. So then they whose motive to Friendship is utility love their friends for what is good to themselves; they whose motive is pleasure do so for what is pleasurable to themselves; that is to say, not in so far as the friend beloved _is_ but in so far as he is useful or pleasurable. These Friendships then are a matter of result: since the object is not beloved in that he is the man he is but in that he furnishes advantage or pleasure as the case may be.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01030", "bookId": 8438, "start": 423306, "end": 423752, "sha256": "e079f84f96e1a5dd56c62322e024d9e486c5d70b7e6fa5aaf3de75cfbc123faa", "text": "Such Friendships are of course very liable to dissolution if the parties do not continue alike: I mean, that the others cease to have any Friendship for them when they are no longer pleasurable or useful. Now it is the nature of utility not to be permanent but constantly varying: so, of course, when the motive which made them friends is vanished, the Friendship likewise dissolves; since it existed only relatively to those circumstances.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01031", "bookId": 8438, "start": 423756, "end": 424372, "sha256": "d574582335d811a13a493c8b34810f08a5491be0e7be2c43a6f6ffb88220a512", "text": "Friendship of this kind is thought to exist principally among the old (because men at that time of life pursue not what is pleasurable but what is profitable); and in such, of men in their prime and of the young, as are given to the pursuit of profit. They that are such have no intimate intercourse with one another; for sometimes they are not even pleasurable to one another; nor, in fact, do they desire such intercourse unless their friends are profitable to them, because they are pleasurable only in so far as they have hopes of advantage. With these Friendships is commonly ranked that of hospitality.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01032", "bookId": 8438, "start": 424376, "end": 424661, "sha256": "bed8637a3d8f4d4cdeb1e30927eec59c8268a5695a74d54e482f38e09be84f1a", "text": "But the Friendship of the young is thought to be based on the motive of pleasure: because they live at the beck and call of passion and generally pursue what is pleasurable to themselves and the object of the present moment: and as their age changes so likewise do their pleasures.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01033", "bookId": 8438, "start": 424665, "end": 424825, "sha256": "635f53243445a5742e7d19b527275ee266f16128ea2ddd12adaa8e6f1c1a63c1", "text": "This is the reason why they form and dissolve Friendships rapidly: since the Friendship changes with the pleasurable object and such pleasure changes quickly.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01034", "bookId": 8438, "start": 424829, "end": 425179, "sha256": "5a9cb954ca183adff135b8917b8dad2ba65de3fc4e908fbc1eb50aad2f58ff10", "text": "The young are also much given up to Love; this passion being, in great measure, a matter of impulse and based on pleasure: for which cause they conceive Friendships and quickly drop them, changing often in the same day: but these wish for society and intimate intercourse with their friends, since they thus attain the object of their Friendship.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01035", "bookId": 8438, "start": 425183, "end": 425193, "sha256": "89204e68d094a6a77f968119f40fec5f77d7676bf38cb1b47cd0ab87d3d2fea2", "text": "Chapter V.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01036", "bookId": 8438, "start": 425197, "end": 425762, "sha256": "96b8667dcb9b2709913543613bdd830794020bddaa17bdd1e6778a52f147a28c", "text": "That then is perfect Friendship which subsists between those who are good and whose similarity consists in their goodness: for these men wish one another’s good in similar ways; in so far as they are good (and good they are in themselves); and those are specially friends who wish good to their friends for their sakes, because they feel thus towards them on their own account and not as a mere matter of result; so the Friendship between these men continues to subsist so long as they are good; and goodness, we know, has in it a principle of permanence.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01037", "bookId": 8438, "start": 425766, "end": 426247, "sha256": "b089e5c7fbd2f5a828a004b49548224da981e0a4542b41ac94d05641ac60a384", "text": "Moreover, each party is good abstractedly and also relatively to his friend, for all good men are not only abstractedly good but also useful to one another. Such friends are also mutually pleasurable because all good men are so abstractedly, and also relatively to one another, inasmuch as to each individual those actions are pleasurable which correspond to his nature, and all such as are like them. Now when men are good these will be always the same, or at least similar.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01038", "bookId": 8438, "start": 426251, "end": 427013, "sha256": "da349e3527135dd331e88f23e3974254c1b5d2c5ae2642c3f0e17b4752b9d47f", "text": "Friendship then under these circumstances is permanent, as we should reasonably expect, since it combines in itself all the requisite qualifications of friends. I mean, that Friendship of whatever kind is based upon good or pleasure (either abstractedly or relatively to the person entertaining the sentiment of Friendship), and results from a similarity of some sort; and to this kind belong all the aforementioned requisites in the parties themselves, because in this the parties are similar, and so on:[4] moreover, in it there is the abstractedly good and the abstractedly pleasant, and as these are specially the object-matter of Friendship so the feeling and the state of Friendship is found most intense and most excellent in men thus qualified.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01039", "bookId": 8438, "start": 427017, "end": 427782, "sha256": "3a44f4f6d9c97c458aa68449e0b0684cf38627fbb7b59d7f160844c9fd313ca3", "text": "Rare it is probable Friendships of this kind will be, because men of this kind are rare. Besides, all requisite qualifications being presupposed, there is further required time and intimacy: for, as the proverb says, men cannot know one another “till they have eaten the requisite quantity of salt together;” nor can they in fact admit one another to intimacy, much less be friends, till each has appeared to the other and been proved to be a fit object of Friendship. They who speedily commence an interchange of friendly actions may be said to wish to be friends, but they are not so unless they are also proper objects of Friendship and mutually known to be such: that is to say, a desire for Friendship may arise quickly but not Friendship itself.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01040", "bookId": 8438, "start": 427786, "end": 427995, "sha256": "19d40dfecca1686bb985aca3643774670b67da55259143e9db1b781d9cd6d073", "text": "Well, this Friendship is perfect both in respect of the time and in all other points; and exactly the same and similar results accrue to each party from the other; which ought to be the case between friends.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01041", "bookId": 8438, "start": 427999, "end": 429039, "sha256": "6042d6fb872098a6df8722ec7142f866b3b370449e12d2e88e6fe9e7f3064ef4", "text": "The friendship based upon the pleasurable is, so to say, a copy of this, since the good are sources of pleasure to one another: and that based on utility likewise, the good being also useful to one another. Between men thus connected Friendships are most permanent when the same result accrues to both from one another, pleasure, for instance; and not merely so but from the same source, as in the case of two men of easy pleasantry; and not as it is in that of a lover and the object of his affection, these not deriving their pleasure from the same causes, but the former from seeing the latter and the latter from receiving the attentions of the former: and when the bloom of youth fades the Friendship sometimes ceases also, because then the lover derives no pleasure from seeing and the object of his affection ceases to receive the attentions which were paid before: in many cases, however, people so connected continue friends, if being of similar tempers they have come from custom to like one another’s disposition.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01042", "bookId": 8438, "start": 429043, "end": 429359, "sha256": "d54c2f4b7ae9032f2454e39d0fdac24c391c1047cd0e03e69d4325ac6fc43dba", "text": "Where people do not interchange pleasure but profit in matters of Love, the Friendship is both less intense in degree and also less permanent: in fact, they who are friends because of advantage commonly part when the advantage ceases; for, in reality, they never were friends of one another but of the advantage.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01043", "bookId": 8438, "start": 429363, "end": 429734, "sha256": "9fcef332bf8569b9fcd56280bae3f4e4bafc51939e5d095c4d07175c67e53bfa", "text": "So then it appears that from motives of pleasure or profit bad men may be friends to one another, or good men to bad men or men of neutral character to one of any character whatever: but disinterestedly, for the sake of one another, plainly the good alone can be friends; because bad men have no pleasure even in themselves unless in so far as some advantage arises.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01044", "bookId": 8438, "start": 429738, "end": 430184, "sha256": "3f7d9ec3958d82df7f15fbaa3f793d728cc43b489c224ac4b2ce7b3729b846f6", "text": "And further, the Friendship of the good is alone superior to calumny; it not being easy for men to believe a third person respecting one whom they have long tried and proved: there is between good men mutual confidence, and the feeling that one’s friend would never have done one wrong, and all other such things as are expected in Friendship really worthy the name; but in the other kinds there is nothing to prevent all such suspicions.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01045", "bookId": 8438, "start": 430188, "end": 430975, "sha256": "874b93d66c6b8424f6efc92db96ab08cbef2eae872d505ac4921f3c761628761", "text": "I call them Friendships, because since men commonly give the name of friends to those who are connected from motives of profit (which is justified by political language, for alliances between states are thought to be contracted with a view to advantage), and to those who are attached to one another by the motive of pleasure (as children are), we may perhaps also be allowed to call such persons friends, and say there are several species of Friendship; primarily and specially that of the good, in that they are good, and the rest only in the way of resemblance: I mean, people connected otherwise are friends in that way in which there arises to them somewhat good and some mutual resemblance (because, we must remember the pleasurable is good to those who are fond of it).", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01046", "bookId": 8438, "start": 430979, "end": 431451, "sha256": "116772064764c9d52568056235b4f32dbb7cf5b1e0e799f792100237c7a9b4a2", "text": "These secondary Friendships, however, do not combine very well; that is to say, the same persons do not become friends by reason of advantage and by reason of the pleasurable, for these matters of result are not often combined. And Friendship having been divided into these kinds, bad men will be friends by reason of pleasure or profit, this being their point of resemblance; while the good are friends for one another’s sake, that is, in so far as they are good.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01047", "bookId": 8438, "start": 431455, "end": 431604, "sha256": "ba67eb08ad926e1d90ed1754084504fea0bce494aadc360d5be71f4319ab14f4", "text": "These last may be termed abstractedly and simply friends, the former as a matter of result and termed friends from their resemblance to these last.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01048", "bookId": 8438, "start": 431608, "end": 431619, "sha256": "bb240dadd686b141825e647280d2d4b72d5f6bbd0f26d00f1faf792e029c0892", "text": "Chapter VI.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01049", "bookId": 8438, "start": 431625, "end": 432341, "sha256": "17332146da3cc1e49087314b78e7ba02da5251baa257cf9012fdb899b6c8ff36", "text": "Further; just as in respect of the different virtues some men are termed good in respect of a certain inward state, others in respect of acts of working, so is it in respect of Friendship: I mean, they who live together take pleasure in, and impart good to, one another: but they who are asleep or are locally separated do not perform acts, but only are in such a state as to act in a friendly way if they acted at all: distance has in itself no direct effect upon Friendship, but only prevents the acting it out: yet, if the absence be protracted, it is thought to cause a forgetfulness even of the Friendship: and hence it has been said, “many and many a Friendship doth want of intercourse destroy.”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01050", "bookId": 8438, "start": 432345, "end": 433269, "sha256": "43cf566c9932aaab542e2afbcb59e8a844d593d7fc19520b04ab0b3a40a3692b", "text": "Accordingly, neither the old nor the morose appear to be calculated for Friendship, because the pleasurableness in them is small, and no one can spend his days in company with that which is positively painful or even not pleasurable; since to avoid the painful and aim at the pleasurable is one of the most obvious tendencies of human nature. They who get on with one another very fairly, but are not in habits of intimacy, are rather like people having kindly feelings towards one another than friends; nothing being so characteristic of friends as the living with one another, because the necessitous desire assistance, and the happy companionship, they being the last persons in the world for solitary existence: but people cannot spend their time together unless they are mutually pleasurable and take pleasure in the same objects, a quality which is thought to appertain to the Friendship of companionship.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01051", "bookId": 8438, "start": 433273, "end": 433285, "sha256": "e3a88405865f388fd2bbf6c4cfc5874d7991e8951df2fcbc0435b1fbb2f839f3", "text": "Chapter VII.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01052", "bookId": 8438, "start": 433289, "end": 433624, "sha256": "e18cbe6d8b3c826644c27804f92813e2586fbe7cefc43f6f832c8437e2309075", "text": "The connection then subsisting between the good is Friendship _par excellence_, as has already been frequently said: since that which is abstractedly good or pleasant is thought to be an object of Friendship and choice-worthy, and to each individual whatever is such to him; and the good man to the good man for both these reasons.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01053", "bookId": 8438, "start": 433628, "end": 434012, "sha256": "2232c665172560e3cb156fd1683b9516e698febf772e1428ae9731665fd52c60", "text": "(Now the entertaining the sentiment is like a feeling, but Friendship itself like a state: because the former may have for its object even things inanimate, but requital of Friendship is attended with moral choice which proceeds from a moral state: and again, men wish good to the objects of their Friendship for their sakes, not in the way of a mere feeling but of moral state.)", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01054", "bookId": 8438, "start": 434016, "end": 434422, "sha256": "eaa66cab33973c0b43a5de08ed428e6f31197492888a82219ce1292357d94647", "text": "And the good, in loving their friend, love their own good (inasmuch as the good man, when brought into that relation, becomes a good to him with whom he is so connected), so that either party loves his own good, and repays his friend equally both in wishing well and in the pleasurable: for equality is said to be a tie of Friendship. Well, these points belong most to the Friendship between good men.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01055", "bookId": 8438, "start": 434426, "end": 435192, "sha256": "30229f27b422fc84a759cf970a10f8811df9be722e5751de1bbd969f1e9436d2", "text": "But between morose or elderly men Friendship is less apt to arise, because they are somewhat awkward-tempered, and take less pleasure in intercourse and society; these being thought to be specially friendly and productive of Friendship: and so young men become friends quickly, old men not so (because people do not become friends with any, unless they take pleasure in them); and in like manner neither do the morose. Yet men of these classes entertain kindly feelings towards one another: they wish good to one another and render mutual assistance in respect of their needs, but they are not quite friends, because they neither spend their time together nor take pleasure in one another, which circumstances are thought specially to belong to Friendship.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01056", "bookId": 8438, "start": 435196, "end": 435651, "sha256": "5b76f0c07ab80a86ea7f927cbe7aab3799cf3315072786d6ffcf2367cd497fb4", "text": "To be a friend to many people, in the way of the perfect Friendship, is not possible; just as you cannot be in love with many at once: it is, so to speak, a state of excess which naturally has but one object; and besides, it is not an easy thing for one man to be very much pleased with many people at the same time, nor perhaps to find many really good. Again, a man needs experience, and to be in habits of close intimacy, which is very difficult.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01057", "bookId": 8438, "start": 435655, "end": 435827, "sha256": "356bb98e51d7903563ea089eac3e7369251d4f30d96e17fc5152e94cede193b3", "text": "But it _is_ possible to please many on the score of advantage and pleasure: because there are many men of the kind, and the services may be rendered in a very short time.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01058", "bookId": 8438, "start": 435831, "end": 436211, "sha256": "fa37bad702c5e1bdc986890f5cfc9a76353231fe0347ed1dd4cbcd3a07f39f06", "text": "Of the two imperfect kinds that which most resembles the perfect is the Friendship based upon pleasure, in which the same results accrue from both and they take pleasure in one another or in the same objects; such as are the Friendships of the young, because a generous spirit is most found in these. The Friendship because of advantage is the connecting link of shopkeepers.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01059", "bookId": 8438, "start": 436215, "end": 436765, "sha256": "7dbf47485066cac485df8646be3cf457843c914188e92cd258f77c69e80ff86f", "text": "Then again, the very happy have no need of persons who are profitable, but of pleasant ones they have because they wish to have people to live intimately with; and what is painful they bear for a short time indeed, but continuously no one could support it, nay, not even the Chief Good itself, if it were painful to him individually: and so they look out for pleasant friends: perhaps they ought to require such to be good also; and good moreover to themselves individually, because then they will have all the proper requisites of Friendship.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01060", "bookId": 8438, "start": 436769, "end": 437306, "sha256": "76e43e0daef3690dc606959b69deaeb316b8627c078ca879a0b020b491ee33c7", "text": "Men in power are often seen to make use of several distinct friends: for some are useful to them and others pleasurable, but the two are not often united: because they do not, in fact, seek such as shall combine pleasantness and goodness, nor such as shall be useful for honourable purposes: but with a view to attain what is pleasant they look out for men of easy-pleasantry; and again, for men who are clever at executing any business put into their hands: and these qualifications are not commonly found united in the same man.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01061", "bookId": 8438, "start": 437310, "end": 437720, "sha256": "cdc27f57d6d72a8c2fe804c194413c05391ab89ab0a576161136a4c155d022bc", "text": "It has been already stated that the good man unites the qualities of pleasantness and usefulness: but then such a one will not be a friend to a superior unless he be also his superior in goodness: for if this be not the case, he cannot, being surpassed in one point, make things equal by a proportionate degree of Friendship.[5] And characters who unite superiority of station and goodness are not common.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01062", "bookId": 8438, "start": 437724, "end": 437737, "sha256": "d004d8c3a629800899066ec30aebdc9b11ed7932971144d5b44dd4b9f1c6f736", "text": "Chapter VIII.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01063", "bookId": 8438, "start": 437741, "end": 438134, "sha256": "26ff43b38cb64019147c47d179a20b20f1a37000a285e885a54047138fe05003", "text": "Now all the kinds of Friendship which have been already mentioned exist in a state of equality, inasmuch as either the same results accrue to both and they wish the same things to one another, or else they barter one thing against another; pleasure, for instance, against profit: it has been said already that Friendships of this latter kind are less intense in degree and less permanent.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01064", "bookId": 8438, "start": 438138, "end": 438695, "sha256": "8f2b4a1da8f700992ff71d11f218457422261d89cce9d7e321f45c81f5f55aab", "text": "And it is their resemblance or dissimilarity to the same thing which makes them to be thought to be and not to be Friendships: they show like Friendships in right of their likeness to that which is based on virtue (the one kind having the pleasurable, the other the profitable, both of which belong also to the other); and again, they do not show like Friendships by reason of their unlikeness to that true kind; which unlikeness consists herein, that while that is above calumny and so permanent these quickly change and differ in many other points.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01065", "bookId": 8438, "start": 438699, "end": 439381, "sha256": "810165a7e865f115374265c97f852b526a219ca92d528fa9301b97470c3b06d7", "text": "But there is another form of Friendship, that, namely, in which the one party is superior to the other; as between father and son, elder and younger, husband and wife, ruler and ruled. These also differ one from another: I mean, the Friendship between parents and children is not the same as between ruler and the ruled, nor has the father the same towards the son as the son towards the father, nor the husband towards the wife as she towards him; because the work, and therefore the excellence, of each of these is different, and different therefore are the causes of their feeling Friendship; distinct and different therefore are their feelings and states of Friendship.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01066", "bookId": 8438, "start": 439385, "end": 439709, "sha256": "dc2b38433abfca5319ff8bd029b9b3a5ca88f5d84b1de88d38229da619bf2173", "text": "And the same results do not accrue to each from the other, nor in fact ought they to be looked for: but, when children render to their parents what they ought to the authors of their being, and parents to their sons what they ought to their offspring, the Friendship between such parties will be permanent and equitable.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01067", "bookId": 8438, "start": 439713, "end": 440144, "sha256": "6367ae0bfb3862fc8d265b83e2a74393817d55990e801d42e0f46e6998195c20", "text": "Further; the feeling of Friendship should be in a due proportion in all Friendships which are between superior and inferior; I mean, the better man, or the more profitable, and so forth, should be the object of a stronger feeling than he himself entertains, because when the feeling of Friendship comes to be after a certain rate then equality in a certain sense is produced, which is thought to be a requisite in Friendship.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01068", "bookId": 8438, "start": 440148, "end": 440417, "sha256": "0ef7ac44497f526a9e165cde8e6d2f3a06d255a6cb61190be01d99a9e3820099", "text": "(It must be remembered, however, that the equal is not in the same case as regards Justice and Friendship: for in strict Justice the exactly proportioned equal ranks first, and the actual numerically equal ranks second, while in Friendship this is exactly reversed.)", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01069", "bookId": 8438, "start": 440421, "end": 441312, "sha256": "ced9fcedd26ff2b9e5b0e848dd11807e56fb9b73cd5b492553bd78db85a3fbb5", "text": "And that equality is thus requisite is plainly shown by the occurrence of a great difference of goodness or badness, or prosperity, or something else: for in this case, people are not any longer friends, nay they do not even feel that they ought to be. The clearest illustration is perhaps the case of the gods, because they are most superior in all good things. It is obvious too, in the case of kings, for they who are greatly their inferiors do not feel entitled to be friends to them; nor do people very insignificant to be friends to those of very high excellence or wisdom. Of course, in such cases it is out of the question to attempt to define up to what point they may continue friends: for you may remove many points of agreement and the Friendship last nevertheless; but when one of the parties is very far separated (as a god from men), it cannot continue any longer.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01070", "bookId": 8438, "start": 441316, "end": 441960, "sha256": "179900cd1a3612a153122cf0a41825d1f89f7e3b282c85ad79d4a5cefdfde3dc", "text": "This has given room for a doubt, whether friends do really wish to their friends the very highest goods, as that they may be gods: because, in case the wish were accomplished, they would no longer have them for friends, nor in fact would they have the good things they had, because friends are good things. If then it has been rightly said that a friend wishes to his friend good things for that friend’s sake, it must be understood that he is to remain such as he now is: that is to say, he will wish the greatest good to him of which as man he is capable: yet perhaps not all, because each man desires good for himself most of all.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01071", "bookId": 8438, "start": 441964, "end": 443799, "sha256": "8a41b48d262a2f60ccb5fc5ed781e25433ca0f2a22108019ced7572ab388abd1", "text": "It is thought that desire for honour makes the mass of men wish rather to be the objects of the feeling of Friendship than to entertain it themselves (and for this reason they are fond of flatterers, a flatterer being a friend inferior or at least pretending to be such and rather to entertain towards another the feeling of Friendship than to be himself the object of it), since the former is thought to be nearly the same as being honoured, which the mass of men desire. And yet men seem to choose honour, not for its own sake, but incidentally:[6] I mean, the common run of men delight to be honoured by those in power because of the hope it raises; that is they think they shall get from them anything they may happen to be in want of, so they delight in honour as an earnest of future benefit. They again who grasp at honour at the hands of the good and those who are really acquainted with their merits desire to confirm their own opinion about themselves: so they take pleasure in the conviction that they are good, which is based on the sentence of those who assert it. But in being the objects of Friendship men delight for its own sake, and so this may be judged to be higher than being honoured and Friendship to be in itself choice-worthy. Friendship, moreover, is thought to consist in feeling, rather than being the object of, the sentiment of Friendship, which is proved by the delight mothers have in the feeling: some there are who give their children to be adopted and brought up by others, and knowing them bear this feeling towards them never seeking to have it returned, if both are not possible; but seeming to be content with seeing them well off and bearing this feeling themselves towards them, even though they, by reason of ignorance, never render to them any filial regard or love.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01072", "bookId": 8438, "start": 443803, "end": 444239, "sha256": "df0db32b22f64faa4c51eded9b2d1dbabf34dfab967397e4658fdba98a8d24cf", "text": "Since then Friendship stands rather in the entertaining, than in being the object of, the sentiment, and they are praised who are fond of their friends, it seems that entertaining the sentiment is the Excellence of friends; and so, in whomsoever this exists in due proportion these are stable friends and their Friendship is permanent. And in this way may they who are unequal best be friends, because they may thus be made equal.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01073", "bookId": 8438, "start": 444243, "end": 444617, "sha256": "65d2fc27ae239a0f8308861f44c3836b40073eb2bb002a50559fb7132f368115", "text": "Equality, then, and similarity are a tie to Friendship, and specially the similarity of goodness, because good men, being stable in themselves, are also stable as regards others, and neither ask degrading services nor render them, but, so to say, rather prevent them: for it is the part of the good neither to do wrong themselves nor to allow their friends in so doing.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01074", "bookId": 8438, "start": 444621, "end": 444985, "sha256": "22f3ac63e1c88b5d67e2d733ff3c01b2b80c18168a6caf0835e05461932658b6", "text": "The bad, on the contrary, have no principle of stability: in fact, they do not even continue like themselves: only they come to be friends for a short time from taking delight in one another’s wickedness. Those connected by motives of profit, or pleasure, hold together somewhat longer: so long, that is to say, as they can give pleasure or profit mutually.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01075", "bookId": 8438, "start": 444989, "end": 445708, "sha256": "20a55d94bdee66a827a574bb3498598b8f5aa6561863792c51fa755ab06a7f63", "text": "The Friendship based on motives of profit is thought to be most of all formed out of contrary elements: the poor man, for instance, is thus a friend of the rich, and the ignorant of the man of information; that is to say, a man desiring that of which he is, as it happens, in want, gives something else in exchange for it. To this same class we may refer the lover and beloved, the beautiful and the ill-favoured. For this reason lovers sometimes show in a ridiculous light by claiming to be the objects of as intense a feeling as they themselves entertain: of course if they are equally fit objects of Friendship they are perhaps entitled to claim this, but if they have nothing of the kind it is ridiculous.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01076", "bookId": 8438, "start": 445712, "end": 445956, "sha256": "8d225ac16795454faa240935a251ae997aa73e79d5d756e7c680d33cd4ac4e1c", "text": "Perhaps, moreover, the contrary does not aim at its contrary for its own sake but incidentally: the mean is really what is grasped at; it being good for the dry, for instance, not to become wet but to attain the mean, and so of the hot, etc.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01077", "bookId": 8438, "start": 445960, "end": 446056, "sha256": "b8ec67c96d408d030b907d3bc8d33d498768694c0aedeb66fd3f4cc8eb2ddea2", "text": "However, let us drop these questions, because they are in fact somewhat foreign to our purpose.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01078", "bookId": 8438, "start": 446060, "end": 446071, "sha256": "592ec521344802b54bcc4f362dcb57feb55da0d05682ea5774b06c9cd5ee0ce4", "text": "Chapter IX.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01079", "bookId": 8438, "start": 446075, "end": 446700, "sha256": "9d55fea5487c15ace1fc22f64a8350a329d64e5d9f4377bd0c6d27ea2aeea3f2", "text": "It seems too, as was stated at the commencement, that Friendship and Justice have the same object-matter, and subsist between the same persons: I mean that in every Communion there is thought to be some principle of Justice and also some Friendship: men address as friends, for instance, those who are their comrades by sea, or in war, and in like manner also those who are brought into Communion with them in other ways: and the Friendship, because also the Justice, is co-extensive with the Communion, This justifies the common proverb, “the goods of friends are common,” since Friendship rests upon Communion.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01080", "bookId": 8438, "start": 446704, "end": 447597, "sha256": "b0c64bedd99007960e91e1ddd16837a919e0769580f95ba8794df02669cb1bf3", "text": "Now brothers and intimate companions have all in common, but other people have their property separate, and some have more in common and others less, because the Friendships likewise differ in degree. So too do the various principles of Justice involved, not being the same between parents and children as between brothers, nor between companions as between fellow-citizens merely, and so on of all the other conceivable Friendships. Different also are the principles of Injustice as regards these different grades, and the acts become intensified by being done to friends; for instance, it is worse to rob your companion than one who is merely a fellow-citizen; to refuse help to a brother than to a stranger; and to strike your father than any one else. So then the Justice naturally increases with the degree of Friendship, as being between the same parties and of equal extent.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01081", "bookId": 8438, "start": 447601, "end": 448026, "sha256": "497217e4c867dd922f7dd1819ab6346e8150f445b46c8d0711d3edbfe4c70379", "text": "All cases of Communion are parts, so to say, of the great Social one, since in them men associate with a view to some advantage and to procure some of those things which are needful for life; and the great Social Communion is thought originally to have been associated and to continue for the sake of some advantage: this being the point at which legislators aim, affirming that to be just which is generally expedient.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01082", "bookId": 8438, "start": 448030, "end": 448425, "sha256": "ffb341f8d2373f443c39ffac6cff22e335ba868db079c4f8ed101f78a857c505", "text": "All the other cases of Communion aim at advantage in particular points; the crew of a vessel at that which is to result from the voyage which is undertaken with a view to making money, or some such object; comrades in war at that which is to result from the war, grasping either at wealth or victory, or it may be a political position; and those of the same tribe, or Demus, in like manner.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01083", "bookId": 8438, "start": 448429, "end": 449147, "sha256": "b6e75f29d8ba7af9463a34c8008d7ece6b26418649b7d0cef0cd5e0e7b559d61", "text": "Some of them are thought to be formed for pleasure’s sake, those, for instance, of bacchanals or club-fellows, which are with a view to Sacrifice or merely company. But all these seem to be ranged under the great Social one, inasmuch as the aim of this is, not merely the expediency of the moment but, for life and at all times; with a view to which the members of it institute sacrifices and their attendant assemblies, to render honour to the gods and procure for themselves respite from toil combined with pleasure. For it appears that sacrifices and religious assemblies in old times were made as a kind of first-fruits after the ingathering of the crops, because at such seasons they had most leisure.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01084", "bookId": 8438, "start": 449151, "end": 449306, "sha256": "e448470193bb9c08cc8b6b168999d366f0ce8020c3f8524825f9447db70698e7", "text": "So then it appears that all the instances of Communion are parts of the great Social one: and corresponding Friendships will follow upon such Communions.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01085", "bookId": 8438, "start": 449310, "end": 449320, "sha256": "1004a834f009008ccc92e737e9a371a7a5488da6be86d63d2eae33426b5b37ef", "text": "Chapter X.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01086", "bookId": 8438, "start": 449324, "end": 449464, "sha256": "0e6552c0834cead1ec7eef702040be7f6fcb5aedd58c72125c39fc217edc8c59", "text": "Of Political Constitutions there are three kinds; and equal in number are the deflections from them, being, so to say, corruptions of them.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01087", "bookId": 8438, "start": 449468, "end": 449743, "sha256": "c1b1ce21d835a0c72f59aa55feb8200d80e688f1fb4b88850882ce97e3327d0d", "text": "The former are Kingship, Aristocracy, and that which recognises the principle of wealth, which it seems appropriate to call Timocracy (I give to it the name of a political constitution because people commonly do so). Of these the best is Monarchy, and Timocracy the worst.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01088", "bookId": 8438, "start": 449747, "end": 450247, "sha256": "17c7aa8ee29d32a437a361a7996fe8e80f5d1deeae4b71b07b8a66d69cfea2d1", "text": "From Monarchy the deflection is Despotism; both being Monarchies but widely differing from each other; for the Despot looks to his own advantage, but the King to that of his subjects: for he is in fact no King who is not thoroughly independent and superior to the rest in all good things, and he that is this has no further wants: he will not then have to look to his own advantage but to that of his subjects, for he that is not in such a position is a mere King elected by lot for the nonce.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01089", "bookId": 8438, "start": 450251, "end": 450603, "sha256": "0770a1cb49b368ab8074e25494d1645577dbd25d82ab6966bffdaa72f3f3d3d0", "text": "But Despotism is on a contrary footing to this Kingship, because the Despot pursues his own good: and in the case of this its inferiority is most evident, and what is worse is contrary to what is best. The Transition to Despotism is made from Kingship, Despotism being a corrupt form of Monarchy, that is to say, the bad King comes to be a Despot.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01090", "bookId": 8438, "start": 450607, "end": 450965, "sha256": "320d355bb2c4629694ba85b1b5288ecf717fb1f086e563123526bb71af9962bb", "text": "From Aristocracy to Oligarchy the transition is made by the fault of the Rulers in distributing the public property contrary to right proportion; and giving either all that is good, or the greatest share, to themselves; and the offices to the same persons always, making wealth their idol; thus a few bear rule and they bad men in the place of the best.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01091", "bookId": 8438, "start": 450969, "end": 451265, "sha256": "c4a115de4a144a2cc44d15de2d35706869ca26890d0ecf3dcd424366b1a6223e", "text": "From Timocracy the transition is to Democracy, they being contiguous: for it is the nature of Timocracy to be in the hands of a multitude, and all in the same grade of property are equal. Democracy is the least vicious of all, since herein the form of the constitution undergoes least change.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01092", "bookId": 8438, "start": 451269, "end": 451406, "sha256": "dcb8e64de9f4b3333fa71a3bfb88a1b4453d3b26bd4a1c60d711b77a4172e3bd", "text": "Well, these are generally the changes to which the various Constitutions are liable, being the least in degree and the easiest to make.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01093", "bookId": 8438, "start": 451410, "end": 452092, "sha256": "41f136cd01d2a0683e42318119e80f4041ec44aa77f5ed31a62f99c3d7af1b45", "text": "Likenesses, and, as it were, models of them, one may find even in Domestic life: for instance, the Communion between a Father and his Sons presents the figure of Kingship, because the children are the Father’s care: and hence Homer names Jupiter Father because Kingship is intended to be a paternal rule. Among the Persians, however, the Father’s rule is Despotic, for they treat their Sons as slaves. (The relation of Master to Slaves is of the nature of Despotism because the point regarded herein is the Master’s interest): this now strikes me to be as it ought, but the Persian custom to be mistaken; because for different persons there should be different rules.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01094", "bookId": 8438, "start": 452096, "end": 452644, "sha256": "2cf3323aa08eb04a10d95b9de950701e3a0fcf289231dd256bf87b62f429c6aa", "text": "Between Husband and Wife the relation takes the form of Aristocracy, because he rules by right and in such points only as the Husband should, and gives to the Wife all that befits her to have. Where the Husband lords it in everything he changes the relation into an Oligarchy; because he does it contrary to right and not as being the better of the two. In some instances the Wives take the reins of government, being heiresses: here the rule is carried on not in right of goodness but by reason of wealth and power, as it is in Oligarchies.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01095", "bookId": 8438, "start": 452648, "end": 453074, "sha256": "adfbab1fa0530507492a456b2e0820f86f7c3420458f01ececfe8b01cd7d9c80", "text": "Timocracy finds its type in the relation of Brothers: they being equal except as to such differences as age introduces: for which reason, if they are very different in age, the Friendship comes to be no longer a fraternal one: while Democracy is represented specially by families which have no head (all being there equal), or in which the proper head is weak and so every member does that which is right in his own eyes.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01096", "bookId": 8438, "start": 453078, "end": 453089, "sha256": "e01eea13bd5151db5300b85b2bf5667b50440b182b04dc56f48ea5ab17de6a93", "text": "Chapter XI.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01097", "bookId": 8438, "start": 453093, "end": 453994, "sha256": "c89a71bedc3f88925f3c5556dc98596e64b8a41cd577e354aaf69915d6d135b6", "text": "Attendant then on each form of Political Constitution there plainly is Friendship exactly co-extensive with the principle of Justice; that between a King and his Subjects being in the relation of a superiority of benefit, inasmuch as he benefits his subjects; it being assumed that he is a good king and takes care of their welfare as a shepherd tends his flock; whence Homer (to quote him again) calls Agamemnon, “shepherd of the people.” And of this same kind is the Paternal Friendship, only that it exceeds the former in the greatness of the benefits done; because the father is the author of being (which is esteemed the greatest benefit) and of maintenance and education (these things are also, by the way, ascribed to ancestors generally): and by the law of nature the father has the right of rule over his sons, ancestors over their descendants, and the king over his subjects.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01098", "bookId": 8438, "start": 453998, "end": 454266, "sha256": "fc19ef0cb9f9ab2a8ffecc07299933b942dd2a04d2e3d3d708250e695b7bbcba", "text": "These friendships are also between superiors and inferiors, for which reason parents are not merely loved but also honoured. The principle of Justice also between these parties is not exactly the same but according to proportiton, because so also is the Friendship.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01099", "bookId": 8438, "start": 454270, "end": 454527, "sha256": "f87dce52e04f127419d63794881a6230be9cf2760b98862044c399f11949c033", "text": "Now between Husband and Wife there is the same Friendship as in Aristocracy: for the relation is determined by relative excellence, and the better person has the greater good and each has what befits: so too also is the principle of Justice between them.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01100", "bookId": 8438, "start": 454531, "end": 454933, "sha256": "0f58b3e4dd7cfd67077fcfa7c80297cc037eaff411852f87cbbd787a71aff766", "text": "The Fraternal Friendship is like that of Companions, because brothers are equal and much of an age, and such persons have generally like feelings and like dispositions. Like to this also is the Friendship of a Timocracy, because the citizens are intended to be equal and equitable: rule, therefore, passes from hand to hand, and is distributed on equal terms: so too is the Friendship accordingly.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01101", "bookId": 8438, "start": 454937, "end": 456125, "sha256": "3beaefda0da852e63559d8c35783a8e39bdf5edb7c88b9ff7e0143a2c9d1616a", "text": "In the deflections from the constitutional forms, just as the principle of Justice is but small so is the Friendship also: and least of all in the most perverted form: in Despotism there is little or no Friendship. For generally wherever the ruler and the ruled have nothing in common there is no Friendship because there is no Justice; but the case is as between an artisan and his tool, or between soul and body, and master and slave; all these are benefited by those who use them, but towards things inanimate there is neither Friendship nor Justice: nor even towards a horse or an ox, or a slave _quâ_ slave, because there is nothing in common: a slave as such is an animate tool, a tool an inanimate slave. _Quâ_ slave, then, there is no Friendship towards him, only _quâ_ man: for it is thought that there is some principle of Justice between every man, and every other who can share in law and be a party to an agreement; and so somewhat of Friendship, in so far as he is man. So in Despotisms the Friendships and the principle of Justice are inconsiderable in extent, but in Democracies they are most considerable because they who are equal have much in common.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01102", "bookId": 8438, "start": 456129, "end": 456141, "sha256": "db01c17d92611b3315f68e3df6f0d948914af69a6cdab38f6908ed40f82a0968", "text": "Chapter XII.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01103", "bookId": 8438, "start": 456145, "end": 456610, "sha256": "0e39100efd0bc0177bbce4a2da98d3e0ee1f583a3c30dcdc41f0de32a08ffa5c", "text": "Now of course all Friendship is based upon Communion, as has been already stated: but one would be inclined to separate off from the rest the Friendship of Kindred, and that of Companions: whereas those of men of the same city, or tribe, or crew, and all such, are more peculiarly, it would seem, based upon Communion, inasmuch as they plainly exist in right of some agreement expressed or implied: among these one may rank also the Friendship of Hospitality,", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01104", "bookId": 8438, "start": 456614, "end": 457347, "sha256": "1ca2862cf08bd06edd0522d3c6a008da553682e7f8676a71bc0c86f57bce9df8", "text": "The Friendship of Kindred is likewise of many kinds, and appears in all its varieties to depend on the Parental: parents, I mean, love their children as being a part of themselves, children love their parents as being themselves somewhat derived from them. But parents know their offspring more than these know that they are from the parents, and the source is more closely bound to that which is produced than that which is produced is to that which formed it: of course, whatever is derived from one’s self is proper to that from which it is so derived (as, for instance, a tooth or a hair, or any other thing whatever to him that has it): but the source to it is in no degree proper, or in an inferior degree at least.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01105", "bookId": 8438, "start": 457351, "end": 457676, "sha256": "30ea269ce43fdd596f0af34469cd007ae6a70a8e7d2bceee7b8fa63cf519f39d", "text": "Then again the greater length of time comes in: the parents love their offspring from the first moment of their being, but their offspring them only after a lapse of time when they have attained intelligence or instinct. These considerations serve also to show why mothers have greater strength of affection than fathers.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01106", "bookId": 8438, "start": 457680, "end": 458179, "sha256": "7966d8bf811913afdba69ba11b2bae8f22ed46f48b9c058cd54bf8108fae1dd9", "text": "Now parents love their children as themselves (since what is derived from themselves becomes a kind of other Self by the fact of separation), but children their parents as being sprung from them. And brothers love one another from being sprung from the same; that is, their sameness with the common stock creates a sameness with one another;[7] whence come the phrases, “same blood,” “root,” and so on. In fact they are the same, in a sense, even in the separate distinct individuals.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01107", "bookId": 8438, "start": 458183, "end": 458475, "sha256": "36549351fcc18c84adc3166b532335d10fae4aed3ed6be52805debb7bef1cb3f", "text": "Then again the being brought up together, and the nearness of age, are a great help towards Friendship, for a man likes one of his own age and persons who are used to one another are companions, which accounts for the resemblance between the Friendship of Brothers and that of Companions.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01108", "bookId": 8438, "start": 458479, "end": 458707, "sha256": "c601e04773dde7367264d9b17d9257ce898221c149d1e7d1ed933d3f1ce9b91c", "text": "And cousins and all other relatives derive their bond of union from these, that is to say, from their community of origin: and the strength of this bond varies according to their respective distances from the common ancestor.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01109", "bookId": 8438, "start": 458711, "end": 459041, "sha256": "c2579bb8169eb4d95e87203be212d37096b5da1e18501240516b2d9cf59022df", "text": "Further: the Friendship felt by children towards parents, and by men towards the gods, is as towards something good and above them; because these have conferred the greatest possible benefits, in that they are the causes of their being and being nourished, and of their having been educated after they were brought into being.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01110", "bookId": 8438, "start": 459045, "end": 459793, "sha256": "ebdbc7afa6290fbd1da74bf590376ee380544e0550036087e4624cded817d1b5", "text": "And Friendship of this kind has also the pleasurable and the profitable more than that between persons unconnected by blood, in proportion as their life is also more shared in common. Then again in the Fraternal Friendship there is all that there is in that of Companions, and more in the good, and generally in those who are alike; in proportion as they are more closely tied and from their very birth have a feeling of affection for one another to begin with, and as they are more like in disposition who spring from the same stock and have grown up together and been educated alike: and besides this they have the greatest opportunities in respect of time for proving one another, and can therefore depend most securely upon the trial.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01111", "bookId": 8438, "start": 459797, "end": 460479, "sha256": "b0005615e2a48ff7f0ad018900311f13cadde2518edd092d3c9074033ce85c7b", "text": "Between Husband and Wife there is thought to be Friendship by a law of nature: man being by nature disposed to pair, more than to associate in Communities: in proportion as the family is prior in order of time and more absolutely necessary than the Community. And procreation is more common to him with other animals; all the other animals have Communion thus far, but human creatures cohabit not merely for the sake of procreation but also with a view to life in general::[8] because in this connection the works are immediately divided, and some belong to the man, others to the woman: thus they help one the other, putting what is peculiar to each into the common stock.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01112", "bookId": 8438, "start": 460483, "end": 460892, "sha256": "055c05ab81aea77bcadf3505f987a8c2307776980494534c0884e7570548ba77", "text": "And for these reasons this Friendship is thought to combine the profitable and the pleasurable: it will be also based upon virtue if they are good people; because each has goodness and they may take delight in this quality in each other. Children too are thought to be a tie: accordingly the childless sooner separate, for the children are a good common to both and anything in common is a bond of union.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01113", "bookId": 8438, "start": 460896, "end": 461219, "sha256": "7da834b65f01c0cb1e237f108342edbf9c0142232f1a2fc514f8391f7a7cb7c6", "text": "The question how a man is to live with his wife, or (more generally) one friend with another, appears to be no other than this, how it is just that they should: because plainly there is not the same principle of Justice between a friend and friend, as between strangers, or companions, or mere chance fellow-travellers.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01114", "bookId": 8438, "start": 461223, "end": 461236, "sha256": "588a571e829638e8248bfd35aafd53209c9178c9c58044b9af926b30c5263bc2", "text": "Chapter XIII.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01115", "bookId": 8438, "start": 461240, "end": 461975, "sha256": "70716d3cb198dcfbabc5d5d8f0cc367b9cb63efe14b5ba0e10c56f3c9d5d1e86", "text": "There are then, as was stated at the commencement of this book, three kinds of Friendship, and in each there may be friends on a footing of equality and friends in the relation of superior and inferior; we find, I mean, that people who are alike in goodness, become friends, and better with worse, and so also pleasant people; again, because of advantage people are friends, either balancing exactly their mutual profitableness or differing from one another herein. Well then, those who are equal should in right of this equality be equalised also by the degree of their Friendship and the other points, and those who are on a footing of inequality by rendering Friendship in proportion to the superiority of the other party.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01116", "bookId": 8438, "start": 461979, "end": 462680, "sha256": "88724b95c045c682d3447979f8ab1d6908f32b1d5f3b7ed09b854809e50b1a59", "text": "Fault-finding and blame arises, either solely or most naturally, in Friendship of which utility is the motive: for they who are friends by reason of goodness, are eager to do kindnesses to one another because this is a natural result of goodness and Friendship; and when men are vying with each other for this End there can be no fault-finding nor contention: since no one is annoyed at one who entertains for him the sentiment of Friendship and does kindnesses to him, but if of a refined mind he requites him with kind actions. And suppose that one of the two exceeds the other, yet as he is attaining his object he will not find fault with his friend, for good is the object of each party.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01117", "bookId": 8438, "start": 462684, "end": 463468, "sha256": "f2f780b2bf4a92f8ef4bd4827e3131915705da2fed52c47ce988a0d22ece987e", "text": "Neither can there well be quarrels between men who are friends for pleasure’s sake: because supposing them to delight in living together then both attain their desire; or if not a man would be put in a ridiculous light who should find fault with another for not pleasing him, since it is in his power to forbear intercourse with him. But the Friendship because of advantage is very liable to fault-finding; because, as the parties use one another with a view to advantage, the requirements are continually enlarging, and they think they have less than of right belongs to them, and find fault because though justly entitled they do not get as much as they want: while they who do the kindnesses, can never come up to the requirements of those to whom they are being done.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01118", "bookId": 8438, "start": 463472, "end": 463959, "sha256": "88465ac48c653c15136f073761425cc9c73f46a0ed67b29adfd967f7717d61ea", "text": "It seems also, that as the Just is of two kinds, the unwritten and the legal, so Friendship because of advantage is of two kinds, what may be called the Moral, and the Legal: and the most fruitful source of complaints is that parties contract obligations and discharge them not in the same line of Friendship. The Legal is upon specified conditions, either purely tradesmanlike from hand to hand or somewhat more gentlemanly as regards time but still by agreement a _quid pro quo_.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01119", "bookId": 8438, "start": 463963, "end": 464303, "sha256": "b603472edd43610d5360956fa42971e6170148843174e5c85c9042aa4d58ebba", "text": "In this Legal kind the obligation is clear and admits of no dispute, the friendly element is the delay in requiring its discharge: and for this reason in some countries no actions can be maintained at Law for the recovery of such debts, it being held that they who have dealt on the footing of credit must be content to abide the issue.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01120", "bookId": 8438, "start": 464307, "end": 464639, "sha256": "615e2b10cb72830adc71855f842ab7d6073bee85128017ff5189718803c5df35", "text": "That which may be termed the Moral kind is not upon specified conditions, but a man gives as to his friend and so on: but still he expects to receive an equivalent, or even more, as though he had not given but lent: he also will find fault, because he does not get the obligation discharged in the same way as it was contracted.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01121", "bookId": 8438, "start": 464643, "end": 465732, "sha256": "e5f5b24cc16a3fbed95a47722e9aa1e69faa0c86f0f7637eff00c2dbe4a35650", "text": "Now this results from the fact, that all men, or the generality at least, _wish_ what is honourable, but, when tested, _choose_ what is profitable; and the doing kindnesses disinterestedly is honourable while receiving benefits is profitable. In such cases one should, if able, make a return proportionate to the good received, and do so willingly, because one ought not to make a disinterested friend[9] of a man against his inclination: one should act, I say, as having made a mistake originally in receiving kindness from one from whom one ought not to have received it, he being not a friend nor doing the act disinterestedly; one should therefore discharge one’s self of the obligation as having received a kindness on specified terms: and if able a man would engage to repay the kindness, while if he were unable even the doer of it would not expect it of him: so that if he is able he ought to repay it. But one ought at the first to ascertain from whom one is receiving kindness, and on what understanding, that on that same understanding one may accept it or not.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01122", "bookId": 8438, "start": 465736, "end": 465935, "sha256": "95785c56cb1aa63321d6398e8ca4a47207768a2a653cf13ecf0fca9468cf576a", "text": "A question admitting of dispute is whether one is to measure a kindness by the good done to the receiver of it, and make this the standard by which to requite, or by the kind intention of the doer?", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01123", "bookId": 8438, "start": 465939, "end": 466324, "sha256": "8816659ea22334b52b0fb8363b7d96945eec95741b019d5d70906561aaa6bc8f", "text": "For they who have received kindnesses frequently plead in depreciation that they have received from their benefactors such things as were small for them to give, or such as they themselves could have got from others: while the doers of the kindnesses affirm that they gave the best they had, and what could not have been got from others, and under danger, or in such-like straits.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01124", "bookId": 8438, "start": 466328, "end": 466797, "sha256": "9b2032e74230e9ea873bbd11f9ca8c1849065e1e363ec78ced0746ccf2bd2fa6", "text": "May we not say, that as utility is the motive of the Friendship the advantage conferred on the receiver must be the standard? because he it is who requests the kindness and the other serves him in his need on the understanding that he is to get an equivalent: the assistance rendered is then exactly proportionate to the advantage which the receiver has obtained, and he should therefore repay as much as he gained by it, or even more, this being more creditable.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01125", "bookId": 8438, "start": 466801, "end": 467009, "sha256": "eb069a59f27c5aa996c6fa91585ae269cef58d242c3036987454f358b15efb2d", "text": "In Friendships based on goodness, the question, of course, is never raised, but herein the motive of the doer seems to be the proper standard, since virtue and moral character depend principally on motive.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01126", "bookId": 8438, "start": 467013, "end": 467025, "sha256": "09d996dee640cc1d9a06bd1549a3a944c7cefcc38a34f9f77ddb525af08e9a73", "text": "Chapter XIV.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01127", "bookId": 8438, "start": 467029, "end": 467232, "sha256": "efad03ba156e1b86edd96990d8ee9cc974225c73a284e8aa78d0661f42c6d0ce", "text": "Quarrels arise also in those Friendships in which the parties are unequal because each party thinks himself entitled to the greater share, and of course, when this happens, the Friendship is broken up.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01128", "bookId": 8438, "start": 467236, "end": 467795, "sha256": "2422877c30f71cdbd683974ef5db88f7bd29431b2001e75d88f12e152af39b25", "text": "The man who is better than the other thinks that having the greater share pertains to him of right, for that more is always awarded to the good man: and similarly the man who is more profitable to another than that other to him: “one who is useless,” they say, “ought not to share equally, for it comes to a tax, and not a Friendship, unless the fruits of the Friendship are reaped in proportion to the works done:” their notion being, that as in a money partnership they who contribute more receive more so should it be in Friendship likewise.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01129", "bookId": 8438, "start": 467799, "end": 468078, "sha256": "45838999ef5f555eae162d09284bd42c9ca05c58fa8bc5665c081b214cca1f1a", "text": "On the other hand, the needy man and the less virtuous advance the opposite claim: they urge that “it is the very business of a good friend to help those who are in need, else what is the use of having a good or powerful friend if one is not to reap the advantage at all?”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01130", "bookId": 8438, "start": 468082, "end": 468390, "sha256": "ff1a8fde9a1b1bfea5cd84d5463b0aca2c81ef998d142a19183b9b8dc0452ce7", "text": "Now each seems to advance a right claim and to be entitled to get more out of the connection than the other, only _not more of the same thing_: but the superior man should receive more respect, the needy man more profit: respect being the reward of goodness and beneficence, profit being the aid of need.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01131", "bookId": 8438, "start": 468394, "end": 468996, "sha256": "dd31194082382c250d79671d9c27f96d357226692ecb17a47c8ec9c47c19b70e", "text": "This is plainly the principle acted upon in Political Communities: he receives no honour who gives no good to the common stock: for the property of the Public is given to him who does good to the Public, and honour is the property of the Public; it is not possible both to make money out of the Public and receive honour likewise; because no one will put up with the less in every respect: so to him who suffers loss as regards money they award honour, but money to him who can be paid by gifts: since, as has been stated before, the observing due proportion equalises and preserves Friendship.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01132", "bookId": 8438, "start": 469000, "end": 469524, "sha256": "391918299f7e35323ea1e1e4e9ab53de3086c562ffa091b8b4328f0d2e7a7fae", "text": "Like rules then should be observed in the intercourse of friends who are unequal; and to him who advantages another in respect of money, or goodness, that other should repay honour, making requital according to his power; because Friendship requires what is possible, not what is strictly due, this being not possible in all cases, as in the honours paid to the gods and to parents: no man could ever make the due return in these cases, and so he is thought to be a good man who pays respect according to his ability.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01133", "bookId": 8438, "start": 469528, "end": 470464, "sha256": "ceb48221c44a5a687269928879bead3ba980c0a656f52efe7c6a6ff50e4de55d", "text": "For this reason it may be judged never to be allowable for a son to disown his father, whereas a father may his son: because he that owes is bound to pay; now a son can never, by anything he has done, fully requite the benefits first conferred on him by his father, and so is always a debtor. But they to whom anything is owed may cast off their debtors: therefore the father may his son. But at the same time it must perhaps be admitted, that it seems no father ever _would_ sever himself utterly from a son, except in a case of exceeding depravity: because, independently of the natural Friendship, it is like human nature not to put away from one’s self the assistance which a son might render. But to the son, if depraved, assisting his father is a thing to be avoided, or at least one which he will not be very anxious to do; most men being willing enough to receive kindness, but averse to doing it as unprofitable.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01134", "bookId": 8438, "start": 470468, "end": 470506, "sha256": "e5b6c1e8b401d1a2612a89a745e45706180875f399190f572fb04988710d4b7b", "text": "Let thus much suffice on these points.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01135", "bookId": 8438, "start": 470516, "end": 470523, "sha256": "e6b966299b053526af201ed496866cec384cb65c4a1308d52fdf79957ccbd119", "text": "BOOK IX", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01136", "bookId": 8438, "start": 470527, "end": 470537, "sha256": "5a35eafc731a2640e14da7e928f9e9a89afe4fe2a1f9a9a349887b8fb6d795cd", "text": "Chapter I.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01137", "bookId": 8438, "start": 470543, "end": 471966, "sha256": "fc628b80bd6acd6d4cee86a6741d273e6428b6e7eaf767a90f8e79e6e133c006", "text": "Well, in all the Friendships the parties to which are dissimilar it is the proportionate which equalises and preserves the Friendship, as has been already stated: I mean, in the Social Friendship the cobbler, for instance, gets an equivalent for his shoes after a certain rate; and the weaver, and all others in like manner. Now in this case a common measure has been provided in money, and to this accordingly all things are referred and by this are measured: but in the Friendship of Love the complaint is sometimes from the lover that, though he loves exceedingly, his love is not requited; he having perhaps all the time nothing that can be the object of Friendship: again, oftentimes from the object of love that he who as a suitor promised any and every thing now performs nothing. These cases occur because the Friendship of the lover for the beloved object is based upon pleasure, that of the other for him upon utility, and in one of the parties the requisite quality is not found: for, as these are respectively the grounds of the Friendship, the Friendship comes to be broken up because the motives to it cease to exist: the parties loved not one another but qualities in one another which are not permanent, and so neither are the Friendships: whereas the Friendship based upon the moral character of the parties, being independent and disinterested, is permanent, as we have already stated.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01138", "bookId": 8438, "start": 471970, "end": 472740, "sha256": "08ab9e4d7cbc34fe726d84a074545c65c3792ef2a7c0cfa9a0e1e089460c966d", "text": "Quarrels arise also when the parties realise different results and not those which they desire; for the not attaining one’s special object is all one, in this case, with getting nothing at all: as in the well-known case where a man made promises to a musician, rising in proportion to the excellence of his music; but when, the next morning, the musician claimed the performance of his promises, he said that he had given him pleasure for pleasure: of course, if each party had intended this, it would have been all right: but if the one desires amusement and the other gain, and the one gets his object but the other not, the dealing cannot be fair: because a man fixes his mind upon what he happens to want, and will give so and so for that specific thing.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01139", "bookId": 8438, "start": 472744, "end": 473224, "sha256": "9f5b4147d7999c04e3b595878efeb458fd410b21b00aa247ce642b1ed70b0c3a", "text": "The question then arises, who is to fix the rate? the man who first gives, or the man who first takes? because, _primâ facie_, the man who first gives seems to leave the rate to be fixed by the other party. This, they say, was in fact the practice of Protagoras: when he taught a man anything he would bid the learner estimate the worth of the knowledge gained by his own private opinion; and then he used to take so much from him. In such cases some people adopt the rule,", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01140", "bookId": 8438, "start": 473228, "end": 473283, "sha256": "fca8ec01d02b6d5d0cd503566664084a8070625bf2c8e911a3753112b85020bc", "text": "“With specified reward a friend should be content.”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01141", "bookId": 8438, "start": 473289, "end": 473758, "sha256": "4d1f7af33e1140f710885ab82629371a8a197c78eb287e89ae05cbcbcc65ad59", "text": "They are certainly fairly found fault with who take the money in advance and then do nothing of what they said they would do, their promises having been so far beyond their ability; for such men do not perform what they agreed, The Sophists, however, are perhaps obliged to take this course, because no one would give a sixpence for their knowledge. These then, I say, are fairly found fault with, because they do not what they have already taken money for doing.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01142", "bookId": 8438, "start": 473762, "end": 474117, "sha256": "88a177c11d5323bcc8bbc19174741415bbd57bb252994df02c0ece4334dab3ef", "text": "In cases where no stipulation as to the respective services is made they who disinterestedly do the first service will not raise the question (as we have said before), because it is the nature of Friendship, based on mutual goodness to be reference to the intention of the other, the intention being characteristic of the true friend and of goodness.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01143", "bookId": 8438, "start": 474121, "end": 474488, "sha256": "449827b0347a3dbe1eac225e652046003d720eb144108551644a8cb270d5e2e0", "text": "And it would seem the same rule should be laid down for those who are connected with one another as teachers and learners of philosophy; for here the value of the commodity cannot be measured by money, and, in fact, an exactly equivalent price cannot be set upon it, but perhaps it is sufficient to do what one can, as in the case of the gods or one’s parents.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01144", "bookId": 8438, "start": 474492, "end": 475909, "sha256": "dbf3a8ce6bfe52c2f4b84a29d608eb2a3910be9b870de2d14655e262177d8261", "text": "But where the original giving is not upon these terms but avowedly for some return, the most proper course is perhaps for the requital to be such as _both_ shall allow to be proportionate, and, where this cannot be, then for the receiver to fix the value would seem to be not only necessary but also fair: because when the first giver gets that which is equivalent to the advantage received by the other, or to what he would have given to secure the pleasure he has had, then he has the value from him: for not only is this seen to be the course adopted in matters of buying and selling but also in some places the law does not allow of actions upon voluntary dealings; on the principle that when one man has trusted another he must be content to have the obligation discharged in the same spirit as he originally contracted it: that is to say, it is thought fairer for the trusted, than for the trusting, party, to fix the value. For, in general, those who have and those who wish to get things do not set the same value on them: what is their own, and what they give in each case, appears to them worth a great deal: but yet the return is made according to the estimate of those who have received first, it should perhaps be added that the receiver should estimate what he has received, not by the value he sets upon it now that he has it, but by that which he set upon it before he obtained it.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01145", "bookId": 8438, "start": 475913, "end": 475924, "sha256": "9ce6d96fa540de49002e2340d430460f2ee679453301a35db1cf5cf6c0ed967f", "text": "Chapter II.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01146", "bookId": 8438, "start": 475928, "end": 476217, "sha256": "7c0c812aa6a34e06c62a8e4cf5ac350542b1f5d84a3c6985cfeb561ba8fe40ac", "text": "Questions also arise upon such points as the following: Whether one’s father has an unlimited claim on one’s services and obedience, or whether the sick man is to obey his physician? or, in an election of a general, the warlike qualities of the candidates should be alone regarded?", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01147", "bookId": 8438, "start": 476221, "end": 476440, "sha256": "df9f27ea613d60e2daf2768f8d5bc20256426544ac4676d136e4cfb2dc17132b", "text": "In like manner whether one should do a service rather to one’s friend or to a good man? whether one should rather requite a benefactor or give to one’s companion, supposing that both are not within one’s power?", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01148", "bookId": 8438, "start": 476444, "end": 477360, "sha256": "beceecec38358e1837f4941e63efc74e940f6a928e7ee6169c4d50e180ce8565", "text": "Is not the true answer that it is no easy task to determine all such questions accurately, inasmuch as they involve numerous differences of all kinds, in respect of amount and what is honourable and what is necessary? It is obvious, of course, that no one person can unite in himself all claims. Again, the requital of benefits is, in general, a higher duty than doing unsolicited kindnesses to one’s companion; in other words, the discharging of a debt is more obligatory upon one than the duty of giving to a companion. And yet this rule may admit of exceptions; for instance, which is the higher duty? for one who has been ransomed out of the hands of robbers to ransom in return his ransomer, be he who he may, or to repay him on his demand though he has not been taken by robbers, or to ransom his own father? for it would seem that a man ought to ransom his father even in preference to himself.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01149", "bookId": 8438, "start": 477364, "end": 477884, "sha256": "b3a733c0afc7f8cd16da271ebd658356495a7f6639439cef182be6c8b035fb50", "text": "Well then, as has been said already, as a general rule the debt should be discharged, but if in a particular case the giving greatly preponderates as being either honourable or necessary, we must be swayed by these considerations: I mean, in some cases the requital of the obligation previously existing may not be equal; suppose, for instance, that the original benefactor has conferred a kindness on a good man, knowing him to be such, whereas this said good man has to repay it believing him to be a scoundrel.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01150", "bookId": 8438, "start": 477888, "end": 478883, "sha256": "9440e5f9f2d9dbdf009231060842cdca44d55690dba8414a91b37feb39d08b97", "text": "And again, in certain cases no obligation lies on a man to lend to one who has lent to him; suppose, for instance, that a bad man lent to him, as being a good man, under the notion that he should get repaid, whereas the said good man has no hope of repayment from him being a bad man. Either then the case is really as we have supposed it and then the claim is not equal, or it is not so but supposed to be; and still in so acting people are not to be thought to act wrongly. In short, as has been oftentimes stated before, all statements regarding feelings and actions can be definite only in proportion as their object-matter is so; it is of course quite obvious that all people have not the same claim upon one, nor are the claims of one’s father unlimited; just as Jupiter does not claim all kinds of sacrifice without distinction: and since the claims of parents, brothers, companions, and benefactors, are all different, we must give to each what belongs to and befits each.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01151", "bookId": 8438, "start": 478887, "end": 479218, "sha256": "2eff531e830b4659afc3035b94b3120b0842e533d4374f8046abd3256fbef1db", "text": "And this is seen to be the course commonly pursued: to marriages men commonly invite their relatives, because these are from a common stock and therefore all the actions in any way pertaining thereto are common also: and to funerals men think that relatives ought to assemble in preference to other people, for the same reason.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01152", "bookId": 8438, "start": 479222, "end": 479803, "sha256": "4c8afd14710d2c8100ac1757cd7c0f8e15f5185257f601699adcc58eef0b11e7", "text": "And it would seem that in respect of maintenance it is our duty to assist our parents in preference to all others, as being their debtors, and because it is more honourable to succour in these respects the authors of our existence than ourselves. Honour likewise we ought to pay to our parents just as to the gods, but then, not all kinds of honour: not the same, for instance, to a father as to a mother: nor again to a father the honour due to a scientific man or to a general but that which is a father’s due, and in like manner to a mother that which is a mother’s.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01153", "bookId": 8438, "start": 479807, "end": 480611, "sha256": "38d269ba3a135249b8dc7dbaece7876c83aa3e5603866ef25fa97e2b837a74af", "text": "To all our elders also the honour befitting their age, by rising up in their presence, turning out of the way for them, and all similar marks of respect: to our companions again, or brothers, frankness and free participation in all we have. And to those of the same family, or tribe, or city, with ourselves, and all similarly connected with us, we should constantly try to render their due, and to discriminate what belongs to each in respect of nearness of connection, or goodness, or intimacy: of course in the case of those of the same class the discrimination is easier; in that of those who are in different classes it is a matter of more trouble. This, however, should not be a reason for giving up the attempt, but we must observe the distinctions so far as it is practicable to do so.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01154", "bookId": 8438, "start": 480615, "end": 480627, "sha256": "c8c3757d774efbadade98d84b627377e281082435aed3cf63f66253a8af48e64", "text": "Chapter III.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01155", "bookId": 8438, "start": 480631, "end": 480810, "sha256": "7ba45142c0a56ff53c3c097db855542269a3d1a558cea84d7268ece721c3d225", "text": "A question is also raised as to the propriety of dissolving or not dissolving those Friendships the parties to which do not remain what they were when the connection was formed.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01156", "bookId": 8438, "start": 480814, "end": 481179, "sha256": "44c8cb4fc78016588a7810df3f9baa46a11a4ec6730a9de5d3c701933e723832", "text": "Now surely in respect of those whose motive to Friendship is utility or pleasure there can be nothing wrong in breaking up the connection when they no longer have those qualities; because they were friends [not of one another, but] of those qualities: and, these having failed, it is only reasonable to expect that they should cease to entertain the sentiment.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01157", "bookId": 8438, "start": 481183, "end": 481529, "sha256": "95af8bd3d9f71c5d66bb03b3a25de720ebe07e0e0e638e81e57c79d769bc16c2", "text": "But a man has reason to find fault if the other party, being really attached to him because of advantage or pleasure, pretended to be so because of his moral character: in fact, as we said at the commencement, the most common source of quarrels between friends is their not being friends on the same grounds as they suppose themselves to be.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01158", "bookId": 8438, "start": 481533, "end": 482008, "sha256": "bad0448962ad75b0c64036087a96d5163998d467ea805d6c1f5495ac53cc6a8e", "text": "Now when a man has been deceived in having supposed himself to excite the sentiment of Friendship by reason of his moral character, the other party doing nothing to indicate he has but himself to blame: but when he has been deceived by the pretence of the other he has a right to find fault with the man who has so deceived him, aye even more than with utterers of false coin, in proportion to the greater preciousness of that which is the object-matter of the villany.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01159", "bookId": 8438, "start": 482012, "end": 482575, "sha256": "cf1587a1fc2dac2834392d2239b3471ba9352d88772b84ba541420ffa718e4eb", "text": "But suppose a man takes up another as being a good man, who turns out, and is found by him, to be a scoundrel, is he bound still to entertain Friendship for him? or may we not say at once it is impossible? since it is not everything which is the object-matter of Friendship, but only that which is good; and so there is no obligation to be a bad man’s friend, nor, in fact, ought one to be such: for one ought not to be a lover of evil, nor to be assimilated to what is base; which would be implied, because we have said before, like is friendly to like.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01160", "bookId": 8438, "start": 482579, "end": 483166, "sha256": "ba88d211ede1745255845f07adca5ec9809f247c79d8369c714abb6638e99244", "text": "Are we then to break with him instantly? not in all cases; only where our friends are incurably depraved; when there is a chance of amendment we are bound to aid in repairing the moral character of our friends even more than their substance, in proportion as it is better and more closely related to Friendship. Still he who should break off the connection is not to be judged to act wrongly, for he never was a friend to such a character as the other now is, and therefore, since the man is changed and he cannot reduce him to his original state, he backs out of the connection.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01161", "bookId": 8438, "start": 483170, "end": 483417, "sha256": "73397534f0f9c2f977bedf7f7e9d8510881a0921218f48dce87d454a4621e803", "text": "To put another case: suppose that one party remains what he was when the Friendship was formed, while the other becomes morally improved and widely different from his friend in goodness; is the improved character to treat the other as a friend?", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01162", "bookId": 8438, "start": 483421, "end": 484028, "sha256": "0ebd4c77e0770fb58f0db82d40881544ce95e9259de5eebb8807d03588c7067b", "text": "May we not say it is impossible? The case of course is clearest where there is a great difference, as in the Friendships of boys: for suppose that of two boyish friends the one still continues a boy in mind and the other becomes a man of the highest character, how can they be friends? since they neither are pleased with the same objects nor like and dislike the same things: for these points will not belong to them as regards one another, and without them it was assumed they cannot be friends because they cannot live in intimacy: and of the case of those who cannot do so we have spoken before.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01163", "bookId": 8438, "start": 484032, "end": 484191, "sha256": "dcd275a542ad55e456d15af1603a545c3d120a8701ec0aee0f62e3e91eee83bf", "text": "Well then, is the improved party to bear himself towards his former friend in no way differently to what he would have done had the connection never existed?", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01164", "bookId": 8438, "start": 484195, "end": 484544, "sha256": "e7dce174902e46072bd03c4cd4e5d7456bbc309be5b1a160adf31a96bdd102d0", "text": "Surely he ought to bear in mind the intimacy of past times, and just as we think ourselves bound to do favours for our friends in preference to strangers, so to those who have been friends and are so no longer we should allow somewhat on the score of previous Friendship, whenever the cause of severance is not excessive depravity on their part.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01165", "bookId": 8438, "start": 484548, "end": 484559, "sha256": "3186d98bcee8266853ace5b1a5e20557973e585ee48419d596c2b2610a3f68b2", "text": "Chapter IV.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01166", "bookId": 8438, "start": 484563, "end": 484745, "sha256": "eead2d59be83576283745b449f1a7379992822950c813abc99aed9db6fef943f", "text": "Now the friendly feelings which are exhibited towards our friends, and by which Friendships are characterised, seem to have sprung out of those which we entertain toward ourselves.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01167", "bookId": 8438, "start": 484749, "end": 485291, "sha256": "c47e1ec4be554123a5d5bb5ba1caa8db6a6f7953682c52d2de26a310bfe0f23b", "text": "I mean, people define a friend to be “one who intends and does what is good (or what he believes to be good) to another for that other’s sake,” or “one who wishes his friend to be and to live for that friend’s own sake” (which is the feeling of mothers towards their children, and of friends who have come into collision). Others again, “one who lives with another and chooses the same objects,” or “one who sympathises with his friend in his sorrows and in his joys” (this too is especially the case with mothers).", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01168", "bookId": 8438, "start": 485295, "end": 485604, "sha256": "e4baa5e8658acc5b3443531a8e0bd267a27b923e4c489c65e4bcd6890f7003f4", "text": "Well, by some one of these marks people generally characterise Friendship: and each of these the good man has towards himself, and all others have them in so far as they suppose themselves to be good. (For, as has been said before, goodness, that is the good man, seems to be a measure to every one else.)", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01169", "bookId": 8438, "start": 485608, "end": 486186, "sha256": "af4aa1962fec9ac2c49f8706df742a12abeb5d0339c34ded460615c2f133ab69", "text": "For he is at unity in himself, and with every part of his soul he desires the same objects; and he wishes for himself both what is, and what he believes to be, good; and he does it (it being characteristic of the good man to work at what is good), and for the sake of himself, inasmuch as he does it for the sake of his Intellectual Principle which is generally thought to be a man’s Self. Again, he wishes himself And specially this Principle whereby he is an intelligent being, to live and be preserved in life, because existence is a good to him that is a good man.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01170", "bookId": 8438, "start": 486190, "end": 486699, "sha256": "7f67229d01b9020bcc6a94a778e1d57c042db1340bf646b1c05434fb220a8aa5", "text": "But it is to himself that each individual wishes what is good, and no man, conceiving the possibility of his becoming other than he now is, chooses that that New Self should have all things indiscriminately: a god, for instance, has at the present moment the Chief Good, but he has it in right of being whatever he actually now is: and the Intelligent Principle must be judged to be each man’s Self, or at least eminently so [though other Principles help, of course, to constitute him the man he is].", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01171", "bookId": 8438, "start": 486703, "end": 487959, "sha256": "c93492b34e4cefcebfb7cc7580bdbaf4a01a686b69c5dea26fff33c0adbc3da3", "text": "Furthermore, the good man wishes to continue to live with himself; for he can do it with pleasure, in that his memories of past actions are full of delight and his anticipations of the future are good and such are pleasurable. Then, again, he has good store of matter for his Intellect to contemplate, and he most especially sympathises with his Self in its griefs and joys, because the objects which give him pain and pleasure are at all times the same, not one thing to-day and a different one to-morrow: because he is not given to repentance,[1] if one may so speak. It is then because each of these feelings are entertained by the good man towards his own Self and a friend feels towards a friend as towards himself (a friend being in fact another Self), that Friendship is thought to be some one of these things and they are accounted friends in whom they are found. Whether or no there can really be Friendship between a man and his Self is a question we will not at present entertain: there may be thought to be Friendship, in so far as there are two or more of the aforesaid requisites, and because the highest degree of Friendship, in the usual acceptation of that term, resembles the feeling entertained by a man towards himself.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01172", "bookId": 8438, "start": 487963, "end": 488103, "sha256": "1d93d15d4f219eea6c0680d2a62f9c975a5e16da54ebd681a4590f12a2246d7f", "text": "But it may be urged that the aforesaid requisites are to all appearance found in the common run of men, though they are men of a low stamp.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01173", "bookId": 8438, "start": 488107, "end": 489331, "sha256": "2ae458e8583b5028ee570e5e22960355c24a51b64d51499025c57f9e2d0be960", "text": "May it not be answered, that they share in them only in so far as they please themselves, and conceive themselves to be good? for certainly, they are not either really, or even apparently, found in any one of those who are very depraved and villainous; we may almost say not even in those who are bad men at all: for they are at variance with themselves and lust after different things from those which in cool reason they wish for, just as men who fail of Self-Control: I mean, they choose things which, though hurtful, are pleasurable, in preference to those which in their own minds they believe to be good: others again, from cowardice and indolence, decline to do what still they are convinced is best for them: while they who from their depravity have actually done many dreadful actions hate and avoid life, and accordingly kill themselves: and the wicked seek others in whose company to spend their time, but fly from themselves because they have many unpleasant subjects of memory, and can only look forward to others like them when in solitude but drown their remorse in the company of others: and as they have nothing to raise the sentiment of Friendship so they never feel it towards themselves.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01174", "bookId": 8438, "start": 489335, "end": 490032, "sha256": "237bbfbac47d5771deb41fc410724f320b64748afe143c8c8944b7791301c0d9", "text": "Neither, in fact, can they who are of this character sympathise with their Selves in their joys and sorrows, because their soul is, as it were, rent by faction, and the one principle, by reason of the depravity in them, is grieved at abstaining from certain things, while the other and better principle is pleased thereat; and the one drags them this way and the other that way, as though actually tearing them asunder.[2] And though it is impossible actually to have at the same time the sensations of pain and pleasure; yet after a little time the man is sorry for having been pleased, and he could wish that those objects had not given him pleasure; for the wicked are full of remorse.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01175", "bookId": 8438, "start": 490036, "end": 490434, "sha256": "320704a493a697fc12d294c4325f5fd61278da7125d5dcf1d3da7c33516d70ef", "text": "It is plain then that the wicked man cannot be in the position of a friend even towards himself, because he has in himself nothing which can excite the sentiment of Friendship. If then to be thus is exceedingly wretched it is a man’s duty to flee from wickedness with all his might and to strive to be good, because thus may he be friends with himself and may come to be a friend to another.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01176", "bookId": 8438, "start": 490438, "end": 490448, "sha256": "89204e68d094a6a77f968119f40fec5f77d7676bf38cb1b47cd0ab87d3d2fea2", "text": "Chapter V.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01177", "bookId": 8438, "start": 490452, "end": 491256, "sha256": "6643a9b6914fba982e3b3b80b86bd578c56edad8e89a74949be04fdcf1b7c866", "text": "Kindly Feeling, though resembling Friendship, is not identical with it, because it may exist in reference to those whom we do not know and without the object of it being aware of its existence, which Friendship cannot. (This, by the way, has also been said before.) And further, it is not even Affection because it does not imply intensity nor yearning, which are both consequences of Affection. Again Affection requires intimacy but Kindly Feeling may arise quite suddenly, as happens sometimes in respect of men against whom people are matched in any way, I mean they come to be kindly disposed to them and sympathise in their wishes, but still they would not join them in any action, because, as we said, they conceive this feeling of kindness suddenly and so have but a superficial liking.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01178", "bookId": 8438, "start": 491260, "end": 492313, "sha256": "fae61dae1b58e6a3a103cf6f33c020421e2fdbe3e3ff12d17b1f15adc623f810", "text": "What it does seem to be is the starting point of a Friendship; just as pleasure, received through the sight, is the commencement of Love: for no one falls in love without being first pleased with the personal appearance of the beloved object, and yet he who takes pleasure in it does not therefore necessarily love, but when he wearies for the object in its absence and desires its presence. Exactly in the same way men cannot be friends without having passed through the stage of Kindly Feeling, and yet they who are in that stage do not necessarily advance to Friendship: they merely have an inert wish for the good of those toward whom they entertain the feeling, but would not join them in any action, nor put themselves out of the way for them. So that, in a metaphorical way of speaking, one might say that it is dormant Friendship, and when it has endured for a space and ripened into intimacy comes to be real Friendship; but not that whose object is advantage or pleasure, because such motives cannot produce even Kindly Feeling.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01179", "bookId": 8438, "start": 492317, "end": 492705, "sha256": "25aa1e1d65f2469d4c97fe8b462aee9a174b4dba20a3ee73ad07b1eccf74018c", "text": "I mean, he who has received a kindness requites it by Kindly Feeling towards his benefactor, and is right in so doing: but he who wishes another to be prosperous, because he has hope of advantage through his instrumentality, does not seem to be kindly disposed to that person but rather to himself; just as neither is he his friend if he pays court to him for any interested purpose.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01180", "bookId": 8438, "start": 492709, "end": 492944, "sha256": "45b6ce78d5fd1ccba485e483b1a0bae516808fbb745ccca2e793678d317653d9", "text": "Kindly Feeling always arises by reason of goodness and a certain amiability, when one man gives another the notion of being a fine fellow, or brave man, etc., as we said was the case sometimes with those matched against one another.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01181", "bookId": 8438, "start": 492948, "end": 492959, "sha256": "bb240dadd686b141825e647280d2d4b72d5f6bbd0f26d00f1faf792e029c0892", "text": "Chapter VI.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01182", "bookId": 8438, "start": 492963, "end": 493153, "sha256": "711f3f072681f964521b91474218c01891ed93cb929e4b78412dc496aec86b4f", "text": "Unity of Sentiment is also plainly connected with Friendship, and therefore is not the same as Unity of Opinion, because this might exist even between people unacquainted with one another.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01183", "bookId": 8438, "start": 493157, "end": 493580, "sha256": "00fac17e8835d5e12ad6d61ae10e499f1effcae5250c88546b1f9c4e94a79f4e", "text": "Nor do men usually say people are united in sentiment merely because they agree in opinion on _any_ point, as, for instance, on points of astronomical science (Unity of Sentiment herein not having any connection with Friendship), but they say that Communities have Unity of Sentiment when they agree respecting points of expediency and take the same line and carry out what has been determined in common consultation.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01184", "bookId": 8438, "start": 493584, "end": 494375, "sha256": "5b9f057902e0a8f1faa2357b98cc5aea43df816b8aeaef524df649d5dfc00ad7", "text": "Thus we see that Unity of Sentiment has for its object matters of action, and such of these as are of importance, and of mutual, or, in the case of single States, common, interest: when, for instance, all agree in the choice of magistrates, or forming alliance with the Lacedæmonians, or appointing Pittacus ruler (that is to say, supposing he himself was willing). But when each wishes himself to be in power (as the brothers in the Phœnissæ), they quarrel and form parties: for, plainly, Unity of Sentiment does not merely imply that each entertains the same idea be it what it may, but that they do so in respect of the same object, as when both the populace and the sensible men of a State desire that the best men should be in office, because then all attain their object.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01185", "bookId": 8438, "start": 494379, "end": 494536, "sha256": "65dc2bb26feae5cbc3d4a32e814df76042854e48f019c6d90e492bb578434d2b", "text": "Thus Unity of Sentiment is plainly a social Friendship, as it is also said to be: since it has for its object-matter things expedient and relating to life.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01186", "bookId": 8438, "start": 494540, "end": 494867, "sha256": "082e069cde97b02a37bb75c20e03614423f808fcf1e18a74d8b139304b38686a", "text": "And this Unity exists among the good: for they have it towards themselves and towards one another, being, if I may be allowed the expression, in the same position: I mean, the wishes of such men are steady and do not ebb and flow like the Euripus, and they wish what is just and expedient and aim at these things in common.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01187", "bookId": 8438, "start": 494871, "end": 495402, "sha256": "5d31a4c0861b74fef1848d2ce5bf9139daa874d449ebe9b94cb3983e19111211", "text": "The bad, on the contrary, can as little have Unity of Sentiment as they can be real friends, except to a very slight extent, desiring as they do unfair advantage in things profitable while they shirk labour and service for the common good: and while each man wishes for these things for himself he is jealous of and hinders his neighbour: and as they do not watch over the common good it is lost. The result is that they quarrel while they are for keeping one another to work but are not willing to perform their just share.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01188", "bookId": 8438, "start": 495406, "end": 495418, "sha256": "e3a88405865f388fd2bbf6c4cfc5874d7991e8951df2fcbc0435b1fbb2f839f3", "text": "Chapter VII.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01189", "bookId": 8438, "start": 495422, "end": 495635, "sha256": "700c1c20d4fa5992e89d90556389e03bd126f5dea09fcacfd145e3e0fb8448da", "text": "Benefactors are commonly held to have more Friendship for the objects of their kindness than these for them: and the fact is made a subject of discussion and enquiry, as being contrary to reasonable expectation.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01190", "bookId": 8438, "start": 495639, "end": 496144, "sha256": "91e504e1d4eabb4ec1199fc4018757b4f84f54c0afd01a6121eec82500e3568c", "text": "The account of the matter which satisfies most persons is that the one are debtors and the others creditors: and therefore that, as in the case of actual loans the debtors wish their creditors out of the way while the creditors are anxious for the preservation of their debtors, so those who have done kindnesses desire the continued existence of the people they have done them to, under the notion of getting a return of their good offices, while these are not particularly anxious about requital.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01191", "bookId": 8438, "start": 496148, "end": 496417, "sha256": "637b74f3f3af230560fe6051b6de617f0a8f48b69e336e3d5a2ecbf501b274d8", "text": "Epicharmus, I suspect, would very probably say that they who give this solution judge from their own baseness; yet it certainly is like human nature, for the generality of men have short memories on these points, and aim rather at receiving than conferring benefits.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01192", "bookId": 8438, "start": 496421, "end": 496883, "sha256": "ada5cf2f829925f4f0feddd1bc69e29a49c623be96cbfd521c90b94163b45110", "text": "But the real cause, it would seem, rests upon nature, and the case is not parallel to that of creditors; because in this there is no affection to the persons, but merely a wish for their preservation with a view to the return: whereas, in point of fact, they who have done kindnesses feel friendship and love for those to whom they have done them, even though they neither are, nor can by possibility hereafter be, in a position to serve their benefactors.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01193", "bookId": 8438, "start": 496887, "end": 497379, "sha256": "f2632663205b6da952156a16ffa1fa4b3ae77357d83d95fad0339e3d2fed8014", "text": "And this is the case also with artisans; every one, I mean, feels more affection for his own work than that work possibly could for him if it were animate. It is perhaps specially the case with poets: for these entertain very great affection for their poems, loving them as their own children. It is to this kind of thing I should be inclined to compare the case of benefactors: for the object of their kindness is their own work, and so they love this more than this loves its creator.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01194", "bookId": 8438, "start": 497383, "end": 497786, "sha256": "149a2b59a1d9d17d5d92e39eba2a3f475c174e4ac9b1ccc97ffb82b017aa5e15", "text": "And the account of this is that existence is to all a thing choice-worthy and an object of affection; now we exist by acts of working, that is, by living and acting; he then that has created a given work exists, it may be said, by his act of working: therefore he loves his work because he loves existence. And this is natural, for the work produced displays in act what existed before potentially.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01195", "bookId": 8438, "start": 497790, "end": 498118, "sha256": "97d14797d0637b4b7a2efa049f21af8721d1983d930cf8e710490a4011947443", "text": "Then again, the benefactor has a sense of honour in right of his action, so that he may well take pleasure in him in whom this resides; but to him who has received the benefit there is nothing honourable in respect of his benefactor, only something advantageous which is both less pleasant and less the object of Friendship.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01196", "bookId": 8438, "start": 498122, "end": 498521, "sha256": "7710e4202f9b11a99f1940fa97dc21175e74a9bb385b1773b6785afb3e133574", "text": "Again, pleasure is derived from the actual working out of a present action, from the anticipation of a future one, and from the recollection of a past one: but the highest pleasure and special object of affection is that which attends on the actual working. Now the benefactor’s work abides (for the honourable is enduring), but the advantage of him who has received the kindness passes away.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01197", "bookId": 8438, "start": 498525, "end": 498734, "sha256": "9e88dabfb38aea45140f5e31b7c7e522257244588aeca009345fdca0c5900ae9", "text": "Again, there is pleasure in recollecting honourable actions, but in recollecting advantageous ones there is none at all or much less (by the way though, the contrary is true of the expectation of advantage).", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01198", "bookId": 8438, "start": 498738, "end": 498879, "sha256": "c099641d64662dab96f69f432851898e7e11dfa141877f99e4894d9744c47313", "text": "Further, the entertaining the feeling of Friendship is like acting on another; but being the object of the feeling is like being acted upon.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01199", "bookId": 8438, "start": 498883, "end": 499052, "sha256": "c56b25e5fa6271d3ca464442142255e6e62c19ae013b4ae3e78623ffb8522b4b", "text": "So then, entertaining the sentiment of Friendship, and all feelings connected with it, attend on those who, in the given case of a benefaction, are the superior party.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01200", "bookId": 8438, "start": 499056, "end": 499580, "sha256": "715fad9f5a316803e14ff25b67d368e151e4b89aa0000555e16279efb34cb7a7", "text": "Once more: all people value most what has cost them much labour in the production; for instance, people who have themselves made their money are fonder of it than those who have inherited it: and receiving kindness is, it seems, unlaborious, but doing it is laborious. And this is the reason why the female parents are most fond of their offspring; for their part in producing them is attended with most labour, and they know more certainly that they are theirs. This feeling would seem also to belong to benefactors.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01201", "bookId": 8438, "start": 499584, "end": 499597, "sha256": "d004d8c3a629800899066ec30aebdc9b11ed7932971144d5b44dd4b9f1c6f736", "text": "Chapter VIII.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01202", "bookId": 8438, "start": 499601, "end": 500154, "sha256": "221c606ede1341e38c7d8c8a6983e579bc4553a9e8dc583ffa6f9c7e632c7795", "text": "A question is also raised as to whether it is right to love one’s Self best, or some one else: because men find fault with those who love themselves best, and call them in a disparaging way lovers of Self; and the bad man is thought to do everything he does for his own sake merely, and the more so the more depraved he is; accordingly men reproach him with never doing anything unselfish: whereas the good man acts from a sense of honour (and the more so the better man he is), and for his friend’s sake, and is careless of his own interest.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01203", "bookId": 8438, "start": 500158, "end": 501064, "sha256": "ce687ff70ed6a9055d99534dc309697d99a5fa58d1923daa2509040208f2a782", "text": "But with these theories facts are at variance, and not unnaturally: for it is commonly said also that a man is to love most him who is most his friend, and he is most a friend who wishes good to him to whom he wishes it for that man’s sake even though no one knows. Now these conditions, and in fact all the rest by which a friend is characterised, belong specially to each individual in respect of his Self: for we have said before that all the friendly feelings are derived to others from those which have Self primarily for their object. And all the current proverbs support this view; for instance, “one soul,” “the goods of friends are common,” “equality is a tie of Friendship,” “the knee is nearer than the shin.” For all these things exist specially with reference to a man’s own Self: he is specially a friend to himself and so he is bound to love himself the most.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01204", "bookId": 8438, "start": 501068, "end": 501438, "sha256": "1dbc6f31cbe1d5f22b42469d8c5c1d2155deefb9e890bd9bc2bc4fbc25209484", "text": "It is with good reason questioned which of the two parties one should follow, both having plausibility on their side. Perhaps then, in respect of theories of this kind, the proper course is to distinguish and define how far each is true, and in what way. If we could ascertain the sense in which each uses the term “Self-loving,” this point might be cleared up.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01205", "bookId": 8438, "start": 501442, "end": 502110, "sha256": "c73eb34803f006738e6f4612672f941bbda57a1ff233262396f5dd2707457bbb", "text": "Well now, they who use it disparagingly give the name to those who, in respect of wealth, and honours, and pleasures of the body, give to themselves the larger share: because the mass of mankind grasp after these and are earnest about them as being the best things; which is the reason why they are matters of contention. They who are covetous in regard to these gratify their lusts and passions in general, that is to say the irrational part of their soul: now the mass of mankind are so disposed, for which reason the appellation has taken its rise from that mass which is low and bad. Of course they are justly reproached who are Self-loving in this sense.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01206", "bookId": 8438, "start": 502114, "end": 502535, "sha256": "fac6682edf499cc9ff290874ff624b63b67bedd7a096477a7d8b81f7b7a86f57", "text": "And that the generality of men are accustomed to apply the term to denominate those who do give such things to themselves is quite plain: suppose, for instance, that a man were anxious to do, more than other men, acts of justice, or self-mastery, or any other virtuous acts, and, in general, were to secure to himself that which is abstractedly noble and honourable, no one would call him Self-loving, nor blame him.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01207", "bookId": 8438, "start": 502539, "end": 503011, "sha256": "154f396fcfe3eabd505b41e279451289fba22f5f398accda2d2a4ad71a4ff1bc", "text": "Yet might such an one be judged to be more truly Self-loving: certainly he gives to himself the things which are most noble and most good, and gratifies that Principle of his nature which is most rightfully authoritative, and obeys it in everything: and just as that which possesses the highest authority is thought to constitute a Community or any other system, so also in the case of Man: and so he is most truly Self-loving who loves and gratifies this Principle.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01208", "bookId": 8438, "start": 503015, "end": 503328, "sha256": "e27759fce5ec073d48275d08ca1d70fb941c3835186818ed30c4cb22eb03b354", "text": "Again, men are said to have, or to fail of having, self-control, according as the Intellect controls or not, it being plainly implied thereby that this Principle constitutes each individual; and people are thought to have done of themselves, and voluntarily, those things specially which are done with Reason.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01209", "bookId": 8438, "start": 503332, "end": 503764, "sha256": "1094f097aec58a16093fdda47b0382f675a7b478e95fe1df3ea40ca500d45dd3", "text": "It is plain, therefore, that this Principle does, either entirely or specially constitute the individual man, and that the good man specially loves this. For this reason then he must be specially Self-loving, in a kind other than that which is reproached, and as far superior to it as living in accordance with Reason is to living at the beck and call of passion, and aiming at the truly noble to aiming at apparent advantage.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01210", "bookId": 8438, "start": 503768, "end": 504143, "sha256": "ecdb37d3dd4e3c249d82e778fef1683a1a52f24ae34208fde987379a79b6a502", "text": "Now all approve and commend those who are eminently earnest about honourable actions, and if all would vie with one another in respect of the καλὸν, and be intent upon doing what is most truly noble and honourable, society at large would have all that is proper while each individual in particular would have the greatest of goods, Virtue being assumed to be such.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01211", "bookId": 8438, "start": 504147, "end": 504648, "sha256": "816aeab51898f97092fe031cca299db1d955953759dae468f9db876c6a27d75b", "text": "And so the good man ought to be Self-loving: because by doing what is noble he will have advantage himself and will do good to others: but the bad man ought not to be, because he will harm himself and his neighbours by following low and evil passions. In the case of the bad man, what he ought to do and what he does are at variance, but the good man does what he ought to do, because all Intellect chooses what is best for itself and the good man puts himself under the direction of Intellect.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01212", "bookId": 8438, "start": 504652, "end": 505900, "sha256": "ee073dc03c75bbfc73b097976290194bde4f68dbf52548fa921790cc9d4ba1b8", "text": "Of the good man it is true likewise that he does many things for the sake of his friends and his country, even to the extent of dying for them, if need be: for money and honours, and, in short, all the good things which others fight for, he will throw away while eager to secure to himself the καλὸν: he will prefer a brief and great joy to a tame and enduring one, and to live nobly for one year rather than ordinarily for many, and one great and noble action to many trifling ones. And this is perhaps that which befals men who die for their country and friends; they choose great glory for themselves: and they will lavish their own money that their friends may receive more, for hereby the friend gets the money but the man himself the καλὸν; so, in fact he gives to himself the greater good. It is the same with honours and offices; all these things he will give up to his friend, because this reflects honour and praise on himself: and so with good reason is he esteemed a fine character since he chooses the honourable before all things else. It is possible also to give up the opportunities of action to a friend; and to have caused a friend’s doing a thing may be more noble than having done it one’s self.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01213", "bookId": 8438, "start": 505904, "end": 506112, "sha256": "d86c2a42da98fd31d21f5627bc7734971bcf1a057d22864c5aa0829ebe99fe2a", "text": "In short, in all praiseworthy things the good man does plainly give to himself a larger share of the honourable. In this sense it is right to be Self-loving, in the vulgar acceptation of the term it is not.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01214", "bookId": 8438, "start": 506116, "end": 506127, "sha256": "592ec521344802b54bcc4f362dcb57feb55da0d05682ea5774b06c9cd5ee0ce4", "text": "Chapter IX.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01215", "bookId": 8438, "start": 506131, "end": 506220, "sha256": "baab2eb4fb1861256039dfda63dc8ff9617820dfb1fcea85a689c238c8a6279b", "text": "A question is raised also respecting the Happy man, whether he will want Friends, or no?", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01216", "bookId": 8438, "start": 506224, "end": 506542, "sha256": "63b5a5a2732641233172ab8e306dc10119124dfea52ed2475042eaa76b39a725", "text": "Some say that they who are blessed and independent have no need of Friends, for they already have all that is good, and so, as being independent, want nothing further: whereas the notion of a friend’s office is to be as it were a second Self and procure for a man what he cannot get by himself: hence the saying,", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01217", "bookId": 8438, "start": 506546, "end": 506601, "sha256": "e376f176e7d8e5429ded9e25759334130b124b08a2ddcef00df4544d26e311bf", "text": "“When Fortune gives us good, what need we Friends?”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01218", "bookId": 8438, "start": 506607, "end": 506800, "sha256": "fed5b307d26fe19bb7e77f65321064864c45d4a7435c0282e45789669ea7d08e", "text": "On the other hand, it looks absurd, while we are assigning to the Happy man all other good things, not to give him Friends, which are, after all, thought to be the greatest of external goods.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01219", "bookId": 8438, "start": 506804, "end": 507343, "sha256": "cafa4b6bd9336e2cddd156d7438b36874b181c993bccbf625414eecfb0e9167e", "text": "Again, if it is more characteristic of a friend to confer than to receive kindnesses, and if to be beneficent belongs to the good man and to the character of virtue, and if it is more noble to confer kindnesses on friends than strangers, the good man will need objects for his benefactions. And out of this last consideration springs a question whether the need of Friends be greater in prosperity or adversity, since the unfortunate man wants people to do him kindnesses and they who are fortunate want objects for their kind acts.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01220", "bookId": 8438, "start": 507347, "end": 507878, "sha256": "cd989fb74d0e1e5cf9b92de957a1125704e32bd3b0c7f84c9a3675021d036fd3", "text": "Again, it is perhaps absurd to make our Happy man a solitary, because no man would choose the possession of all goods in the world on the condition of solitariness, man being a social animal and formed by nature for living with others: of course the Happy man has this qualification since he has all those things which are good by nature: and it is obvious that the society of friends and good men must be preferable to that of strangers and ordinary people, and we conclude, therefore, that the Happy man does need Friends.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01221", "bookId": 8438, "start": 507882, "end": 508427, "sha256": "6de199ebd3230aaddc7c8d5902b63735ebb739f0cdac84c1de94c78f321af1e4", "text": "But then, what do they mean whom we quoted first, and how are they right? Is it not that the mass of mankind mean by Friends those who are useful? and of course the Happy man will not need such because he has all good things already; neither will he need such as are Friends with a view to the pleasurable, or at least only to a slight extent; because his life, being already pleasurable, does not want pleasure imported from without; and so, since the Happy man does not need Friends of these kinds, he is thought not to need any at all.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01222", "bookId": 8438, "start": 508431, "end": 508645, "sha256": "d435129b9efc39adaee7f9b27e3d821c8d12c725ba2986d1b83abb2af4984ba8", "text": "But it may be, this is not true: for it was stated originally, that Happiness is a kind of Working; now Working plainly is something that must come into being, not be already there like a mere piece of property.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01223", "bookId": 8438, "start": 508649, "end": 509339, "sha256": "ff4feba1354b006ea74bbf1422f9554c58e6af1cb649ac13b55bef33a169c5ce", "text": "If then the being happy consists in living and working, and the good man’s working is in itself excellent and pleasurable (as we said at the commencement of the treatise), and if what is our own reckons among things pleasurable, and if we can view our neighbours better than ourselves and their actions better than we can our own, then the actions of their Friends who are good men are pleasurable to the good; inasmuch as they have both the requisites which are naturally pleasant. So the man in the highest state of happiness will need Friends of this kind, since he desires to contemplate good actions, and actions of his own, which those of his friend, being a good man, are.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01224", "bookId": 8438, "start": 509343, "end": 510044, "sha256": "c09b46e56329f5288dab93d8b1402f4e9c76a89695c126ea5f7bbdc400615981", "text": "Again, common opinion requires that the Happy man live with pleasure to himself: now life is burthensome to a man in solitude, for it is not easy to work continuously by one’s self, but in company with, and in regard to others, it is easier, and therefore the working, being pleasurable in itself will be more continuous (a thing which should be in respect of the Happy man); for the good man, in that he is good takes pleasure in the actions which accord with Virtue and is annoyed at those which spring from Vice, just as a musical man is pleased with beautiful music and annoyed by bad. And besides, as Theognis says, Virtue itself may be improved by practice, from living with the good.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01225", "bookId": 8438, "start": 510048, "end": 511229, "sha256": "199382236b96d5e49f063b9a8aa7d58e6e5f632b515555c03086e0a6eadf7169", "text": "And, upon the following considerations more purely metaphysical, it will probably appear that the good friend is naturally choice-worthy to the good man. We have said before, that whatever is naturally good is also in itself good and pleasant to the good man; now the fact of living, so far as animals are concerned, is characterised generally by the power of sentience, in man it is characterised by that of sentience, or of rationality (the faculty of course being referred to the actual operation of the faculty, certainly the main point is the actual operation of it); so that living seems mainly to consist in the act of sentience or exerting rationality: now the fact of living is in itself one of the things that are good and pleasant (for it is a definite totality, and whatever is such belongs to the nature of good), but what is naturally good is good to the good man: for which reason it seems to be pleasant to all. (Of course one must not suppose a life which is depraved and corrupted, nor one spent in pain, for that which is such is indefinite as are its inherent qualities: however, what is to be said of pain will be clearer in what is to follow.)", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01226", "bookId": 8438, "start": 511233, "end": 512216, "sha256": "1700ee933e001ed6f098a60cdc4a04f131062143d71dcb797b232c9876ae4a73", "text": "If then the fact of living is in itself good and pleasant (and this appears from the fact that all desire it, and specially those who are good and in high happiness; their course of life being most choice-worthy and their existence most choice-worthy likewise), then also he that sees perceives that he sees; and he that hears perceives that he hears; and he that walks perceives that he walks; and in all the other instances in like manner there is a faculty which reflects upon and perceives the fact that we are working, so that we can perceive that we perceive and intellectually know that we intellectually know: but to perceive that we perceive or that we intellectually know is to perceive that we exist, since existence was defined to be perceiving or intellectually knowing. Now to perceive that one lives is a thing pleasant in itself, life being a thing naturally good, and the perceiving of the presence in ourselves of things naturally good being pleasant.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01227", "bookId": 8438, "start": 512220, "end": 512435, "sha256": "93e01e27c84a8c533f3356392a24949f8c755449814a85281daba6ff43fb5e5e", "text": "Therefore the fact of living is choice-worthy, and to the good specially so since existence is good and pleasant to them: for they receive pleasure from the internal consciousness of that which in itself is good.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01228", "bookId": 8438, "start": 512439, "end": 513091, "sha256": "6a05d4126fe24c9a61e0e046fa733ec7b75f9487eecbf7a2629d31b277063a57", "text": "But the good man is to his friend as to himself, friend being but a name for a second Self; therefore as his own existence is choice-worthy to each so too, or similarly at least, is his friend’s existence. But the ground of one’s own existence being choice-worthy is the perceiving of one’s self being good, any such perception being in itself pleasant. Therefore one ought to be thoroughly conscious of one’s friend’s existence, which will result from living with him, that is sharing in his words and thoughts: for this is the meaning of the term as applied to the human species, not mere feeding together as in the case of brutes.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01229", "bookId": 8438, "start": 513095, "end": 513496, "sha256": "8baf6f485b55d91b9162df819da447735058f0e2ecc0d337b24b2ec4e33be32d", "text": "If then to the man in a high state of happiness existence is in itself choice-worthy, being naturally good and pleasant, and so too a friend’s existence, then the friend also must be among things choice-worthy. But whatever is choice-worthy to a man he should have or else he will be in this point deficient. The man therefore who is to come up to our notion “Happy” will need good Friends.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01230", "bookId": 8438, "start": 513500, "end": 513510, "sha256": "1004a834f009008ccc92e737e9a371a7a5488da6be86d63d2eae33426b5b37ef", "text": "Chapter X.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01231", "bookId": 8438, "start": 513514, "end": 513851, "sha256": "107183aa0e2a0663c82288120aa0e051c9fcf374caef7f3b2bdc57d96939d4e2", "text": "Are we then to make our friends as numerous as possible? or, as in respect of acquaintance it is thought to have been well said “have not thou many acquaintances yet be not without;” so too in respect of Friendship may we adopt the precept, and say that a man should not be without friends, nor again have exceeding many friends?", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01232", "bookId": 8438, "start": 513855, "end": 514369, "sha256": "885137128e06f6e11dd2e3a32d2969a909dfd8ed1d7c77438c1a9e9c465629b1", "text": "Now as for friends who are intended for use, the maxim I have quoted will, it seems, fit in exceedingly well, because to requite the services of many is a matter of labour, and a whole life would not be long enough to do this for them. So that, if more numerous than what will suffice for one’s own life, they become officious, and are hindrances in respect of living well: and so we do not want them. And again of those who are to be for pleasure a few are quite enough, just like sweetening in our food.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01233", "bookId": 8438, "start": 514373, "end": 514778, "sha256": "a712513db7f373c60c032656716d89ee00245d891997d677f8a15bc0102f925e", "text": "But of the good are we to make as many as ever we can, or is there any measure of the number of friends, as there is of the number to constitute a Political Community? I mean, you cannot make one out of ten men, and if you increase the number to one hundred thousand it is not any longer a Community. However, the number is not perhaps some one definite number but any between certain extreme limits.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01234", "bookId": 8438, "start": 514782, "end": 515325, "sha256": "6b4a9f90f13eb2e481900f882fe24b18028d5a64b18558a813895e8a0f7340ca", "text": "Well, of friends likewise there is a limited number, which perhaps may be laid down to be the greatest number with whom it would be possible to keep up intimacy; this being thought to be one of the greatest marks of Friendship, and it being quite obvious that it is not possible to be intimate with many, in other words, to part one’s self among many. And besides it must be remembered that they also are to be friends to one another if they are all to live together: but it is a matter of difficulty to find this in many men at once.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01235", "bookId": 8438, "start": 515329, "end": 515555, "sha256": "c8a4ce3cc849631c02e89a0be8644b7ed2f8daa19fb1056f34e80d040b95dc37", "text": "It comes likewise to be difficult to bring home to one’s self the joys and sorrows of many: because in all probability one would have to sympathise at the same time with the joys of this one and the sorrows of that other.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01236", "bookId": 8438, "start": 515559, "end": 516007, "sha256": "c97a42ff2dfe1c4b3145a444f113fa1a33d28f595ba343d5364da129f38150e2", "text": "Perhaps then it is well not to endeavour to have very many friends but so many as are enough for intimacy: because, in fact, it would seem not to be possible to be very much a friend to many at the same time: and, for the same reason, not to be in love with many objects at the same time: love being a kind of excessive Friendship which implies but one object: and all strong emotions must be limited in the number towards whom they are felt.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01237", "bookId": 8438, "start": 516011, "end": 516405, "sha256": "ce8f458c284f0b626b67e6dd70f079831eee5e712c8e9095e9de33305d2a0c52", "text": "And if we look to facts this seems to be so: for not many at a time become friends in the way of companionship, all the famous Friendships of the kind are between _two_ persons: whereas they who have many friends, and meet everybody on the footing of intimacy, seem to be friends really to no one except in the way of general society; I mean the characters denominated as over-complaisant.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01238", "bookId": 8438, "start": 516409, "end": 516708, "sha256": "d6438ac2acbf5e5feef0c48a5b46b05cb120ae5b967f24a6244c59b298c97ded", "text": "To be sure, in the way merely of society, a man may be a friend to many without being necessarily over-complaisant, but being truly good: but one cannot be a friend to many because of their virtue, and for the persons’ own sake; in fact, it is a matter for contentment to find even a few such.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01239", "bookId": 8438, "start": 516712, "end": 516723, "sha256": "e01eea13bd5151db5300b85b2bf5667b50440b182b04dc56f48ea5ab17de6a93", "text": "Chapter XI.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01240", "bookId": 8438, "start": 516727, "end": 516988, "sha256": "140fb082e7681cee80e00231bb92b047d11905c5c8fd7a48b1c2732b11f4ec7f", "text": "Again: are friends most needed in prosperity or in adversity? they are required, we know, in both states, because the unfortunate need help and the prosperous want people to live with and to do kindnesses to: for they have a desire to act kindly to some one.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01241", "bookId": 8438, "start": 516992, "end": 517407, "sha256": "7e7dfc77d30ee546b606dd1267ec28aec532cda2eac24a86d1eba4f7c488028e", "text": "To have friends is more necessary in adversity, and therefore in this case useful ones are wanted; and to have them in prosperity is more honourable, and this is why the prosperous want good men for friends, it being preferable to confer benefits on, and to live with, these. For the very presence of friends is pleasant even in adversity: since men when grieved are comforted by the sympathy of their friends.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01242", "bookId": 8438, "start": 517411, "end": 517673, "sha256": "6bccba27d01f4a03095410c72ae16146d9a986ca6d32cc598483176782939cc5", "text": "And from this, by the way, the question might be raised, whether it is that they do in a manner take part of the weight of calamities, or only that their presence, being pleasurable, and the consciousness of their sympathy, make the pain of the sufferer less.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01243", "bookId": 8438, "start": 517677, "end": 517855, "sha256": "5f37842d3b561f2f8642c9d6ea07db868f149da2017f2fc194dd0722aa3de1ea", "text": "However, we will not further discuss whether these which have been suggested or some other causes produce the relief, at least the effect we speak of is a matter of plain fact.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01244", "bookId": 8438, "start": 517859, "end": 518979, "sha256": "24a085a019110b7356a8cf6e34b674c8be3f64a8589b34696910a1f4891ac8e3", "text": "But their presence has probably a mixed effect: I mean, not only is the very seeing friends pleasant, especially to one in misfortune, and actual help towards lessening the grief is afforded (the natural tendency of a friend, if he is gifted with tact, being to comfort by look and word, because he is well acquainted with the sufferer’s temper and disposition and therefore knows what things give him pleasure and pain), but also the perceiving a friend to be grieved at his misfortunes causes the sufferer pain, because every one avoids being cause of pain to his friends. And for this reason they who are of a manly nature are cautious not to implicate their friends in their pain; and unless a man is exceedingly callous to the pain of others he cannot bear the pain which is thus caused to his friends: in short, he does not admit men to wail with him, not being given to wail at all: women, it is true, and men who resemble women, like to have others to groan with them, and love such as friends and sympathisers. But it is plain that it is our duty in all things to imitate the highest character.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01245", "bookId": 8438, "start": 518983, "end": 519144, "sha256": "5921fba085359016b6d3ae804d519e0e58cd1f32e8af79165dbbb9c05cb5e9a0", "text": "On the other hand, the advantages of friends in our prosperity are the pleasurable intercourse and the consciousness that they are pleased at our good fortune.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01246", "bookId": 8438, "start": 519148, "end": 519673, "sha256": "43d21d36e16ab774ca1a4bdd2b4901207626101abd0a62b70f99a910e2ccaadb", "text": "It would seem, therefore, that we ought to call in friends readily on occasion of good fortune, because it is noble to be ready to do good to others: but on occasion of bad fortune, we should do so with reluctance; for we should as little as possible make others share in our ills; on which principle goes the saying, “I am unfortunate, let that suffice.” The most proper occasion for calling them in is when with small trouble or annoyance to themselves they can be of very great use to the person who needs them.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01247", "bookId": 8438, "start": 519677, "end": 520212, "sha256": "3292bb280914fc8720c0c2628ef46ceab5c5c2d8344333e861db2b429dfdf989", "text": "But, on the contrary, it is fitting perhaps to go to one’s friends in their misfortunes unasked and with alacrity (because kindness is the friend’s office and specially towards those who are in need and who do not demand it as a right, this being more creditable and more pleasant to both); and on occasion of their good fortune to go readily, if we can forward it in any way (because men need their friends for this likewise), but to be backward in sharing it, any great eagerness to receive advantage not being creditable.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01248", "bookId": 8438, "start": 520216, "end": 520369, "sha256": "afe4e26a38617b0ea6239a33d13d4d2abff5c741aa9f7e52ab95b13fd63336f0", "text": "One should perhaps be cautious not to present the appearance of sullenness in declining the sympathy or help of friends, for this happens occasionally.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01249", "bookId": 8438, "start": 520373, "end": 520462, "sha256": "4eafcf0d0f2230be2bf1cf4335eb5f821b2d744fbf00a4f5d77428d96b3bf28d", "text": "It appears then that the presence of friends is, under all circumstances, choice-worthy.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01250", "bookId": 8438, "start": 520466, "end": 520478, "sha256": "db01c17d92611b3315f68e3df6f0d948914af69a6cdab38f6908ed40f82a0968", "text": "Chapter XII.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01251", "bookId": 8438, "start": 520482, "end": 520633, "sha256": "7b27c50095b3cf4217c09e7ae7b9231cbcedbc75f47d8155e9063901cd29b173", "text": "May we not say then that, as seeing the beloved object is most prized by lovers and they choose this sense rather than any of the others because Love", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01252", "bookId": 8438, "start": 520637, "end": 520687, "sha256": "d285b27100786c9d4d59ce3d8392a475d262d9a4e45fb1072a672a54de728634", "text": "“Is engendered in the eyes, With gazing fed,”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01253", "bookId": 8438, "start": 520693, "end": 520964, "sha256": "9301833ff8a949803698dcc105c0fabfa2b1742e2c51d6e240bcee2c5aa55938", "text": "in like manner intimacy is to friends most choice-worthy, Friendship being communion? Again, as a man is to himself so is he to his friend; now with respect to himself the perception of his own existence is choice-worthy, therefore is it also in respect of his friend.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01254", "bookId": 8438, "start": 520968, "end": 521597, "sha256": "9dd2a12ecd7ae4dfa33753b9f41ed846ebddc355b580d5bfda36ccea09c3f30d", "text": "And besides, their Friendship is acted out in intimacy, and so with good reason they desire this. And whatever in each man’s opinion constitutes existence, or whatsoever it is for the sake of which they choose life, herein they wish their friends to join with them; and so some men drink together, others gamble, others join in gymnastic exercises or hunting, others study philosophy together: in each case spending their days together in that which they like best of all things in life, for since they wish to be intimate with their friends they do and partake in those things whereby they think to attain this object.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01255", "bookId": 8438, "start": 521601, "end": 522020, "sha256": "908f846244fbaa0f7dc6eb03845adbfef35a0321ebf08f3916f39b7e69fb5089", "text": "Therefore the Friendship of the wicked comes to be depraved; for, being unstable, they share in what is bad and become depraved in being made like to one another: but the Friendship of the good is good, growing with their intercourse; they improve also, as it seems, by repeated acts, and by mutual correction, for they receive impress from one another in the points which give them pleasure; whence says the Poet,", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01256", "bookId": 8438, "start": 522024, "end": 522081, "sha256": "b5bf5f04de9c2e48a6566675b1e371afa224efd1f10521cdb018a65c47e8a32a", "text": "“Thou from the good, good things shalt surely learn.”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01257", "bookId": 8438, "start": 522087, "end": 522198, "sha256": "e9975af6d482da417ed8827652b14eac68a4ce0f2ce4db36ee76ff58b4956512", "text": "Here then we will terminate our discourse of Friendship. The next thing is to go into the subject of Pleasure.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01258", "bookId": 8438, "start": 522208, "end": 522214, "sha256": "7225f1e2d2d49e9143c97b774dd094ce8b14ad58044949952eacc93209c4de55", "text": "BOOK X", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01259", "bookId": 8438, "start": 522218, "end": 522228, "sha256": "5a35eafc731a2640e14da7e928f9e9a89afe4fe2a1f9a9a349887b8fb6d795cd", "text": "Chapter I.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01260", "bookId": 8438, "start": 522234, "end": 522773, "sha256": "3d13a394d145a673a0b269031c0eb36bba7e63ff16adef23562b8a85b79a3323", "text": "Next, it would seem, follows a discussion respecting Pleasure, for it is thought to be most closely bound up with our kind: and so men train the young, guiding them on their course by the rudders of Pleasure and Pain. And to like and dislike what one ought is judged to be most important for the formation of good moral character: because these feelings extend all one’s life through, giving a bias towards and exerting an influence on the side of Virtue and Happiness, since men choose what is pleasant and avoid what is painful.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01261", "bookId": 8438, "start": 522777, "end": 523434, "sha256": "4025aa980e6c42125a4b2719e63cca201547b1364e511e8c084b857cc3d1c9e9", "text": "Subjects such as these then, it would seem, we ought by no means to pass by, and specially since they involve much difference of opinion. There are those who call Pleasure the Chief Good; there are others who on the contrary maintain that it is exceedingly bad;[1] some perhaps from a real conviction that such is the case, others from a notion that it is better, in reference to our life and conduct, to show up Pleasure as bad, even if it is not so really; arguing that, as the mass of men have a bias towards it and are the slaves of their pleasures, it is right to draw them to the contrary, for that so they may possibly arrive at the mean.[2]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01262", "bookId": 8438, "start": 523438, "end": 523927, "sha256": "6aab2c270f8aa9a9bbff521bf18917a03ea5862eae29ca9e8e1d25a96ec52bce", "text": "I confess I suspect the soundness of this policy; in matters respecting men’s feelings and actions theories are less convincing than facts: whenever, therefore, they are found conflicting with actual experience, they not only are despised but involve the truth in their fall: he, for instance, who deprecates Pleasure, if once seen to aim at it, gets the credit of backsliding to it as being universally such as he said it was, the mass of men being incapable of nice distinctions.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01263", "bookId": 8438, "start": 523931, "end": 524181, "sha256": "02f753109da2c6976cd6a720ce5213b0bbb640d48557cb5028c88ca0d856dc8f", "text": "Real accounts, therefore, of such matters seem to be most expedient, not with a view to knowledge merely but to life and conduct: for they are believed as being in harm with facts, and so they prevail with the wise to live in accordance with them.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01264", "bookId": 8438, "start": 524185, "end": 524282, "sha256": "6982604f384c1cfaee9959b464ea1b51f6b0aeda13b3dd670e871aa68926ad92", "text": "But of such considerations enough: let us now proceed to the current maxims respecting Pleasure.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01265", "bookId": 8438, "start": 524286, "end": 524297, "sha256": "9ce6d96fa540de49002e2340d430460f2ee679453301a35db1cf5cf6c0ed967f", "text": "Chapter II.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01266", "bookId": 8438, "start": 524301, "end": 524803, "sha256": "2feee8ab82b1e0523b7ba542abf8f96d4cebb412f3f6d052db244cd509fcd8ec", "text": "Now Eudoxus thought Pleasure to be the Chief Good because he saw all, rational and irrational alike, aiming at it: and he argued that, since in all what was the object of choice must be good and what most so the best, the fact of all being drawn to the same thing proved this thing to be the best for all: “For each,” he said, “finds what is good for itself just as it does its proper nourishment, and so that which is good for all, and the object of the aim of all, is their Chief Good.”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01267", "bookId": 8438, "start": 524807, "end": 525122, "sha256": "8f8533354764feefcdf73fb7cccce18b1981e1b5f5d00dbc68d67d70f0af127c", "text": "(And his theories were received, not so much for their own sake, as because of his excellent moral character; for he was thought to be eminently possessed of perfect self-mastery, and therefore it was not thought that he said these things because he was a lover of Pleasure but that he really was so convinced.)", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01268", "bookId": 8438, "start": 525126, "end": 525331, "sha256": "e1df182d2295fa4629c2638bb8884146673f30692ee467532baeb65471f3c90f", "text": "And he thought his position was not less proved by the argument from the contrary: that is, since Pain was in itself an object of avoidance to all the contrary must be in like manner an object of choice.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01269", "bookId": 8438, "start": 525335, "end": 525619, "sha256": "ec21dcc24962551f1c7c7e94d893b555718b5ed3894dd404209b78092d69c38e", "text": "Again he urged that that is most choice-worthy which we choose, not by reason of, or with a view to, anything further; and that Pleasure is confessedly of this kind because no one ever goes on to ask to what purpose he is pleased, feeling that Pleasure is in itself choice-worthy.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01270", "bookId": 8438, "start": 525623, "end": 525807, "sha256": "28ca479af9c1e34f1fc1eacea36e1576945865ae451524961c68a4a7d92c789e", "text": "Again, that when added to any other good it makes it more choice-worthy; as, for instance, to actions of justice, or perfected self-mastery; and good can only be increased by itself.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01271", "bookId": 8438, "start": 525811, "end": 526602, "sha256": "21d7194121c376da3d434c8052c5a7c7f97dd06e2b3558d25af632044c6e411f", "text": "However, this argument at least seems to prove only that it belongs to the class of goods, and not that it does so more than anything else: for every good is more choicewortby in combination with some other than when taken quite alone. In fact, it is by just such an argument that Plato proves that Pleasure is not the Chief Good:[3] “For,” says he, “the life of Pleasure is more choice-worthy in combination with Practical Wisdom than apart from it; but, if the compound better then simple Pleasure cannot be the Chief Good; because the very Chief Good cannot by any addition become choice-worthy than it is already:” and it is obvious that nothing else can be the Chief Good, which by combination with any of the things in themselves good comes to be more choice-worthy.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01272", "bookId": 8438, "start": 526606, "end": 526742, "sha256": "b066a9b8aa10ad27be2fa44bfb1ba26c6854aa9ccc863343abaacc065ed76ffd", "text": "What is there then of such a nature? (meaning, of course, whereof we can partake; because that which we are in search of must be such).", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01273", "bookId": 8438, "start": 526746, "end": 527368, "sha256": "ecfc907b976923a35ce109a4a9dbc73649332f13e74b6d437b6a5e6488794c45", "text": "As for those who object that “what all aim at is not necessarily good,” I confess I cannot see much in what they say, because what all _think_ we say _is_. And he who would cut away this ground from under us will not bring forward things more dependable: because if the argument had rested on the desires of irrational creatures there might have been something in what he says, but, since the rational also desire Pleasure, how can his objection be allowed any weight? and it may be that, even in the lower animals, there is some natural good principle above themselves which aims at the good peculiar to them.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01274", "bookId": 8438, "start": 527372, "end": 528013, "sha256": "88e9b5285155821a4d3ee9e4c50fb9c28d770642ae4cc3a4148b59df0648b290", "text": "Nor does that seem to be sound which is urged respecting the argument from the contrary: I mean, some people say “it does not follow that Pleasure must be good because Pain is evil, since evil may be opposed to evil, and both evil and good to what is indifferent:” now what they say is right enough in itself but does not hold in the present instance. If both Pleasure and Pain were bad both would have been objects of avoidance; or if neither then neither would have been, at all events they must have fared alike: but now men do plainly avoid the one as bad and choose the other as good, and so there is a complete opposition.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01275", "bookId": 8438, "start": 528017, "end": 528220, "sha256": "4a4f03b825523b63654c926fe5892df4f396d2c80018c7291a6e3b22a88be1d6", "text": "Nor again is Pleasure therefore excluded from being good because it does not belong to the class of qualities:[4] the acts of Virtue are not qualities, neither is Happiness [yet surely both are goods].", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01276", "bookId": 8438, "start": 528224, "end": 528320, "sha256": "0df64f545496a342da9a96d419cdb7bebf20e20130d6573e7d5839dbae993dab", "text": "Again, they say the Chief Good is limited but Pleasure unlimited, in that it admits of degrees.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01277", "bookId": 8438, "start": 528324, "end": 528679, "sha256": "2a878b353f7c43719c95d932c4151971006acabd41abed59556d5c646012287b", "text": "Now if they judge this from the act of feeling Pleasure then the same thing will apply to justice and all the other virtues,[5] in respect of which clearly it is said that men are more or less of such and such characters (according to the different virtues), they are more just or more brave, or one may practise justice and self-mastery more or less.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01278", "bookId": 8438, "start": 528683, "end": 529261, "sha256": "473c9c25da994090b191a70a5b526bd35a95d403cb917ef6a342f2e0c0018b3e", "text": "If, on the other hand, they judge in respect of the Pleasures themselves then it may be they miss the true cause, namely that some are unmixed and others mixed: for just as health being in itself limited, admits of degrees, why should not Pleasure do so and yet be limited? in the former case we account for it by the fact that there is not the same adjustment of parts in all men, nor one and the same always in the same individual: but health, though relaxed, remains up to a certain point, and differs in degrees; and of course the same may be the case with Pleasure.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01279", "bookId": 8438, "start": 529265, "end": 529422, "sha256": "f6d948a6d1ff1e2b84f9fb94ea3c6fd3c37dd5fe45d2d7d3cdb49cee4bf1c427", "text": "Again, assuming the Chief Good to be perfect and all Movements[6] and Generations imperfect, they try to shew that Pleasure is a Movement and a Generation.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01280", "bookId": 8438, "start": 529426, "end": 529903, "sha256": "0f3fdd3276395d343a1948dbc5524aa44fce1729835dd21fcf9232477886ddef", "text": "Yet they do not seem warranted in saying even that it is a Movement: for to every Movement are thought to belong swiftness and slowness, and if not in itself, as to that of the universe, yet relatively: but to Pleasure neither of these belongs: for though one may have got quickly into the state Pleasure, as into that of anger, one cannot be in the state quickly,[7] nor relatively to the state of any other person; but we can walk or grow, and so on, quickly or slowly.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01281", "bookId": 8438, "start": 529907, "end": 530091, "sha256": "9ff2f495186872db5c755c3656348d7594110ec5dac0e39ddb62a64479ded9f0", "text": "Of course it is possible to change into the state of Pleasure quickly or slowly, but to act in the state (by which, I mean, have the perception of Pleasure) quickly, is not possible.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01282", "bookId": 8438, "start": 530095, "end": 530362, "sha256": "bfbacf545a3b9b00b14693a8581e49a5c5bdf91fdb901f54eec34d51e30e1c91", "text": "And how can it be a Generation? because, according to notions generally held, not _any_thing is generated from _any_thing, but a thing resolves itself into that out of which it was generated: whereas of that of which Pleasure is a Generation Pain is a Destruction.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01283", "bookId": 8438, "start": 530366, "end": 530463, "sha256": "d0880d1fa9e3a299375c843ff7ff3e602c416105eb36d02558de9bba52ac14e9", "text": "Again, they say that Pain is a lack of something suitable to nature and Pleasure a supply of it.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01284", "bookId": 8438, "start": 530467, "end": 530856, "sha256": "579bbd181e69c430c51d7654973802afa44acc359fef4a0d5665f388d22f6150", "text": "But these are affections of the body: now if Pleasure really is a supplying of somewhat suitable to nature, that must feel the Pleasure in which the supply takes place, therefore the body of course: yet this is not thought to be so: neither then is Pleasure a supplying, only a person of course will be pleased when a supply takes place just as he will be pained when he is cut short.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01285", "bookId": 8438, "start": 530860, "end": 531093, "sha256": "835cd3334e93a850f376b5732badab662ea9db6aa1cd77801ac8310aff2a7bf5", "text": "This notion would seem to have arisen out of the Pains and Pleasures connected with natural nourishment; because, when people have felt a lack and so have had Pain first, they, of course, are pleased with the supply of their lack.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01286", "bookId": 8438, "start": 531097, "end": 531488, "sha256": "54d299d6110f6c378ba7d05f9578671422d516c12792266ec6e2ea0d5393d915", "text": "But this is not the case with all Pleasures: those attendant on mathematical studies, for instance, are unconnected with any Pain; and of such as attend on the senses those which arise through the sense of Smell; and again, many sounds, and sights, and memories, and hopes: now of what can these be Generations? because there has been here no lack of anything to be afterwards supplied.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01287", "bookId": 8438, "start": 531492, "end": 531946, "sha256": "aa04abd8455116c29d17fa6e568226ea53ec2b72e7d33afc1642b4fd328750e6", "text": "And to those who bring forward disgraceful Pleasures we may reply that these are not really pleasant things; for it does not follow because they are pleasant to the ill-disposed that we are to admit that they are pleasant except to them; just as we should not say that those things are really wholesome, or sweet, or bitter, which are so to the sick, or those objects really white which give that impression to people labouring under ophthalmia.[8]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01288", "bookId": 8438, "start": 531950, "end": 532172, "sha256": "b1aaa9fcfe8a20b3f7f5fcd460876d33871ba35eda47c5b519db9f84b4fd4697", "text": "Or we might say thus, that the Pleasures are choice-worthy but not as derived from these sources: just as wealth is, but not as the price of treason; or health, but not on the terms of eating anything however loathsome.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01289", "bookId": 8438, "start": 532176, "end": 532495, "sha256": "f0937365baa638fe0552bf489140c3a571e9e37abf6272a0d78e055ca0e8f8e3", "text": "Or again, may we not say that Pleasures differ in kind? those derived from honourable objects, for instance are different from those arising from disgraceful ones; and it is not possible to experience the Pleasure of the just man without being just, or of the musical man without being musical; and so on of others.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01290", "bookId": 8438, "start": 532499, "end": 532883, "sha256": "dc252f73d30c56035eff6fb331ed558fd03ab622409b40cdf5f08f38acbc3367", "text": "The distinction commonly drawn between the friend and the flatterer would seem to show clearly either that Pleasure is not a good, or that there are different kinds of Pleasure: for the former is thought to have good as the object of his intercourse, the latter Pleasure only; and this last is reproached, but the former men praise as having different objects in his intercourse.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01291", "bookId": 8438, "start": 532887, "end": 533164, "sha256": "22e5929b72439555d0b6e5853a6b07b7cf4f9d2c437d406546cb5bf3908a4a7e", "text": "Again, no one would choose to live with a child’s intellect all his life through, though receiving the highest possible Pleasure from such objects as children receive it from; or to take Pleasure in doing any of the most disgraceful things, though sure never to be pained.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01292", "bookId": 8438, "start": 533168, "end": 533501, "sha256": "9ccd4a8b97af2e25471a30034e1308dc3cd83a23cb1bf3ed311bbca7e00fa524", "text": "There are many things also about which we should be diligent even though they brought no Pleasure; as seeing, remembering, knowing, possessing the various Excellences; and the fact that Pleasures do follow on these naturally makes no difference, because we should certainly choose them even though no Pleasure resulted from them.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01293", "bookId": 8438, "start": 533505, "end": 533828, "sha256": "1b0e3784b345f0fb898844656c02bde05dc3635c48d988e3a631ef30040af3db", "text": "It seems then to be plain that Pleasure is not the Chief Good, nor is every kind of it choice-worthy: and that there are some choice-worthy in themselves, differing in kind, _i.e._ in the sources from which they are derived. Let this then suffice by way of an account of the current maxims respecting Pleasure and Pain.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01294", "bookId": 8438, "start": 533832, "end": 533844, "sha256": "c8c3757d774efbadade98d84b627377e281082435aed3cf63f66253a8af48e64", "text": "Chapter III.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01295", "bookId": 8438, "start": 533848, "end": 533940, "sha256": "94aa27c178637e5f2f2dace9e28e55d04f86e68ae53baf83f0aa24ea57da769e", "text": "Now what it is, and how characterised, will be more plain if we take up the subject afresh.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01296", "bookId": 8438, "start": 533944, "end": 534103, "sha256": "6baf7798e5efb1e99465f72bb5972ba61aad1b82442dc15766042c5ae9955967", "text": "An act of Sight is thought to be complete at any moment; that is to say, it lacks nothing the accession of which subsequently will complete its whole nature.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01297", "bookId": 8438, "start": 534107, "end": 535182, "sha256": "3a4fe0aca71bc908839645eda1307941f7e3ff2f090963caca977c172470ccef", "text": "Well, Pleasure resembles this: because it is a whole, as one may say; and one could not at any moment of time take a Pleasure whose whole nature would be completed by its lasting for a longer time. And for this reason it is not a Movement: for all Movement takes place in time of certain duration and has a certain End to accomplish; for instance, the Movement of house-building[9] is then only complete when the builder has produced what he intended, that is, either in the whole time [necessary to complete the whole design], or in a given portion.[10] But all the subordinate Movements are incomplete in the parts of the time, and are different in kind from the whole movement and from one another (I mean, for instance, that the fitting the stones together is a Movement different from that of fluting the column, and both again from the construction of the Temple as a whole: but this last is complete as lacking nothing to the result proposed; whereas that of the basement, or of the triglyph, is incomplete, because each is a Movement of a part merely).", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01298", "bookId": 8438, "start": 535186, "end": 535353, "sha256": "3d9074d7b886b2ca51dfdc66a787b8f4e40824e8f9c707517c544de3ebf39138", "text": "As I said then, they differ in kind, and you cannot at any time you choose find a Movement complete in its whole nature, but, if at all, in the whole time requisite.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01299", "bookId": 8438, "start": 535357, "end": 535923, "sha256": "89eeed78fad9ade93fa68c65b1d789f0d8d9f3e21536b7e4220be721b423534a", "text": "And so it is with the Movement of walking and all others: for, if motion be a Movement from one place to another place, then of it too there are different kinds, flying, walking, leaping, and such-like. And not only so, but there are different kinds even in walking: the where-from and where-to are not the same in the whole Course as in a portion of it; nor in one portion as in another; nor is crossing this line the same as crossing that: because a man is not merely crossing a line but a line in a given place, and this is in a different place from that.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01300", "bookId": 8438, "start": 535927, "end": 536198, "sha256": "d41abf603e685059ff3cce053dc96cdc991551155e1888e7432c223b39a44176", "text": "Of Movement I have discoursed exactly in another treatise. I will now therefore only say that it seems not to be complete at any given moment; and that most movements are incomplete and specifically different, since the whence and whither constitute different species.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01301", "bookId": 8438, "start": 536202, "end": 536643, "sha256": "9960511a6fa995b0c03dc07adeb9da80aacd68f016f8e35db8bb45aa1b21e413", "text": "But of Pleasure the whole nature is complete at any given moment: it is plain then that Pleasure and Movement must be different from one another, and that Pleasure belongs to the class of things whole and complete. And this might appear also from the impossibility of moving except in a definite time, whereas there is none with respect to the sensation of Pleasure, for what exists at the very present moment is a kind of “whole.”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01302", "bookId": 8438, "start": 536647, "end": 537142, "sha256": "0060907961c14f123081e8a335e75d763fe7478fbbf8b8d64a51477e534dcbda", "text": "From these considerations then it is plain that people are not warranted in saying that Pleasure is a Movement or a Generation: because these terms are not applicable to all things, only to such as are divisible and not “wholes:” I mean that of an act of Sight there is no Generation, nor is there of a point, nor of a monad, nor is any one of these a Movement or a Generation: neither then of Pleasure is there Movement or Generation, because it is, as one may say, “a whole.”[11]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01303", "bookId": 8438, "start": 537146, "end": 537157, "sha256": "3186d98bcee8266853ace5b1a5e20557973e585ee48419d596c2b2610a3f68b2", "text": "Chapter IV.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01304", "bookId": 8438, "start": 537161, "end": 538013, "sha256": "a00c93175922bf16da5f258d0ca008e72a964ade4d9689c88c873c2c974958d5", "text": "Now since every Percipient Faculty works upon the Object answering to it, and perfectly the Faculty in a good state upon the most excellent of the Objects within its range (for Perfect Working is thought to be much what I have described; and we will not raise any question about saying “the Faculty” works, instead of, “that subject wherein the Faculty resides”), in each case the best Working is that of the Faculty in its best state upon the best of the Objects answering to it. And this will be, further, most perfect and most pleasant: for Pleasure is attendant upon every Percipient Faculty, and in like manner on every intellectual operation and speculation; and that is most pleasant which is most perfect, and that most perfect which is the Working of the best Faculty upon the most excellent of the Objects within its range.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01305", "bookId": 8438, "start": 538017, "end": 538245, "sha256": "e9526bfe455a2c81de0120ac0a6fa3f0d3acb385c872f0b377f4510a8b200f38", "text": "And Pleasure perfects the Working. But Pleasure does not perfect it in the same way as the Faculty and Object of Perception do, being good; just as health and the physician are not in similar senses causes of a healthy state.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01306", "bookId": 8438, "start": 538249, "end": 538648, "sha256": "c29554023086fb046a805332d05b1d69fd1ec34ccf2cdf2b345efee1085ac9e4", "text": "And that Pleasure does arise upon the exercise of every Percipient Faculty is evident, for we commonly say that sights and sounds are pleasant; it is plain also that this is especially the case when the Faculty is most excellent and works upon a similar Object: and when both the Object and Faculty of Perception are such, Pleasure will always exist, supposing of course an agent and a patient.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01307", "bookId": 8438, "start": 538652, "end": 539167, "sha256": "ae50d943b865f09001ecc6088e687fcb1fd1ee2e189630db63364ebaf2f32a5f", "text": "Furthermore, Pleasure perfects the act of Working not in the way of an inherent state but as a supervening finish, such as is bloom in people at their prime. Therefore so long as the Object of intellectual or sensitive Perception is such as it should be and also the Faculty which discerns or realises the Object, there will be Pleasure in the Working: because when that which has the capacity of being acted on and that which is apt to act are alike and similarly related, the same result follows naturally.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01308", "bookId": 8438, "start": 539171, "end": 539806, "sha256": "b8692142bd9850a0c469e37b5960ad734ebc4d64d8734acf8623103ae944a387", "text": "How is it then that no one feels Pleasure continuously? is it not that he wearies, because all human faculties are incapable of unintermitting exertion; and so, of course, Pleasure does not arise either, because that follows upon the act of Working. But there are some things which please when new, but afterwards not in the like way, for exactly the same reason: that at first the mind is roused and works on these Objects with its powers at full tension; just as they who are gazing stedfastly at anything; but afterwards the act of Working is not of the kind it was at first, but careless, and so the Pleasure too is dulled.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01309", "bookId": 8438, "start": 539810, "end": 540638, "sha256": "9214a3e97718926390ae51255c78dbab438f2ff30a2336e0d7ecbd5507d254fb", "text": "Again, a person may conclude that all men grasp at Pleasure, because all aim likewise at Life and Life is an act of Working, and every man works at and with those things which also he best likes; the musical man, for instance, works with his hearing at music; the studious man with his intellect at speculative questions, and so forth. And Pleasure perfects the acts of Working, and so Life after which men grasp. No wonder then that they aim also at Pleasure, because to each it perfects Life, which is itself choice-worthy. (We will take leave to omit the question whether we choose Life for Pleasure’s sake of Pleasure for Life’s sake; because these two plainly are closely connected and admit not of separation; since Pleasure comes not into being without Working, and again, every Working Pleasure perfects.)", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01310", "bookId": 8438, "start": 540642, "end": 541234, "sha256": "16a4a792276dc07ea22274aaed557aa887a491a6191c16ae58bedcfa937e795b", "text": "And this is one reason why Pleasures are thought to differ in kind, because we suppose that things which differ in kind must be perfected by things so differing: it plainly being the case with the productions of Nature and Art; as animals, and trees, and pictures, and statues, and houses, and furniture; and so we suppose that in like manner acts of Working which are different in kind are perfected by things differing in kind. Now Intellectual Workings differ specifically from those of the Senses, and these last from one another; therefore so do the Pleasures which perfect them.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01311", "bookId": 8438, "start": 541238, "end": 542052, "sha256": "3ec6f1d882dabb6d6e1ac69d8646857b2ff2b749169ab8ea16a87622ed3cbff1", "text": "This may be shown also from the intimate connection subsisting between each Pleasure and the Working which it perfects: I mean, that the Pleasure proper to any Working increases that Working; for they who work with Pleasure sift all things more closely and carry them out to a greater degree of nicety; for instance, those men become geometricians who take Pleasure in geometry, and they apprehend particular points more completely: in like manner men who are fond of music, or architecture, or anything else, improve each on his own pursuit, because they feel Pleasure in them. Thus the Pleasures aid in increasing the Workings, and things which do so aid are proper and peculiar: but the things which are proper and peculiar to others specifically different are themselves also specifically different.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01312", "bookId": 8438, "start": 542056, "end": 542545, "sha256": "bc71e0d40b95c57a1db12701f1f5e6942e93c541f242166085ce465d74789d28", "text": "Yet even more clearly may this be shown from the fact that the Pleasures arising from one kind of Workings hinder other Workings; for instance, people who are fond of flute-music cannot keep their attention to conversation or discourse when they catch the sound of a flute; because they take more Pleasure in flute-playing than in the Working they are at the time engaged on; in other words, the Pleasure attendant on flute-playing destroys the Working of conversation or discourse.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01313", "bookId": 8438, "start": 542549, "end": 542864, "sha256": "e650c25d457225a048d552349ca20124e6323bdcb9e2c72eebc3f91dd5065652", "text": "Much the same kind of thing takes place in other cases, when a person is engaged in two different Workings at the same time: that is, the pleasanter of the two keeps pushing out the other, and, if the disparity in pleasantness be great, then more and more till a man even ceases altogether to work at the other.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01314", "bookId": 8438, "start": 542868, "end": 543173, "sha256": "1baa4c30062075d6b045d08569f0c17f7517d50bc2a5d54ba374cc6556b20c96", "text": "This is the reason why, when we are very much pleased with anything whatever, we do nothing else, and it is only when we are but moderately pleased with one occupation that we vary it with another: people, for instance, who eat sweetmeats in the theatre do so most when the performance is indifferent.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01315", "bookId": 8438, "start": 543177, "end": 544137, "sha256": "49a268920cb8a20c0c3e487066577f8ee880fbf0e7dc505ccbed235c1768bef3", "text": "Since then the proper and peculiar Pleasure gives accuracy to the Workings and makes them more enduring and better of their kind, while those Pleasures which are foreign to them mar them, it is plain there is a wide difference between them: in fact, Pleasures foreign to any Working have pretty much the same effect as the Pains proper to it,[12] which, in fact, destroy the Workings; I mean, if one man dislikes writing, or another calculation, the one does not write, the other does not calculate; because, in each case, the Working is attended with some Pain: so then contrary effects are produced upon the Workings by the Pleasures and Pains proper to them, by which I mean those which arise upon the Working, in itself, independently of any other circumstances. As for the Pleasures foreign to a Working, we have said already that they produce a similar effect to the Pain proper to it; that is they destroy the Working, only not in like way.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01316", "bookId": 8438, "start": 544141, "end": 544567, "sha256": "ef075964630413e2c1d850bdb3b5c131e2228bc13a5d413e2d02536d3c1496a2", "text": "Well then, as Workings differ from one another in goodness and badness, some being fit objects of choice, others of avoidance, and others in their nature indifferent, Pleasures are similarly related; since its own proper Pleasure attends or each Working: of course that proper to a good Working is good, that proper to a bad, bad: for even the desires for what is noble are praiseworthy, and for what is base blameworthy.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01317", "bookId": 8438, "start": 544571, "end": 545100, "sha256": "552d6693965b6f6cc84a652921d4e5512682afdffc553c01dab37fbd1617ccd6", "text": "Furthermore, the Pleasures attendant on Workings are more closely connected with them even than the desires after them: for these last are separate both in time and nature, but the former are close to the Workings, and so indivisible from them as to raise a question whether the Working and the Pleasure are identical; but Pleasure does not seem to be an Intellectual Operation nor a Faculty of Perception, because that is absurd; but yet it gives some the impression of being the same from not being separated from these.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01318", "bookId": 8438, "start": 545104, "end": 545419, "sha256": "3fb89d638aad12507a0c6c82ee5766be6251a101ce38444d01dec5ea33414fd3", "text": "As then the Workings are different so are their Pleasures; now Sight differs from Touch in purity, and Hearing and Smelling from Taste; therefore, in like manner, do their Pleasures; and again, Intellectual Pleasures from these Sensual, and the different kinds both of Intellectual and Sensual from one another.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01319", "bookId": 8438, "start": 545423, "end": 545988, "sha256": "42dc78eda4207400f60b2830e2add60f05a7e93783e720720c62aa77f4a71e2a", "text": "It is thought, moreover, that each animal has a Pleasure proper to itself, as it has a proper Work; that Pleasure of course which is attendant on the Working. And the soundness of this will appear upon particular inspection: for horse, dog, and man have different Pleasures; as Heraclitus says, an ass would sooner have hay than gold; in other words, provender is pleasanter to asses than gold. So then the Pleasures of animals specifically different are also specifically different, but those of the same, we may reasonably suppose, are without difference.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01320", "bookId": 8438, "start": 545992, "end": 546436, "sha256": "84cf9e027b094969169d7c2d52dd8e87e9ab250e63cce3604148618ce3e1d877", "text": "Yet in the case of human creatures they differ not a little: for the very same things please some and pain others: and what are painful and hateful to some are pleasant to and liked by others. The same is the case with sweet things: the same will not seem so to the man in a fever as to him who is in health: nor will the invalid and the person in robust health have the same notion of warmth. The same is the case with other things also.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01321", "bookId": 8438, "start": 546440, "end": 547138, "sha256": "8d498f0b7cf97a7d459cf724876260252fd371f758bf316bcc5293a57a4214fb", "text": "Now in all such cases that is held to _be_ which impresses the good man with the notion of being such and such; and if this is a second maxim (as it is usually held to be), and Virtue, that is, the Good man, in that he is such, is the measure of everything, then those must be real Pleasures which gave him the impression of being so and those things pleasant in which he takes Pleasure. Nor is it at all astonishing that what are to him unpleasant should give another person the impression of being pleasant, for men are liable to many corruptions and marrings; and the things in question are not pleasant really, only to these particular persons, and to them only as being thus disposed.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01322", "bookId": 8438, "start": 547142, "end": 547494, "sha256": "df738e13965a8208c583aeab77989529c25c771236a7f07e05ba61aee697d47a", "text": "Well of course, you may say, it is obvious that we must assert those which are confessedly disgraceful to be real Pleasures, except to depraved tastes: but of those which are thought to be good what kind, or which, must we say is _The Pleasure of Man?_ is not the answer plain from considering the Workings, because the Pleasures follow upon these?", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01323", "bookId": 8438, "start": 547498, "end": 547828, "sha256": "cd50c597c492d9907293589881e0b994ac963cddc963455b7f41ef983264c257", "text": "If then there be one or several Workings which belong to the perfect and blessed man, the Pleasures which perfect these Workings must be said to be specially and properly _The Pleasures of Man;_ and all the rest in a secondary sense, and in various degrees according as the Workings are related to those highest and best ones.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01324", "bookId": 8438, "start": 547832, "end": 547842, "sha256": "89204e68d094a6a77f968119f40fec5f77d7676bf38cb1b47cd0ab87d3d2fea2", "text": "Chapter V.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01325", "bookId": 8438, "start": 547846, "end": 548131, "sha256": "4c7eb8a8ba4da66c85def86cac0f4112c13485fae0692a562c22bc475ad50b97", "text": "Now that we have spoken about the Excellences of both kinds, and Friendship in its varieties, and Pleasures, it remains to sketch out Happiness, since we assume that to be the one End of all human things: and we shall save time and trouble by recapitulating what was stated before.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01326", "bookId": 8438, "start": 548135, "end": 548828, "sha256": "f8036039b0f1b48dc875ba873f972a663a95d4f1afe8d57984445fc3d451190e", "text": "Well then, we said that it is not a State merely; because, if it were, it might belong to one who slept all his life through and merely vegetated, or to one who fell into very great calamities: and so, if these possibilities displease us and we would rather put it into the rank of some kind of Working (as was also said before), and Workings are of different kinds (some being necessary and choice-worthy with a view to other things, while others are so in themselves), it is plain we must rank Happiness among those choice-worthy for their own sakes and not among those which are so with a view to something further: because Happiness has no lack of anything but is self-sufficient.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01327", "bookId": 8438, "start": 548832, "end": 549121, "sha256": "2427dc17e4338fc8b0db6e490b103368d94bb3bac3d9b7f8ec85fc2b08965518", "text": "By choice-worthy in themselves are meant those from which nothing is sought beyond the act of Working: and of this kind are thought to be the actions according to Virtue, because doing what is noble and excellent is one of those things which are choice-worthy for their own sake alone.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01328", "bookId": 8438, "start": 549125, "end": 549621, "sha256": "b0deceb23c82de5b83e80b631ef9500d5a6acb8b12559bb82f9c29a791da7c82", "text": "And again, such amusements as are pleasant; because people do not choose them with any further purpose: in fact they receive more harm than profit from them, neglecting their persons and their property. Still the common run of those who are judged happy take refuge in such pastimes, which is the reason why they who have varied talent in such are highly esteemed among despots; because they make themselves pleasant in those things which these aim at, and these accordingly want such men.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01329", "bookId": 8438, "start": 549625, "end": 550216, "sha256": "a859626503a7c659ababfc5a21be418525be365d37c940f3eddb7b2773309ca4", "text": "Now these things are thought to be appurtenances of Happiness because men in power spend their leisure herein: yet, it may be, we cannot argue from the example of such men: because there is neither Virtue nor Intellect necessarily involved in having power, and yet these are the only sources of good Workings: nor does it follow that because these men, never having tasted pure and generous Pleasure, take refuge in bodily ones, we are therefore to believe them to be more choice-worthy: for children too believe that those things are most excellent which are precious in their eyes.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01330", "bookId": 8438, "start": 550220, "end": 550629, "sha256": "00a6177a13d8d85feb43a4fd62efa25f476554c23f716fefd2d7d0a6505382ff", "text": "We may well believe that as children and men have different ideas as to what is precious so too have the bad and the good: therefore, as we have many times said, those things are really precious and pleasant which seem so to the good man: and as to each individual that Working is most choice-worthy which is in accordance with his own state to the good man that is so which is in accordance with Virtue.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01331", "bookId": 8438, "start": 550633, "end": 551278, "sha256": "df8a31fb80f3507a81e967ce0bf3b06606a1d7991cf5e952fb15e3db3dfa6651", "text": "Happiness then stands not in amusement; in fact the very notion is absurd of the End being amusement, and of one’s toiling and enduring hardness all one’s life long with a view to amusement: for everything in the world, so to speak, we choose with some further End in view, except Happiness, for that is the End comprehending all others. Now to take pains and to labour with a view to amusement is plainly foolish and very childish: but to amuse one’s self with a view to steady employment afterwards, as Anacharsis says, is thought to be right: for amusement is like rest, and men want rest because unable to labour continuously.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01332", "bookId": 8438, "start": 551282, "end": 551371, "sha256": "4740d565f2c54bbd05e77535d14a5f9115d7632dc0b48f18a728d9bc1cca1a89", "text": "Rest, therefore, is not an End, because it is adopted with a view to Working afterwards.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01333", "bookId": 8438, "start": 551375, "end": 551816, "sha256": "7637f81a1089bd6696f9051ca6c4f732a7791ed1d11322e8ce22a6a78f137254", "text": "Again, it is held that the Happy Life must be one in the way of Excellence, and this is accompanied by earnestness,[13] and stands not in amusement. Moreover those things which are done in earnest, we say, are better than things merely ludicrous and joined with amusement: and we say that the Working of the better part, or the better man, is more earnest; and the Working of the better is at once better and more capable of Happiness.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01334", "bookId": 8438, "start": 551820, "end": 552164, "sha256": "2e94db53d58eab76f2764ca3f11e5b7492d6b5465c7ff02f4bde0f5a5841f17a", "text": "Then, again, as for bodily Pleasures, any ordinary person, or even a slave, might enjoy them, just as well as the best man living but Happiness no one supposes a slave to share except so far as it is implied in life: because Happiness stands not in such pastimes but in the Workings in the way of Excellence, as has also been stated before.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01335", "bookId": 8438, "start": 552168, "end": 552179, "sha256": "bb240dadd686b141825e647280d2d4b72d5f6bbd0f26d00f1faf792e029c0892", "text": "Chapter VI.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01336", "bookId": 8438, "start": 552183, "end": 552682, "sha256": "dad06f7e102f3e2ced79e8fe528ef0004da2f5f5e3784d73ff0fb80063915378", "text": "Now if Happiness is a Working in the way of Excellence of course that Excellence must be the highest, that is to say, the Excellence of the best Principle. Whether then this best Principle is Intellect or some other which is thought naturally to rule and to lead and to conceive of noble and divine things, whether being in its own nature divine or the most divine of all our internal Principles, the Working of this in accordance with its own proper Excellence must be the perfect Happiness.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01337", "bookId": 8438, "start": 552686, "end": 553052, "sha256": "a3ca23337b311e50d632396c6a041e6894c7a915886d89776648932c9b98cc6e", "text": "That it is Contemplative has been already stated: and this would seem to be consistent with what we said before and with truth: for, in the first place, this Working is of the highest kind, since the Intellect is the highest of our internal Principles and the subjects with which it is conversant the highest of all which fall within the range of our knowledge.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01338", "bookId": 8438, "start": 553056, "end": 553177, "sha256": "20324b15b88a9c93b2c674abf274134d1d6c8716d14c0567cc86c271baa251b0", "text": "Next, it is also most Continuous: for we are better able to contemplate than to do anything else whatever, continuously.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01339", "bookId": 8438, "start": 553181, "end": 553611, "sha256": "5d93f020b8d2a754a096e7d4b8cdc365c53ad019f70f64c6ad64e3eb805e0804", "text": "Again, we think Pleasure must be in some way an ingredient in Happiness, and of all Workings in accordance with Excellence that in the way of Science is confessedly most pleasant: at least the pursuit of Science is thought to contain Pleasures admirable for purity and permanence; and it is reasonable to suppose that the employment is more pleasant to those who have mastered, than to those who are yet seeking for, it.[14]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01340", "bookId": 8438, "start": 553615, "end": 554351, "sha256": "fdbd9443bf80a41ab086c19e87743fdf8a94f8becb3ad651dd09720f6151cd32", "text": "And the Self-Sufficiency which people speak of will attach chiefly to the Contemplative Working: of course the actual necessaries of life are needed alike by the man of science, and the just man, and all the other characters; but, supposing all sufficiently supplied with these, the just man needs people towards whom, and in concert with whom, to practise his justice; and in like manner the man of perfected self-mastery, and the brave man, and so on of the rest; whereas the man of science can contemplate and speculate even when quite alone, and the more entirely he deserves the appellation the more able is he to do so: it may be he can do better for having fellow-workers but still he is certainly most Self-Sufficient.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01341", "bookId": 8438, "start": 554355, "end": 554625, "sha256": "c92e7aa5519ecf01c0a1d6b46be1a05c2a342f51875e362d8e1e5b2dadda1f97", "text": "Again, this alone would seem to be rested in for its own sake, since nothing results from it beyond the fact of having contemplated; whereas from all things which are objects of moral action we do mean to get something beside the doing them, be the same more or less.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01342", "bookId": 8438, "start": 554629, "end": 555442, "sha256": "9687a3351bc08a7bcf9889f6979601c58612a86c6f896be4da653241c4223319", "text": "Also, Happiness is thought to stand in perfect rest;[15] for we toil that we may rest, and war that we may be at peace. Now all the Practical Virtues require either society or war for their Working, and the actions regarding these are thought to exclude rest; those of war entirely, because no one chooses war, nor prepares for war, for war’s sake: he would indeed be thought a bloodthirsty villain who should make enemies of his friends to secure the existence of fighting and bloodshed. The Working also of the statesman excludes the idea of rest, and, beside the actual work of government, seeks for power and dignities or at least Happiness for the man himself and his fellow-citizens: a Happiness distinct[16] from the national Happiness, which we evidently seek as being different and distinct.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01343", "bookId": 8438, "start": 555446, "end": 556271, "sha256": "d93b4b6f11715e430985f2ce8b2ecf67b14c2240716eb33059df6ea02dda868e", "text": "If then of all the actions in accordance with the various virtues those of policy and war are pre-eminent in honour and greatness, and these are restless, and aim at some further End and are not choice-worthy for their own sakes, but the Working of the Intellect, being apt for contemplation, is thought to excel in earnestness, and to aim at no End beyond itself and to have Pleasure of its own which helps to increase the Working, and if the attributes of Self-Sufficiency, and capacity of rest, and unweariedness (as far as is compatible with the infirmity of human nature), and all other attributes of the highest Happiness, plainly belong to this Working, this must be perfect Happiness, if attaining a complete duration of life, which condition is added because none of the points of Happiness is incomplete.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01344", "bookId": 8438, "start": 556275, "end": 556767, "sha256": "d9b55b5f8154e0025bde5608962828b9f058d52ab55f22381458adddca491f71", "text": "But such a life will be higher than mere human nature, because a man will live thus, not in so far as he is man but in so far as there is in him a divine Principle: and in proportion as this Principle excels his composite nature so far does the Working thereof excel that in accordance with any other kind of Excellence: and therefore, if pure Intellect, as compared with human nature, is divine, so too will the life in accordance with it be divine compared with man’s ordinary life.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01345", "bookId": 8438, "start": 556771, "end": 557120, "sha256": "4fac9b37f7d4d560642cb26a618ec8a8ff7e999446595a0ca5312bdbd2e03213", "text": "Yet must we not give ear to those who bid one as man to mind only man’s affairs, or as mortal only mortal things; but, so far as we can, make ourselves like immortals and do all with a view to living in accordance with the highest Principle in us, for small as it may be in bulk yet in power and preciousness it far more excels all the others.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01346", "bookId": 8438, "start": 557124, "end": 557339, "sha256": "415dab231bc361d712005e63322ad07d9001e8fde4a4aada07545010da95941c", "text": "In fact this Principle would seem to constitute each man’s “Self,” since it is supreme and above all others in goodness it _would_ be absurd then for a man not to choose his own life but that of some other.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01347", "bookId": 8438, "start": 557343, "end": 557613, "sha256": "6cbd7df371b6dbc08537b2247658410ef487a1df14acbdc6cd03f050f08dd6a3", "text": "And here will apply an observation made before, that whatever is proper to each is naturally best and pleasantest to him: such then is to Man the life in accordance with pure Intellect (since this Principle is most truly Man), and if so, then it is also the happiest.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01348", "bookId": 8438, "start": 557617, "end": 558227, "sha256": "d733d4f75af7f569f142975897f2e4a508d5dd8e2561c9bf8e7db01cb9dba382", "text": "And second in degree of Happiness will be that Life which is in accordance with the other kind of Excellence, for the Workings in accordance with this are proper to Man: I mean, we do actions of justice, courage, and the other virtues, towards one another, in contracts, services of different kinds, and in all kinds of actions and feelings too, by observing what is befitting for each: and all these plainly are proper to man. Further, the Excellence of the Moral character is thought to result in some points from physical circumstances, and to be, in many, very closely connected with the passions.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01349", "bookId": 8438, "start": 558231, "end": 558466, "sha256": "47168e6145f242572108ad2380afeec2c0f9996678dd8d3fd2183a319b5bd16f", "text": "Again, Practical Wisdom[17] and Excellence of the Moral character are very closely united; since the Principles of Practical Wisdom are in accordance with the Moral Virtues and these are right when they accord with Practical Wisdom.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01350", "bookId": 8438, "start": 558470, "end": 558855, "sha256": "e9d070662de93e4e3a5a5ce0494f846c58cf76a4e5b7ad08d2e75ea16d2d4ec4", "text": "These moreover, as bound up with the passions, must belong to the composite nature, and the Excellences or Virtues of the composite nature are proper to man: therefore so too will be the life and Happiness which is in accordance with them. But that of the Pure Intellect is separate and distinct: and let this suffice upon the subject, since great exactness is beyond our purpose,", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01351", "bookId": 8438, "start": 558859, "end": 559343, "sha256": "5caff0151e637d33e684c5930e073cce42f3b258f78a8fc2ab91e542d374abaa", "text": "It would seem, moreover, to require supply of external goods to a small degree, or certainly less than the Moral Happiness: for, as far as necessaries of life are concerned, we will suppose both characters to need them equally (though, in point of fact, the man who lives in society does take more pains about his person and all that kind of thing; there will really be some little difference), but when we come to consider their Workings there will be found a great difference.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01352", "bookId": 8438, "start": 559347, "end": 559833, "sha256": "5b2610612ea42b2f41f6de494e1bf3b7ccd4903c2a0b9e8e811fada0c16d5f13", "text": "I mean, the liberal man must have money to do his liberal actions with, and the just man to meet his engagements (for mere intentions are uncertain, and even those who are unjust make a pretence of _wishing_ to do justly), and the brave man must have power, if he is to perform any of the actions which appertain to his particular Virtue, and the man of perfected self-mastery must have opportunity of temptation, else how shall he or any of the others display his real character?", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01353", "bookId": 8438, "start": 559837, "end": 560558, "sha256": "2e417801e162e7755409bc51dc584687e7730a9e268d6d14770125a9b56a20c5", "text": "(By the way, a question is sometimes raised, whether the moral choice or the actions have most to do with Virtue, since it consists in both: it is plain that the perfection of virtuous action requires both: but for the actions many things are required, and the greater and more numerous they are the more.) But as for the man engaged in Contemplative Speculation, not only are such things unnecessary for his Working, but, so to speak, they are even hindrances: as regards the Contemplation at least; because of course in so far as he is Man and lives in society he chooses to do what Virtue requires, and so he will need such things for maintaining his character as Man though not as a speculative philosopher.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01354", "bookId": 8438, "start": 560562, "end": 561513, "sha256": "e77514a99ca40926b4fbccaa10b0f0406ba62e175a06f4b15cb61df6f7ae0af4", "text": "And that the perfect Happiness must be a kind of Contemplative Working may appear also from the following consideration: our conception of the gods is that they are above all blessed and happy: now what kind of Moral actions are we to attribute to them? those of justice? nay, will they not be set in a ridiculous light if represented as forming contracts, and restoring deposits, and so on? well then, shall we picture them performing brave actions, withstanding objects of fear and meeting dangers, because it is noble to do so? or liberal ones? but to whom shall they be giving? and further, it is absurd to think they have money or anything of the kind. And as for actions of perfected self-mastery, what can theirs be? would it not be a degrading praise that they have no bad desires? In short, if one followed the subject into all details all the circumstances connected with Moral actions would appear trivial and unworthy of Gods.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01355", "bookId": 8438, "start": 561517, "end": 561984, "sha256": "1a9472851bca0a763176312078ce796d74af56dd933a0bc66d94f6f34b33b374", "text": "Still, every one believes that they live, and therefore that they Work because it is not supposed that they sleep their time away like Endymion: now if from a living being you take away Action, still more if Creation, what remains but Contemplation? So then the Working of the Gods, eminent in blessedness, will be one apt for Contemplative Speculation; and of all human Workings that will have the greatest capacity for Happiness which is nearest akin to this.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01356", "bookId": 8438, "start": 561988, "end": 562136, "sha256": "fe91ebf8c74987890bf6d52c9c8b3c737defcc9a64ba8c903d4326c99364a785", "text": "A corroboration of which position is the fact that the other animals do not partake of Happiness, being completely shut out from any such Working.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01357", "bookId": 8438, "start": 562140, "end": 562348, "sha256": "f087445894e5bde5d65afd3b304be96ed15e256ac17a855daf2f525678d4e74e", "text": "To the Gods then all their life is blessed; and to men in so far as there is in it some copy of such Working, but of the other animals none is happy because it in no way shares in Contemplative Speculation.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01358", "bookId": 8438, "start": 562352, "end": 562615, "sha256": "e852bac39811d0263291e2ef647122d3c482ffdbf6976970db91fc6993f03195", "text": "Happiness then is co-extensive with this Contemplative Speculation, and in proportion as people have the act of Contemplation so far have they also the being happy, not incidentally, but in the way of Contemplative Speculation because it is in itself precious.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01359", "bookId": 8438, "start": 562619, "end": 562631, "sha256": "e3a88405865f388fd2bbf6c4cfc5874d7991e8951df2fcbc0435b1fbb2f839f3", "text": "Chapter VII.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01360", "bookId": 8438, "start": 562635, "end": 562920, "sha256": "fa72a57d5e10c1e0227bedacc28501cfee1acecd83a7e2b45b7a9383cb8aae0b", "text": "So Happiness must be a kind of Contemplative Speculation; but since it is Man we are speaking of he will need likewise External Prosperity, because his Nature is not by itself sufficient for Speculation, but there must be health of body, and nourishment, and tendance of all kinds.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01361", "bookId": 8438, "start": 562924, "end": 563307, "sha256": "c170faf6ff90c19688b6c79096286036177ed9e974ead034a62862c8d5a9b051", "text": "However, it must not be thought, because without external goods a man cannot enjoy high Happiness, that therefore he will require many and great goods in order to be happy: for neither Self-sufficiency, nor Action, stand in Excess, and it is quite possible to act nobly without being ruler of sea and land, since even with moderate means a man may act in accordance with Virtue.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01362", "bookId": 8438, "start": 563311, "end": 563600, "sha256": "98ed91811feee4a5642d07a1a6036d3e5eeade1540cb47a63f0fa566ab0731ca", "text": "And this may be clearly seen in that men in private stations are thought to act justly, not merely no less than men in power but even more: it will be quite enough that just so much should belong to a man as is necessary, for his life will be happy who works in accordance with Virtue.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01363", "bookId": 8438, "start": 563604, "end": 563905, "sha256": "62f4855f0f4bbff86622c7505fe89f62b79ab0e1287972ba2d39f9fc10a98422", "text": "Solon perhaps drew a fair picture of the Happy, when he said that they are men moderately supplied with external goods, and who have achieved the most noble deeds, as he thought, and who have lived with perfect self-mastery: for it is quite possible for men of moderate means to act as they ought.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01364", "bookId": 8438, "start": 563909, "end": 564183, "sha256": "f0b04d8827a91d0facaae6503086381408fd77a4dc2fa80c820cf82c493ba53e", "text": "Anaxagoras also seems to have conceived of the Happy man not as either rich or powerful, saying that he should not wonder if he were accounted a strange man in the judgment of the multitude: for they judge by outward circumstances of which alone they have any perception.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01365", "bookId": 8438, "start": 564187, "end": 564666, "sha256": "dc95450481ab2433f708094e17214734f450bb1c71a6baeda416b949deb45519", "text": "And thus the opinions of the Wise seem to be accordant with our account of the matter: of course such things carry some weight, but truth, in matters of moral action, is judged from facts and from actual life, for herein rests the decision. So what we should do is to examine the preceding statements by referring them to facts and to actual life, and when they harmonise with facts we may accept them, when they are at variance with them conceive of them as mere theories.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01366", "bookId": 8438, "start": 564670, "end": 565391, "sha256": "b08951ce48974e22c63d778a7ea3542dd5a57a33b1bfc3896de54fd259b65e1e", "text": "Now he that works in accordance with, and pays observance to, Pure Intellect, and tends this, seems likely to be both in the best frame of mind and dearest to the Gods: because if, as is thought, any care is bestowed on human things by the Gods then it must be reasonable to think that they take pleasure in what is best and most akin to themselves (and this must be the Pure Intellect); and that they requite with kindness those who love and honour this most, as paying observance to what is dear to them, and as acting rightly and nobly. And it is quite obvious that the man of Science chiefly combines all these: he is therefore dearest to the Gods, and it is probable that he is at the same time most Happy.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01367", "bookId": 8438, "start": 565395, "end": 565461, "sha256": "a6bfb47954dda76f76e8cb3b54ceb3a542cb2730e28cd688da65793cf36748c6", "text": "Thus then on this view also the man of Science will be most Happy.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01368", "bookId": 8438, "start": 565465, "end": 565478, "sha256": "d004d8c3a629800899066ec30aebdc9b11ed7932971144d5b44dd4b9f1c6f736", "text": "Chapter VIII.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01369", "bookId": 8438, "start": 565482, "end": 566015, "sha256": "787ed51d22a599cd1bbf5ae08a2f5974988782d8cd4bfe7af902815926961379", "text": "Now then that we have said enough in our sketchy kind of way on these subjects; I mean, on the Virtues, and also on Friendship and Pleasure; are we to suppose that our original purpose is completed? Must we not rather acknowledge, what is commonly said, that in matters of moral action mere Speculation and Knowledge is not the real End but rather Practice: and if so, then neither in respect of Virtue is Knowledge enough; we must further strive to have and exert it, and take whatever other means there are of becoming good.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01370", "bookId": 8438, "start": 566019, "end": 566990, "sha256": "f7ad41103a59dcc9ed8e71b11bb7b652dcab719808ea68d220293e34d82db3f5", "text": "Now if talking and writing were of themselves sufficient to make men good, they would justly, as Theognis observes have reaped numerous and great rewards, and the thing to do would be to provide them: but in point of fact, while they plainly have the power to guide and stimulate the generous among the young and to base upon true virtuous principle any noble and truly high-minded disposition, they as plainly are powerless to guide the mass of men to Virtue and goodness; because it is not their nature to be amenable to a sense of shame but only to fear; nor to abstain from what is low and mean because it is disgraceful to do it but because of the punishment attached to it: in fact, as they live at the beck and call of passion, they pursue their own proper pleasures and the means of securing them, and they avoid the contrary pains; but as for what is noble and truly pleasurable they have not an idea of it, inasmuch as they have never tasted of it.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01371", "bookId": 8438, "start": 566994, "end": 567342, "sha256": "241f718769e0a6822e1c8fe79d37be38b22a4f1004deafc185727cad2ec34d82", "text": "Men such as these then what mere words can transform? No, indeed! it is either actually impossible, or a task of no mean difficulty, to alter by words what has been of old taken into men’s very dispositions: and, it may be, it is a ground for contentment if with all the means and appliances for goodness in our hands we can attain to Virtue.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01372", "bookId": 8438, "start": 567346, "end": 567617, "sha256": "9711f189cb0194b604f8008ffb9a9e7fc17fca67adeb39309c720d28f7a91c49", "text": "The formation of a virtuous character some ascribe to Nature, some to Custom, and some to Teaching. Now Nature’s part, be it what it may, obviously does not rest with us, but belongs to those who in the truest sense are fortunate, by reason of certain divine agency,", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01373", "bookId": 8438, "start": 567621, "end": 568699, "sha256": "6513644e95d1e5082c3d09452cee14bcddaaeeda5f2124714941b86f2c4c7e53", "text": "Then, as for Words and Precept, they, it is to be feared, will not avail with all; but it may be necessary for the mind of the disciple to have been previously prepared for liking and disliking as he ought; just as the soil must, to nourish the seed sown. For he that lives in obedience to passion cannot hear any advice that would dissuade him, nor, if he heard, understand: now him that is thus how can one reform? in fact, generally, passion is not thought to yield to Reason but to brute force. So then there must be, to begin with, a kind of affinity to Virtue in the disposition; which must cleave to what is honourable and loath what is disgraceful. But to get right guidance towards Virtue from the earliest youth is not easy unless one is brought up under laws of such kind; because living with self-mastery and endurance is not pleasant to the mass of men, and specially not to the young. For this reason the food, and manner of living generally, ought to be the subject of legal regulation, because things when become habitual will not be disagreeable.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01374", "bookId": 8438, "start": 568703, "end": 569141, "sha256": "3c934e85adffcd01e77863465a29cd1cce69435a88eb447472bb3c512df2d5a6", "text": "Yet perhaps it is not sufficient that men while young should get right food and tendance, but, inasmuch as they will have to practise and become accustomed to certain things even after they have attained to man’s estate, we shall want laws on these points as well, and, in fine, respecting one’s whole life, since the mass of men are amenable to compulsion rather than Reason, and to punishment rather than to a sense of honour.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01375", "bookId": 8438, "start": 569145, "end": 569783, "sha256": "4a46f59d6d73fd6db3bfc1c7892ded5f5143053ba7c3092be4d7adccf270be3c", "text": "And therefore some men hold that while lawgivers should employ the sense of honour to exhort and guide men to Virtue, under the notion that they will then obey who have been well trained in habits; they should impose chastisement and penalties on those who disobey and are of less promising nature; and the incurable expel entirely: because the good man and he who lives under a sense of honour will be obedient to reason; and the baser sort, who grasp at pleasure, will be kept in check, like beasts of burthen by pain. Therefore also they say that the pains should be such as are most contrary to the pleasures which are liked.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01376", "bookId": 8438, "start": 569787, "end": 570141, "sha256": "5eeba929bbc7ce5e25c03cf526b744fc7fac7fe5791858d8b3707110cdb1579b", "text": "As has been said already, he who is to be good must have been brought up and habituated well, and then live accordingly under good institutions, and never do what is low and mean, either against or with his will. Now these objects can be attained only by men living in accordance with some guiding Intellect and right order, with power to back them.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01377", "bookId": 8438, "start": 570145, "end": 570614, "sha256": "30bbdf07bb42c05f03a16901af0bd56f5fed74337e6873f2bad293b04a1dc762", "text": "As for the Paternal Rule, it possesses neither strength nor compulsory power, nor in fact does the Rule of any one man, unless he is a king or some one in like case: but the Law has power to compel, since it is a declaration emanating from Practical Wisdom and Intellect. And people feel enmity towards their fellow-men who oppose their impulses, however rightly they may do so: the Law, on the contrary, is not the object of hatred, though enforcing right rules.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01378", "bookId": 8438, "start": 570618, "end": 570934, "sha256": "988cbe303a5b85c0c558dbfb4ff1f92107aec031b21cc8d44ba34efd5f92031c", "text": "The Lacedæmonian is nearly the only State in which the framer of the Constitution has made any provision, it would seem, respecting the food and manner of living of the people: in most States these points are entirely neglected, and each man lives just as he likes, ruling his wife and children Cyclops-Fashion.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01379", "bookId": 8438, "start": 570938, "end": 571794, "sha256": "874abe73a1dc387fbb609e3bd91355c51863be785af395d40c16e3a55ea87f8e", "text": "Of course, the best thing would be that there should be a right Public System and that we should be able to carry it out: but, since as a public matter those points are neglected, the duty would seem to devolve upon each individual to contribute to the cause of Virtue with his own children and friends, or at least to make this his aim and purpose: and this, it would seem, from what has been said, he will be best able to do by making a Legislator of himself: since all public systems, it is plain, are formed by the instrumentality of laws and those are good which are formed by that of good laws: whether they are written or unwritten, whether they are applied to the training of one or many, will not, it seems, make any difference, just as it does not in music, gymnastics, or any other such accomplishments, which are gained by practice.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01380", "bookId": 8438, "start": 571798, "end": 572138, "sha256": "df4f12676313d90cc158017e20ccc62980f202cae47002cf74d5b6e90cda5e31", "text": "For just as in Communities laws and customs prevail, so too in families the express commands of the Head, and customs also: and even more in the latter, because of blood-relationship and the benefits conferred: for there you have, to begin with, people who have affection and are naturally obedient to the authority which controls them.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01381", "bookId": 8438, "start": 572142, "end": 572499, "sha256": "dc4efbde69ec0c865e6615f6f893a7ca76bfd6484f22394ea1df02785a16c7cc", "text": "Then, furthermore, Private training has advantages over Public, as in the case of the healing art: for instance, as a general rule, a man who is in a fever should keep quiet, and starve; but in a particular case, perhaps, this may not hold good; or, to take a different illustration, the boxer will not use the same way of fighting with all antagonists.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01382", "bookId": 8438, "start": 572503, "end": 573641, "sha256": "0f0a9009db5eae2cf29931b7a12ee73276b7d0f620742978db3ed32503d7eb77", "text": "It would seem then that the individual will be most exactly attended to under Private care, because so each will be more likely to obtain what is expedient for him. Of course, whether in the art of healing, or gymnastics, or any other, a man will treat individual cases the better for being acquainted with general rules; as, “that so and so is good for all, or for men in such and such cases:” because general maxims are not only said to be but are the object-matter of sciences: still this is no reason against the possibility of a man’s taking excellent care of some _one_ case, though he possesses no scientific knowledge but from experience is exactly acquainted with what happens in each point; just as some people are thought to doctor themselves best though they would be wholly unable to administer relief to others. Yet it may seem to be necessary nevertheless, for one who wishes to become a real artist and well acquainted with the theory of his profession, to have recourse to general principles and ascertain all their capacities: for we have already stated that these are the object-matter of sciences.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01383", "bookId": 8438, "start": 573645, "end": 574068, "sha256": "ceff43205e95c3445d447e11cac38cfb313e94da514693b005d6678a539a56c8", "text": "If then it appears that we may become good through the instrumentality of laws, of course whoso wishes to make men better by a system of care and training must try to make a Legislator of himself; for to treat skilfully just any one who may be put before you is not what any ordinary person can do, but, if any one, he who has knowledge; as in the healing art, and all others which involve careful practice and skill.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01384", "bookId": 8438, "start": 574072, "end": 575127, "sha256": "bef0c6ac0e3a1319b60f84c25f952f7a4c83b1cfc6dc2accb7c5bfcb5aa4153d", "text": "Will not then our next business be to enquire from what sources, or how one may acquire this faculty of Legislation; or shall we say, that, as in similar cases, Statesmen are the people to learn from, since this faculty was thought to be a part of the Social Science? Must we not admit that the Political Science plainly does not stand on a similar footing to that of other sciences and faculties? I mean, that while in all other cases those who impart the faculties and themselves exert them are identical (physicians and painters for instance) matters of Statesmanship the Sophists profess to teach, but not one of them practises it, that being left to those actually engaged in it: and these might really very well be thought to do it by some singular knack and by mere practice rather than by any intellectual process: for they neither write nor speak on these matters (though it might be more to their credit than composing speeches for the courts or the assembly), nor again have they made Statesmen of their own sons or their friends.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01385", "bookId": 8438, "start": 575131, "end": 575409, "sha256": "8d3f92e3e47ef8b5c6bd548c0fb3fae4662d13f32e54e4f825bf1b9a29b060b5", "text": "One can hardly suppose but that they would have done so if they could, seeing that they could have bequeathed no more precious legacy to their communities, nor would they have preferred, for themselves or their dearest friends, the possession of any faculty rather than this.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01386", "bookId": 8438, "start": 575413, "end": 575688, "sha256": "17fc8deb500ee63e8202c8bca204399965fb4e78f7999b53a6a90fcf9961e622", "text": "Practice, however, seems to contribute no little to its acquisition; merely breathing the atmosphere of politics would never have made Statesmen of them, and therefore we may conclude that they who would acquire a knowledge of Statesmanship must have in addition practice.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01387", "bookId": 8438, "start": 575692, "end": 576532, "sha256": "aa251c5927f694ada9ef248879f776a6dbcee78c0d350fc681656f2ab44c03d2", "text": "But of the Sophists they who profess to teach it are plainly a long way off from doing so: in fact, they have no knowledge at all of its nature and objects; if they had, they would never have put it on the same footing with Rhetoric or even on a lower: neither would they have conceived it to be “an easy matter to legislate by simply collecting such laws as are famous because of course one could select the best,” as though the selection were not a matter of skill, and the judging aright a very great matter, as in Music: for they alone, who have practical knowledge of a thing, can judge the performances rightly or understand with what means and in what way they are accomplished, and what harmonises with what: the unlearned must be content with being able to discover whether the result is good or bad, as in painting.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01388", "bookId": 8438, "start": 576536, "end": 577448, "sha256": "0642bffcd3eea4c0dae5373f92b3be0c8db90104b0ed28708585807dc3a05bc3", "text": "Now laws may be called the performances or tangible results of Political Science; how then can a man acquire from these the faculty of Legislation, or choose the best? we do not see men made physicians by compilations: and yet in these treatises men endeavour to give not only the cases but also how they may be cured, and the proper treatment in each case, dividing the various bodily habits. Well, these are thought to be useful to professional men, but to the unprofessional useless. In like manner it may be that collections of laws and Constitutions would be exceedingly useful to such as are able to speculate on them, and judge what is well, and what ill, and what kind of things fit in with what others: but they who without this qualification should go through such matters cannot have right judgment, unless they have it by instinct, though they may become more intelligent in such matters.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01389", "bookId": 8438, "start": 577452, "end": 577733, "sha256": "2f44454a60f7455e5cedbdb2a2d0827b5f1f36661c3e5c24e79a91440e879d64", "text": "Since then those who have preceded us have left uninvestigated the subject of Legislation, it will be better perhaps for us to investigate it ourselves, and, in fact, the whole subject of Polity, that thus what we may call Human Philosophy may be completed as far as in us lies.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01390", "bookId": 8438, "start": 577737, "end": 578248, "sha256": "71ecb207b4b57b998c91009910657f9138aa6f18687db32731bbf57b221a4f15", "text": "First then, let us endeavour to get whatever fragments of good there may be in the statements of our predecessors, next, from the Polities we have collected, ascertain what kind of things preserve or destroy Communities, and what, particular Constitutions; and the cause why some are well and others ill managed, for after such enquiry, we shall be the better able to take a concentrated view as to what kind of Constitution is best, what kind of regulations are best for each, and what laws and customs.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01391", "bookId": 8438, "start": 578258, "end": 578263, "sha256": "7bfab6c61f7782c3e365e62af6893210c76baaae9c8f15320512d797bb6fa66e", "text": "NOTES", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01392", "bookId": 8438, "start": 578267, "end": 578273, "sha256": "b93d3cfc64ab87ddc4d33cfb6d6d51038341f84c20a980eeacba257a7bd075ac", "text": "BOOK I", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01393", "bookId": 8438, "start": 578279, "end": 578398, "sha256": "10384b151bc42906ad407136f142e20afc209ec4ef2604c540c7d8e0b8462cd3", "text": "[1] For this term, as here employed, our language contains no equivalent expression except an inconvenient paraphrase.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01394", "bookId": 8438, "start": 578402, "end": 578812, "sha256": "1042b5a06cc23b56b4ada3d9ab78cf2b573e64c377f9caebc4380c48f27a062d", "text": "There are three senses which it bears in this treatise: the first (in which it is here employed) is its strict etymological signfication “The science of Society,” and this includes everything which can bear at all upon the well-being of Man in his social capacity, “Quicquid agunt homines nostri est farrago libelli.” It is in this view that it is fairly denominated most commanding and inclusive.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01395", "bookId": 8438, "start": 578816, "end": 579616, "sha256": "21e755b8b1614e0409631834effe7390a4afef6c395c5eacf9dfafdbfb48b83e", "text": "The second sense (in which it occurs next, just below) is “Moral Philosophy.” Aristotle explains the term in this sense in the Rhetoric (1 2) [Greek: hae peri ta aethae pragmateia aen dikaion esti prosagoreuen politikaen]. He has principally in view in this treatise the moral training of the Individual, the branch of the Science of Society which we call Ethics Proper, bearing the same relation to the larger Science as the hewing and squaring of the stones to the building of the Temple, or the drill of the Recruit to the manoeuvres of the field. Greek Philosophy viewed men principally as constituent parts of a [Greek: polis], considering this function to be the real End of each, and this state as that in which the Individual attained his highest and most complete development.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01396", "bookId": 8438, "start": 579620, "end": 579763, "sha256": "cdc5d072a32c678bbf5f158937ba6bc9b5c6ca2c5276bd6892d11254fdc56611", "text": "The third sense is “The detail of Civil Government,” which Aristotle expressly states (vi. 8) was the most common acceptation of the term.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01397", "bookId": 8438, "start": 579767, "end": 580212, "sha256": "20899f99aaa66fc68cde273bd320ed941ea5760b0981e9ecce4c8c389d33f0e5", "text": "[2] Matters of which a man is to judge either belong to some definite art or science, or they do not. In the former case he is the best judge who has thorough acquaintance with that art or science, in the latter, the man whose powers have been developed and matured by education. A lame horse one would show to a farmer, not to the best and wisest man of one’s acquaintance; to the latter, one would apply in a difficult case of conduct.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01398", "bookId": 8438, "start": 580216, "end": 580287, "sha256": "a37070fc6661c2a47f2bf97b321a669997747b8219df4274fd64d5a75a251042", "text": "Experience answers to the first, a state of self-control to the latter.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01399", "bookId": 8438, "start": 580291, "end": 580484, "sha256": "bf8faf8d6ae0691c96a7ffe82b37faf895569711f56445cd887a62dcb5cf8e87", "text": "[3] In the last chapter of the third book of this treatise it is said of the fool, that his desire of pleasure is not only insatiable, but indiscriminate in its objects, πανταχόθεν.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01400", "bookId": 8438, "start": 580488, "end": 580658, "sha256": "36646d162a64aa631ed3cb0f095833231e3b3e271fc880f2c95d64e64dc7cf49", "text": "[4] Ἀρχὴ is a word used in this treatise in various significations. The primary one is “beginning or first cause,” and this runs through all its various uses.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01401", "bookId": 8438, "start": 580662, "end": 580768, "sha256": "99a69a43f517eaf95382a5666a1311619a995f83c4c8dc575c6a84ad7af0370b", "text": "“Rule,” and sometimes “Rulers,” are denoted by this term the initiative being a property of Rule.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01402", "bookId": 8438, "start": 580772, "end": 581225, "sha256": "a4662ac7de3ebceb281845cc860eaec3473aad83ad6e463360dc4ae86b0f886e", "text": "“Principle” is a very usual signification of it, and in fact the most characteristic of the Ethics. The word Principle means “starting-point.” Every action has two beginnings, that of Resolve οὗ ἕνεκα, and that of Action (ὅθεν ἡ κινήσις). I desire praise of men this then is the beginning of Resolve. Having considered how it is to be attained, I resolve upon some course and this Resolve is the beginning of Action.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01403", "bookId": 8438, "start": 581229, "end": 581457, "sha256": "23d7659f3fcb9b411eb3698d79cd9277cbd9453a8db5e5ad3461979fa73f1734", "text": "The beginnings of Resolve, Ἀρχὶ or Motives, when formally stated, are the major premisses of what Aristotle calls the συλλογίσμοι τῶν πρακτῶν, i.e. the reasoning into which actions may be analysed.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01404", "bookId": 8438, "start": 581461, "end": 581576, "sha256": "341d29879da41a618e6ba8e65c6cc67ab152f714360af79f44353302f29654e6", "text": "Thus we say that the desire of human praise was the motive of the Pharisees, or the principle on which they acted.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01405", "bookId": 8438, "start": 581580, "end": 581628, "sha256": "3466e790b5e197f96b98eb1ade6cf392b8c9b16cbcfc059759c25455a136fe57", "text": "Their practical syllogism then would stand thus:", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01406", "bookId": 8438, "start": 581632, "end": 581778, "sha256": "fe5b183c61cb10f389d5c4c23a842ae92ec7f3cee970d3308de45ea645eff24e", "text": "Whatever gains human praise is to be done; Public praying and almsgiving gave human praise: [ergo] Public praying and almsgiving are to be done.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01407", "bookId": 8438, "start": 581784, "end": 581922, "sha256": "c9658132d1a1a7ad40bd426d785a979eb8dcdcaf5c7ba6dde440f08b5137f52a", "text": "The major premisses may be stored up in the mind as rules of action, and this is what is commonly meant by having principles good or bad.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01408", "bookId": 8438, "start": 581926, "end": 582067, "sha256": "b542ca32114efcd0f9b0ac0d9e6c8930de87754280c7e1515b690094e006be86", "text": "[5] The difficulty of this passage consists in determining the signification of the terms [Greek: gnorima aemin] and [Greek: gnorima aplos]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01409", "bookId": 8438, "start": 582071, "end": 583066, "sha256": "1a0cf0cccf33ae303e14e214b6df36da8be085844b317c1f4e4f77e3b835769f", "text": "I have translated them without reference to their use elsewhere, as denoting respectively what _is_ and what _may_ be known. All truth is [Greek: gnorimon aplos], but that alone [Greek: aemin] which we individually realise, therefore those principles alone are [Greek: gnorima aemin] which _we have received as true_. From this appears immediately the necessity of good training as preparatory to the study of Moral Philosophy for good training in habits will either work principles into our nature, or make us capable of accepting them as soon as they are put before us; which no mere intellectual training can do. The child who has been used to obey his parents may never have heard the fifth Commandment but it is in the very texture of his nature, and the first time he hears it he will recognise it as morally true and right the principle is in his case a fact, the reason for which he is as little inclined to ask as any one would be able to prove its truth if he should ask.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01410", "bookId": 8438, "start": 583070, "end": 583569, "sha256": "529ac0b5ac753a7936b0defd6509fd7c95b0106afb5b4cae4573c0e00c13157f", "text": "But these terms are employed elsewhere (Analytica Post I cap. 11. sect. 10) to denote respectively particulars and universals The latter are so denominated, because principles or laws must be supposed to have existed before the instances of their operation. Justice must have existed before just actions, Redness before red things, but since what we meet with are the concrete instances (from which we gather the principles and laws), the particulars are said to be [Greek: gnorimotera aemin]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01411", "bookId": 8438, "start": 583573, "end": 584193, "sha256": "63bbcf5c89b439f92980d295fb7414d6cafb2af3b10cafe05f61e3b9a3ad1309", "text": "Adopting this signification gives greater unity to the whole passage, which will then stand thus. The question being whether we are to assume principles, or obtain them by an analysis of facts, Aristotle says, “We must begin of course with what is known but then this term denotes either particulars or universals perhaps we then must begin with particulars and hence the necessity of a previous good training in habits, etc. (which of course is beginning with particular facts), for a fact is a starting point, and if this be sufficiently clear, there will be no want of the reason for the fact in addition”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01412", "bookId": 8438, "start": 584197, "end": 584330, "sha256": "05088741507c11b9ed2832427078a46fbe390fb3ed25f713a1feccd1e6ca8122", "text": "The objection to this method of translation is, that [Greek: archai] occurs immediately afterwards in the sense of “principles.”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01413", "bookId": 8438, "start": 584334, "end": 584371, "sha256": "f656fc6283d1be009d51c7829b9c8751f2a0c89f6b2c11694d9f324c6023f2ee", "text": "Utere tuo judicio nihil enim impedio.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01414", "bookId": 8438, "start": 584375, "end": 584736, "sha256": "74218aa48d59b267cc26af18002aa3d870aaab122df7fc7711683179c17c6f35", "text": "[6] Or “prove themselves good,” as in the Prior Analytics, ii 25, [Greek: apanta pisteuomen k.t l] but the other rendering is supported by a passage in Book VIII. chap. ix. [Greek: oi d’ upo ton epieikon kai eidoton oregomenoi timaes bebaiosai ten oikeian doxan ephientai peri auton chairousi de oti eisin agathoi, pisteuontes te ton legonton krisei]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01415", "bookId": 8438, "start": 584740, "end": 584926, "sha256": "efc46fda85fc61f59df7ba42322de9a18bd0103fb837358988fec4c47689fcb6", "text": "[7] [Greek: thesis] meant originally some paradoxical statement by any philosopher of name enough to venture on one, but had come to mean any dialectical question. Topics, I. chap. ix.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01416", "bookId": 8438, "start": 584930, "end": 585024, "sha256": "dd432c03913456d340975764bc3d049bea6eadb5f7b07ae7d708bc37b2040ec0", "text": "[8] A lost work, supposed to have been so called, because containing miscellaneous questions.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01417", "bookId": 8438, "start": 585028, "end": 585546, "sha256": "db5ea84886a9cabef8662e2582d1eab5c84de5d956c5dd02d10ce4eac047245f", "text": "[9] It is only quite at the close of the treatise that Aristotle refers to this, and allows that [Greek: theoria] constitutes the highest happiness because it is the exercise of the highest faculty in man the reason of thus deferring the statement being that till the lower, that is the moral, nature has been reduced to perfect order, [Greek: theoria] cannot have place, though, had it been held out from the first, men would have been for making the experiment at once, without the trouble of self-discipline.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01418", "bookId": 8438, "start": 585550, "end": 585620, "sha256": "50af87e496940a033cabe9fb8acf35fca27fec2fc30612f37450c583c63b0f93", "text": "[10] Or, as some think, “many theories have been founded on them.”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01419", "bookId": 8438, "start": 585624, "end": 585834, "sha256": "6a7c16fb7d9545ed6428404fda16d5a9d31fdce549ccbcf297cd8241973f352c", "text": "[11] The ἰδέα is the archetype, the εἶδος the concrete embodying the resemblance of it; hence Aristotle alludes to the theory under both names, and this is the reason for retaining the Greek terms.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01420", "bookId": 8438, "start": 585838, "end": 585863, "sha256": "3a557ef381c2eedbde80deca105185d560180855302f31221561713fe33ea18a", "text": "[12] The list ran thus—", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01421", "bookId": 8438, "start": 585869, "end": 586120, "sha256": "ebcf4b74cdcf9b230972736a4fe8d9dbd9caafce5f8ce0772640b3cee28c230b", "text": "[Greek: to peras to apeiron | to euthu to perisson to artion | to phos to en to plethos | to tetragonon to dexion to aristeron | to aeremoun to arren to thelu | to agathon ]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01422", "bookId": 8438, "start": 586124, "end": 586154, "sha256": "a4ff0cbd894459e9865b269eb4e203e68e7372a9b59e062f6f08851bcd22378c", "text": "[13] Plato’s sister’s son.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01423", "bookId": 8438, "start": 586158, "end": 586475, "sha256": "2ec72ce70efdc1b8e5e99686caad94c96ff38865bbd8cd4e2a16395ada6d5070", "text": "[14] This is the capital defect in Aristotle’s eyes, who being eminently practical, could not like a theory which not only did not necessarily lead to action, but had a tendency to discourage it by enabling unreal men to talk finely. If true, the theory is merely a way of stating facts, and leads to no action.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01424", "bookId": 8438, "start": 586479, "end": 586543, "sha256": "8e4bc4951fb68549a629dd0c47551060782f48fd3ae26a8858aae22ee91e875f", "text": "[15] _i.e._ the identification of Happiness with the Chief Good.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01425", "bookId": 8438, "start": 586547, "end": 586594, "sha256": "fc57897829f589d9155302f74a8543bb7a3d56a22ead059dad499d88841fdf57", "text": "[16] _i.e._ without the capability of addition.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01426", "bookId": 8438, "start": 586598, "end": 586873, "sha256": "9bb86251aed13074f260351dd2437a1c4b9ff8efc4fbf8edc5b1240f7f393d44", "text": "[17] And then Happiness would at once be shown not to be the Chief Good. It is a contradiction in terms to speak of adding to the Chief Good. See Book X. chap. 11. [Greek: delon os oud allo ouden tagathon an eiae o meta tenos ton kath’ auto agathon airetoteron ginetai.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01427", "bookId": 8438, "start": 586877, "end": 586981, "sha256": "421a309214910679f48456719b9a4cb1b0868f8177183a38f805cfc429cf815b", "text": "[18] Compare Bishop Butler’s account of “Human Nature as a System” in the Preface to his Sermons.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01428", "bookId": 8438, "start": 586985, "end": 587024, "sha256": "43fc646eadb935cca8e887946da0b8c6797fbc031845f2eba9c0ebede61ca5e7", "text": "[19] _i.e._ as working or as quiescent.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01429", "bookId": 8438, "start": 587028, "end": 587315, "sha256": "0245d2a07b195742eedc12adb6bef2ac655eefff9051632868486afe7a4a59a7", "text": "[20] The mere translation of this term would convey no idea of its meaning, I have therefore retained the Greek term. It is afterwards explained to include space of time and external appliances requisite for the full development of Man’s energies; here the time only is alluded to.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01430", "bookId": 8438, "start": 587319, "end": 587409, "sha256": "52a2ad9a26171165a9e55a966f4648c7e9e77f4118de772a94a3e5ae51459eff", "text": "[21] This principle is more fully stated, with illustrations, in the Topics, I. chap. ix.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01431", "bookId": 8438, "start": 587413, "end": 587570, "sha256": "f384891245c0b4cb2858c1389519944e155af7a4432eb54447e7967da4b80dba", "text": "[22] Either that of the bodily senses, or that of the moral senses. “Fire burns,” is an instance of the former, “Treason is odious,” of the latter.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01432", "bookId": 8438, "start": 587574, "end": 587862, "sha256": "f9a5771a9c3933aa3b53ab3f39f8e0c1cd89bfff69771857522e93581080b0d6", "text": "[23] I have thought it worthwhile to vary the interpretation of this word, because though “habitus” may be equivalent to all the senses of [Greek: exis], “habit” is not, at least according to our colloquial usage we commonly denote by “habit” a state formed by habituation.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01433", "bookId": 8438, "start": 587866, "end": 588258, "sha256": "c3d0f82b8a735cb4f0fcb2b140105a944fbb53f016e51fcbc5ec6980ddd554f9", "text": "[24] Another and perhaps more obvious method of rendering this passage is to apply [Greek: kalon kagathon] to things, and let them depend grammatically on [Greek: epaeboli]. It is to be remembered, however, that [Greek: kalos kagathos] bore a special and well-known meaning also the comparison is in the text more complete, and the point of the passage seems more completely brought out.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01434", "bookId": 8438, "start": 588262, "end": 588728, "sha256": "d4d9afb8220bfd286e427cbcee4536bf831b7ae9db91ccc7899271d7b663d4a0", "text": "[25] “Goodness always implies the love of itself, an affection to goodness.” (Bishop Butler, Sermon xiii ) Aristotle describes pleasure in the Tenth Book of this Treatise as the result of any faculty of perception meeting with the corresponding object, vicious pleasure being as truly pleasure as the most refined and exalted. If Goodness then implies the love of itself, the percipient will always have its object present, and pleasure continually result.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01435", "bookId": 8438, "start": 588732, "end": 589073, "sha256": "69b57791d0dbb29174841ba304b8c3655e60b09135af9dd1a23382daac99c0bf", "text": "[26] In spite of theory, we know as a matter of fact that external circumstances are necessary to complete the idea of Happiness not that Happiness is capable of addition, but that when we assert it to be identical with virtuous action we must understand that it is to have a fair field; in fact, the other side of [Greek: bios teleios].", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01436", "bookId": 8438, "start": 589077, "end": 589524, "sha256": "5e0d31df6e276baa638385cc193f13470f191794f89c619aafa9e29fbdee6b55", "text": "[27] It is remarkable how Aristotle here again shelves what he considers an unpractical question. If Happiness were really a direct gift from Heaven, independently of human conduct, all motive to self-discipline and moral improvement would vanish He shows therefore that it is no depreciation of the value of Happiness to suppose it to come partly at least from ourselves, and he then goes on with other reasons why we should think with him.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01437", "bookId": 8438, "start": 589528, "end": 589704, "sha256": "6d9533c781f31432ebb46f45b8b27d7695ef1373f38fd500d288106bbfdd2008", "text": "[28] This term is important, what has been maimed was once perfect; he does not contemplate as possible the case of a man being born incapable of virtue, and so of happiness.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01438", "bookId": 8438, "start": 589708, "end": 589742, "sha256": "98f405b1234cbefcb15fba270d0efb4ec55146437ad564e0960a22169d6040e9", "text": "[29] [Greek] Plato. Phædon. xlvi.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01439", "bookId": 8438, "start": 589746, "end": 589817, "sha256": "4954f4e2ef9d799b11a0c0ade250a3236487326db44b3bd93193c807d12bbf35", "text": "[30] But why give materials and instruments, if there is no work to do?", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01440", "bookId": 8438, "start": 589821, "end": 589857, "sha256": "5f19ebb178bd85d70747b292437be2c7a03117fb83c80eea9e5637f550ffacb0", "text": "[31] The supposed pair of ancestors.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01441", "bookId": 8438, "start": 589861, "end": 590227, "sha256": "5893f1e0e7f3db8814a043835e8c3107246d3f1df4df05dcdbddbe908cb482a6", "text": "[32] Solon says, “Call no man happy till he is dead.” He must mean either, The man when dead _is_ happy (a), or, The man when dead _may be said to have been happy_ (b). If the former, does he mean positive happiness (a)? or only freedom from unhappiness (β)? _We_ cannot allow (a), Men’s opinions disallow (β), We revert now to the consideration of (b).", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01442", "bookId": 8438, "start": 590231, "end": 590558, "sha256": "9402af09ae8c016826d8c54592555143dc0bbc81d4367c739f70c28a0eeff57c", "text": "[33] The difficulty was raised by the clashing of a notion commonly held, and a fact universally experienced. Most people conceive that Happiness should be abiding, every one knows that fortune is changeable. It is the notion which supports the definition, because we have therein based Happiness on the most abiding cause.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01443", "bookId": 8438, "start": 590562, "end": 590889, "sha256": "7eeabc7ecd427c0e92d144f09385001295a5cabfbef5c2dbc54018cc955bc5c2", "text": "[34] I have taken τούτον αὐτῶν to refer to ἐπιστημῶν, against Magirus and the Paraphrase of Andronicus Rhodius. I would refer to Aristotle’s account of θεωρία in the Tenth Book, chap. vii. where he expressly says of the working of νοῦς or pure intelect, that it is “most continuous.”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01444", "bookId": 8438, "start": 590893, "end": 591046, "sha256": "f8b2906f8c01ad4882cf1cbac49f6ceecd95ad068eeff78d300251ab9d192188", "text": "[35] The term seems to be employed advisedly. The Choragus, of course, dressed his actors _for their parts;_ not according to their fancies or his own.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01445", "bookId": 8438, "start": 591050, "end": 591142, "sha256": "e316d8a57b4486c6d7f5592c1f090abaa76df36f3a06d2ba5044c2161ad1fab8", "text": "Hooker has (E. P. v. ixxvi. 5) a passage which seems to be an admirable paraphrase on this.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01446", "bookId": 8438, "start": 591146, "end": 591838, "sha256": "8b4697b0b10a884e77ef099afd75f7efd08adb7ee7f3a70955fef3df1c435d06", "text": "“Again, that the measure of our outward prosperity be taken by proportion with that which every man’s estate in this present life requireth. External abilities are instruments of action. It contenteth wise artificers to have their instruments proportionable to their work, rather fit for use than huge and goodly to please the eye. Seeing then the actions of a servant do not need that which may be necessary for men of calling and place in the world, neither men of inferior condition many things which greater personages can hardly want; surely they are blessed in worldly respects who have wherewith to perform what their station and place asketh, though they have no more.”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01447", "bookId": 8438, "start": 591842, "end": 591914, "sha256": "e66ffa1c9af246da1f4a9d633c046e11f6ca6973c895db5a1b59a7d25cf4ca6c", "text": "[36] Always bearing in mind that man “never continueth in one stay.”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01448", "bookId": 8438, "start": 591918, "end": 592324, "sha256": "f581fa20ed83bf593906b9ae225d5e44b927ed9ea2b468aed8eb960bacfc7d96", "text": "[37] The meaning is this: personal fortunes, we have said, must be in certain weight and number to affect our own happiness, this will be true, of course, of those which are reflected on us from our friends: and these are the only ones to which the dead are supposed to be liable? add then the difference of sensibility which it is fair to presume, and there is a very small residuum of joy or sorrow.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01449", "bookId": 8438, "start": 592328, "end": 592429, "sha256": "fb6102d188e8ba13421d88ab7a44a6cce648b6f141e39b94d33adcea05a01551", "text": "[38] This is meant for an exhaustive division of goods, which are either so _in esse_ or _in posse_.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01450", "bookId": 8438, "start": 592433, "end": 592690, "sha256": "bcf65c666b51e70c8cab64560a464ae6fed4d9c7e2f9b0218228263906f158ef", "text": "If _in esse_, they are either above praise, or subjects of praise. Those _in posse_, here called faculties, are good only when rightly used. Thus Rhetoric is a faculty which may be used to promote justice or abused to support villainy. Money in like way.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01451", "bookId": 8438, "start": 592694, "end": 592924, "sha256": "265875de80664a81f29cad9ef329cd94e322b80d39c8df98f7a3055ff1a3e1ae", "text": "[39] The doubt is, whether [Greek] or [Greek] is the subject of the sentence. It is translated as above, not merely with reference to the sense of this passage, but on a comparison with a similar one in Book X. chap 8. [Greek].", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01452", "bookId": 8438, "start": 592928, "end": 593106, "sha256": "f942d70a1d107c951ee89e57d18dfd7e6c5d9471dbddd6de69324ccc373caeb2", "text": "[40] Eudoxus, a philosopher holding the doctrine afterwards adopted by Epicurus respecting pleasure, but (as Aristotle testifies in the Tenth Book) of irreproachable character.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01453", "bookId": 8438, "start": 593110, "end": 593149, "sha256": "30d7bcd19f66755c0370d8a8fe28f03177b78ad6c65ee7ba0b1e4567ac9b5073", "text": "[41] See the Rhetoric, Book I. chap ix.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01454", "bookId": 8438, "start": 593153, "end": 593201, "sha256": "7043b177c8acc44bfe6903650c6b1e12fe13c9f37a6140fdeaee92b83a55f1a0", "text": "[42] The unseen is at least as real as the seen.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01455", "bookId": 8438, "start": 593205, "end": 593539, "sha256": "525a13b446e09837910a9d4dd8c805bbedb84434a720174b2c3676d62c01c0d2", "text": "[43] The terms are borrowed from the Seventh Book and are here used in their strict philosophical meaning. The [Greek: enkrates] is he who has bad or unruly appetites, but whose reason is strong enough to keep them under. The [Greek: akrates] is he whose appetites constantly prevail over his reason and previous good resolutions.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01456", "bookId": 8438, "start": 593543, "end": 593933, "sha256": "971713b70f923b4879bdeb00fcafc233640981d464bb3c1204f828ac406e0bf7", "text": "By the law of habits the former is constantly approximating to a state in which the appetites are wholly quelled. This state is called [Greek: sophrosyne], and the man in it [Greek: sophron]. By the same law the remonstrances of reason in the latter grow fainter and fainter till they are silenced for ever. This state is called [Greek: akolasia], and the man in it [Greek: akolastos].", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01457", "bookId": 8438, "start": 593937, "end": 594350, "sha256": "3714dca5cce071d112a24844dcd26ebe2e443450e1e341a18c06bd265431b0a3", "text": "[44] This is untranslateable. As the Greek phrase, [Greek: echein logon tinos], really denotes substituting that person’s [Greek: logos] for one’s own, so the Irrational nature in a man of self-control or perfected self-mastery substitutes the orders of Reason for its own impulses. The other phrase means the actual possession of mathematical truths as part of the mental furniture, _i.e._ knowing them.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01458", "bookId": 8438, "start": 594354, "end": 594608, "sha256": "5b189f581c8887979075f742ee43c51c3b51410699954cb16115c1d9aa1a49bd", "text": "[45] [Greek: xin] may be taken as opposed to [Greek: energeian], and the meaning will be, to show a difference between Moral and Intellectual Excellences, that men are commended for merely having the latter, but only for exerting and using the former.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01459", "bookId": 8438, "start": 594614, "end": 594621, "sha256": "2a53cbfc962ade2635c6d512e71c353710827f73c775a668beab5f85ba8d328a", "text": "BOOK II", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01460", "bookId": 8438, "start": 594625, "end": 594657, "sha256": "82ebeb2a3546e55871f5cfb405310c5b8d20cf926dc575c9270dffd1329d826a", "text": "[1] Which we call simply virtue.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01461", "bookId": 8438, "start": 594661, "end": 594711, "sha256": "b78c0979cdd2e8e65bb167982411a4d54410153d1488b3b7fc9c7a2501719f76", "text": "[2] For nature must of course supply the capacity.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01462", "bookId": 8438, "start": 594715, "end": 594757, "sha256": "95e7d1a35ca0c63296b148003f8813ed37873f86ef50f28d4563a5092fdb4b57", "text": "[3] Or “as a simple result of nature.”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01463", "bookId": 8438, "start": 594761, "end": 594796, "sha256": "d6576c744d7ca4f0de6601aa32c49e802fc6efbeb6ea214915cc95339e5b84be", "text": "[4] This is done in the Sixth Book.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01464", "bookId": 8438, "start": 594800, "end": 595070, "sha256": "fbd4feb3e246f9ae94e98402b3acc918c1547c3e47b591aed555429f05dd89ea", "text": "[5] It is, in truth, in the application of rules to particular details of practice that our moral Responsibility chiefly lies no rule can be so framed, that evasion shall be impossible. See Bishop Butler’s Sermon on the character of Balaam, and that on Self-Deceit.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01465", "bookId": 8438, "start": 595074, "end": 595733, "sha256": "a139e3e9738f44d5c90c51e1fefbf72f87317aca1553da0206d7e528f6b68e36", "text": "[6] The words ἀκόλαστος and δειλὸς are not used here in their strict significations to denote confirmed states of vice: the ἐγκρατὴς necessarily feels pain, because he must always be thwarting passions which are a real part of his nature; though this pain will grow less and less as he nears the point of σωφροσύνη or perfected Self-Mastery, which being attained the pain will then and then only cease entirely. So a certain degree of fear is necessary to the _formation_ of true courage. All that is meant here is, that no habit of courage or self-mastery can be said to be matured, until pain altogether vanishes.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01466", "bookId": 8438, "start": 595737, "end": 596824, "sha256": "39c6dd343115628a70f12deadf622ee52a91276cc26003faf600acc88a6f481d", "text": "[7] Virtue consists in the due regulation of _all_ the parts of our nature our passions are a real part of that nature, and as such have their proper office, it is an error then to aim at their extirpation. It is true that in a perfect moral state emotion will be rare, but then this will have been gained by regular process, being the legitimate result of the law that “passive impressions weaken as active habits are strengthened, by repetition.” If musical instruments are making discord, I may silence or I may bring them into harmony in either case I get rid of discord, but in the latter I have the positive enjoyment of music. The Stoics would have the passions rooted out, Aristotle would have them cultivated to use an apt figure (whose I know not), They would pluck the blossom off at once, he would leave it to fall in due course when the fruit was formed. Of them we might truly say, _Solitudinem faciunt, pacem appellant_. See on this point Bishop Butler’s fifth Sermon, and sect. 11. of the chapter on Moral Discipline in the first part of his Analogy.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01467", "bookId": 8438, "start": 596828, "end": 597756, "sha256": "8a297d6ea52975e8d4daf808e1e211e40c6ed75376230fa81da88aee1ef9807c", "text": "[8] I have adopted this word from our old writers, because our word _act_ is so commonly interchanged with _action_. [Greek: Praxis] (action) properly denotes the whole process from the conception to the performance. [Greek: Pragma] (fact) only the result. The latter may be right when the former is wrong if, for example, a murderer was killed by his accomplices. Again, the [Greek: praxis] may be _good_ though the [Greek: pragma] be wrong, as if a man under erroneous impressions does what would have been right if his impressions had been true (subject of course to the question how far he is guiltless of his original error), but in this case we could not call the [Greek: praxis] _right_. No repetition of [Greek: pragmata] goes to form a habit. See Bishop Butler on the Theory of Habits m the chapter on Moral Discipline, quoted above, sect. 11. “And in like manner as habits belonging to the body,” etc.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01468", "bookId": 8438, "start": 597760, "end": 597887, "sha256": "25d32a687b54969bf4546b7d742b5275414053e340a0aee520243e1c0b1f0b1b", "text": "[9] Being about to give a strict logical definition of Virtue, Aristotle ascertains first what is its genus [Greek: ti estin].", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01469", "bookId": 8438, "start": 597891, "end": 597970, "sha256": "a7c49437e9c157bdcc31170da2d4117a74b548bcc71fe1003b227de4d971a490", "text": "[10] That is, not for _merely having_ them, because we did not make ourselves.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01470", "bookId": 8438, "start": 597974, "end": 598147, "sha256": "1cf5c2bd26551d7993cb4944f45ea0b8076ce3b3e0bbe80fae449e17d4b034f0", "text": "See Bishop Butler’s account of our nature as containing “particular propensions,” in sect. iv. of the chapter on Moral discipline, and in the Preface to the Sermons.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01471", "bookId": 8438, "start": 598151, "end": 598494, "sha256": "f0d1d4c26002cc4e45a173d406654fa18c6b373224ff955b94e4d84c9c8aeb4a", "text": "[11] This refers to the division of quantity ([Greek: poson]) in the Categories. Those Quantities are called by Aristotle Continuous whose parts have position relatively to one another, as a line, surface, or solid, those discrete, whose parts have no such relation, as numbers themselves, or any string of words grammatically unconnected.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01472", "bookId": 8438, "start": 598498, "end": 598726, "sha256": "1179b63bccd9623dea7817fee236440a959f270d0f1024be9b0863bf32d9f091", "text": "[12] Numbers are in arithmetical proportion (more usually called progression), when they increase or decrease by a common difference thus, 2, 6, 10 are so, because 2 + 4 = 6, 6 + 4= 10, or _vice versa_, 10 - 4 = 6, 6 - 4 = 2.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01473", "bookId": 8438, "start": 598730, "end": 598887, "sha256": "6998e610597c4d130063b4443c9a046cf4143d9e5084546080a33ef2fa7b844a", "text": "[13] If the mina be taken at 15 oz. avoirdupois, (Dict. of G. and R. Antiquities, article _Talentum_,) we must be sadly degenerate in our gastric capacity.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01474", "bookId": 8438, "start": 598891, "end": 599202, "sha256": "b6db4619e9422bb2ced11790f979951166507f1ae27e0d003313ac9f476d9121", "text": "[14] The two are necessary, because since the reason itself may be perverted, a man must have recourse to an external standard; we may suppose his [Greek: logos] originally to have been a sufficient guide, but when he has injured his moral perceptions in any degree, he must go out of himself for direction.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01475", "bookId": 8438, "start": 599206, "end": 599468, "sha256": "74bf431018e3ce742104ff5a23f463594175039ebf08e5fce8f59a1bba8e0918", "text": "[15] This is one of the many expressions which seem to imply that this treatise is rather a collection of notes of a _vivâ voce_ lecture than a set formal treatise. “The table” of virtues and vices probably was sketched out and exhibited to the audience.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01476", "bookId": 8438, "start": 599472, "end": 599550, "sha256": "1ee2e96e84146de66da5f4b490d00e7ce7b247e168950e35749b634c31448687", "text": "[16] Afterwards defined as “All things whose value is measured by money.”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01477", "bookId": 8438, "start": 599554, "end": 599657, "sha256": "49100a6ef7fd74ed60910972bad27be9ef7d5cc932a1d24ab1c05878575e3416", "text": "[17] We have no term exactly equivalent; it may be illustrated by Horace’s use of the term _hiatus_:", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01478", "bookId": 8438, "start": 599661, "end": 599932, "sha256": "a265e4c7ccf649ee4577be9e65ddaceff9f4b2a2a436c2cd58944e54d089bafd", "text": "“Quid dignum tanto feret hic promissor hiatu?” Opening the mouth wide gives a promise of something great to come, if nothing great does come, this is a case of [Greek: chaunotes] or fruitless and unmeaning _hiatus_; the transference to the present subject is easy.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01479", "bookId": 8438, "start": 599936, "end": 600048, "sha256": "1a234dee413ed3cfaf20be5689adc7617c5238770f311dd4194cbba98c0430e8", "text": "[18] In like manner _we_ talk of laudable ambition, implying of course there may be that which is not laudable.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01480", "bookId": 8438, "start": 600052, "end": 600174, "sha256": "93da67dcf3ef55764c8cd8c1e1d12100be48e895329d166cb718753ea31d9848", "text": "[19] An expression of Bishop Butler’s, which corresponds exactly to the definition of [Greek: nemesis] in the Rhetoric.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01481", "bookId": 8438, "start": 600178, "end": 600368, "sha256": "d1679dcfaba649d885c3f3c07cf3240b9bddc73671a72d14b6e3cd779e78b90e", "text": "[20] That is, in the same genus; to be contraries, things must be generically connected: [Greek: ta pleiston allelon diestekota ton en to auto genei enantia orizontai]. Categories, iv. 15.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01482", "bookId": 8438, "start": 600372, "end": 600669, "sha256": "01e215bf71d31a4297f8538daba7c03e4f1abe93427e17df3938c32484b458c9", "text": "[21] “[Greek: Deuteros plous] is a proverb,” says the Scholiast on the Phaedo, “used of those who do anything safely and cautiously inasmuch as they who have miscarried in their first voyage, set about then: preparations for the second cautiously,” and he then alludes to this passage.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01483", "bookId": 8438, "start": 600673, "end": 600771, "sha256": "10e5a34e397ea5658e04ebc7c28e5cace1a14de6f73d34b40d61437f4cd9478b", "text": "[22] That is, you must allow for the _recoil_. “Naturam expellas furca tamen usque recurret.”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01484", "bookId": 8438, "start": 600775, "end": 600973, "sha256": "f1659612108608d0d880d148d922ef77f3363b4eb4a62c7dcfd8de2dd392e1d3", "text": "P. 43, l. 2. This illustration sets in so clear a light the doctrines entertained respectively by Aristotle, Eudoxus, and the Stoics regarding pleasure, that it is worth while to go into it fully.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01485", "bookId": 8438, "start": 600977, "end": 601317, "sha256": "4551c1192365cb6f87873d184c702a8072f3c1f9947f14379a157bd66e6bc928", "text": "The reference is to Iliad iii. 154-160. The old counsellors, as Helen comes upon the city wall, acknowledge her surpassing beauty, and have no difficulty in understanding how both nations should have incurred such suffering for her sake still, fair as she is, home she must go, that she bring not ruin on themselves and their posterity.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01486", "bookId": 8438, "start": 601321, "end": 601817, "sha256": "49ddd39ba098a9af403f7773ca9cfecf19f7ab2edacc75e600013c000edbe6e5", "text": "This exactly represents Aristotle’s relation to Pleasure he does not, with Eudoxus and his followers, exalt it into the Summum Bonum (as Paris would risk all for Helen), nor does he the the Stoics call it wholly evil, as Hector might have said that the woes Helen had caused had “banished all the beauty from her cheek,” but, with the aged counsellors, admits its charms, but aware of their dangerousness resolves to deny himself, he “feels her sweetness, yet defies her thrall.”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01487", "bookId": 8438, "start": 601821, "end": 602263, "sha256": "642ce97f5eb0477b400395a92ab619cc0220ee931192090e7473236b19a3b4cc", "text": "[24] Αἴσθησις is here used as an analogous noun, to denote the faculty which, in respect of moral matters, discharges the same function that bodily sense does in respect of physical objects. It is worth while to notice how in our colloquial language we carry out the same analogy. We say of a transaction, that it “looks ugly,” “sounds oddly,” is a “nasty job,” “stinks in our nostrils,” is a “hard dealing.”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01488", "bookId": 8438, "start": 602269, "end": 602277, "sha256": "06de55f2a20249a368a757d548c19d28b0b1a51874ac220d4b5bf822336bd6ce", "text": "BOOK III", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01489", "bookId": 8438, "start": 602281, "end": 603499, "sha256": "49a00f7ef691693f17ec3e60569157b2cedf2dac0ef706058813d858a83897b6", "text": "[1] A man is not responsible for being [Greek: theratos], because “particular propensions, from their very nature, must be felt, the objects of them being present, though they cannot be gratified at all, or not with the allowance of the moral principle.” But he is responsible for being [Greek: eutheratos], because, though thus formed, he “might have improved and raised himself to an higher and more secure state of virtue by the contrary behaviour, by steadily following the moral principle, supposed to be one part of his nature, and thus withstanding that unavoidable danger of defection which necessarily arose from propension, the other part of it. For by thus preserving his integrity for some time, his danger would lessen, since propensions, by being inured to submit, would do it more easily and of course and his security against this lessening danger would increase, since the moral principle would gain additional strength by exercise, both which things are implied in the notion of virtuous habits.” (From the chapter on Moral Discipline m the Analogy, sect. iv.) The purpose of this disquisition is to refute the Necessitarians; it is resumed in the third chapter of this Book.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01490", "bookId": 8438, "start": 603503, "end": 603861, "sha256": "936009b13aeb520aba892428c5d33982b7475546a934079dab53b1d99d0a37dd", "text": "[2] Virtue is not only the duty, but (by the laws of the Moral Government of the World) also the interest of Man, or to express it in Bishop Butler’s manner, Conscience and Reasonable self-love are the two principles in our nature which of right have supremacy over the rest, and these two lead in point of fact the same course of action. (Sermon II.)", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01491", "bookId": 8438, "start": 603865, "end": 604178, "sha256": "2dc6fd04b5bd94dc590d14af6c742e6c58ae29faeb7648eaf505a6003bacff32", "text": "[3] Any ignorance of particular facts affects the rightness not of the [Greek: praxis], but of the [Greek: pragma], but ignorance of _i.e._ incapacity to discern, Principles, shows the Moral Constitution to have been depraved, _i.e._ shows Conscience to be perverted, or the sight of Self-love to be impaired.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01492", "bookId": 8438, "start": 604182, "end": 604348, "sha256": "59d163368d3900e64a03f6ce48eba05ddaa4e7c674d48839f2d93bb1c495ea18", "text": "[4] [Greek: eneka] primarily denotes the relation of cause and effect all circumstances which in any way contribute to a cert result are [Greek: eneka] that result.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01493", "bookId": 8438, "start": 604352, "end": 604653, "sha256": "766dfec1607ff9953c313a2add139869a65dc5628b965d94d24b03f0c44ff665", "text": "From the power which we have or acquire of deducing future results from present causes we are enabled to act towards, with a view to produce, these results thus [Greek: eneka] comes to mean not causation merely, but _designed_ causation and so [Greek: on eneka] is used for Motive, or final cause.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01494", "bookId": 8438, "start": 604657, "end": 604811, "sha256": "1c1a6dc11abf5bb8d58b2fafe75bec38988e9a72cd6bfd8a7fb2d53fb7b66da2", "text": "It is the primary meaning which is here intended, it would be a contradiction in terms to speak of a man’s being ignorant of his own Motive of action.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01495", "bookId": 8438, "start": 604815, "end": 605215, "sha256": "d126c28605bdf8e11dc591b5ffa477e03b4695ab63aeffe82035ff283615f709", "text": "When the man “drew a bow at a venture and smote the King of Israel between the joints of the harnesss” (i Kings xxii 34) he did it [Greek: eneka ton apdkteinai] the King of Israel, in the primary sense of [Greek: eneka] that is to say, the King’s death was _in fact the result_, but could not have been the motive, of the shot, because the King was disguised and the shot was at a venture.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01496", "bookId": 8438, "start": 605219, "end": 605428, "sha256": "eb495e2e2e23032b014b009a75e315a536c20d8b6d00e4d666b565dc0ce7c2ac", "text": "[5] Bishop Butler would agree to this: he says of settled deliberate anger, “It seems in us plainly connected with a sense of virtue and vice, of moral good and evil.” See the whole Sermon on Resentment.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01497", "bookId": 8438, "start": 605432, "end": 605742, "sha256": "e7af54345d5e6774090fa514524b474e42fb8e25e68d295eb077962779b26bd6", "text": "[6] Aristotle has, I venture to think, rather quibbled here, by using [Greek: epithumia] and its verb, equivocally as there is no following his argument without condescending to the same device, I have used our word lust in its ancient signification Ps. xxiv. 12, “What man is he that lusteth to live?”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01498", "bookId": 8438, "start": 605746, "end": 606374, "sha256": "0ff04826f55b9f72ad30e40d070384ea7a0f39875dd1b0161c06c3b1420d8725", "text": "[7] The meaning is, that the _onus probandi_ is thrown upon the person who maintains the distinction, Aristotle has a _prima facie_ case. The whole passage is one of difficulty. Card wells text gives the passage from [Greek: dokei de] as a separate argument Bekker’s seems to intend al 81 ir/jd£eis as a separate argument but if so, the argument would be a mere _petitio principii_. I have adopted Cardwell’s reading in part, but retain the comma at [Greek: dmpho] and have translated the last four words as applying to the whole discussion, whereas Cardwell’s reading seems to restrict them to the last argument.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01499", "bookId": 8438, "start": 606378, "end": 606669, "sha256": "92e18b6becd51b88c56eb8ca291b28a829bb165c424bd1c761bfff928e093496", "text": "[8] _i.e._ on objects of Moral Choice, opinion of this kind is not the same as Moral Choice, because actions alone form habits and constitute character, opinions are in general _signs_ of character, but when they begin to be acted on they cease to be opinions, and merge in Moral Choice.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01500", "bookId": 8438, "start": 606673, "end": 606777, "sha256": "7cde374f76cbb0a0b132a9f4c0ef46fd18ca55e89278ce0504930a59467b03f2", "text": "“Treason doth never prosper, what’s the reason? When it doth prosper, none dare call it Treason.”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01501", "bookId": 8438, "start": 606781, "end": 607083, "sha256": "24d329368d3bb499208ea6db64bf9ec44e2618a0b8102387a13336f7bdd13ee7", "text": "[9] The introduction of the words [Greek: dia tinos] seems a mere useless repetition, as in the second chapter [Greek: en tini] added to [Greek: peri ti]. These I take for some among the many indications that the treatise is a collection of notes for lectures, and not a finished or systematic one.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01502", "bookId": 8438, "start": 607087, "end": 607562, "sha256": "bf98da08611d9f13550715ec4f292bb5111d21a83435411ce8d7ff1a97a024ef", "text": "[10] Suppose that three alternatives lay before a man, each of the three is of course an object of Deliberation; when he has made his choice, the alternative chosen does not cease to be in nature an object of Deliberation, but superadds the character of being chosen and so distinguished. Three men are admitted candidates for an office, the one chosen is the successful candidate, so of the three [Greek: bouleuta], the one chosen is the [Greek: bouleuton proaireton].", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01503", "bookId": 8438, "start": 607566, "end": 607658, "sha256": "54a50c6b32d22dd565507a82aaf98bb57b7cddca8f8358e320b13bcf027d1691", "text": "[11] Compare Bishop Butler’s “System of Human Nature,” in the Preface to the Sermons.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01504", "bookId": 8438, "start": 607662, "end": 608683, "sha256": "02239eefa05d1fe39260c540ff610f03dda8eb7eca72280babdd04f60bce3fef", "text": "[12] These words, [Greek: ek tou bouleusasthai—bouleusin], contain the account of the whole mental machinery of any action. The first step is a Wish, implied in the first here mentioned, viz. Deliberation, for it has been already laid down that Deliberation has for its object-matter means to Ends supposed to be set before the mind, the next step is Deliberation, the next Decision, the last the definite extending of the mental hand towards the object thus selected, the two last constitute [Greek: proairesis] in its full meaning. The word [Greek: orexis] means literally “a grasping at or after” now as this physically may be either vague or definite, so too may the mental act, consequently the term as transferred to the mind has two uses, and denotes either the first wish, [Greek: boulaesis], or the last definite movement, Will in its strict and proper sense. These two uses are recognised in the Rhetoric (I 10), where [Greek: orexis] is divided into [Greek: alogos] and [Greek: logistikae].", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01505", "bookId": 8438, "start": 608687, "end": 609749, "sha256": "acfa9b997ce07933e66e91c5afc887bf10001b620a55c6cebbd5b649b9e5c936", "text": "The illustration then afforded by the polities alluded to is this, as the Kings first decided and then announced their decision for acceptance and execution by their subjects, so Reason, having decided on the course to be taken, communicates its decision to the Will, which then proceeds to move [Greek: ta organika merae]. To instance in an action of the mixed kind mentioned in the first chapter, safe arrival at land is naturally desired, two means are suggested, either a certain loss of goods, or trying to save both lives and goods, the question being debated, the former is chosen, this decision is communicated to the Will, which causes the owner’s hands to throw overboard his goods: the act is denominated voluntary, because the Will is consenting, but in so denominating it, we leave out of sight how that consent was obtained. In a purely compulsory case the never gets beyond the stage of Wish, for no means are power and deliberation therefore is useless, consequently there is neither Decision nor Will, in other words, no Choice.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01506", "bookId": 8438, "start": 609753, "end": 609908, "sha256": "4e8e23bc20e898aa894199449f7630c583159f01532580f17ca98ead6f0e526f", "text": "[13] Compare the statement in the Rhetoric, 1 10, [Greek: esti d hae men boulaeis agathou orexis (oudeis gar bouletai all ae otan oiaetho einai agathon)]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01507", "bookId": 8438, "start": 609912, "end": 610367, "sha256": "7d897fee9d280f777a45eecef28d83679e606b9c971ccfaa72322be658fcb81b", "text": "[14] A stone once set in motion cannot be recalled, because it is then placed under the operation of natural laws which cannot be controlled or altered, so too in Moral declension, there is a point at which gravitation operates irretrievably, “there is a certain bound to imprudence and misbehaviour which being transgressed, there remains no place for repentance in the natural course of things.” Bishop Butler’s Analogy, First Part, chap 11.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01508", "bookId": 8438, "start": 610371, "end": 610537, "sha256": "833838a5553c05a2bd0fc8de8ae6d393f49b5f7653ed7774b74310f6e76ca9a1", "text": "[15] Habits being formed by acting in a certain way under certain circumstances we can only choose how we will act not what circumstances we will have to act under.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01509", "bookId": 8438, "start": 610541, "end": 610582, "sha256": "b3a84ea1b7187c6db57d4fdd123642b75f495fa20f69b75f9f19652e37d90a3f", "text": "[16] “_Moral_ Courage” is our phrase.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01510", "bookId": 8438, "start": 610586, "end": 610668, "sha256": "d858aed7cda67c21048534f72a035905e7040bce27bd6486c322643a3ee891bc", "text": "[17] The meaning of this passage can scarcely be conveyed except by a paraphrase.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01511", "bookId": 8438, "start": 610672, "end": 611144, "sha256": "2ed808f82c2e8a52b958c439e509d35285315d65a8947eb40c508c8dc84016b7", "text": "“The object of each separate act of working is that which accords with the habit they go to form. Courage is the habit which separate acts of bravery go to form, therefore the object of these is that which accords with Courage, _i.e._ Courage itself. But Courage is honourable (which implies that the end and object of it is honour, since things are denominated according to their end and object), therefore the object of each separate act of bravery is honour.”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01512", "bookId": 8438, "start": 611148, "end": 611331, "sha256": "233bde787e4f18cdb6826b923df1b51d528eb2d17298c9cb573ae506f03ef2e6", "text": "[18] For true Courage is required, i. Exact appreciation of danger. 2. A Proper motive for resisting fear. Each of the Spurious kinds will be found to fail in one or other, or both.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01513", "bookId": 8438, "start": 611335, "end": 611526, "sha256": "b9d817bf87ddc8c19efd76a0ebf98ed40aee991d47cf1083221ea7bdb2c193d2", "text": "[19] This may merely mean, “who give strict orders” not to flinch, which would imply the necessity of compulsion The word is capable of the sense given above, which seems more forcible.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01514", "bookId": 8438, "start": 611530, "end": 611660, "sha256": "aaa6def90dfbeadf3a4ff119e99bda73a34ad6e46759e7f353f2d9818977e55e", "text": "[20] See Book VI. chap. xiii. near the end [Greek: sokrataes aehen oun logous tas aretas oeto einai (epiotaemas gar einai pasas)]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01515", "bookId": 8438, "start": 611664, "end": 611855, "sha256": "1c8104236143f766d1881f6c11f32e431d0014e777453e340767cc6b4db7a38a", "text": "[21] Such as the noise, the rapid movements, and apparent confusion which to an inexperienced eye and ear would be alarming. So Livy says of the Gauls, v. 37, Nata in _vanos_ tumultus gens.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01516", "bookId": 8438, "start": 611859, "end": 612025, "sha256": "9e13c53307512a249eee19011adb280c5aa412ba04fcb072e1a143aad62cf369", "text": "[22]In Coronea in Bœotia, on the occasion of the citadel being betrayed to some Phocians. “The regulars” were Boeotian troops, the [Greek: politika] Coroneans.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01517", "bookId": 8438, "start": 612029, "end": 612247, "sha256": "4756ad345ab07e5719f311837b359308e76ad628661a155242f3b47909293695", "text": "[23] By the difference of tense it seems Aristotle has mixed up two things, beginning to speak of the particular instance, and then carried into the general statement again. This it is scarce worth while to imitate.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01518", "bookId": 8438, "start": 612251, "end": 612493, "sha256": "6f0988ec8142e8bd2041e921b03fb1bbf1849a8092fd23719d8826115bc02dad", "text": "[24] The meaning of the phrase [Greek: kata sumbebaekos], as here used, in given in the Seventh Book, chap. X. [Greek: ei gar tis todi dia todi aireitai ae diokei, kath ahuto men touto diokei kai aireitai, kata sumbebaekos de to proteron].", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01519", "bookId": 8438, "start": 612499, "end": 612505, "sha256": "c38d6ed66b495d14dc14d9fe4f82a0b9e1a0740215355d2e389211d8039beb66", "text": "BOOK V", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01520", "bookId": 8438, "start": 612509, "end": 612645, "sha256": "e11d35335e497cfe8ce8605f33216c22441d24f3e22ce1093989bb1546f371f8", "text": "[1] Each term is important to make up the character of Justice, men must have the capacity, do the acts, and do them from moral choice.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01521", "bookId": 8438, "start": 612649, "end": 612801, "sha256": "cc0a0a84639e96d73c7effce7cd3e06c61df88ba54a3b4361d529ee158ae7fd4", "text": "[2] But not always. [Greek: Philein], for instance, has two senses, “to love” and “to kiss,” [Greek: misein] but one. Topics, I. chap. XIII. 5.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01522", "bookId": 8438, "start": 612805, "end": 613135, "sha256": "41b54f3faec8dbea470d6f1a3c3266a4e5ed11e84aa7086fd9e2ad10d9bd33fc", "text": "[3] _Things_ are [Greek: homonuma] which have only their name in common, being in themselves different. The [Greek: homonumia] is _close_ therefore when the difference though real is but slight. There is no English expression for [Greek: homonumia], “equivocal” being applied to a term and not to its various significates.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01523", "bookId": 8438, "start": 613139, "end": 613224, "sha256": "cafaf2b2bc7dc4f9ffd7dad996216a6dd6ff3734a90c76f2f1a6b8d58fb82d84", "text": "[4] See Book I. chap. 1. [Greek: toiautaen de tina planaen echei kai tagatha k.t.l.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01524", "bookId": 8438, "start": 613228, "end": 613459, "sha256": "9a460542adf5ea0239a517d297b8ca25f5a65aa9c363f09638ce98673fbe41af", "text": "[5] A man habitually drunk in private is viewed by our law as confining his vice to himself, and the law therefore does not attempt to touch him; a religious hermit may be viewed as one who confines his virtue to his own person.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01525", "bookId": 8438, "start": 613463, "end": 613523, "sha256": "c144b14ccea1a558b04a446d8b8b341ef1360b2d1cce5449a1600086da7a8a98", "text": "[6] See the account of Sejanus and Livia. Tac. Annal. IV. 3.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01526", "bookId": 8438, "start": 613527, "end": 613814, "sha256": "58eb4693ab39f99318b9b63c46ff9430f3200e44fe1f49cdeed17936a91bf42d", "text": "[7] Cardwell’s text, which here gives [Greek: paranomon], yields a much easier and more natural sense. All Injustice violates law, but only the particular kinds violate equality; and therefore the unlawful : the unequal :: universal Injustice the particular _i.e._ as whole to part.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01527", "bookId": 8438, "start": 613818, "end": 613938, "sha256": "c445471f1f746119a1cfb150b706b36e327084ae14ac564f42d20a71dcb35d2c", "text": "There is a reading which also alters the words within the parenthesis, but this hardly affects the gist of the passage.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01528", "bookId": 8438, "start": 613942, "end": 614174, "sha256": "6f811212df95242987629e97cb45385445111d62dc8e38a590dee39e699f78ea", "text": "[8] There are two reasons why the characters are not necessarily coincident. He is a good citizen, who does his best to carry out the [Greek: politeia] under which he lives, but this may be faulty, so therefore _pro tanto_ is he.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01529", "bookId": 8438, "start": 614178, "end": 614453, "sha256": "2acd7898ca4b8bcbb648c3c0aff6f6e6bcf1e22ae4f71f69c7fdf2198d54ff8e", "text": "Again, it is sufficient, so far as the Community is concerned, that he does the _facts_ of a good man but for the perfection of his own individual character, he must do them virtuously. A man may move rightly in his social orbit, without revolving rightly on his own axis.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01530", "bookId": 8438, "start": 614457, "end": 614648, "sha256": "967ff8f549b57d907854d5d0c7889a0aaef3e765ee99d12d94618e0676617824", "text": "The question is debated in the Politics, III. 2. Compare also the distinction between the brave man, and good soldier (supra, Book III. chap. xii.), and also Bishop Butler’s first Sermon.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01531", "bookId": 8438, "start": 614652, "end": 614679, "sha256": "1aec19983f7e065d565fd2d84c80ca6c4ad4b89d4456137b0789648f4966da54", "text": "[9] Terms used for persons.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01532", "bookId": 8438, "start": 614683, "end": 614821, "sha256": "700d853a46f53e7092f8df06e7b87c0146ddeffde620b81a8552ae1dd3efff8f", "text": "[10] By [Greek:——] is meant numbers themselves, 4, 20, 50, etc, by [Greek:——] these numbers exemplified, 4 horses, 20 sheep, etc.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01533", "bookId": 8438, "start": 614825, "end": 614989, "sha256": "1a5ecf32b37a26c69d2bdec6a4db6d5b4315c9172dda03254c1994bc0c841cd3", "text": "[11] The profits of a mercantile transaction (say £1000) are to be divided between A and B, in the ratio of 2 to 3 (which is the real point to be settled); then,", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01534", "bookId": 8438, "start": 614993, "end": 615012, "sha256": "a69ea11c05c5274efa0749792f9204b49bb82ee252ac349788808ccdf7fb3b52", "text": "A : B :: 400 : 600.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01535", "bookId": 8438, "start": 615016, "end": 615141, "sha256": "076c88cb8109d0d17aa3338ad8c1d0e4f11bf3be54c19de37f6f009e3cf4d8ce", "text": "A : 400 :: B : 600 (permutando, and assuming a value for A and B, so as to make them commensurable with the respectiy sums).", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01536", "bookId": 8438, "start": 615145, "end": 615275, "sha256": "bb266c45ebd386b6c1d8b5518d039572dbda83505e682e6a85860d202f78507a", "text": "A+400 : B+600 :: A : B. This represents the actual distribution; its fairness depending entirely on that of the first proportion.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01537", "bookId": 8438, "start": 615279, "end": 615349, "sha256": "31da046b812feb6dca591937a2d1a32267fec263c3785d0e9413d9d5e34f8689", "text": "[12] _i.e._ where the ratio is that of equality, thus 2 : 2 :: 40 : 40", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01538", "bookId": 8438, "start": 615353, "end": 615389, "sha256": "f3dc4d34f3cb67b48dcda1de5493180057cd4cd68943603dba1ca3a601a7b780", "text": "[13] Her Majesty’s “Justices.”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01539", "bookId": 8438, "start": 615393, "end": 615714, "sha256": "a84a5bf1596109315230ec2475eab71a87ee0bab175d129a1c03e935ab39b11d", "text": "[14] I have omitted the next three lines, as they seem to be out of place here, and to occur much more naturally afterwards; it not being likely that they were originally twice written, one is perhaps at liberty to give Aristotle the benefit of the doubt, and conclude that he put them where they made the best sense.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01540", "bookId": 8438, "start": 615718, "end": 615829, "sha256": "607a7b3d184c65962c9dfe93dab6e5f0e2a6a5e6fb052af18f2db28a68e02c03", "text": "[15] This I believe to be the meaning of the passage but do not pretend to be able to get it out of the words.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01541", "bookId": 8438, "start": 615833, "end": 616205, "sha256": "b952ac6222de06b3eb3e4da9c7ce0960d419a93f5a82f737008ec04b50934062", "text": "[16] This is apparently contrary to what was said before, but not really so. Aristotle does not mean that the man in authority struck wrongfully, but he takes the extreme case of simple Reciprocation, and in the second case, the man who strikes one in authority commits two offences, one against the person (and so far they are equal), and another against the office.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01542", "bookId": 8438, "start": 616209, "end": 616418, "sha256": "820e4e5448546b7351c64d90abc959f6a4aa176f28cef44490f76b3706f4db5c", "text": "[17] χάρις denotes, 1st, a kindly feeling issuing in a gratuitous act of kindness, 2ndly, the effect of this act of kindness on a generous mind; 3rdly, this effect issuing in a requital of the kindness.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01543", "bookId": 8438, "start": 616422, "end": 616657, "sha256": "0b470b59c827ce93993679eb2534f29c11f55535018043d7f935fc4f56000329", "text": "[18] The Shoemaker would get a house while the Builder only had (say) one pair of shoes, or at all events not so many as he ought to have. Thus the man producing the least valuable ware would get the most valuable, and _vice versa_.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01544", "bookId": 8438, "start": 616661, "end": 616932, "sha256": "f9840795a3305c8b69343df4224788831e55f93a7e0a294e005e5e540d591c81", "text": "Adopting, as I have done, the reading which omits [Greek:——] at [Greek:——], we have simply a repetition of the caution, that before Reciprocation is attempted, there must be the same ratio between the wares as between the persons, _i.e._ the ratio of equality.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01545", "bookId": 8438, "start": 616936, "end": 617141, "sha256": "6ce41950597749f537b1f371e71aefef0d85c8ff254da5d2208ab4d447bcd0ea", "text": "If we admit [Greek: ou], the meaning may be, that you must not bring into the proportion the difference mentioned above [Greek: eteron kai ouk ison], since for the purposes of commerce all men are equal.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01546", "bookId": 8438, "start": 617145, "end": 617440, "sha256": "098342e93e536a50fb87972f3c54b16795bc579df45f9aa7aa9b832b4508f0ad", "text": "Say that the Builder is to the Shoemaker as 10:1. Then there must be the same ratio between the wares, consequently the highest artist will carry off the most valuable wares, thus combining in himself both [Greek: uperochai]. The following are the three cases, given 100 pr. shoes = 1 house.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01547", "bookId": 8438, "start": 617449, "end": 617667, "sha256": "21ab5db17b82acd928b4fc2091c5adbe234d3547e02d07a41a1d2795a44ee6a9", "text": "Builder : Shoemaker : : 1 pr. shoes : 1 house—_wrong_. —— —— 100 pr. shoes : 1 house—_right_ —— —— 10 (100 pr. shoes) : 1 house—_wrong_.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01548", "bookId": 8438, "start": 617671, "end": 617754, "sha256": "f35e870631c79fefcf28dbd079448b1c2b60529005aa3f3b7241ebe4bb4b30a6", "text": "[19] [Greek] Compare a similar use of [Greek]. De Interpretatione, II. 2. [Greek].", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01549", "bookId": 8438, "start": 617758, "end": 617978, "sha256": "4d3b47f13bbe551c23bab5e328a6e27f8fc5259e9cfeff62c9bf4c4b92fe8218", "text": "[20] Every unjust act embodies [Greek: to adikon], which is a violation of [Greek: to ison], and so implies a greater and a less share, the former being said to fall to the doer, the latter to the sufferer, of injury.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01550", "bookId": 8438, "start": 617982, "end": 618367, "sha256": "9cfbc22c2029d1acf0e7a6872ae6d56127f6ab22c720a34027e2fd0fd0ded7b3", "text": "[21] This passage certainly occurs awkwardly here. If attached to the close of the preceding Chapter it would leave that Chapter incomplete, for the question is not gone into, but only stated. As the commencement of this Chapter it is yet more out of place; I should propose to insert it at the commencement of the following Chapter, to which it forms an appropriate introduction.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01551", "bookId": 8438, "start": 618371, "end": 618640, "sha256": "0c788ce4ca9438e97d3182282bf1f583a20a38552e0abc2af014da87719e669a", "text": "[22] In a pure democracy men are absolutely, _i.e._ numerically, equal, in other forms only proportionately equal. Thus the meanest British subject is proportionately equal to the Sovereign, that is to say, is as fully secured in his rights as the Sovereign in hers.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01552", "bookId": 8438, "start": 618644, "end": 619173, "sha256": "960e51749d7d619111378eb31318a094f200ae9a89efc46a5a2d13d0e8ae068b", "text": "[23] Or, according to Cardwell’s reading ([Greek: kineton ou mentoi pan]) “but amongst ourselves there is Just, which is naturally variable, but certainly all Just is not such.” The sense of the passage is not affected by the reading. In Bekker’s text we must take [Greek: kineton] to mean the same as [Greek: kinoumenon], _i.e._ “we admit there is no Just which has not been sometimes disallowed, still,” etc. With Cardwell’s, [Greek: kineton] will mean “which not only _does_ but naturally _may_ vary.”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01553", "bookId": 8438, "start": 619177, "end": 619481, "sha256": "7545498ce63bd45994625a745384d6d4b8f8164b8380875cd7c83cce0bf55f9c", "text": "[24] Murder is unjust by the law of nature, Smuggling by enactment. Therefore any act which can be referred to either of these heads is an unjust act, or, as Bishop Butler phrases it, an act _materially_ unjust. Thus much may be decided without reference to the agent. See the note on page 32, l. 16.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01554", "bookId": 8438, "start": 619485, "end": 619613, "sha256": "2d8e1f39bea4729ed40eb3d3316ad2bfc1e6ae6ef9420de69e76e14a28172e17", "text": "[25] “As distinct from pain or loss.” Bishop Butler’s Sermon on Resentment. See also, Rhet. 11. 2 Def. of [Greek: orgae].", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01555", "bookId": 8438, "start": 619617, "end": 619781, "sha256": "7df552c0d258b55dd212f0861a6dbc48c12d0275b68f86ecc7553d4bd2e9a9d2", "text": "[26] This method of reading the passage is taken from Zell as quoted in Cardwell’s Notes, and seems to yield the best sense. The Paraphrast gives it as follows:", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01556", "bookId": 8438, "start": 619785, "end": 619954, "sha256": "1d8837a088f45d16f5682ad31288076a7e7ebec6331a1bf5c418aeff8a55d5a0", "text": "“But the aggressor is not ignorant that he began, and so he feels himself to be wrong [and will not acknowledge that he is the aggressor], but the other does not.”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01557", "bookId": 8438, "start": 619958, "end": 620031, "sha256": "326210fe416b67f873dc0678dd879961861fc55b81623fb64fe14ed35bb5fc90", "text": "[27] As when a man is “_justified_ at the Grass Market,” _i.e._ hung.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01558", "bookId": 8438, "start": 620035, "end": 620241, "sha256": "cc5c131f01523180079bf7745a67d0e428e5ca2d1350fca2a2bc9681b36316a7", "text": "[28] Where the stock of good is limited, if any individual takes more than his share some one else must have less than his share; where it is infinite, or where there is no good at all this cannot happen.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01559", "bookId": 8438, "start": 620245, "end": 620529, "sha256": "38bc788cc5e9de1deceaf2e3625645f8b7294dcd2b8f1398243bac4e466fff6b", "text": "[29] The reference is to chap. vii. where it was said that the law views the parties in a case of particular injustice as originally equal, but now unequal, the wrong doer the gainer and the sufferer the loser by the wrong, but in the case above supposed there is but _one_ party.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01560", "bookId": 8438, "start": 620533, "end": 620563, "sha256": "e0527eb033477979bee24e9b672afe5ec24a5c642db60b3a309060c4795cedfb", "text": "[30] So in the Politics, 1. 2.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01561", "bookId": 8438, "start": 620567, "end": 620680, "sha256": "7e320574f010187f589ec8d362a4bd47e19e51e99ef1221af79ae0a3bd3ac4cc", "text": "_Hae men gar psuchae tou somatos archei despotikaen archaen, o de nous taes orexeos politikaen kai despotikaev._", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01562", "bookId": 8438, "start": 620684, "end": 620847, "sha256": "e61ce72ba68127869d797b334e4d580204926bdb391938ea1b06a6c8ad6007bd", "text": "Compare also Bishop Butler’s account of human nature as a system—of the different authority of certain principles, and specially the supremacy of Conscience.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01563", "bookId": 8438, "start": 620853, "end": 620860, "sha256": "4a5d98f1ac4c8feef770b87d1c6fb6d7ea9706fa5e44e6041afa9f867f23f6c7", "text": "BOOK VI", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01564", "bookId": 8438, "start": 620864, "end": 621022, "sha256": "2b37628db2483cd6532fe15c01bbd919191c5f52c70ec21ac1e9f1a114c4030b", "text": "[1] I understand the illustration to be taken from the process of lowering a weight into its place; a block of marble or stone, for instance, in a building.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01565", "bookId": 8438, "start": 621026, "end": 621090, "sha256": "b8c5c7fe60211ab0af74823aefc233a5484c56f15de19c6331cdddcc455a0230", "text": "[2] Called for convenience sake Necessary and Contingent matter.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01566", "bookId": 8438, "start": 621094, "end": 621329, "sha256": "2cafc5a299a8972720ebe01b3daf1234dc667d68b74cee8a47bc87b02a1a4e32", "text": "[3] One man learns Mathematics more easily than another, in common language, _he has a turn for_ Mathematics, _i e_ something in his mental conformation answers to that science The Phrenologist shows the bump denoting this aptitude.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01567", "bookId": 8438, "start": 621333, "end": 621520, "sha256": "cba46050f01d55fac93ac1dabc41fe8c6d9a2df1d52d2b6635381ec68204b9b0", "text": "[4] And therefore the question resolves itself into this, “What is the work of the Speculative, and what of the Practical, faculty of Reason.” See the description of _apetae_ II. 5.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01568", "bookId": 8438, "start": 621524, "end": 621583, "sha256": "1a40369c06878dede3a368db10ec7905a1210836ad954419c28cae0d60506f22", "text": "[5] _praxis_ is here used in its strict and proper meaning.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01569", "bookId": 8438, "start": 621587, "end": 621734, "sha256": "db9abcee013bb2e162e51dd40da480463f809991acd09b7399cd0b58dcb7d33c", "text": "[6] That is to say, the Will waits upon deliberation in which Reason is the judge; when the decision is pronounced, the Will must act accordingly.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01570", "bookId": 8438, "start": 621738, "end": 621982, "sha256": "73045603932579867a696d3a88c411e04b9c815c265ab4a3b7aa4fae1f6c355e", "text": "The question at issue always is, _Is this Good?_ because the Will is only moved by an impression of Good; the Decision then will be always _Aye or No_, and the mental hand is put forth to grasp in the former case, and retracted in the later.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01571", "bookId": 8438, "start": 621986, "end": 622218, "sha256": "7a06bdf6acff994512fd7ab1d415c9628a28f707589ab787bff8f2127c3d6acb", "text": "So far as what must take place in _every_ Moral Action, right or wrong, the Machinery of the mind being supposed uninjured but to constitute a good Moral Choice, _i e._. a good Action, the Reason must have said Aye when it ought.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01572", "bookId": 8438, "start": 622222, "end": 622607, "sha256": "53b5b7625696320e27a7e8d0b2d8a629afcff59775cbd122d12b9d08dba8e519", "text": "The cases of faulty action will be, either when the Machinery is perfect but wrongly directed, as in the case of a deliberate crime, or when the direction given by the Reason is right but the Will does not move in accordance with that direction, in other words, when the Machinery is out of order; as in the case of the [Greek: akrates]—video meliora proboque, Deteriora sequor.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01573", "bookId": 8438, "start": 622611, "end": 622663, "sha256": "fc6328d3ee5fab04869090943082a49450775006632e0b38c3a82f9cccddc436", "text": "[7] See the note on [Greek: Arche] on page 4, l. 30.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01574", "bookId": 8438, "start": 622667, "end": 622926, "sha256": "25d29c4d076ff43a0c2079c3202706ff0f33041b0efbfba431b204687cbd3f2c", "text": "[8] The cobbler is at his last, why? to make shoes, which are to clothe the feet of someone and the price to be paid, _i.e._ the produce of his industry, is to enable him to support his wife and children; thus his production is subordinate to Moral Action.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01575", "bookId": 8438, "start": 622930, "end": 623434, "sha256": "9dceb05736fd051363168a5e14288409d41184063d1a900e3c03411b782efe23", "text": "[9] It may be fairly presumed that Aristotle would not thus have varied his phrase without some real difference of meaning. That difference is founded, I think, on the two senses of [Greek: orexis] before alluded to (note, p. 53, l. 33). The first impulse of the mind towards Action may be given either by a vague desire or by the suggestion of Reason. The vague desire passing through the deliberate stage would issue in Moral Choice. Reason must enlist the Will before any Action can take place.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01576", "bookId": 8438, "start": 623438, "end": 623617, "sha256": "11a92f0e0a47240d81c288ea1518939350bf69aafb632d4657806454aefde6ce", "text": "Reason ought to be the originator in all cases, as Bishop Butler observes that Conscience should be. If this were so, every act of Moral Choice would be [Greek: orektikos nous].", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01577", "bookId": 8438, "start": 623621, "end": 623948, "sha256": "d403389b234c6ed97778d3806a327226745b329c362a5dc5bdbd1a64e89316fe", "text": "But one obvious function of the feelings and passions in our composite nature is to instigate Action, when Reason and Conscience by themselves do not: so that as a matter of fact our Moral Choice is, in general, fairly described as [Greek: orexis dianoetike]. See Bishop Butler’s Sermon II. and the First upon Compassion.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01578", "bookId": 8438, "start": 623952, "end": 624358, "sha256": "cfcadfe0674ea27005d49d6fa0dd033639ce6ac9f64fe908f1b2ee5e19406646", "text": "[10] The mind attains truth, either for the sake of truth itself ([Greek: aplos]), or for the sake of something further ([Greek: eneka tinos]). If the first then either syllogistically ([Greek: episteme]), non-syllogistically ([Greek: nous]), or by union of the two methods ([Greek: sophla]). If the second, either with a view to _act_ ([Greek: phronesis]), or with a view to _make_ ([Greek: techne]).", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01579", "bookId": 8438, "start": 624362, "end": 624647, "sha256": "e35418bfee2fc49348ba73ccac479077cb077382cd0a0e9321cd28143bf84092", "text": "Otherwise. The mind contemplates Matter Necessary or Contingent. If necessary, Principles ([Greek: nous]), Deductions ([Greek: episteme]), or Mixed ([Greek: sophla]). If Contingent, Action ([Greek: phronesis]), Production ([Greek: techen]). (Giphanius quoted in Cardwell’s notes.)", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01580", "bookId": 8438, "start": 624651, "end": 624706, "sha256": "0d240be81cddb30298f923e7944ec16d834e1cbe36658dcd5d19b85684fbe6d1", "text": "[11] It is the opening statement of the Post Analytics.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01581", "bookId": 8438, "start": 624710, "end": 625662, "sha256": "edeaa324d2674ec0475ee28a62ab49f5ba99eb63f13e5537b31282219b67989c", "text": "[12] Aristotle in his logical analysis of Induction, Prior. Analytics II. 25, defines it to be “the proving the inherence of the major term in the middle (_i.e._ proving the truth of the major premiss in fig. 1) through the minor term.” He presupposes a Syllogism in the first Figure with an universal affirmative conclusion, which reasons, of course, from an universal, which universal is to be taken as proved by Induction. His doctrine turns upon a canon which he there quotes. “If of one and the same term two others be predicated, one of which is coextensive with that one and the same, the other may be predicated of that which is thus coextensive.” The fact of this coextensiveness must be ascertained by [Greek: nous], in other words, by the Inductive Faculty. We will take Aldrich’s instance. All Magnets attract iron A B C are Magnets A B C attract iron. Presupposed Syllogism reasoning from an universal.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01582", "bookId": 8438, "start": 625666, "end": 625723, "sha256": "ec0f9e4d6e625ff315e09ba604dd75f2dd45a98a1f1b7d132d1a4b35b55f5b3a", "text": "A B C attract iron (Matter of observation and experiment)", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01583", "bookId": 8438, "start": 625727, "end": 625804, "sha256": "7e5383e77afb722649046c776a7c8fecc74892a904e4ed93357517cdb29e9877", "text": "All Magnets are A B C (Assumed by [Greek: nous], i.e. the Inductive faculty)", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01584", "bookId": 8438, "start": 625808, "end": 625940, "sha256": "9aed63f9af3550d4cc0ca6005bf2491d53fdcb469bd408865f4cb7df2c5914b9", "text": "All Magnets attract iron (Major premiss of the last Syllogism proved by taking the minor term of that for the middle term of this.)", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01585", "bookId": 8438, "start": 625944, "end": 626024, "sha256": "694c3ed7232d179cccab2ae97d5488b8109f1210323cd65b3c84d171d84f0ee0", "text": "Or, according to the canon quoted above: A B C are Magnets. A B C attract iron.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01586", "bookId": 8438, "start": 626028, "end": 626179, "sha256": "8c8f1e5dc9424937e3c1df3ad5287658969664bbacf2e74217a5cfa35e3b9ffc", "text": "But [Greek: nous] tells me that the term Magnets is coextensive with the term A B C, therefore of all Magnets I may predicate that they attract iron.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01587", "bookId": 8438, "start": 626183, "end": 626431, "sha256": "665d85b5d0fd82755ba3c415ec543940e1def9a186fb2bc0749815a382c11074", "text": "Induction is said by Aristotle to be [Greek: hoia phanton], but he says in the same place that for this reason we must _conceive_ ([Greek: noehin]) the term containing the particular Instances (as A B C above) as composed of all the Individuals.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01588", "bookId": 8438, "start": 626435, "end": 627323, "sha256": "c653f593f1056be0a56c9414eeed10eff7169008991615d082391ce281eda956", "text": "If Induction implied actual examination of all particular instances it would cease to be Reasoning at all and sink into repeated acts of Simple Apprehension it is really the bridging over of a chasm, not the steps cut in the rock on either side to enable us to walk down into and again out of it. It is a branch of probable Reasoning, and its validity depends _entirely_ upon the quality of the particular mind which performs it. Rapid Induction has always been a distinguishing mark of Genius the certainty produced by it is Subjective and not Objective. It may be useful to exhibit it Syllogistically, but the Syllogism which exhibits it is either nugatory, or contains a premiss _literally_ false. It will be found useful to compare on the subject of Induction _as the term is used by Aristotle_, Analytica Prior. II 25 26 Analytica Post. I. 1, 3, and I. Topics VI I and X.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01589", "bookId": 8438, "start": 627327, "end": 627800, "sha256": "71093f2250d08d0ad5b7c872bb53e34285b7d6054dfafaa19bdc16f5968dedb7", "text": "[13] The reference is made to the Post Analyt I II and it is impossible to understand the account of [Greek: epistaemae] without a perusal of the chapter, the additions to the definition referred to relate to the nature of the premisses from which [Greek: epistaemae] draws its conclusions they are to be “true, first principles incapable of any syllogistic proof, better known than the conclusion, prior to it, and causes of it.” (See the appendix to this Book.)", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01590", "bookId": 8438, "start": 627804, "end": 627944, "sha256": "4be6bd56779241d5aadebb0430a4917540ce2e6aa98b65791d48f8e023636346", "text": "[14] This is the test of correct logical division, that the _membra dividentia_ shall be opposed, _i.e._ not included the one by the other.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01591", "bookId": 8438, "start": 627948, "end": 628538, "sha256": "3d6bd51ea0716460cca8eefd6de1875c5dfc28843de64783a76c4dbade59846c", "text": "[15] The meaning of the [Greek: hepehi] appears to be this: the appeal is made in the first instance to popular language, just as it the case of [Greek: epistaemae], and will be in those of [Greek: phronaesis] and [Greek: sophia]. We commonly call Architecture an Art, and it is so and so, therefore the name Art and this so and so are somehow connected to prove that connection to be “coextensiveness,” we predicate one of the other and then simply convert the proposition, which is the proper test of any logical definition, or of any specific property. See the Topics, 1. vi.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01592", "bookId": 8438, "start": 628542, "end": 628814, "sha256": "3b878c502d48d51610a63666eb8fb3a7df6c02e64364ad14272eb503b28edb9b", "text": "[16] See the parable of the unjust Steward, in which the popular sense of [Greek: phronaesis] is strongly brought out; [Greek: ephaenesen ho kurios ton oikonomon taes adikias oti phronimos epoiaesen hoti ohi viohi tou aionos toutou phronimoteroi, k.t.l.]—Luke xvi. 8.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01593", "bookId": 8438, "start": 628818, "end": 628912, "sha256": "e73f179ea1826e26cb912c184fe6fac5fe5c0101cd4e81914c4f3c9fd69a132f", "text": "[17] Compare the [Greek: aplos] and [Greek: kath’ ekasta pepaideumenos] of Book I. chap. 1.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01594", "bookId": 8438, "start": 628916, "end": 629331, "sha256": "234c127a5e8b0955007bf913f118c0f5f6f5c72d47686eb94e029e1984cb222c", "text": "[18] The two aspects under which Virtue may be considered as claiming the allegiance of moral agents are, that of being right, and that of being truly expedient, because Conscience and Reasonable Self-Love are the two Principles of our moral constitution naturally supreme and “Conscience and Self-Love, _if we understand our true happiness_, always lead us the same way.” Bishop Butler, end of Sermon III.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01595", "bookId": 8438, "start": 629335, "end": 629345, "sha256": "fd9384f919cbf08d194d93990649195af3f38cd4a6376e402d61d1dd24b2576b", "text": "And again:", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01596", "bookId": 8438, "start": 629349, "end": 629829, "sha256": "d3c0fcf27713f5e292aae9bf37f4d591209b5836af6432059dce52f40442731f", "text": "“If by _a sense of interest_ is meant a practical regard to what is upon the whole our Happiness this is not only coincident with the principle of Virtue or Moral Rectitude, but is a part of the idea itself. And it is evident this Reasonable Self-Love wants to be improved as really as any principle in our nature. So little cause is there for Moralists to disclaim this principle.” From the note on sect. iv. of the chapter on Moral Discipline, Analogy, part I chap. v.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01597", "bookId": 8438, "start": 629833, "end": 629886, "sha256": "c7d8d8ca5c909313ec67cff0935c4412eec30ab15e0c198435dd668c1f207cd4", "text": "[19] See the note on [Greek: Arche] on page 4, l. 30.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01598", "bookId": 8438, "start": 629890, "end": 630218, "sha256": "99441cce629b9c9cd5c73e48a5255f305c67269a862d45dc1929be355b6c3aa1", "text": "The student will find it worth while to compare this passage with the following—Chap. xiii. of this book beginning [Greek: e d’ exis to ommati touto k. t. l]—vii. 4. [Greek: eti kai ode physikos. k.t.l.] vii. 9.—[Greek: ae gar arethae kai ae mochthaeria. k.t.l.]—iii. 7 _ad finem_. [Greek: ei de tis legoi. k.t.l.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01599", "bookId": 8438, "start": 630222, "end": 630611, "sha256": "3c8a13b9a2ddafad50179270517d95cae99b885c6e06056027c2e4164a4f4975", "text": "[20] This is not quite fair. Used in its strict sense, Art does not admit of degrees of excellence any more than Practical Wisdom. In popular language we use the term “wiser man,” as readily as “better artist” really denoting in each case different degrees of approximation to Practical Wisdom and Art respectively, [Greek: dia to ginesthai tous epainous di anaphoras]. I. 12.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01600", "bookId": 8438, "start": 630615, "end": 630807, "sha256": "8ab25b8f4f6bb10c1b789b918ae5190d1e81f65139533f9824e4104d8ad7dc39", "text": "[21] He would be a _better Chymist_ who should poison intentionally, than he on whose mind the prevailing impression was that “Epsom Salts mean Oxalic Acid, and Syrup of Senna Laudanum.”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01601", "bookId": 8438, "start": 630811, "end": 631144, "sha256": "59d2c4cd308dbe13e9f022792658e957f766d44803d1b3a6fdc9bb2d66ba6f50", "text": "[22]The term Wisdom is used in our English Translation of the Old Testament in the sense first given to [Greek:——] here. “Then wrought Bezaleel and Ahohab, and every _wise-hearted man, in whom the Lord put wisdom and understanding_ to know how to work all manner of work for the service of the Sanctuary” Exodus xxxvi. i.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01602", "bookId": 8438, "start": 631148, "end": 631957, "sha256": "a65cd819f29e5c9f2a1209c36d6462fc684c877955acea4695545103b88a8a35", "text": "[23] [Greek:——] and [Greek:——], (in the strict sense, for it is used in many different senses in this book) are different parts of the whole function [Greek:——], [Greek:——] takes in conclusions, drawn by strict reasoning from Principles of a certain kind which [Greek: ——] supplies. It is conceivable that a man might go on gaining these principles by Intuition and never reasoning from them, and so [Greek: ——] might exist independent of [Greek:——], but not this without that. Put the two together, the head to the trunk, and you form the living being [Greek:——]. There are three branches of [Greek:——] according to Greek Philosophy, [Greek:——], [Greek:——], [Greek:——]. Science is perhaps the nearest English term, but we have none really equivalent.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01603", "bookId": 8438, "start": 631961, "end": 632068, "sha256": "28077ea790e0bf5584b881ccab583e42d6f7c34222523d38817a861314d596b1", "text": "[24][Greek:——] is here used in its most extensive sense, [Greek:——] would be its chief Instrument.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01604", "bookId": 8438, "start": 632072, "end": 632128, "sha256": "24b1fbdb3b813125ed2ccb2d4a6da58bc930729a4af3c59a1b8aa43c524844c4", "text": "[25] The faculty concerned with which is [Greek:——].", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01605", "bookId": 8438, "start": 632132, "end": 632395, "sha256": "00833da537cbbebca65ce38d6fb39f05e3b17d57d5a232914671ca37acc1cd45", "text": "[26] In every branch of Moral Action in which Practical Wisdom is employed there will be general principles, and the application of them, but in some branches there are distinct names appropriated to the operations of Practical Wisdom, in others there are not.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01606", "bookId": 8438, "start": 632399, "end": 632798, "sha256": "c6c166214c5e28e28bba80ae633ca3ed7e3dd002a6956130b56ea94a16a75acf", "text": "Thus Practical Wisdom, when employed on the general principles of Civil Government, is called Legislation, as administering its particular functions it is called simply Government. In Domestic Management, there are of course general Rules, and also the particular application of them; but here the faculty is called only by one name. So too when Self-Interest is the object of Practical Wisdom.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01607", "bookId": 8438, "start": 632802, "end": 632880, "sha256": "fd5edc9f2985ddfbb36b406416a05cdff6d06a48574ae7424b0a7880e2d14813", "text": "[27] [Greek:——], “our mere Operatives in Public business.” (Chalmers.)", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01608", "bookId": 8438, "start": 632884, "end": 633265, "sha256": "3a4fa0fff9cac1783a080e7236f554e1338cb207b651fc9d684a6410c2630dcb", "text": "[28] Practical Wisdom may be employed either respecting Self, (which is [Greek:——] proper) or not-Self, _i.e._ either one’s family=[Greek:——], or one’s community=[Greek:——], but here the supreme and subordinate are distinguished, the former is [Greek:——], the latter [Greek:——] proper, whose functions are deliberation and the administration of justice.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01609", "bookId": 8438, "start": 633269, "end": 633538, "sha256": "8df6bd3c997657cea255dea73317920d8b2414d93fc46bccf8849d6795cbf061", "text": "[29] But where can this be done, if there be no community? see Horace’s account of the way in which his father made him reap instruction from the examples in the society around him. 1. Sat. iv. 105, etc. See also Bishop Butler, Analogy, part I. chap. v. sect. iii.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01610", "bookId": 8438, "start": 633542, "end": 633864, "sha256": "4f7f8a68f15b93a5b06d825ae0a0a502617ad26ddda4c464f98c87195e8ab3e9", "text": "The whole question of the Selfish Morality is treated in Bishop Butler’s first three and the eleventh Sermons, in which he shows the coincidence in _fact_ of enlightened Self-Love and Benevolence _i.e._ love of others. Compare also what is said in the first Book of this treatise, chap. v., about [Greek: autarkeia].", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01611", "bookId": 8438, "start": 633868, "end": 633954, "sha256": "3e372409e2776f309777cc14fc7902505438798c681272ceb64994a2bde72e16", "text": "[30] More truly “implied,” namely, that Practical Wisdom results from experience.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01612", "bookId": 8438, "start": 633958, "end": 634097, "sha256": "2cd22205d49810c863ec0c9052416f395ef0faaa1108ac94181b3e804f5a1830", "text": "[31] This observation seems to be introduced, simply because suggested by the last, and not because at all relevant to the matter in hand.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01613", "bookId": 8438, "start": 634101, "end": 634182, "sha256": "e84d2334c3262e771d273939e6c4de6a10ad7a10b0a2eee15e8bedcea15f4c9f", "text": "[32] An instance of Principles gained [Greek: aisthesei]. (Book 1. chap. viii.)", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01614", "bookId": 8438, "start": 634186, "end": 634449, "sha256": "79965a903698689e9b829dec74e27d4f0fda2aa28d83fa8cc80fda5eed78f892", "text": "[33] Particulars are called [Greek: eschata] because they are last arrived at in the deliberative process, but a little further on we have the term applied to first principles, because they stand at one extremity, and facts at the other, of the line of action.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01615", "bookId": 8438, "start": 634453, "end": 634780, "sha256": "dfb43ed561ae1a3d5942ccf1192b8c8fa142897818d40dab511d86349c7faecf", "text": "[34] I prefer the reading [Greek: e phronesis], which gives this sense, “Well, as I have said, Practical Wisdom is this kind of sense, and the other we mentioned is different in kind.” In a passage so utterly unimportant, and thrown in almost colloquially, it is not worth while to take much trouble about such a point.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01616", "bookId": 8438, "start": 634784, "end": 634926, "sha256": "953786cb40c25f5db12bb318a15c3f08d5718db855f26650aaf60cae5c0067c7", "text": "[35] The definition of it in the Organon (Post Analyt. 1. xxiv.), “a happy conjecture of the middle term without time to consider of it.”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01617", "bookId": 8438, "start": 634930, "end": 635371, "sha256": "3c0713e0913ba2bd8472fe4da870c4fe8229fe3d4dc22eb5ff2939488f7a027e", "text": "The quaestio states the phenomena, and the middle term the causation the rapid ascertaining of which constitutes [Greek: anchinoia]. All that receives light from the sun is bright on the side next to the sun. The moon receives light from the sun, The moon is bright on the side next the sun. The [Greek: anchinoia] consists in rapidly and correctly accounting for the observed fact, that the moon is bright on the side next to the sun.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01618", "bookId": 8438, "start": 635375, "end": 635442, "sha256": "862979c99cfaa9823d539820108347cd5280015dc97c448895d7cc4d3390efce", "text": "[36] Opinion is a complete, deliberation an incomplete, mental act.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01619", "bookId": 8438, "start": 635446, "end": 635487, "sha256": "3c9e2b9496a68753851c4063b1e5704eb6846fc766c14a12258462cd68bed5bb", "text": "[37] The End does not sanctify the Means.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01620", "bookId": 8438, "start": 635491, "end": 635879, "sha256": "cbc01ae83ab4d891ead7f8c3dda2687a4c94cbb3da2fc6478f6ebe7962757bc0", "text": "[38] The meaning is, there is one End including all others; and in this sense [Greek: phronesis] is concerned with means, not Ends but there are also many subordinate Ends which are in fact Means to the Great End of all. Good counsel has reference not merely to the grand End, but to the subordinate Ends which [Greek: phronesis] selects as being right means to the Grand End of all.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01621", "bookId": 8438, "start": 635883, "end": 636170, "sha256": "788ca96fc21b6d8b62ec9696564584b8d4807e7ab205b89b0722a9b42365c199", "text": "[39] The relative [Greek: on] might be referred to [Greek: sumpheron], but that [Greek: eubonlia] has been already divided into two kinds, and this construction would restrict the name to one of them, namely that [Greek: pros ti telos] as opposed to that [Greek: pros to telos aplos].", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01622", "bookId": 8438, "start": 636174, "end": 636348, "sha256": "25ff214446e68f9c14e03fdf8784a357b8d3f3185e7748d269ad82dfc5393e8e", "text": "[40] We have no term which at all approximates to the meaning of this word, much less will our language admit of the play upon it which connects it with [Greek: suggnomae].", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01623", "bookId": 8438, "start": 636352, "end": 636538, "sha256": "65307280fe2aaced01c9811229e0f7eada29483d9f62b074df756f512af2e8c2", "text": "[41] Meaning, of course, all those which relate to Moral Action. [Greek: psronaesis ] is equivalent to [Greek: euboulia, ounesis, gnomae, and nous] (in the new sense here given to it).", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01624", "bookId": 8438, "start": 636542, "end": 636887, "sha256": "5ddbc525f50a61ac38b5662e4e37a88cee6d966e19f9e3bd2f29bd2ef1924943", "text": "The faculty which guides us truly in all matters of Moral Action is [Greek: phronaesis], i.e. Reason directed by Goodness or Goodness informed by Reason. But just as every faculty of body and soul is not actually in operation at the same time, though the Man is acting, so proper names are given to the various Functions of Practical Wisdom.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01625", "bookId": 8438, "start": 636891, "end": 637343, "sha256": "10dbedb25dedd5c4959b4bc22f77133c6269fffeb6d57c98d6b5efd7e2f7eec6", "text": "Is the [Greek: phronimos] forming plans to attain some particular End? he is then [Greek: euboulos]—is he passing under review the suggestions of others? he is [Greek: sunetos]—is he judging of the acts of others? he admits [Greek: gnomae] to temper the strictness of justness—is he applying general Rules to particular cases? he is exercising [Greek: nous praktikos] or [Greek: agsthaesis]—while in each and all he is [Greek: phronimos]?", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01626", "bookId": 8438, "start": 637347, "end": 637372, "sha256": "cf01e01dee4abba2720e297481c97609e16acc552ca2d0f95ce68a4de0ce035d", "text": "[42] See note, on p. 140.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01627", "bookId": 8438, "start": 637376, "end": 637769, "sha256": "315f3ff4634ba2f42758a645972b7caebf2adbfaffeb6c110a5eed506393c76e", "text": "[43] There are cases where we must simply accept or reject without proof: either when Principles are propounded which are prior to all reasoning, or when particular facts are brought before us which are simply matters of [Greek: agsthaesis]. Aristotle here brings both these cases within the province of [Greek: nous], _i.e._ he calls by this name the Faculty which attains Truth in each.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01628", "bookId": 8438, "start": 637773, "end": 637826, "sha256": "e97a4c6200126e12cb86035806459c272afb0347cf1eef25f8b63dbb6cfbf3c0", "text": "[44] _i.e._ of the [Greek: syllogisimai ton prakton].", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01629", "bookId": 8438, "start": 637830, "end": 638069, "sha256": "361ad3d517b4d4debec25f593cd50e95ce9c0f5e7166bc79457976b9df8d8d8b", "text": "[45] See the note on [Greek: Archae] on p. 4,1 30. As a matter of fact and mental experience the Major Premiss of the Practica Syllogism is wrought into the mind by repeatedly acting upon the Minor Premiss (_i.e._ by [Greek: ethismos]).", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01630", "bookId": 8438, "start": 638078, "end": 638162, "sha256": "d2d47267a0a97caa2f8b3a6d76574c48516d4ef89dc52729bbbe097a5e835419", "text": "All that is pleasant is to be done, This is pleasant, This is to be done", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01631", "bookId": 8438, "start": 638168, "end": 638823, "sha256": "7a2b693aa579b24895ae1cc23449ea17d2f7043065642c7c2c3c903392b9c1ca", "text": "By habitually acting on the Minor Premiss, _i.e._ on the suggestions of [Greek: epithymia], a man comes really to hold the Major Premiss. Aristotle says of the man destitute of all self-control that he is firmly persuaded that it is his proper line to pursue the gratification of his bodily appetites, [Greek: dia to toioytos einai oios diokein aytas]. And his analysis of [Greek: akrasia] (the state of progress towards this utter abandonment to passion) shows that each case of previous good resolution succumbing to temptation is attributable to [Greek: epithymia] suggesting its own Minor Premiss in place of the right one. Book VII. 8 and 5.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01632", "bookId": 8438, "start": 638827, "end": 638859, "sha256": "e9c3978cae2c35e8022622372c4eef55fa48ba90e9122dc4b1dc6c44afb7f7f5", "text": "[46] The _consequentia_ is this:", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01633", "bookId": 8438, "start": 638863, "end": 639099, "sha256": "8bd7bba8721810164356663ac427138a80e909c85dc2b3a82f18db884fd3dc39", "text": "There are cases both of principles and facts which cannot admit of reasoning, and must be authoritatively determined by [Greek: nous]. What makes [Greek: nous] to be a true guide? only practice, i.e. Experience, and _therefore_, etc.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01634", "bookId": 8438, "start": 639103, "end": 639261, "sha256": "a44d735b6654699ae2d1d6a539abf43e05cefda54d5e4e2ee4eb1a371ac232fc", "text": "[47] This is a note to explain [Greek: hygieina] and [Greek: euektika], he gives these three uses of the term [Greek: hygieinon] in the Topics, I. xiii. 10,", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01635", "bookId": 8438, "start": 639270, "end": 639407, "sha256": "8fbd5dfac105e049f3f2318f1a44e8fd50c46c0537d41bf9871027fb51829780", "text": "{ [Greek: to men hygieias poiætikon], [Greek: hygieinon legetai] { [Greek: to de phylaktikon], { [Greek: to de sæmantikon].", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01636", "bookId": 8438, "start": 639411, "end": 639463, "sha256": "b68723de8440153d3683160e92a67c1dc8da1f00763ab5c46f89f199a4a943c2", "text": "Of course the same will apply to [Greek: euektikon].", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01637", "bookId": 8438, "start": 639467, "end": 639563, "sha256": "114172c1a7d983481504fce7be321c293b5ac1d9910dee7c25d235bc2ec7a2e8", "text": "[48] Healthiness is the formal cause of health. Medicine is the efficient cause of health.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01638", "bookId": 8438, "start": 639567, "end": 639669, "sha256": "6fd3a1dc4756ab43e9719a69db929477099a43bdef1108b0dd90963bb7431493", "text": "See Book X. chap. iv. [Greek: hosper oud hæ hygieia kai ho iatros homoios aitia esti tou ugiainein].", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01639", "bookId": 8438, "start": 639673, "end": 639816, "sha256": "51fa3d176691beae2385aabd7d85b2c79b6c38d4a764aebd4b26cea532152017", "text": "[49] [Greek: phronæsis] is here used in a partial sense to signify the Intellectual, as distinct from the Moral, element of Practical Wisdom.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01640", "bookId": 8438, "start": 639820, "end": 639945, "sha256": "b390c722d21f7589d603313a890991f83f1d1104585160731d35e9fec28782ec", "text": "[50] This is another case of an observation being thrown in _obiter_, not relevant to, but suggested by, the matter in hand.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01641", "bookId": 8438, "start": 639949, "end": 639990, "sha256": "fde284d7a82be64497c9785173e801b53d2f72070ee7fd56a9c161a1a086a70c", "text": "[51] See Book II. chap. iii. and V. xiii.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01642", "bookId": 8438, "start": 639994, "end": 640242, "sha256": "a3d9fc96fc51fe783debff91b57e803cf10d46f7f298e213e1ad2774a858d817", "text": "[52]The article is supplied at [Greek: panourgous], because the abstract word has just been used expressly in a bad sense. “Up to anything” is the nearest equivalent to [Greek: panourgos], but too nearly approaches to a colloquial vulgarism.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01643", "bookId": 8438, "start": 640246, "end": 640300, "sha256": "fc706cf9b56ee3cc2dd89ecc9a5c836fb0d2c30a8bead0656298f02ceefd0563", "text": "[53] See the note on [Greek: Archæ] on page 4, l. 30.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01644", "bookId": 8438, "start": 640304, "end": 640348, "sha256": "6233ab89a87950770a08070ca6b141a486526f31f2089fac34f1e21886a34ae5", "text": "P. 147, l. 14. And for the Minor, of course,", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01645", "bookId": 8438, "start": 640352, "end": 640393, "sha256": "337b06a2ee59b0843bda16427003a39d148de91f3fbfeea80d6d6294e40a1bbe", "text": "“This particular action is———.”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01646", "bookId": 8438, "start": 640397, "end": 640575, "sha256": "093deb5c834c2575eec18c004f4d9dce910f126d973d9ccdc690baae396a9ed3", "text": "We may paraphrase [Greek: to telos] by [Greek: ti dei prattein—ti gar dei prattein hæ mæ, to telos autæs estin] i.e. [Greek: tæs phronæseos].—(Chap. xi. of this Book.)", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01647", "bookId": 8438, "start": 640579, "end": 640656, "sha256": "0e3982d24e9cc3f5d79ec7e960cd92cedb121780b69be6efd3d74403e52be332", "text": "[55] “Look asquint on the face of truth.” Sir T. Browne, Religio Medici.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01648", "bookId": 8438, "start": 640660, "end": 640869, "sha256": "c5c23f54607cbe66ef0357ebee1668d6b9101803acf1b3d55e624c730d2d45cf", "text": "[56] The term [Greek: sophronikoi] must be understood as governing the signification of the other two terms, there being no single Greek term to denote in either case mere dispositions towards these Virtues.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01649", "bookId": 8438, "start": 640873, "end": 640995, "sha256": "ee1c28d0d6c2dbc042cb58382fa9b93bd33648c13027be2eafd9d9971bfa0e7e", "text": "[57] Compare the passage at the commencement of Book X. [Greek: nun de phainontai] [Greek: katokochimon ek tæs aretæs].", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01650", "bookId": 8438, "start": 640999, "end": 641217, "sha256": "3e927210b0259550cf73999b6c90f23f679c5d7492939b61cdee3284cf149824", "text": "[58] It must be remembered, that [Greek: phronæsis] is used throughout this chapter in two senses, its proper and complete sense of Practical Wisdom, and its incomplete one of merely the Intellectual Element of it.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01651", "bookId": 8438, "start": 641223, "end": 641231, "sha256": "8d8022b1f003a6511ed8c9cd1d351d77996dd51f059d144f9c6a321c926120f3", "text": "BOOK VII", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01652", "bookId": 8438, "start": 641235, "end": 641445, "sha256": "5dbfa5d3992ea2ca3d11afcfe652a1ce7e6d693130ccf89d1a91af1f2d541cc2", "text": "[1] The account of Virtue and Vice hitherto given represents rather what men _may be_ than what they _are_. In this book we take a practical view of Virtue and Vice, in their ordinary, every day development.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01653", "bookId": 8438, "start": 641449, "end": 641515, "sha256": "14be1c7baf6a69882b19da9ad8f1b25d0a1d5032ce8b7416cfb7ea4c95e434f6", "text": "[2] This illustrates the expression, “_Deceits_ of the Flesh.”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01654", "bookId": 8438, "start": 641519, "end": 641812, "sha256": "ad1ed956aa46c2f70792bcb685e90d87adeba5775522de66dda3bfb5f153d45d", "text": "[3] Another reading omits the [Greek:——]; the meaning of the whole passage would be exactly the same—it would then run, “if he had been convinced of the rightness of what he does, _i.e._ if he were now acting on conviction, he might stop in his course on a change of conviction.”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01655", "bookId": 8438, "start": 641816, "end": 641880, "sha256": "f39360290c0c787f6d7f5583915614f0dd9f016fc9d7ce40d7233d6a70e85677", "text": "[4] Major and minor Premises of the [Greek:——] [Greek——]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01656", "bookId": 8438, "start": 641884, "end": 641953, "sha256": "b383e71702ec793d3535dbd3e5b70a9bec6b84bea54047060e61020d8c03cb48", "text": "[5]Some necessarily implying knowledge of the particular, others not.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01657", "bookId": 8438, "start": 641957, "end": 642033, "sha256": "7dc70ebdea9af1031412c5a1fc405dae9f998de7da1bb2b7ff7c4b1af1b26fde", "text": "[6] As a modern parallel, take old Trumbull in Scott’s “Red Gauntlet.”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01658", "bookId": 8438, "start": 642037, "end": 643053, "sha256": "e3ac68daa5368df1def06bfa2d1e96638edd779bd81f82ba5b66a9f57c314240", "text": "[7] That is, as I understand it, either the major or the minor premise, it is true, that “all that is sweet is pleasant,” it is true also, that “this is sweet,” what is contrary to Right Reason is the bringing in this minor to the major _i.e._ the universal maxim, forbidding to taste. Thus, a man goes to a convivial meeting with the maxim in his mind “All excess is to be avoided,” at a certain time his [Greek:——] tells him “This glass is excess.” As a matter of mere reasoning, he cannot help receiving the conclusion “This glass is to be avoided,” and supposing him to be morally sound he would accordingly abstain. But [Greek:——], being a simple tendency towards indulgence suggests, in place of the minor premise “This is excess,” its own premise “This is sweet,” this again suggests the self-indulgent maxim or principle (‘[Greek:——]), “All that is sweet is to be tasted,” and so, by strict logical sequence, proves “This glass is to be tasted.”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01659", "bookId": 8438, "start": 643057, "end": 643225, "sha256": "a0b648194abd2d6c72673ced7042f1716bae218feac6143ead51d0a9e6b42e56", "text": "The solution then of the phænomenon of [Greek:——] is this that [Greek:——], by its direct action on the animal nature, swamps the suggestions of Right Reason.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01660", "bookId": 8438, "start": 643229, "end": 643533, "sha256": "60a4b183207d94735c686343e596ec997bd1e00bd832f4c84741f98fa19788e7", "text": "On the high ground of Universals, [Greek:——] i.e. [Greek:——] easily defeats [Greek:——]. The [Greek:——], an hour before he is in temptation, would never deliberately prefer the maxim “All that is sweet is to be tasted” to “All excess is to be avoided.” The [Greek:——] would.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01661", "bookId": 8438, "start": 643542, "end": 643589, "sha256": "3117f73d4a6429d0420cf86cf307e3d0420f0e062214d79c2e4c251328c11dca", "text": "Horace has a good comment upon this (II Sat 2):", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01662", "bookId": 8438, "start": 643598, "end": 643739, "sha256": "3e3a09a85d0b5faf1d91bd721c55b31d37d9fe0039c4af1c144e78b13fc999e2", "text": "Quæ virtus et quanta, bom, sit vivere parvo Discite, _non inter lances mensasque nitentes_ Verum hic _impransi_ mecum disquirite", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01663", "bookId": 8438, "start": 643745, "end": 643833, "sha256": "73ffac94235513a783fc8f8ee299094e517e35bdb1a28f22d301de8c1851177f", "text": "Compare also Proverbs XXIII. 31. “Look not thou upon the wine when it is red,” etc.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01664", "bookId": 8438, "start": 643837, "end": 643922, "sha256": "f2a40da92e54f79f1411de9d006e107835986e157bd396ca4b33c6a1b72dd2f5", "text": "[8] As we commonly speak, Metaphysicians. Physiology of course includes Metaphysics.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01665", "bookId": 8438, "start": 643926, "end": 644164, "sha256": "8df8d23fccd36791fd9de4853eacc3b2f45de9622cfebaf3d2bbc21b62c39c3f", "text": "[9] [Greek: oron]. Aristotle’s own account of this word (Prior Analyt ii. 1) is [Greek: eis on dialuetai hae protasis], but both in the account of [Greek: nous] and here it seems that the proposition itself is really indicated by it.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01666", "bookId": 8438, "start": 644168, "end": 644434, "sha256": "bc7307c14acf6fa9fb8fb2b1280ffa693f9a8cd7e70824101d2e2b2c0f514068", "text": "[10] The Greek would give “avoids excessive pain,” but this is not true, for the excess of pain would be ground for excuse the warrant for translating as in the text, is the passage occurring just below [Greek: diokei tas uperbolas kai pheugei metrias lupas].", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01667", "bookId": 8438, "start": 644438, "end": 644525, "sha256": "5c0b7b459a160b567011b2d3b959597fe1173fdb3302a289845972bf716cfbcd", "text": "[11] Compare Bishop Butler on Particular Propensions, Analogy, Part I chap v sect. iv.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01668", "bookId": 8438, "start": 644529, "end": 644590, "sha256": "88aa347e627a221c1ec89a1b1d6c425049bdbfea010b543215ce668adec5f687", "text": "[12] That is, they are to the right states as Vice to Virtue.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01669", "bookId": 8438, "start": 644594, "end": 644738, "sha256": "3fc2e90289eefe729768e6c327c10b602df7676b63e4f2353742cb8669bc8e52", "text": "[14] Consult in connection with this Chapter the Chapter on [Greek: orgae] in the Rhetoric, II. 2, and Bishop Butler’s Sermon on Resentment.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01670", "bookId": 8438, "start": 644742, "end": 644870, "sha256": "abec897afb969a39c123f61202f39dd8770ce7d1a768cd6408086b5f5cda08f2", "text": "[15] The reasoning here being somewhat obscure from the concisement of expression, the following exposition of it is subjoined.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01671", "bookId": 8438, "start": 644879, "end": 645110, "sha256": "9c8cc73872c7a025befc34bbaf3002dbd9338c0695bc113d864f92a1819eac6e", "text": "Actions of Lust are wrong actions done with pleasure, Wrong actions done with pleasure are more justly objects of wrath,[*] Such as are more justly objects of wrath are more unjust, Actions of Lust are more unjust", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01672", "bookId": 8438, "start": 645119, "end": 645322, "sha256": "38d395e7f8437e3ee5d0f4917923e458251b46ba6b3ad25aa07aa3f8c3619932", "text": "[*] [Greek: hubpis] is introduced as the single instance from which this premiss is proved inductively. See the account of it in the Chapter of the Rhetoric referred to in the preceding note.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01673", "bookId": 8438, "start": 645326, "end": 645742, "sha256": "04924b77844b580a193a39f4a45dbe1a5f3387ff234dc7480f86bd64747cc16f", "text": "[16][Greek: ton dae lechthenton]. Considerable difference of opinion exists as to the proper meaning of these words. The emendation which substitutes [Greek: akrataes] for [Greek: akolastos] removes all difficulty, as the clause would then naturally refer to [Greek: ton mae proairoumenon] but Zell adheres to the reading in the text of Bekker, because the authority of MSS and old editions is all on this side.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01674", "bookId": 8438, "start": 645746, "end": 645926, "sha256": "425583856f3b8308aac4860318381d27d517cddb8fb56522bcb78ede5c5ca9b5", "text": "I understand [Greek: mallon] as meant to modify the word [Greek: malakias], which properly denotes that phase of [Greek: akrasia] (not [Greek: akolasia]) which is caused by pain.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01675", "bookId": 8438, "start": 645930, "end": 646161, "sha256": "2672cb93544e5d3d1df3adf7cdf4b79a8cdd48054ad5ff652210f72494866c20", "text": "The [Greek: akolastos] _deliberately_ pursues pleasure and declines pain if there is to be a distinct name for the latter phase, it comes under [Greek: malakia] more nearly than any other term, though perhaps not quite properly.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01676", "bookId": 8438, "start": 646165, "end": 646404, "sha256": "5bf40eebb9cd3a76b327955ce539405eab30dcff08b814376eb33c3a133733bc", "text": "Or the words may be understood as referring to the class of wrong acts caused by avoidance of pain, whether deliberate or otherwise, and then of course the names of [Greek: malakia] and [Greek: akolasia] may be fitly given respectively.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01677", "bookId": 8438, "start": 646408, "end": 646780, "sha256": "a68d0deae65a242dab23d2158f9dabe15ff8a39266097197897d901ba8650322", "text": "[17] “If we went into a hospital where all were sick or dying, we should think those least ill who were insensible to pain; a physician who knew the whole, would behold them with despair. And there is a mortification of the soul as well as of the body, in which the first symptoms of returning hope are pain and anguish” Sewell, Sermons to Young Men (Sermon xii.)", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01678", "bookId": 8438, "start": 646784, "end": 647151, "sha256": "2d44261838f4318bf6b56250c8071fc9ea828cda851f5bc3c7e4ab3e4c972f78", "text": "[18] Before the time of trial comes the man deliberately makes his Moral Choice to act rightly, but, at the moment of acting, the powerful strain of desire makes him contravene this choice his Will does not act in accordance with the affirmation or negation of his Reason. His actions are therefore of the mixed kind. See Book III. chap. i, and note on page 128.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01679", "bookId": 8438, "start": 647155, "end": 647414, "sha256": "bb636ea0abf8c9d773e91ded0704698910686824bdfbfa92be8a9c95c66d1917", "text": "[19] Let a man be punctual _on principle_ to any one engagement in the day, and he must, as a matter of course, keep all his others in their due places relatively to this one; and so will often wear an appearance of being needlessly punctilious in trifles.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01680", "bookId": 8438, "start": 647418, "end": 647547, "sha256": "f0b3936f166cc2ac1d898f335aa5280440a5a5c93daefd539092d7213d94c3c0", "text": "[20] Because he is destitute of these minor springs of action, which are intended to supply the defects of the higher principle.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01681", "bookId": 8438, "start": 647551, "end": 647639, "sha256": "c256a6896981206c7ce35f9a24bb1ef0e57b9186d24f9fe37a3c4fda1c7a299a", "text": "See Bishop Butler’s first Sermon on Compassion, and the conclusion of note on p. 129.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01682", "bookId": 8438, "start": 647645, "end": 647654, "sha256": "5066db4f7d94ceecad6fcdd82ef1833df9388ce2a24b9b4afa89c67d21980bed", "text": "BOOK VIII", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01683", "bookId": 8438, "start": 647658, "end": 647784, "sha256": "feb6a53879a0dcf8a9ed040d96b68a40ba717cc23642b18f478a7aa0234e2703", "text": "[1] “Owe no man anything, but to _love_ one another for he that loveth another _hath fulfilled the Law_.” Romans XIII. 8.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01684", "bookId": 8438, "start": 647788, "end": 647913, "sha256": "cf6b6faa1fef725f0eb030b7d7c09195707b0ab0a773c1ffba69fea08748f86b", "text": "[2] [Greek: kerameis]. The Proverb in full is a line from Hesiod, [Greek: kahi keramehus keramei koteei kai tektoni tekton].", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01685", "bookId": 8438, "start": 647917, "end": 647981, "sha256": "079f5a40c7acb695484555d4c281bc76b1e4f3aa1d26344d971d9d1787524f93", "text": "[3] In this sense, therefore, is it sung of Mrs. Gilpin that she", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01686", "bookId": 8438, "start": 647990, "end": 648097, "sha256": "6ee745832b11457f5cba24af78a9d5a94cc7ae31149caf4813301b4a823cc880", "text": "“two stone bottles found, To hold the liquor that she _loved_, And keep it safe and sound.”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01687", "bookId": 8438, "start": 648101, "end": 648229, "sha256": "935b5439ec72e059bdd6d6f96e1455949d9716058a7e49124424ff281a1f3d13", "text": "[4] Cardwell’s reading, [Greek: tautae gar omoioi, kai ta loipa] is here adopted, as yielding a better sense than Bekker’s.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01688", "bookId": 8438, "start": 648233, "end": 648412, "sha256": "1d19bdd67190afa8d0d2d789c00eb5e65c261b3007d8051c4581029e1f24002e", "text": "[5]The Great man will have a right to look for more Friendship than he bestows, but the Good man _can_ feel Friendship only for, and in proportion to, the goodness of the other.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01689", "bookId": 8438, "start": 648416, "end": 648446, "sha256": "faa8db5d644cf965178424616d03e48220ff5c64c7557721df510e0549708c32", "text": "[6] See note on page 68, 1. 8.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01690", "bookId": 8438, "start": 648450, "end": 648519, "sha256": "f7e605b1c9abef45a7ad40a4eb69f3555c00c78cea2523879ff93e9d961675ac", "text": "[7] See I. Topics, Chap. v. on the various senses of [Greek: tauton].", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01691", "bookId": 8438, "start": 648523, "end": 648650, "sha256": "fd22162849133dd9360093a43e2df9af57c76f042555b5788fbebcd487b05934", "text": "[8] “For the mutual society, help, and comfort that the one ought to have of the other, both in prosperity and adversity.”", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01692", "bookId": 8438, "start": 648654, "end": 648773, "sha256": "96109ed04134585eaab85535a20dc325d83e34b6ab925b42a19ee360c10af00b", "text": "[9] Which one would be assuming he was, if one declined to recognise the obligation to requite the favour or kindness.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01693", "bookId": 8438, "start": 648779, "end": 648786, "sha256": "e6b966299b053526af201ed496866cec384cb65c4a1308d52fdf79957ccbd119", "text": "BOOK IX", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01694", "bookId": 8438, "start": 648790, "end": 648868, "sha256": "530f09509d60af3381eae15b597faf920d1f85ccfbbd0aa99305360baa708e32", "text": "[1] “Neither the Son of man, that He should _repent_.” Numbers xxiii. 19.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01695", "bookId": 8438, "start": 648872, "end": 649044, "sha256": "841209b891cfbfd071512421f394dc8794f4e0b44229611839f9073765d75c78", "text": "“In a few instances the Second Intention, or Philosophical employment of a Term, is more extensive than the First Intention, or popular use.” Whately, Logic, iii. 10.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01696", "bookId": 8438, "start": 649048, "end": 649915, "sha256": "43445fcd9d0077fada546d92c8c1c55e58fbffc67e91dc083de0f80699c48f5b", "text": "[2] “I have sometimes considered in what troublesome case is that Chamberlain in an Inn who being but one is to give attendance to many guests. For suppose them all in one chamber, yet, if one shall command him to come to the window, and the other to the table, and another to the bed, and another to the chimney, and another to come upstairs, and another to go downstairs, and all in the same instant, how would he be distracted to please them all? And yet such is the sad condition of nay soul by nature, not only a servant but a slave unto sin. Pride calls me to the window, gluttony to the table, wantonness to the bed, laziness to the chimney, ambition commands me to go upstairs, and covetousness to come down. Vices, I see, are as well contrary to themselves as to Virtue.” (Fuller’s Good Thoughts in Bad Times. Mix’t Contemplations, viii.)", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01697", "bookId": 8438, "start": 649921, "end": 649927, "sha256": "7225f1e2d2d49e9143c97b774dd094ce8b14ad58044949952eacc93209c4de55", "text": "BOOK X", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01698", "bookId": 8438, "start": 649931, "end": 649951, "sha256": "78d899b2f1226ca328c85d661a40b0c1066cfcbae63b04c0f724df5faa334bd8", "text": "[1] See note, p. 43.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01699", "bookId": 8438, "start": 649955, "end": 649981, "sha256": "9c4f0a42de37d38bc18e30fedcf58e4ff501ba8a17f365260b93dcd1d32d1d92", "text": "[2] See Book II. chap. ix.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01700", "bookId": 8438, "start": 649985, "end": 650019, "sha256": "111fc7c79c2fd960f883bbc68dbcfc6422827bcc43d17ecd28069ff452debc5c", "text": "[3] See Book I. chap. v. ad finem.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01701", "bookId": 8438, "start": 650023, "end": 650241, "sha256": "b6a1dd1ef7c171758f6d56d17b035f4445cd0fbe17d0a1871a1788f42e6c722e", "text": "[4] The notion alluded to is that of the [greek: idea]: that there is no real substantial good except the [greek: auto agathon], and therefore whatever is so called is so named in right of its participation in that.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01702", "bookId": 8438, "start": 650245, "end": 650277, "sha256": "5935f4dcd9f5436f8b7614a3441d62b533aa562d0414f1dce00bfb8f29771606", "text": "[5] See note on page 136, 1. 15.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01703", "bookId": 8438, "start": 650281, "end": 650686, "sha256": "619a19ab35266acba728807400e830274c57f38634c269cedbb56d40a5ff7da6", "text": "P. 238, 1. 24. Movement is, according to Aristotle, of six kinds: From not being to being . . . . Generation From being to not being . . . . Destruction From being to being more . . . . Increase From being to being less . . . . Diminution From being here to being there . . Change of Place From being in this way to being in that Alteration", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01704", "bookId": 8438, "start": 650690, "end": 650776, "sha256": "87a9bac28761b1a3733f82ddcd84bb832a1a6734c3d242a124c7398bb56ef294", "text": "[7] _A_ may go to sleep quicker than _B_, but cannot _do more sleep_ in a given time.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01705", "bookId": 8438, "start": 650780, "end": 650857, "sha256": "814a44f313370791fb8668d2b5879ded8f16072bb8e0512abf4061278555556b", "text": "[8] Compare Book III. chap. vi. [Greek: osper kai epi ton somaton, k. t. l.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01706", "bookId": 8438, "start": 650861, "end": 650903, "sha256": "e816e7ce005c3d309ccd335791657441a4fd30be8bc397e405b901ff540b0b7f", "text": "[9] Which is of course a [Greek: genesis].", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01707", "bookId": 8438, "start": 650907, "end": 650986, "sha256": "45084c9744ac83d9e8940ece47b81142c8341ee9fce7b070b4e090da5a7c028d", "text": "[10] That is, subordinate Movements are complete before the whole Movement is.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01708", "bookId": 8438, "start": 650990, "end": 651220, "sha256": "954e28368e42e087f4ee99d85f10e7d9f97197fb7318eda0be1d254e15262320", "text": "[11] Pleasure is so instantaneous a sensation, that it cannot be conceived divisible or incomplete; the longest continued Pleasure is only a succession of single sparks, so rapid as to give the appearance of a stream, of light.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01709", "bookId": 8438, "start": 651224, "end": 651389, "sha256": "bad2df62a5dc81e82d5983f12bd5ef39e0e8fdb8e3d0f04309a85e4622d7ffde", "text": "[12] A man is as effectually hindered from taking a walk by the [Greek: allotria haedouae] of reading a novel, as by the [Greek: oikeia lupae] of gout in the feet.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01710", "bookId": 8438, "start": 651393, "end": 651638, "sha256": "5080896e100daafaccf1a18a980424d82703a16510d331982e1f85c1faaaa299", "text": "[13] I have thus rendered [Greek: spoudae (ouk agnoon to hamartanomenon)]; but, though the English term does not represent the depth of the Greek one, it is some approximation to the truth to connect an earnest serious purpose with Happiness.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01711", "bookId": 8438, "start": 651642, "end": 651684, "sha256": "6699f3444ec98fcb45126c41753e2e97aa74aa370272a832e0098fdb630d1090", "text": "[14] Bishop Butler, _contra_ (Sermon XV.).", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01712", "bookId": 8438, "start": 651688, "end": 652096, "sha256": "486c47e027029735d182bd454f925f2696a47357a7e121937e4ffa15202d4f7d", "text": "“Knowledge is not our proper Happiness. Whoever will in the least attend to the thing will see that it is the gaining, not the having, of it, which is the entertainment of the mind.” The two statements may however be reconciled. Aristotle may be well understood only to mean, that the pursuit of knowledge will be the pleasanter, the freer it is from the minor hindrances which attend on _learning_.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01713", "bookId": 8438, "start": 652100, "end": 652376, "sha256": "acda53fa2f1e773ec51ebeb1aece45539de29b591683ecf56d5025a736f01377", "text": "[15] The clause immediately following indicates that Aristotle felt this statement to be at first sight startling, Happiness having been all the way through connected with [Greek: energeia], but the statement illustrates and confirms what was said in note on page 6, 1. 15.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG8438.B01714", "bookId": 8438, "start": 652380, "end": 652584, "sha256": "2ed0202dabac30159b2526b7768a98bd17f6894cff443e6a16abaf3ad6776427", "text": "[16] That is to say, he aims at producing not merely a happy aggregate, but an aggregate of happy individuals. 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A few hyphenations have been changed to make them consistent. Minor typographic errors have been corrected.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00013", "bookId": 21531, "start": 1283, "end": 1298, "sha256": "e259da034e3daf1d5a80adcbb43f4cee7abc772ae16f2d7e72f05221a0dd9c2e", "text": "WOODWORK JOINTS", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00014", "bookId": 21531, "start": 1313, "end": 1338, "sha256": "53c140a77ea83d108c4ce24a2b341a57cd38334ced52c83dba02f5b9569f9434", "text": "(_THE WOODWORKER SERIES_)", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00015", "bookId": 21531, "start": 1363, "end": 1380, "sha256": "3319df96c020d087105e353ef0fe20ba650206ce001e9525b502e926283b806d", "text": "_REVISED EDITION_", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00016", "bookId": 21531, "start": 1408, "end": 1443, "sha256": "7abbd0ac25000a0ad39bc129cf069d0c932a82e331df02ba70181f23fa86e837", "text": "WOODWORK JOINTS", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00017", "bookId": 21531, "start": 1453, "end": 1564, "sha256": "fec7abc442ba691a9a1d5b083de611d0dd4798c1d5be021e74232bf03588e981", "text": "HOW THEY ARE SET OUT, HOW MADE AND WHERE USED; WITH FOUR HUNDRED ILLUSTRATIONS AND INDEX", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00018", "bookId": 21531, "start": 1583, "end": 1600, "sha256": "3319df96c020d087105e353ef0fe20ba650206ce001e9525b502e926283b806d", "text": "_REVISED EDITION_", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00019", "bookId": 21531, "start": 1625, "end": 1716, "sha256": "93424ea6f24beddb9163034f1ce165f4266091866ceae9ae4982f1852f82b856", "text": "LONDON EVANS BROTHERS, LIMITED MONTAGUE HOUSE, RUSSELL SQUARE, W.C.1", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00020", "bookId": 21531, "start": 1739, "end": 1762, "sha256": "0fa83d1ad10359a345524694656934a72aec4cb13e7e5ad120caff63d6f71437", "text": "_THE WOODWORKER SERIES_", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00021", "bookId": 21531, "start": 1781, "end": 2346, "sha256": "e5aa5e260d1d9272d7e2c83bfc42a8c265d1195ed3521012c808ef6f3ce3bc80", "text": "WOODWORK JOINTS. CABINET CONSTRUCTION. STAINING AND POLISHING. WOODWORK TOOLS. PRACTICAL UPHOLSTERY. WOOD TURNING. WOODCARVING. TIMBERS FOR WOODWORK. FURNITURE REPAIRING AND RE-UPHOLSTERY. HOUSEHOLD REPAIRS AND RENOVATIONS. CARPENTRY FOR BEGINNERS. KITCHEN FURNITURE DESIGNS. BUREAU AND BOOKCASE DESIGNS. LIGHT CARPENTRY DESIGNS. DOORMAKING.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00022", "bookId": 21531, "start": 2362, "end": 2459, "sha256": "ac3da4c21852da156d80746a8f092856aa6856f6b8e606da9cc396f01c59fcb5", "text": "EVANS BROTHERS, LIMITED, MONTAGUE HOUSE, RUSSELL SQUARE, LONDON, W.C.1.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00023", "bookId": 21531, "start": 2469, "end": 2487, "sha256": "c212f6719928531ee37da1381bab9f156c07d28440ce70b00ef66473e9618321", "text": "EDITORIAL FOREWORD", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00024", "bookId": 21531, "start": 2493, "end": 3027, "sha256": "f8295acfdb1b03a2e4e31d45e845543bfa03448cd614fd755eb68532f3a62a05", "text": "To be successful in woodwork construction the possession of two secrets is essential--to know the right joint to use, and to know how to make that joint in the right way. The woodwork structure or the piece of cabinet-work that endures is the one on which skilful hands have combined to carry out what the constructive mind planned. And it is just here that the present Volume will help, not alone the beginner who wishes preliminary instruction, but also the expert who desires guidance over ground hitherto unexplored by him.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00025", "bookId": 21531, "start": 3031, "end": 3620, "sha256": "44bf908c598af9c4dd8170274264953f23dec93f7a5145891fe81b65b189cc99", "text": "In the preparation of this new edition the Publishers have secured the services of Mr. William Fairham, by whom the chapters have been carefully revised and re-illustrated. Although intended for the practical man, and not professing to be a graded course of \"educational woodwork,\" the Volume is one which Handicraft Instructors will find of the greatest value in conducting woodwork classes. No book hitherto published contains such a variety of illustrations of joints, almost all of which will form suitable exercises of practical educational importance in a woodworking course.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00026", "bookId": 21531, "start": 3639, "end": 3650, "sha256": "03ca4b475bd2d7e7b8176c6a31bd60b78229a9f4f8b6f812cb45309ea98a9667", "text": "J. C. S. B.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00027", "bookId": 21531, "start": 3660, "end": 3822, "sha256": "8e086cc705e3121d37dc70be6ce8514d54333c130f4cec7e9e89baf93b5f78dd", "text": "[Illustration: Old Oak Chests, showing the Method of Structure which forms the origin of most of our English Furniture. (From _The Woodworker_, January, 1927.)]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00028", "bookId": 21531, "start": 3832, "end": 3840, "sha256": "eabe6aca2f0dcdbddb32c8f06e6edfa1b78618efaf57d677950d443b91d99175", "text": "CONTENTS", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00029", "bookId": 21531, "start": 3888, "end": 3892, "sha256": "c62ae84fb20004173d3831696a1cd12030c795b06916f30e5ba192c932402571", "text": "PAGE", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00030", "bookId": 21531, "start": 3896, "end": 3941, "sha256": "9eae6488d1173bfc6b3ac027be225c7d50135adad41fa7164acb48dd7ec90705", "text": "THE GLUED JOINT 1", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00031", "bookId": 21531, "start": 3945, "end": 3990, "sha256": "2ff06960413168ec88cc1cb08f52a1acb20d39999e0e92e9d07c39c35b7ab4dc", "text": "THE HALVED JOINT 13", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00032", "bookId": 21531, "start": 3994, "end": 4039, "sha256": "0f00c31ed6b7a54d15f2e6300c90bdd862a97c5d094d2becc418e6f8fb722d63", "text": "THE BRIDLE JOINT 35", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00033", "bookId": 21531, "start": 4043, "end": 4088, "sha256": "fc894df4c1851d6574b8f20cf89eb13feabf27019be62ef6df61d7eae3edced3", "text": "THE TONGUED AND GROOVED JOINT 48", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00034", "bookId": 21531, "start": 4092, "end": 4137, "sha256": "29adf4e852430c517929ee9200ad668c2f89aee83b9d9495f8cfc8cc403678ef", "text": "THE MORTISE AND TENON JOINT 64", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00035", "bookId": 21531, "start": 4141, "end": 4186, "sha256": "733978cc8d315576877189e84d510cca7a58ea698106b0dd16123c9d64de232c", "text": "THE DOWELLING JOINT 93", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00036", "bookId": 21531, "start": 4190, "end": 4235, "sha256": "48798393fba867593ad0fb6482efb834a550f1968de6c951aae229691400dcea", "text": "THE SCARF JOINT 103", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00037", "bookId": 21531, "start": 4239, "end": 4284, "sha256": "3b5041d39c5bf05954e995d2e94d39516454f939a09be8977c63bd1cc7b80404", "text": "THE HINGED JOINT 109", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00038", "bookId": 21531, "start": 4288, "end": 4333, "sha256": "0b2a486c8bf3d30f159fec38eb571657c2631f630dc976d8f0a64df97e72f090", "text": "SHUTTING JOINTS 127", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00039", "bookId": 21531, "start": 4337, "end": 4382, "sha256": "e01e4e0d1070c30f56c6fcaaf83b213d3aef90d988d4bfc7a68c1ceb4512657d", "text": "THE DOVETAIL JOINT 132", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00040", "bookId": 21531, "start": 4386, "end": 4431, "sha256": "dd9a32092b6dcaad936a2d0e4a2acb17365dc9061d2792d5ec750159939c6168", "text": "DOVETAIL GROOVING 160", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00041", "bookId": 21531, "start": 4435, "end": 4480, "sha256": "731f5316566c7f4b66c2402f4be1cb52439cd1fcfa39cb64675c7479a14bb3f4", "text": "THE MITRED JOINT 163", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00042", "bookId": 21531, "start": 4484, "end": 4529, "sha256": "cb152af7d0b0a8e74ba3482daa97bcef5510cfa6deaf2b43c1ce1f2872526840", "text": "JOINTS FOR CURVED WORK 172", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00043", "bookId": 21531, "start": 4533, "end": 4578, "sha256": "b75b43d043a8f9187499b760d051fd1e45f1eab9798e50fcb4a56be789e4854e", "text": "MISCELLANEOUS JOINTS 176", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00044", "bookId": 21531, "start": 4582, "end": 4627, "sha256": "2db1c962277d2c6cee175dcbab01bf16be21b7428f87771f3208aafccaaebfd9", "text": "PUZZLE JOINTS 189", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00045", "bookId": 21531, "start": 4631, "end": 4676, "sha256": "9ecb4535f5f947eab79176010631bc98a025b1a209f512f117051dd5c8b976a5", "text": "INDEX 209", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00046", "bookId": 21531, "start": 4686, "end": 4797, "sha256": "42aa2b51531725e2178036b48877969e883eb7de1f99de180318b7a605e1fce9", "text": "[Illustration: Staircase of the Second Half of Seventeenth Century. (From _The Woodworker_, September, 1929.)]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00047", "bookId": 21531, "start": 4807, "end": 4822, "sha256": "91f319e43c66dd52d62799aada924395c19f015aaed28266ae03daf737c25f22", "text": "THE GLUED JOINT", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00048", "bookId": 21531, "start": 4828, "end": 5175, "sha256": "b20f1af002454c5f4964ec0d801f9dff0a2fe8f8204b31d432be6b0eba4c0d62", "text": "The glued joint in its various forms is in use in every country in the world, and is frequently met with in mummy cases and other examples of ancient woodwork. Alternative names under which it is known are the butt joint, the rubbed joint, the slipped joint, whilst in certain localities it is known as the slaped (pronounced _slayped_) joint.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00049", "bookId": 21531, "start": 5179, "end": 5243, "sha256": "5506172c5a6845345c03c46d4cb074d184f6104b5c491c7e4525401b49b3537d", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 1.--Simplest Form of Glued or Rubbed Joint.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00050", "bookId": 21531, "start": 5247, "end": 6131, "sha256": "ffe481fbe2dc181afe5085dc0ed26e91ceda0aab6ee9801650f52838593def9c", "text": "The glued joint is made by planing two pieces of timber so that when placed together they are in contact with each other at every point; they are then usually united with glue. Fig. 1 shows a sketch of a butt joint in its simplest form. In Fig. 2 is indicated the method of holding the joint whilst being glued; the upright portion is held rigid in the bench vice, thus leaving the left hand to hold the piece which is to be jointed, whilst the right hand operates the glue brush. The pieces of wood which form a butt joint may be glued together with or without the aid of cramps or artificial pressure. If the joint is to be made without cramping, the two surfaces of the timber are warmed so as not to chill the glue. The surfaces are then glued and put together and rubbed backwards and forwards so as to get rid of the superfluous glue. They are then put aside to dry.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00051", "bookId": 21531, "start": 6135, "end": 6600, "sha256": "53db1ee9b429be6ab76d1b5b6ccbd0771df69b8947fda8508cd256511f98fce8", "text": "GLUEING.--The better the glue penetrates into the pores of the wood, the stronger the joint will be; for this reason timber of the loose-fibred variety, such as pine, etc., will hold up at the joint better than hardwoods like teak and rosewood. The glue used for jointing should be neither too thick nor too thin; the consistency of cream will be found suitable for most purposes. It should be nice and hot, and be rapidly spread over the surface of the wood.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00052", "bookId": 21531, "start": 6604, "end": 6665, "sha256": "4333d387f0c79b082b38515997f19f11cedb75ff5ee98acef6966a44429622dd", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 2.--How the Wood is held whilst Glueing.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00053", "bookId": 21531, "start": 6669, "end": 6896, "sha256": "73a8c349e8c8d25b3906c60c85bc4ed4971389900e8d077a3ab41458d6bf534a", "text": "If light-coloured woods, such as pine, satinwood, sycamore, etc., have to be jointed, a little flake white should be procured and mixed into the liquid glue. This will prevent the glue showing a thin black line on the joint.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00054", "bookId": 21531, "start": 6900, "end": 7051, "sha256": "c7b7ee1ea2207865ff661318c7d9b961e5690189bb485fc0f16a2b2942010aab", "text": "Broad surfaces of close-grained hardwood having a shiny surface are usually carefully roughened with a fine toothing plane blade previous to glueing.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00055", "bookId": 21531, "start": 7055, "end": 7524, "sha256": "9233b85d2b902d00cdb666e3729ea8babed8eac797a076b840c805c16e23c4d3", "text": "SUPPORTING THE JOINT.--The jointed boards should not be reared up against a \"bench leg\" or wall without having any support in the centre, as dotted line at Fig. 5, because in all probability they will fracture before the glue has time to set; and, when we go to take them up to renew working operations, we shall be annoyed to find that they have assumed a position similar to that at Fig. 5 (shown exaggerated), and this will, of course, necessitate re-jointing.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00056", "bookId": 21531, "start": 7528, "end": 7570, "sha256": "066d23078b88bae92888827bd4ff2480de6f1fa7da65245058f582b68cd3df69", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 3.--Correct Jointing.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00057", "bookId": 21531, "start": 7574, "end": 7615, "sha256": "d4bd8f8b4b5433ca3e4c83440ffee4675d0606a5960e4f0ae6a1cbb8f9602a9b", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 4.--Faulty Jointing.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00058", "bookId": 21531, "start": 7619, "end": 7663, "sha256": "37b59df1e705dcc45c3368764f8beab96b2a5a161b1f2f79e5864fb77fc0531f", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 5.--Boards unsupported.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00059", "bookId": 21531, "start": 7667, "end": 7709, "sha256": "da566e4c7450314ea3eaf4345fb131752735fb14c51f85e47cbdda5d9a3b9590", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 6.--Boards supported.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00060", "bookId": 21531, "start": 7713, "end": 7773, "sha256": "32584d3741ef1b810e044fc506e8c955a90aad7270d0da428f487d2f7a9fada4", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 7.--(A) Glued Slip, (B) Glued Moulding.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00061", "bookId": 21531, "start": 7777, "end": 7820, "sha256": "00583e48b90cbee38f8569d1509687562f6181b8d7901d102ab7549900142124", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 8.--Grain alternating.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00062", "bookId": 21531, "start": 7824, "end": 8414, "sha256": "ebeae7e6b49e935bb286c6b4c1c10bcae9172adec60dfb3eee07aaaa569313d6", "text": "A correct method to adopt is seen at Fig. 6. Here we have supported the joint by rearing up against the wall a couple of pieces of batten, one at each end of the board, thus supporting it throughout its entire width until the glue is thoroughly set. The two or more pieces of timber in a butt joint adhere by crystallisation of the glue and atmospheric pressure. A well-fitted joint made with good quality glue is so strong that, when boards of 3 feet and upwards are jointed together by this method, the timber in most cases will break with the grain sooner than part at the joint.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00063", "bookId": 21531, "start": 8418, "end": 9082, "sha256": "c90426492844a8eca2f73b10ad46f668d5382405dd680dd7adeead0e82f99918", "text": "Butt joints may be cramped up, if desired, and it is customary to warm them as previously stated. In the absence of the usual iron cramp, the amateur may make an excellent wooden arrangement out of any odd pieces of timber that happen to be handy. Two blocks of hardwood are screwed on the base board at a suitable distance for the work in hand; the boards to be jointed are glued and placed in position between the blocks; and the two hardwood wedges are inserted and hammered in opposite directions to each other, thus exerting the desired pressure. An example of this method of cramping is shown in Fig. 25, which also indicates the use of iron \"dogs.\"", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00064", "bookId": 21531, "start": 9086, "end": 9753, "sha256": "0793c54b104fb2646a81ffe97d8ad825b55c2e90e01110d749cd85f4c72c39d6", "text": "When jointing, care should be taken to first plane up the boards true on one side--_i.e._, take them out of winding. The method of testing for this is shown at Fig. 9, and it may with advantage be used when jointing the edges of the boards. Two laths or strips of wood are planed up to exactly the same width, having their edges straight and parallel. One edge of each lath may, if desired, be bevelled a little. The method of using these \"twist sticks\" or \"winding laths\" is to put them on the board as indicated, and sight along their top edges. The winding laths, being much longer than the width of the board, show up the irregularity greatly pronounced.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00065", "bookId": 21531, "start": 9757, "end": 9815, "sha256": "6544c19935f83f99d6ad3b4a9f7947faf6544d62918c36e74d242ff726bccadc", "text": "THE TOOLS generally used for making the butt joints are:--", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00066", "bookId": 21531, "start": 9819, "end": 9863, "sha256": "8ab3e00de35e429b22a0bc402e261d599b9d747ebbd09c0ed0186f287a262b38", "text": "The jack plane, for roughing the edges, etc.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00067", "bookId": 21531, "start": 9867, "end": 9940, "sha256": "154dbeb013e406ed86853bce19882c120a0e37992f92c94e6fd9562f78ed45c5", "text": "The wooden trying plane (or iron jointing plane) for trueing up the work.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00068", "bookId": 21531, "start": 9944, "end": 9980, "sha256": "f95e53059aba6d707885d4c8230f3c40540f085a7f08e1606594c208cba3e243", "text": "The try square for testing purposes.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00069", "bookId": 21531, "start": 9984, "end": 10020, "sha256": "496d55ddd2dda359e1c7954af7819dd58b40cc4e0024d3478771501162b0fa95", "text": "The winding laths and straight edge.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00070", "bookId": 21531, "start": 10024, "end": 10224, "sha256": "df163d274ce1588de87b30dfdd9ab447d8a2497768e63a1fae12debed6a81790", "text": "THE METHOD OF WORK is as follows: Each board is in turn put in the vice and planed straight lengthwise; it is then tested with winding laths and a try square (the latter method is shown at Fig. 22).", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00071", "bookId": 21531, "start": 10228, "end": 10288, "sha256": "2cb318552cd83074a06cd4aa327fa3461db0005f722ee687198aa5ffa5e0e090", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 9.--Testing Surface with Winding Laths.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00072", "bookId": 21531, "start": 10292, "end": 11155, "sha256": "af3da9698d8eb6468e79fee23266c82d1c927237a0ba6d5230852f2059412318", "text": "The boards are then put on the top of one another as at Fig. 1 and tested with a straight edge; they should appear true as shown at Fig. 3; if they show faulty as at Fig. 4 the joints must be again fitted until the required degree of accuracy is obtained. Difficulties may be avoided by care in selecting timber suitable for jointing, and it must be remembered that timber shrinks circumferentially (the heart side becoming curved) as dotted lines in Fig. 10. If the timber be jointed with all the heart side one way as at Fig. 10, the tendency will be for it to cast as shown by the dotted line. If the timber be alternated as at Fig. 11, the tendency will be to cast wavy, whereas if quartered timber can be obtained it will stand practically straight as the tendency to shrink is in thickness only. The grain of quartered timber is shown in Fig. 12.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00073", "bookId": 21531, "start": 11159, "end": 11222, "sha256": "fc066f3e7c6aae6eb2872ff7b0ea33064dd208bd8d85c6358857399d2cea49b7", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 10.--Showing Heart side of Timber one way.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00074", "bookId": 21531, "start": 11226, "end": 11290, "sha256": "e35519bedf07c160ab0a905b25a6d00eef7aef0aa067894335864d73a9613963", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 11.--Heart side of Timber shown alternated.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00075", "bookId": 21531, "start": 11294, "end": 11346, "sha256": "2d4f3e421379534eea968ace4a9b6ff2528df8e9c6bac602ce00e076951260f0", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 12.--Grain of Quartered Timber.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00076", "bookId": 21531, "start": 11350, "end": 11411, "sha256": "240c2d7cf2c74422e1baa8b2e12a6bbd602ea79b4bfafe97f02037902c7da69e", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 13.--Boards showing uniformity of Grain.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00077", "bookId": 21531, "start": 11415, "end": 12546, "sha256": "45e826525e2402546af98b43031635cac020612b2e9cd9afe4b7930e604bafb3", "text": "Judgment should also be exercised to avoid jointing in which one piece of timber is wild and large in the grain, and the adjoining piece of a mild-grained nature. Jointed boards should always be glued up with the grain running in the same direction if possible; this we show at Fig. 13, and nothing looks worse than a dressing chest end or similar piece of work in which the grain runs haphazard. When jointing thin timber (say, 1/4-in., 3/8-in., 1/2-in. and 5/8-in. boards) the best method is to use a shooting board (Fig. 26). It must be noted, however, that a shooting board and plane practically never give a true right angle, owing to wear and the grinding of the blade. Therefore, the boards _should not_ all be laid with the \"face mark\" on the shooting board whilst the edges are shot, because any inequality would be multiplied by the number of pieces jointed. A better method is to alternate the boards, face side up, then face side down, whilst shooting the edges; this will prevent convexity or concavity on the face of the jointed board, because any slight error in the angle is neutralised (see Fig. 8).", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00078", "bookId": 21531, "start": 12550, "end": 12648, "sha256": "5b629fae38f3791f59a3af77e0dd5f926368948fadcae66a95239791cbd5b357", "text": "APPLICATIONS OF THE JOINT.--The following show various applications of the butt or glued joint:--", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00079", "bookId": 21531, "start": 12652, "end": 12707, "sha256": "38248b4df9d180c049eae8504a896bf443c010fc914a2394e8642b781e3e386c", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 14.--Carcase Wing-pieces Glued on.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00080", "bookId": 21531, "start": 12711, "end": 12906, "sha256": "6821b23959e6155a04c7aaa2ab0ce582ecf6af8e1d5f54117cc48073785a8778", "text": "Fig. 7A shows a mahogany or other hardwood slip glued on the edge of a cheaper wood, such as pine or whitewood, as is the case on bookcase shelves when only the front edge is seen and polished.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00081", "bookId": 21531, "start": 12910, "end": 13313, "sha256": "9f26421aaf73538144362b1830c82301d21669029f3c48430dd721de9b36e981", "text": "Fig. 7B shows a moulding glued on a shelf, both mould and shelf in this instance being of polished hardwood. A shelf of this type might be used in a recess, the object of the overhanging moulding being to hide a small 3/8-in. iron rod which would carry the curtain rings and heading of the curtain which covers the recess. The shelf would be fixed about 3 ft. 9 ins. to 4 ft. 3 ins. from the floor.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00082", "bookId": 21531, "start": 13317, "end": 13481, "sha256": "d5324ede63c68dddf10f21e7e529c19c903d0d50c3210ac2ee488c92e159d7b7", "text": "Fig. 14 shows the wing pieces glued on the top bearer of carcase work. The application of this bearer in its position will be shown in the chapter on Dovetailing.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00083", "bookId": 21531, "start": 13485, "end": 13596, "sha256": "36d9052cfc00c5bb57d768a89f0b018ee394b18c36ee2d27b575edc63b42eb1a", "text": "Fig. 15 shows a butt joint planed at an angle of 45 degrees (commonly called a mitre), used for box feet, etc.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00084", "bookId": 21531, "start": 13600, "end": 13831, "sha256": "31f2adcef03c59b00311bb102eb46229d75d05acb123587ee7b9b3b77a1b12ad", "text": "Fig. 16 shows jointing up of an ogee-shaped panel. The dotted lines indicate the thickness of the timber previous to its being worked up to the finished shape. Bow-fronted and semicircular panels are jointed in a similar manner.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00085", "bookId": 21531, "start": 13835, "end": 13888, "sha256": "17b535ac922e0021317ee9748c684b3de5b760978a8c8d25cb0240147217cbf9", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 15.--Butting Mitred Angle Joint.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00086", "bookId": 21531, "start": 13892, "end": 13945, "sha256": "6fc6b242ef9986a19d5187e3711ae210ddde89c6e75c006e44fc69f770eb4e2b", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 16.--Jointing Ogee-shaped Panel.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00087", "bookId": 21531, "start": 13949, "end": 14047, "sha256": "acb29c8135a6b4ba7cd61f030f94b4b1f93de21b51741a279956767d589e5c0d", "text": "Fig. 17 shows timber jointed at right angles to the upright piece, and at an angle of 30 degrees.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00088", "bookId": 21531, "start": 14051, "end": 14166, "sha256": "7752a53e813eec6e9a5e239ecb73932b5cdf94bf57b59c4a784b4b00a578a3d9", "text": "Fig. 18 indicates quarter-circle jointing, as used in round-cornered chests of drawers, wardrobes, cupboards, etc.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00089", "bookId": 21531, "start": 14170, "end": 14238, "sha256": "cbe623093d276419a846208cab2a7da0aead6dd7523b4c36fdd0e8588bc1f174", "text": "Fig. 19 is similar to Fig. 18, but with hollow (or concave) corners.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00090", "bookId": 21531, "start": 14242, "end": 14313, "sha256": "65b0c8889f1cf832c104e375938dae1281b0deee885abd7dffcc0a5ae0e3ce28", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 17.--Jointed Timber at 30 deg. and 90 deg. angles.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00091", "bookId": 21531, "start": 14317, "end": 14365, "sha256": "506ff55b936bd9829df1053e33c123be061e4f07bdaf1d0ba99d9979ea9271ee", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 18 (above).--Convex Corner.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00092", "bookId": 21531, "start": 14369, "end": 14418, "sha256": "6abec6ab6aa877995a5dd31e8e7e6d304f6eea758879b95903357c49569adab8", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 19 (below).--Concave Corner.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00093", "bookId": 21531, "start": 14422, "end": 14475, "sha256": "17b91295b8c94b8cc0cba64d6d75564ce3ad3eba7f8831455c8f708aa91b17c9", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 20.--Jointing a shaped Spandrel.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00094", "bookId": 21531, "start": 14479, "end": 14537, "sha256": "c26a8b361ee22d51d848c20f4b733c3c9ea6f53370057d38867b838b1cb951ff", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 21.--Building up Case of Piano Front.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00095", "bookId": 21531, "start": 14541, "end": 14606, "sha256": "dfe19c44914a115d38cf929c87dbca04bebb09a5d44d621ea3f25bdc04815e6d", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 22.--Use of the Try-square for Testing Edge.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00096", "bookId": 21531, "start": 14610, "end": 14671, "sha256": "238a51067dc1273e92aa73ab7c0a747868ab28ff2b1c1a22da8451041c5665e5", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 23.--Example of Circular Laminated work.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00097", "bookId": 21531, "start": 14675, "end": 14731, "sha256": "b02727381d9142ee873dd8bd70cba0494b7d7bd1991eb422f03b7985cc1c83c9", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 24.--Glueing Ploughslips to Drawer.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00098", "bookId": 21531, "start": 14735, "end": 14807, "sha256": "d444fb2d136c472a60629dd70a2568fd44d71bf6b14b3e67ce3fed04a7ccaac6", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 25.--Method of holding Glued Joints with Iron Dogs.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00099", "bookId": 21531, "start": 14811, "end": 14868, "sha256": "7ef1e5e401ce8fa761b22a8ff6d39c3ceb92db2a5438b90e8437f6afa6c2db68", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 26.--Method of using Shooting Board.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00100", "bookId": 21531, "start": 14872, "end": 15102, "sha256": "50b3ec4e18a96c9ef29da5ae01cb0c9c80cf89c924de12e54bc3b06b0668366e", "text": "Fig. 20 gives us the jointing up of a shaped spandrel to the required width. In a case of this description suitably grained and coloured wood should be selected, otherwise the bad match will at once draw attention to the joint.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00101", "bookId": 21531, "start": 15106, "end": 15247, "sha256": "1f136819f13440a563cf0527521e5b7aeb29e486d6553068664c7bfdbe64ee54", "text": "Fig. 21 shows the application of butt or glued jointing to the building up of the core of a piano fall previous to shaping up and veneering.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00102", "bookId": 21531, "start": 15251, "end": 15426, "sha256": "fba97a76073cf06eeab66ae3cd2c8185bb806155ac756577c6040c7728fdca4d", "text": "Fig. 23.--Laminated work--the building up of circular rims for cabinet and joinery work. Plan and elevation show rim pattern of a pulley as used in the pattern-making trade.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00103", "bookId": 21531, "start": 15430, "end": 15565, "sha256": "f42fcbb17ef507b1ce8c42aadfcff7420cfed22ec3f1937d0871d3aeed521c75", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 27.--Cramping Glued Joints: Handscrews and Batten shown at left; temporary Batten at right to keep the wood flat.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00104", "bookId": 21531, "start": 15569, "end": 15692, "sha256": "6f5e7bda6cc6ba6734a21be90356b2e0612e12fac08e13038ff4b45af697806e", "text": "Fig. 24.--The glueing of a ploughslip to a drawer side is seen here, the ploughslip being used to carry the drawer bottom.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00105", "bookId": 21531, "start": 15696, "end": 15872, "sha256": "d1d0bbb0e81469b06a27ceaf41999340f01d56b4980f407ac2c9814dca07ee65", "text": "Fig. 26 shows the method of jointing with shooting board and trying plane; the right hand operates the plane whilst the left hand holds the wood firm upon the shooting board.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00106", "bookId": 21531, "start": 15876, "end": 16052, "sha256": "a5e87621f4c3835fd753fe5b9627447e6f70051f6e7df1da480ccc00db38d123", "text": "Owing to the importation of narrow and faulty timber the necessity of jointing is greater to-day than ever it was, wide timber of course meaning higher cost for raw material.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00107", "bookId": 21531, "start": 16056, "end": 16395, "sha256": "395021770896a5895db15e5ba141dc1ac2203f6d521dac01f2819c15887c6ba7", "text": "The method of using iron dogs is illustrated in Fig. 25, and it will be observed that owing to the wedge-like formation of each fang (see enlarged sketch) the dog exerts the necessary pressure to close the joint. At the centre of this illustration is suggested the home-made hardwood blocks, baseboard and wedges referred to on page 4.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00108", "bookId": 21531, "start": 16399, "end": 17024, "sha256": "6b7dd7740dc13d76d5d8f8927222d8a7fefa6cd9dee33d29a6546c1ddff844c7", "text": "Fig. 27 shows how the iron sash cramps are used to apply pressure to the joint. As this method is in some cases apt to bend and distort thin boards it is wise practice to fix (as a temporary measure) a stout piece of straight wood on to the board to be joined by using two handscrews as shown at the left hand of the illustration. At the right hand of the sketch a wooden cramping arrangement of the box type is given, and by wedging up the boards are closed together. It is obvious that if this type of box cramp be used it will prevent the boards buckling and the handscrew method at the left may be dispensed with.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00109", "bookId": 21531, "start": 17034, "end": 17050, "sha256": "acff39ef6d115ad830a3f4fd8e87263cf1c5c330d2f670201def05f0f09a4c2c", "text": "THE HALVED JOINT", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00110", "bookId": 21531, "start": 17056, "end": 17647, "sha256": "9597c7073b3d8fbc7a8fc7f59baf28375b8ccafa0d8cf683b69593c492978c40", "text": "The halved joint is frequently known as half-lapping, and sometimes as checking and half-checking. In the majority of cases it is made by halving the two pieces, _i.e._, by cutting half the depth of the wood away. There are, however, exceptions to this rule, as in the case of \"three-piece halving\" (or, as it is sometimes called, \"third lapping\") and in the halving of timber with rebated or moulded edges. Halving is one of the simplest methods of connecting two pieces of timber, especially where it is desired to make frames and bracket supports for either inside or outside use.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00111", "bookId": 21531, "start": 17651, "end": 17789, "sha256": "ac392e7277a293a2297d9a16946ecdeec59eb967b1655e020edde3132a9ac8a6", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 28.--Frame, with various halved joints. These joints, numbered 1, 2, 3, etc., are shown in detail in Figs. 29 to 38.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00112", "bookId": 21531, "start": 17793, "end": 18161, "sha256": "97565764d7eae908c46c5fa90718dd0d7d92188b94c5f447afac6d4f6b4dc557", "text": "Fig. 28 shows the elevation of an imaginary frame which is indicated as made up of a number of halving joints; it shows also the application of the various joints to this class of work. Each joint used in the construction of this frame may be dealt with separately. The numbers marked on Fig. 28 refer to the individual joints, shown separately in Figs. 29 to 38.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00113", "bookId": 21531, "start": 18165, "end": 18211, "sha256": "055614fe826b915b4a92164828d395b229b01102c3bfa6fdec3d20710046ff62", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 29.--Halved Corner Joint.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00114", "bookId": 21531, "start": 18215, "end": 18256, "sha256": "d4648315887144088590b4b998a8bf10d0b97276b7f1f96780f350231a8f528f", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 30.--Halved T Joint.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00115", "bookId": 21531, "start": 18260, "end": 19022, "sha256": "c743149592ab3a187f84991dc70dcc8c17efaeef99ab24181e7e6289d92c6eb8", "text": "Fig. 29 shows the \"Halved Joint\" at the corner of the frame where the two pieces form a right angle (see Fig. 28, 1). Each piece is halved and shouldered at opposite sides, thus forming a perfect fit one with the other and giving a strong joint with a minimum amount of labour. For inside work the joint would be glued and screwed together, the screw heads being countersunk so as not to come in contact with the cutting iron of the plane when levelling off the work. For outside work, in exposed positions where the work will have to withstand the weather, the alternative method of smearing the joint with paint or with a mixture of varnish and white lead would be advisable, the joint being nailed or screwed. Fig. 29 shows the two pieces separated.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00116", "bookId": 21531, "start": 19026, "end": 19363, "sha256": "05fb504691948dae64464c99d5fb119d8081ff6b5cdc922b2eb93d29dcfd5b85", "text": "Fig. 30 shows a similar joint to the above, but in this case the top rail runs through and it is generally spoken of as a \"Halved T Joint\" (Fig. 28, 2). It may be used in nearly all cases where a top or bottom rail runs through an upright. The method of securing the joint is as before. Fig. 30 shows a sketch of the joint separated.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00117", "bookId": 21531, "start": 19367, "end": 19423, "sha256": "e322b4ad99b1e31f05ab3026242aba51ac8632dbf1dff010a5d49561ff9b4c7a", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 31.--Oblique Halving with Shoulder.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00118", "bookId": 21531, "start": 19427, "end": 19469, "sha256": "6e12cb76672846f5e69e93366cc5fc24536ba282ebc558f5d704aa8df710f938", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 32.--Oblique Halving.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00119", "bookId": 21531, "start": 19473, "end": 19878, "sha256": "d60fa577aed8957ce383a3ca26ae41dce8927052db67ab43e3f783de105d3e9b", "text": "At Fig. 31 is shown an \"Oblique Halving Joint,\" where the oblique piece, or strut, does not run through (Fig. 28, 3). This type of joint is used for strengthening framings and shelf brackets; an example of the latter is shown at Fig. 48. A strut or rail of this type prevents movement or distortion to a frame diagonally (generally spoken of in the trade as \"racking\"). Fig. 31 shows the joint apart.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00120", "bookId": 21531, "start": 19882, "end": 20156, "sha256": "51f07e69c4b5351235804e238da9a0692514ba6f5243d457d03306e922c4da3d", "text": "Fig. 32 is an example of Oblique Halving with the upper piece running through (Fig. 28, 4). This joint is used in similar positions to Fig. 31, and has in some cases the disadvantage of showing end grain at the top of the frame. The sketch shows the two pieces separated.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00121", "bookId": 21531, "start": 20160, "end": 20446, "sha256": "566ba0990e6f2f6db0b36f067279bdcbe4f865203e3f6d48ac084bfbd50e488d", "text": "Fig. 33 is \"Dovetail Halving,\" the dovetail running through the top piece (Fig. 28, 5). This is a strong joint, used where outside strain is likely to occur in the top piece, the dovetail preventing the rail from being drawn away from the shoulder. The two pieces are shown separate.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00122", "bookId": 21531, "start": 20450, "end": 20493, "sha256": "72f1ebc39c014d94720d08d29e60e4adacb4db9f2af68d109a7d7dfe3b0ab387", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 33.--Dovetail Halving.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00123", "bookId": 21531, "start": 20497, "end": 20537, "sha256": "288b83628d42318176c6aef8c87139c8490bed59b16fcc7e9c3d4e35a2b858f5", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 34.--Mitre Halving.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00124", "bookId": 21531, "start": 20541, "end": 20899, "sha256": "8af5dfbd78fc87873e31780e9386726ee4f19a7984c70d7a4a323f60758ca529", "text": "At Fig. 34 is seen \"Mitred Halving,\" a somewhat weak joint, but necessary in mirror frames, etc., where good appearance is required on the face side (Fig. 28, 6). Its use is obvious if the face of the frame be moulded with beads or other sections which require to intersect one with the other. This also applies if the frame be moulded on its face edges.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00125", "bookId": 21531, "start": 20903, "end": 21134, "sha256": "f3600095a1e010c48e85ca70e713bd58df41e4798c7f5dc9a6b058f00f55c0f5", "text": "Fig. 35 is a halved joint with one side of the piece dovetailed (Fig. 28, 8). This joint is used in similar positions to Fig. 33, and rather less labour is required in the making. The two pieces are shown separate for clearness.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00126", "bookId": 21531, "start": 21138, "end": 21366, "sha256": "06dc305a99889917bcc7957ab2566d255081259dabc417fee80ac11b53a372b4", "text": "Fig. 36 indicates the \"Halved Joint,\" the pieces at one end showing a double dovetail (Fig. 28, 7). This particular joint is seldom used except for Manual Training purposes. The illustration shows a sketch of the joint apart.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00127", "bookId": 21531, "start": 21370, "end": 21633, "sha256": "49ba241fb901162d05b41db151adfec4226a80fd5dd6894a37282d2427aa520f", "text": "Fig. 37 is \"Oblique Dovetail Halving,\" one side of the piece being dovetailed. The joint is used to prevent \"racking,\" and as a cross brace to framing. It is occasionally made with both its sides dovetailed as shown at Fig. 33. (For reference, see Fig. 28, 9.)", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00128", "bookId": 21531, "start": 21637, "end": 21701, "sha256": "5765668cbbb760de0e8746960e8c4730c5726bb56697981c1e5621513a633a15", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 35.--Halved Joint with one side Dovetailed.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00129", "bookId": 21531, "start": 21705, "end": 21765, "sha256": "53c62f41fab36e1ffb25dfe5b8e91962941c83f3343ad97ba9277ddddf11c620", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 36.--Halved Joint with Double Dovetail.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00130", "bookId": 21531, "start": 21769, "end": 21820, "sha256": "2ade5b7c34345411fb6c1e6a488c92481cd96656c74a4c7abb23a1a215969d8c", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 37.--Oblique Dovetail Halving.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00131", "bookId": 21531, "start": 21824, "end": 21875, "sha256": "89f80df959a21a0e15688b98191ec9e17894e25212dffeb5ac88c51384d6bb4b", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 38.--Stopped Dovetail Halving.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00132", "bookId": 21531, "start": 21879, "end": 22421, "sha256": "85606c5e4fb70641b9e1ac27e1e8b8f29dbff81bd1964da07e455c0e6da59d27", "text": "Fig. 38 shows \"Stopped Dovetail Halving.\" In this case the dovetail is similar to Fig. 33, with the exception that it does not run through the bottom rail. This is an advantage if the bottom edge of the rail is in evidence, or if it is required to glue a moulding or hardwood facing slip on the lower edge. The glue adheres better _with_ the grain than it would _end way_ of the grain, and if slight shrinkage occurs across the width of the bottom rail the moulding would not be forced away by the upright (see example at Fig. 28, 10).", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00133", "bookId": 21531, "start": 22425, "end": 22471, "sha256": "3f823fedd4cb1d7df24a051be09c7dcd8fa487d4566ebe4c48880814dd4d8da5", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 39.--Cross Halving Joint.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00134", "bookId": 21531, "start": 22475, "end": 22530, "sha256": "141f6521b888746358a4023af353890ecc79c941b77e92f84d6304df72abe9ac", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 40.--Cross Halving Joint Edgeways.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00135", "bookId": 21531, "start": 22534, "end": 22578, "sha256": "28d4dc28b6ba80624fd549769c541bc7db3118345d21aa07de3326e9d5cba77a", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 41.--Tee Halving Joint.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00136", "bookId": 21531, "start": 22582, "end": 22797, "sha256": "55d47cf543cfef8fbb0189104d323c76a6c075739181cf963b5db906806ab2c9", "text": "The joint lettered B in Fig. 28 is a \"Cross Halving Joint\" where each piece runs through the other. Fig. 39 shows this joint separated, and Fig. 40 shows a similar joint separated where the joint is made edgeways.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00137", "bookId": 21531, "start": 22801, "end": 22921, "sha256": "e17e4a216cd1da00bc723f479f79115c94164116eca18ee50fbb9e9668fecf29", "text": "Fig. 41 shows a \"Tee Halving Joint\" with a dovetail cut on the edge. This is seldom used except as a woodwork exercise.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00138", "bookId": 21531, "start": 22925, "end": 23234, "sha256": "d654c41f46cf9a61474dd4402825c63cd23a8577e645cd30f911b902d48f4273", "text": "Fig. 42 is a \"Dovetailed Halving Joint\" used for lengthening timber, and is also a favourite Manual Training model. It might also come under the heading of scarf joint, although rarely used in actual practice as such. As a practical woodwork exercise it calls for accurate marking out and careful fitting.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00139", "bookId": 21531, "start": 23238, "end": 23318, "sha256": "3e72cb3c5ac00f4436c50aeddc49dff8e773ec63416243a7a91989297362a954", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 42.--Dovetailed Halving Joint used for Lengthening Timber.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00140", "bookId": 21531, "start": 23322, "end": 23376, "sha256": "e4ad344fa86db246a48a23b9b882bedeb2cee4a823cda87d13be7c28acd49862", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 43.--Dovetailed and Halved Joint.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00141", "bookId": 21531, "start": 23380, "end": 23445, "sha256": "f70bf55dedb86a658ce7df4a6fddf379b0e0204f13b47bbcce5395cd05a11175", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 44.--Dovetailed Halved Joint with Shoulders.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00142", "bookId": 21531, "start": 23449, "end": 23634, "sha256": "dc08a2e441b64c15a9dbf6c01b8fbb68419ee3d6aef0a710192b19313236175f", "text": "Fig. 43 shows a combination of a halved joint dovetailed edgeways, whilst Fig. 44 shows a dovetailed halved joint with the shoulders housed. This latter is seldom used in actual work.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00143", "bookId": 21531, "start": 23638, "end": 23906, "sha256": "a1c8b0ae3fde685003d2ea4c333815cf63df59f7a88276cb7e0985970a879656", "text": "At Fig. 45 we have the application of halving joints when constructing a barrow wheel. The centre portion is an example of three pieces half-lapped or, as it is sometimes called, one-third lapped. A sketch of the three pieces separated is shown at L, B, C, Fig. 46.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00144", "bookId": 21531, "start": 23910, "end": 24141, "sha256": "fb15123c4d4c1934af42e5b30d3027954855f0fdf8416f6854e942101470daf1", "text": "This joint is extensively used in the pattern making trade for lap-jointing the arms of pulley patterns, etc. It is probably the most difficult of the halving joints to mark out and construct with the desired degree of accuracy.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00145", "bookId": 21531, "start": 24145, "end": 24202, "sha256": "5934ae091b27edb799c6d28082cfe05be6e2d335ffd2a4dbc827e8213f229eaa", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 45.--Halved Joints on Barrow Wheels.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00146", "bookId": 21531, "start": 24206, "end": 24267, "sha256": "7f8f072cfe6c7354a7cbb8c4503ee9b5c45e2c24c72d8786871a7f8186693946", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 46.--Detail of Halved Joints in Fig. 45.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00147", "bookId": 21531, "start": 24271, "end": 24552, "sha256": "47ac096b684a5a1fc28fcc201e9bf69dd7bfd18df4e1300141f0cfd365574efb", "text": "Fig. 47 shows a combination of a bevelled dovetail half-lapped joint. This is only used as a puzzle joint. When neatly constructed and glued together it is apparently impossible to make it, showing as it does a half lap on one side and a dovetailed half lap on the reverse side.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00148", "bookId": 21531, "start": 24556, "end": 25138, "sha256": "3e5e2d8b598d1349f12c3f590294db6037d515513615abe3cadc59b231b381cc", "text": "Fig. 48 is the end view of a kitchen table with drop leaf, showing the skirting board scribed to the solid side. A table of this type is fastened to the wall with two iron holdfasts which engage the ends of the table. The hinged bracket frame shows the application of the halving joint to bracket supports for this and similar purposes, such as brackets to support shelving, etc. In this example the hinged brackets turn underneath the table top, and allow the leaf to drop out of the way when not required. The dotted lines show the position of a shelf for boots and shoes.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00149", "bookId": 21531, "start": 25142, "end": 25197, "sha256": "7f5908fe3ce914b92c131643e841216c834bc3296d8d49d48ebec3cf29088511", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 47.--Bevelled Dovetailed Half Lap.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00150", "bookId": 21531, "start": 25201, "end": 25249, "sha256": "6469eb98ee9a7a718bc9248f782cc273ca4b400652e375536bd4bfc3a5b0015f", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 48.--Bracket of Drop Table.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00151", "bookId": 21531, "start": 25253, "end": 25328, "sha256": "239757397c2ad920e207d9b1ddf2c66b3a9d1698be719eadeb05a795cce5a12a", "text": "[Illustration: Figs. 49 and 50.--Separate pieces of Halved Moulded Joint.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00152", "bookId": 21531, "start": 25332, "end": 25386, "sha256": "07c638a8363644f4d35e09c1e703bd3c7fa1daf88db105725b3a5949053d3be4", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 51.--Oblique Cross Halving Joint.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00153", "bookId": 21531, "start": 25390, "end": 25454, "sha256": "1e260c79bedc3ebe2317a7ff10d4caa5f021eb29f6719d02a70f7d4ec8747dcd", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 52.--Manual Training Halved Exercise Joint.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00154", "bookId": 21531, "start": 25458, "end": 25508, "sha256": "e5ca0fa0ca77bb3094247bf1634fa53b028c9e012f11c1f957cbf90db466ade3", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 53.--Exercise Dovetail Joint.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00155", "bookId": 21531, "start": 25512, "end": 25558, "sha256": "9b55d55c07da03e74061245fb20d50cc29024db4491ff1371d4283e3dcbf4ccc", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 54.--Carpentry Tie Joint.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00156", "bookId": 21531, "start": 25562, "end": 25772, "sha256": "6985f49c67e411feed8040105f9737024a94afe8a01f03156eb85b0169e3d7e8", "text": "Figs. 49 and 50 indicate the halving of cross pieces which have their edges moulded; the pieces are shown separately, the moulding being omitted to give a clearer representation of the method of construction.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00157", "bookId": 21531, "start": 25776, "end": 25842, "sha256": "f604b1c21789647ffe3478c63a6412e6b175f0cb2bd0a9c72e643104cdbf29ea", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 55.--Cross Halving Joint with Housed Corners.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00158", "bookId": 21531, "start": 25846, "end": 25908, "sha256": "9dedb7654a4408d11aa2f2e9b601e91f979a06b361988bbb60c0914e2c50c43c", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 56.--The parts of Fig. 55 shown separate.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00159", "bookId": 21531, "start": 25912, "end": 26144, "sha256": "1dc45fa2850763c8097878f5849fb6dc8cb6b0218995b5c6fb0140e9084c9493", "text": "Fig. 51 is an \"Oblique Cross Halving Joint\" where the two pieces are not at right angles. A plan and elevation of the joint are shown at the left, whilst a sketch of one piece of the joint is given in the right-hand illustration.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00160", "bookId": 21531, "start": 26148, "end": 26256, "sha256": "f28e6ca61a92bb95dac0a156b2c372d514dc35a18511ebb7b9d4b28fb2118e4c", "text": "Figs. 52 and 53 are principally used as Manual Training models, and call for patience and manual dexterity.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00161", "bookId": 21531, "start": 26260, "end": 26362, "sha256": "481c110dd38bc981d533fa2601c7ad859fb1e81de238c7ee5dba382c1a916215", "text": "Fig. 54 is used in carpentry and joinery where a tie or cross piece ties joists or beams at an angle.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00162", "bookId": 21531, "start": 26366, "end": 26556, "sha256": "c72b756d9f049391361d502899816d094c4091f6c281454276975bf9351c8eaf", "text": "Fig. 55 shows the elevation and end view of a \"Cross Halving Joint\" with housed or notched shoulders. This joint is seldom used in actual practice. The separate parts are given in Fig. 56.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00163", "bookId": 21531, "start": 26560, "end": 26771, "sha256": "4ca81a797c9e26ee46a72b29bd4ccdbadfa156d9c21e90cdbee8d3eddc6b4f0f", "text": "At Fig. 57 are shown two cross rails and an upright halved together. This type of joint is used where three pieces meet, as is the case in building the framing of a poultry house. The joint is nailed together.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00164", "bookId": 21531, "start": 26775, "end": 26837, "sha256": "9bc44affd14fa1d21e38ca32f6ec450d637458ade682525f009629b5fd4ba548", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 57.--Cross Rail and Upright Halved Joint.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00165", "bookId": 21531, "start": 26841, "end": 26890, "sha256": "28dec849a4bbc8f74bcbe022d387ec3a6b793d22032c6257332298a8cc2567f7", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 58.--Workshop Trestle Joint.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00166", "bookId": 21531, "start": 26894, "end": 26948, "sha256": "7883bf3233916ba8f654ca4e391ea0c449b215898a8cf38050515a9ab8b006fc", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 59.--Cellarette Partition Joints.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00167", "bookId": 21531, "start": 26952, "end": 27189, "sha256": "6a7832e25c0d97f8b813f3e99420901a2b27ebd39996ca06e85202416128d501", "text": "Fig. 58 is the end view of an ordinary workshop trestle, showing the application of dovetailed halving where the legs have a tendency to strain outwards. The inset sketch of joint shows the housing of the top rail to receive the legs.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00168", "bookId": 21531, "start": 27193, "end": 27757, "sha256": "3b18586829840cb910183a7f8af87948ff0bdf407a121760448d5dcb469c9cce", "text": "Fig. 59 shows a deep drawer, generally known as a cellarette, and used in a sideboard to accommodate wine bottles. Here we have a good example of halving the cross pieces so as to form compartments. The part shown separately illustrates the method of construction. The ends of these pieces engage the housings or grooves of the drawer sides. Pigeon holes or compartments in stationery cases, bookcases and writing bureaux are constructed in a similar manner, although the method of housing, or combined halving and housing, is to be preferred in some cases.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00169", "bookId": 21531, "start": 27761, "end": 27833, "sha256": "72683724561a85cb47cb2233a8ec23dd8353e90932775a0f1c628430fbdd4b07", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 60.--Joint used for Table with Circular Top or Rim.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00170", "bookId": 21531, "start": 27837, "end": 28249, "sha256": "44e4e387b0573a65999f3ebe70c0ffe705859759a6c45cbf7a957a809e82c642", "text": "At Fig. 60 is the plan of a circular table having a small circular shelf with the top removed. The rims or framing are built by the method known as laminating (see Fig. 23 in chapter on the The Glued Joint), after which they are veneered on the face sides. The application of the halving joint to the shaped bottom rails, which in this case carry and support the small shelf, is shown in the part elevation.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00171", "bookId": 21531, "start": 28253, "end": 28364, "sha256": "db02bf5afb39e039a5a33045bb0ad0acbdf201cb0d1046e0e004467f6b02ae76", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 61 (A).--Oxford Frame with Halved Joints. (Four alternative corner treatments are given.)]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00172", "bookId": 21531, "start": 28368, "end": 28455, "sha256": "3d38b9bc72a99f110691390ba55b9d01748317fe5ff83c94760adf8672ad99d5", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 61 (B).--Halved Joint of Oxford Frame with front edges champered.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00173", "bookId": 21531, "start": 28459, "end": 28515, "sha256": "67b54c409e91d64fae4ab795f9ced7636649433d91869530366dfea6d78c89d6", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 61 (C).--Back view of Oxford Frame.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00174", "bookId": 21531, "start": 28519, "end": 28935, "sha256": "5976b94e323ed9d805205ef870395890306dd5e7d4b498748462fe19a3b3eaf1", "text": "Fig. 61 (A) shows the well-known \"Oxford frame,\" illustrating halved joints when the edge is rebated. Figs. 61 (B) and 61 (C) make clear the construction of this type of joint. Alternative suggestions are shown for the treatment of the corners, the simple inlay being black and white (ebony and holly or boxwood). Frames of this type are made in various widths and sizes and are used for pictures, mirrors, etc.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00175", "bookId": 21531, "start": 28939, "end": 28998, "sha256": "135b654ec19305c686e84af10289424286e030a6745c225ac0c0c3ba991fa7f6", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 62.--The Two Pieces of a Halved Joint.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00176", "bookId": 21531, "start": 29002, "end": 29223, "sha256": "f633333ec28031bbadb429c8a58c689f94f6a31b6e39af946b97dae975a22475", "text": "The tools used for making joints of the above class are: planes, the gauge, tenon or other saw, chisels, try square, and in some cases a joiner's bevel to obtain and mark the necessary angles, pencil and marking knife.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00177", "bookId": 21531, "start": 29227, "end": 29575, "sha256": "bee66627fa36d2262370416e6c495e8114368e4854af3fb6ffda70ed90725310", "text": "Plane up the face side and face edge of the timber, gauge and plane to both thickness and width; mark shoulders with pencil or marking knife; gauge to the thickness of the required halving; saw waste portions away; pare up with chisel to a good fit; glue or glue and screw, or use paint as previously mentioned, and then level off the surfaces.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00178", "bookId": 21531, "start": 29579, "end": 30243, "sha256": "2870a15810e6e877e8e53d65fa5b6275a414e8da269bd1260580b6c76798f6e6", "text": "SETTING OUT THE HALVED JOINT.--Although at first sight the halved joint may appear to be a very easy item of construction, it requires much care and attention in marking out and sawing. Fig. 62 shows the two pieces which form the joint separated, and it will be noticed that each piece of wood has half its thickness cut away, so as to accommodate the other piece. This type of joint is used where two pieces of wood cross each other at right angles, or at an angle as shown in Fig. 51. The halving joint is used also for joining two pieces of wood at their ends, as, for instance, the corner of a frame, one half of this joint being shown at Fig. 65 (B).", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00179", "bookId": 21531, "start": 30247, "end": 30298, "sha256": "b33cb7538a4096df74f8809a479b757f0735ea4df59360794d41e11bac96683e", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 63.--How the Timber is Marked.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00180", "bookId": 21531, "start": 30302, "end": 30362, "sha256": "dcdf0804f503205017f8a1af03302a29a5f11ad24fc2960ee14124304e8c37bf", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 64.--Marking the Joint with Try Square.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00181", "bookId": 21531, "start": 30366, "end": 30551, "sha256": "b9fd3f39ec2f2202564d3cef9400734b9afe932811c86d5d36fe7adce790f567", "text": "To make the joint, the timber should be carefully planed to its exact width and thickness. The two pieces may then be placed upon the bench (as shown at Fig. 63) or fixed in the vice.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00182", "bookId": 21531, "start": 30555, "end": 30887, "sha256": "0ddb09815ee46cc8abbeb88761401355841397fa8f0725a3100746563292f0cf", "text": "Find the centre of the timber, C, Fig. 63, and set out half the width of the wood on each side of the dotted centre line. Thus, suppose the wood (W) to be 2 ins. wide, then set 1 in. on each side of the centre line. Take a square as at Fig. 64, and with a sharp penknife blade score or cut a line all round each piece of timber.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00183", "bookId": 21531, "start": 30891, "end": 30941, "sha256": "e354971a290423c7c7f9608cf3bdef0975a1eae94b8110482344ce3891703ef2", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 65.--Using the Marking Gauge.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00184", "bookId": 21531, "start": 30945, "end": 31597, "sha256": "0d7b7151046de658057c096f49c7d14ac88eb21770d44c4a11ebcd1ac92a3dce", "text": "Next take up a marking gauge, and set the marking point to half the thickness of the wood. The distance may be measured, and its exactness tested, by pricking a small hole from each side of the wood with the marking gauge and carefully noting that the pricked holes coincide. The gauge mark is clearly shown in the various illustrations. Now, take a pencil and scribble or mark \"waste\" on the parts you intend to cut away. This will save trouble later on, especially if you are making several joints at once. Take your sharp penknife or marking knife blade, and cut fairly deeply into the marked line on the portion you are going to pare away.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00185", "bookId": 21531, "start": 31601, "end": 31665, "sha256": "7df4d5113319000b6cb96c73b8d371e8b6b14024d713d686986dcb0f9b809511", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 66.--Chiselling away Wood up to Gauge Line.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00186", "bookId": 21531, "start": 31669, "end": 31733, "sha256": "aa48814c590f2f466d9daffca3e82d8b3c1af0ee55a85cbf059bb41032ef4052", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 67.--How work is held when Sawing Shoulder.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00187", "bookId": 21531, "start": 31737, "end": 32479, "sha256": "c917ba7f42415c0575d826b9ecd665c9b6029008b9dc918db97fdd1b473a5a2b", "text": "Fix the wood firmly in your vice, or against your cutting board or bench stop, as may be more convenient to you, and with a sharp chisel cut away the wood up to the marked line, as at Fig. 66. The channel in the sketch is exaggerated, so as to show the method clearly. The object of using a penknife or marking knife to mark your work, instead of using a pencil, will be obvious. Owing to the knife having scored about 1/16 in. deep across the fibres of the wood, the timber will come away cleanly when the chisel is used, as at Fig. 66. The small channel thus made will form a guide in which to start your tenon or dovetail saw; it prevents the saw cutting on the wrong side of the marked line and thus making the halving too wide.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00188", "bookId": 21531, "start": 32483, "end": 32539, "sha256": "79b2cb6a3a9f459857b0e488da283dea8b73f00bd1e328b471c6cef2b1ea6981", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 68.--Paring away Waste with Chisel.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00189", "bookId": 21531, "start": 32543, "end": 32601, "sha256": "3cf7b61c57165faab7685c0ffdbbb27d18b742aa1fa1a8d3c66b1eeafbe9053c", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 69.--Showing an Oblique Halved Joint.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00190", "bookId": 21531, "start": 32605, "end": 33356, "sha256": "a6342f84cac449f6043fcc1cb82670a4b3f8a764fc0c0e20bb28804cad9848d9", "text": "SAWING.--Lay the work on the cutting board as at Fig. 67; or, if you prefer, put the work in the vice. Carefully saw down the work until you _just touch_ the gauge line. Do not press heavily with the saw; use it lightly; the weight of the back iron which is fixed on the saw will ensure the saw feeding into the work quite fast enough. If the saw is newly sharpened it will, in fact, be an advantage to slightly ease the weight of the saw from off the wood, owing to the keenness of its edge. If the halving is a very wide one, additional cuts may be sawn between the outside marks, and these will greatly facilitate the removal of the waste wood when paring it away. For sawing the joint reference may be made to the chapter on Dovetailing.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00191", "bookId": 21531, "start": 33360, "end": 33422, "sha256": "574502fd35ef018907e83b64407d4c52088cb6fb38520d56a9e43fb94c32d6fb", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 70.--Sawing the Cheek of a Halving Joint.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00192", "bookId": 21531, "start": 33426, "end": 33793, "sha256": "8d50b99a6e353af7273cf1e0387eeea7b69d8d2846927867f6c9abfd2721e759", "text": "PARING away the waste material with a chisel is the next step, and this is shown at Fig. 68. The work may be chiselled either in a vertical or a horizontal position. The horizontal position is the easiest for the amateur who has a vice or handscrew, because he may hold the work securely with a mechanical device and so avoid the unnecessary risk to his fingers.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00193", "bookId": 21531, "start": 33797, "end": 34307, "sha256": "4166ccc278d0262abb2953bf1e7491659515fb18638aefbeef1d24ba5d9781a6", "text": "Take the chisel and cut away A, Fig. 68; now turn the chisel and cut away B; after which keep the chisel horizontal and cut off \"the top of the hill,\" as it were, C. Repeat the three operations until you gradually pare the wood away exactly to the gauge line. When chiselling, if you find a tendency for the work to chip or crumble at the back edge owing to the forward pressure of the chisel, turn your wood round and begin to cut from the other edge, allowing the chisel to finish paring at the centre.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00194", "bookId": 21531, "start": 34311, "end": 34771, "sha256": "fb5a00588a09e3c37d2bd24b7edec1b6cf5c70eb96d8f3622693f12e76f90d52", "text": "JOINTS OTHER THAN A RIGHT ANGLE.--If the halving joint is at an angle similar to the sketch shown at Fig. 69, great care will have to be exercised in the use of the chisel, owing to the change in the direction of the grain of the wood. The arrow marks in this sketch distinctly indicate the direction in which the chiselling must be done so as to give a smooth result. This change of direction for cutting also applies to the bottom of the halving joint.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00195", "bookId": 21531, "start": 34775, "end": 34989, "sha256": "26dcae708d72df3d15f66b3fc9907a8384b0c5e2910ec69b0488ff81c9f7e88b", "text": "CUTTING JOINT AT END OF TIMBER (Fig. 70).--Should the halving joint be used at the end of a piece of wood, as at Fig. 30, the waste material may be roughly sawn away and the flat surface trimmed up with a chisel.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00196", "bookId": 21531, "start": 34993, "end": 35665, "sha256": "ceaa8586870044f53e991f4f43ed4d9bfd17586d33ef79a55a9b74d56bceac1f", "text": "To saw out this type of halving joint, proceed to work the shoulder line as already described; then place the piece of wood obliquely in the vice as shown (Fig. 70) and proceed to saw down the vertical line, carefully watching the gauge line to see that you saw on the _waste_ side of the lines. Then turn the piece of timber with its opposite edge towards you, and again use the saw as illustrated. You will this time only have to watch the gauge mark on the edge of the wood, because the saw will readily follow in the saw kerf already made. Now place the wood vertically in the vice, and keeping the saw in a horizontal position, saw down to the shoulder line.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00197", "bookId": 21531, "start": 35669, "end": 35828, "sha256": "e140f3a901e4e1193a7bc895d9e1e2ac45b3a1604acecb2bd65cda4fd5c77b09", "text": "Halving joints properly made and fitted should knock together with the weight of the clenched fist; the use of a heavy mallet or hammer will deface the work.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00198", "bookId": 21531, "start": 35832, "end": 35914, "sha256": "a80f967b8a1c64b8ccae507d34a5abe518be862393e5b9be90463603dab0b67e", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 71.--Joints used in the erection of a Queen Post Roof Truss.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00199", "bookId": 21531, "start": 35924, "end": 35940, "sha256": "41f9d0d8e5977c990fac7726fe1e62c5263290ce18e79ba4dff8cb0937c0ce6e", "text": "THE BRIDLE JOINT", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00200", "bookId": 21531, "start": 35946, "end": 36490, "sha256": "f37055cde02c0323b596af9940b1eecdc90a1dc39e2316fd1760040f11d7c7d8", "text": "A bridle joint is often defined as the reverse of a mortise and tenon, and is chiefly used in the carpentry and joinery trades. The name probably originated from the fact that it bears some resemblance to the manner in which a bit slips into the horse's mouth and is fastened to the bridle. There are fewer varieties of the bridle joint than of the halved or the mortise and tenon; and this being the case we may take the opportunity of giving a few detailed directions, with explanatory illustrations, on the setting out and the making.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00201", "bookId": 21531, "start": 36494, "end": 36540, "sha256": "25746bd4cee2107f126a28e2adf21b11e8943b671145985de668ebafb8cf4ddc", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 72.--Simple Bridle Joint.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00202", "bookId": 21531, "start": 36544, "end": 37158, "sha256": "c31065bcbe4328d709e6344b35e01dc627f5a2d36e453ec5cc73aa57ad40031d", "text": "Fig. 72 shows a bridle joint in what is perhaps its simplest form, the separate pieces being given at the left and the completed joint at the right. A joint of this type may be applied in nearly all cases where a halved or a mortise and tenon joint could be used. Bridle joints have an advantage as regards appearance over the mortise and tenoned variety in cases such as Fig. 73, which shows an occasional table leg fitted to the circular top framing. The bridle joint here allows the grain of the leg to run through to the top, and gives a better and more workmanlike appearance to the completed article.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00203", "bookId": 21531, "start": 37162, "end": 37221, "sha256": "71802d786fd7ca0de2f86b641241e1089c71e8bfc27ad00a35dc7eec227d3db6", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 73.--Table Leg Bridle-jointed to Rail.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00204", "bookId": 21531, "start": 37225, "end": 37635, "sha256": "6877997c9ed38a783a4960addc90faa729ae02ff49d40aaf3be983e2e83b29d4", "text": "Fig. 74 is a \"Mitred bridle joint,\" the part _a_ showing the upright portion separated. This is a most useful joint for positions similar to that shown in the small glass frame, Fig. 75. The wood framing in this case is only 1-3/8 in. in width, and if a mortise were used it would have to be exceptionally small. The shaped rail at the bottom of this frame again shows the application of the bridle joint.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00205", "bookId": 21531, "start": 37639, "end": 37787, "sha256": "194e23d7a3ec634670f526c5b61b80ee7e0f688543c544fa2477b0549851996b", "text": "Fig. 76 shows an \"Oblique bridle joint,\" used in many instances as a brace, or strut, to prevent framing from racking. (See also Figs. 31 and 32.)", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00206", "bookId": 21531, "start": 37791, "end": 37993, "sha256": "65e5c9c8451a6543812c58f697e3f7ba086ef9b6d89f98084ddf84540b94d177", "text": "Fig. 77 is a \"Stopped bridle joint,\" used in positions where the top or bottom edge of the work meets the eye, and where, if the rail were allowed to run through, the end grain would appear unsightly.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00207", "bookId": 21531, "start": 37997, "end": 38042, "sha256": "f09dd37cd7d82fa9c8614c962a0adcaa90e73979f75322189393d52235d98bd7", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 74.--Mitre Bridle Joint.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00208", "bookId": 21531, "start": 38046, "end": 38104, "sha256": "b21658250e6f1ab6d2c04e87d3f441a622543c98632086a4af4a5398520c41f7", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 75.--Mirror Frame with Bridle Joints.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00209", "bookId": 21531, "start": 38108, "end": 38415, "sha256": "13de13153bf204c424e06cc67571fffce49b11b4324df10c62b78aadd7082dd4", "text": "Fig. 78 is a so-called bridle-joint at the corner of a frame. This is also called an \"Open slot mortise and tenon joint,\" a good strong, serviceable joint which can be used instead of the closed mortise and tenon type, its advantage being that less labour is required in the making. (See also Fig. 169.)", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00210", "bookId": 21531, "start": 38419, "end": 38574, "sha256": "c8ce1e5854a1780bebf3079fdf61507f77587e7703e045a93bdff44dd207a602", "text": "Fig. 79 is an \"Oblique angle bridle joint,\" used in similar positions to the above, but when the two pieces meet at an acute angle at the end of a frame.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00211", "bookId": 21531, "start": 38578, "end": 38825, "sha256": "7093df55c8330443d815b197b695e69fb03f76ecd3850999120917b4edb9acfa", "text": "Fig. 80 shows the application of the bridle joint to a roof truss. Two sketches are shown at the joining of the tie beam and the principal rafter. The joint _a_ is the type generally used. (See also Fig. 71 for the joints in a queen post roof.)", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00212", "bookId": 21531, "start": 38829, "end": 38876, "sha256": "7e92eaac7e69e1755b47e749f581c918c605883ef3474c63de11569f6fdad148", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 76.--Oblique Bridle Joint.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00213", "bookId": 21531, "start": 38880, "end": 38927, "sha256": "f0cdb18ad10363e9ea8a1a04315cf4722b1b9b52d37dfaac1a98fdff3129dceb", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 77.--Stopped Bridle Joint.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00214", "bookId": 21531, "start": 38931, "end": 38989, "sha256": "ca94fbeee8af1a4e88137f20a61b858f1453a8c9736e9fc97e1088aafb777c84", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 78.--Bridle Joint at Corner of Frame.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00215", "bookId": 21531, "start": 38993, "end": 39046, "sha256": "828dcee65689fdbc8cd6ef8d6f27207f20ba51edae7c671df2b796753a9b100f", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 79.--Oblique Angle Bridle Joint.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00216", "bookId": 21531, "start": 39050, "end": 39118, "sha256": "6ad10589b814bd94e584cce10de79e318cbd8e9359cb262003f9c255cd00f11a", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 80.--Application of Bridle Joint to Roof Truss.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00217", "bookId": 21531, "start": 39122, "end": 39700, "sha256": "2a9010be75ea7ae650c62c9c5db877d1822cedfc852ccfec75e7e6734df07128", "text": "SETTING OUT AND MARKING.--It is a safe rule, when setting out a bridle joint, to divide the thickness of the timber into three equal parts. This will leave the timber on each side of the tongue equal to the thickness of the tongue, thus giving uniform strength to the joint. The bridle joint is chiefly used for connecting the internal parts of wooden frames. It is stronger than the halving joint, and, owing to its peculiar construction, requires little in the way of pegs, screws or nails to secure it in position. Fig. 81 illustrates the joint, both open and closed.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00218", "bookId": 21531, "start": 39704, "end": 40161, "sha256": "ec4866cebe160b8b141084a94c80e167040360b56c109afdb52e392e25cab88b", "text": "To understand the method of setting out and marking, glance at the sketch, Fig. 81. It is not necessary that the bridle piece A be the same width as the cross piece B; but it must be remembered when setting out the joint with the marking knife or pencil that the width marked W on piece B must be equal to the width W on the piece A. The timber should be fairly accurately sawn or planed to the same thickness, and all edges should be square and true.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00219", "bookId": 21531, "start": 40165, "end": 40709, "sha256": "c8e6a26bf423f6ff0fcd34a4d8ef3b68eaff027ff027cda03d904970526416b8", "text": "The wood is placed upon the bench, and the joint marked out by using a marking knife or penknife blade and the try square. A knife blade is much better than a pencil, as the sharp edge severs the fibres of the wood and gives a finer line than the pencil. It is not always necessary to exactly square and trim the end of piece A; it may with advantage in many cases be left at least 1/4 in. longer than necessary and levelled off with the saw, plane and chisel after the joint is put together. (See Method of Cutting in Fig. 92, page 47.)", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00220", "bookId": 21531, "start": 40713, "end": 41110, "sha256": "8f23a615209f8580cc0c77955a18ff0f25c0f7ba8262987891ffaffe1b4dcc1a", "text": "When the piece A has to have a bridle joint fitted at each end, it is customary to cut the timber about 3/8 in. longer than necessary, and mark the shoulder lines C to the exact length, after which the joints are cut. This leaves the ends standing over the horizontal rails, and, after fixing the complete frame together, the small projecting ends are levelled off flush with the cross rails.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00221", "bookId": 21531, "start": 41114, "end": 41965, "sha256": "928b083038952ba3c02524d0af61bb7dc7bc1e307013d1628f39522670e45d11", "text": "GAUGING.--After squaring all the shoulder lines round the timber with the knife and try square, the mortise gauge should be set so as to strike the two gauge lines marked G, Figs. 83 and 84, at one operation. If the worker does not possess a mortise gauge the lines may be marked at two distinct operations with the aid of the marking gauge (Fig. 82). The gauge should be adjusted so as to mark the wood into thirds, and the stock of the gauge (the portion of the gauge containing the thumb screw in Fig. 82) must be used from the face side of the timber when gauging up the whole of the pieces forming a frame. The face mark on the work is indicated by a glorified comma, and the edge mark is shown by X, as in the various illustrations. Fig. 82 shows the method of holding the gauge in the right hand whilst gauging the lines on the work.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00222", "bookId": 21531, "start": 41969, "end": 42025, "sha256": "d704130c7b696ea00078acb93fb959c5c81a7f440dca0a1f945172c9296f835a", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 81.--Bridle Joint, open and closed.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00223", "bookId": 21531, "start": 42029, "end": 42074, "sha256": "e6af79eb14e730b68e20e3bff643110829e7b884b7671e460e7b72c417292cd2", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 82.--Gauging the Timber.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00224", "bookId": 21531, "start": 42078, "end": 42352, "sha256": "f01b2e46cc828ad1976dda450c43a83d90d9281166b88acf234a5c1acd90b396", "text": "The joint, when marked out, will appear as at Figs. 83 and 84, and the portions which are to be cut away may be shaded with a pencil as indicated; this will prevent mistakes arising whilst cutting the work, especially by one who is not thoroughly familiar with the joint.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00225", "bookId": 21531, "start": 42356, "end": 42437, "sha256": "a4cb1f2af790d92f05a779695ee983e3308e04fa1ac3dd43a1958135442df0fb", "text": "The distance A B, in Fig. 84, must not be less than the distance A B in Fig. 83.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00226", "bookId": 21531, "start": 42441, "end": 42511, "sha256": "7c67e3b45a500b9dd48becef42cbd070bfd9c54decef34e4db365be7f4cd8afd", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 83., Fig. 84. The Two Parts of the Joint Marked.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00227", "bookId": 21531, "start": 42515, "end": 42938, "sha256": "6c24068a8b881b6316e3530d6da4ccaf2600f603465412a200141fa2646c8585", "text": "BORING AWAY WASTE.--Examine Fig. 84; the shaded portion in the centre has to be cut away, and it will greatly facilitate the removal of this waste piece by boring a hole with a twist bit at the position shown. The twist bit should be about 1/8 in. less in diameter than the width between the gauge lines G. The easiest method of boring out this hole is shown at Fig. 85, which gives the correct position of the worker.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00228", "bookId": 21531, "start": 42942, "end": 43007, "sha256": "bbcc95735d7a1c7fe2d56b937432cecec72b899a82ed643f8105da403abe225f", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 85.--Vertical Boring previous to Chiselling.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00229", "bookId": 21531, "start": 43011, "end": 44189, "sha256": "994cf784c16e5896720633c4c6bfcbf9a04adc7145898036c4c0a13f1d439a1f", "text": "SAWING.--The wood should be put in the vice as Fig. 86. Taking up a saw, with the index finger on the side of the handle, commence sawing, and proceed until you come to the position indicated by the dotted hand and saw A; this will leave a saw kerf or cut running diagonally from the shoulder line to corner of the wood. Release the vice and refix the wood so that it leans in exactly the opposite direction to Fig. 86; then reverse your own position and repeat the sawing, so as to cut another diagonal saw cut from the shoulder line to the corner. Fix the wood upright, as shown at Fig. 87, and saw as shown, when you will find that the saw has no tendency to run out of the guide cuts already formed by the method used at Fig. 86. Remember, when commencing to saw at Fig. 86, that it is necessary to saw inside the gauge line; otherwise the joint will be too slack, owing to the amount of sawdust removed by the thickness of the saw blade. The index finger on the side of the saw, pointing in the direction of the saw cut, will greatly help the worker to saw in a straight line, as it is natural to point with this finger to any object that is to be aimed at.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00230", "bookId": 21531, "start": 44193, "end": 44257, "sha256": "8ada502504ac3ca11e96b2d168a68201f514990afb78af1122c4172b31bdbda0", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 86.--How the Saw is held for the first Cut.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00231", "bookId": 21531, "start": 44261, "end": 45014, "sha256": "d0a5b2f4c1595ed329abcb26b9f0d9efa8edc2daaa0a3f9da5f0e6abe1fdd9e0", "text": "Cut down the other line in a similar manner, and then with a chisel of suitable width carefully chop away the waste material. The wood may be placed edge way upon the bench, or in the vice, and the chisel should be held vertically. The hole which has been bored with the twist bit will allow the chips which are cut away to offer little or no resistance to the chisel blade. The chiselling should not all be done from one side, or a chipped under-edge will be the result; it is better to chisel the work until half-way through and then turn the other edge of the wood uppermost and again begin to chisel from the top. This method will finish the cutting in the centre of the work and prevent burred and ragged or chipped edges at the shoulder.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00232", "bookId": 21531, "start": 45018, "end": 45069, "sha256": "244e0fcd5a3d4a498edfe078ed2a277eb33dee73f9a2f8fd6ebb0592509f0a65", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 87.--Third, or Horizontal Cut.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00233", "bookId": 21531, "start": 45073, "end": 45120, "sha256": "941621cfe7eb6274feb2fa2406e8a08aa42efaf6d2d7b9081c5a63210c2c8a4b", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 88.--Chiselling Operation.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00234", "bookId": 21531, "start": 45124, "end": 45993, "sha256": "69ef454f4ba8e7c637bedbc09c669c40a63f5e063a71e5f8fda093b6495694a1", "text": "CUTTING THE SHOULDERS.--With regard to working the piece B, Fig. 81, place the wood against the bench stop or in the vice, and taking up a 3/4-in. chisel carefully cut away a small channel, as shown at Fig. 88; treat the other shoulder lines in a similar manner. If the marking knife or penknife blade has been used with a fair amount of pressure so as to score the fibres of the wood, this small channel, which is to form a guide for the saw, will quickly and easily be cut. Next place the wood in the vice or on the cutting board as shown at Fig. 89, and begin by sawing lightly at the back edge as shown. When the saw has entered the wood 1/4 in. gradually bring the handle down from position A to position B (dotted lines) whilst the saw is in motion. Continue sawing until just on the gauge line; then treat the other shoulder lines in a similar manner.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00235", "bookId": 21531, "start": 45997, "end": 46044, "sha256": "63f7b0850967cb391083051b2112c1037170865a321653877a58bc540f7f5257", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 89.--Sawing the Shoulders.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00236", "bookId": 21531, "start": 46048, "end": 46877, "sha256": "a7a56e863f7f15f95869025d9fdfc56cffa6564a5f1fe9962eb238320d5006e9", "text": "CHISELLING AWAY WASTE.--Fix your wood firmly in any suitable manner, vice or otherwise, and, holding your chisel tilted as at Fig. 90, pare away the blacked portion 1; then pare away the blacked portion 2; after which hold the chisel flat and by gradual operations pare away the dotted lines 3, until you come down to the gauge line; then repeat the method of cutting on the opposite side of the wood. If any difficulty be experienced by chipped or ragged edges whilst chiselling, it can easily be overcome by chiselling alternately from the outside of the wood, so that the finish of the chisel cut takes place in the centre of the work. Some prefer to chisel away the waste by placing the wood on its edge and using the chisel vertically instead of horizontally. The same methods (1, 2 and 3) hold good in this case.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00237", "bookId": 21531, "start": 46881, "end": 46929, "sha256": "4a1d069be701ab07054ce9afa8d9e2ece716f05a5da5dbf3604f23bb7e69b26a", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 90.--Chiselling away Waste.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00238", "bookId": 21531, "start": 46933, "end": 47502, "sha256": "66d13189aab28e2d965a28e6678bcd9b0016423fe4c04d03d89f3aedf252c3e7", "text": "JOINTS OTHER THAN AT 90 deg..--The two pieces forming a bridle joint are not always at right angles, as at Fig. 81; in many instances it is necessary that the joint be at other than 90 degrees. The work, however, is treated in a similar manner, with the exception that an adjustable joiner's bevel is used instead of a try square to mark out the shoulder lines, and that a change of direction in the grain of the wood will occur when chiselling out the work. Fig. 91 indicates the change in the grain of the wood, and the adjustable joiner's bevel is also shown.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00239", "bookId": 21531, "start": 47506, "end": 47577, "sha256": "a8b043d2c2aba95aa80405a502585cd2be6557ad3db36b7da146e22bb0af6cb4", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 91.--Bridle Joint at Angle other than Right Angle.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00240", "bookId": 21531, "start": 47581, "end": 47671, "sha256": "d71c8eb404341532fecad86c7797204b754b433ee1cf058c8a71c5660f8ddaa7", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 92.--Sawing off Waste from Bridle Joint. (See reference on page 39.)]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00241", "bookId": 21531, "start": 47681, "end": 47710, "sha256": "0f1a5f17ba934a582db12a8dbd87fdafe305fda2c81b020bb819c3bd8c832588", "text": "THE TONGUED AND GROOVED JOINT", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00242", "bookId": 21531, "start": 47716, "end": 47975, "sha256": "f8d668dd5234c2b17016443867471c704f1504fdbaf1bb77edf81f84f44e7983", "text": "The tongued and grooved joint is used in one form or another throughout the whole of the woodworking trades, covering, as it does, a great variety of work from the laying of flooring boards to the construction of dressers, bookcases and other cabinet work.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00243", "bookId": 21531, "start": 47979, "end": 48129, "sha256": "7f5dce0ff0b4311302cb2f2e81805da423cf367acfcc40b41268071a58124390", "text": "FLOORING and match boarding generally have the tongues worked on the solid board, and examples of a few of the various types are shown as follows:--", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00244", "bookId": 21531, "start": 48133, "end": 48194, "sha256": "237bfb4b843bf445a84a67374781e331e341e863f4a36145e64b64877d61f0a6", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 93.--Tongued and Grooved Flooring Board.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00245", "bookId": 21531, "start": 48198, "end": 48268, "sha256": "216e55d704d9f61fc5f18ae9835d114da5cef655f32c26ace351dfd5eb1862fe", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 94., Fig. 95. Method of Nailing Hardwood Floors.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00246", "bookId": 21531, "start": 48272, "end": 48564, "sha256": "c6d4c339d41b644af0bf725f44c61359d60e5863a634760ed83fc2cf29fe149c", "text": "Fig. 93 shows the end view of the ordinary 7/8-in. \"Tongued and Grooved Flooring board,\" as used in the construction of floors for mills, workshops and cottage property. This type of flooring is nailed to the joists in the ordinary manner, no attempt being made to conceal the nails used.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00247", "bookId": 21531, "start": 48568, "end": 48968, "sha256": "a4f34b476b9ddd30871c832cf43c034e1082d91280c8ca8de757c13bf073fc8c", "text": "Fig. 94 is a section of flooring which is generally made of hardwood, such as maple, oak, or jarrah. It is used in positions such as ballroom and skating rink floors, etc., the tongue and groove being worked in such a manner that the joint covers the nails as shown. Each nail is driven into its position at one edge of the board, the groove holding the next board and hiding the nail (Fig. 95).", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00248", "bookId": 21531, "start": 48972, "end": 49056, "sha256": "0e2877cb34cc05d8d0009cd4b08b3ff6cc6ff6b53e6b350f05ae9652919ae95a", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 96.--Tongued and Grooved Matchboarding, with Bead on One Side.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00249", "bookId": 21531, "start": 49060, "end": 49145, "sha256": "58ea313d3bf063dc6dfd30e792bd3bdeeb9586ef3b26a823a2a4a8691b537d77", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 97.--Tongued and Grooved Matchboarding, with Bead at Each Side.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00250", "bookId": 21531, "start": 49149, "end": 49217, "sha256": "7cf2302c14882ee3615d0dcec3785a3442cd1ae3c13f84e8e69908f22bd6c5cd", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 98.--Matchboarding, Tongued, Grooved and Vee'd.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00251", "bookId": 21531, "start": 49221, "end": 49676, "sha256": "aaa942fb65b297e11ab1c48504cae61be8978268967f24aa4ba7f884e29e0bae", "text": "Fig. 96 shows an example of matchboarding known as \"Tongued, Grooved and Beaded\" on one side only, and Fig. 97 shows a similar type tongued, grooved and beaded on both sides. This variety of matchboarding is known in the trade as \"T. G. and B.\" It is used for nailing on framing to form partitions for rooms, offices, etc., for panelling corridors, etc., and for making framed and ledged doors, building tool houses, cycle sheds and other outhouses.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00252", "bookId": 21531, "start": 49680, "end": 49986, "sha256": "39162155820aff12603e0de61281c541dd95a9795add18e9820cabec17dd242b", "text": "Fig. 98 is an example of matchboarding that is tongued, grooved and vee'd on one side, and Fig. 99 shows tongued, grooved and vee'd both sides. These are used for similar purposes to Figs. 96 and 97, and many prefer the V matchboarding variety because it is more easily painted than the beaded variety.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00253", "bookId": 21531, "start": 49990, "end": 50556, "sha256": "c8d2bb0a98e4858d4aa157e2b5cb0fffb81ddef9368626656f857eb286bc1bd6", "text": "The object of working a bead or beads on matchboarding is to break the jointing of the various pieces and to aim at ornamental effect; also to prevent unsightliness should the timber shrink slightly. When a moderate amount of shrinkage takes place, as is nearly always the case, the joint at the side of the bead appears to the casual observer to be the fillet or channel worked at the side of the bead. If the tongues are not painted before the work is put together, the shrinkage will cause the raw wood to show and thus make the joint too much in evidence.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00254", "bookId": 21531, "start": 50560, "end": 50617, "sha256": "1a65c8b66522146e2d1620bf7751703ba67c346b44931655756574abb68766a8", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 99.--Matchboarding Vee'd Both Sides.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00255", "bookId": 21531, "start": 50621, "end": 50677, "sha256": "196347825d414ffb31b426b8ca61b6ec5ad6bb3dc243421f76176b3c2c505dae", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 100.--Double-tongued Matchboarding.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00256", "bookId": 21531, "start": 50681, "end": 50747, "sha256": "de448dc6bea03a73af589bd987b09599e371b77b9cdfed7a0026e1b8461986e5", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 101.--Double-dovetailed, Tongued and Grooved.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00257", "bookId": 21531, "start": 50751, "end": 50990, "sha256": "220ee3d0fe47fb3adeadc04257db4355ac59762e51b72f865841f17705e084b9", "text": "Fig. 100 shows a \"Double tongued and grooved\" joint used in the wholesale cabinet factories. It is preferred for the jointing of cabinet stock, and the amateur can make a similar joint by working two grooves and inserting loose tongues.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00258", "bookId": 21531, "start": 50994, "end": 51152, "sha256": "944f755e92da02b225869e91c48c010f5a0c40b26bb14151584ed6376e0f7aee", "text": "Fig. 101 is the end view of a \"Double-dovetailed, tongued and grooved\" joint, and Fig. 102 is a sketch of a similar joint having only one dovetailed tongue.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00259", "bookId": 21531, "start": 51156, "end": 51607, "sha256": "5bf9a7c2119ad61faae174db946dcd3e58c9f185058b108756cea5713d7d79af", "text": "From a constructional point of view Fig. 101 is far and away the best joint that has yet been produced. Unfortunately, however, there is not at the present time any hand tool that will economically produce it, owing probably to the fact that the joint is the subject of a patent. The dovetail tongue tapers slightly throughout its entire length, gripping the joint on the principle of the wedge and squeezing the glue into the pores of the wood.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00260", "bookId": 21531, "start": 51611, "end": 51683, "sha256": "9b9588e9340ffe458d999fa71e9700afb4763c353222e330f189e0fefc8acc44", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 102.--Joint with Single Dovetail Tongue and Groove.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00261", "bookId": 21531, "start": 51687, "end": 51751, "sha256": "8472c0eeba3bae957432c1450354081e0702b623969d34032bca57f1a51380e0", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 103.--(A) Cross Tongue. (B) Feather Tongue.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00262", "bookId": 21531, "start": 51755, "end": 51833, "sha256": "c4a7b3cbfd49c6c33b37cfd64593127abf664df756e9745d05ddff8b7fdc7c2d", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 104.--Method of Secret-nailing Hardwood Flooring Boards.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00263", "bookId": 21531, "start": 51837, "end": 52536, "sha256": "29239b3025f9b16baca06864c787036882ae03c9191e4d5972e8b68358d14820", "text": "CABINET-WORK JOINTS.--With regard to tongued and grooved joints which apply more particularly to the jointing of cabinet work, Fig. 93 is produced by planes which are specially made for the purpose. One plane makes the tongue and another the groove. The handiest sizes to buy are those which joint 3/8 in., 5/8 in., and 3/4 in. timber, it being usual to dowel or loose-tongue thicker boards. The 3/8 in. partitions (or, as they are sometimes called, dustboards) between the drawers of a sideboard or dressing chest are in good work jointed in this manner. The 5/8 in. and 3/4 in. ends and tops of pine or American whitewood dressing tables, wardrobes, etc., call for the larger sized plane.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00264", "bookId": 21531, "start": 52540, "end": 52891, "sha256": "30b89e6e001a0a44627a6fc9c9d8676547be62b9f6e667ef44a3e0094dbe796c", "text": "LOOSE TONGUES.--There are two methods of jointing with loose tongues, viz., the use of the cross tongue, Fig. 103 A, and the use of the feather tongue, Fig. 103 B. Cross tongues are the stronger when glued in their position and can be used very much thinner than feather tongues. Feather tongues are cut diagonally across the grain as illustrated.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00265", "bookId": 21531, "start": 52895, "end": 52941, "sha256": "7f3f3490c237e5d7e3621362ad7e2cdcd5a05286153c0279702bc5475548c2c4", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 105.--Cradle for Planing.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00266", "bookId": 21531, "start": 52945, "end": 53297, "sha256": "cf76a3e87b1bd6b5dc5ee8c7f97bbb2448fe160460afe30a9df5befe8d9b0f9e", "text": "Fig. 105 is a cradle for planing up loose tongues to the required width (generally 7/8 in.). Two grooves are made in a piece of 1-1/4 in. hardwood; one groove is used for planing the width way of the tongue and the other for planing the edge way. These tongues can be cut to accurate size on a circular saw bench if power and machinery are at hand.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00267", "bookId": 21531, "start": 53301, "end": 53817, "sha256": "92a24caa4bbae81b7a45a262c6b0cc4e64978a902baa16d3ae768a3ee6c24267", "text": "APPLICATIONS OF THE JOINT.--Fig. 106 is a sketch of a portion of a sideboard top, showing the plough groove ready worked out to receive the tongue; the other half of the top is treated in a similar manner. It will be noticed that the groove is not worked through the full length of the board, but stopped about 1-1/4 in. from each end; this leaves a square joint at each end of the top on which the moulding is worked. If the groove be run through the board it looks very unsightly when the mould is finished.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00268", "bookId": 21531, "start": 53821, "end": 54446, "sha256": "9c71dd2886e0821fb7428298d859d4fa9466d4406e4fea5abe79c36663a255f3", "text": "Fig. 107 is a shaped spandrel, such as is fixed in the recess of a sideboard or cupboard or shop window fitment. It is of such a width that, were it cut from a wide board, the shaped portion would be apt to break off owing to the short grain at C. The shaping is therefore built up out of three separate pieces, the grain running as indicated. The loose tongue is represented by the dotted line and a section is shown of the joint at the line A B. At the opposite corner the tongue is left blind, _i.e._, not run through the edge. This is the method that should be used when the shaping is above the level of the eye.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00269", "bookId": 21531, "start": 54450, "end": 54562, "sha256": "29d07946d90c6e02726e95e818cb57b2a20adb603753d3e66531a5b29bdd2b99", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 106.--Part of Sideboard Top; grooved with ends left blind. (The boards are shown upright.)]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00270", "bookId": 21531, "start": 54566, "end": 54620, "sha256": "46467f2a16b95779ad33232961c16f23b36df27f32bf7f60712d81a94f167c85", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 107.--Shaped Spandrel for Recess.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00271", "bookId": 21531, "start": 54624, "end": 54893, "sha256": "567502c27c7047a259a79be20ba9c7e6627fa9dd39a4508c7549b6f56abf963e", "text": "Fig. 108 shows part of a carcase of a dressing table. The drawer runner A is shown grooved across the end to receive a cross tongue; this cross tongue engages a similar groove in the front bearer. This method of fastening the runner to the bearer is in everyday use.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00272", "bookId": 21531, "start": 54897, "end": 54955, "sha256": "b0facdd792c0924267f0428c8dac02698ddb5d8808825566ca62c9577920fcdf", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 108.--Part Carcase of Dressing Table.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00273", "bookId": 21531, "start": 54959, "end": 55011, "sha256": "0b2c9e21174c0c7b281c37b39fec870db507dc693163dbba95463a05e0761e27", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 109.--Framed Writing Table Top.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00274", "bookId": 21531, "start": 55015, "end": 55579, "sha256": "f94e78dcc7fed4b3ca32ef69681ed6535eca18fc91297f5016f68a940b59d15f", "text": "Fig. 109 is a writing table top. The centre boards are first jointed and glued up, after which the ends and sides are grooved ready to receive the cross tongues. The hardwood margins are shown at one end and at the front, and the grooves are arranged so that, on completion, the marginal frame stands above the top just the amount of the thickness of the leather which will cover the table. In some cases the margin at the end runs the same way of the grain as the top, thus allowing for slight shrinkage. Cross tongues would of course be used in this case.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00275", "bookId": 21531, "start": 55583, "end": 55777, "sha256": "1a67723182a478ec65005ae6f9bd1a9c9cddcd750d3f04ed3306e612568f40e1", "text": "Fig. 110 is a sketch showing one-quarter of a barred or tracery cabinet door. An enlarged section of the astragal mould which is grooved to fit on the bar which forms the rebate is also shown.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00276", "bookId": 21531, "start": 55781, "end": 56081, "sha256": "64e38373ecdbf810d1497768784165fd9672f0f4524cdd6bd614a50537381062", "text": "Fig. 111 is a \"Combing or corner locking\" joint, a method of making boxes by means of a continuous use of tongues and grooves instead of dovetails. This type of joint is generally machine made. The amateur, however, who is not proficient to undertake a dovetailed box frequently uses this method.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00277", "bookId": 21531, "start": 56085, "end": 56134, "sha256": "f357cbc181ad05a19842a3cbdf9ede66b4e0b6c5fdf180b245aaf1c9d3fd0fa5", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 110.--Corner of Barred Door.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00278", "bookId": 21531, "start": 56138, "end": 56190, "sha256": "0071c02e0f29f9fbbc4629230cc29c1e6e239007beaab0c9ba6d1536adc76d14", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 111.--Combing or Locking Joint.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00279", "bookId": 21531, "start": 56194, "end": 56265, "sha256": "ad3b46a941a8c7418f0e991a1811e317a29cf985eacc846326fc78f3aafe5159", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 112.--Single Loose Tongue and Double-tongue Joint.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00280", "bookId": 21531, "start": 56269, "end": 56457, "sha256": "2b6b365873ab91cff480c4779d40fc626a5473c16e37f0597707acace3699f08", "text": "CORNER JOINTS.--Fig. 112 shows both a single loose tongue and a double solid tongue. Both are methods used to connect circular cornered work, such as a counter end, to the front framing.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00281", "bookId": 21531, "start": 56461, "end": 56631, "sha256": "a5f604b581ac632f131386f483020c9d9d18e591720264ab29b9de509cdd0b45", "text": "Fig. 113 indicates a tongued and grooved joint suitable for edge or end jointing, such as fitting matchboarding round a chimney breast, making small jewel drawers, etc.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00282", "bookId": 21531, "start": 56635, "end": 56884, "sha256": "dff6414bbc6831bbd3a4e7d55924c4108d61621aa6ee61ad9943b523f7176d4c", "text": "Fig. 114 is a tongued and grooved joint with a bead worked on same to hide the joint, sometimes called a staff-bead. It would be used in positions such as boarding around an upright iron pillar, etc., the bead giving a neat finish at each corner.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00283", "bookId": 21531, "start": 56888, "end": 57026, "sha256": "d27f474dd91c6a9a6cfbd2c126e15ba9da1f90ef76e6d3292bc1741238114df1", "text": "Fig. 115 is a similar joint, but at an obtuse angle. An example of its use is in fixing boarding around an octagonal column of brickwork.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00284", "bookId": 21531, "start": 57030, "end": 57125, "sha256": "4e7c6c189e3bd05650b1ce397e385d93bc5f0874d81adca8323d12a761fa389a", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 113., Fig. 114., Fig. 115. Examples of Tongued and Grooved Corner Joints.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00285", "bookId": 21531, "start": 57129, "end": 57474, "sha256": "2132121f5d02c384d1c5fd96d004d06ea741f857eb5f5b37da04a762e3a33524", "text": "Fig. 116 shows a tongued and grooved mitre as used for strengthening the corners of cabinet work, such as tea caddies, small boxes, plinths, etc. Two pieces of wood are glued in position and allowed to set prior to glueing and cramping the joint proper. These pieces are afterwards planed away, thus leaving a clear surface to the box sides.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00286", "bookId": 21531, "start": 57478, "end": 57733, "sha256": "1c7e5a2e9732a7aaef7f15dfbdeca6e7ce89689467dea71b5244285dbd7b88a4", "text": "Fig. 117 shows the method of working the groove in the above joints. The pieces are turned back to back, the mitres thus making a right angle. The guide on the grooving plane thus works against each face of the joint, and this ensures correct jointing.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00287", "bookId": 21531, "start": 57737, "end": 57830, "sha256": "e5fc13d23a5d2f07ccf79826de632871b560248ffc9de2068c7ac446a8049196", "text": "Fig. 118 is somewhat similar to Fig. 113, but with a quarter circle mould to hide the joint.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00288", "bookId": 21531, "start": 57834, "end": 58116, "sha256": "275cdf897604ad8acdd40ad2d1e30e3224023096e5ff930440455eb33e1e7dbe", "text": "Fig. 119 indicates the building up of a double skirting mould. C represents the brickwork, A the oak-framed panelling, and B the packing and fixing block. A wide skirting of this type is made in two portions for convenience in working the moulding and to prevent undue shrinkage.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00289", "bookId": 21531, "start": 58120, "end": 58184, "sha256": "487e46192abebf63264bc7fe2b6937a6b2f05062624ef72a6b898ba013aea0a0", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 116.--Cramping a Tongued and Grooved Mitre.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00290", "bookId": 21531, "start": 58188, "end": 58232, "sha256": "d8f466e312f55c09ccc4e3b1d2d9980281436211dea544efd0b19e677fac4e20", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 117.--Working a Groove.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00291", "bookId": 21531, "start": 58236, "end": 58294, "sha256": "f49aeef10231b5e26ed5681cae92ade28f55ad08e794b9bed9837f488dd87e1f", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 118.--Corner Joint with Corner Mould.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00292", "bookId": 21531, "start": 58298, "end": 58675, "sha256": "60df60439cf14a69de0ef352a6fdb6ee9aca2b22477df61c4883dc4f2cffb3f0", "text": "Fig. 120 illustrates the use of a tongued and grooved joint for fixing together the sides of a corner bracket, and the same method holds good when jointing a corner cupboard. A capping mould or top shelf will conceal the joint; it then has the appearance of a glued butt joint, but is of course considerably stronger. No screws or nails are required if this joint be used.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00293", "bookId": 21531, "start": 58679, "end": 59149, "sha256": "a1004dd8836f338e4eb7e31a93ac7e8e8b4105efcb4701953d359b19ab215824", "text": "PLOUGHING.--When grooves have to be worked in the edge or face of a board to receive tongues, the process is generally called ploughing, and it is usually accomplished by a special tool called a plough (or, as it is occasionally spelt, \"plow\"). When a plough plane is bought it is usual to procure eight plough bits or blades of various sizes to fit the plane. In Fig. 121 is given the sketch of a plough plane with the names of the various parts lettered thereon.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00294", "bookId": 21531, "start": 59153, "end": 59202, "sha256": "2059cfeaa09299ecb51ec66213e25b36e750ff609c020f5ad824f13266ce2c09", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 119.--Double Skirting Mould.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00295", "bookId": 21531, "start": 59206, "end": 59270, "sha256": "40e6170afab286c96e70bf1473292a793a044d0b177168fa8f8bd5e518ab475a", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 120.--Joint for Corner Bracket or Cupboard.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00296", "bookId": 21531, "start": 59274, "end": 59521, "sha256": "f8a8be002c4c45d6ae33b88cf0ea06660ab9d42bda68e69c028a16e91b1d82d0", "text": "The board or boards which it is desired to groove are first planed straight and true, exactly as though it were desired to make a glued or butt joint. One of the boards is now placed edge way up in the vice and with the face side to the worker.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00297", "bookId": 21531, "start": 59525, "end": 60431, "sha256": "07925606d040c3882f8d67e310c3c61f060af657fd1f38b5f75c6c2d3713d6af", "text": "Take the plough plane and select a suitably-sized blade; fix it in the plane in the usual way, allowing the cutting edge to project beyond the steel skate about 1/32 in., and securely drive up the wedge. Next loosen the small boxwood wedges at the side of each stem, and adjust the plane by tapping the stems with a hammer until the cutting iron is in the desired position; then knock up the small wedges nice and tight. When setting the fence to or from the blade it is a wise precaution to measure the distance from the fence to the skate at each end of the plane; this will ensure the skate being parallel to the fence. The neglect of this is a source of annoyance to many amateurs. Now adjust the depth stop by turning the screw at the top of the plane, measuring the depth of the required groove from the edge of the blade to the stop, and carefully lock the screw which adjusts this stop.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00298", "bookId": 21531, "start": 60435, "end": 60493, "sha256": "f4da3bb0ef8592b5c74d8746a398ba5054d098b8c004a3616b092170cbad808e", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 121.--The Plough Plane and its Parts.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00299", "bookId": 21531, "start": 60497, "end": 61191, "sha256": "6ac590383ec72256f13e14acb6042e2d3ac2837e4871cdca1790442188a4a87e", "text": "The plane is now ready for use. Hold the fence close up to the side of the timber, the hands in position as shown at Fig. 122, the position of the body being that generally assumed in planing. Move the plane backwards and forwards in the usual manner, beginning the cut at the end of the board nearest to the vice jaws (the front), and proceed with the planing until the depth stop is in contact with the wood. Then take a step backwards and repeat the process until the whole length of the groove is ploughed. Care must be taken to force the fence up to the board with the left hand, whilst the right hand thrusts the plane backwards and forwards, and the plane must be kept vertical.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00300", "bookId": 21531, "start": 61195, "end": 61255, "sha256": "48bd8bfa7ab67f8c4f5d45b9bbe439d51ff6b1d79120733bfcf0ccc534a7b221", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 122.--Method of using the Plough Plane.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00301", "bookId": 21531, "start": 61259, "end": 61844, "sha256": "fa07bd3ccbdf916bf37547b7c2167610ef678aa13eca187b8edc3f75aa27437a", "text": "TONGUEING.--The grooves having been completed, the tongues have to be made. Fig. 123 shows a sketch of a board and the method of marking out cross tongues (A) and feather tongues (B). The usual procedure for making cross tongues is to plane the end of the board and use a cutting gauge to give a line the required distance from the end (see sketch). The board is sawn with a tenon or panel saw, and the piece of timber for the tongue is thus procured. If a feather tongue is to be used it is cut diagonally from the board (B) and the ends cut square as shown by the dotted line.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00302", "bookId": 21531, "start": 61848, "end": 61936, "sha256": "bbbfb1ba68402a11228f5d5e4299ebe600461aa02f53f0b6b5b319ec18239676", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 123.--Method of Marking Out for Cross Tongues and Feather Tongues.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00303", "bookId": 21531, "start": 61940, "end": 62482, "sha256": "9990326905895976b1f278e104a3ce2a7c447dd8167d11e1f5d460c0268733dc", "text": "Feather tongues can be obtained in fairly long lengths out of narrow boards, whilst on the other hand cross tongues are limited by the width of the board. After cutting off the tongues, they require planing with nicety to fit the grooves, and the advantage of a grooved board (Fig. 105) will be appreciated. A glue spoon similar to a plumber's ladle is generally used to pour the glue into the grooves, and it is customary to glue the tongue into one board first; after allowing this to set, the joint is completed in the usual manner.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00304", "bookId": 21531, "start": 62486, "end": 62792, "sha256": "952988f1f7684d0affa1434d6d5fffbc22dc45cfa36c28418344cddf38134e92", "text": "TONGUEING PLANES.--Fig. 124 shows the end view of a tongueing plane for working matched joints out of the solid. The method of holding and using the plane is similar to the directions given for using the plough. The part lettered F (in front) represents the fence, which in this case is not adjustable.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00305", "bookId": 21531, "start": 62796, "end": 62877, "sha256": "bc21950c481313dfe11de224d281349c0f596f2b0b77a243eabfb83933849610", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 124., Fig. 125. End Views of Tongueing and Grooving Planes.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00306", "bookId": 21531, "start": 62881, "end": 63400, "sha256": "c0ef53e54f8efcad98e72f2c8cf5b127e5dddf3cd3acac6b0f3bd3fbd37cf373", "text": "In description Fig. 125 is similar to Fig. 124. The steel skate runs in the groove and supports the cutting blade similar to that in the plough plane, and provided a grooving plane of this type is of suitable width it may be used for making grooves for loose tongues. There is on the market a metal plane which is specially designed with handles at both ends. This plane carries a grooving iron on one side and a tongueing iron on the other side; thus with one plane both the tongue and the groove can be worked.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00307", "bookId": 21531, "start": 63404, "end": 63461, "sha256": "f9c68230b207f6e6993222dc1489c3245040c5a0ff52e3e253ff62794e5ca816", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 126.--Tongueing Shoulders of Tenons.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00308", "bookId": 21531, "start": 63465, "end": 64004, "sha256": "1bcdb3a2c5eac31c808979913d7d4c3f54ab68bf5f6c1441f42b61d984098fca", "text": "Fig. 126 shows the method of tongueing the shoulders of tenons as used in thick timber which is to be veneered on the face. A temporary piece of wood (A) is put between the tenon cheek and the saw, thus forming a guide for the latter. After cutting one saw kerf a thicker piece is made and a second saw kerf cut; the waste between the saw kerfs is now removed with an 1/8 in. chisel and this completes the groove. A tongue of this type acts as an extra tenon and prevents the joint from \"lipping\" (becoming uneven) on the face side.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00309", "bookId": 21531, "start": 64014, "end": 64041, "sha256": "52f9f83cb6817ccd308fa779f562300a1710f58575bf59e369632278099b2f41", "text": "THE MORTISE AND TENON JOINT", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00310", "bookId": 21531, "start": 64047, "end": 64594, "sha256": "3b45083362b1a448905459fbef08f62f20dfb2766fe6acc94ce01ecef79507d3", "text": "A mortise and tenon joint is the method of joining timber by working a solid rectangular projection in the one piece and cutting a corresponding cavity to receive it in the adjoining piece. The projection is called the tenon, and the cavity the mortise. Joints of this type are secured in various ways. Small wedges, wooden dowels, metal dowel pins, glue and paint are frequently used, and prior to the introduction of glue we have examples of Egyptian furniture in which the mortise and tenon joints were united by a composition of cheese.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00311", "bookId": 21531, "start": 64598, "end": 64647, "sha256": "fb80ec064e6970c2b034e3a09b9a43d51fd0bdee689caee4227fc8feba34551d", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 127.--Barefaced Tenon Joint.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00312", "bookId": 21531, "start": 64651, "end": 64689, "sha256": "5175fa856cca8e1604701ae8f928f029cea1ae0d6e4c136b85af2226b1e209c5", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 128.--Stub Tenon.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00313", "bookId": 21531, "start": 64693, "end": 65302, "sha256": "d5b66c5506fef6a7d81211dfdb6f2e40ed133856fa6695d90f0f83214a69f6f7", "text": "BAREFACED TENONS.--Fig. 127 illustrates the joint in its simplest form and shows a tenon having only one shoulder. This is called a barefaced tenon, and it will be noticed that the portion which carries the mortise is thicker than the rail on which the tenon is cut. The joint is therefore level (or flush as it is called) on one side only, and it should never be used at the corner of a frame. It is a useful interior joint for framing that has to be covered on the back side with matchboarding, and allows the work to finish level at the back when the boarding has been applied (see plan, Fig. 127).", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00314", "bookId": 21531, "start": 65306, "end": 65952, "sha256": "c364fa65959b244dfdd211029dddf8a367130cb47292b4a3d5faee8189879616", "text": "STUB OR STUMP TENON (Fig. 128; also occasionally called a joggle tenon).--The illustration shows a tenon as used in the interior of a frame. The tenon is not allowed to run through the stile, and unsightliness on the edge is thus avoided. This type of tenon is often used at the corner of a frame, and it then requires to be haunched. A good workshop method of gauging the depth of the mortise for a stub tenon is shown in Fig. 129; a piece of gummed stamp paper is stuck on the side of the mortise chisel, indicating the desired depth of the mortise. This greatly facilitates the work, as it is not necessary to be constantly measuring.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00315", "bookId": 21531, "start": 65956, "end": 66539, "sha256": "ea0321eadfe265164d3af8e5fab769007eb4633c2334c40d8cc4e31d9d7f38a6", "text": "A HAUNCHED TENON as used at the end of a door frame is shown at Fig. 130.--In this case it will be seen that the width of the tenon is reduced, so that sufficient timber will be left at the end of the stile to resist the pressure of the tenon when the joint is driven together. The short portion (A) which is left on the tenon is called the haunch, and the cavity it engages is termed the haunching. The haunch and haunching prevent the two pieces of timber lipping, or becoming uneven on the face side, as would be the result if it were cut away entirely up to the shoulder.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00316", "bookId": 21531, "start": 66543, "end": 66878, "sha256": "335a53572e5f5c38ecd7fd004dac34d082437a8583bee4c0c4e56696be8eb65c", "text": "Fig. 131 shows the type of tenon and haunch used when the stile or upright rail is grooved to receive a panel. In this and similar cases the haunch is made the same width and the same depth as the groove; the groove therefore acts as the haunching. An application of this joint is shown in the top rail of the door frame, Fig. 132.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00317", "bookId": 21531, "start": 66882, "end": 66946, "sha256": "767c66ef8e8e28619a32563238ed508aea92781dd17747477a007706654b3a90", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 129.--Method of Gauging for depth of Tenon.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00318", "bookId": 21531, "start": 66950, "end": 67018, "sha256": "4a3198cfa73c96451cf80803e68ab03a0e076a05dad2eab778a1fe42f20c19bf", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 130.--Haunched Tenon used at end of Door Frame.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00319", "bookId": 21531, "start": 67022, "end": 67102, "sha256": "334f27b6b83bf31f6509bc965befe29f6c55706c68341c5773cbbc9e84b8c771", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 131.--Haunched Tenon used when Stile is Grooved for Panel.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00320", "bookId": 21531, "start": 67106, "end": 67184, "sha256": "49343ec1edbe874f1a8bd7355a928e1334da7caad2a179ee51d35253a707c8a3", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 132.--Application of Haunched Tenon Joint to Door Frame.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00321", "bookId": 21531, "start": 67188, "end": 67238, "sha256": "4b2a434bb8ea95e76b86ef1fd0ac15c0a251c4785a73426f8f6308976e7b4199", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 133.--Occasional Stump Tenon.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00322", "bookId": 21531, "start": 67242, "end": 67350, "sha256": "9f7da700d9e8097f70d93656e1e534a60c71a4b5324cfe79f7412201f8ba5973", "text": "This type of joint is also used to connect the rail to the leg of an ordinary kitchen table (see Fig. 167).", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00323", "bookId": 21531, "start": 67354, "end": 67502, "sha256": "9bc27730f6270cf1db3374a3adede54d93166c582b2ea0accab634144015613f", "text": "Fig. 133 is a variation of the stump tenon, occasionally used where the work in hand demands a thin tenon and a stout stump to take heavy strains.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00324", "bookId": 21531, "start": 67506, "end": 67558, "sha256": "32cd7e657d805e88a88438f11e88d210993170b1ee4d113228697677dd1dfc6a", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 134.--Joint for Inside Framing.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00325", "bookId": 21531, "start": 67562, "end": 67614, "sha256": "74d48c543a380c40077a538088760adafccbf1b1620c7025ce580e86917564ec", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 135.--Haunched Barefaced Tenon.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00326", "bookId": 21531, "start": 67618, "end": 67910, "sha256": "aba68cb1dd6567d9593ceb72f10df7e412c52e7ac58075e08362d0df84970d30", "text": "A joint used for inside framing is seen at Fig. 134. The rails may be used as shown, but in the case of a door frame (as Fig. 132) they would have the inside edges grooved to receive the panels; the tenons would therefore be slightly narrower than shown, owing to the groove at each edge.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00327", "bookId": 21531, "start": 67914, "end": 68119, "sha256": "59ac07cecb379c3e0a2a1c6af60de17060ee79dbd6e80a3fe6df9de61b38fd3e", "text": "A HAUNCHED BAREFACED TENON, used in similar positions to Fig. 131, is shown at Fig. 135. The door or frame in this case would be made of matchboarding nailed on the back as shown in the plan at Fig. 127.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00328", "bookId": 21531, "start": 68123, "end": 68359, "sha256": "1258d8ab864d4008dec861549eaff4fa008404adf54e83271c7bbd89f880aa41", "text": "WEDGES.--Fig. 136 shows the method of cutting wedges which are to be used to wedge the tenons; this avoids waste of material. Some workers cut the wedges from the pieces left out of the haunching of the lock rail, or the bottom rail.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00329", "bookId": 21531, "start": 68363, "end": 68429, "sha256": "b2fac4d57c75618d4130e154af46417157b1cda029c08e487093316a4af52892", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 136.--Cutting Wedges from Waste of Haunching.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00330", "bookId": 21531, "start": 68433, "end": 68491, "sha256": "034a352ee240dfa114794ed91adedd12270c9a5421800e2eeeff900b1d5902df", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 137.--Stile and Cross Rail with Horn.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00331", "bookId": 21531, "start": 68495, "end": 68887, "sha256": "6bde120d0eecaa927d771e1a4a4446ae1d6ef43761ccd0bbecab23955200999c", "text": "A STILE AND CROSS RAIL, framed together, are shown at Fig. 137. The portion above the rail is called the horn, and it is usual to leave sufficient length of stile to project above and below the cross rails, so that there will be no tendency for the stile to burst out at the end whilst the cramping and wedging of the frame is in progress. On completing the framing the horn is cut away.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00332", "bookId": 21531, "start": 68891, "end": 69075, "sha256": "1065693917bcaedf2c86fc65a156b36ed1e6bf18b0ebf3286044d68a24bc707a", "text": "In Fig. 138 we have a type of joint frequently used for garden gates. The illustration shows the method of tenoning the three pieces to the top rail, barefaced tenons being employed.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00333", "bookId": 21531, "start": 69079, "end": 69134, "sha256": "a74b9b2980197e5e379c60ea501df05e5db335068a50f3bf41a7fa34522a68ca", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 138.--Joint used for Garden Gates.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00334", "bookId": 21531, "start": 69138, "end": 69180, "sha256": "91256e271435b4d89eef8ea0cb37fe9324502478d4c71d6f1b479f6cfa6f78c9", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 139.--Sprocket Wheel.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00335", "bookId": 21531, "start": 69184, "end": 69223, "sha256": "4df5c6532380286ff2e92d050f38c93e7505d119de212398614fa534681e6a0c", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 140.--Boring Tool.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00336", "bookId": 21531, "start": 69227, "end": 70708, "sha256": "20fe78c888d3c002698b43b2517f7c4076f42b5d5991729959d4eed264fae70a", "text": "SPROCKET WHEEL.--At Fig. 139 are shown the guide bar and chain of a chain-mortising machine, two enlarged links of the chain being indicated at A. The chain is similar in construction to the driving chain of a bicycle, with the exception that it is provided with teeth which cut away the timber as the chain revolves. When using a chain mortiser the portion of the machine carrying the chain is fed downwards into the timber, thus cutting a clean and true mortise. If, however, a stump mortise is required it is necessary to pare away a certain amount of timber by hand, because the machine obviously leaves a semicircular bottom to the mortise. To overcome this difficulty the latest types of mortising machines have a square hole-boring attachment fixed alongside the chain. This tool, the working portion of which is illustrated in Fig. 140, consists of a square hollow chisel (E), which is sharpened from the inside, and a revolving twist bit (D) fitted with spurs or nickers, but without a point (one spur can be seen at the bottom of the illustration). This bit revolves inside the shell like a chisel, and bores away the superfluous timber, whilst the pressure exerted on the chisel causes the corners to be cut away dead square. A mortise 3/8 in. square by 6 ins. in depth may thus be cut. The portion marked A is the shank of the chisel (Fig. 140), where it is fixed into the body of the machine, and the hole at E allows the boring bit to free itself.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00337", "bookId": 21531, "start": 70712, "end": 70779, "sha256": "5c29b71a7a373c0032ad1085248f8ae02ae8ba9c2ed9c7bf375c93c541bf6d51", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 141.--Method of Fitting an Interior Table Leg.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00338", "bookId": 21531, "start": 70783, "end": 70854, "sha256": "98213d5be5db0b2b825fcdcc6f975a6fd059a391f93ee97788851a4722e7c342", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 142.--Haunched Tenon for Skylight or Garden Frame.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00339", "bookId": 21531, "start": 70858, "end": 70916, "sha256": "3b4f5591519c3b5424fc04a7e24101de5350cfb21a82b44259b816e8f239994e", "text": "[Illustration: Fig 143.--Long and Short Shouldered Tenon.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00340", "bookId": 21531, "start": 70920, "end": 71197, "sha256": "e5f3d2815f05f95339453e39d4bf1975b5c6e5c397442db9891245e9891802a5", "text": "Fig. 141 indicates the method of fixing an interior leg to a table having a circular or straight top rail. The inlaid leg in this case is stump-tenoned into the top rail, and the inlaid portion of the leg is allowed to run through the rail, thus giving continuity of design.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00341", "bookId": 21531, "start": 71201, "end": 71485, "sha256": "15571f79e06cf6d732c833deda89318041bdab3560d482b9389bef495d6d820a", "text": "Fig. 142 shows the application of the haunched tenon (Fig. 135) to the making of a skylight or garden frame. In this and similar cases the side rails are rebated as shown in the section, and the bottom rail is thinner than the side rails to allow the glass to finish level upon it.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00342", "bookId": 21531, "start": 71489, "end": 71922, "sha256": "c1c6ffceea760408e275cdf9802eaefada2867e307e45c1142b111f623e8fddd", "text": "LONG AND SHORT SHOULDERED JOINT.--Fig. 143 shows a haunched mortise and tenon joint having a long and short shoulder. This is a fairly common joint in framed partitions for offices, framing for greenhouses, tool sheds, etc., and is a frequent source of annoyance to the amateur. It is necessary to use this joint when both the stiles and uprights are rebated, and it calls for accurate marking out and great care in the making.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00343", "bookId": 21531, "start": 71926, "end": 71971, "sha256": "775491eb2669b610f52bdee2f1c18a29bec39c5eec7e0f0c1941c77bdd6db362", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 144.--Joint for Fencing.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00344", "bookId": 21531, "start": 71975, "end": 72026, "sha256": "551c0ee944a8dea576dfed38327cb15892215957b0aaf5c566553554d8c57c34", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 145.--Example of Faulty Tenon.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00345", "bookId": 21531, "start": 72030, "end": 72318, "sha256": "a4d08b5c7191363df6b485d0727269b2796a3b032cbcade0a4b188fe94a8f262", "text": "Fig. 144 shows the upright and rails of common garden or field fencing. The tenons are bevelled to fit and wedge each other in the mortise. The illustration gives both cross rails as shouldered, but in many cases shoulders are omitted when the rails are not thick enough to carry them.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00346", "bookId": 21531, "start": 72322, "end": 72943, "sha256": "d733a1d5ef1095a1652db74665cc3e0cae3cf6dd747fc14bea6904dfa162bf62", "text": "Fig. 145 indicates faulty methods of working a tenon. At A the saw has been allowed to run too far when cutting the shoulder, thus greatly weakening the tenon. At B faulty sawing has again occurred, and to remedy this defect the worker has resorted to paring the shoulder with a chisel. Had the chisel been used vertically an undercut shoulder (as at B) would not have occurred. The trouble now is that the slightest amount of shrinkage in the width of the stile will show an open joint. The result will be the same if it is necessary to remove a shaving or two when planing or levelling up the face of the frame.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00347", "bookId": 21531, "start": 72947, "end": 73008, "sha256": "72a73fff927acbe33551787c3980106c9773f6bd8132de172fca8b59793adbc5", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 146.--Self-wedging Japanese Tenon Joint.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00348", "bookId": 21531, "start": 73012, "end": 73065, "sha256": "6bcbf2df2ed4e5c939aa5f5d735c0ab037cb98150a5849dce8ae6a67fcf1f945", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 147.--Tenoned and Scribed Joint.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00349", "bookId": 21531, "start": 73069, "end": 73127, "sha256": "0b47b703eaa4854b98e37bc0a89784ba8025f17a058ca0a0f7a1139c8f664022", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 148.--Mitred and Moulded Tenon Joint.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00350", "bookId": 21531, "start": 73131, "end": 73170, "sha256": "fe54bea34d348f7a01743a04bd3bfb4e5b3efc6837bbc87b0eba325b1687ba56", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 149.--Twin Tenons.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00351", "bookId": 21531, "start": 73174, "end": 73400, "sha256": "9bb8c384229658fcf0c3489c8cfcd39fb068c563eba3f92c8c121676a8a89da8", "text": "A JAPANESE TENONED JOINT, little known and rarely used in this country, is shown at Fig. 146. For clearness the two parts are here shown separate. The joint is self-wedging and will be of interest to Handicraft Instructors.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00352", "bookId": 21531, "start": 73404, "end": 73587, "sha256": "695824672e2dae0760354e27aec2ce4c308490ccc0261cc5843a260b23ca2738", "text": "A TENONED AND SCRIBED JOINT is seen at Fig. 147. The cross rail is cut at the shoulder, so as to fit the moulding which is worked on the stile. This is a good joint in everyday use.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00353", "bookId": 21531, "start": 73591, "end": 73767, "sha256": "8bcac351f573f62d341c8650ad5c0fe69b7c8342504fe8b6acc8d8d245d5a3e1", "text": "MITRED AND MOULDED JOINT.--Fig. 148 shows a type of joint largely used in light cabinet work. The method of mitreing the moulding and tenoning the stile to rail is indicated.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00354", "bookId": 21531, "start": 73771, "end": 74018, "sha256": "f7f5f5fb873fba396cdf69de821d60008e617c0d0dbfb1574d55d4eb09ef4622", "text": "TWIN TENONS (Fig. 149).--The method of tenoning the bearers which carry the drawers, or the midfeather between two drawers, in a dressing table or similar carcase is here shown. On completion, the tenons on the midfeather are wedged diagonally.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00355", "bookId": 21531, "start": 74022, "end": 74066, "sha256": "7dce78f5d723d6f9fcbaedb4ffec1db7f40c467dad63a6d92e652b03257b389d", "text": "[Illustration: Fig 150.--Method of Pinning.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00356", "bookId": 21531, "start": 74070, "end": 74131, "sha256": "56fb8ef0303cfff58aa25a3174d809c1e7b72301c08407d0c3bfc2b887ff4746", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 151.--Joining Top Rails to Upright Post.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00357", "bookId": 21531, "start": 74135, "end": 74520, "sha256": "c266bec72ffa0105ac02a3aff1b2743c80ce2770394b95be6036060a6addbd64", "text": "PINNING.--Fig. 150 shows the tenoning of the inside end of a wardrobe to the top of the carcase. This is also called pinning. The tenons should be wedged diagonally. The tenons and the distance between the tenons are more satisfactory if made equidistant, because if slight shrinkage occurs this is partially equalised. The width between the tenons should in no case exceed 3 ins.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00358", "bookId": 21531, "start": 74524, "end": 74779, "sha256": "bd3505cce0ccd1d233fd53e5e7d6f1dd88acd218217d1fe04205e27abafe770c", "text": "TOP RAILS.--At Fig. 151 is shown the method of joining the top rails to the post of a tool shed or similar outhouse. The two rails, which are at right angles to each other, are half-lapped and mortised; the tenon on the post runs entirely through them.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00359", "bookId": 21531, "start": 74783, "end": 75103, "sha256": "f7061d2d4790574ade875fe84e962fbc95c1e08dc74b3c1d78ebb804d4626dad", "text": "A TUSK TENON JOINT, with wedge, as used to secure the binder to the girder when making floors, is indicated at Fig. 153. The tenon here is narrow and engages the mortise, which is situated in the compressional fibres immediately adjoining the neutral layer. Fig. 152 shows a tusk tenon furnished with a drawbore pin.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00360", "bookId": 21531, "start": 75107, "end": 75145, "sha256": "4f143253e346641f869536ce8a36c4a485ac4bdeea99416836266dd456a47961", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 152.--Tusk Tenon.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00361", "bookId": 21531, "start": 75149, "end": 75194, "sha256": "1f53b1cc3144d4b8e34cfd2c7efe966e984f47255f2d78f35756f68efc9011db", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 153.--Wedged Tusk Tenon.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00362", "bookId": 21531, "start": 75198, "end": 75234, "sha256": "c65dee316e0264bbd6f278b2b5498be0e270edfefd6f0fb90cfc8155f47a322b", "text": "Fig. 154 is a variation of Fig. 152.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00363", "bookId": 21531, "start": 75238, "end": 75606, "sha256": "71ab18e4b7dc1564d93b230ee567c17522a073070a33222cab07dc33b482738a", "text": "Fig. 155 shows tusk and wedged tenons as used when making a portable book or medicine cabinet. The shelf is housed into the end, and the tenons run through the end and are secured by wedges. This allows the article to be quickly and easily taken to pieces for removal or re-polishing. The dotted line in Fig. 155 indicates that the shelf may be shaped if desired.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00364", "bookId": 21531, "start": 75610, "end": 75664, "sha256": "549ca8c647840f823b9be9f5af0aba66a6eef5aed1caacc2fa497ac76e7e5dc3", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 154.--Another Type of Tusk Tenon.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00365", "bookId": 21531, "start": 75668, "end": 75716, "sha256": "112f23ebaacb4f4063e3f8854d900fa25d9e6bf2c3ee3de7fae629c6fa357fc5", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 155.--Tusk Tenon and Wedge.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00366", "bookId": 21531, "start": 75720, "end": 75786, "sha256": "592503d2b5876f298fd9145afbf03d52ae7e3a2376f62890a0de43981ee3ad2c", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 156.--Wheelwright's Self-wedging Tenon Joint.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00367", "bookId": 21531, "start": 75790, "end": 75965, "sha256": "06345a8b9e6ed7c6e8d0e672b0ed8faf5c84626da1ece64946ae7cdd381489f4", "text": "In Fig. 156 a self-wedging mortise and tenon joint used by wheelwrights is shown. The dotted line (left-hand diagram) will indicate the amount of taper given to the mortise.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00368", "bookId": 21531, "start": 75969, "end": 76411, "sha256": "d09bda5ba1fad10fbc14c19d7e5565b1e2111882da465b7cc44ce9f504d33be6", "text": "DOVETAILED AND WEDGED TENON (Fig. 157).--When two pieces such as the cross rail and leg of a carpenter's bench are required to be held together by a mortise and tenon, and to be readily taken apart, the tenon is dovetailed on one side and the mortise is made of sufficient width to permit the widest part of the dovetailed tenon to pass into it. When the tenon is in its position a hardwood wedge is driven in above the tenon, as shown.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00369", "bookId": 21531, "start": 76415, "end": 76470, "sha256": "c65bd6154259557b95480095e0f8f7bb25cdbcdf3cbdd8e8e67e52dc272456c1", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 157.--Dovetailed and Wedged Tenon.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00370", "bookId": 21531, "start": 76474, "end": 76523, "sha256": "96979a8ec4cb1834412b5f4966abaf2dc54e736c053c410e5517d74e6310fdf7", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 158.--Method of Fox-wedging.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00371", "bookId": 21531, "start": 76527, "end": 76924, "sha256": "88e4822f20b40a8f14770a8d2638c5791361a217ebf05bc84b0064f89c1fa3b2", "text": "FOX WEDGED TENON (Fig. 158).--This is the method of securing a stub tenon by small wedges. The mortise is slightly dovetailed and two saw cuts are made in the tenon about 3/16 in. from each side. Into each saw kerf a wedge is inserted and the joint glued up. The cramping operation forces the wedges into the saw cuts, thus causing the end of the tenon to spread and tightly grip the mortise.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00372", "bookId": 21531, "start": 76928, "end": 77344, "sha256": "5e97a510e065eb37141b6f4297176ddabf9af333761c864eda769af55ff9c056", "text": "MORTISE AND TENON WITH MITRED FACE (Fig. 159).--This is a useful method of jointing framing which has square edges as shown; and it is equally useful even if the face edges have moulds worked upon them. If the joint has square edges a rebate may be formed to accommodate a panel by fixing a bolection moulding around the frame. A section of the bolection mould planted on the frame is shown in the lower figure.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00373", "bookId": 21531, "start": 77348, "end": 77404, "sha256": "205a8f5436883448296595b04af35a0f7b4a810c7857c27ca473447d04de0a15", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 159.--Tenon Joint with Mitred Face.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00374", "bookId": 21531, "start": 77408, "end": 77448, "sha256": "32f48d2099b90dbafd7819ffab46124417a8539f87d979eff572f8f76f4fcacd", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 160.--Rafter Joint.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00375", "bookId": 21531, "start": 77452, "end": 77491, "sha256": "a938409f4873644473004d8f9db631a0498c84d41b465a8d42d9a823e7e0658f", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 161.--Roof Joints.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00376", "bookId": 21531, "start": 77495, "end": 77759, "sha256": "1778a88a9628b0ed7fb74ce0711448066bae1c9138afa34c4c6311d3996530dd", "text": "ROOF JOINTS.--Fig. 160 shows the method of tenoning the principal rafter to the king post, whilst Fig. 161 illustrates the tenoning of the struts to the king post, and the king post to the tie beam. Both these examples are used in roof work. (See also Fig. 71.)", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00377", "bookId": 21531, "start": 77763, "end": 77807, "sha256": "53f59f0b198f101bd6c94d0174c3a35ba649354d3c3f356ccad5cf889b261c5c", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 162.--Drawbore Pinning.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00378", "bookId": 21531, "start": 77811, "end": 77887, "sha256": "06b6cd1dd59303a77c8a2bca7cf16c7551e1f62c3b3d699efd88d57b7ad5ab0a", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 163., Fig. 164. Operation of Pegs in Drawbore Pinning.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00379", "bookId": 21531, "start": 77891, "end": 78598, "sha256": "acb494787740ce8b7fc8e79e272ad38fc9ef18392eb74a5a3112cb48f1ef210c", "text": "DRAWBORE PINNING.--At Fig. 162 is seen the method of securing a tenon by drawbore pinning, employed when it is not convenient to obtain the necessary pressure by using a cramp. The joint is made in the usual manner, and a 3/8-in. twist bit is used to bore a hole through piece A. The tenon is driven home and the hole is marked on the side of the tenon (B); the tenon is then withdrawn and the hole bored about 1/8 in. nearer to the shoulder than as marked on the separate diagram at C. When the tenon is finally inserted the holes will not register correctly, and if a hardwood pin be driven into the joint it will draw the shoulders of the tenon to a close joint and effectually secure the parts.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00380", "bookId": 21531, "start": 78602, "end": 79075, "sha256": "74e06caa960d4af41a43cd6277dee476d1c0a554e0cd6885f09349bd0c863def", "text": "SASH BARS.--Fig. 165 shows how to tenon a moulded sash bar to the rebated cross rail. In this illustration both shoulders of the moulded bar are shown square, but in the best class work these shoulders may be slightly housed into the cross rail to prevent side play. This type of joint is used for horticultural buildings, etc. If the lower rail be moulded with the same members as the sash bar, the end of the sash bar will have to be scribed on to it to make a fit.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00381", "bookId": 21531, "start": 79079, "end": 79132, "sha256": "b6524e6fe099611ecf638f9091cad3721f321de6983e92e57cfbaf39d8f0f087", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 165.--Tenoning Moulded Sash Bar.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00382", "bookId": 21531, "start": 79136, "end": 79203, "sha256": "f2dff984e35e1f1322b95716d3fae2f8197e4d8b67e8669ad400359d3d5f9099", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 166.--Tenon with Tongued and Grooved Shoulder.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00383", "bookId": 21531, "start": 79207, "end": 79258, "sha256": "71825beea46e8156bf36765caa0118224fb677dc33345c63e8ebc042bb4e5735", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 167.--Detail of Table Framing.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00384", "bookId": 21531, "start": 79262, "end": 79571, "sha256": "763b89542f0c61d1448f7c34966a88674c887998bb2cddda6110188058597319", "text": "TENON WITH TONGUED AND GROOVED SHOULDERS (Fig. 166).--The object of the tongues and grooves here is to prevent the face of the work casting, or becoming warped, and thus spoiling the appearance of the surface of the work. If framing is to be veneered on the face side this is an exceptionally good method.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00385", "bookId": 21531, "start": 79575, "end": 79846, "sha256": "dcedadced5b882adbf9e02538e7358c93b11eb7a4c23e55bea64a432175c01a6", "text": "TABLE FRAMING.--Fig. 167 indicates the framing of a rail to a dining-table leg. In cases similar to this the tenons run into the leg and almost touch each other. They are therefore mitred on the end as shown in the inset. Chair frames often call for similar treatment.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00386", "bookId": 21531, "start": 79850, "end": 79945, "sha256": "ea54b3a4f5e35e2eec30562f5758c3cc1d668da96e3ad73920488cc15eeb4b39", "text": "TWIN TENONS with haunch, as used when the timber is of great thickness, are shown in Fig. 168.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00387", "bookId": 21531, "start": 79949, "end": 80175, "sha256": "a79af970134c887396cf4ebbc76b5f4aab7d07956c8f5da31e6db806bb036864", "text": "AN OPEN SLOT MORTISE at the end of a right-angled frame is seen in Fig. 169. Fig. 170 shows an open slot mortise and tenon joint at the end of a frame of 60 deg.. Both these joints are occasionally called end bridle joints.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00388", "bookId": 21531, "start": 80179, "end": 80235, "sha256": "152f87d4bc1b86d473f0b6c149e00e544f1a2c2f27f72d59a57e808b0c2d712c", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 168.--Twin Tenons for Thick Timber.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00389", "bookId": 21531, "start": 80239, "end": 80294, "sha256": "6b5fe4bd6726a1d87282fe32b062bf87a9b8e16e924749a264be333c0a155297", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 169.--The Open-slot Mortise Joint.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00390", "bookId": 21531, "start": 80298, "end": 80704, "sha256": "cbf7d5c7ccf5d2d80b0fa8a90cea1f8d79c9fda810b9cf93b68c9499ac4e8229", "text": "HAMMER HEAD TENONS.--At Fig. 171 is shown the method of jointing framing having semicircular or segmental heads. The left-hand diagram indicates the method of wedging the joint so as to draw up the shoulders; the right-hand view shows the tongueing of the shoulders, which is necessary if thick timber has to be wrought. The sketch depicts the stile when taken apart from the shaped head of the frame.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00391", "bookId": 21531, "start": 80708, "end": 81090, "sha256": "aad3b7b6e6f8650bae92096de94729551c641b90c7600ca9d782126fd5b553ea", "text": "CLAMPING.--Fig. 172 shows the method of tenoning drawing boards, desk tops and secretaire falls. This is commonly called clamping. The method is used to prevent wide surfaces from winding. A variation of the joint is shown at the left-hand side, the corners in this example not being mitred. Fig. 173 shows the tenoning of a wide to a narrow rail when the joint is at an angle.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00392", "bookId": 21531, "start": 81094, "end": 81588, "sha256": "b860547cd4df639fbd7aeeee37fe0d8b2dde98179797cc3a9ed873108fff08d7", "text": "INSERTED TENONS (Fig. 174).--Where two pieces of timber run together at an acute angle it becomes necessary to use inserted tenons. Both pieces of the timber are mortised and the inserted tenons are secured into the widest piece. On the left is shown the inserted tenon, secured by the method known as fox-wedging; on the right the inserted tenon has been let into the wide rail from the edge. The narrow rail is secured by wedging the tenons from the outside edge in the ordinary manner.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00393", "bookId": 21531, "start": 81592, "end": 81651, "sha256": "c4c634a2e049762b133359ec5718f444fd8a3442679f30c899b7887dd867c191", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 170.--Open-Slot Mortise at 60 degrees.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00394", "bookId": 21531, "start": 81655, "end": 81706, "sha256": "6a2e5b90a60d31eedb5ff16f1c00d3da3f7943fdacd851fe1f769b7799ccafc1", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 171.--Hammer-Head Tenon Joint.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00395", "bookId": 21531, "start": 81710, "end": 81886, "sha256": "93069384bd7b9c4c67b0a18ca5acb176cad9ecb63d591575a5f3d2ab5c4762e4", "text": "DREADNOUGHT FILE.--At Fig. 175 is a sketch of a portion of a dreadnought file. This has superseded the old-fashioned home-made float used to clean out the sides of a mortise.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00396", "bookId": 21531, "start": 81890, "end": 81926, "sha256": "c2940882b4a7cdb0b5f1d18c4e2c8d2af0321e2dc748cd3274e75df0eeb04ff4", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 172.--Clamping.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00397", "bookId": 21531, "start": 81930, "end": 81978, "sha256": "624c01b2a39b81bad4afa70f9e20af40e4249f1a79d0af3ab8d657b71a9570ee", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 173.--Tenoning Narrow Rail.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00398", "bookId": 21531, "start": 81982, "end": 82025, "sha256": "78bbbff3619518a623f6a73c8ea61ae40ead551cb8a50aa9232edcba5d5b1498", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 174.--Inserted Tenons.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00399", "bookId": 21531, "start": 82029, "end": 82073, "sha256": "719cbcebc616e5ce0de71de93144f09eb6267cf508eb8572f68f3fcc75e73618", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 175.--Dreadnought File.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00400", "bookId": 21531, "start": 82077, "end": 82133, "sha256": "de8132135ae7aa088a5ab4183047f0d0afb75b33cd7b6168b54156a9495b7d63", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 176.--External and Internal Joints.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00401", "bookId": 21531, "start": 82137, "end": 82206, "sha256": "e6fc9f42fce4f06e3052dea841df0a4c058ecbf90c2b73522fd0c0769eedd772", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 177.--Setting out Stiles and Rails for Tenoning.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00402", "bookId": 21531, "start": 82210, "end": 82440, "sha256": "56eaa95ad2df94a417d42bcc688ec25d6233270b014912ccb5b6f4c0bb558156", "text": "GENERAL RULE.--In practically all cases where a single tenon is used the thickness of the tenon should be one-third the thickness of the timber. This leaves the timber at each side of the mortise the same strength as the tenon.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00403", "bookId": 21531, "start": 82444, "end": 82687, "sha256": "74428f7b84108b1e0fa6a2e0a28fa205feec9694e3853eae3435a02dec14edf8", "text": "Mortise and tenon joints for inside work may be united with glue. If, however, the work has to stand the weather a better method is to unite the joint with white lead, which is run down to the required consistency with good outside varnish.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00404", "bookId": 21531, "start": 82691, "end": 83126, "sha256": "053623713677a266917127bfa3fdc244b7b7815383dbc3ad0d0fd1038240be10", "text": "SETTING OUT THE JOINT.--The principal use of the mortise and tenon joint is in the construction of various types of framing, such as door and window frames. In one or other of its many and varied forms it may be classed as the most important joint in the general woodworking trade. The joint may be used as an internal one, as shown at the lower rail, Fig. 176, or as an external joint, as the upper rail of the same illustration.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00405", "bookId": 21531, "start": 83130, "end": 83467, "sha256": "8d62d643929f5223bdd47a697b85c2fbb9fbc1979702778bfd3512ae44a9c785", "text": "Whatever type of framing has to be made, it is necessary that the face side of the wood be planed up straight and out of winding, and the face mark (as shown in Fig. 176) pencilled upon it. The best edge of the timber should next be planed up true in length, and square to the face side, and the edge mark (X) clearly placed upon it.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00406", "bookId": 21531, "start": 83471, "end": 83789, "sha256": "04606c72829d4c73c7ad139b788177141df34cf8091754f8b438143f2904ed72", "text": "The marking gauge is now set to the desired width, and gauge lines are marked on the wood, after which the waste wood is planed off until the timber is the required width. The thickness is gauged and treated in a similar manner, except in such cases where the finished work is to be of a rough and ready character.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00407", "bookId": 21531, "start": 83793, "end": 84296, "sha256": "448cf46c271728f865ff311f0ce4a9da297793c7895b89d311e531dd0eba28b4", "text": "THE TWO STILES (or uprights) have their faces turned to touch each other, as shown at Fig. 177, and their length may be anything from 1 in. to 3 ins. longer than the required finished size. This waste wood at each end of the stiles (see arrow HO) is of importance to the work, as it prevents to a great extent the bursting of the mortise whilst cutting the hole or when knocking together the work. The small projection is called the \"horn,\" and it is cut off after the frame has been put together.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00408", "bookId": 21531, "start": 84300, "end": 84369, "sha256": "c9543b29c582d957a8918270cf9118b6c0c1566dbeff0f6a261d0ec6832ed288", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 178.--Setting Out the Stiles with Marking Knife.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00409", "bookId": 21531, "start": 84373, "end": 84439, "sha256": "c284ed7dd947218b1aa2851c116a44c23d26c99457ffe0141770e5560304c6c3", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 179.--How to Saw the Tenons--First Operation.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00410", "bookId": 21531, "start": 84443, "end": 84764, "sha256": "2c6a3c648be588508850e5b68f91c87e78db59b4db355fe1853a1363a1f1d404", "text": "THE TWO CROSS RAILS (Fig. 177), have their faces placed together as shown in the sketch. These rails may with advantage be left 1/2 in. longer than the finished size, and the portion of the tenon (which will protrude through the stile 1/4 in. at each end) may be cut off after the work is put together. (See Fig. 92.)", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00411", "bookId": 21531, "start": 84768, "end": 85556, "sha256": "0f03953c4d942ea2b384929f6b598299de19c232f646ff7f6127efb6038480e4", "text": "Set out the stiles with a marking knife or penknife and a try square, as shown at Fig. 178. In this sketch only one stile is shown for clearness of representation, but two or more stiles (as at Fig. 177) may be marked out at the same time, provided a 12-in. try square be used; in fact, marking out the stiles in pairs is to be recommended, as all cross lines will be exact owing to their being marked at the same operation. The cut made by the marking knife should be lightly carried all round the work as the mortising is cut from each edge of the stile, the cutting of the mortising being finished in the centre. The lettering on Fig. 177 is as follows:--HO, horn; M, position of mortise; H, position of haunching; A, inside line, or sight size, as it is occasionally called.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00412", "bookId": 21531, "start": 85560, "end": 85828, "sha256": "19b9d77bffa18ac4f837ec0a0fe543163093f2b2835356daef2544b1e74e59fc", "text": "Set out the cross rails as at Fig. 177, lower sketch. The lettering in this figure is as follows:--T, tenons; the small piece of the tenon lettered J is called the haunch, and the shaded portion H is cut away to allow the haunch J to fit the haunching of the stile.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00413", "bookId": 21531, "start": 85832, "end": 86129, "sha256": "fc1dbe02652c4fea793c332d3c3151df7895cccbb8e02e0f35010e1d9b067f8a", "text": "THE TENONS (as already stated) are generally one-third the thickness of the timber, thus leaving the same amount of substance at each side of the tenon as the tenon itself is composed of. The mortise gauge is set to the required distance and used as in the case of the marking gauge (Fig. 82).", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00414", "bookId": 21531, "start": 86133, "end": 86194, "sha256": "6f648127180c03e4fd17bb9f02f3538a84f06ecea5463baeff52389efc4ed853", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 180.--Second Operation in Sawing Tenons.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00415", "bookId": 21531, "start": 86198, "end": 86277, "sha256": "eba0f641eb0c8109a3bc053eb4fefe0bdfdb95a2d384c5a34372fcdb95658e07", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 181.--Cutting Channel at Shoulder of Tenon before Sawing.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00416", "bookId": 21531, "start": 86281, "end": 86719, "sha256": "7c8661062ab25cec2f688bab75c6584f4a6dc751161ff2ebc1d050080ca8a1e8", "text": "To saw the tenons, place the rail in the vice as at Fig. 179 and, with a panel, tenon, or hand saw, according to the size of the work, cut down the outside of the tenon line as shown. Reverse your position and cut as shown at Fig. 180, then place the rail in a vertical position, and you will find little or no difficulty in sawing down square with the shoulder line. Repeat the above methods of sawing until all the tenons are sawn.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00417", "bookId": 21531, "start": 86723, "end": 87476, "sha256": "a493c1b8c02c59a4ae02a99cd6218c2f33267bf7ffa19f5a5accd3a8e288bf5f", "text": "Next saw out the pieces at the side of the tenon by the following procedure. Place the rail against the bench stop, or in the vice, and cut a small channel in which to run your tenon saw as shown at Fig. 181. If you have scored the line deeply with your knife when you were marking out the work, you will have little difficulty in removing a small portion with the chisel. The amount removed in the illustration is, of course, exaggerated. In the small channel thus made place the tenon saw and, guiding the saw blade with the finger so as to keep it upright or square (Fig. 182), saw away the waste material. Remove the waste material at the sides of the tenons in a similar way, and then saw out the portion marked H, Fig. 177, lower sketch.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00418", "bookId": 21531, "start": 87480, "end": 88190, "sha256": "5b08916c467e280eb603bab76b96a956a6a330e9878ce266e4946c7713b27ad6", "text": "THE MORTISING of the stiles may next be taken in hand by putting the stiles edgeways in the vice and boring away the bulk of the waste wood from the mortise with a suitable-sized twist bit and brace. This method will save a great amount of noise, as to a great extent it does away with the use of the mallet. Take the mallet and chisel and chop down about 3/8 in. as shown at Fig. 183; then turn the chisel to the position shown at Fig. 184 and remove the small piece as shown. Continue these two operations until you are about half-way through the wood and then start in a similar manner at the line _a_, Fig. 183, after which turn the other edge of the timber uppermost and repeat the methods shown.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00419", "bookId": 21531, "start": 88194, "end": 88248, "sha256": "25cce6729f0894be906a82c33c9aee2d4d889c4c9eb3237116e4bf71e5003e9b", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 182.--Sawing away Waste Material.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00420", "bookId": 21531, "start": 88252, "end": 88321, "sha256": "b6f9c750871efddb040a93048f9beb09a7c889c7a4074522e95efe06825e6be0", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 183.--Using the Chisel and Mallet for Mortising.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00421", "bookId": 21531, "start": 88325, "end": 88870, "sha256": "e7fe5f44875c17833e5a747e2dc328e98bb016439361e76b2203fd00c055d2a5", "text": "Fig. 185 shows the sketch of a mortise which has its side removed so as to show the method of successive cuts with a chisel when removing the core from a mortise; this, in conjunction with the other sketches, clearly shows the methods of working. In many woodwork examinations the examiners insist that the mortise shall be removed by successive cuts with the chisel, but we certainly advise the removal of much of the waste wood with a boring bit, provided the worker can keep straight and well within the limitations of his gauge lines.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00422", "bookId": 21531, "start": 88874, "end": 88939, "sha256": "e3b017c9fe15626b1f52d6b7ce698bda6e7ad17a76952cababa2aa211a0c790c", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 184.--Removing Waste of Mortise with Chisel.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00423", "bookId": 21531, "start": 88943, "end": 89576, "sha256": "a052fd20c66bb1c4d29355cdc6c1d14e7f49dcc1ef40a724cad89419bbcb30aa", "text": "REMOVING HAUNCHING.--After removing the mortise hole, the small portion which is called the haunching will require to be removed with a chisel. This calls for no special remark, as it is clearly shown in Figs. 187 and 188. Fig. 186 shows an everyday type of mortise and tenon joint separated; it is used in cases where a straight joint is required on the upper or lower edge of the work, whereas the upper rail of Fig. 176 shows the full haunch on the top edge. In cases such as Figs 187 and 188, where the edges of the frames are grooved to receive panels, etc., the width of the tenon is reduced by the width of the groove.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00424", "bookId": 21531, "start": 89580, "end": 89633, "sha256": "7dc2625c3cb6cfa86cd218c62e16102b18828d3146794ac42c168d7399f6bd2a", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 185.--Mortise with Side Removed.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00425", "bookId": 21531, "start": 89637, "end": 89684, "sha256": "4c874d34601beea94ccac5b81dbee273929a2c04cee0a232541d2ea8a32dee77", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 186.--The Joint Separated.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00426", "bookId": 21531, "start": 89688, "end": 89736, "sha256": "4eaf83616f8b543aafb1a7a037ebbed092e1cf51448a10b45e69209d2f5eb774", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 187.--Removal of Haunching.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00427", "bookId": 21531, "start": 89740, "end": 89795, "sha256": "633640fd19c8e53d4abf9ae7101d3af55b084002e3515bd750ff2aaab20c88f3", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 188.--Haunching with Groove above.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00428", "bookId": 21531, "start": 89799, "end": 90550, "sha256": "8ce5072eae16e8c1fd5f438d452d5f0e48a44d61f25312fd03f72c8c3e918a60", "text": "This must be remembered by the worker when marking out his stiles with the marking knife. Fig. 187 (right-hand sketch) shows the haunch, tenon, and groove G at the bottom. Fig. 188 (left-hand illustration) shows G (groove) at top, and HH (the haunch) at the bottom. Tenons may be glued together and wedged as shown at Fig. 176 if for inside work; but if for outside work they are generally smeared with thick paint and wedged up. For light-class cabinet work it is usual to cut the mortise about seven-eighths of the distance through the stile and make the tenon to match it; the edge of the finished work does not then show any indication of the joint, and it leaves a nice clean surface at the edge of the work for polishing or varnishing.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00429", "bookId": 21531, "start": 90554, "end": 90632, "sha256": "e08687b7b04d6a81660467f04e0e64fe6d00fc89165a42a28ce7d981278e0001", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 189.--Interlocking Joint for Seat Rails of Chair to Leg.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00430", "bookId": 21531, "start": 90636, "end": 91423, "sha256": "771c918f959e2e7880a86eedfe33d1a7fc608950fa9c666ea97de2e045645d88", "text": "INTERLOCKING CHAIR JOINT.--A joint designed with a view to strengthening the construction of chairs at the point where they are weakest is shown in Fig. 189. The joint is an interlocking one so arranged that, once the chair is glued up, no motion of the side rail can be possible. The groove in the side rail tenon is cut in such a manner that, on the insertion of the back rail tenon, the joint actually draws up and, having done so, is locked in position. The exact location of this groove is obtained in a similar manner to that used in marking out tenons for drawbore pinning, _i.e._, the tenon is inserted in its mortise and the position of the back rail mortise transferred to it, after which the lines are set back by 1/64 in. (approximately) to cause the joint to draw.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00431", "bookId": 21531, "start": 91427, "end": 91723, "sha256": "825eaa4bf5a89b5aa9a96dd0229989169fcb6eba726b29526a8f62c2643f0aa2", "text": "From the illustration the construction of the joint should be clear. The method is particularly adapted to a section of rectangular form where one side is longer than the other, such as the back leg of a chair, as this shape allows for the accommodation of the extra length of tenon required.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00432", "bookId": 21531, "start": 91733, "end": 91752, "sha256": "621ab340fea2dc76ade1ac96402984f5ebc6be1a9131857daea2ef3f34090d8c", "text": "THE DOWELLING JOINT", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00433", "bookId": 21531, "start": 91758, "end": 92081, "sha256": "98a87a46d4b059d5817c546e07ba42af7e31128dcdcf4d91968b9b836c9e9378", "text": "Dowelling is the term generally given to the method of jointing timber and other materials by wooden or metal pegs, which are called dowels. For cabinet-making and similar work straight-grained beechwood dowels are mostly used; these may be bought by the gross, in lengths of about 36 ins., and of any desired diameter.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00434", "bookId": 21531, "start": 92085, "end": 92130, "sha256": "3c2be232d90b93521296d9c642e4c4095a0e6e369e640bc23b0e8114ce269b12", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 190.--Steel Dowel Plate.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00435", "bookId": 21531, "start": 92134, "end": 92907, "sha256": "7e1cf18dbad1a5d3de8b781ff8c65651ad66233b85e85953731cf7a35b79eb8f", "text": "MAKING DOWELS.--Many, however, prefer to make what they require for the work in hand, and the following is the method that is generally employed. Pieces of straight-grained wood are wrought to a square section, after which the corners are planed away to form an octagonal section. The sharp corners are now planed away, and the roughly formed dowel is driven through a steel dowel plate, Fig. 190, by the aid of a heavy hammer, thus giving the necessary roundness and finish to the dowels. When hammering dowels through a plate the hammer should on no account be allowed to come in contact with the face of the dowel plate, or the cutting edge of the hole will be spoilt. Simply drive the dowel to within 1/8 in. of the plate and knock it out with the next dowel.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00436", "bookId": 21531, "start": 92911, "end": 92964, "sha256": "88429d3ffa2e7c11931348c9fc71d2c47054adbf3f480eed3e232473b4b39ec8", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 191.--Cradle for Planing Dowels.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00437", "bookId": 21531, "start": 92968, "end": 93013, "sha256": "dcb6ddeff446f9e987678f5e8f0b682a108d89ff1b683ee898ed8e07a0f5007c", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 192.--Dowel with Groove.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00438", "bookId": 21531, "start": 93017, "end": 93067, "sha256": "4b07a1f551da924b87665b7147aea88e14d0ef929c1bedbef4e8bae17e5c4146", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 193.--Sawing Groove in Dowel.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00439", "bookId": 21531, "start": 93071, "end": 93679, "sha256": "c0fde27b8fc804fc5250b7b3327cdafec9d53968963f8a8630e8fa766eaf8a88", "text": "To plane off the corners a \"cradle\" (Fig. 191) is made and kept for the purpose. The advantage of this cradle is obvious, preventing as it does any tendency of the partly-formed dowel to slip or wobble. A jig, or cradle, is easily made by bevelling the edges of two separate pieces of wood and then glueing and screwing them together as at Fig. 191. A small block of wood is inserted to act as a stop whilst the planing operation is in progress. It is usual to bevel both edges of the timber from which the cradle is formed, thus accommodating all sizes of dowels from 1/4 in. to 5/8 in. in diameter.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00440", "bookId": 21531, "start": 93683, "end": 93812, "sha256": "2f4bba171f70d3364ad2897b524e5b02e0c3745e959593679fcdbdaebad81036", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 194.--Pricking the Centres ready for Boring. Also showing how Brace is used in conjunction with Try Square.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00441", "bookId": 21531, "start": 93816, "end": 94116, "sha256": "b34fe609685c2e42802897e42726c0b87fd7ef23f03165221f5232e85066b7cf", "text": "Fig. 192 shows a completed dowel with a small groove running along its entire length. The object of this groove is to allow the air and superfluous glue to escape and thus avoid splitting the work on hand; the groove also secretes a certain amount of glue, which increases its hold on the timber.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00442", "bookId": 21531, "start": 94120, "end": 94505, "sha256": "fb099b6fbed81d2ec3648f9f464c0225d87718b512fa89867d9974448aec8194", "text": "Fig. 198 illustrates the method of marking out and gauging two boards for dowelling. The edges of the boards are first shot to a true joint; then the face sides are placed together and the lines for the dowels are marked across the edges with a fine pencil and the aid of a try square. The boards are then gauged from the face side, thus giving the points indicated in the sketch.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00443", "bookId": 21531, "start": 94509, "end": 94548, "sha256": "9241ec3355ea5af90312f2be58ae0be09f31f60b333cdec08a596de1a6f16948", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 195.--Countersink.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00444", "bookId": 21531, "start": 94552, "end": 94593, "sha256": "54e5721c6d1e475af70c77632227c1b83dd1f352b251187c2d9c1eade12ae597", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 196.--Dowel Rounder.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00445", "bookId": 21531, "start": 94597, "end": 94634, "sha256": "6672d159c694353b898e06481fcea9198d2c4bbb0f12cf8ff7e1a6ba5d721020", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 197.--Twist Bit.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00446", "bookId": 21531, "start": 94638, "end": 94951, "sha256": "dfa65479f04bcb017e7dc0f1699a6995726b9bc665375dee3f6637d360a51d69", "text": "To start the twist bit (Fig. 197) it is a good plan to prick the board at the point of intersection of the marked lines with a sharp, circular-pointed marking awl. This obviates any tendency of the boring bit to run out of truth and thus cause unevenness on the face side of the jointed board. (See Fig. 194.)", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00447", "bookId": 21531, "start": 94955, "end": 95236, "sha256": "e6aee2f66a455be08e056e0b70a750167705c3b61bca0d8a2bf3c6d44de19d29", "text": "A safe rule for the spacing of dowels when jointing sideboard tops, dressing table and wardrobe ends, etc., is to place the dowels 9 ins. to 10 ins. apart, and place two dowels at each end as shown at Fig. 198. The length of the dowels should be about 7/8 in. to 1-1/4 in. long.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00448", "bookId": 21531, "start": 95240, "end": 95790, "sha256": "b5916823ef54ae9116aa3e0953978bc4ef8d305ef9531e4b7995282eb0b8e16e", "text": "Fig. 199 shows the two boards prepared ready for glueing. The back one is bored to receive the dowels, and the front one shows the dowels glued in position. It is customary to warm the edges of the boards before spreading the glue, and cramps are required to squeeze the joint tight. These should be left on the jointed board from one to four hours according to the state of the weather. In cases where thick timber (say 2-in. or 2-1/2-in. boards) is to be jointed, two rows of dowels may be used, the position of the dowels being as Fig. 200.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00449", "bookId": 21531, "start": 95794, "end": 95862, "sha256": "80a448769c604d753c280dfc03bc4375e3a88b7e47a6a01bfb539f93dc7682d8", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 198.--Marking and Gauging Boards for Dowelling.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00450", "bookId": 21531, "start": 95866, "end": 95926, "sha256": "e35392e0ed02644ab2e9b78f08cd946da85f548c9e3ce49497c75d81c0c9c313", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 199.--Dowelled Joint ready for Glueing.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00451", "bookId": 21531, "start": 95930, "end": 96772, "sha256": "ef0ef18fffb864b8f959c761f7158e19611913b503434dda2d38dc986e9ffc68", "text": "Fig. 201 shows the plan of a 3-in. cornice pole made to fit a bay window; the straight portions of the pole are generally turned in the lathe, the corner portions being afterwards jointed and worked up to the required shape. To avoid any difficulty in the setting out of the dowels, a disc of cardboard or sheet metal is made to the same diameter as that of the cornice pole; this disc is called a template. The positions of the dowels are set out geometrically, and the centres are pricked through with a fine-pointed marking awl (see sketch of template, _a_, Fig. 201). The template is put on the ends of the straight pole, and the dowel centres are pricked into the wood. The process is repeated on the ends of the corner block (_b_, Fig. 201), and if the holes be now bored at the centres indicated a true fit will be obtained.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00452", "bookId": 21531, "start": 96776, "end": 96836, "sha256": "135a4b158ed92cd4383e50b8fa158e32edea01120ff41a349240c5a0ca5c00d8", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 200.--Method of Dowelling Thick Timber.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00453", "bookId": 21531, "start": 96840, "end": 96922, "sha256": "4e13afe0887e202856d78d5e689db8ab70dabeb0c4f1cc3b5e371fec414f4cce", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 201.--Method of Dowelling Cornice Pole by Means of Template.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00454", "bookId": 21531, "start": 96926, "end": 97536, "sha256": "5c59449f664aa63ec874159ac97b0a82d96f82d7cda3e608b9d24a9298dafdb3", "text": "Fig. 201 _c_ shows two portions of the circular pole jointed up to a corner block, and the dotted lines P indicate the direct line of pressure and shows the position for the cramp. When the glue is thoroughly set the corner block is sawn and spokeshaved to the desired shape as shown by the dotted line. This method is illustrated to show that, by the use of a suitable template, dowels may be exactly set out even when there is no straight or square face from which to use a marking gauge, and the method may, of course, be applied to many other examples of dowelling at the discretion of the workman.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00455", "bookId": 21531, "start": 97540, "end": 97592, "sha256": "b8098947317b9929be58683d31ffb49b54c1ee06d16e0c6c4192d4e9735bdec9", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 202.--Dowelling a Mitred Frame.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00456", "bookId": 21531, "start": 97596, "end": 97678, "sha256": "e1b8e9e55c4853829977d1424584944b69a4641b98f44a1b432593c310529f98", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 203.--Method of Frame Dowelling. (Long and Short Shoulders.)]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00457", "bookId": 21531, "start": 97682, "end": 97732, "sha256": "f1dc349cb46f69f6d60b5f159d3e7678987a3a84f28aaed0d9cf16cdce70fd9c", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 204.--Table Leaf with Dowels.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00458", "bookId": 21531, "start": 97736, "end": 97783, "sha256": "3acde641f1416195b864db02e93bfb489c6b8b9eb5f52fd95d3c9ef4583ea310", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 205.--Block for Twist Bit.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00459", "bookId": 21531, "start": 97787, "end": 97842, "sha256": "fdc98dfd833ddd4f02ed1313b5d7b90c6fe0f46e172f21649f9e078f9e1a083f", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 206.--Dowelling for Moulded Frame.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00460", "bookId": 21531, "start": 97846, "end": 97877, "sha256": "0143f7f3c2c118cc2e82edf7d2940ae8bb0e03b1b6d55958b07092f513f481c5", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 207.--Cap.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00461", "bookId": 21531, "start": 97881, "end": 98233, "sha256": "0a894fed07b86af76cb076bcf51167791b7a7f95e539214be99e72d60baf7e1a", "text": "Fig. 202 shows one corner of a mitred and dowelled frame. It needs little or no explanation beyond the fact that the dowels should be at right angles to the line of joint, and consequently the dowel at the outside edge of the frame will have to be much shorter than the others. This gives a strong and serviceable joint, suitable for many purposes.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00462", "bookId": 21531, "start": 98237, "end": 98666, "sha256": "73b3ce1cfacb1640fe7b60b7966aa9bcdda0123519be23efb55ca7265e3037fe", "text": "FRAME DOWELLING.--Fig. 203 shows one corner of a frame with long and short shoulders, such as occurs when the upright is rebated through its entire length. The holes in both pieces are bored for the dowels before they are rebated. This avoids any difficulty in endeavouring to bore with only one side of the twist bit in the wood. A similar type of joint is used on nearly all kinds of glass and door frames in cabinet work.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00463", "bookId": 21531, "start": 98670, "end": 99117, "sha256": "10f5025f8ac9ba101b1ef048d386f29bc8865a9bf35422bd8e2cf4ad5612c31a", "text": "Fig. 204 is a leaf for the screw type of table. Circular dowels are shown at one end, and rectangular wooden pegs at the other; both methods are equally good, and, of course, the dowels are only glued into one leaf. The object of these dowels is to guide the table leaf into its proper position when the leaf engages the table proper, and to make the flat surface of the table top and leaf register correctly and thus ensure a level surface.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00464", "bookId": 21531, "start": 99121, "end": 99543, "sha256": "f2aae5a52551645d03ecf4aa823c03be16ee571cf67b495bdcc575944dbe1369", "text": "Fig. 205 is a wooden block made in two portions and held together by screws; it is used to fasten around a twist bit, the object being to ensure that all the dowel holes are of uniform depth. It may be adjusted as desired and firmly screwed round the twist bit; if the hole is made 1/4 in. in diameter it will clip round a 1/4-in. or 3/8-in. bit and will answer a dual purpose. It is a preventative for bad dowelling.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00465", "bookId": 21531, "start": 99547, "end": 100043, "sha256": "20c319d503b86f2793dac471d16b9d9074355035586d75862a0dbc56e0e47059", "text": "Fig. 206 is an example of dowelling framing when the moulding on the edge has to be mitred. It is necessary to cut the shoulders away so as to allow the members of the moulding to intersect. The section of the mould is not shown in the sketch for clearness of representation. The portion marked H is called the \"horn,\" and it is not cut off until after the frame is glued up; its object is to prevent the rail splitting or bursting when knocking up the frame or during the cramping process.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00466", "bookId": 21531, "start": 100047, "end": 100204, "sha256": "4c61bd5846a4922514c2086d4fd0f0645484b67fe0fcdd0b3e0f14f2ad2060e0", "text": "Fig. 207 shows the method of dowelling a moulded cap to the top of a wooden bedstead post or similar pillar where it is desired to avoid any unsightliness.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00467", "bookId": 21531, "start": 100208, "end": 100380, "sha256": "93eec33d9e45dc16cd418b863fd472edc783eb7ae4958de7453fbf7afc0f3d19", "text": "Fig. 208 is a dining-table leg and portion of the framing, showing the method of dowelling the frame to the leg. Chairs, couch frames, etc., are made in a similar manner.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00468", "bookId": 21531, "start": 100384, "end": 100907, "sha256": "2974e164cc95d21f889f25fd1696f8a2705caaae43b3cc085c7ae544c8b56de4", "text": "Fig. 209 shows the top portion of a table leg and a home-made dowel gauge. The gauge is made of any hardwood, and steel wire pins are driven through at the required positions and sharpened similar to the spur of a marking gauge. The legs are sawn and planed up true and square, and the advantage of the gauge is that all legs are marked exactly alike and are therefore interchangeable until glued up. A gauge of this type is easily and quickly made and may be kept for its specific purpose or altered for other work.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00469", "bookId": 21531, "start": 100911, "end": 101612, "sha256": "3ebcd2b90e3e86ac78043979b123e3657bc399bc35a3ea4021a5ba9102c42258", "text": "Fig. 210 indicates the Queen Anne type of leg, a sketch of same broken below the knee also being given. Here we have another type of irregular setting out, which is accomplished in the following manner. Saw and plane the broken portion of the leg true as shown; take the timber which is to be jointed and treat it in a similar manner; now place four ordinary pins on the lower portion. Carefully place the top portion to the required position and smartly give it one tap with the hammer; this will cause the pin-heads to leave indentations, and if these be taken as centres for boring, accurate work will result. The new portion of the leg is afterwards sawn and wrought to the desired shape.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00470", "bookId": 21531, "start": 101616, "end": 101776, "sha256": "c35f3a2a5dc209d398b321c1905285e44241b11066d68abebd05b9f24d6a103a", "text": "This is an example of work where it is next to impossible to use a gauge, and as only one joint is required it is not worth the time taken to make a template.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00471", "bookId": 21531, "start": 101780, "end": 101836, "sha256": "3ccdbf9e34d7a6783def4519c77a053e9109c4c2d78fa48626f79236e23d9302", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 208.--Dowelling a Dining-Table Leg.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00472", "bookId": 21531, "start": 101840, "end": 101888, "sha256": "3e202f4eaf0e3968041916f09ae3d81e0dfcc0b1beb1d4f14e749875030b1aa8", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 209.--Dowel Gauge for Legs.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00473", "bookId": 21531, "start": 101892, "end": 101944, "sha256": "1f8eb295b1f9bc33d462dd5821776a7e06549596c56923c0317a19def9b17c05", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 210.--Dowelling a Cabriole Leg.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00474", "bookId": 21531, "start": 101948, "end": 102156, "sha256": "08e30a7f6e512911f165db2bba4ad3e97f780fe1d402b05a4a231d04409027dd", "text": "The tools used in dowelling are: Brace, countersink, dowel-rounder, twist bit, try-square, marking-awl, and the usual bench tools. The first four are illustrated at Figs. 194, 195, 196 and 197 respectively.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00475", "bookId": 21531, "start": 102160, "end": 102264, "sha256": "f3f03be39d1da4d5d18088cfdab19388ba8a72bdf85e7bf0575769ebbcd9e5fe", "text": "The method of working is: Plane up, mark out, bore holes, countersink, glue dowels and complete joints.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00476", "bookId": 21531, "start": 102274, "end": 102289, "sha256": "5b6e2cddef4155ebf5cac46cb06d54902503835aac0106f57c24ea41558f8985", "text": "THE SCARF JOINT", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00477", "bookId": 21531, "start": 102295, "end": 102715, "sha256": "c81d358261541fd2516d06c2fcc4a7dd0266137d7acd5f60f8200336ec0df1a3", "text": "The method known as \"scarfing\" is used for the joining of timber in the direction of its length, enabling the workman to produce a joint with a smooth or flush appearance on all its faces. One of the simplest forms of scarfed joint is known as the half lap, in which a portion is cut out at the end of each beam or joist, equal in depth to half the full depth of the beam, and of equal length to the required scarf.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00478", "bookId": 21531, "start": 102719, "end": 102944, "sha256": "ec8ba448c8a533b90c7f0e8ab1bc71659c120e174929ec579def99e49b225edd", "text": "The two pieces before they are placed together form a joint as shown at Fig. 211, the projecting part (A) fitting into the recessed portion marked B and the two pieces being secured in their respective positions by screws.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00479", "bookId": 21531, "start": 102948, "end": 103092, "sha256": "62d6025df8d50a433146abe8eb517d0df6712028836e526d95ed5f7a9035a035", "text": "Fig. 212 shows a dovetailed scarf joint. This is a variation of Fig. 211, the length of the dovetail lap being from 6 ins. to 8 ins. in length.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00480", "bookId": 21531, "start": 103096, "end": 103434, "sha256": "a401cc25ca4066c7b83a9ba8fb5c2e1dd6ee868ffa0c7313531ac7165b7aacaf", "text": "Fig. 213 is an illustration of a joint designed to resist a cross strain. The face side is left flush, whilst the underside is assisted by an iron plate. The joint is secured with nuts, bolts, and washers. This type of joint is frequently used for joining purlins in roof work; the iron plate on the underside is in this case omitted.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00481", "bookId": 21531, "start": 103438, "end": 103621, "sha256": "4d9d6d4fae83050f25b6935f9264b03170aa7824a337e425555f0b97caf5012a", "text": "Fig. 214 is designed to resist both tension and compression and is an excellent joint for all purposes. The joint is brought together by using folding wedges as shown in the centre.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00482", "bookId": 21531, "start": 103625, "end": 103690, "sha256": "5c1caac7d62006b3bf2dce494f33bb0387d15b71cf7a2e34894ec5a0472dfe4d", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 211.--Half-Lap Scarf Joint for Light Timber.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00483", "bookId": 21531, "start": 103694, "end": 103744, "sha256": "89bacf83b3f58a2a650fe3874a649efa0b76a932a8372c5e701af299c2442d2c", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 212.--Dovetailed Scarf Joint.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00484", "bookId": 21531, "start": 103748, "end": 103812, "sha256": "678d27618b0cfa3ec74d4c6a7bca8cc2be4dadc08813f7276664df11dc3e687e", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 213.--Plated Scarf Joint Used in Roof Work.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00485", "bookId": 21531, "start": 103816, "end": 104206, "sha256": "bda8a6b46bb253a688ded6327653bc03a4ef0e7bb45b1db1fdf52e0a8d9f2969", "text": "Fig. 215 is a variation of Fig. 214, and it will be noticed that tenons are provided on the face and underside to resist cross strain. Probably this is one of the best varieties of the scarfed joint. Unfortunately, however, its production is somewhat costly, and this may be the reason that it is not more universally used. Folding wedges are used to secure the two pieces in position.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00486", "bookId": 21531, "start": 104210, "end": 104257, "sha256": "4266449d6bd1a26cacbfb146acb16fd560175f8ca70230c9e085c1eca5544f36", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 214.--Tenoned Scarf Joint.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00487", "bookId": 21531, "start": 104261, "end": 104315, "sha256": "d90adbafda77f05866f991fc489ea11fc6bf80d004baeda2fb1a5ddd0068a223", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 215.--Double Tenoned Scarf Joint.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00488", "bookId": 21531, "start": 104319, "end": 104374, "sha256": "b18b96a5fcca0b3275c2d5da703c39c22d25766bc824b92eafe0db31122de3da", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 216.--Scarf Joint with Vee'd ends.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00489", "bookId": 21531, "start": 104378, "end": 104646, "sha256": "9ef1371001e8c613c1524a0d758558a28565807178a34dd564ecfbb384414c53", "text": "Fig. 216 is a scarfed joint with undercut vee'd ends which prevent the joint from lipping up or down or sideways. It is a useful joint, calling for careful setting out and accurate craftsmanship. Folding wedges are used in this case to draw up and secure the joint.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00490", "bookId": 21531, "start": 104650, "end": 105301, "sha256": "62491b1ce0320a30dba8dfac8bb7c5c1a59bec7cc3201f4c23df4542e0bd8ffa", "text": "Fig. 217 is a \"fished joint,\" and the following difference between a scarfed and fished joint should be noted. A fished joint need not necessarily reduce the total length of the beams to be joined, and fish plates of wood or iron (or a combination of both) are fastened at each side of the joint. In a scarf joint all surfaces are flush. In Fig. 217 the beams are butt-jointed and secured by wooden plates and iron bolts. The upper plate is let into each beam, and the lower plate is provided with two wooden keys to prevent the beams sliding (or \"creeping\") upon the lower plate. Iron nuts, bolts, and washers are used to complete the joint.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00491", "bookId": 21531, "start": 105305, "end": 105345, "sha256": "a4e22c0916e6479b59f5d7963d57903a5c4bbe9f000c034292a5d4f478301d91", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 217.--Fished Joint.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00492", "bookId": 21531, "start": 105349, "end": 105588, "sha256": "1d120ccb7628d33ce9ceae93b0db26277117937611f91d3ed3b4cac7b6bbc815", "text": "In the case of the scarfed joint at Fig. 218 (used for purlins) the length of the scarf is usually made about four times that of the depth of tie beam. It has two hardwood keys which force the pieces together and thus tighten the joint.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00493", "bookId": 21531, "start": 105592, "end": 105654, "sha256": "08141cdb7f9417127850619edbe54873743154973b664e5f783fc9841398e0f1", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 218.--Detail of Scarfed Joint in Purlins.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00494", "bookId": 21531, "start": 105658, "end": 105879, "sha256": "0ab196113dad1dd08046a34edfdbc18e7ea4d9774c3c628b1bde0b9768494296", "text": "The methods of scarfing and fish-jointing are many and varied, and, in selecting a joint, the nature of the pieces to be joined and the direction and the amount of the load should be carefully taken into consideration.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00495", "bookId": 21531, "start": 105883, "end": 106274, "sha256": "851bd076e8fbdedb8738779deb348f1f35f7abcb4df6d4498c2fecada3403f38", "text": "The above joints come under the heading of carpentry, and the ordinary tools such as the saw, plane, boring-bit and chisels are all that are requisite and necessary to produce a sound and serviceable joint. Scarfed joints are generally of large size, and they are usually made by placing the work upon sawing trestles owing to the bench being too small to accommodate the large timbers.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00496", "bookId": 21531, "start": 106278, "end": 106341, "sha256": "784da1f8aa01605652f291115b700dbf7d448e1c5a45dcd22d123425e361dd99", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 219.--Example of Tabled Joint with Straps.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00497", "bookId": 21531, "start": 106345, "end": 106420, "sha256": "08ccb46dd6eb93188a0b1e587453e55592c9725c547f7b58c7751cf36d5c5635", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 220.--Lapped Scarf Joint with Bolts for Heavy Timber.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00498", "bookId": 21531, "start": 106424, "end": 106756, "sha256": "eba3bd220bf0f5737d1c8db2d9dc8c35b01be81e4dcaf39507d71486aa501b7f", "text": "Fig. 219 is a tabled scarf joint which admirably resists tension and compression. It is very easy to make and fit, and is not materially affected by shrinkage. The rectangular wrought iron straps are knocked up over the joint after the two pieces engage. The length of the joint should be approximately five times its thickness.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00499", "bookId": 21531, "start": 106760, "end": 107123, "sha256": "a5472d6c951867e1fe651bc01b1ebd90d800e93ef8e796fd0fc1fdea40138a63", "text": "Fig. 220 is an example of a lapped scarf joint which is secured with nuts and bolts. It effectively resists compressional stress in vertical posts and it may, if required, be strengthened by the addition of wrought iron fish plates. It is quite a serviceable joint for all general purposes, such as shed or garage building where fairly heavy timbers are used.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00500", "bookId": 21531, "start": 107133, "end": 107149, "sha256": "fd4b524567a9a8242d699fa56dddcd3536a75fcd5ccdfc573242fca0388afe71", "text": "THE HINGED JOINT", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00501", "bookId": 21531, "start": 107155, "end": 107529, "sha256": "64c1120b40ddd7362b505b8e912a7cd41bb01998857453f3aef2e3b112f01a01", "text": "One of the most common forms of hinged joint in use to-day is that formed by using the \"butt\" hinge, and many troubles experienced by the amateur, such as \"hinge-bound,\" \"stop-bound,\" and \"screw-bound\" doors, etc., are due to a lack of knowledge of the principles of hingeing. Hinges call for careful gauging and accurate fitting, otherwise trouble is certain to occur.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00502", "bookId": 21531, "start": 107533, "end": 108121, "sha256": "8c20a95a46645d144c738cb543e129d353e72bec809aeaa7146668eefcaccf43", "text": "A \"BOUND\" door or box lid is said to be hinge-bound when the recess which contains the hinge is cut too deep. The frame and the body portion engage too tightly when closed, the result being that the door has always a tendency to open a little. This fault may be in many cases remedied by packing behind the hinge with one or two thicknesses of good stiff brown paper. For packing purposes such as this paper will be found to be of much more value than thin strips of wood or knife-cut veneer, the latter always having a great tendency to split when a screw or bradawl is inserted.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00503", "bookId": 21531, "start": 108125, "end": 108452, "sha256": "0c5c81c0b3ce74cf628aa2a4c2440e9a3d81aa01a7579651b236fe7cfb0bcf44", "text": "A stop-bound door is the name applied when the door is not finished to exactly the same thickness as originally intended. This causes the door to bind on the stops at the back, as shown at Fig. 221. The difficulty may be remedied by thinning the door a little at the back, or slightly rounding away the portion which binds.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00504", "bookId": 21531, "start": 108456, "end": 108721, "sha256": "b4ad1edf573d6eb5976cc49223dbc5c152958519dc80516b18fc831b18eb3e0b", "text": "Screw-bound is a common fault often overlooked by the amateur. It is caused by using screws of which the heads are too large for the countersunk holes in the hinge, and may be avoided by slightly sinking the holes in the brasswork with a countersink or rose-bit.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00505", "bookId": 21531, "start": 108725, "end": 108768, "sha256": "f8b4b7597efbf0b3f9553acd8af48c612d96d5773faf8e73a11185a17617727e", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 221.--Stop-bound Door.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00506", "bookId": 21531, "start": 108772, "end": 108810, "sha256": "45cf37a3a0a8b578d6043dc1cb9434fda92d71f22f4ba80ad2c3a68d2e881dca", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 222.--Butt Hinge.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00507", "bookId": 21531, "start": 108814, "end": 108849, "sha256": "df899cae5468cfcfeac1061f67a21adfdba4e7d9c09ea53816ff39c7f8e07e80", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 223.--Gauging.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00508", "bookId": 21531, "start": 108853, "end": 108899, "sha256": "04a6a019ae95140b18f03bd820be08d5baee3758715355aa7a8459638ffb39b7", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 224.--Marking for Recess.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00509", "bookId": 21531, "start": 108903, "end": 108952, "sha256": "6fefed1b3db56f498c16d2f582f52a14e7f6a96d7729d68d8c9fac5ededf3fa0", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 225.--Sawing for the Recess.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00510", "bookId": 21531, "start": 108956, "end": 109278, "sha256": "759e0440564398837bbb2e56cc049a4320ddbfa504a0b65ea6a6501dfaab7f67", "text": "ALIGNMENT.--Another fault that is fairly common is having the axes of the hinges out of alignment. Especially is this the case when three hinges are used to hang a wardrobe or other large door. It is absolutely necessary in all cases that the exact centres of the pivot-pins of the hinges should be in a straight line.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00511", "bookId": 21531, "start": 109282, "end": 109798, "sha256": "74d45080ebb6fc3e34e81c016dc416d2774b387581f1158916ff15c2e6e3a502", "text": "Particular attention to alignment is necessary when the body and the door frame are shaped on the face side. A familiar example that every reader may inspect for himself is the curved side of a railway carriage body and railway carriage door, where he will notice that a specially wide hinge has to be used at the bottom of the door to give the necessary alignment. Hinges fixed on work with their centres out of truth are often overlooked by the inexperienced worker, and this is a frequent cause of creaking.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00512", "bookId": 21531, "start": 109802, "end": 110776, "sha256": "cd6b8632de8108b551feda60a82f77cccca8030b8c601719a5d012979eae6e8b", "text": "GAUGING.--Fig. 222 is a sketch of a brass butt hinge, open. Fig. 223 illustrates a similar hinge closed, and shows the gauge set so that the point of the marker is exactly to the centre of the pivot-pin. This distance we will call C. Now turn to Fig. 224. The distance C has been gauged from the face side of the frame. The gauge is then set to the thickness of the hinge at its thickest portion, and to prevent \"hinge-bind\" see that the gauge is set on the _fine_ side. Remember that the tapered point of the steel spur or marking awl will part the fibres of the timber a little more than the fine point, and give you a wider gauge line than was anticipated when you set the gauge. The inexperienced worker nearly always overlooks this. The result is a hinge-bound door, the cause of which is not discovered by the worker because he is so sure that he has set the gauge correctly. The distance B, Fig. 226, shows the line gauged for the thickness of the hinge.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00513", "bookId": 21531, "start": 110780, "end": 111038, "sha256": "9d97f79dd8e85d1b0524528fd972181d702cd641b728e49bd5481c2d8c6e4b2e", "text": "POSITION OF HINGES.--Another difficulty to the beginner is the position for his hinges, and it may here be stated that the general rule is to carry a line across the face of the work from the inside of the cross rail and place the hinge at E, as Fig. 224.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00514", "bookId": 21531, "start": 111042, "end": 111130, "sha256": "940a09fe8d5b6fe8df21daabb9c5a6ffa1aa6ea6260d23c31ce9fd0744f658a8", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 226.--Tool Operation when Paring Out the Hinge Recess in the Door.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00515", "bookId": 21531, "start": 111134, "end": 111682, "sha256": "5d08990301310db1550513186c4fac8e088b524c65bd1bae600fb82cc7c5d8f0", "text": "SAWING FOR THE RECESS.--After marking out for the hinge, as shown at Fig. 224, take a fine-toothed saw (a dovetail saw is considered the best) and saw down as shown at Fig. 225, care being taken not to cut beyond the gauge lines. In this sketch three intermediate saw kerfs are shown, but if the hinge is of great length, say 5 or 6 ins., the removal of the waste wood will be greatly facilitated by the addition of more intermediate saw kerfs. These cuts sever the cross fibres and allow the timber to be easily pared away in short lengths.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00516", "bookId": 21531, "start": 111686, "end": 112118, "sha256": "c48d9e8567627679e01d5c933d5d9889eae616d4c2a0f4c36b6fd46b7d541a51", "text": "In Fig. 226 we see the tool operation when paring out the hinge recess. At the left of the drawing the recess is shown marked. Take a 3/4 in. chisel and, using it as a knife (see A), deepen the gauge lines. Then stab the chisel downwards, as at B, to deepen the end lines. Next, take the chisel and pare away the back of the recess as at C. The work may then be completed by paring neatly till the bottom of the recess is flat.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00517", "bookId": 21531, "start": 112122, "end": 112185, "sha256": "4866d19f1c426ba2841d31b62ebf87138430cc17cd6a0ab70d5c79b167d34d47", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 227., Fig. 228. The Hingeing of a Box Lid.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00518", "bookId": 21531, "start": 112189, "end": 112740, "sha256": "d3cfa73423c515c2b91fa3fcd99de0d4c4fcd66b5ad417a796ed0cfeb1062b65", "text": "STOPPED HINGED JOINTS FOR BOX WORK.--Fig. 227 is a section through a small box similar to a lady's work-box (the back of the box in the illustration is enlarged in thickness to clearly show the position of the hinge). In this case the knuckle of the hinge is let into the woodwork until it is flush with the back of the box, and the gauge would have to be set to the total width of the hinge. The back edges of the lid and the back edge of the lower portion of the box are planed away at an angle of 45 degrees as indicated by the dotted lines.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00519", "bookId": 21531, "start": 112744, "end": 113269, "sha256": "d51f6d78d306ba3231e6e1a1176ea2e4f1d44257dfa0e92548e97dd6ccf3c107", "text": "Fig. 228 shows the same box with the lid open, and it will be observed that the chamfered edges come together and form a stop which prevents the lid falling backwards and breaking the box. This method of letting-in the knuckle flush is a useful one for box work because the ordinary stock brass butt hinge can be used. Attention may, however, be called to the \"stopped butt-hinge,\" which is specially made to answer the above purpose; in its action a similar mechanical principle as the one applied to the box is used.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00520", "bookId": 21531, "start": 113273, "end": 113312, "sha256": "c16eaf8915d08227b0b50b58284b40bb191ed0312a2583f17ed31b847da5e3ca", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 229.--Strap Hinge.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00521", "bookId": 21531, "start": 113316, "end": 113385, "sha256": "b75efc3e1caf0e3dc57caa7d99bfd4fd252900bb319a9bf108fdf537eb53a307", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 230.--Reversible or Double-folding Screen Hinge.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00522", "bookId": 21531, "start": 113389, "end": 113440, "sha256": "eaf9a031ffeda05ee1d0b9bddd00e385bd8030b7bc9e10bb475dab51e4ef2613", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 231.--Pivot Hinge for Screens.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00523", "bookId": 21531, "start": 113444, "end": 113499, "sha256": "2a1929a8ac976a3599f34c83baa3f43546ee21699f0aa010575b8dcc4b44af72", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 232.--Non-reversible Screen Hinge.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00524", "bookId": 21531, "start": 113503, "end": 113913, "sha256": "73dd16c75b98fd55bfbe546a775773e2f89a481a3a5281e8351f0380f29385fe", "text": "TYPES OF HINGES.--Fig. 229 is an elongated variety of the butt hinge, known in the trade as \"strap hinge,\" \"desk hinge,\" or \"bagatelle hinge.\" As its name indicates, it is used on folding bagatelle tables, small writing desks, and other types of work that have but a narrow margin on which to fix the hinges. The long, narrow plates are sunk flush into the wood, the knuckle or rounded portion projecting.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00525", "bookId": 21531, "start": 113917, "end": 113960, "sha256": "35b54b35b79972af145a4cc25ec12d721aaf167a98bc788e67ac6eb12c1fbcba", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 233.--Back Flap Hinge.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00526", "bookId": 21531, "start": 113964, "end": 114008, "sha256": "21a26aaabd57e92301625e2fd9f250a212edb3c11c66eca71fe562b0c2359155", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 234.--Card Table Hinge.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00527", "bookId": 21531, "start": 114012, "end": 114051, "sha256": "95bf0083c4a09fd7d8376ad1ddb8234833b8712d5b644d4c5b16457fa30d494d", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 235.--Pivot Hinge.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00528", "bookId": 21531, "start": 114055, "end": 114100, "sha256": "695c5b7488348d5c7038000967eade8cf9c3ea9f40bb5ce38d0362b445a48e2f", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 236.--Rising Butt Hinge.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00529", "bookId": 21531, "start": 114104, "end": 114350, "sha256": "184e08faede4d6e88d8b5af3d20db402b5ba8aabef283ffb8e09754665b72ae7", "text": "Fig. 230 is an illustration of the reversible or double-folding screen hinge. Half the thickness of this hinge is let into each wing of the draught screen, allowing the screen to be folded either way. The hinge is costly, but effective in use.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00530", "bookId": 21531, "start": 114354, "end": 114444, "sha256": "2e672f97ae5f673d67bbda14c32a5b701868d3b448d3708d376789693feedd07", "text": "Fig. 231 is a type of pivot hinge which is used to fix at the top and bottom of a screen.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00531", "bookId": 21531, "start": 114448, "end": 114551, "sha256": "b50097367c4cfcd4f5a6088bff7cb115cdc99fc7803265156d5b3ccd39c128ea", "text": "Fig. 232 is the non-reversible screen hinge and, as its name implies, will only fold in one direction.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00532", "bookId": 21531, "start": 114555, "end": 114679, "sha256": "dd844e8948fbbde3fe9ff19171f9e733ea94fce866d18374ebb4703e5000bc8e", "text": "Fig. 233 is a back flap hinge with a specially wide wing, used for the fall-down leaf of small tables and similar articles.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00533", "bookId": 21531, "start": 114683, "end": 114820, "sha256": "866edea1e8ac80f0f2a3f5e4e5624ee53cc90b8ad3be0cf7721ee4e7f8dd8159", "text": "Fig. 234 is a card table hinge. This is let into the edges of the table, so that all is flush or level both above and below the surface.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00534", "bookId": 21531, "start": 114824, "end": 115220, "sha256": "95df6d18b7a733d23b6b6e03aa123a25b747e478695c0d765cf559ce988501eb", "text": "CENTRE OR PIVOT HINGES.--Fig. 235 is a centre or pivot hinge, used on the top and bottom of wardrobe doors, more particularly the interior door of a three-winged wardrobe where the method of fixing is confined to the cornice and plinth. The flange carrying the pins or pivot is let into the top and bottom of the door, the remaining flange being let into the cornice and plinth respectively.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00535", "bookId": 21531, "start": 115224, "end": 115699, "sha256": "07a65550e6d8dadbb1536a773582dc5c8d696f7672bfcd2681ef25b6a292373a", "text": "RISING BUTT HINGES.--Fig. 236 is the rising butt hinge, used on dining and drawing-room doors, so that when the door is opened the door rises sufficiently to clear the thickness of the carpet. This hinge has also an advantage over the ordinary butt hinge in that it is self-closing, _i.e._, the weight of the door _plus_ the bevel on the hinge joint causes the door to close. Band and hook hinges and other ordinary varieties are too well known to require illustrating.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00536", "bookId": 21531, "start": 115703, "end": 116452, "sha256": "879abefd8d45f2280604b75e1a5d3c09548727d6497f81fc187ce3e878f76556", "text": "ACUTE ANGLE HINGEING.--Fig. 237 is a sectional plan of a corner cupboard showing a good method of hingeing the door. The inset _a_ shows an enlarged view of the corner carrying the hinge, also the adaptor piece _c_, which is fitted to the inside edge of the cupboard so that the hinged edges are at 90 degrees to the face. This is a far better and stronger method than that shown at _b_, which is often attempted with disastrous results. The incorrect method _b_ allows insufficient wood for fixing purposes, and in nearly all cases the thin edge of the door breaks away during the making and fitting, or soon after completion. The adaptor piece may have a face mould worked upon it to give a pilaster-like appearance if fancy so dictates.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00537", "bookId": 21531, "start": 116456, "end": 116516, "sha256": "94a46c30c4974ce40ae92a7a44b7a94f725b3543f83192c7b655f80f76e29ee7", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 237.--Hingeing Door of Corner Cupboard.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00538", "bookId": 21531, "start": 116520, "end": 116622, "sha256": "bd52ee1adb47994685a47a4016aa069bbdf9a00c1dafebbe58debb99ac55f5d3", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 238.--Inside Hingeing: Method of Letting Butt Hinge into Door Frame and Carcase.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00539", "bookId": 21531, "start": 116626, "end": 117380, "sha256": "b98243730cb95f7163be8eb9127b8a198f886c73449b176d283b1f019f08c76c", "text": "INSIDE HINGEING.--When a door is being hung _inside_ the carcase (that is, not hinged _over_ the ends) it is permissible, in the case of light work, to let the whole thickness of the hinge into the door; and when screwing the door to the carcase it is usual to fix the knuckle of the hinge flush with the face of the carcase, thus allowing the door frame to stand back, making a break of about 1/8 in. with the face. The marking gauge should be set to the full width of the hinge; the mark, gauged on the inside of the carcase end, thus forms a line to guide the worker whilst fixing the door. To successfully fix a door it generally requires two persons, one to hold the door in position, whilst the other bores the holes and fixes the screws.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00540", "bookId": 21531, "start": 117384, "end": 117478, "sha256": "30a5fcee412a1968244c2bbe5a3abf8283c6cda1abb921c6371479b553d1199a", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 239.--Showing Top and Bottom of Carcase Cut Back to allow Door to Close.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00541", "bookId": 21531, "start": 117482, "end": 117526, "sha256": "cd08aecb976cd699aa8dd3b8446a3374134f0852c4f721bfcbad8e11bc442525", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 240.--Outside Hingeing.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00542", "bookId": 21531, "start": 117530, "end": 117565, "sha256": "10b3fcb05e077bf67a942b8766c6cdadfe662a2ba349884f466fd786bc51e68d", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 241.--Section.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00543", "bookId": 21531, "start": 117569, "end": 118178, "sha256": "9ccbb554e09b98ad06ab748f792ce49d40c3d23459a8773293fae59af850aca3", "text": "Fig. 238 shows the correct method of fitting butt hinges on high-class work. One wing of the hinge is let into the door, and the other wing is let into the carcase or door jamb, thus distributing a proportion of the weight to the carcase end instead of allowing the whole of the weight to be carried by the screws as would be the case in _a_, Fig. 237. The method of sinking each portion of the hinge into the door and carcase respectively is costly; hence it is not the general practice in cheap work. In Fig. 239 the top and bottom of carcase (T and B) are shown set back to allow the door to close.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00544", "bookId": 21531, "start": 118182, "end": 118898, "sha256": "a98c3613cb8d1ceb7d3e0a4fb657482d490f87ab2f01b22ceb2497d53d45832b", "text": "OUTSIDE HINGEING.--Fig. 240 illustrates the portion of a door frame and carcase end when the door is hung on the face of the carcase. The correct method of letting in the hinge is shown in the enlarged section (Fig. 241), but, as previously mentioned, the hinge may have its entire thickness let into the door frame where it is of a light character. The door frame projects slightly over the carcase end, and occasionally a bead mould is worked on the edge of the door so as to give a finish and partly hide the joint. The bead would, of course, be the same size as the diameter of the knuckle of the hinge; and the knuckle, therefore, will form a continuation of the bead and give a workmanshiplike finish.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00545", "bookId": 21531, "start": 118902, "end": 119487, "sha256": "53c890ad081a1ae478e3d8d64ec7f3e885ab435b477ff022b976c0b3d082434e", "text": "FALL FRONTS.--Fig. 242 is a sectional view of a fall front writing bureau fitted with centre or pivot hinges and arranged so that the edges form a stop when the desk front is turned to a horizontal position. The position for the fitting of the brass plates carrying the pivot-pin is somewhat awkward; but, by first sinking the plates into the carcase ends, and then slotting the edges of the fall, it will be found that the fall front may be put in from its horizontal position, and that sufficient room is left to enable the screwdriver to be manipulated without inconvenience.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00546", "bookId": 21531, "start": 119491, "end": 119547, "sha256": "d85f64f9cd2a6fbcc05d3e0a4a3dd23193df8391f424b8d8a20dea8181b7eb82", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 242.--Fall Front of Writing Bureau.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00547", "bookId": 21531, "start": 119551, "end": 119639, "sha256": "c93071e13dce4a9cb4333c4e6e637322e49eabf95197961cb65120cab141ef8c", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 243.--Revolving Fly Rail for Table. See Pivoted Fly or Front Rail.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00548", "bookId": 21531, "start": 119643, "end": 119696, "sha256": "9557c7158fc836444bdd2fdb3a9a9324ff3098a35a30ff7f409f51e592a1049f", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 244.--Draught Screen Tape Hinge.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00549", "bookId": 21531, "start": 119700, "end": 120009, "sha256": "211ec4db8946ce943e8b2d21aa58a72843cb8f158ec58810c90854598e362d39", "text": "FLY RAIL.--Fig. 243 is a sketch of a small table with the top removed. A revolving fly rail is shown pivoted upon a piece of 1/4-in. wire. The object of this fly rail is to form a support to the small hinged drop-leaf of the table. This method is suitable for small occasional tables and similar articles.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00550", "bookId": 21531, "start": 120013, "end": 120572, "sha256": "4362eaf2802e144a9f5eb4e9ee244b5a1b2904f46c082cbca99f14d1a3a40d62", "text": "DRAUGHT SCREENS.--Fig. 244 illustrates the end elevation and plan of a draught screen which is constructed of a light framework and covered with baize or American cloth. The reversible double-folding hinge (Fig. 230) would answer admirably for such a screen. Cases occur, however, where it is desired to hinge a screen to be used for an invalid's bedside, and it is then important that all draught should be excluded through the jointed edges. The double reversible hinge will not fulfil these conditions, and the following method is therefore adopted.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00551", "bookId": 21531, "start": 120576, "end": 120806, "sha256": "dee32103ac4c973f818b533b69328b78f3c78046f5e0b8cfcd19dd823a334e6e", "text": "In the plan, Fig. 244, A and B, two laths of hardwood (beech, birch or mahogany answer splendidly) are shown. They are made the same length and the same width as the edges of the screen, the corners being slightly rounded away.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00552", "bookId": 21531, "start": 120810, "end": 121661, "sha256": "0e92d3253b3bc16814fb3a84c692a34dd6aa6768102875d51a29116ace2359e4", "text": "A double-folding, draught-proof hinge is then made as follows: Procure good fine webbing, about 1-1/4 in. wide, and the necessary large-headed tacks. Lay the laths side by side as shown in Fig. 244, and proceed to web them as shown. Commence with the web under the lath A; bring it between the laths and over B; now take it round the left-hand edge of B, and round the back and between the laths and over A, continuing this method of wrapping the laths until the lower end is reached, and then fastening the webbing as indicated by the dotted lines which represent the tacks. This self-contained hinge is then fixed to the edges of the screen by boring suitable holes through the laths and using countersunk screws. This is a cheap and efficient method of overcoming the difficulty. A similar method is used for the household clothes horse.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00553", "bookId": 21531, "start": 121665, "end": 121711, "sha256": "be4b5c73929bfe8fb3dc780f8dca5101b8faf2635f9e952396aa6ada0f9435bf", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 245.--Finger Joint Hinge.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00554", "bookId": 21531, "start": 121715, "end": 121766, "sha256": "ea0becdbdabc0e0854459834a8fac30086c41cb272fc8f7a56387f52870e6fa9", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 246.--The Knuckle Joint Hinge.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00555", "bookId": 21531, "start": 121770, "end": 122575, "sha256": "70405f9ae2889dfe931b0019df9c9dfc9faf6ab91201a809166962c214117fd7", "text": "FINGER JOINT HINGE.--Fig. 245 is a finger joint--a movable interlocking joint used to support the leaf of a Pembroke table. The small portion is screwed to the table rail and the shaped bracket swings out to support the drop leaf. The shaded portion of the bracket shows the timber chamfered away so that the fingers may be easily put behind the bracket to manipulate it. Note that the corners are slightly rounded off, as indicated by the black portion of the sketch, and that the mortises are cut about 1/4 in. deeper than the thickness of the timber used. This joint has now been almost superseded by a cheap stamped galvanised iron bracket of exactly the same pattern. The joint, however, is still used for repair work and in cases where a stamped metal bracket has not sufficient overhang.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00556", "bookId": 21531, "start": 122579, "end": 122626, "sha256": "60f0cd501014e81ff08eb2463d4da4d70d9f27c89ba2da340b50dcd4cc1d257c", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 247.--Open Joint Hingeing.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00557", "bookId": 21531, "start": 122630, "end": 123130, "sha256": "164c33e3a88742aed9fb9821d49ad512e94aa840612b7a85e6fb9ace665c195b", "text": "KNUCKLE JOINT HINGE.--Fig. 246 is a similar type of joint to the above, and is called the knuckle joint. This arrangement of hingeing allows the table leg to swing in an angle of 180 degrees and is much neater in its appearance. It is often used to connect a movable table leg to the framing, where it is necessary for the table leg and rail to swing outwards and support a drop leaf. The pivot is formed by a piece of 1/8-in. or 1/4-in. round iron rod running through the centre of the joint.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00558", "bookId": 21531, "start": 123134, "end": 123191, "sha256": "a72701537bb21c63b9b99a4670ff26b1fe87653695af61040b1c37501c83bda6", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 248.--Clearing the Architrave Mould.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00559", "bookId": 21531, "start": 123195, "end": 123317, "sha256": "cf2a7952635bbf4ae52aec60e1a6f9746356a401b8f8e271d5f497a0057d9523", "text": "OPEN JOINT HINGEING.--The next three illustrations apply more particularly to the hanging of the ordinary household door.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00560", "bookId": 21531, "start": 123321, "end": 123777, "sha256": "ebbdf7955646a263707b6378295d4a95cfc270ae8f2aa4f04f8caeba20785713", "text": "Fig. 247 is termed \"open joint hanging,\" from the fact that when the door is open a certain amount of open space exists between the edge of the door and the doorpost. This open space varies according to the position in which the butt hinge is fixed. A section is shown at which the pin of the hinge is let in level with the face of the door. This will allow the door to open as shown by the dotted line, and it will not clear the architrave moulding.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00561", "bookId": 21531, "start": 123781, "end": 123829, "sha256": "51c45510b3e910ecc86e3e6169dd24681d081d0b5539dab1250ca2b0823bc8b1", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 249.--Close Joint Hingeing.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00562", "bookId": 21531, "start": 123833, "end": 124113, "sha256": "4e5a9c2e324c48721f1e6089122ddf1135f0e40d2d87de10835b6af6d693e962", "text": "Fig. 248 indicates the position of the hinge fixed so as to allow the door to open and lay flat back to the architrave moulding. In this instance the butts are made with wider wings, and they are generally provided to take three screws (see Fig. 233, right-hand wing of hinge).", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00563", "bookId": 21531, "start": 124117, "end": 124364, "sha256": "74745a3a35c643eb4fb434c5f87bfc117a32eeeebb16c40936673891ce30558d", "text": "To determine the position of the centre pin of the hinge the following rule is observed. The centre of the pivot pin of the hinge must be _half the distance_ between the face of the door, when closed, and the outside of the architrave moulding.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00564", "bookId": 21531, "start": 124368, "end": 124771, "sha256": "c79524f402936747e1b21d7c94146516323d04826fc8cb34fec7c0fc5ba0d54c", "text": "CLOSE JOINT HANGING.--The method known as \"close joint hanging\" ensures the joint at the hanging stile being in close proximity to the hanging rail; this is shown at Fig. 249. The first member of the architrave moulding is generally a bead of the same diameter as the knuckle of the hinge. The butt hinge is let in as shown in the illustration, and the door when opened forms a close-fitting joint.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00565", "bookId": 21531, "start": 124775, "end": 124835, "sha256": "f1646f8757867a9c127f89f693d552adfdedb9719a8c9afc8f2692a37c1015bc", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 250.--Rule Joint Hinge, with Leaf Open.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00566", "bookId": 21531, "start": 124839, "end": 125248, "sha256": "bffa9fe628cbb894a7f19bdef27f706921c6e629e1c1052ee00f4525e5c5cbbb", "text": "THE RULE JOINT HINGE is used to connect the top and the drop leaf of a table in cases where continuity of design is desired, so that the edge of the top and the leaf will show an ovolo moulding when the table is either open or closed. To the inexperienced worker it presents several difficulties and, if it is a first effort, it is advisable to try out a sample joint on a couple of odd pieces of timber.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00567", "bookId": 21531, "start": 125252, "end": 125649, "sha256": "40b5b67fcb1fcbadb045537040162d198a92a1a383315eea398df6e9f759225f", "text": "Fig. 250 illustrates the joint when the leaf is opened or in a horizontal position. At Fig. 252 we have the joint when the leaf is let down to a vertical position. It should be observed in the latter figure that the edge A of the drop leaf is in alignment with the axis of the hinge. Steel or brass back-flap hinges (Fig. 233) are generally used and they are sunk into the table as suggested.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00568", "bookId": 21531, "start": 125653, "end": 125907, "sha256": "89e25d14aa7988be4455d819e72b012d0c0b10d7a65958df0e86fe0d07b1b9c1", "text": "Set out the work full size as at Fig. 251, and mark point 1, which is to be the position of the joint. Draw 1, 2, at right angles to the table top. Mark point 3 on the vertical line for the centre of the hinge, and mark point 4 approximately as shown.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00569", "bookId": 21531, "start": 125911, "end": 125971, "sha256": "a98c1d20e0b5f2b4d4f41818f0c5f2f83f2286310d0112192928991786ee4c0c", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 251.--Setting Out for Rule Joint Hinge.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00570", "bookId": 21531, "start": 125975, "end": 126032, "sha256": "ac4a69d0e0fd3a6601489d275848d9cfd990d611df2f2130a6ed892a8f108cb0", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 252.--The Rule Joint with Leaf Down.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00571", "bookId": 21531, "start": 126036, "end": 126435, "sha256": "39baf3006ccd18ac793e1c86feb620541f553e730eb59bdfe7871c8e173e3f90", "text": "With compass point on 3 and radius 3 to 4, describe an arc 4 to 5. This gives us the true joint line (1, 4, 5). The distance 0 to 3 is usually determined by the hinge. The knuckle of the back flap hinge is always let into the under side of the wood and the further it is inserted into the wood the more the joint will overlap at A (Fig. 252) which shows the joint when the flap or leaf is down.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00572", "bookId": 21531, "start": 126445, "end": 126460, "sha256": "05fc398a79d729343d4e8b339665afa73bbef984be3526157d072ed31cc2dc74", "text": "SHUTTING JOINTS", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00573", "bookId": 21531, "start": 126466, "end": 126855, "sha256": "964d90f78cd08dd0ca99b7944d10344414a28b31166fa0ddc57fc174aa2391b0", "text": "This chapter deals with the joint made by the upright rail of a door frame which carries the lock, or handle, generally called the \"slamming stile.\" Many and varied are the methods used to make a draught and air-tight joint at the meeting of the slamming stile and the carcase end, and our sketches illustrate some of the simplest and also some of the best and most expensive methods.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00574", "bookId": 21531, "start": 126859, "end": 126918, "sha256": "fb1013a55157ff3fbdc59a96b88468f7fdc0dbf455eaec34f21e94a49ec262e5", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 253.--Shutting Stile of Cupboard Door.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00575", "bookId": 21531, "start": 126922, "end": 126990, "sha256": "d3e114daacb90b95314e53a5d61cc23195115e4c86b9eb6c88fcb6e4dd1635a5", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 254.--Showing Cupboard End Thicknessed (see B).]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00576", "bookId": 21531, "start": 126994, "end": 127046, "sha256": "7d333ba8c947b7d1dc84f003877659c9eb7c702d15002549cc2bbca05c8cc4d7", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 255.--Dust-proof Cupboard Door.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00577", "bookId": 21531, "start": 127050, "end": 127347, "sha256": "aba91d430a96810b2b3942071fcb5b9d262c92a169028fc82157810488774b6d", "text": "Fig. 253 is a part plan of the end of a simple cupboard of which the carcase end is all of one thickness (_i.e._, not lined up in thickness). A small strip of wood (A) is glued and screwed on the end to form a stop to the door and to prevent the access of dust to the interior of the cupboard.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00578", "bookId": 21531, "start": 127351, "end": 127675, "sha256": "2027ec5905ed130faaa5694dbd88526434a445a22afc294d4410915f8fccea70", "text": "Fig. 254 illustrates a similar method; the stop (C) is seen, as in the previous illustration, but it will be noticed also that the carcase end in this case is lined up (see B) to give a pilaster-like appearance to the end, and the moulding is selected on account of its suitability to hide the joint of the lining piece.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00579", "bookId": 21531, "start": 127679, "end": 128153, "sha256": "51d2e3376baaa7b51a188275ac342f5721a4b3c6f32adf6865e74486e8dac7a1", "text": "Fig. 255 is of a more intricate type, and is often used on jewellers' showcases. The end at the right hand is slightly rebated to receive the frame, and both the rail and the end are grooved with a plough plane. A separate bead is made and glued into the groove of the door frame (D), engaging the groove in the carcase end when the door is closed. The shutting stile and the end are worked with a hook joint (E), and if carefully made they are practically dust-tight.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00580", "bookId": 21531, "start": 128157, "end": 128221, "sha256": "275e0cf6cb0ed8725601a435a727514c04993a4aa552f7f000cf3c453170a8bd", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 256.--Meeting Stiles with rebated Astragal.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00581", "bookId": 21531, "start": 128225, "end": 128278, "sha256": "4440200e07df715e1d89f813acb876e74ff9787c99154e44b7aaf5e1d97b53c8", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 257.--Door Rebated for Astragal.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00582", "bookId": 21531, "start": 128282, "end": 128334, "sha256": "87e9b73c4d746b1d3af5fa312bb7348f4e5a7da6ca210a7f6c4ad932e7da3e3d", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 258.--Door with Brass Astragal.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00583", "bookId": 21531, "start": 128338, "end": 128556, "sha256": "abbf76da79a8ac95e310f122a42379804dc30e4e5d00906875b9faf1a2eef6de", "text": "Fig. 256 shows the meeting of two doors which open outwards, a separate piece of timber being made to form a rebated astragal mould (F) and glued to the right-hand door. This method gives a neat and effective finish.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00584", "bookId": 21531, "start": 128560, "end": 128811, "sha256": "9cb598064b506a866678341a3d11ac02902c157efbed151e5cceeedd5d92682c", "text": "Fig. 257 is similar to the above, with the exception that the rail of the door is rebated (G) to receive the astragal moulding. This method is preferred on the best class of work, because it shows no unsightly joint at the inside of the door frame.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00585", "bookId": 21531, "start": 128815, "end": 129245, "sha256": "9f3e616239d3d70260c7b4561d6eaeaada7a3c200ddfc7c3bdde54db617e34ac", "text": "Fig. 258 illustrates the type of joint made by using a brass astragal mould (H) as employed on high-class work, frequently seen on French furniture of the Louis periods. In Fig. 259 is shown a piece of brass astragal moulding, which may be procured from any cabinetmaker's ironmonger in suitable lengths. It is fixed in position by slightly rebating the edge of the door and fastening with ordinary countersunk brass screws.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00586", "bookId": 21531, "start": 129249, "end": 129291, "sha256": "b7a5ea9587ebf1fce90b1b2b613a108115b72b971346eb360a9a5b13d12ef62a", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 259.--Brass Astragal.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00587", "bookId": 21531, "start": 129295, "end": 129372, "sha256": "b3ba0ed029f1288f3cb7ff0580985d728e217e45e244aa228cdd15d04dee5ea9", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 260.--Curved Cupboard Doors with Rebated Meeting Joint.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00588", "bookId": 21531, "start": 129376, "end": 129425, "sha256": "96bb6ffc30538d7d82ee3af79d95b12d06d440024c29e19e543cb2b5192177e4", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 261.--Rebated Meeting Joint.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00589", "bookId": 21531, "start": 129429, "end": 129492, "sha256": "0aad80bd7745b2c55f717f609fd651ee4a319eac45a8744f5d2960cfa8e07ad8", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 262.--Meeting Joint with applied Astragal.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00590", "bookId": 21531, "start": 129496, "end": 129881, "sha256": "55977860677839c2dc9e4771b653e1a2f535f7719af643304d6e48af01fcae8d", "text": "Fig. 260 is a rebated joint, broken at the front by a bead moulding. The illustration shows its application to a circular-fronted cupboard, and it will be noticed that the hinged rails are received in a rebate which is worked on the carcase ends. The rebated joint at the centre of the two doors is worked slightly on the bevel, so as to allow for clearance when opening the door.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00591", "bookId": 21531, "start": 129885, "end": 130180, "sha256": "e57d50cf936c12861f46e140b9a980b94152997c774f26b0445513d9499da15f", "text": "Two of the commonest meeting joints of doors are seen in Figs. 261 and 262. In the former case the stiles are rebated (as already shown in Fig. 260), whilst at Fig. 262 an astragal bead is glued to the right-hand stile. In Fig. 261 a bead is worked on the right-hand stile to mask the joint.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00592", "bookId": 21531, "start": 130184, "end": 130510, "sha256": "72b57ba9ce5470f096786fc3722237190c4fb5fe5b3be281fd67de7ad3e2040b", "text": "Fig. 263 is the hook joint used on good-class joinery and cabinet work. A pair of special wood planes are required to make the joint in a cheap and efficient manner. The cost of a pair of 5/8-in. hook joint planes is from 6_s._ to 8_s._ They are of similar size and general appearance to the ordinary ovolo moulding plane.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00593", "bookId": 21531, "start": 130514, "end": 130556, "sha256": "642f15dcafdcdca17fc43e66a5507655fb99840af709c3ef5f96b27d3c4cf404", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 263.--The Hook Joint.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00594", "bookId": 21531, "start": 130560, "end": 130617, "sha256": "312198ff4e058b2bf0b17d035642b2f3e19822db2bde7dce2f74fbbb91563ec8", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 264.--Hook Joint with loose Tongues.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00595", "bookId": 21531, "start": 130621, "end": 130679, "sha256": "fdefaca63dc370441766888d0bfb96d4cefc498a79e9ee0af24f025a67949f7b", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 265.--Rebated Joint with Tongue Slip.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00596", "bookId": 21531, "start": 130683, "end": 130924, "sha256": "a1c0be4fa04218e4a632c6ee4fdfacf7783ffe1c68ad4a70f867ff6df863e28d", "text": "Fig. 264 is a special type of hook joint as used on larger work. The joint may be made by using the plough plane, the rebate plane and a suitably-sized bead plane, the loose tongues being inserted as shown and fastened by screws and glue.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00597", "bookId": 21531, "start": 130928, "end": 131112, "sha256": "6d20e5a07332327da3c0994de93dc6ca29be9d108a01efe49396ed325145f37f", "text": "Fig. 265 is a rebated joint with loose tongue-slip and astragal mould, suitable for frames over 1-1/4 in. in thickness. The loose tongue-slip is glued into the right-hand door frame.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00598", "bookId": 21531, "start": 131116, "end": 131542, "sha256": "6f25e8a91d68f3266fff3db18931ff734668a9fba3e4a02c2bc9d125e57dae7b", "text": "Fig. 266 shows a shutting joint used to prevent permeation of dust to the interior of a drawer. The drawer front is grooved and engages a suitably-formed slip which is screwed to the bearer as indicated in the illustration. Occasionally some difficulty is experienced when fitting the slip to a narrow drawer, but this can always be overcome by putting in the screws from the top of the bearer instead of from underneath.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00599", "bookId": 21531, "start": 131546, "end": 131672, "sha256": "0ba1002dab8819a21d45c3adce542c87e8ebf1f219a8ac446ec4cb5520569212", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 266.--Dust-proof Drawer, showing the Front grooved to engage a Slip which is screwed to the Bearer Rail.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00600", "bookId": 21531, "start": 131676, "end": 131962, "sha256": "1321b34b23a5420211f4b7e2e54cc19cdad3bb82021374e081b5214203afe73f", "text": "Shutting joints which are required to be \"light-tight,\" such as those used in photographic work, are generally formed by slightly grooving the frame and inserting a strip of black velvet. The friction of the high pile of the velvet prevents the filtration of light through the joint.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00601", "bookId": 21531, "start": 131966, "end": 132180, "sha256": "cd302c336fbeddc09aadc6d748116928462b7ee0b52494381380815c7489ffe8", "text": "When making air-tight showcases, one of the best and simplest tests is to place a lighted candle in the case and close all the doors; if the candle goes out within three minutes you have accomplished your object.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00602", "bookId": 21531, "start": 132190, "end": 132208, "sha256": "5a49c26746b673267f962e601191de7daa9fa7836bfd4235b6a9ef24bd4d4985", "text": "THE DOVETAIL JOINT", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00603", "bookId": 21531, "start": 132214, "end": 132689, "sha256": "e6530bb9dbc04f9fde83c5c2d75c0889a476a3eaec83e4ce4f2901332739ddcc", "text": "Nothing definite is known as to the origin of dovetailing, but a quaint and pleasing little story which is well worth repeating runs as follows: A farmer had called in the local \"joyner\" to do sundry repairs at the homestead. One day, whilst enjoying a humble meal, he sat watching some doves as they hopped about the yard. Struck by the movement of their wedge-shaped tails, it occurred to him to joint his timber by the interlocking method; hence we have _dovetails_.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00604", "bookId": 21531, "start": 132693, "end": 132746, "sha256": "82a065e193f0c6935c0df56584e21aaa8c9a4d72ffafb0fd10957f22547a7af4", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 267.--A Single Through Dovetail.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00605", "bookId": 21531, "start": 132750, "end": 132832, "sha256": "31989e8af67b1ab5a288cd580c7acef8bd4b09e25b1333c0b57f0cc34d77d32c", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 268.--Through Dovetails on Carcase Work (P, Pins; T, Tails).]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00606", "bookId": 21531, "start": 132836, "end": 133146, "sha256": "efd78be3cc3949963ed987d0a540c509f818f52563ce0ceba071152cb49c8d89", "text": "THROUGH DOVETAILING.--One of the simplest forms of the dovetail joint is shown in Fig. 267, where two pieces of timber are joined by the method known as \"through\" dovetailing. This method is used in everyday practice for joining the corners of frames, bracket trusses, and a hundred and one other articles.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00607", "bookId": 21531, "start": 133150, "end": 133831, "sha256": "1c78c28f1e91cdbb9fd9b35cf0a6f91e9bd9e4d8e5923a721bd9584e2362c7d5", "text": "Figs. 268 and 269 show the method of through dovetailing as applied to the making of boxes, plinths, and general carcase work; it is used in positions where no objection can be taken to the end grain showing on each side of the finished work. In the case of plinths and furniture cornices the foundation frame is made of yellow pine or other cheap wood, and the more expensive and rare timbers are glued and mitred around in various thicknesses and shapes, thus saving the more costly material and strengthening the construction by the method known as laminating. In many cases all that is necessary is to veneer the face sides, thus covering and hiding any unsightliness.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00608", "bookId": 21531, "start": 133835, "end": 133887, "sha256": "fae026d78c71185fd7cbe5d3983f9adc065fadbad6a92cfe8d0c61d6f0a103c9", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 269.--Dovetails for Boxes, etc.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00609", "bookId": 21531, "start": 133891, "end": 133946, "sha256": "252f4341899545a9bd8dc8f15a5d995805b7b7fb604ebe2fa541eeea92a10b29", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 270.--Lap-dovetailing for Drawers.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00610", "bookId": 21531, "start": 133950, "end": 134400, "sha256": "51ab206d2062ddc4057c8b38053f2f81c6ad4750ec4a5267e7df04a91cfc1f01", "text": "LAP-DOVETAILING.--Fig. 270 is an example of lap-dovetailing, such as is used where a drawer side joins with the drawer front. It is not permissible to allow the end grain of the timber to show at the front of a drawer, and this is why resort is had to the lap-dovetail. As the most general use of the dovetail is for this and similar purposes, we shall therefore deal fully with the methods of marking out and the making of this class of joint.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00611", "bookId": 21531, "start": 134404, "end": 134691, "sha256": "c673586f835725ce6e9d35edd3a152d75528132c52f387ace9e91f251e4d55e0", "text": "ANGLES.--A most important point in the construction of a dovetail is to avoid having the angles of the pins and tails too acute. An inclination of one in eight is considered correct; no hard and fast rule need be obeyed, but the variation should on no account be less than one in six.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00612", "bookId": 21531, "start": 134695, "end": 134774, "sha256": "3eee032a103df0b424a59ad291ced11c2467e20fbbfa075f3b0b13a8877cb3da", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 271.--How to obtain Correct Angles for Dovetail Template.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00613", "bookId": 21531, "start": 134778, "end": 134834, "sha256": "ae2afb4422052fe348f4ab66bc7edef358cbcdf1e2597c9b661d8b0467f303af", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 272.--Squaring and use of Template.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00614", "bookId": 21531, "start": 134838, "end": 135379, "sha256": "91a8415b69c6b67b00c767097dcf8c609f5e0cbf4ff53f350f6b98b5b6ad4484", "text": "Fig. 271 shows a simple method to obtain the correct angle. Take a piece of timber and plane up the face edge (A, B) true and straight; mark out a line (C, D) at right angles to the face edge and space off 8 ins. as shown; now measure a distance of 1 in. (D, E), and join E to point eight. This will give the correct angle for the dovetails, and it may then be transferred to the joiners' bevel. Many workers who are constantly on dovetail work make a zinc template to the exact angle and keep it specially for the purpose (Fig. 272).", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00615", "bookId": 21531, "start": 135383, "end": 135595, "sha256": "7ab87ff324214de05819b4a58bf84a7ce8e9d0a9add6fde684f20a61066221d3", "text": "SQUARING.--Another important point to remember is that the drawer sides must be true and squared to an exact length and planed up to thickness; otherwise the finished drawer will be in winding and out of truth.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00616", "bookId": 21531, "start": 135599, "end": 135804, "sha256": "565d963848ef5246f8a984970fa7d5f6a49741dc32624338f13d1e5735196610", "text": "To true and square the ends of drawer sides, drawer backs and drawer front, a most useful little machine is the mitre trimmer; failing this, excellent results can be obtained by using the shooting board.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00617", "bookId": 21531, "start": 135808, "end": 135872, "sha256": "8e7c58b41de0a3ff75affb14b56472cec37066f596886cf33dbc30706c8aeb64", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 273.--Method of Marking with Cutting Gauge.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00618", "bookId": 21531, "start": 135876, "end": 136126, "sha256": "434485463c3dd80361bde969e00ca377f5bc431f5a4ee5c689d27dd16d21e800", "text": "GAUGING.--After squaring up the timber accurate gauging of the ends is another important point. The gauge used should be a cutting gauge, so that the line is incised about 1/32 in. in depth, thus effectually cutting the cross fibres of the timber.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00619", "bookId": 21531, "start": 136130, "end": 136642, "sha256": "8d07155b15ea28b2c4f30da1a0dd997e4ef87e916250764f2235e7caca4a50ef", "text": "Fig. 273 shows the method of using the cutting gauge. The stock of the gauge must be held well up to the end of the timber. The gauge is a most difficult tool for the novice to use, and his trouble is generally caused by holding it too flat. Tilt the gauge a little so that the thumbscrew shown in the illustration goes nearer to the floor; the blade will then not bite so keenly, and better results will be obtained. The dotted lines indicate the positions which the dovetails will occupy when marked out.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00620", "bookId": 21531, "start": 136646, "end": 137092, "sha256": "1de3e070f5621bf6b49878e9c63ef34ac7146b591a3de0dab563106e89be7e62", "text": "The gauge is set a trifle less than the thickness of the drawer sides to allow for the thickness of the steel cutter, and a gauge line is marked on the inside of the front and all round the drawer back. The gauge is now readjusted so as to leave a 1/4-in. lap on the front, and a line marked on the ends of the front and all round the ends of the sides which will engage the drawer front. A glance at Figs. 270 and 273 will make this clear.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00621", "bookId": 21531, "start": 137096, "end": 137147, "sha256": "96d2562c9687a24cdf85917dd311b2cd764c1cde5d7deb193b751d55a78879ec", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 274.--Removing the Waste Wood.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00622", "bookId": 21531, "start": 137151, "end": 137403, "sha256": "86ce1846f423bc38828e55bb724d7f17023902f7990ffd397e255ab8d4f0a0e0", "text": "The dovetail pins on drawer part and back are spaced out and marked on the end with the aid of the joiners' bevel, the lines being then squared down to the gauge line by the method shown at Fig. 272--that is, by using the try-square and marking awl.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00623", "bookId": 21531, "start": 137407, "end": 137692, "sha256": "c9d6c68bea9d9b9ddad8f5b2f9487185151e2c3d003e5e4210cf6f7674a2bbf7", "text": "The drawer front is now put into the bench vice, and the pins are cut as indicated in Fig. 274. The drawer back is treated in a similar manner, but of course in this case it is not \"lap\" but \"through\" dovetailing, and the saw kerf goes through the timber and down to the gauge line.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00624", "bookId": 21531, "start": 137696, "end": 137755, "sha256": "5c182305e413116a5a5e44e6387ce12ae9c0e4b5bed16b69de04739afaded2e4", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 275.--Cutting away the Half Dovetails.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00625", "bookId": 21531, "start": 137759, "end": 138159, "sha256": "3ece1690f3cb9f985761ae33cd240be665bcc9a2b06e98c689c4932f497b5826", "text": "We now come to the point where it is necessary to remove the superfluous material. Fig. 274 shows a method commonly adopted and known as sawing out the waste; the saw is held at an angle and part of the inside portion of the dovetail is cut away as shown. This is a good plan for the amateur, because it shows him at the commencement of his chopping out which will be the pin and which the tail.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00626", "bookId": 21531, "start": 138163, "end": 138418, "sha256": "657f6ec7e8724c0d18ec1872739acb742249934d5aa0b3d2563a444ee9c18c3c", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 276.--Showing the Vertical and Horizontal Chisel Operations in Lap-dovetailing. A: The Preliminary Roughing-out. B: Vertical Chiselling; note that the first stab should be just outside the Gauge Line. C: Marking the Horizontal Cut.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00627", "bookId": 21531, "start": 138422, "end": 138917, "sha256": "b256424373f835b48409b246df7386625ce56bdc97a7afbd22218d134e67b4c7", "text": "Fig. 276 (A) shows another method that answers well for soft woods such as pine, American whitewood and satin walnut. The drawer front is laid flat on the bench after it has been sawn, and with a mallet and sharp chisel the corner of the dovetail is knocked off as shown. This takes the bulk of the material away and the dovetail is then pared out square in the usual way. The illustration (Fig. 276) also shows how the chisel is held for vertical paring (B) and for horizontal paring (C).", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00628", "bookId": 21531, "start": 138921, "end": 138971, "sha256": "e45172dd5576165d0c8b2e7d8f7a04960efdb635e997b3336dd5fef1c6d1c246", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 277.--Roughing-out by Boring.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00629", "bookId": 21531, "start": 138975, "end": 139030, "sha256": "43c8e327c13fc7f1d1da3d31cee7c3b6eab043d3191dc5c76da9cc105a5e02cb", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 278.--Marking Pins on Drawer Side.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00630", "bookId": 21531, "start": 139034, "end": 139475, "sha256": "5e7d23ec6aca76cd75c5f424767d0d08f0075c0761bd45ab84b209888f942e27", "text": "A third method is shown at Fig. 277. With hard, curly timbers, such as tobacco mahogany and satinwood, it is a laborious process to carefully chop away the timber in small pieces, and to overcome this difficulty we occasionally see the workman take a twist-bit and bore a series of holes as shown. A great portion of the timber may then be split away by inserting the chisel end-way into the grain, after which it is pared to a finish.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00631", "bookId": 21531, "start": 139479, "end": 139623, "sha256": "88a529d90a19eb9be21132c17e9d29dc5c1d55954b2bdc241d0a07efec72765a", "text": "As dovetailing is chiefly used for drawer making, it will be of interest to give several illustrations of variations of the joint and its uses.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00632", "bookId": 21531, "start": 139627, "end": 139940, "sha256": "93c411525bc4f67197a9bafc59d107a7018e0b6e2e8ead724d5014ae4e8dfa2d", "text": "Fig. 278 indicates the method of marking the position of the holes in the drawer side. When the paring out of the dovetails is completed the drawer front is turned over on to the side as shown, and the position of the recesses which will engage the pin portions are marked with the marking awl as illustrated.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00633", "bookId": 21531, "start": 139944, "end": 140001, "sha256": "d0f3b938d260fde92b4d4e1792c2fca32824bb7fd88b7f7d01cc8e8cc1c14b63", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 279.--Marking by means of Saw Blade.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00634", "bookId": 21531, "start": 140005, "end": 140065, "sha256": "64955356f2e9a3ffe1fed57fcfa83f73896120234b7786990429424ad00c4fec", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 280.--Gauge Lines, Scores and Saw Cuts.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00635", "bookId": 21531, "start": 140069, "end": 140119, "sha256": "19e683265737395a578bb1b92b553d86dffad75f2a67945afb350f6ac272697d", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 281.--Sawing the Drawer Side.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00636", "bookId": 21531, "start": 140123, "end": 140189, "sha256": "6aa565734a5cc015e7c711fc3d88b265fb9d8d5dd89c14db0b56806bd982cf4a", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 282.--Position of Chisel for Cutting Channel.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00637", "bookId": 21531, "start": 140193, "end": 140272, "sha256": "36a9160c01c7a80abcb505364994d81d4efb7fed60a4875a9867530c3a1c2646", "text": "The completed drawer back is marked on the sides in an exactly similar manner.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00638", "bookId": 21531, "start": 140276, "end": 140496, "sha256": "0893ddd6f496e0c80e032389c5b55125020983e79a6d5e0b098cf36fc504c91d", "text": "Another method of marking through dovetails is shown at Fig 279. The side is held in position on the end, and the dovetail saw is inserted and drawn out of the saw kerf, thus leaving the exact mark on the drawer-back.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00639", "bookId": 21531, "start": 140500, "end": 140981, "sha256": "9cfadd5c199996cc28ee9f6f7a13750f484e7df0e4949fc94b680d8749ecd25c", "text": "Other workers prefer a pounce-bag instead of a saw. A pounce-bag consists of a piece of fairly open woven muslin filled with a mixture of French chalk and finely-powdered whiting; the muslin is tied up with a piece of thin twine like the mouth of a flour sack. All that is necessary is to place the timber in position and bang the bag on the top of the saw-cuts, when sufficient powder will pass through the bag and down the saw kerf to mark the exact positions of the lines.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00640", "bookId": 21531, "start": 140985, "end": 141658, "sha256": "614cfda4aceb85d81f7751204076400808f239869b8ec1e11caf3fbe7bae8ed4", "text": "SAWING THE DOVETAILS.--After marking out the pins on the drawer sides, we proceed with the next operation, that is, sawing the dovetails ready for chopping out the waste material. The drawer side is taken and firmly secured in the bench screw and sawn as at Fig. 281; it is most important that the saw kerf is kept _inside_ the line which has been scratched by the marking awl. See Fig. 280, where the dotted line represents the gauge line and the outside lines indicate the scores of the marking awl. Failure to observe this condition will result in faulty dovetailing, and it will also prove the necessity for using a finely-toothed and thin-bladed dovetail saw.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00641", "bookId": 21531, "start": 141662, "end": 141897, "sha256": "288b4ac3336addf1c08c7d0e9592064e63cec8e9161bc8f57ed528c99446d604", "text": "To cut out the waste wood (or core), the usual procedure is to saw away the half-dovetails as at Fig. 275. With care, this can be accomplished with the dovetail saw, thus avoiding unnecessary labour and the use of the paring chisel.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00642", "bookId": 21531, "start": 141901, "end": 142490, "sha256": "8409dec8a6a047a3b6957490a9232a78ecd590a6d5727eab20498e9ede565cc5", "text": "After sawing, the drawer side is placed flat upon the bench, one end in contact with the bench to prevent the drawer side from slipping away; a chisel (preferably bevelled edged) of suitable width is now taken and a small channel is cut as at A, Fig. 282. The method of cutting this channel is shown in the same illustration. The chisel-cut is started about 1/8 in. from the gauge line; the cut is made right up to the gauge line, which (when gauging) was made 1/32 in. deep so as to cut the cross fibres of the timber. A small piece of waste wood will therefore come away as at A.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00643", "bookId": 21531, "start": 142494, "end": 143524, "sha256": "c9aacaba79777edac2aff85d9e86ef4d1ffdbb71d04f0085004523d1a0e3535d", "text": "The object of cutting this small channel is so that, when the chisel is held vertically on the gauge line and struck with the mallet, the chisel will have no tendency to force its way backward and overshoot the gauge line. The waste or core is now removed by holding the chisel approximately vertical and applying sufficient power to drive it half-way through the timber. The drawer side is now turned over, the operation repeated, and the core pushed out. Care must be exercised whilst cutting away the core to ensure the chisel being held nearly perpendicular; if too much lead (or bevel) be given, a faulty and undercut dovetail will be the result. Undercut dovetails prevent a proper grip of the glue; they give a weak joint, and often cause the face of the drawer side to be splintered whilst driving up the joint. If it be necessary to ease one or two shavings from off the drawer side whilst fitting the completed drawer in the carcase, the joint will show a greater gap as each succeeding shaving is removed.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00644", "bookId": 21531, "start": 143528, "end": 143803, "sha256": "c09db2a5c5e5ec265cbb1405342fd7feb0fcc0b2730cd9db7393f52f2a29c4eb", "text": "In common work, especially in soft timbers, many workers allow the pins of a drawer back to run through the sides about 1/16 in. and hammer down the pins of the dovetail. This is called \"bishoping the dovetails,\" and is unnecessary if the work be properly made and fitted.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00645", "bookId": 21531, "start": 143807, "end": 144303, "sha256": "894dcae5d972c620b37231de6b9689f68275aed1e325112725b06fd8718117f5", "text": "An alternative method of dovetailing is that of cutting the dovetails first, as shown at Fig. 283. Four or six drawer sides are placed in the vice and the dovetails are sawn at one operation. A little lead (or bevel) from front to back is given whilst sawing, and if this method be used care must be taken to see that the parts of the drawer sides which will be on the inside of the completed drawer are towards the worker, or the lead will be given to the dovetails in the wrong direction.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00646", "bookId": 21531, "start": 144307, "end": 144368, "sha256": "c16bca392183d35e5892fa4cbb62f5bb72f5f6f62c109328ddb62f02ee8e849e", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 283.--Cutting several Dovetails at once.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00647", "bookId": 21531, "start": 144372, "end": 144736, "sha256": "99978bddf4b04d13b8c503ccb442abd7d36479b974785c05ae5e382e6d54ea0f", "text": "After sawing the dovetails in this manner the sides are placed in their respective positions on the drawer fronts or backs, and marked with a pounce-bag or by using the saw-blade method. The pins are then cut in the usual way, care being taken that the saw kerf be on the outside of the marks, otherwise the pins will finish too slack to engage with the tails.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00648", "bookId": 21531, "start": 144740, "end": 145276, "sha256": "0efbc03593d704c9f31f7d466ff2cb2ab98b8fd634d7c9eb56fe9fba92f642d0", "text": "FRAME DOVETAILS.--Fig. 284 is a sketch of a constructional frame such as is used for building up a cornice or plinth. At the joint marked A an edge barefaced dovetail is shown. From the separated sketches of the joint (B) it will be seen that the dovetail can be put together either from the top or the bottom of the framing as all its edges are parallel; glue is relied upon to hold it in position. The centre stretcher rail at Fig. 284 is similar, except that in this case it is a complete dovetail in place of a barefaced one.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00649", "bookId": 21531, "start": 145280, "end": 145398, "sha256": "814e6956e9d39bdeb70c4024c6ada6bec53a8ecefaf797639e924d85a90fffd0", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 284.--Constructional Frame (as for Plinth or Cornice) showing application of the Dovetail Joint.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00650", "bookId": 21531, "start": 145402, "end": 145566, "sha256": "af7e84b98a0d759ee70f6050b3442ac30bfc5be6023c29d978a1e3dd513362d1", "text": "Some workers, when making either of the above joints, prefer to give a slight bevel to the dovetail, so that it drives tightly into the housing when put together.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00651", "bookId": 21531, "start": 145570, "end": 146073, "sha256": "c51209e7e80be04afe6c4959cf9893e84d22fa7ef878c159708e5ded86f82738", "text": "A variation of this type of dovetail is frequently used to joint internal uprights to the horizontal shelves of writing desks, cabinets, and bookcases, etc. The dovetailed portion is parallel for about three-fourths of its width; the remaining part is tapered towards the front edge and notched away at the face so as to conceal the method of construction. An illustration of the top portion of a division 14 ins. wide is shown at Fig. 284, C. The other portion is of course dovetailed to fit it.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00652", "bookId": 21531, "start": 146077, "end": 146387, "sha256": "c2442341c3b781f0ddf7e37451500dd04900e57faf9bea61df43a874411443b7", "text": "BLIND LAP-DOVETAILING.--At Fig. 285 is shown a type of blind lap-dovetailing. This makes a good, sound joint, but it has the disadvantage of showing a small portion of the timber of the front rail end-way of the grain. Joints of this kind are used for cornices, boxes, etc., and also for painted furniture.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00653", "bookId": 21531, "start": 146391, "end": 146440, "sha256": "2fda26a5c846215d0be22b0a4b03c32a6d9faec96561b99889e814debc328834", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 285.--Blind Lap-Dovetailing.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00654", "bookId": 21531, "start": 146444, "end": 146498, "sha256": "325fab4a7f06497da14aaa7220d45aa2b84fb8c3ff272ed48d9263c109650d73", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 286.--Housed and Mitred Dovetail.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00655", "bookId": 21531, "start": 146502, "end": 146966, "sha256": "e574558de95a9b6705c08d087b11d34590804a2cb3b257e37b1e111cc24b5213", "text": "HOUSED AND MITRED DOVETAIL.--Fig. 286 is another form of dovetail--commonly called a housed and mitred or rebated and mitred dovetail. In this instance we see that a small portion is mitred at top and bottom edges, and when used in plinth or cornice work, or for making tea-caddies, etc., the edges are (when completing the work) covered either with the moulding, which is planted on the cornice or plinth, or with the top and bottom of the box or tea-caddy.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00656", "bookId": 21531, "start": 146970, "end": 147500, "sha256": "5fb7e954901903de3070a911d5bbb3c8aeff42e619734e5407eec1a75da55362", "text": "The method of making a housed and mitred dovetail joint is seen in Fig. 286. The ends to be joined are planed up true and square and then rebated as shown. The dotted lines indicate the portion which has been worked away. The dovetails are now sawn and pared out in the usual way and the part denoted by the arrow is afterwards cut away with a chisel and finally finished to a smooth surface with a rebate plane; the method of working is shown at Fig. 287, where the dovetail pins are seen with the waste portions cut away.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00657", "bookId": 21531, "start": 147504, "end": 147574, "sha256": "54718c08d92aa288363ebdc6cf484a71b8fc98f8930f551b630c038c533c93e4", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 287.--Working a Housed and Mitred Dovetail Joint.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00658", "bookId": 21531, "start": 147578, "end": 147967, "sha256": "5d551670d6919ad5965ad0b7f6f0c82b1d6106fecd63b9706e290aa619dcc0fe", "text": "Fig. 287 also shows the method of cutting away the mitred part. A temporary piece of wood is planed to a true mitre and placed underneath the dovetailed piece to form a template. Both pieces of the timber are now secured to the bench with a handscrew or cramp; the template A will form a guide for the chisel and rebate plane and allow a sharp edge or arris to be worked on the mitre.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00659", "bookId": 21531, "start": 147971, "end": 148171, "sha256": "aa828967da20504a57dba5547440ad9e170d07ad134bff7a7d0f10e42fd06208", "text": "A SECRET MITRED DOVETAIL joint is illustrated at Fig. 288; it is used in all the better class of cabinet and box work. Fig. 288 shows the pieces separated; note the mitre at the top and bottom edge.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00660", "bookId": 21531, "start": 148175, "end": 148227, "sha256": "5c600c1f1193153a786e3f0e87f14e3b6f95a14a164b128177815b6d77c6a65b", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 288.--Secret Mitre Dovetailing.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00661", "bookId": 21531, "start": 148231, "end": 148292, "sha256": "033be1e342a00a168a470aabce079d633f19115c1eab670831f10f3e95a6010f", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 289.--Dovetailed Keys for Wide Surfaces.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00662", "bookId": 21531, "start": 148296, "end": 148732, "sha256": "d43f29322153daee12175a5a5ee9c484ab842cdb58ea56db1a635aeea84a4756", "text": "DOVETAIL KEYING.--Fig. 289 is a method used to prevent wide boards such as signboards, wide and shaped pediments, etc., from casting or warping. It is called dovetail keying. Beyond calling attention to the fact that the angles at the edges of the keys, where they are bevelled, should be at or about 75 degrees, nothing further need be said, as the drawing is self-explanatory. Angle dovetail keying is shown at Figs. 290 and 291.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00663", "bookId": 21531, "start": 148736, "end": 148776, "sha256": "966970deef33705d0c1d344f16d36b79ed4bc6459abb9f9a091aebb9b1ef74e0", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 290.--Dovetail Key.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00664", "bookId": 21531, "start": 148780, "end": 148836, "sha256": "23852d54a411574718424572a2cf4157ea5497c997c9cb7ae22429416fa1cb1f", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 291.--Dovetail Keying on the Angle.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00665", "bookId": 21531, "start": 148840, "end": 148904, "sha256": "3df909074719bf4e2e1c3300f94bc534ac78248c5a2a57c86aa63c595f74bd12", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 292.--Bow-fronted Door Dovetailed Edgeways.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00666", "bookId": 21531, "start": 148908, "end": 149100, "sha256": "0b422f97eb654b90ac2bc1df956b0b9889a0fefbc5926065622559c4cacf2b44", "text": "OTHER VARIETIES.--At Fig. 292 we have an everyday method of jointing circular-fronted cabinet door frames. Great care must be taken in setting out and making, or a twisted frame will result.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00667", "bookId": 21531, "start": 149104, "end": 149232, "sha256": "0c39e95513d44f6c837e7d0a3fd325e625962c07bcdd5429a7e42326a1dfcde7", "text": "Then at Fig. 293 are shown two familiar examples of dovetailing the bearer to the carcase end of a dressing table or washstand.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00668", "bookId": 21531, "start": 149236, "end": 149391, "sha256": "83d581045ee7871547ea0a98f43aad769e303fc28b718146ee3edd13cf5fa0b8", "text": "Fig. 294.--Lap-dovetailing the top of a wardrobe to the carcase end. Other examples, such as the top of a bookcase to the sides, will suggest themselves.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00669", "bookId": 21531, "start": 149395, "end": 149620, "sha256": "4df7818b12422c9930bb63100b126f88b4a868790b182ca702d82e8e0307d83c", "text": "Fig. 295.--Side view of a jewel drawer with a moulded drawer front as used on dressing tables, etc. This shows the necessity of bevelled dovetailing in order that the drawer front may be kept as thin and light as possible.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00670", "bookId": 21531, "start": 149624, "end": 149697, "sha256": "b58af0d220ae3b951d5e570d658ab9bc52e417593d17dff93ca99fd9ea3a3c28", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 293.--Carcase Work, showing Bearer Rails Dovetailed.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00671", "bookId": 21531, "start": 149701, "end": 149779, "sha256": "fc480a8b0a1e7949a35506a992c561263a5f0defa3ef30a6854e2c49fa3a65f5", "text": "Fig. 296.--Bevelled dovetailing when pins are at right angles to the end cut.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00672", "bookId": 21531, "start": 149783, "end": 149996, "sha256": "b80072690c8557d46e213c71270c783eced9129bae549ab4e5c831bb4175ca6f", "text": "Fig. 297.--Bevelled dovetailing when the centre line of the pins is parallel to the edges of the work, used for making \"hoppers,\" food troughs, knife boxes, etc. One corner of the box shows the joint separated.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00673", "bookId": 21531, "start": 150000, "end": 150043, "sha256": "2f6102b8deecf2230cef31549e8f9db5f533b3a35e5e78b7b8331d419a30cdf9", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 294.--Lap-Dovetailing.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00674", "bookId": 21531, "start": 150047, "end": 150092, "sha256": "241cf7b49361bbfaedd3353b055421bff14dc7c9c45e634aab2351d37b951bde", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 295.--Jewel Drawer Side.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00675", "bookId": 21531, "start": 150096, "end": 150144, "sha256": "e65946efd0c87225bfb78b02aaf1762a42d1763d4059eaf3fe00f79dc9587556", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 296.--Bevelled Dovetailing.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00676", "bookId": 21531, "start": 150148, "end": 150250, "sha256": "fd29b94f84ea67b25486cd601b711b35a79caf681265a23b0dfa310a6c5f5bda", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 297.--Bevelled and Dovetailed Box, showing the Jointing of One Corner Separated.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00677", "bookId": 21531, "start": 150254, "end": 150381, "sha256": "48443f23cd24b16a0ef6d7d9243d709b7bbffed5b60561a9ec11981f373e0978", "text": "Fig. 298.--An example of oblique dovetailing, as used on \"hoppers\" when one piece is vertical and the other piece is inclined.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00678", "bookId": 21531, "start": 150385, "end": 150707, "sha256": "691904ae61f33673b23c6d39a3b4dfa9c8f7db700a88faff571b02e429eed6c5", "text": "Fig. 299.--Method of dovetailing small boxes. The box is dovetailed in one width and the top and bottom glued on; the sides and ends are then cut along the dotted line, thus forming the lid. It will be noticed that a specially wide dovetail pin must be left so as to form part of the lid and part of the lower portion.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00679", "bookId": 21531, "start": 150711, "end": 150758, "sha256": "33ac37e993b12031361e3daae336d9e3ebd4e748eefd51e368a38d9f1fc2a59c", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 298.--Oblique Dovetailing.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00680", "bookId": 21531, "start": 150762, "end": 150815, "sha256": "4c39a34a61486c4aac9bcdfc94111f8f7014cbf6cd78dd77caa15fe201f6c9f9", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 299.--Dovetailing for Small Box.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00681", "bookId": 21531, "start": 150819, "end": 151317, "sha256": "3054e7d9a388e71504a8553534497df6ba25599e2cc106cde80214d5a1dfeac1", "text": "SETTING OUT THE JOINT.--For constructing a dovetail joint at the corner of a frame, as Fig. 300, it is necessary at the outset to trim up the ends of the timber square and true. This may be accomplished by neatly sawing to the line and paring the end of the wood with a sharp chisel, or by bringing the wood to a finish with a finely-set plane, such as an iron-faced smoothing plane. The ends of the wood must be perfectly square when tested from either the face side or from the marked edge.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00682", "bookId": 21531, "start": 151321, "end": 151364, "sha256": "7dc9d77f59bc545fb03a37d32f1db7d0f3f9091f989ba9c788e576f79500c4ea", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 300.--Corner Dovetail.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00683", "bookId": 21531, "start": 151368, "end": 151404, "sha256": "963c462c76b48c3a1c8ee7ff78003423aa857a6914a6a65dd7d75018478fe459", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 301.--Squaring.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00684", "bookId": 21531, "start": 151408, "end": 151912, "sha256": "e6d5bb2d00261dfb48ed06eaac3e522ed4c86d472f529faf3fe68cc120df8f6e", "text": "Take a cutting gauge and set it to equal the thickness of the timber, and, holding it as already shown at Fig. 273, strike the gauge lines on the wood as illustrated at Fig. 302, G. Proceed to mark out the dovetail pins, as at Fig. 303; in this illustration G again shows the gauge line. The inclination of the lines across the end of the wood should not be too great, or the joint will be a weak one, and the edges of the dovetails will be liable to crumble away when the work is knocked together.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00685", "bookId": 21531, "start": 151916, "end": 152389, "sha256": "38f5b1b132da0fd57c86c9d9c5743d438462adc2fa8394600c416602e02ea82c", "text": "DOVETAILING TEMPLATE.--Many workers who are constantly engaged upon dovetail joints make a small wooden template, as shown at Fig. 304. This template is generally of hardwood, such as beech or walnut. The method of obtaining the correct angles of such a template has already been given on p. 134. Notice that the lines _bb_ (Fig. 303) of the dovetail pins do _not_ bevel; they are parallel to the sides of the wood and at right angles to the end of the wood as shown.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00686", "bookId": 21531, "start": 152393, "end": 152428, "sha256": "b1c479249e3af61590eee04a302700c1026a07b130206a843b1886f7cbb153f5", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 302.--Gauging.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00687", "bookId": 21531, "start": 152432, "end": 152476, "sha256": "61e2c17988346fdb757cc044216c51357d283f04a193de9da392720ff3aa2cc3", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 303.--Marking the Pins.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00688", "bookId": 21531, "start": 152480, "end": 153101, "sha256": "40c6a713a656595a5c2ea772b7c903f50ef52b2a13733cdecab8ffcd72e37a23", "text": "CHISEL WORK.--After marking out, as shown at Fig. 303, place the wood on the bench and proceed to chop away the centre portion in the following manner. Hold the chisel on the bevel and cut out a small piece to form a channel at the gauge line. Now hold the chisel in a vertical position, and with a mallet strike it so as to make a cut about 1/8 in. deep. Then hold the chisel on the bevel again and cut away more waste wood; proceed alternately, first forcing the chisel down vertically, and then paring the wood away with the chisel held obliquely, until you have cut half-way through the thickness of the wood.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00689", "bookId": 21531, "start": 153105, "end": 153173, "sha256": "cb0a0491627c8e2161e8e530178401d5ab3dfaeb6b4033d23375c9dc81db4a5c", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 304.--Hand-made Template for Marking Dovetails.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00690", "bookId": 21531, "start": 153177, "end": 153212, "sha256": "2ec8d0f6bf92dac5fde53b5c617b9d1987f92556c9fa4d6cf1029c0e91103df9", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 305.--Testing.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00691", "bookId": 21531, "start": 153216, "end": 153260, "sha256": "5ff83afa3bde2e574dc2cfb564942ed2ca6cdc638582b45414609a6888fb2783", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 306.--The Marked Piece.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00692", "bookId": 21531, "start": 153264, "end": 153677, "sha256": "d7c9f5594a4a10b8367f150baaf113d85feac445aa05e30c31be001eddd108ad", "text": "Turn the wood over and repeat the various operations until the core, or waste piece, is removed. Pare away any little irregularities which may be left in the corners with an 1/8-in. chisel, thus leaving all smooth and neat. Lay the piece of wood which is to have the dovetail marked on it flat upon the bench, and take the piece with the dovetail pins cut upon it and place in the position shown at Fig. 305.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00693", "bookId": 21531, "start": 153681, "end": 154075, "sha256": "55967855efae7c9b29173830a1403c470eb67c7733caf97e43b8cba4bbf368d5", "text": "SAW WORK.--Take a marking awl, or a knitting needle which has had its end sharpened, and mark the lines of the dovetail in a similar manner to that shown at Fig. 307. Remove the piece A, Fig. 305, and the lower piece shown at Fig. 305 will clearly show the marks _aa_ as they appear in Fig. 306. Place the piece (Fig. 306) in the vice, and saw _outside_ the lines AA, as shown in Fig. 308.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00694", "bookId": 21531, "start": 154079, "end": 154141, "sha256": "51a2a176d723881918ea3b89048d82dede4186ca110348a6c790b52a69d198ce", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 307.--Marking Dovetails with Marking Awl.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00695", "bookId": 21531, "start": 154145, "end": 154548, "sha256": "c724dbfbe3cdd124413b5067da2b911f5f1e41bf30baad307fb8ce60341ee7d8", "text": "After sawing down the lines AA, Fig. 308, place the wood in the vice and, guiding the saw blade with the index finger of the left hand, cut away the small piece at the side (see Fig. 275). Repeat the operation as may be necessary, and the completed joint will be similar to that shown at Fig. 300. If the sawing is not neatly done it may be found necessary to pare the shoulder with a sharp chisel.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00696", "bookId": 21531, "start": 154552, "end": 155337, "sha256": "b8ce5667f395860f7a64ae4aed7739d8273e25c02fadf2605f846ea6ec0178fe", "text": "DRAWERS.--When dovetailing drawers or boxes it is necessary to square up the ends of all the stock and gauge them, as shown at Fig. 273. This illustration shows how to gauge the lines on a drawer side; the dovetailed joint in this case, however, does not run through the drawer front and leave the work unsightly, as the joint at Fig. 300 would do. The method used is shown at Fig. 309, and it is commonly known as lap-dovetailing. Most workers cut the dovetail pins on the drawer fronts and the drawer backs first, after which they mark the drawer sides with the marking awl. The dovetailing of the drawer back is shown at Fig. 310. This is the type known as \"through dovetailing,\" the method being similar in regard to tool operations as the single joint shown at Fig. 300.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00697", "bookId": 21531, "start": 155341, "end": 155389, "sha256": "4bc98dc29294558cb57b294aff03e622b3e74dc1632ffb47013576d3694565cc", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 308.--Sawing the Dovetails.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00698", "bookId": 21531, "start": 155393, "end": 155464, "sha256": "35372736e63804f09e381c267b1175a6ba20f613363fa8bb8d9b528a63e87cbc", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 309.--Lap-dovetailing Drawer Front to Drawer Side.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00699", "bookId": 21531, "start": 155468, "end": 155515, "sha256": "cc208aae31c7109694e89ec30499123482c8bea6208da55e47ed84477ab270b3", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 310.--Through Dovetailing.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00700", "bookId": 21531, "start": 155519, "end": 155577, "sha256": "8da61883eea1ef1dad38d25a8e59724bc9a0084376c86229cd55e66dc678662a", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 311.--Chipping Waste of Lap Dovetail.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00701", "bookId": 21531, "start": 155581, "end": 156284, "sha256": "59626559f75c67f3fc69dc9a9e4ef4a96d2c697365cfd7e8e169627c9e6f76cc", "text": "When the pins on the drawer front have been sawn, the waste material is cut away, as at Fig. 311. First stab down with the vertical chisel, which must make the cut about 1/32 in. in front of the gauge line (see illustration). This commencing of the cut slightly in front of the gauge line is a very important feature. The chisel may be likened to a wedge, and if the chisel edge be placed exactly upon the gauge line and force be applied to the handle, it will force the timber away equally on each side of the gauge line, and the finished depth of the hole will therefore be too deep for the thickness of the drawer side; in other words, it will press itself over the gauge line on both sides.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00702", "bookId": 21531, "start": 156288, "end": 156796, "sha256": "cf3ed0c51dbc26d0ace9f5475da68f9b68ca306afacc081453a34cd6fe2bea38", "text": "By taking the first vertical cut on the waste side of the gauge line, and then removing a small piece with the chisel held obliquely, as at Fig. 311, the wood is removed and less resistance is offered to the chisel when the next vertical cut is made. This overshooting the gauge line is a common fault with the beginner, who is puzzled at the result because he is certain he had his chisel exactly on the gauge line when he commenced his vertical cut. It is especially noticeable in soft-grained woods.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00703", "bookId": 21531, "start": 156800, "end": 157038, "sha256": "01635efbcc7ef1f0e9b966c2dfe396666b254b017f9d0df84bfc1b8b101abe3d", "text": "To cut away the waste of a lap-dovetail (Fig. 311), the vertical and oblique cuts are repeated until the final trimming up is required, and now is the time to finish both the vertical and the horizontal cuts exactly on the gauge lines.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00704", "bookId": 21531, "start": 157042, "end": 157299, "sha256": "538df4524b4f4aa07b14fce538ae10670dec3663b655bd68a4d49f4a9d65e702", "text": "Some workers prefer to cut the drawer sides first, and if this method is preferred (and it has its advantages for cheap work) several drawer sides are cut at once by placing four or six behind one another in the vice and sawing them all at one operation.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00705", "bookId": 21531, "start": 157303, "end": 157745, "sha256": "47732485c27f88220433034c3f09696cc5e7f1de2b78814464081971be934503", "text": "The drawer front is placed in the vice, and the drawer side held upon it, whilst the saw blade is placed in the saw kerf and drawn smartly forward. This will give the required marks at the exact position desired. It must be remembered, however, to saw just inside these dovetail-pin lines, otherwise the finished joint will be too slack, owing to the removal of the sawdust, which is practically equal to the thickness of the saw blade.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00706", "bookId": 21531, "start": 157749, "end": 158181, "sha256": "930c7d1dd5d4406656ad72c78ae71459132bc25049a62be72e296f4afb8fd3ce", "text": "MACHINE-MADE DOVETAILS.--As a general rule machine-made drawer and box dovetails show both the pins and the tails of exactly the same size. The reason is obvious after an inspection of Fig. 314, which shows the position in which the pieces are held during the machining operations. In spite of a certain amount of prejudice they are satisfactory and thoroughly reliable and have their place in modern shop and office fittings.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00707", "bookId": 21531, "start": 158185, "end": 158254, "sha256": "4f1a643d132fd9996b0091430d5de93ed56c65776668b6d99f44e3a438118536", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 312.--Machine-made Drawer Front and Side, Apart.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00708", "bookId": 21531, "start": 158258, "end": 158304, "sha256": "31116096a10c5b0dd9f9837131976da6c08c97e6e58ba9c4d6ebf5951000065f", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 313.--The Parts Together.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00709", "bookId": 21531, "start": 158308, "end": 158358, "sha256": "68920a343530da3f37d8ebb9cb22bac9dffa01f308c23080175d74bc84c94fff", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 314.--Position when Machined.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00710", "bookId": 21531, "start": 158368, "end": 158385, "sha256": "0adc0e145ab4e5ddec88c4783833cc073cf09e852025cc9746122f62edab1767", "text": "DOVETAIL GROOVING", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00711", "bookId": 21531, "start": 158391, "end": 158772, "sha256": "ebb354b96b6ee7c4bcedf07e469c069bcb63c882f4f5490eadd0855079d157b7", "text": "The dovetail housing joint should first be carefully marked out with a marking knife, so as to cut across the fibres of the wood. For obtaining the bevel on the edge of the wood a joiner's bevel may be used, and the angle should not be too acute. (See previous chapter.) Take a chisel and pare away a small channel as at A, Fig. 315, to form a small shoulder to guide the saw.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00712", "bookId": 21531, "start": 158776, "end": 158845, "sha256": "ba6c93bfc450b529f274df3df848f71312445125b5540da0eac63c23a3c6013b", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 315.--Paring away Channel for Dovetail Grooving.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00713", "bookId": 21531, "start": 158849, "end": 159144, "sha256": "da0ff50f42f2aa1a848bc22e228e3b549f6c583e9bf973ac0b6b422b8c440137", "text": "With a fine tenon or dovetail saw, cut the saw kerf as at Fig. 316. If any difficulty is experienced in cutting the kerf true and square, you may resort to the method shown at C, Fig. 315; a small temporary piece of timber has been screwed on the top of the work to form a guide for the saw.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00714", "bookId": 21531, "start": 159148, "end": 159196, "sha256": "4682bbf1cf03daf3cdabb8c77429899727eaac4745ae73ce819d97a0a2961b0d", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 316.--Cutting the Saw Kerf.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00715", "bookId": 21531, "start": 159200, "end": 159251, "sha256": "a28b6e167b9cfcadf60e3565c667c2a70157845c493ff714d084474e0c3d6643", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 317.--Old Woman's Tooth Plane.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00716", "bookId": 21531, "start": 159255, "end": 159308, "sha256": "687569168552e931abf4c94578ed9bbe2efd391174780260ae5e8af5fe243e36", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 318.--Guide Block for Bevelling.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00717", "bookId": 21531, "start": 159312, "end": 160351, "sha256": "98a6c5cd007ab80dd8bca4e77aa3fc20f79dcddf820c1f6d8cfb60597ecfd79b", "text": "Fig. 315, B, shows the small channel formed by the chisel prior to the sawing operation. The sawing of the bevelled side is worked in a similar manner; but occasionally we find amateurs who adopt the method shown at Fig. 318. A block of wood (H) is first made by boring a 1-1/4-in. hole through its entire length, and afterwards making a saw cut at the desired bevel. The object of this block, which is kept specially for the purpose, is to form a guide for those who have not full control of the dovetail saw; the back of the saw clears the hole, and the required bevel is obtained. When a saw cut has been made at each side of the groove, the surplus timber is pared away in the following manner: Cut away portion E, Fig. 319; then cut away portion F, and lastly cut away the apex portion marked G. Continue by this method of paring until the approximate depth is reached. To ensure a correct depth throughout the entire groove, the router plane (or, as it is often called, \"the old woman's tooth plane,\" Fig. 317) is used.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00718", "bookId": 21531, "start": 160355, "end": 160407, "sha256": "b8961c28dad03d8cb13018c93cfbf6992d806339091b7b493a4d8237cb6088a4", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 319.--Showing Method of Paring.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00719", "bookId": 21531, "start": 160411, "end": 160470, "sha256": "2d6f0d0acb8a804ac57ea567bbaa6754af294c38e4ba5c7dd5a492010570e885", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 320.--Channelling the Alternate Piece.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00720", "bookId": 21531, "start": 160474, "end": 160895, "sha256": "6ce8c3d6c97be7f9ad3595cc9bfe46b77441a94de19a6335fe4f9138b119d6c4", "text": "With regard to cutting the alternate piece, it is necessary to first plane the end of the shelf true and square. With a cutting gauge strike the line K, Fig. 320; the required bevel on the edge (J) is then set out, and with the chisel a small channel is again formed. With the tenon or dovetail saw cut down the line K to the required depth, and carefully pare away the wood with a sharp chisel to the correct shape.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00721", "bookId": 21531, "start": 160905, "end": 160921, "sha256": "443753ac54c3c7f3e851996cd63f4a2327df229d3a13570ae3856ed45a02fe7a", "text": "THE MITRED JOINT", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00722", "bookId": 21531, "start": 160927, "end": 161348, "sha256": "f16b62c8a8429e5106325aa45dea9e8f54f2a6e30b6f8c0d16f7ec5cb11238f2", "text": "Although mitreing is used in everyday woodwork, it comes last in our list of regular joints simply because it has been partly dealt with in almost every previous chapter. For example, we have mitre halving in Fig. 34, a mitre bridle joint in Fig. 74, a tongued and grooved mitre in Fig. 116, mitred mortise and tenon joints in Figs. 148 and 159, a dowelled mitre frame in Fig. 202, and a mitred dovetail in Fig. 286.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00723", "bookId": 21531, "start": 161352, "end": 161395, "sha256": "d90ab6fb8d0afee23507567123ad45fa8d94bcee25b982445e0780ab61e54e9f", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 321.--Mitred Skirting.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00724", "bookId": 21531, "start": 161399, "end": 161439, "sha256": "fbd5020aa735273c433e2350a1e2c91823fed3b30dfc9128c1f57746cc64669e", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 322.--Curved Mitre.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00725", "bookId": 21531, "start": 161443, "end": 161488, "sha256": "8bb9f30a07050520dccc91e6bdf9647b584fc94e51972d383e2cc48973ae9edd", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 323.--Halving the Angle.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00726", "bookId": 21531, "start": 161492, "end": 161894, "sha256": "a2ab4d3fcfa2cc211475b33060b7823e9b836e244d93b46af12233c6d041f407", "text": "MITREING.--The term mitreing is generally used to denote the type of joint used at the corner of a picture frame; or where two pieces of wood are bevelled away so as to fit each other, as the skirting or plinth mould at Fig. 321. In these cases the timber is cut so that the joint is at 45 degrees to the face, and the two pieces, when placed together, form an angle of 90 degrees (a right angle).", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00727", "bookId": 21531, "start": 161898, "end": 162103, "sha256": "88461747ef7c56114dc948c983768a2bac123980d138b635fea4ea9aebf5f229", "text": "The term mitreing, however, is not confined to the fitting of timber around a right angle; it may be justly applied to the fitting of a moulding around an angle irrespective of the number of its degrees.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00728", "bookId": 21531, "start": 162107, "end": 162744, "sha256": "2d8927bf887bc7fe6c84b7903f104a9e522fa6bebb50769aba700fa5ec9b3946", "text": "One often hears such terms as \"a half mitre,\" used to denote the fitting of a moulding around an octagonal column or pedestal, and probably it would be more correct to describe the joint as a mitre cut at 22-1/2 degrees. Mitreing consists of halving the angle and making each piece to fit the line of bisection. Should the angle be bounded by straight lines, as at Fig. 321, then the mitred joint will be a straight line, but should the angle be bounded by a curved and a straight line, as at Fig. 322, A, or by two curved lines, then the mitred joint will have to be a curved line if the mouldings are to be of the same section.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00729", "bookId": 21531, "start": 162748, "end": 162801, "sha256": "c13a6ff97f28f5b89fa8210d18a2842a49468e009af709b2e0b6bd2bda85ae56", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 324.--Sawing Block for Mitreing.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00730", "bookId": 21531, "start": 162805, "end": 163494, "sha256": "2b0871bc86963507c2622ca9a71dcaa75da73c03fdf3a50d317a332128ef86b3", "text": "FINDING THE ANGLE.--For straight mitres, the mitre joint line is found by bisecting the angle, as shown in the various examples, and the following instructions are given to enable the reader to follow the diagram (Fig. 323). Take a pair of compasses, or dividers, and with any convenient opening strike out the arc A, B. Put the point of the compasses on A, and mark another arc C; then, without altering the distance between the points of the compass, put the point on B, and mark the arc D. Draw the line E from the corner, so that it cuts through the intersection made by the arcs C and D. The angle A B is now halved by the line E, and this method may be applied to any angle.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00731", "bookId": 21531, "start": 163498, "end": 163886, "sha256": "5af013fff7eeabec7c16679b09ae9be751cd4000b9ef4ca38bcbd7e2271d3ba6", "text": "SAWING BLOCK.--For sawing mouldings, etc., to their approximate shape, a home-made sawing block is generally used, as shown at Fig. 324. Two pieces of wood are glued one on the top of the other, the required angle is transferred thereto, and the saw kerf made. In the sketch the saw kerfs are shown at 45 degrees, right and left, and other angles and kerfs may be made where desired.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00732", "bookId": 21531, "start": 163890, "end": 164628, "sha256": "74d4c0568a8d8f8755a0d1e814d9d3a454cbc5eec33b4e34c64551c2b29ed164", "text": "PLANING.--After sawing the piece to approximately the correct angle, it is necessary on high-class work to plane the cut end so as to give a perfect finish and enable a glued joint to be made. This may be accomplished by using the plane on the shooting board, as shown at Fig. 325, and, if the worker is constantly using mitres of various angles, it is an easy matter to make new angle blocks and fix them on to the board. Other workers prefer the screw mitre trap shown at Fig. 326. This apparatus takes wide plinth or cornice moulds, and the angle may be altered by fitting temporary packing pieces under the work so as to tilt the moulding to the desired angle. The method of using the plane is indicated in the illustration.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00733", "bookId": 21531, "start": 164632, "end": 164932, "sha256": "e51187f8d8c3ca1787f301fd6fb75f1937d847c527d88f3133014feb6e09bde6", "text": "Another method in everyday use by those workers who are constantly mitreing wide pieces of stock at 45 degrees is the \"donkey's ear\" shooting board illustrated at Fig. 327. The plane is laid on its side on the surface of the board marked A, and used in a similar manner to that shown at Fig. 325.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00734", "bookId": 21531, "start": 164936, "end": 165008, "sha256": "bf2f74bb89f54a75288bf4c982981ccad9eb475cb0ff8507e6e432945b713fb0", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 325.--Use of Plane and Shooting Board for Mitreing.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00735", "bookId": 21531, "start": 165012, "end": 165060, "sha256": "b5db05602636349aa2953b416709182559f05bc42434709a13708895405397b4", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 326.--The Screw Mitre Trap.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00736", "bookId": 21531, "start": 165064, "end": 165613, "sha256": "8fd28440be424ef920fccc1b91a944932439e9d77ccf0a8b9cd31ca45675f5bd", "text": "A simple method and one that should always be remembered because it is handy when working without a shooting board is shown at Fig. 328. Set the marking or cutting gauge to the thickness of the wood to be mitred at 45 degrees; then gauge this distance on the wood, as shown at B; draw from the line to the edge, as shown, and saw and plane to a finish. The diagonals of a square give 45 degrees, and this is the method used to mark out the work. The end of the wood must, of course, be square with its edges before marking out in this manner.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00737", "bookId": 21531, "start": 165617, "end": 165674, "sha256": "b63e1c64812f2932e04447cb3e06e2080508ea688d4c50ea405e623c7b1c4124", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 327.--\"Donkey's Ear\" Shooting Board.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00738", "bookId": 21531, "start": 165678, "end": 165724, "sha256": "a4ceeb08805ae7e12b6f063b3111915480d0c8a174fd9975a314ab92e4d896f3", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 328.--Gauging for Mitres.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00739", "bookId": 21531, "start": 165728, "end": 165777, "sha256": "9ede8c96a288a1319050610dc1aa38f45c48d643262231768fa58a4749424925", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 329.--Narrow Inner Moulding.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00740", "bookId": 21531, "start": 165781, "end": 165829, "sha256": "de3bd9bc067bba02ca0f4b26ed204fe1a858e1f498dea6a174d58e7d038e774b", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 330.--Wide Mitred Moulding.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00741", "bookId": 21531, "start": 165833, "end": 165963, "sha256": "f7f74875da1c442d90afe24f37f863e4f38bc18849c3b460fb21879959d79322", "text": "Fig. 329 shows a bevelled framing into which has been mitred a narrow moulding M so as to show a correct margin around the panel.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00742", "bookId": 21531, "start": 165967, "end": 166018, "sha256": "b2400f16b10d8c375ece89cdf9b47ec8acd594eeba0f211c0c3b69b0077290cf", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 331.--Door with Curved Mitres.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00743", "bookId": 21531, "start": 166022, "end": 166090, "sha256": "c33e8eace4da3d3665a461d0b2cab8098ebf6e0ba93d881082308b85b13d9947", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 332.--Method of Setting out for a Curved Mitre.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00744", "bookId": 21531, "start": 166094, "end": 166690, "sha256": "e0697e795b1885f7488f0e89bb9a0d2063788d00a4bf168c5cf8b0762cb30acd", "text": "Fig. 330 shows a similar framing, but with a wide moulding M mitred around it. To obtain a correct intersection of this moulding, the angles A and B are bisected. The bisection of the angles meets before the width of the moulding is cleared, therefore the angle C will again have to be bisected, and the finished joint will appear as shown. One of the simplest of mouldings with a large flat face has been chosen to illustrate this. The moulding could be all in one width, as shown, or it could be built into the framing in separate pieces, the wide flat and the piece carrying the mould.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00745", "bookId": 21531, "start": 166694, "end": 167439, "sha256": "ec9e6c3bd413119e5cb9b18518f18cfda52d9ced21610719cf5fce833b66dc86", "text": "CURVED MITRES.--We now come to what are probably the most difficult of all mitres, viz., curved mitres, and the writer well remembers in his apprenticeship days his first experience of attempting to fit the mouldings around the door shown at Fig. 331 by using straight mitres at A. This, of course, is impossible if the mouldings are of the same section and it is desired to make all the members correctly intersect. If straight mitres are used the section of the curved moulding will have to be of a different shape from the section of the straight moulding, and in these days of machine-made mouldings this method is seldom resorted to. It is better, cheaper, and easier to make curved mitres when the necessary machinery is at hand.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00746", "bookId": 21531, "start": 167443, "end": 168058, "sha256": "fa3ea95ecad02f3c9f7d8fb3eac023be5d6fb9dd4aed5f8524ca001071b2302c", "text": "TO SET OUT A CURVED MITRE (see Fig. 332).--Draw a section of the moulding full size, A, as shown at the left hand of the illustration, and project lines round the framing, as shown V, W, X, Y and Z. Where the lines V, W, X, Y and Z intersect at the corner D, it clearly shows that a straight mitre will not cut all the points of intersection. A curved line will cut all the intersections, and a template made of cardboard, sheet zinc, or veneer, should be made to this shape. At the left-hand side the geometrical setting out is shown for obtaining the curve without having to resort to drawing it freehand.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00747", "bookId": 21531, "start": 168062, "end": 168565, "sha256": "012244361f44a8127ee291cdfe45e2722524d48033a89fc8388a7a6358f3c732", "text": "Take half the width of the moulding, as shown by dotted line A, and where it cuts the approximation of the curved mitre place the point of the compasses and strike out a circle as shown; with the same radius place the compass point on B--that is, the inside point of the mitre, and cut the circle on the right and left with the small arcs shown at _aa_. With the same radius put the compass point at the junction of the circle and mitre line, C V, and cut the circle at right and left, viz., _ee_.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00748", "bookId": 21531, "start": 168569, "end": 168618, "sha256": "17614549581fe5268c8c93ff002b70ef797ac03a6f342e49542b5798517c74dd", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 333.--Template for Mitreing.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00749", "bookId": 21531, "start": 168622, "end": 168957, "sha256": "3ee49c751098a24203eee3617fbdad50cc28b055d6182db493aa327ccf685ec1", "text": "Now rule a line through _aa_, and another line through _ee_, and where these lines cut each other it will give the correct radius of the curved mitre. The advantage of knowing the correct radius of a curved mitre is of great benefit to the skilled machinist, as it enables him to set up his machine so as to give a definite result.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00750", "bookId": 21531, "start": 168961, "end": 169482, "sha256": "db6360355cce6cb89bd42ee00e9d413ce36cac4679d29c92608f63b0463908b7", "text": "MITREING A MOULDED DOOR FRAME.--Fig. 333 illustrates the method of mitreing the moulded portion of a door frame where the joint is dowelled, not tenoned. A small wooden template is made out of beech or other hardwood, having its ends cut at 45 degrees. This template is placed on the rail, as shown, and held in position by placing both the rail and the template in the vice. The face of the template forms a guide for a wide chisel, and enables the worker to gradually pare away the moulding to the correct angle.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00751", "bookId": 21531, "start": 169486, "end": 169542, "sha256": "b27f24881a8d9d8050332e9b167712209fe0883bd33fe315fd5588b62f4dee1b", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 334.--Using Panel Saw in Mitre Box.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00752", "bookId": 21531, "start": 169546, "end": 169726, "sha256": "8de4eea07ce1102727107894cf8922282ee761ace329bba4820ebda29f69059b", "text": "For sawing the mitres on large mouldings such as are used on the lid of a gramophone or wireless cabinet, a mitre sawing box and a panel saw may be used as indicated at Fig. 334.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00753", "bookId": 21531, "start": 169736, "end": 169758, "sha256": "126666d4a51ba7b77edf72b0ce9572498888ff23932bf4fcbbdd583dd70670e0", "text": "JOINTS FOR CURVED WORK", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00754", "bookId": 21531, "start": 169764, "end": 170357, "sha256": "ecafb6ab8b9614f6db20add1e890508204b54668d6e2590ffd6fb2d250059f36", "text": "Fig. 335 shows a circular frame made up in two thicknesses, the segments being screwed to each other and the joints crossed in two layers. This is a very strong method, and it is used for making circular frames and curbs up to 15 ft. in diameter. The segments can be either long or short, the only important condition being that they must be marked out and sawn to the correct radius. Fig. 337 shows a board marked out in segments for this class of work. The longer the boards the better will they cut up, as it gives more opportunities of cutting one piece out of the other as at A A.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00755", "bookId": 21531, "start": 170361, "end": 170422, "sha256": "10784c240b92cb7b90cd04db120261aa430dfd7266a6bf2da0ea20e44e3ab7c3", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 335.--Circular Frame in Two Thicknesses.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00756", "bookId": 21531, "start": 170426, "end": 170485, "sha256": "f3db98a9b59b61ffee5a1c0c63197e5eb5c28995c016afa5480ec945a399c6e4", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 336.--Circular Rim in Halved Segments.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00757", "bookId": 21531, "start": 170489, "end": 170680, "sha256": "d844afc3fdcf113b5df76ac5d500c405f2cdbd5914979cc4aec074d8ce37d484", "text": "Fig. 338 shows how to begin to put the work together. To continue this, fit other segments in position and screw them to D and E respectively. The completed work is illustrated at Fig. 335.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00758", "bookId": 21531, "start": 170684, "end": 170746, "sha256": "ca1c12be2e9d23c8b2fb9931462162770b3ae7c699ae310c58a3eca529258dfb", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 337.--Board Marked for Circular Jointing.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00759", "bookId": 21531, "start": 170750, "end": 170808, "sha256": "fc6e600445e1b069374dd84f751032efd02bc0b1999ad5a2fcd0e4d96ecd1b23", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 338.--Putting Circular Work Together.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00760", "bookId": 21531, "start": 170812, "end": 170904, "sha256": "931f476918dd098f76c65fbe3f97b5a4b14986dfe23c776ea900f8e3dc5c415c", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 339., Fig. 340. Method of Building up Semicircular Head of Door Frame.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00761", "bookId": 21531, "start": 170908, "end": 171209, "sha256": "397ebe3a82fe7f7876b8ac022619ce7de93333fee01683aec251c3dfd87f34f9", "text": "Fig. 336 shows a circular rim, or curb, made of segments which are halved together. This method is suitable for heavy work, where the timbers are of considerable size. The halvings are cut on the ends of the segments to any convenient shape or bevel, each one being marked so as to fit its fellow.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00762", "bookId": 21531, "start": 171213, "end": 171270, "sha256": "2080bee0ac86ababb456bdd264b573369e3847af1fdc76aaadc244eb23a53a2a", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 341.--Part of Laminated Table Frame.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00763", "bookId": 21531, "start": 171274, "end": 171328, "sha256": "fa554c0099f1b94ee3384bc86fef581e14eeb3a03a869d11f9ed5ca8df06cf2c", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 342.--Half of Laminated Core Box.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00764", "bookId": 21531, "start": 171332, "end": 171595, "sha256": "330d02d5d39b08cb58ac09dff38af4f4902504b18274d2d7e3cf315a7d068b8c", "text": "When extra length is required, semicircular or circular work is built up out of four or five thicknesses of wood, and the method is called laminating. The method of building up the semicircular head of a door frame by this method is shown at Figs. 339 and 340.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00765", "bookId": 21531, "start": 171599, "end": 171926, "sha256": "c02d77d543339b90270b0d6831bb21c91ecf3eb3057561e78476ecf2c7dc5d66", "text": "The shaped framing for kidney-shaped writing tables and similar classes of work is built up by laminating pieces of 3/4-in. or 1-in. wood, after which the face side is veneered so as to hide the glued joints. Fig. 341 shows a sketch of one quarter of an elliptical table frame levelled up and ready for applying the veneer.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00766", "bookId": 21531, "start": 171930, "end": 172682, "sha256": "c03a598ed3171b16579fd67b53f4137be4754edb7e783070a3e236af73fd4e72", "text": "LAMINATION.--If we apply to the dictionary for the word \"lamination,\" we find that lamellar structure is the arrangements in thin plates or layers one over the other, usually having the end joints alternating, and it is a condition which allows of cleavage in one direction only. This method is used for nearly all descriptions of free or irregular curves, such as sweeps, bends, ogee shapes, and segments of circles. The timber is marked out in suitable lengths, rough-sawn and then planed true on the face, glued together, and when set the sides are cleaned up to the required shape. It is one of the strongest methods of construction, and necessarily costly. Pulleys, pulley rims, and a hundred and one other jobs are built by this method.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00767", "bookId": 21531, "start": 172686, "end": 172788, "sha256": "43579602eeaf2c5a143eb884fa8bca1748ef5af9b813494d50633aef1bc6c90a", "text": "Fig. 342 shows one half of a core box built by this method, ready to be worked to the required shape.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00768", "bookId": 21531, "start": 172798, "end": 172818, "sha256": "af55e0dc589d1a0fa2daa788c53ec6a3846cc0b273d8ab444bad27ba818b5cd7", "text": "MISCELLANEOUS JOINTS", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00769", "bookId": 21531, "start": 172824, "end": 173457, "sha256": "2d3134674a1c1f7e5f60fa2863e8194bf9a048ac49528be1955a31f3881b8c20", "text": "Weather boards.--For outdoor buildings, such as garages, garden sheds, toolhouses, etc., \"weatherboarding\" is often preferred to ordinary matchboarding, chiefly because of the facility with which it throws off the rain. The boarding can be bought ready prepared. Three methods of jointing are shown in the sections at Fig. 343. The method indicated at A shows one of the most satisfactory types, its boards being planed and moulded as shown. The other two examples are more common. The boarding at B is rebated, whilst at C each board overhangs its lower neighbour. The boards for C and D are always cut tapered as indicated.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00770", "bookId": 21531, "start": 173461, "end": 173503, "sha256": "dca6847480ad950e20cb85ac1a54cfc810a052981b83a90989400336b2b7ba9f", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 343.--Weather Boards.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00771", "bookId": 21531, "start": 173507, "end": 173547, "sha256": "85f37e409af41d04da4c217b4230af65198a58debd8aa1816783ebe0b2c514d7", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 344.--Ladder Rungs.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00772", "bookId": 21531, "start": 173551, "end": 173644, "sha256": "6f65ea56b6bbb87bd7fc264cd8cd0dfc4fc262f06c38335b4fe20944750f08af", "text": "The end grain is usually protected by nailing on a strip of timber, chamfered on both edges.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00773", "bookId": 21531, "start": 173648, "end": 174072, "sha256": "eea19e7987567b5d69bf2a31ca7d194ba10ddf7126dc3f54c6371a8093c8adf8", "text": "LADDERS.--Fig. 344 illustrates the method of fastening the rung (or stave) of a ladder to the side. At A the common method is shown, the stave being simply driven into the hole and wedged. At B a much better but more expensive method of construction is given. The stave here is socketed and the pin turned to a smaller diameter. In both cases the rung, or stave, is painted before being driven into the side and wedged.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00774", "bookId": 21531, "start": 174076, "end": 174122, "sha256": "1298d43a360eadfa62cc04d6ed480ae07a3d66cf8074303a9d7bd05c508735c1", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 345.--Cornice Pole Joint.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00775", "bookId": 21531, "start": 174126, "end": 174167, "sha256": "da03c38660282757a64d01032ca82487dcbe832b677a36105bb14d3b402a5dd5", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 346.--Veneer Keying.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00776", "bookId": 21531, "start": 174171, "end": 174491, "sha256": "54dec3f31c6b4a8e99d0622cb8d6a232de48ed4db83238348eaa71e72c786ad5", "text": "Ladder sides are made in two distinct ways. One method is known as \"a plank side,\" the side being cut from a plank as shown at the section D; the other method is called \"a pole side,\" and is constructed by cutting a straight larch pole in half and using half of the pole for each side of the ladder, as at section C.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00777", "bookId": 21531, "start": 174495, "end": 175182, "sha256": "e00b79c37fabc31f82216b8c687ef3564a4cdf07fc8bf2ab4f53b226c5b76ad5", "text": "HINGED CORNICE POLES.--Fig. 345 shows a hinged joint for cornice poles and should be of interest to those who are frequently removing from house to house. The joint will adapt itself to fit any bay window (even a square bay) and it is formed by turning and cutting the two pieces shown. To fix a cornice pole to a bay window one of these joints is required for each angle of the bay, the pole being cut into suitable lengths and fixed to the hinged joints by the use of the dowel screw and a little hot glue. It is perhaps needless to remark that the diameter of the joint should be of the same diameter as the cornice pole, to enable the rings to easily slide over the surface.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00778", "bookId": 21531, "start": 175186, "end": 175407, "sha256": "c3ef93ebaccfbcd3f2398859883aa5fbe421c015213ab09d593e672904a41624", "text": "For fastening a turned ornament (or \"finial\") to the end of a cornice pole a double pointed screw (known in the trade as a \"dowel screw\") is used, one half of which is screwed into each part of the pieces to be joined.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00779", "bookId": 21531, "start": 175411, "end": 176087, "sha256": "c7c1e9889a67af1bc98aac4d3776ed78f7f24f609ba2c750eb33355a6265d241", "text": "VENEER KEYING.--Fig. 346 illustrates the method of strengthening the corners of boxes which are made of 1/4-in. or 3/8-in. timber, by securing the corners with veneer keys. The box is mitred and glued in the usual manner, and after allowing sufficient time for the glue to set, saw kerfs are made as shown at _a a_. A piece of thin saw-cut veneer is afterwards glued into the saw kerfs, and when dry the face is levelled off flush. This method is often used previous to veneering the face side of the box with rare veneers, and it is also useful for repair work. Note that the saw cuts are made at an angle. Small picture frames are sometimes keyed instead of nailed.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00780", "bookId": 21531, "start": 176091, "end": 176394, "sha256": "f88033223d8869dc4c5dd253e52be7dc25499a1bedafd60876e59cbb450429a7", "text": "MUNTIN AND SKIRTING JOINT.--In the case of panelled rooms it is usually necessary to scribe the muntins (or uprights) to the skirting. The method is shown in Fig. 347. The bead moulding of the skirting is only partly removed, as indicated, leaving a solid portion to which the muntin is skew-nailed.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00781", "bookId": 21531, "start": 176398, "end": 177188, "sha256": "6870987ab70549d25db98bf8a3b3a7660a3e65a2a2d6955367c6a8ca75056d7a", "text": "COT JOINT.--At Fig. 348 is shown an interesting joint used largely in the making of Indian cots. The illustrations indicate how the cross bar and end bar are mortised into the leg. A turned hardwood peg fits into a suitably provided hole and locks the tenons, which are dry jointed (not glued) in position. The head of this peg forms an ornament (A) at the top of the leg and should fit tightly in position. At B are seen the end and cross bars in their relative positions when apart from the leg. C shows the end bar and cross bar when the cot is fixed, but in this illustration the leg is purposely left out of the drawing for a clear representation. D shows the joints of the leg portion when the part of the leg above the line at A is sawn off. The hardwood peg is shown at E.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00782", "bookId": 21531, "start": 177192, "end": 177245, "sha256": "c55e2cb5296a73418bb23170c8861a12281325977d88a5173aa20f761c109d4a", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 347.--Fixing Muntin to Skirting.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00783", "bookId": 21531, "start": 177249, "end": 177300, "sha256": "fe05535f49b6e60c68f6ca0ff9a7a20039d883f54ef9fe9358ba06abf63aaba1", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 348.--Joint for Home-made Cot.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00784", "bookId": 21531, "start": 177304, "end": 177777, "sha256": "c742486f19c9f82eb784d26a44b47a1441827a86a141cabe6dbf015c33a01069", "text": "SIDEBOARD PILLARS, ETC. (Fig. 349).--For economy, sideboard pillars are sometimes built up as indicated, the \"shaft,\" the \"base,\" and the \"swell\" being made up of three distinct pieces. Turned pins are left on the shaft and the base, and these are secured at the joint by the use of a double-pointed screw called a dowel screw. This does away with the necessity of reducing the squares at the top of the wood and thus getting the turning out of a large piece of wood.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00785", "bookId": 21531, "start": 177781, "end": 178028, "sha256": "8f7370d66e3be2047b761d6d002faafe86dc405833de77b6c0918befc9a26f96", "text": "NOTCHED JOINTS.--Fig. 350 is a \"notched joint,\" where two joists, or scantlings, cross each other, the object of the joint being to prevent the joists moving from their position without materially weakening them. For an end notch, see Fig. 352.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00786", "bookId": 21531, "start": 178032, "end": 178090, "sha256": "521359c3e18deb1d3d93461759ebd118cd57d0f1d67f53fccc1d215984d99233", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 349.--Method of Building up Turnings.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00787", "bookId": 21531, "start": 178094, "end": 178135, "sha256": "e1570605bc26e2e4e6808e41ce06e6f5d2379b37e640a21682ca3dd9bcac71ad", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 350.--Notched Joint.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00788", "bookId": 21531, "start": 178139, "end": 178183, "sha256": "3677cd74d0188cdef3199dbb73a0eda4008370cff13fe29cb2cb3214b4fa06ec", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 351.--The Saddle Joint.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00789", "bookId": 21531, "start": 178187, "end": 178609, "sha256": "1a50bcc4f33bc74e89828b6c0f20d3097117ab519f4e5fb84f46335ed65949e9", "text": "The \"saddle joint\" (Fig. 351) is used for connecting upright posts to heads or sills of framing, and undoubtedly takes its name from its similarity to the way in which the saddle fits the horse. It does not weaken the framing as does a mortise and tenon joint, and shrinkage has little effect upon the joint. The \"cogged joint,\" used for connecting purlins to rafter and joists to girders, is illustrated in Fig. 353.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00790", "bookId": 21531, "start": 178613, "end": 178650, "sha256": "7f46a0bffc488a270ccedbd25073241ce0a206764b717335780b277749641921", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 352.--End Notch.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00791", "bookId": 21531, "start": 178654, "end": 178694, "sha256": "4eaacc21e444ebed572b0b23a3050157b7d662aacbba8f842ebdedbd673753ee", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 353.--Cogged Joint.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00792", "bookId": 21531, "start": 178698, "end": 178742, "sha256": "cf7afaf174dcb326cf53e2173c86ad262cfeb2729db4a6e210e3a5abaded0df8", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 354.--Birdsmouth Joint.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00793", "bookId": 21531, "start": 178746, "end": 178806, "sha256": "1b14dec78ecd1cf985e9326a73a7c2c92ae71c3f185dcba3a937924da06cd91d", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 355.--Another type of Birdsmouth Joint.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00794", "bookId": 21531, "start": 178810, "end": 179004, "sha256": "b7e3a52cc743a243981e1439ce7bd8ce13409795cd9c294225d1025e06496c62", "text": "BIRDSMOUTH JOINTS.--Fig. 354 is a \"birdsmouth joint,\" a simple joint which can be readily made by the handsaw, used when a spar fits on the wall plate. A nail is shown securing it in position.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00795", "bookId": 21531, "start": 179008, "end": 179152, "sha256": "bc99c790fe058bd9a8043d3c2090f973fd91f52a3089e80ad1f68338497fb280", "text": "Fig. 355 shows the birdsmouth joint where the spar runs over the _outside_ of the wall plate, thus allowing a fixing for an ornamental finish.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00796", "bookId": 21531, "start": 179156, "end": 179209, "sha256": "7f177bded375bd206a82913c46f1e985c6500ddf7e5765f5b2a6d75adbd1df45", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 356.--Rafter and Tie Beam Joint.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00797", "bookId": 21531, "start": 179213, "end": 179520, "sha256": "6d4d4a89bb7f3d33fbac1cc9a8b10f8d6da0c1e1043b89b43e4bc8e9b6638446", "text": "RAFTER JOINT.--Fig. 356 shows an everyday joint, as used at the juncture of the principal rafter and the tie-beam in roof truss work. A sketch of piece A is shown separated, and it should be noted that the depth of the cut portion B should not be more than one-fourth of the total width of the tie-beam.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00798", "bookId": 21531, "start": 179524, "end": 179609, "sha256": "663b1c92d6a08edc526472eccf3c5b9651aee1edb4e2032e9e1978a4fc523de8", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 357.--Method of Pelleting the Corner of a Mitred Picture Frame.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00799", "bookId": 21531, "start": 179613, "end": 179902, "sha256": "d2300e15bb05769968105d4b4e47a30eff3c674b229eb2284fd27e05aa223296", "text": "PELLETING.--Fig. 357 indicates the method of pelleting and screwing the corner of a picture frame. The mitre joint is first screwed and a pellet of the same timber is made to fill the hole which has been bored to receive the screw head. The pellet is glued in position and levelled off.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00800", "bookId": 21531, "start": 179906, "end": 179962, "sha256": "d05ec866306aecd22bcf42d7b45d662c5f000bfa4ab3fc56d450c177f33c5025", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 358.--Patera Covers to Hide Screws.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00801", "bookId": 21531, "start": 179966, "end": 181004, "sha256": "43acf5ff4c5f1fe49b3a5598d2176254df6d3c58c661be4c8804a8462eea6b9c", "text": "PATERA COVERS.--In cases where the style of ornament permits of it, patera covers are used instead of pelleting. Fig. 358 shows the jointing of shaped spandrails, etc., to carcase ends of light portable cabinet work, etc. A hole is bored about 3/8 in. deep into the end, and a screw is used to hold the shaping in position. After fixing the rail a small turned button, called a turned patera, is inserted in the hole, thus giving an ornamental finish, as shown in the front view. The turned patera is driven fairly tightly into the hole, but not glued. When it is required to take the article apart a chisel is carefully inserted under the edge of the patera to remove it, and the screw can then be taken out. This method is often used for the construction of light hanging bookcases and similar objects. For a bookcase having an end 8 ins. wide three of these turned buttons and three screws would be used to secure the shelf to the end. Pateras in different styles may be purchased from any dealer in woodworking sundries.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00802", "bookId": 21531, "start": 181008, "end": 181420, "sha256": "64a0ad46bd16532424abc9909f65770e16f07de77f9315d8c40cb720a8f98f2f", "text": "BUTTONING.--The tops of tables, sideboards, etc., should not be fixed with screws in the ordinary way. At the front, screws can be driven upwards through the top rail, but at the sides and back, buttons should be employed, as in Fig. 359, so that the top is free to shrink. It is otherwise liable to split if immovably fixed. The tops of kitchen tables are usually fixed in this way, to allow for shrinkage.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00803", "bookId": 21531, "start": 181424, "end": 181483, "sha256": "becef87cb9497ddfc5fa0c83c59c066f9c13dd77f6757e3b243ba046ab4abb6a", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 359.--Method of Buttoning a Table Top.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00804", "bookId": 21531, "start": 181487, "end": 182511, "sha256": "2c087c5d87011141279e3079aae7e5d0e2167f5f0be33b43e9980ca5d02c4e7f", "text": "FRAMES FOR OIL PAINTINGS.--The method of making joints for frames on which the canvas is stretched for oil paintings is shown at Fig. 360. They are generally mitred at the corners and fitted with loose wedges. The four parts of the frame can be held temporarily by a piece of thin board while the canvas is being tacked to the edges of the frame. In the accompanying illustrations Fig. 360 shows the action of the wedges when tightening up the frame, the result being to open the mitre joint. Fig. 361 shows the position of the saw cuts for receiving the hardwood wedges. Note that the parallel groove is carried the full length of the material for greater convenience in cutting. The other groove is taken from the outer angle of the mitre joint inwards. The cut finishes with due regard to the necessary taper; see the dotted lines showing taper in Fig. 360. The grooves will be wide enough after being cut with an ordinary hand-rip saw, but for large work they are usually grooved on the circular saw bench.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00805", "bookId": 21531, "start": 182515, "end": 182609, "sha256": "ef5008874c4c41cfc97c41bd90bddcf7839603398a3741ccb903b580b12a275a", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 360., Fig. 361. Joint and Method of Wedging the Frames of Oil Paintings.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00806", "bookId": 21531, "start": 182613, "end": 182820, "sha256": "077af48a7a69df25fd3c130b4437de8193136cf6fdf9a67c9c38a72b66a230f2", "text": "CORRUGATED STEEL FASTENERS.--It is now many years ago since the steel saw-edge fastener first appeared on the market, but probably 80 per cent. of amateur woodworkers have never yet sampled its advantages.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00807", "bookId": 21531, "start": 182824, "end": 183260, "sha256": "f693b2ee776b3f858f0039dd6dc69a1bfbd603bc7ea568d6e9401e42d619e818", "text": "In appearance it resembles a miniature corrugated galvanised sheet such as is used for roofing purposes, with the exception, however, that the corrugations are divergent instead of being parallel and that one end is ground down to a cutting edge (see Fig. 363, A). They are made in various sizes from 1/4 in. to 1 in. in length, whilst in regard to width they are classed by the number of corrugations and not by their measurement.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00808", "bookId": 21531, "start": 183264, "end": 183307, "sha256": "c8bb5c74a6b38179b727caf443db0928a604fb6d5c648c1b3b4ce41e8d6e3acc", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 362.--Jointing Boards.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00809", "bookId": 21531, "start": 183311, "end": 183355, "sha256": "0fb094da7e31858167790dbbf1ae452105c60d43b291bd482d064dde6e002d3f", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 363.--Jointing a Frame.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00810", "bookId": 21531, "start": 183359, "end": 183422, "sha256": "5a00128e6f9deba2584dfc60a81febb5b080519c56ef2468c9ce921da3c8ea25", "text": "[Illustration: The Use of Saw-edge Corrugated Steel Fasteners.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00811", "bookId": 21531, "start": 183426, "end": 183751, "sha256": "23da0a2aa32a7c391d15009d3fe7c5024b948248d2de0d61b25e1ba9dcfae478", "text": "To use the fastener no special tools are required; it is simply driven in with a hammer exactly as though it were a nail; once in position, however, to get it out is worse than drawing teeth. The corrugations add to the strength of the device, the wood fibres closing around them, age and rust but emphasising their grip.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00812", "bookId": 21531, "start": 183755, "end": 184441, "sha256": "fdc607a80aac4d68f64d50dffa92c32e51d1f7cc3e50995879e2904cd1d603db", "text": "WALL PLUGS.--At Fig. 364 four types of wall plugs are shown: _a_, the ordinary rectangular tapered wall plug to drive between the joints of the brickwork; _b_, the circular tapered wall plug as used to plug a wall after a star-shaped brick drill has been used; _d_, a twisted wall plug used for similar purposes to the wedge _a_, but considered to be superior in holding power owing to its twisted formation; _c_ is another type of wall plug considered to have great tenacity by reason of its corrugations. Wall plugs are required in nearly all cases where it is necessary to joint woodwork to brickwork, as, for instance, heavily-framed silvered mirrors to the walls of shops.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00813", "bookId": 21531, "start": 184445, "end": 184499, "sha256": "76d3b2468ea0f699e1472d891fcac7464683105765499bbe19868309f0797326", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 364.--Wall Plugs, Four Varieties.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00814", "bookId": 21531, "start": 184503, "end": 184544, "sha256": "57bbb1f0ad9871fad35e9abaca3b5292f7d4b28e9e30a4ab35b9a7e5e25bbafa", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 365.--Slot Screwing.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00815", "bookId": 21531, "start": 184548, "end": 184599, "sha256": "59757611596edc75dccfae206376f2ffa791ef7f10bb2cdcbd2dcb59998a3075", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 366.--Slot Screwing a Bracket.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00816", "bookId": 21531, "start": 184603, "end": 185425, "sha256": "3368a269527bb38ccdb09c54a625c681445214aa473dd86cd4a985b10bdfb3df", "text": "SLOT SCREWING, OR KEYHOLE SCREWING, is a most useful way of joining light woodwork in such a manner that the fixing method is not exposed to the eye. A stout screw is inserted to within 3/8 in. of the head, as at Fig. 365. In the adjoining piece a hole is bored with a centre bit and a slot is cut with an 1/8-in. chisel. The two pieces of timber are placed together, and by sliding the upper piece forward the screw runs up into the slot or keyhole and secures the joint. Fig. 366 shows the application of the joint fixing a shaped bracket to the shaped shelf; the bracket and shelf are inverted in the illustration to clearly show the method of jointing. For heavy work special brass plates are obtainable for this purpose; one plate is let flush into the upper piece and the other plate into the lower piece.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00817", "bookId": 21531, "start": 185429, "end": 186085, "sha256": "59dcdbbf33f06790469f4a22b3c851a020b6ebf651010b1104e8af735307e422", "text": "Battening (Fig. 367).--A good method of joining cross battens to drawing boards and other wide surfaces is shown here. After boring for the screws, slots are cut so as to allow the screws to move along the slots when shrinkage takes place. In Fig. 368 a similar method is applied to secure the drawer bottom to the drawer back. If shrinkage takes place in the drawer bottom and it leaves the groove in the drawer front, the screws are slackened, the drawer bottom is knocked up into the groove, and the screws again inserted. For drawing boards, etc., specially made elliptical-shaped slotted brass socket cups are made to receive the screw heads.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00818", "bookId": 21531, "start": 186089, "end": 186126, "sha256": "cc5bdfa8be8c1a922e2c14dd60b723ea91b6e8f52c42ef5aafa87095c6d5c2b5", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 367.--Battening.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00819", "bookId": 21531, "start": 186130, "end": 186177, "sha256": "dbfca3ac1b116ab1592525dc471db6ff02477e5c4fe615a4db3601a341e205e5", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 368.--Drawer Bottom Joint.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00820", "bookId": 21531, "start": 186187, "end": 186200, "sha256": "0e674cb87296281ee5b5bbda129a628e3dde443824011445f64fca43650196d5", "text": "PUZZLE JOINTS", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00821", "bookId": 21531, "start": 186206, "end": 186732, "sha256": "6cfc6f3052776285c618c214b615e392a42900a2b774fff659408355ca73222a", "text": "Puzzle Joints are not only interesting in themselves, but are often excellent studies in craftsmanship. The majority of them, if to be satisfactory as puzzles, call for very careful setting out and cutting, entailing the same degree of skill that is demanded for high-class cabinet work. For this reason several examples may well find a place in a volume dealing with woodwork joints. As a rule, these puzzles should be made in hardwood, such as dark walnut or beech, as in whitewood the joints are soon liable to wear.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00822", "bookId": 21531, "start": 186736, "end": 186802, "sha256": "0744d7277d24c1b43f38d6680e9565f6021cbe529efcdc7734cd61c292df63f5", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 369.--Sketch of the Completed Chinese Puzzle.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00823", "bookId": 21531, "start": 186806, "end": 187314, "sha256": "6521e2f10addc832abb83762994afe0a8f888e64edfbd55412a303c600b3a5b3", "text": "CHINESE PUZZLE.--The ingenious puzzle of the Chinese type shown in Fig. 369 is probably older than many of us could guess, but as it is one that can be made by any woodworker we give full directions as to how it may be constructed. The complete article may be called, in form, a six-pointed pyramid. It is made up of twenty-one different pieces, each cut from wood 1/2 in. wide and 1/2 in. thick; 3/8 in. wood may be used if preferred. For the purpose either sycamore or white maple is the most useful.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00824", "bookId": 21531, "start": 187318, "end": 187390, "sha256": "83d0618bde930600c17d40437ae25419e47a8a05e654a829871e3441e03f9461", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 370., Fig. 371., Fig. 372. The Three Cross Pieces.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00825", "bookId": 21531, "start": 187394, "end": 187431, "sha256": "fa59a64103a6099fad30d645a182302bcf6867a9dd42811848f0c36c8e13c84b", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 373.--Key Piece.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00826", "bookId": 21531, "start": 187435, "end": 187472, "sha256": "987616fbaa9a097957a98e8d793c635f45605cdf7f08af7cf9be248e88e6f486", "text": "The pieces required are as follows:--", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00827", "bookId": 21531, "start": 187476, "end": 187805, "sha256": "8b00018d0cb1aab810362fc552bc4bf2d9011b248895b9d21a33544f384b7749", "text": "Fig. 370.--Six pieces, 3-1/2 ins. long, with a half slot cut in the centre as shown. This slot must be exactly the width of the wood's thickness, and cut exactly half way through, so that, if two pieces are placed across by means of the halved joint, their surfaces will be flush. The slot must also be exactly in the centre.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00828", "bookId": 21531, "start": 187809, "end": 187911, "sha256": "58fd4add5327d95c3603ccca4517e22eec2b5dcba34720d90b532adc722b06b4", "text": "Fig. 371.--Six pieces, size 2-1/2 ins. long, with a half-cut centre slot similar to that of Fig. 370.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00829", "bookId": 21531, "start": 187915, "end": 188014, "sha256": "691967fc15586afbf447cec4e108c97697b4d05623ee53581459f75fe7cd337c", "text": "Fig. 372.--Six required, these being 1-1/2 ins. in length, and with slots in the middle as before.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00830", "bookId": 21531, "start": 188018, "end": 188367, "sha256": "f0e22ebdcf46f39e38685edd317801d2d4a3217eb46fffeb1c93f22cd03987dc", "text": "Fig. 373.--One of these last six requires special treatment, as it forms the key block of the puzzle. After its slot has been cut, one half of the narrow part must be sawn away, as shown in Fig. 373. The inner edge must also be gently rounded. The special use of this vital piece, which we will call the \"key,\" will be fully explained presently.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00831", "bookId": 21531, "start": 188371, "end": 188943, "sha256": "7a230e2d0f7393ec2f6b0917d38dd5f7279314a54e1786230a56d7346e45188b", "text": "Fig. 374.--Then, in addition to these, there are three central bars to make. Like the other parts they are 1/2 in. by 1/2 in., but are each 4-1/2 ins. long, and are cut as shown in Fig. 374. The end projections _a_ are 1/2 in. long, and the cut-away part is exactly half the depth of the wood. Two of the three pieces (X and Y in Fig. 374) are similar, but the slot _b_ of the third one (Z) is only 1/4 in. wide instead of 1/2 in. As will be noticed, this 1/4-in. slot is _not_ in the centre, but corresponds with the right-hand half of the larger slots of X and Y.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00832", "bookId": 21531, "start": 188947, "end": 188991, "sha256": "fd4fb3bd2153e3d79ed38ebf1546daf9d8564e60b9c1e03513de1990a73dc5d8", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 374.--The Central Bars.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00833", "bookId": 21531, "start": 188995, "end": 189256, "sha256": "e127360f9275d005187d964debf4d2dbe84b6596eb2228135ef79f5f8643b07d", "text": "In making these twenty-one pieces, what should be borne in mind is that the different parts fit closely into each other. Consequently the slots, in width, must be cut so as to grip the thickness of the wood; in depth they must be exactly half this thickness.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00834", "bookId": 21531, "start": 189260, "end": 189510, "sha256": "379047df690c8e743dd249e1da169d17aa25406b290537fc3e43490c9661ee08", "text": "FITTING THE PUZZLE.--The three central bars must first be joined, as those form the skeleton framework of the structure. Fig. 375 shows them in position, but as it is a puzzle in itself as to how they can be got thus some explanation is necessary.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00835", "bookId": 21531, "start": 189514, "end": 189576, "sha256": "f16a73097f885095d8653f981f5c75bad1ddcb2f054a1f8adbc38e0d429c6722", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 375.--The Three Central Bars in Position.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00836", "bookId": 21531, "start": 189580, "end": 189672, "sha256": "72a38d4fdd4bbc7635cc57af21cc65dd1f0ee8d7891934afe48a16e6e969ba4a", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 376.--How to Adjust the Bars. (Note position of projecting ends, _a_.)]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00837", "bookId": 21531, "start": 189676, "end": 190134, "sha256": "a41e91d8acdbefcbc86f43cb007a731d16bf82d5c60588c4afb0d88a2f07abec", "text": "FIRST STAGE.--First take the bars X and Y (see Fig. 374) and arrange them as shown in Fig. 376. It is most important that the projections _a_ of X face upwards, and that the projections _a_ of Y face towards the centre. Then take the bar Z and bring it flat into the slot of X. The little slot of Z, however, must remain _above_ the slot of X. Then slide the bar Y along to the centre, so that the part lettered _c_ slips into the little slot of bar Z.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00838", "bookId": 21531, "start": 190138, "end": 190632, "sha256": "30d2cb10c4c78a743636dc742b03d7b8d3392e03a6c1023959897d760dba520b", "text": "This may seem confusing to read, but it is easy to follow when the pieces are in one's hand. The result of this rather clever arrangement is that the six arms of Fig. 375 are all exactly the same length, width, and thickness. They are also arranged so that in each arm may be clasped one piece each of Figs. 370, 371, and 372. The three central arms may, of course, be set up in a different order, and here we have merely chosen the way that is the most simple to describe and illustrate.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00839", "bookId": 21531, "start": 190636, "end": 190702, "sha256": "2e373921750fcefbf9b34aed3fa37702bf29870f0677d58f7566dc7ebcb28a64", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 377.--Beginning to place on the Cross Pieces.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00840", "bookId": 21531, "start": 190706, "end": 190797, "sha256": "7a8ebe7b781170a8b934486c76df5ad69800eb138d3d0f21501c097944775407", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 378.--Placing the Key Piece to overlap end projection of Central Bar.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00841", "bookId": 21531, "start": 190801, "end": 191151, "sha256": "1b1e675cbd832733fab71fbf497ff36ef4abf55b0bd0f5189998071aa0733ac7", "text": "SECOND STAGE.--In the remaining part of the work the chief difficulty is to keep the puzzle from falling to pieces before the key finally locks it. Take the longer cross parts, Fig. 370, and clasp one to each arm. The six need not all be put on meanwhile, but only those which are most easily handled. The next size (Fig. 371) may then be put on.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00842", "bookId": 21531, "start": 191155, "end": 191461, "sha256": "02df7cef5084c7c9978f0fba2872227ba569e755d36b228c12c6c86030a8511f", "text": "In the ordinary course each arm could be completed with its three cross pieces till the sixth was attempted, and here the reader would find that, at the last moment, his attempt was frustrated. He could not get the last small piece in, as other bars lock the puzzle. Here it is that the \"key\" comes in.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00843", "bookId": 21531, "start": 191465, "end": 192062, "sha256": "de251d0ba1d4ab965b728949de4b350b702da3d6edb975f4e91abe66476bdeea", "text": "THE KEY PIECE.--When the writer fits up the puzzle he finds that three of the arms may straight away be fitted complete with their three cross parts. These are the ones where the longer cross piece (Fig. 370) _lies flush with the back of the central bar_ (see Fig. 377). This is easily found out when at work on the puzzle. In the case of the other three arms there is, of course, a gap caused by the long slots of the central bars. Adjust the parts on the first-named three arms, and then deal with the fourth arm, putting in all three cross parts. For the little one here, use the \"key.\"", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00844", "bookId": 21531, "start": 192066, "end": 192277, "sha256": "88cb0c228bf0ac1752fa37085531836dbf7ade404b82236d29444a0f68c508b6", "text": "By placing the \"key\" so that it _overlaps the end projection_ of the arm (see Fig. 378) a space is left at the centre, and means is thus afforded for getting in the three cross parts on the remaining two arms.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00845", "bookId": 21531, "start": 192281, "end": 192622, "sha256": "1774df18492d13f844c85ab1317796562a5e133849cbbd3f5fb5dd348ed343d4", "text": "This practically ends the puzzle. While the \"key\" is in its overlapping position the parts may be separated, but if it is _turned round on its narrow neck_, so that it is in exactly the same position as the other five small cross parts, it locks the whole thing so tightly that nothing but sheer force could loosen the twenty-one pieces.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00846", "bookId": 21531, "start": 192626, "end": 193120, "sha256": "91ffb41bfa432f57c0a2165bd2213b67f8dbd51d3c93068511c7da6bb37fcea1", "text": "So far as the order of putting together is concerned, there are many equally satisfactory ways, these being determined by the ease or difficulty that one experiences in holding the half-finished puzzle. It all comes to the same in the end, and the \"key\" must be placed on one bar before the last three arms can be completed. The \"key,\" moreover, must be on one of the bars where a gap is left at the centre, and not on one where Fig. 370 lies flush against the central arm as in Fig. 377.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00847", "bookId": 21531, "start": 193124, "end": 193383, "sha256": "58b6cf30a35eb0a530111c6239a6fc3a7d27bb53f50512551c68e8a932fd726e", "text": "UNDOING THE PUZZLE.--To take the puzzle to pieces all that is required is to turn the \"key\" half round and push the other two cross bars on that arm towards the outer point. The cross bars below may then be removed, and the whole structure falls to pieces.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00848", "bookId": 21531, "start": 193387, "end": 193762, "sha256": "24e720f06fe4e6eae19c851b1763880170af0bc0b21d64bea9e2a1d41ea96871", "text": "THE DOUBLE DOVETAIL PUZZLE (Fig. 379) consists of two pieces of wood (usually one dark and the other light) which, upon examination, appear to be dovetailed together from each face. This interlocking arrangement is obviously impossible, and the solution of the puzzle is only apparent on examining Fig. 380, where it will be seen that the joint fits together diagonally.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00849", "bookId": 21531, "start": 193766, "end": 194608, "sha256": "2121d7ffaac85cabfdae99d5fe57418a438acd150a18af86d52fb106c6df880e", "text": "At Fig. 381 are given the diagrams for setting out. Draw the outline of the elevation, plan and end view. The end view in the first instance is indicated by 3, 4, 5 and 6, and it measures 1-7/8 ins. square. A 1-7/8-ins. square is simply used because 2-ins. wood generally finishes this size after it is planed up. Set out a square (A, B, C, D) which stands corner-ways in the larger square (3, 4, 5, 6). Project the lines D A and C B upwards as at 1, and on to this drawing (1), set out the dovetail according to your own idea of length, width and bevel. Project the four points of your dovetail downwards into the end view, and where these lines cut A, B, and D, C draw them downwards and rebate them into your original plan. This will give the true shape of the two dovetails and it is to this shape that you will cut your joint.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00850", "bookId": 21531, "start": 194612, "end": 194945, "sha256": "2f637853ee0e66cc972102f4690d7bdf920bc15c420b249d7a88cc29b10c73b1", "text": "The joint is in due course glued up, and next day you will plane and waste off the four corners of your model. The end view shows one corner shaded D, 3, A; this and the other three corners are wasted away. The result is that the dovetails are thrown into a plane different from that in which they were made, showing as Fig. 379.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00851", "bookId": 21531, "start": 194949, "end": 194999, "sha256": "920bcbc9e3b7eb69b9d116d57b39ccc10a60030f311a43f5e03b11a48d73b527", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 379.--Double Dovetail Puzzle.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00852", "bookId": 21531, "start": 195003, "end": 195054, "sha256": "b02535446a8b16d6dfaee26bb688f51d1bbfbe990bd40f8fc7bce86b2bd3370b", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 380.--The Two Parts Separated.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00853", "bookId": 21531, "start": 195058, "end": 195170, "sha256": "96a4d5a06723ad52306563339eac83aa8c6e0a73f2506254738df9ee25b4304c", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 381.--Elevation, Plan and End View, showing how the Puzzle Joint may be correctly Set Out.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00854", "bookId": 21531, "start": 195174, "end": 195237, "sha256": "201729f863b5dce9bfdde7d7fad16845b3fc3b178ff72f3a497a1372afc8d765", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 382.--Dovetail Puzzle. The Finished Joint.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00855", "bookId": 21531, "start": 195241, "end": 195293, "sha256": "94ffe2a5ac86359d3a85875cebe4b0234131eebe4130af251f872f064bf4fd38", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 383.--Sketch of Dovetail Piece.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00856", "bookId": 21531, "start": 195297, "end": 195414, "sha256": "937ae555126995a733b9e5755fe226da177ad8b579ef4f620c3568a08fe515d0", "text": "(Note that dovetail is cut on slant, the thickness at front being less than at back. See dotted line on plan below.)", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00857", "bookId": 21531, "start": 195418, "end": 195467, "sha256": "35628f0cf99be372eaacbe928071a33a826a7d6c31b9d1e3a98b6e31891046a3", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 384.--Plan, looking upwards.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00858", "bookId": 21531, "start": 195471, "end": 195515, "sha256": "1ad86692654818fe13de70e78fe26208fad3aa53c5342f76147d3267f5aeae8a", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 385A.--Front Elevation.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00859", "bookId": 21531, "start": 195519, "end": 195562, "sha256": "15afab7f7c88c93d15b19577034775a1722733226dc19a23781a3d8b99c7fb04", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 385B.--Back Elevation.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00860", "bookId": 21531, "start": 195566, "end": 195737, "sha256": "c40673f221dce1373d9d7f41023afad7dc0a247942a5faac50d7a0094793aa50", "text": "The model calls for very accurate workmanship and the joints must not be _undercut_ during the sawing and chiselling operations. The completed model measures 6 to 7 ins.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00861", "bookId": 21531, "start": 195741, "end": 196019, "sha256": "8a9ac9c0b406249d0206bdd783b9c255ecb367b556d2908b0048fa16937c3c75", "text": "THE DOVETAIL PUZZLE joint illustrated at Fig. 382 has perhaps caused more argument and controversy amongst woodworkers than any wooden joint. It may be neatly made in maple, walnut, or mahogany, and afterwards glued up. The question everyone asks is: How was it put together?", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00862", "bookId": 21531, "start": 196023, "end": 196083, "sha256": "2dda470f49ff7067e8552a372c1dd6d930ce2e8343a23e64b88ddf1f1937a94a", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 386.--Variation of the Dovetail Puzzle.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00863", "bookId": 21531, "start": 196087, "end": 196582, "sha256": "e34806584589051db61553fb6bea71961355c2833586e79613353721a7d09c6d", "text": "Take two pieces of wood such as mahogany, walnut or birch, about 6 ins. long by 1-7/8 ins. wide and 1-1/4 ins. thick. Truly plane them up and then set out and make the tenon and dovetailed piece (Fig. 383). Next mark out and cut the cross bar to fit its corresponding piece. The joint will go together in a somewhat diagonal direction as it is pushed into position from the back; when closed it will appear as at Fig. 382. For guidance, a plan, part elevation and back elevation are added.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00864", "bookId": 21531, "start": 196586, "end": 197008, "sha256": "1f57ff895b18887e4a4f6230c65d68f898e1c573656bdcd376d0f3ed50623e21", "text": "An improvement after you have gained experience in the making of this joint is to make a similar joint, leaving the face (B, Fig. 386) blind; it then does not show the bevelling of the dovetail at the end C. In other words, keep the line C, say, 1/4 in. back from the face of B. The joint should be glued up and it will then appear to the average worker that it is an impossible proposition. (See Fig. 401, page 208.)", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00865", "bookId": 21531, "start": 197012, "end": 197081, "sha256": "800e8f5c8c85f5562a5dbb44e333128b57e74164520fd9470e68680037036220", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 387.--A Simple Variation of the Dovetail Puzzle.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00866", "bookId": 21531, "start": 197085, "end": 197202, "sha256": "9655d07e5131edce7f9f17b0bfd6a4d3d04fbfe425185ad93ae2bee80dcd1a07", "text": "Carefully note that the edges A, A are parallel to each other in spite of the fact that they slope in one direction.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00867", "bookId": 21531, "start": 197206, "end": 197343, "sha256": "459fca6b02ce83145fb4c779f3ce7ab51fdaabe4aa2bc6901ccbdf61be155a69", "text": "A further variation of the puzzle is seen in Fig. 387. Here the joint is much simpler, and can easily be followed from the illustration.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00868", "bookId": 21531, "start": 197347, "end": 197397, "sha256": "f5fd367caeacc7492162047c8066d0b1aaa7c3310410dc17eef71e401dfc7092", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 388.--Six-piece Joint Puzzle.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00869", "bookId": 21531, "start": 197401, "end": 198086, "sha256": "8c025825dc1e04c47b52d6fb01984eb488e1ba64c7e39d887fb38bc0711eb3a7", "text": "CROSS PUZZLE.--Fig. 388 illustrates a six-piece puzzle joint, similar in some respects to Fig. 369, but very much simpler. Both a back and front view of the piece D is shown for clearness of illustration. The method of assembling the pieces is as follows: Hold piece B upright, and fit piece D across; at the same time note that the small _x_ marks are opposite each other. Take piece E and, holding it as shown, slide it up the piece B (see arrow) until E engages D and the small _o_ marks are opposite each other. Piece C is now fitted behind D, and then piece F will slide in position and push downwards. The key-piece A is now put in position, and the puzzle is completed.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00870", "bookId": 21531, "start": 198090, "end": 198161, "sha256": "74ed31227494254296832788f7af65a00e349ccd84dde53855adf7832f81c549", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 389.--Mortising Puzzle, showing how the Parts Fit.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00871", "bookId": 21531, "start": 198165, "end": 198461, "sha256": "89326b83d8ffbf10ad54f54c7475760cca520ce74755a2eec398d92f2a17a84c", "text": "MORTISING PUZZLE.--The ordinary mortising exercise is, after the first two or three attempts, generally voted as uninteresting, but, although the simple puzzle shown in Fig. 389 is practically an exercise in mortising, yet, forming as it does a puzzle, it becomes a fascinating piece of work.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00872", "bookId": 21531, "start": 198465, "end": 199006, "sha256": "0fa06dbaa8970f25ee4af812f6a7558cdce1e912b374216ec0cd48aaf4a03b98", "text": "The puzzle is composed of three pieces of wood, each 4 ins. long, 1-1/2 ins. wide, and 1/2 in. thick. In each piece a mortise 1-1/2 ins. by 1/2 in. should be cut as shown at 1, Fig. 390. In one piece, marked 2, a groove is cut on one side, 3/8 in. wide, and in another piece (3) a similar slot, but 1/2 in. wide, is cut, and this is continued on the other side of the groove to a depth of 1/8 in. The three pieces should be set out on a 13-ins. by 1-1/2-ins. by 1/2-in. length of wood, as shown at Fig. 391, and when ready sawn apart.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00873", "bookId": 21531, "start": 199010, "end": 199072, "sha256": "f6a952206061c5c8965ea59ad7f190665c5bf9d736deb33f8e4eb3cf990a0400", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 390.--The Three Parts, with Sizes marked.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00874", "bookId": 21531, "start": 199076, "end": 199124, "sha256": "7b9a86e9c60954a9b4c28aac1f1ecb8ddd7a4a4c5fd3543ada4ab5d318396617", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 391.--How to Cut the Parts.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00875", "bookId": 21531, "start": 199128, "end": 199669, "sha256": "a19fa55478cd2c47137d6cc4b8d219e520a077ee6afca9dedac8fbac2621e64a", "text": "The puzzle is put together as shown at Fig. 389. In the first place, hold No. 1 piece upright as shown at A, then take No. 2 piece with slot uppermost and push it through the opening in No. 1 piece until the nearest side of the slot projects 1/8 in. as indicated at B. Next place No. 3 piece on with the slot at the back as shown at C, and push it down until it touches the bottom of the opening in No. 2 piece as illustrated at D. The only thing to do now is to push No. 2 piece as far as it will go to make the figure as shown at E.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00876", "bookId": 21531, "start": 199673, "end": 199761, "sha256": "017661a86a3f71d0878b90f1b75be25664d33c481dbfbb4e4e970f37380a21d0", "text": "In this puzzle the parts should fit together fairly tight, but should not be too stiff.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00877", "bookId": 21531, "start": 199765, "end": 199813, "sha256": "d972e6cd8a534774bc53836ae10b143f423ab3339b83f503c74ee47af37147d1", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 392.--Chinese Cross Puzzle.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00878", "bookId": 21531, "start": 199817, "end": 199871, "sha256": "f226958215156ded61aba86ca39f6da20e0aab6a0e5c50183916ffba53a7aa91", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 393.--Method of Putting Together.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00879", "bookId": 21531, "start": 199875, "end": 199946, "sha256": "fd3909e3a286ca696e0fde613105276b4a914833e1d9f88635c3781e0953edd6", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 394.--The Six Pieces, each 4 ins. by 1 in. square.]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00880", "bookId": 21531, "start": 199950, "end": 200774, "sha256": "b2ae12f596ffc6357632ded8ddfe937b97236357a576905c2a2233a0ecfe350c", "text": "CHINESE CROSS.--Fig. 392 shows a variation of the Chinese cross, which is perhaps the most fascinating of all woodwork puzzles. Take six pieces of hardwood (Fig. 394) and accurately plane and saw them so that each piece will measure 4 ins. by 1 in. by 1 in. Bearing in mind that all the cuts are multiples of 1/2 in., set out, saw and chisel five of the pieces to agree with the sketches 1, 1A, 2, 2A and 3. Leave the key piece intact. The puzzle is of course to fit all the six pieces together so as to form the Chinese cross or block given at Fig. 392. As a clue to the method of assembly we give another sketch (Fig. 393) showing four of the pieces fixed together. The reader can, if he so desires, make the puzzle to a smaller scale by using six pieces of wood each measuring 2 ins. long by 1/2 in. by 1/2 in.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00881", "bookId": 21531, "start": 200778, "end": 200888, "sha256": "559d7abe31ffa2af79598909c8bcebd069c1f5c735d45ef6fbaf46778632bc4d", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 395--Diagonal Chinese Cross Puzzle. (Two Pieces required of A, Three of B and One of C.)]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00882", "bookId": 21531, "start": 200892, "end": 201466, "sha256": "1cd108aa8dc4fec6bcf70add0442a2bac127909232197f9e23bbb242213efe92", "text": "DIAGONAL CHINESE CROSS.--At Fig. 395 is given a sketch of a completed Chinese block or cross puzzle in which the various pieces of wood go together diagonally. Plane up a piece of hardwood (which may be about 14 ins. or 15 ins. long) so that it measures on its end 1/2 in. square. Cut the wood into six pieces which measure about 2-1/4 ins. long, and then proceed to mark out, saw and pare up with the chisel two pieces like sketch A, three pieces like B, and one key piece as C. Now fit these together to make the completed cross. The solution is left to the reader.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00883", "bookId": 21531, "start": 201470, "end": 201897, "sha256": "ca4e90be494a80a13804071c63d093c775fdb74b1642f335149f8da2981e518b", "text": "Fig. 396 shows a combination of six pieces which, when fitted together, will make the Chinese cross similar to Fig. 392. Plane up the strip of hardwood (birch preferred) so that it measures 1/2 in. square at the end and proceed to mark out and make two pieces like D, two like E, one like F, and one piece like G. Put the pieces together to form the Chinese cross. Again the reader is left to solve the problem of fitting.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00884", "bookId": 21531, "start": 201901, "end": 202014, "sha256": "e1490bd8ac50d83b859a8ae6cf169aaa555bfe01584d893d74d3afc576b17ded", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 396.--Another Chinese Cross. (Two Pieces required of D, Two of E, and One each of F and G.)]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00885", "bookId": 21531, "start": 202018, "end": 202462, "sha256": "cda4aa24b064df81067db4ca661e60ca5325787328c280a5e7fc9e31067d777e", "text": "SQUARE PUZZLES are of endless variety. Four of these are shown, all simple to make, but not equally simple to solve. The only material required for each is a 5-ins. square piece of 1/8-in. fretwood or plywood; or, if preferred, pieces of different colour may be used. The diagrams are given exactly half size, and the lines may be set out direct on the wood. It will be noticed that all four puzzles are strictly geometrical in character.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00886", "bookId": 21531, "start": 202466, "end": 202588, "sha256": "19ff9538476fa03af5e052788cb650f9af2da9d71fe40c9b908bda05641c01b9", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 397.--Six-piece Square Puzzle. (For Guidance in Setting Out, the Centre of Top Line is marked at A.)]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00887", "bookId": 21531, "start": 202592, "end": 202706, "sha256": "99d95194136b538d142996aa408828abb851b47fde665df92cd57c768bcae919", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 398.--Five-piece Square Puzzle. (In Setting Out, note that the Angles B B are Right Angles.)]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00888", "bookId": 21531, "start": 202710, "end": 202854, "sha256": "0a7039a5382b5f05124988465a1541f781e2045398514e7237d540f69e8961aa", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 399.--Ten-piece Square Puzzle. (For Guidance in Setting Out, the Centre of the Four Outlines are lettered at C, C, C, C.)]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00889", "bookId": 21531, "start": 202858, "end": 202973, "sha256": "f2d3abdf328bcd210bedffdeca8b5aeddb29e54ad82984ccaedfe51597589081", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 400.--Six-piece Square Puzzle. (The Centres of the Four Outlines are lettered at D, D, D, D.)]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00890", "bookId": 21531, "start": 202977, "end": 203138, "sha256": "2317355fc861e376adac33da11e7b8b37e98dd82a240e9fbb404b5a5bb1f77a5", "text": "Fig. 397 is made up of six pieces and is the simplest of the group to solve. Although containing only five pieces, Fig. 398 will be found to give more trouble.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00891", "bookId": 21531, "start": 203142, "end": 203319, "sha256": "d096175a0b3aca9688942c4f237fd3de800aca770f536236e65f34e35cc36238", "text": "Fig. 399, with ten pieces, is undoubtedly the most trying puzzle, and will be found as baffling as many jig-saw pictures. Fig. 400, again, presents only moderate difficulties.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00892", "bookId": 21531, "start": 203323, "end": 203420, "sha256": "fd71c9bb5ff4cc7ca11f5252e34ffdfaa399fbaa06e37ffe8e6d9e777e0acfe3", "text": "If the reader prefers, he may cut the squares to the size illustrated instead of enlarging them.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00893", "bookId": 21531, "start": 203424, "end": 203494, "sha256": "d2047e9caa2ad27ae131762bba1ec6d03e0a8701d57fbd42fa28884b3fd942cd", "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 401.--Blind Dovetail Puzzle Joint (see page 199).]", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00894", "bookId": 21531, "start": 203528, "end": 203533, "sha256": "ea69fe17051b2d914f8a5fcf5cb9bb722d89ce5a345224e888ec76ea85c10af2", "text": "INDEX", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00895", "bookId": 21531, "start": 203554, "end": 203576, "sha256": "97f6516042694a24a336461cd14b06e51e1bb37dcccc27c7e0bc3af462cd34fe", "text": "Angle, mitre, 163, 164", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00896", "bookId": 21531, "start": 203595, "end": 203620, "sha256": "1e2a83d9da0af0ae91bd1d663c3cdab17adddd500a8b1112b1fa27a56976443a", "text": "Angles for dovetails, 134", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00897", "bookId": 21531, "start": 203639, "end": 203658, "sha256": "f8af2d431d7e4f6a1dcdbc8704a1e11c684d51d83afa08b19fa3ebcb0e833526", "text": "Astragals, 128, 129", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00898", "bookId": 21531, "start": 203679, "end": 203705, "sha256": "bdcd85fcf541ba105f9d57229b1537d2665d55b211fd2ea10ba27ec2537f29c8", "text": "Back flap hinges, 115, 116", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00899", "bookId": 21531, "start": 203724, "end": 203754, "sha256": "b621074b740a0f1314d8f18bb0fe7a7a49c79667fbfb39cb477589fe3d1496a8", "text": "Barefaced (_see under_ Tenon).", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00900", "bookId": 21531, "start": 203773, "end": 203794, "sha256": "90c380481da509d0370f0c76c7f4c5a193f4f95089482bda68c8b66c6b5692ac", "text": "Barred door joint, 55", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00901", "bookId": 21531, "start": 203813, "end": 203836, "sha256": "fbf7569984769ee196a7e587d7bd4a1bdc572d97cc43d78912f8cc2b8b6b1491", "text": "Barrow-wheel joints, 20", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00902", "bookId": 21531, "start": 203855, "end": 203869, "sha256": "b0c172999da5fc68fe7a495330949839eb1c4e1f27d8a7bbe6363b846fb61817", "text": "Battening, 188", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00903", "bookId": 21531, "start": 203888, "end": 203913, "sha256": "fb70c6954bb4453c88f18c8291ffe36b92501d75dacdf99f79e2bd01297af890", "text": "Bevelled dovetailing, 149", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00904", "bookId": 21531, "start": 203932, "end": 203963, "sha256": "4af5d88b158c0a8696c1fd8d34a1ff8084dc1d67371f783854374f2b8a6bff5f", "text": "Bevelling, guide block for, 161", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00905", "bookId": 21531, "start": 203982, "end": 204004, "sha256": "0ffe8d00085b135714130c5a9f209f0cd46d8387da0c84afe914715b993fb774", "text": "Birdsmouth joints, 181", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00906", "bookId": 21531, "start": 204023, "end": 204049, "sha256": "7869fad8eb360cf4595a6b1501de3ffd8d7c546a898d996751288e99767947fb", "text": "Blind lap-dovetailing, 145", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00907", "bookId": 21531, "start": 204068, "end": 204088, "sha256": "15d5706387a698207db5e3243ab37ac6c4c34d5d372e0fcbce5de0bbebb442dc", "text": "Boards, weather, 176", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00908", "bookId": 21531, "start": 204107, "end": 204138, "sha256": "196cb50f35ca42ad6e8dcfa87833ea72c84a4f01f8edb7c202245fa1827bc2b3", "text": "Bolts for scarf joint, 107, 108", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00909", "bookId": 21531, "start": 204157, "end": 204182, "sha256": "7dc07d2ad34a9da5431089f9af34b71dc1276c3f526b174faa2cfc104485a78c", "text": "Boring away waste, 41, 42", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00910", "bookId": 21531, "start": 204201, "end": 204225, "sha256": "1fa62361900835fe8db2a36d8d5e273a1133eedfcc70b8526394967852fb343f", "text": "Box, laminated core, 175", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00911", "bookId": 21531, "start": 204244, "end": 204266, "sha256": "93b36bd005100dd2beffd8b61f67de38ecbf567773251743cd85db2636e70d3e", "text": "Box lid, hingeing, 113", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00912", "bookId": 21531, "start": 204285, "end": 204310, "sha256": "c0d1ea147f848750d60a5b3a768387f5428bbd8614a49921482fc25a0ce5a837", "text": "Boxes, dovetails for, 133", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00913", "bookId": 21531, "start": 204329, "end": 204358, "sha256": "a0a38e59e1f8a7ac23b8e8557edbaecd316c221fa88fa21c56e6884dae4b7d75", "text": "Brace and bit, use of, 41, 42", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00914", "bookId": 21531, "start": 204377, "end": 204396, "sha256": "910bcd9bc08c5c4e5ad887fb407e3540b0cd82310da36ab77227af565dbb71ed", "text": "Brass astragal, 129", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00915", "bookId": 21531, "start": 204415, "end": 204443, "sha256": "90729b3d9ab753a45e3a870441678fd96e1f65a447949cabfee8982d226bb73c", "text": "Bridle joint, mitred, 36, 37", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00916", "bookId": 21531, "start": 204462, "end": 204491, "sha256": "dee6237efba783d3d806c959162eadfe4d64340316f30464734ccf1630f31380", "text": "Bridle joint, oblique, 37, 38", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00917", "bookId": 21531, "start": 204510, "end": 204527, "sha256": "faea78cce8c77da1a360a7392581df42bfcce484c835963fb97c8da51ed268a6", "text": "Bridle joints, 35", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00918", "bookId": 21531, "start": 204546, "end": 204576, "sha256": "8097a0f9796304a32a3063edd0a8fa847c730db7ec31653d5ef2a69a32e7649a", "text": "Bridle joints, setting out, 39", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00919", "bookId": 21531, "start": 204595, "end": 204615, "sha256": "ecae349208f601fef9ec533a6320a9b699ada34176f83f2eacfb73a6b6874321", "text": "Butt hinge, 110, 111", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00920", "bookId": 21531, "start": 204634, "end": 204662, "sha256": "c5b33f163cae186f440c175dc7ef133ca8354aa5870091dc6ace454a7cc48f1e", "text": "Butt hinge, rising, 115, 116", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00921", "bookId": 21531, "start": 204681, "end": 204704, "sha256": "ed7fd5685975899bcdb084d494607183bebd41b5cdf3d6c4799280529ddff2c7", "text": "Butting mitred joint, 8", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00922", "bookId": 21531, "start": 204723, "end": 204737, "sha256": "c98d30b40d5ca68d19c5f5801b45da700a1472c39e217a35d54fdd85b30952cd", "text": "Buttoning, 184", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00923", "bookId": 21531, "start": 204758, "end": 204788, "sha256": "6ad1a7646f1ebc4cbabc86502be208dd2d56b8a0aff43446f18420dd7bfc9d66", "text": "Carcase work, dovetailing, 149", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00924", "bookId": 21531, "start": 204807, "end": 204834, "sha256": "39a9045130ca5aa874534ff1ff9fa66a7d7e06708e2b3360ebd4e4443afe7d83", "text": "Card table hinges, 115, 116", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00925", "bookId": 21531, "start": 204853, "end": 204882, "sha256": "f120c1dfc3edc6afbfaca3ac0d6afd221fef305e2f0f90967e4c3570c51be96e", "text": "Chair joint, interlocking, 91", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00926", "bookId": 21531, "start": 204901, "end": 204926, "sha256": "24e1b02aea07df59e6ce1b58673a0af8517e58a68f0e74e26c4d2a00bb809282", "text": "Chinese cross puzzle, 203", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00927", "bookId": 21531, "start": 204945, "end": 204980, "sha256": "f57f659fbc4e4c5d76778f219ca7f5d83b5b75e3c1e3875e38c18fb44a53c2e4", "text": "Chinese cross puzzle, diagonal, 204", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00928", "bookId": 21531, "start": 204999, "end": 205023, "sha256": "8dd7923c9f0cc9eb8077e7ea47a10ee167bc800d0d004d071b10cf81f32e9b0f", "text": "Chinese puzzle, 189, 190", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00929", "bookId": 21531, "start": 205042, "end": 205083, "sha256": "7818732decd9589a6ca64dd48596ac813618f3a54da8f31824af613a4d20e849", "text": "Chisel used in dovetailing, 137, 138, 153", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00930", "bookId": 21531, "start": 205102, "end": 205132, "sha256": "f8f8afe9e042adc68246ddf3d1b92b8de9a133530eb897f5f5e948f285aff6b9", "text": "Chiselling (bridle joints), 45", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00931", "bookId": 21531, "start": 205151, "end": 205187, "sha256": "29bbfcf41a167b688223e681d503ad8bdc503d16d4776e28fb814127576ace1b", "text": "Chiselling (halved joints), 30, etc.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00932", "bookId": 21531, "start": 205206, "end": 205253, "sha256": "7b50efb2166a482ab164b383bfe1d4f76309e275e30bd7d6dc8654517c47eca5", "text": "Chiselling (mortise and tenon joints), 89, etc.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00933", "bookId": 21531, "start": 205272, "end": 205292, "sha256": "75a2278cbd9b4519184dc160a53678a12bc84fd5f7bca7f9053e74d91670217d", "text": "Circular frames, 172", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00934", "bookId": 21531, "start": 205311, "end": 205327, "sha256": "315fa76e142525a901c29f5df39e747652c4fe6000c53ef3e5e9c1938628b9ae", "text": "Clamping, 80, 82", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00935", "bookId": 21531, "start": 205346, "end": 205371, "sha256": "fa99ba6310818e530c4fd848846b5198f4f5a0d0386c915d75457381ebbaf2b3", "text": "Close joint hingeing, 125", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00936", "bookId": 21531, "start": 205390, "end": 205408, "sha256": "15d1110a94a7a19dc3691d7fce1b242c0834c8543d78ee3889b65a2c6c3d1849", "text": "Cogged joints, 181", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00937", "bookId": 21531, "start": 205427, "end": 205445, "sha256": "0baf0882c5faf3ac79a171fc19d32157c33ea853983e5a39a397bbafb9091a85", "text": "Column joints, 179", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00938", "bookId": 21531, "start": 205464, "end": 205481, "sha256": "21063aa1f4bcb6cb79ff37be09b89adfbf4c011e7e062e9726ebbb50f5e6401c", "text": "Combing joint, 55", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00939", "bookId": 21531, "start": 205500, "end": 205524, "sha256": "3c42d402ceaf28837f4081c68efb8d535a5e4655c71df5969d401fb24b02ef0c", "text": "Core box, laminated, 175", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00940", "bookId": 21531, "start": 205543, "end": 205563, "sha256": "7c373451f80f7a36c8ee19b0f781a33fdac6f70dd630bc863665bb3951d25249", "text": "Corner dovetail, 152", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00941", "bookId": 21531, "start": 205582, "end": 205607, "sha256": "8dab703a1d4b5342d5a0652cb901b58812ea576875214a0ff0c2290247348bd2", "text": "Corner joints, halved, 14", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00942", "bookId": 21531, "start": 205626, "end": 205655, "sha256": "b853ab90175c1eedcdcbd6b0b73cd411d636c860c6de607f1cfa453550e3c8b5", "text": "Corner tongued joints, 55, 56", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00943", "bookId": 21531, "start": 205674, "end": 205708, "sha256": "308afa09c64c499e3f7e5a7346613116614bec7a89d829696e0497a8bffb09b0", "text": "Cornice frame dovetailed, 143, 144", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00944", "bookId": 21531, "start": 205727, "end": 205758, "sha256": "4d6f68ac7595d5a4adf4561375c5c94772d324d0883bb9b1755ee92e92a733ee", "text": "Cornice pole, dowelling, 97, 98", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00945", "bookId": 21531, "start": 205777, "end": 205801, "sha256": "67b6e1fa3bd4efcdf183727de5f2636b65f7b3663337afc0224c61d1d2dea682", "text": "Cornice pole joints, 177", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00946", "bookId": 21531, "start": 205820, "end": 205851, "sha256": "5cf9940613c0abac658374b93332222759912b4fa09d1dddba61f50441286d89", "text": "Corrugated steel fasteners, 185", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00947", "bookId": 21531, "start": 205870, "end": 205885, "sha256": "90cc2cb085c283f59d239f5f219ceb75ce0ca1fb13c7714d8a0a7b44c8b0f10e", "text": "Cot joints, 178", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00948", "bookId": 21531, "start": 205904, "end": 205923, "sha256": "44a5d4da40a91fe523f8329a1d1c6b3994874d0806a498c25d2d1e6c5a37bf7a", "text": "Countersink bit, 96", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00949", "bookId": 21531, "start": 205942, "end": 205964, "sha256": "8d0d4f4f11701b507e7d727d6a0aa5ef516bb25d0e2e82a890cfd35440068c7c", "text": "Cradle for planing, 52", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00950", "bookId": 21531, "start": 205983, "end": 206012, "sha256": "dd31921c2e894da9f939f92a13347dba5d5031a29f5b5fc36b86def809d6cc56", "text": "Cradle for planing dowels, 94", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00951", "bookId": 21531, "start": 206031, "end": 206060, "sha256": "1a5bdc39015230ea9305dcd4a29d00794155222add0c5cf7565ca727c6aa690a", "text": "Cramping glued joints, 11, 12", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00952", "bookId": 21531, "start": 206079, "end": 206127, "sha256": "f7a292f89afd0c91905fc5bc5c4f854c29e5b9acf48378d8fcf55ea01d92bdc5", "text": "Cramping tongued and grooved mitre joint, 56, 57", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00953", "bookId": 21531, "start": 206146, "end": 206174, "sha256": "29d6fa7a5d1baec3affa0f5e0f53654a2d5cd3c265738c72f5d97f8cabf99101", "text": "Cross halving joints, 18, 23", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00954", "bookId": 21531, "start": 206193, "end": 206210, "sha256": "163793492e7ba471a608a667d9a512a0567616c51e7285c1e7c04aac68e6db66", "text": "Cross puzzle, 200", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00955", "bookId": 21531, "start": 206229, "end": 206255, "sha256": "0c13d02762cdf2c70809f35b964afee6039fdb33a9af03e3ea7ca9319d989d47", "text": "Cross puzzle, Chinese, 203", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00956", "bookId": 21531, "start": 206274, "end": 206301, "sha256": "c198f5ebd7fec792524c33fa9ecda78b24b1d0bbcd075a791ac2f1d58f7b8e4c", "text": "Cross puzzle, diagonal, 204", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00957", "bookId": 21531, "start": 206320, "end": 206341, "sha256": "a6c71194e9c83e2540d4955cdc9baf2fdc500c08a1bb929f7ea6f0c94b7e3ed7", "text": "Cross tongues, 51, 52", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00958", "bookId": 21531, "start": 206360, "end": 206388, "sha256": "da83f999080fd9e9d389f79189f680fe4a7fa46f728a4b7e7e0589d045d0c94c", "text": "Curved work, joints for, 172", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00959", "bookId": 21531, "start": 206409, "end": 206435, "sha256": "065a6ca153514bbbb8cbfc3c47583ee26ed7945575aba491b94b95415d960613", "text": "Diagonal cross puzzle, 204", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00960", "bookId": 21531, "start": 206454, "end": 206472, "sha256": "f92e5a43fcb1a086cd7edb2df6f4e45296d8d845141f6e2deeaf6245deb7fc02", "text": "Dogs, iron, 10, 11", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00961", "bookId": 21531, "start": 206491, "end": 206523, "sha256": "4acafa5a2343fd887eb8982fd4dc46b168e8eb37b5526cebc91f27cf747e40e4", "text": "Donkey's ear shooting board, 327", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00962", "bookId": 21531, "start": 206542, "end": 206582, "sha256": "8a69b577eee32440bbda9354336843b6392aed714f3fd6b221d454fad89ef2aa", "text": "Door frames, semicircular head, 173, 175", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00963", "bookId": 21531, "start": 206601, "end": 206624, "sha256": "fdfda7ef3aa9b69d77326f111b325251684b7fa98fd1d2a46ccbd5ab775e3e8f", "text": "Door joints, barred, 55", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00964", "bookId": 21531, "start": 206643, "end": 206662, "sha256": "7a86add0ae94ce58edba0910d296f64fd44558fa44183f7cd65de8d7c743df14", "text": "Doors, \"bound,\" 109", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00965", "bookId": 21531, "start": 206681, "end": 206705, "sha256": "844498d858ede426aef17e96d97902c4e2cd0d4d38cedff242f796ce4ae3f59e", "text": "Doors, hingeing, 116-119", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00966", "bookId": 21531, "start": 206724, "end": 206759, "sha256": "239b15bd9b6356a4874fc0d40d46c791f5bbef51996c289b830fd4e6347aa892", "text": "Doors, shutting joints of, 127, 129", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00967", "bookId": 21531, "start": 206778, "end": 206811, "sha256": "c297945132b6f579049b8fa03042e64bc836efb690dbefb194abbf2249ef3199", "text": "Dovetail angle template, 134, 154", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00968", "bookId": 21531, "start": 206830, "end": 206851, "sha256": "783aae54c7e17edc5131b1063cf7e9c21585ce57e1b896900023f5f7ce3880c8", "text": "Dovetail, corner, 152", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00969", "bookId": 21531, "start": 206870, "end": 206892, "sha256": "6f27551a37268c0851605492414d77b1d9e226de4f371dbaeee1687e8a8298e7", "text": "Dovetail grooving, 160", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00970", "bookId": 21531, "start": 206911, "end": 206945, "sha256": "a6632c74facd4ee5aca0be4e75916da788419b5c356883dfa6ea7107d748ba02", "text": "Dovetail halved joints, 17, 19, 20", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00971", "bookId": 21531, "start": 206964, "end": 206996, "sha256": "255f58f081171377e1febc75cbce925c1817851d5df1f59d736e6f43522e366a", "text": "Dovetail, housed and mitred, 145", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00972", "bookId": 21531, "start": 207015, "end": 207038, "sha256": "e8575e44e087ad09c001ff4bc4085bcef9570740b8b4bbb45e36f3743eac5dbe", "text": "Dovetail joint, the 132", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00973", "bookId": 21531, "start": 207057, "end": 207098, "sha256": "23a0e9c3193db80e415286572a821c4d4f5c1e5fa6f21fb9c5abe1826096392f", "text": "Dovetail puzzles, 195, 196, 197, 198, 199", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00974", "bookId": 21531, "start": 207117, "end": 207145, "sha256": "fe607539b93c4cbe63097bfa1050779b1489dedea38a1a0558532f133f56243e", "text": "Dovetail, secret mitred, 146", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00975", "bookId": 21531, "start": 207164, "end": 207195, "sha256": "dbc7f2fafc26d5ee8c963e831f6818f302d15589b84d7a161f0db8fd5f073f2a", "text": "Dovetail-wedged tenon joint, 75", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00976", "bookId": 21531, "start": 207214, "end": 207239, "sha256": "95cee855538280a48b3a4aece5dcfa7bb20243017c179a74ce367fe78d88dbb6", "text": "Dovetailed keys, 147, 148", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00977", "bookId": 21531, "start": 207258, "end": 207290, "sha256": "94694712ba55de2b8acd16601c76180d823efe9b8199a002a4709fb8417c1317", "text": "Dovetailed scarf joint, 103, 104", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00978", "bookId": 21531, "start": 207309, "end": 207335, "sha256": "b257a3e3cd3c37c6f0bf4a50afab44b93dd6b865788564d50356c0f9e76ac0c5", "text": "Dovetailing, bevelled, 149", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00979", "bookId": 21531, "start": 207354, "end": 207381, "sha256": "3e20f1cee08d46b476e4d8361171819ea10f93c562441b10f168eb86a6a9c84b", "text": "Dovetailing, blind lap, 145", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00980", "bookId": 21531, "start": 207400, "end": 207421, "sha256": "e294c0d034e06247218df78a9a55c1b552cb2d97a6ff24886658755591e41a9d", "text": "Dovetailing, lap, 133", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00981", "bookId": 21531, "start": 207440, "end": 207465, "sha256": "54e109b847de9b6917525ede23daba13e9a7f758b2e56bee76ef264f03776d20", "text": "Dovetailing, oblique, 151", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00982", "bookId": 21531, "start": 207484, "end": 207509, "sha256": "6e04c6bfff87838ca0ee18fc1ef33a595b51ed5831a61b0ea03b82c5eb8d11d7", "text": "Dovetailing, through, 132", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00983", "bookId": 21531, "start": 207528, "end": 207549, "sha256": "ae5874a5b5371e15ea1331dcf1b62cb1383c776804222120fd9c19140dcfef52", "text": "Dovetails, frame, 143", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00984", "bookId": 21531, "start": 207568, "end": 207596, "sha256": "77ae7a6b19b9b9c7835a81576286598e13bfe555fb47abf338ffcfbe0bc301c1", "text": "Dovetails, machine made, 159", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00985", "bookId": 21531, "start": 207615, "end": 207642, "sha256": "ccb136dc2e2ed7076f0f73dfb62c65a432322962fd169a29eaef636db9143cd7", "text": "Dovetails, sawing, 141, 155", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00986", "bookId": 21531, "start": 207661, "end": 207688, "sha256": "6f776b47e4993ea30ac0c42fc3ac9f9e59acea5b80fbc20b9a91f4abd1bd1007", "text": "Dovetails, setting out, 151", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00987", "bookId": 21531, "start": 207707, "end": 207735, "sha256": "6d71ca311b55d13a60a273c3c636b04f44aa12671c1dfc7a862c98a6e3b6d5df", "text": "Dowel cradle for planing, 94", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00988", "bookId": 21531, "start": 207754, "end": 207776, "sha256": "c9de1bbcc96a690a967af7631a2ed930042a73d1c54d2e6b02621050e6ddcbff", "text": "Dowel plate, steel, 93", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00989", "bookId": 21531, "start": 207795, "end": 207812, "sha256": "a0f6924e0afbd84212eb15386cad43738f276c41b822d3d6235095428c9578a4", "text": "Dowel rounder, 96", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00990", "bookId": 21531, "start": 207831, "end": 207856, "sha256": "b4f8adb551a7df59acc99df76c8298cf5ac318625e209d4fd0dcf021674b5d3c", "text": "Dowel with groove, 94, 95", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00991", "bookId": 21531, "start": 207875, "end": 207896, "sha256": "09e4ea7d0246eb73b7310e5703b6a5ecf9ad1807a478e58df779d72d858d718c", "text": "Dowelling frames, 100", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00992", "bookId": 21531, "start": 207915, "end": 207935, "sha256": "a4004d56c5420df4ec86bb7fe4d8b40860a93b353320c41f9c40d53ffce6a413", "text": "Dowelling joints, 93", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00993", "bookId": 21531, "start": 207954, "end": 207979, "sha256": "b850e4dda8cf746919b63d729aa48f32022068fc9cc7aed982075ad01678a486", "text": "Dowelling table legs, 101", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00994", "bookId": 21531, "start": 207998, "end": 208016, "sha256": "a66ae33aba90c1640980206ede91e1c1eeb70d2435a411fdb67c75afb373e448", "text": "Dowels, making, 93", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00995", "bookId": 21531, "start": 208035, "end": 208055, "sha256": "d21ba99c9e3a4e16d684ac00c351cdd240df7aba13f6fc20328b905a456ed1b6", "text": "Drawbore pinning, 78", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00996", "bookId": 21531, "start": 208074, "end": 208098, "sha256": "b9a27b06c7dca63ec198b110b3530bd6a6ae2158c4c5a2889e6e567345e30f64", "text": "Drawer bottom joint, 188", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00997", "bookId": 21531, "start": 208117, "end": 208147, "sha256": "b04b10902f58c58cf7bde6ca4f0bec48a1159583b5dfd0368a3aa357927abe8b", "text": "Drawer joints, dust-proof, 131", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00998", "bookId": 21531, "start": 208166, "end": 208192, "sha256": "a35177d75bd52f278fb171c3341c71278761bfc9bcf6c5f1621b7f50d6efe8ff", "text": "Drawer ploughslips, 10, 11", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B00999", "bookId": 21531, "start": 208211, "end": 208247, "sha256": "7e787c1b794702db2b46ae0de7a1688ce415c83087192098815659cacc0d35b2", "text": "Drawers, dovetailing, 133, etc., 156", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B01000", "bookId": 21531, "start": 208266, "end": 208290, "sha256": "8c9bf212701b0b31acbb41e364f5bbdfcc6e5462ff15b176828ff1de5b5623e6", "text": "Dreadnought file, 81, 82", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B01001", "bookId": 21531, "start": 208309, "end": 208329, "sha256": "a4151fd52e9a7bbe0207922df023ab2c20f95d2b427dd7334a62c29e6c46a59e", "text": "Drop table joint, 20", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B01002", "bookId": 21531, "start": 208348, "end": 208377, "sha256": "1491e537930126d7d9daaa3be627377d1f9d50e614c1ebd17ac001be5491be4c", "text": "Dust-proof drawer joints, 131", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B01003", "bookId": 21531, "start": 208398, "end": 208424, "sha256": "eba9dfed3e30bb888d362a64d90bd70bfa529bf0fb6421963e6b5ff949a89a32", "text": "Fall fronts, hingeing, 119", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B01004", "bookId": 21531, "start": 208443, "end": 208475, "sha256": "45c00ea28aa351460471f81e2ea4b2396802a8dfed1e6bffc0b39f29b58244cf", "text": "Fasteners, corrugated steel, 185", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B01005", "bookId": 21531, "start": 208494, "end": 208517, "sha256": "fab2f4726a085ae18be50fc0fb7a1c8b5313d1e87841f8fa95154da5fb3f63b8", "text": "Feather tongues, 51, 52", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B01006", "bookId": 21531, "start": 208536, "end": 208558, "sha256": "13229b1717430e4c7c51c445ca6b0f0bd4d6c00c9611903091d7a79cc7cc71cf", "text": "Fencing, joint for, 71", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B01007", "bookId": 21531, "start": 208577, "end": 208602, "sha256": "e6de3c1c026e909fcda07ae28b4f7ff08b5f08fef04b42c2d0b992e5ecc3d308", "text": "File, dreadnought, 81, 82", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B01008", "bookId": 21531, "start": 208621, "end": 208649, "sha256": "aed769360c2d7620caec9b6fae6b5045da1da34ec512148932cce1db4960e58b", "text": "Finger joint hinge, 122, 123", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B01009", "bookId": 21531, "start": 208668, "end": 208690, "sha256": "c02e676808231a3fe6f754a4b121106786239b9ddda39c5835ff22af3c43321e", "text": "Fished joint, 105, 106", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B01010", "bookId": 21531, "start": 208709, "end": 208737, "sha256": "28f8e3c162ac68ea225aca0a5fc7d9f9ea9e66114fe68cd893694f3ed9e8b61a", "text": "Flap (back) hinges, 115, 116", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B01011", "bookId": 21531, "start": 208756, "end": 208772, "sha256": "d42bd6b4215abb9bfb3a75e4dd937a2a6c8fe8a71c2de463595ddff455a4f052", "text": "Floor boards, 48", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B01012", "bookId": 21531, "start": 208791, "end": 208810, "sha256": "79cfe9ccb918844fc94a18cd5cca58a86e623c8f32c949a6d1d4e3db184238c9", "text": "Fly rails, 120, 121", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B01013", "bookId": 21531, "start": 208829, "end": 208844, "sha256": "0e22cd8672fd365980a9ed7bc100f1ad6d052d10a6524b9b478bc15f07ef48d3", "text": "Fox-wedging, 76", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B01014", "bookId": 21531, "start": 208863, "end": 208883, "sha256": "8016cc58a402df5aed745b8f985b887583d28c8323fe7ee9110e895da12176ec", "text": "Frame dovetails, 143", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B01015", "bookId": 21531, "start": 208902, "end": 208930, "sha256": "dcdc1d19e7363e39b3b6e2b2c1818f2124bb158f3ce1aa97303471d040fa0fa4", "text": "Frame joints, Oxford, 26, 27", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B01016", "bookId": 21531, "start": 208949, "end": 208986, "sha256": "8d15b172bd56755e6d5b389b994368fd00ec4dfdbce51a1d6cecf70fab9d6c0b", "text": "Frame, mirror, with bridle joints, 37", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B01017", "bookId": 21531, "start": 209005, "end": 209026, "sha256": "336537ebe17f7d6e2b9b5a372f18ad6569d2b2a95b985506fc4a3d3c154bb045", "text": "Frames, circular, 172", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B01018", "bookId": 21531, "start": 209045, "end": 209067, "sha256": "872ee3e136928c8552741606861c4b60a3cb7ad051c775117baf61b1fb4a0e35", "text": "Frames, dowelling, 100", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B01019", "bookId": 21531, "start": 209086, "end": 209115, "sha256": "542052d7dc3c2f86236d4fb0865f0d9ea9b3a2e4b402a4ca3a57726fba483c70", "text": "Frames for oil paintings, 184", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B01020", "bookId": 21531, "start": 209136, "end": 209154, "sha256": "cfc167ccba743a238702b7540ac8e4d20ebb082eb94d08512aa3e5596ac09e57", "text": "Gate joint, 68, 69", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B01021", "bookId": 21531, "start": 209173, "end": 209199, "sha256": "147d72593bc122a073ce4b89d9c4e689cfd75a67e7fe3384c5ea83c5114566e1", "text": "Gauge, marking, 28, 29, 40", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B01022", "bookId": 21531, "start": 209218, "end": 209260, "sha256": "9aa098cbe0cef18b81503b042fc75a93eba46773204e372f343a0ae108f4a0f5", "text": "Gauge, marking dovetails with cutting, 135", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B01023", "bookId": 21531, "start": 209279, "end": 209315, "sha256": "f88f6148fb4e8e3a2596640e4e97d5e38480f944be0fa78bb48eea4b851564d6", "text": "Gauging boards for dowelling, 97, 98", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B01024", "bookId": 21531, "start": 209334, "end": 209362, "sha256": "77130f91a1ddc2c961b40ed3b32fe3a448c566378d66b3badc927c36735765e3", "text": "Gauging for hinges, 110, 111", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B01025", "bookId": 21531, "start": 209381, "end": 209400, "sha256": "e6fcfcfedc8c19bb6eb88ea2814f4b1ed579c41c70afbb6e507a0bdca20ba74a", "text": "Glued joint, the, 1", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B01026", "bookId": 21531, "start": 209419, "end": 209446, "sha256": "f8f5daecb349448a51dba2da49f96bc93436479743c30ba779da8e85b913b54a", "text": "Glueing dowelled joints, 97", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B01027", "bookId": 21531, "start": 209465, "end": 209489, "sha256": "2502bbefd48fc1d66c126a87dd55808cb40e41ac25d2dcbaa40248145a5b99ac", "text": "Glueing rubbed joints, 2", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B01028", "bookId": 21531, "start": 209508, "end": 209554, "sha256": "5d0fc0137e8d96809e3c137d559a19560966a0d5e4b0b27651a890bbe7adf105", "text": "Grooved joints (_see_ Tongued and Grooved), 48", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B01029", "bookId": 21531, "start": 209573, "end": 209595, "sha256": "5091932a89ac0ceeaaa080eb0e75b590e10e8738db06644780a3cbdbbadfa9bf", "text": "Grooves, ploughing, 58", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B01030", "bookId": 21531, "start": 209614, "end": 209637, "sha256": "3132e24f1e86ee02ca45c68d2eccaf980feba4ccbb97ffb5d94cb8e827f2ae89", "text": "Grooving, dovetail, 160", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B01031", "bookId": 21531, "start": 209658, "end": 209698, "sha256": "78dc7e16ee80fa0d69825578b23feb1a218fe3eba44c9b14b7671ef5ba8db689", "text": "Halved and dovetailed joints, 17, 19, 20", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B01032", "bookId": 21531, "start": 209717, "end": 209745, "sha256": "5fc6e6de036f9a007ff8314b49d02d2724dfbc45b32b0792722ced888b970ab5", "text": "Halved and mitred joints, 16", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B01033", "bookId": 21531, "start": 209764, "end": 209785, "sha256": "5a51cd119af73a3224cb99e45a8311f37846816c149d1ae251b00e7c047ec0dd", "text": "Halved joint, the, 13", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B01034", "bookId": 21531, "start": 209804, "end": 209834, "sha256": "478301918518619571a45804b030ddd7282da5b88fb2291b5c1c6d50f6cf8396", "text": "Halved joints, setting out, 28", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B01035", "bookId": 21531, "start": 209853, "end": 209881, "sha256": "332b4581db12a6237fe97df3310543a41799cc4e3f80ee8cc6e8761abec06353", "text": "Halved scarf joint, 103, 104", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B01036", "bookId": 21531, "start": 209900, "end": 209929, "sha256": "597a95597be43f3cea273144699e038be8008c53bb8a6c7adc43c8df3c53db07", "text": "Halving joints, cross, 18, 23", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B01037", "bookId": 21531, "start": 209948, "end": 209970, "sha256": "6c568d6730adf23e65de61733f85b23dd51d277eb8aef1d1b9f7c1da248404f8", "text": "Hammer head tenons, 80", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B01038", "bookId": 21531, "start": 209989, "end": 210007, "sha256": "2f89a33b17ddfe8bcf4dc4748c209bfde78ed414e75bc64fa08079801b058d58", "text": "Handscrews, 11, 12", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B01039", "bookId": 21531, "start": 210026, "end": 210045, "sha256": "65752d36fcefaf316535d53bff3fc1574e4c2d8e2e3dba4071bd8ab2bb68967b", "text": "Haunched tenons, 65", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B01040", "bookId": 21531, "start": 210064, "end": 210085, "sha256": "42705a226e25ab95547339153a035dd4f469b55dcce5e20fa23299e2664c394e", "text": "Hinge, butt, 110, 111", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B01041", "bookId": 21531, "start": 210104, "end": 210133, "sha256": "a90d6d2650d21ae7bd1119ebd136dc33658763f98bdc2198fe2a76288ec5994f", "text": "Hinge, finger joint, 122, 123", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B01042", "bookId": 21531, "start": 210152, "end": 210182, "sha256": "fb7b59011c3599abb2c4bd4125e18f1e0c72fcc59737580b6bf4d10621915a01", "text": "Hinge, knuckle joint, 122, 123", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B01043", "bookId": 21531, "start": 210201, "end": 210220, "sha256": "4ac7676f9e765d5a1780dc73c1f1a3ec48ee045131fb1a235ee82067697cc118", "text": "Hinge recesses, 112", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B01044", "bookId": 21531, "start": 210239, "end": 210261, "sha256": "31ee2957fc29a45a2bc5ea5ebdf27192dd7ddc20138cb29bc3661ae752288ecd", "text": "Hinge, rule joint, 125", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B01045", "bookId": 21531, "start": 210280, "end": 210304, "sha256": "f4676979a9f833b5a1fe3bc3e55634bd1d4094d44fa64b54772442527406562c", "text": "Hinged cornice pole, 177", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B01046", "bookId": 21531, "start": 210323, "end": 210341, "sha256": "a32254fc1387e29f9cfdf769e7b9c997bbbfa93eeeccd14ebffc79f7b731af2a", "text": "Hinged joints, 109", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B01047", "bookId": 21531, "start": 210360, "end": 210381, "sha256": "9bc3ad68da6cfaf35c793a4ce648036fab193350164815c9b0702881a9a90f79", "text": "Hingeing box lid, 113", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B01048", "bookId": 21531, "start": 210400, "end": 210426, "sha256": "28d7ecfbb6afe606ce5f21abbcf404996872cb0375c6475bc8eac7d15fd95dc0", "text": "Hingeing, close joint, 125", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B01049", "bookId": 21531, "start": 210445, "end": 210468, "sha256": "8b39b7a5df490c090522a9d3821bc0c3aea1cedd62ea973dfce8231f5ce9988f", "text": "Hingeing doors, 116-119", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B01050", "bookId": 21531, "start": 210487, "end": 210516, "sha256": "9f60cf65f529ae9070e161dbdce1221be1dd23fcda576fa4e653770f2685b319", "text": "Hingeing draught screens, 121", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B01051", "bookId": 21531, "start": 210535, "end": 210560, "sha256": "08c7c652e2447f0a6feba68264e34192b35254695ac046b421261f589fe6ec77", "text": "Hingeing fall fronts, 119", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B01052", "bookId": 21531, "start": 210579, "end": 210604, "sha256": "c9ae16ef639ff746bb3543a0f019758e241969beb7ba4489abbf68a63a73090b", "text": "Hingeing, open joint, 124", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B01053", "bookId": 21531, "start": 210623, "end": 210652, "sha256": "192b7ebcb45fa65c240a2428af68b88cc500d13313037145048e0798a3870144", "text": "Hinges, gauging for, 110, 111", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B01054", "bookId": 21531, "start": 210671, "end": 210706, "sha256": "f0d19177f2de40d64dbd58dc619e51b87fe627d188ffa1bc2232746e60e81e43", "text": "Hinges, various, 110, 114, 115, 116", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B01055", "bookId": 21531, "start": 210725, "end": 210741, "sha256": "897533dd3256da038132ae8611a6b86a190eb5cdd241f438a60c40dbf4c59914", "text": "Hook joints, 130", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B01056", "bookId": 21531, "start": 210760, "end": 210791, "sha256": "02a36c87e59c34865f605394e5b09df22b43c95a787f4d9fe41da133d996886c", "text": "Housed and mitred dovetail, 145", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B01057", "bookId": 21531, "start": 210812, "end": 210840, "sha256": "a9ffebaf3b2f19b4d7df2a6f2d1e0400f56a82e0bc65ec2e70604a46a04cf8b3", "text": "Interlocking chair joint, 91", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B01058", "bookId": 21531, "start": 210859, "end": 210876, "sha256": "1119cb7b677eceed1ab92aa9b8507a7ee6e96c796c8f1adec7d1dafc5e15cd1f", "text": "Iron dogs, 10, 11", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B01059", "bookId": 21531, "start": 210897, "end": 210934, "sha256": "82b821c3065a834f239d8eb57c0816d3acf11842e9f4c2d800a4de559368f9af", "text": "Japanese self-wedging tenon joint, 72", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B01060", "bookId": 21531, "start": 210953, "end": 210978, "sha256": "c90701c7d30e9306c8d3c3aa35260f98b911b7d00aac6142f4ce54a4b70842f0", "text": "Joint, drawer bottom, 188", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B01061", "bookId": 21531, "start": 210997, "end": 211020, "sha256": "733a7cd2669869b6b6d14c5ef36f910482a835d3b23d6f4794ee515453d893fa", "text": "Joint, fished, 105, 106", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B01062", "bookId": 21531, "start": 211039, "end": 211068, "sha256": "cf52a9d0a76c5de7dda3296dc05867f820843d44749d64245e8b0bf6c5986244", "text": "Joint, interlocking chair, 91", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B01063", "bookId": 21531, "start": 211087, "end": 211111, "sha256": "06bb3e6bb77bb27aaf65ba426a68f82479d5bab3043966f576a5279cab404697", "text": "Joint, tabled scarf, 107", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B01064", "bookId": 21531, "start": 211130, "end": 211156, "sha256": "0a6200afae17c9bd2d9956ca720f5d834c80f1bf041826fed9a899b0a0dd8745", "text": "Joint, tie beam scarf, 106", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B01065", "bookId": 21531, "start": 211175, "end": 213812, "sha256": "84c6716d76e15028a1a4a543c4b94ac2393903779ef14c4cc3e95d471d4b544f", "text": "Joints, barefaced tenon, 64 barred door, 55 barrow wheel, 20 battened, 188 birdsmouth, 181 bridle, 35 butting mitred, 8 cogged, 181 column and pillar, 179 combing or locking, 55 cornice pole, 177 cot, 178 cross halving, 18, 23 dovetail, 132 dovetailed and wedged tenon, 75 dowelling, 93 dust-proof drawer, 131 fencing, 71 for curved work, 172 garden gate, 68, 69 glued, 1 halved, 13 halved and dovetailed, 17, 19, 20 haunched tenon, 65 hinged, 109 hook, 130 ladder, 177 laminated, 10, 11, 172, 175 lap, 13 light-tight, 131 meeting, 129 miscellaneous, 176 mitre-faced tenon, 77 mitre bridle, 36, 37 mitre halved, 16 mitred, 163 mitred and tenoned, 72, 73 mitred and tongued, 56, 57 mortise and tenon, 64 notched, 180 oblique bridle, 37, 38 oblique halved, 15, 23 ogee-shaped, 8 open slot mortise, 80 partition, 24, 25 ploughing for tongued and grooved, 58 puzzle, 189 rafter and tie beam, 182 rafter (tenon), 77 rebated door, 129 roof, 34, 37, 38 roof (tenon), 77 rubbed, 1 saddle, 180 sash bar, 79 scarf, 103 screen, 114, 121 scribed and tenoned, 72 setting out bridle, 39 setting out halved, 28 setting out tenon, 83 shouldered tenon, 70, 71, 79 shutting, 127 skirting and muntin, 178 T, 14, 18 tie, 22, 23 tongued and grooved, 48 tongued corner, 55, 56 trestle, 24 tusk tenon, 74, 75 weather board, 176 wheelwright's self-wedging tenon, 75", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": false }, { "ref": "PG21531.B01066", "bookId": 21531, "start": 213833, "end": 213854, "sha256": "313f4e2826f5004cfda7128c518c3b51579ee5b6138ecea8c985f28aa6f556ec", "text": "Keyhole screwing, 187", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B01067", "bookId": 21531, "start": 213873, "end": 213894, "sha256": "d33254eb59e1956ed04ba60f8e80c19c74e83573158b9e6a89e09a5a1df26278", "text": "Keying, dovetail, 147", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B01068", "bookId": 21531, "start": 213913, "end": 213932, "sha256": "c15483a19353481d881ab17f47771ece505e51715afc126cedb7287a5aa0af6c", "text": "Keying, veneer, 178", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B01069", "bookId": 21531, "start": 213951, "end": 213972, "sha256": "d0a0cd01a2eacfac1af7f952cbab1dc3785bca77e5443a93467d6309a24e0697", "text": "Keys, dovetailed, 147", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B01070", "bookId": 21531, "start": 213991, "end": 214020, "sha256": "8d68e11c53a83b4814675b9b4c1c6c20b7637481141268f319edea791158f989", "text": "Knuckle joint hinge, 122, 123", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B01071", "bookId": 21531, "start": 214041, "end": 214059, "sha256": "4ba62255505293063342bfd2513190beeda259cd376b3b2fe5b7f15d18979a66", "text": "Ladder joints, 177", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B01072", "bookId": 21531, "start": 214078, "end": 214102, "sha256": "cff3337e2cc5451c7e40972cf50eea129801cf61b7e8e9d3ada9d68796c63ddf", "text": "Laminated joints, 10, 11", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B01073", "bookId": 21531, "start": 214121, "end": 214136, "sha256": "d84ae304c17776e1c74f794e94b41b437a81d60096fafd1e06956e3e5539f0c3", "text": "Lamination, 175", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B01074", "bookId": 21531, "start": 214155, "end": 214175, "sha256": "cf31643a384c7ad6b985cb79f7480871b22c472c9b3ed3a9121ea84cb182248c", "text": "Lap dovetailing, 133", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B01075", "bookId": 21531, "start": 214194, "end": 214221, "sha256": "43e993a4dc9e55c242765dea5355c404e697761b4b4c2a963db078c02611e717", "text": "Lap dovetailing, blind, 145", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B01076", "bookId": 21531, "start": 214240, "end": 214254, "sha256": "2e0bc42d53d96d9b436cd3aa80976c079af27441dc950870d9998c212f539485", "text": "Lap joints, 13", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B01077", "bookId": 21531, "start": 214273, "end": 214290, "sha256": "0bddbfc9bd8302c6c6acbf73ecdb3864ff90a381d92850da3133d967e9987e92", "text": "Laths, winding, 3", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B01078", "bookId": 21531, "start": 214309, "end": 214331, "sha256": "feb6ac742c73e9eb5d82f14019cf522b76da42e339ad4cf938b43d522c75e40c", "text": "Lid, hingeing box, 113", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B01079", "bookId": 21531, "start": 214350, "end": 214373, "sha256": "2b4e5a66fd5c2b168c759d9bda6479a6086b7f7fe50e4751d1950b95b2048f0a", "text": "Light-tight joints, 131", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B01080", "bookId": 21531, "start": 214392, "end": 214423, "sha256": "4c20572a40b0ab803677b300e28772ed5621a7aecd8e1c88e55537061851c560", "text": "Locking (inter) chair joint, 91", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B01081", "bookId": 21531, "start": 214442, "end": 214459, "sha256": "23108a98d272b84ccd9a8acb37d9b36757df4b89b1d2c1b748516f8d6960ade0", "text": "Locking joint, 55", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B01082", "bookId": 21531, "start": 214480, "end": 214505, "sha256": "db16bbb631791bc0d0ab50c9554e1b69efd658e761f7ff7aaa8628a20882513f", "text": "Marking gauge, 28, 29, 40", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B01083", "bookId": 21531, "start": 214524, "end": 214541, "sha256": "b4473d5ed0fd255f635bba3beffde89b7054504170de50c4de7e4b20f3a049fc", "text": "Matchboarding, 49", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B01084", "bookId": 21531, "start": 214560, "end": 214579, "sha256": "db7c14c35e016fbca3ed6559954e985096fad8f4d0f635ddf65116c3bb4f8f15", "text": "Meeting joints, 129", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B01085", "bookId": 21531, "start": 214598, "end": 214633, "sha256": "7e466054e551d2028daa9c6c7783a65db5a99f6db1b84e6c9642546f111e685c", "text": "Mirror frame with bridle joints, 37", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B01086", "bookId": 21531, "start": 214652, "end": 214679, "sha256": "9c0ce2d5c0f2528461a420bf14d3e139b9ecbe25c39201bea5ce1321b2d45b55", "text": "Mitre box, saw used in, 171", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B01087", "bookId": 21531, "start": 214698, "end": 214724, "sha256": "81d5c14707396e8960a4abd5764722798258ecd2aa6ebbc816489430dede2bf6", "text": "Mitre bridle joint, 36, 37", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B01088", "bookId": 21531, "start": 214743, "end": 214776, "sha256": "64cd504a0ff95d2f15a54910c2d78263f9b42342a4d552b4dc1352d4836ee368", "text": "Mitre, curved, 163, 164, 168, 169", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B01089", "bookId": 21531, "start": 214795, "end": 214822, "sha256": "4b97bbaca2a5c6beafe7b00663b62f233f648e9e0a94ecdfd62ed9c245e06b67", "text": "Mitre faced tenon joint, 77", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B01090", "bookId": 21531, "start": 214841, "end": 214864, "sha256": "6b0e0bffddc984e1481881e85cc81348b1894ab2cc3bf1f94558c22a4de1c34f", "text": "Mitre halved joints, 16", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B01091", "bookId": 21531, "start": 214883, "end": 214906, "sha256": "fe9370c4de79973588f9cd210359d86f3ef6eb80a57bd7ea021fc2e06f7caf87", "text": "Mitre sawing block, 165", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B01092", "bookId": 21531, "start": 214925, "end": 214962, "sha256": "4820cac2a40117a216a443cf307afc0a7ce6786915813a9831603e5ffc69f363", "text": "Mitre, setting out a curved, 168, 169", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B01093", "bookId": 21531, "start": 214981, "end": 215000, "sha256": "56f5d68cf8089cbff4cbba12db8656bc6d3731b44aa3930b0a30d131f78d7f0e", "text": "Mitre template, 170", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B01094", "bookId": 21531, "start": 215019, "end": 215046, "sha256": "4f61565405482ff3b1887691b449640d849114c2f9ddcd1c07a359036a5beefd", "text": "Mitre trap, screw, 165, 166", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B01095", "bookId": 21531, "start": 215065, "end": 215096, "sha256": "73f08cf84ef0e26b43391a682f40327b6503ba6cb1b5d2794ea850cdcfb4f7cc", "text": "Mitred and housed dovetail, 145", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B01096", "bookId": 21531, "start": 215115, "end": 215147, "sha256": "eb5e63f1de13d3e3d9b37a2b9af078df1598428bcf97cb38ad4c0b4af5af7866", "text": "Mitred and tenoned joint, 72, 73", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B01097", "bookId": 21531, "start": 215166, "end": 215189, "sha256": "68c4a3b3435098fed12bfbfee675b4605d4d7ffed774f18e20117e930721e0aa", "text": "Mitred butting joint, 8", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B01098", "bookId": 21531, "start": 215208, "end": 215236, "sha256": "b177149f6dfc2d3b968162adf2176d6f1bcf4ceb713ee63a043bcb94525f5e65", "text": "Mitred dovetail, secret, 146", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B01099", "bookId": 21531, "start": 215255, "end": 215288, "sha256": "938927385034e29573467039b223a957fc3e8b94ef6626152b9f33f5a3617fde", "text": "Mitred frames, dowelling, 99, 100", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B01100", "bookId": 21531, "start": 215307, "end": 215329, "sha256": "235b1889410d76dc2aa68ebbb9b7fa213cac8ba003ae19a28ded69d88f30c01a", "text": "Mitred joint, the, 163", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B01101", "bookId": 21531, "start": 215348, "end": 215377, "sha256": "70fb7ccaf9d8295f08cac36967174618be9b7cfa7e31cebf2743ce458d34cbfd", "text": "Mitred tongued joints, 56, 57", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B01102", "bookId": 21531, "start": 215396, "end": 215415, "sha256": "c32a262abb4e981a194f1145dd66b2c94507b01cd9f9429e69b0308bdf21c334", "text": "Mitres, curved, 169", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B01103", "bookId": 21531, "start": 215434, "end": 215462, "sha256": "ed7ad599099a875911600cd525c5b19292323f147f4c80bf30080ed6c569862e", "text": "Mortise and tenon joints, 64", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B01104", "bookId": 21531, "start": 215481, "end": 215503, "sha256": "26512442b871c7a4fcd7f71bacee24183ccb5f66db21fa2128790f70ef5cc073", "text": "Mortise, open slot, 80", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B01105", "bookId": 21531, "start": 215522, "end": 215535, "sha256": "3b19cb984d8257dadcc6d7854195a247f7685303dca0e5c9c1923afcc8efab67", "text": "Mortising, 87", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B01106", "bookId": 21531, "start": 215554, "end": 215575, "sha256": "8759b8b6e5761ba277236888eb489ec8c32cbbefc1db348c576c01ae976651dd", "text": "Mortising puzzle, 201", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B01107", "bookId": 21531, "start": 215594, "end": 215623, "sha256": "f81e8d8d8cb2d2a299cddf238b97da3e322b1ff3832e1ab75d8c8600b8655c9a", "text": "Mouldings, mitreing, 165, 171", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B01108", "bookId": 21531, "start": 215642, "end": 215659, "sha256": "e7f73c2493b9e20cdd3546eda0104327d7628eb1279617851ec2e2de64d973c8", "text": "Muntin joint, 178", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B01109", "bookId": 21531, "start": 215680, "end": 215699, "sha256": "bae240e4e34b65a6c46b2111672f99a4bab5a188481e0f148a7e73fe24dcbc96", "text": "Notched joints, 180", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B01110", "bookId": 21531, "start": 215720, "end": 215748, "sha256": "c7f8e1c7798a95cf9253777799ef68244515c0d3ee6f2e31e42bbdb38593698f", "text": "Oblique bridle joint, 37, 38", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B01111", "bookId": 21531, "start": 215767, "end": 215791, "sha256": "3017c6cfd534cd67a84d7b3d38a10e92c784b9e0224156dd0359e11eec8754f0", "text": "Oblique dovetailing, 151", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B01112", "bookId": 21531, "start": 215810, "end": 215840, "sha256": "0b7d36edbc0ba4cb876574c880ee9c3e2fc73b2f253bfcbca5fab721cb672fa4", "text": "Oblique joints, halved, 15, 23", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B01113", "bookId": 21531, "start": 215859, "end": 215879, "sha256": "73a2635493885b63662072b495d838219fff988f1ee1b46a2ca66fb20612ab47", "text": "Ogee-shaped joint, 8", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B01114", "bookId": 21531, "start": 215898, "end": 215922, "sha256": "d7bf215bfa6814cbc3880e3770fc30236ca136c2e3c85846cc83b354937aa27b", "text": "Open-joint hingeing, 124", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B01115", "bookId": 21531, "start": 215941, "end": 215962, "sha256": "d80a8e3aeda920b06409f265f6469ca98178b07b49a6e29675ddd0502f702953", "text": "Open slot mortise, 80", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B01116", "bookId": 21531, "start": 215981, "end": 216020, "sha256": "d52d3b2f1cfbab43767d915dd169c28506f16db68c3decc631c9837fc6646663", "text": "Oxford frame, halved joints for, 26, 27", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B01117", "bookId": 21531, "start": 216041, "end": 216065, "sha256": "8527047abb40f859596430b96b751ae536aec1731c1170e5f124b956fb9dcb33", "text": "Partition joints, 24, 25", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B01118", "bookId": 21531, "start": 216084, "end": 216102, "sha256": "dfaba40529ed9bb50f512ce56c48296bb4c0721d271c761fc5a2859905bb177a", "text": "Patera covers, 183", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B01119", "bookId": 21531, "start": 216121, "end": 216135, "sha256": "a02eab5ce2508d718a7b508d8621b01b61d6a5267249bb1ab91a979b7e17e421", "text": "Pelleting, 182", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B01120", "bookId": 21531, "start": 216154, "end": 216178, "sha256": "06e6a7ffff2c93892213f7b181ef138cfe59fb8679d99f7f58222cc3252bdf41", "text": "Piano front joint, 9, 11", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B01121", "bookId": 21531, "start": 216197, "end": 216208, "sha256": "450d3083165e0ed8b991470c9a689b2166c118087f1a15085375767559a7fa1d", "text": "Pinning, 73", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B01122", "bookId": 21531, "start": 216227, "end": 216248, "sha256": "c1806904f385e862e4951f6ea150efecfb41bab449164c99bf0df49f08cc9cca", "text": "Pinning, drawbore, 78", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B01123", "bookId": 21531, "start": 216267, "end": 216286, "sha256": "40dabbaf80213e2507105ce006d8e868266ba90f811f4a42c349fd9a30842cce", "text": "Pins, dovetail, 136", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B01124", "bookId": 21531, "start": 216305, "end": 216332, "sha256": "42aaeba5740d684eac357eb4a9639dd098a67b98a7b19e341bb11d0ed4c7fcd1", "text": "Pivot hinges, 114, 115, 116", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B01125", "bookId": 21531, "start": 216351, "end": 216385, "sha256": "9689c68fb2ad7b7368af9e162f550e043e0ca5a6d6abdbb505cd43b2e5f2debb", "text": "Plane, old woman's tooth, 161, 162", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B01126", "bookId": 21531, "start": 216404, "end": 216433, "sha256": "2949f92b054b0c23b0560bb08c550681cbbc1c302933a2a8aff47550442231bb", "text": "Plane, the plough, 58, 59, 60", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B01127", "bookId": 21531, "start": 216452, "end": 216486, "sha256": "fc214988b70c641aa8da99fc0c9253c5851c26f6dcdc4e0729950ab635885de7", "text": "Planes, tongueing and grooving, 61", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B01128", "bookId": 21531, "start": 216505, "end": 216528, "sha256": "a9b13c3ed5f155b6b4b00a49c04a448fe56ce4a36609a3209b262c1466002532", "text": "Planing, cradle for, 52", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B01129", "bookId": 21531, "start": 216547, "end": 216571, "sha256": "5f0c224b3976c8383999ed0676c32b1e852db1ebafca6180a5df10d513db8b54", "text": "Planing mitred work, 165", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B01130", "bookId": 21531, "start": 216590, "end": 216623, "sha256": "0913df9b8380d4d40f77c28b760690ce447d9eb27f9e50e24f5b058f68194eea", "text": "Plinth frame dovetailed, 143, 144", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B01131", "bookId": 21531, "start": 216642, "end": 216671, "sha256": "a754f6f1db0ecfd04ed2d182bc7b84af2fe836c58502adb2f001744b707a7bd5", "text": "Plough plane, the, 58, 59, 60", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B01132", "bookId": 21531, "start": 216690, "end": 216734, "sha256": "5b27bfcfec04cddd82b94339976158a87c39370799b64b4e70fc91ca0e8ab5ea", "text": "Ploughing for tongued and grooved joints, 58", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B01133", "bookId": 21531, "start": 216753, "end": 216781, "sha256": "49e36c041efc992812e195b879669c3945ca7e2f3a0601065d6f707e7bd20f8c", "text": "Ploughslips, glueing, 10, 11", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B01134", "bookId": 21531, "start": 216800, "end": 216813, "sha256": "8035262ad9915dd764d5afc8c3fa4c44e0115f2725ac848c43e33ccf49297335", "text": "Plugging, 186", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B01135", "bookId": 21531, "start": 216832, "end": 216857, "sha256": "7e30932616739bb7ae6fe45cc37503b3eb829eecb683e8a1b61e569be0193177", "text": "Pole joints, cornice, 177", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B01136", "bookId": 21531, "start": 216876, "end": 216902, "sha256": "54e816c5a5a9c0eaf79498bde78b4902ad1f188bfcab927a8fced4c6c4ee9aa9", "text": "Puzzle, Chinese cross, 203", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B01137", "bookId": 21531, "start": 216921, "end": 216939, "sha256": "f5d034ecc7ed9206a53bc6edb299c6390065b6c44097f1932f9c292e31e72ae4", "text": "Puzzle, cross, 200", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B01138", "bookId": 21531, "start": 216958, "end": 216993, "sha256": "06fce7986a65e3b6e94cb2fbb451ab29d88b6bf264d6310f5fb7262cabe3aa0b", "text": "Puzzle, diagonal Chinese cross, 204", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B01139", "bookId": 21531, "start": 217012, "end": 217030, "sha256": "b2775e9a38286e1ea1f5887c41592fd836a672af8a8d3410c369c44877e1dc79", "text": "Puzzle joints, 189", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B01140", "bookId": 21531, "start": 217049, "end": 217071, "sha256": "b41c0a1c8d151b2bbf2b2bd1d89eca55cf29188d734b9f801605fac3bed3fda1", "text": "Puzzle, mortising, 201", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B01141", "bookId": 21531, "start": 217090, "end": 217137, "sha256": "3c945b61e4ad2310a94dc07e95c2caae76d60846857866b33451e2469d2eef2a", "text": "Puzzles, dovetail, 195, 196, 197, 198, 199, 208", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B01142", "bookId": 21531, "start": 217156, "end": 217176, "sha256": "994a4d28edc5ce77680e3c0e526c73a0f027555f06c038f0ef692f45fd949bad", "text": "Puzzles, square, 205", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B01143", "bookId": 21531, "start": 217197, "end": 217228, "sha256": "468cc407227d6494a6bf94dc7cf7542bdb761139609822c30693f368109a77b9", "text": "Rafter and tie beam joints, 182", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B01144", "bookId": 21531, "start": 217247, "end": 217271, "sha256": "491f3d123da8795432247dbfee0542ccae5f4105163131bd9b8a077ad3351de8", "text": "Rafter joint (tenon), 77", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B01145", "bookId": 21531, "start": 217290, "end": 217314, "sha256": "81d21ccfd867c731a3237f1c30f9ab7ea64e14779d1fb77930e1d280799f0645", "text": "Rebated door joints, 129", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B01146", "bookId": 21531, "start": 217333, "end": 217366, "sha256": "5775d598f968342e83f7a8488f6d49eb21a53684779abe00918b2b8b83080c29", "text": "Reversible screen hinge, 114, 115", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B01147", "bookId": 21531, "start": 217385, "end": 217412, "sha256": "6bc8462491f061787e5e50b16c6fc7e4c4f07cc187a77a154f9b032ae4661aae", "text": "Rising butt hinge, 115, 116", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B01148", "bookId": 21531, "start": 217431, "end": 217454, "sha256": "2741d2e73b31d6fbe01c5ef67c19bd324c398ee7fed254e34cee7c2f24a4c646", "text": "Roof joints, 34, 37, 38", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B01149", "bookId": 21531, "start": 217473, "end": 217496, "sha256": "1ee5e5667d511ddd854acdd4b35954dd31285b9821f72f41cb72dbcfddd756b9", "text": "Roof joints (tenon), 77", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B01150", "bookId": 21531, "start": 217515, "end": 217563, "sha256": "cbc863a609fe2b36c6120740e40f4638f2ca0ce6080d630039389dd3044aa237", "text": "Roof work, scarfed joints used in, 103, 104, 106", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B01151", "bookId": 21531, "start": 217582, "end": 217597, "sha256": "74356fcb55e1e3a3115cb86f8ea87a84316d8b512cc0d307a279c69bcf8528a4", "text": "Rubbed joint, 1", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B01152", "bookId": 21531, "start": 217616, "end": 217637, "sha256": "af6c33968dfe4ede21c836071a73a1f49c34173f65c97dba53ed3b5de76a1736", "text": "Rule joint hinge, 125", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B01153", "bookId": 21531, "start": 217658, "end": 217676, "sha256": "f3bf1cf9bb34a75778a27bb14ca7d8f11365f6934bb3b4cf3d7b05f60a5a1100", "text": "Saddle joints, 180", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B01154", "bookId": 21531, "start": 217695, "end": 217714, "sha256": "09c93ee8e9ca5c2d2fa613fa9fb87da5a7f0ed586783162e1dcf719a054dc57f", "text": "Sash bar joints, 79", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B01155", "bookId": 21531, "start": 217733, "end": 217763, "sha256": "32e232e5bf06576586a556a825f79f3a04b04adf5da746e505f7fb048e94143d", "text": "Sawing block for mitreing, 165", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B01156", "bookId": 21531, "start": 217782, "end": 217814, "sha256": "23bec97a24a1b705a189a57600390ea3909e4186dd5cab1b5b986a18e553144e", "text": "Sawing (bridle joints), 41, etc.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B01157", "bookId": 21531, "start": 217833, "end": 217859, "sha256": "84358f1d66a1970cc867bc2bfa7aca277639e50fd94d53eb94a2110804e6dc6c", "text": "Sawing dovetails, 141, 155", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B01158", "bookId": 21531, "start": 217878, "end": 217908, "sha256": "a7cde1cf10b9361d37d48e676ee6cac26545e66f583f6947fca7d0173deb999b", "text": "Sawing for hinge recesses, 112", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B01159", "bookId": 21531, "start": 217927, "end": 217963, "sha256": "69c89b353ef0aeae6d5d81cd759094c08ed9224a13f319f1932b60b8fd5d4152", "text": "Sawing (halved joints), 30, 31, etc.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B01160", "bookId": 21531, "start": 217982, "end": 218007, "sha256": "9ef1581346a358cba1accdd44ebc84add7f6fbf0f83938d3a84e42eb1c2c83f5", "text": "Sawing (tenons), 84, etc.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B01161", "bookId": 21531, "start": 218026, "end": 218055, "sha256": "62935e611bd8459e054c40fb573d691e3bd571b21ddb50c94dd542a472f5d38e", "text": "Scarf joint, fished, 105, 106", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B01162", "bookId": 21531, "start": 218074, "end": 218131, "sha256": "39ec723b2af9302c7befa103b96b48326d019a950b6f2c4d52f99119d7a8a45e", "text": "Scarf joint for heavy timber, lapped and bolted, 107, 108", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B01163", "bookId": 21531, "start": 218150, "end": 218187, "sha256": "7e7ee76ea69e687af5b0d0105abb03a9baa93eb1bc09df1686226f5a22449957", "text": "Scarf joint, tabled, with straps, 107", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B01164", "bookId": 21531, "start": 218206, "end": 218223, "sha256": "e4a4d42d0498084bc9693894114582d3c377d298751f4c68ae375f6cb9515371", "text": "Scarf joints, 103", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B01165", "bookId": 21531, "start": 218242, "end": 218269, "sha256": "a24c36ae5a98c43afdb07cb523ff0a036e8ed75941e74e83a1c89df5b0385534", "text": "Scarf joints, tie beam, 106", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B01166", "bookId": 21531, "start": 218288, "end": 218316, "sha256": "b8d33b41afaa2f420b143886903f604d8ec975b2d811dfcdecbbed9903b23d8b", "text": "Screen hinges, 114, 115, 116", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B01167", "bookId": 21531, "start": 218335, "end": 218365, "sha256": "c5df1bf8a97d985968fd11b715bdcf71baae179a44629e311010abfda4ca6621", "text": "Screens, hingeing draught, 121", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B01168", "bookId": 21531, "start": 218384, "end": 218414, "sha256": "7a8cad55249cfd7cee2ae04451a42b8e0c770078b781fe10415c0ac338a2f21d", "text": "Screwing, slot or keyhole, 187", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B01169", "bookId": 21531, "start": 218433, "end": 218465, "sha256": "ffccb9a9a28131c75e8b6b230390f082c3760629195528d975dd49dc6bbf1bb6", "text": "Screws, hiding with pateras, 183", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B01170", "bookId": 21531, "start": 218484, "end": 218507, "sha256": "bdc5c0f182ac060acc549b57396b064c8f101e1e1b545bedc5a615df4be03fac", "text": "Scribed tenon joint, 72", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B01171", "bookId": 21531, "start": 218526, "end": 218553, "sha256": "24995f37245f964c0c84a40d26be4aff47da4533eebf4b7a1a382662a3d8ffe5", "text": "Secret mitred dovetail, 146", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B01172", "bookId": 21531, "start": 218572, "end": 218598, "sha256": "48e7fdd1a8cb9402e0868efe349bd0b43afe14d6249fccb331b2d9da340c22b8", "text": "Setting out dovetails, 151", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B01173", "bookId": 21531, "start": 218617, "end": 218642, "sha256": "86c493ce48298d8bac311c9517532e9a52c979309911e64ed0914b2b52b157b5", "text": "Shooting board, 7, 10, 11", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B01174", "bookId": 21531, "start": 218661, "end": 218703, "sha256": "dfbc8e3ba5f81c873ce2742c3d643dd4aef34ebeca22ef4f18da8795805151ba", "text": "Shooting board for mitreing, 165, 166, 167", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B01175", "bookId": 21531, "start": 218722, "end": 218749, "sha256": "18596a64e8889b177830a9cde235925fe9a80912655846c8549f9ec794f3b340", "text": "Shoulders, 14, etc., 19, 23", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B01176", "bookId": 21531, "start": 218768, "end": 218802, "sha256": "2238abef39bd3295828ebc7cd737d04095102a44d027556fe12623bcfa6c21d1", "text": "Shoulders of tenons, tongueing, 63", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B01177", "bookId": 21531, "start": 218821, "end": 218842, "sha256": "83dfeea735cc868a13d355790f7bcb6b98a4e6c912a8cf43df2867676887866a", "text": "Shoulders, sawing, 45", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B01178", "bookId": 21531, "start": 218861, "end": 218890, "sha256": "446d7fd53fdfdc1adff28d058543f02e5bc3c6ce78b7fc87cdcf705a13db8bd2", "text": "Shoulders (tenon), 70, 71, 79", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B01179", "bookId": 21531, "start": 218909, "end": 218954, "sha256": "485f0e7c82ef61233b71866be2370d717c7eadf594e7a8120f88f05a0b21cd41", "text": "Shoulders, tenon with tongued and grooved, 79", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B01180", "bookId": 21531, "start": 218973, "end": 218993, "sha256": "5de751fd2b144b797dc35145c382f0bba98584b336e10d37ec3a01dd41dbcae4", "text": "Shutting joints, 127", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B01181", "bookId": 21531, "start": 219012, "end": 219040, "sha256": "759a06a4f9fe9d2486f0ef0589054e7db2ffd52a06f2599365f60efb050308a0", "text": "Sideboard pillar joints, 179", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B01182", "bookId": 21531, "start": 219059, "end": 219089, "sha256": "5c3d395b474188d3d9d3dc9f6b8348db710d76918f00ae515e18c161bba37642", "text": "Skirting and muntin joint, 178", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B01183", "bookId": 21531, "start": 219108, "end": 219129, "sha256": "5e47c758bc840324acd43965b21fd8bfb4a4a5ef95f16299b460d54cb9d10828", "text": "Skirting, mitred, 163", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B01184", "bookId": 21531, "start": 219148, "end": 219178, "sha256": "5e6acceb980c0b181031a8f318f722559a3cba9738f9e5c50c00dc3549c5d1e0", "text": "Skirting mould, double, 56, 58", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B01185", "bookId": 21531, "start": 219197, "end": 219215, "sha256": "672a92595a4cb65fcc673f3790ac7f651b4ed9ba865c969745973259a967bad3", "text": "Slot screwing, 187", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B01186", "bookId": 21531, "start": 219234, "end": 219266, "sha256": "7a82a0f8cbb373cec271214b9042f1a4e86a8a8170fa34ba21af204cfba1c191", "text": "Spandrel, jointing shaped, 9, 11", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B01187", "bookId": 21531, "start": 219285, "end": 219320, "sha256": "e9712eed357f2e72fcd88ce58d0bb47c96aa4b5c2cb630a566ed5807f11443e8", "text": "Spandrel with tongued joint, 52, 53", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B01188", "bookId": 21531, "start": 219339, "end": 219357, "sha256": "9f3bc47ee5e6f66568d1b2496f331eb156b98fe1ac914efcc49cbad81b76e35f", "text": "Sprocket wheel, 68", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B01189", "bookId": 21531, "start": 219376, "end": 219395, "sha256": "e4333010c2f7988114bd2b103f78e8bc8e4846e2e565c76b86ccca64b71a897a", "text": "Square puzzles, 205", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B01190", "bookId": 21531, "start": 219414, "end": 219446, "sha256": "d53082e4a2dcfa98dab16aa49371f323e70994bc8745cc54db1fc2b16b06a6b0", "text": "Steel fasteners, corrugated, 185", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B01191", "bookId": 21531, "start": 219465, "end": 219498, "sha256": "8de03f52d3b0fc03292e273bb579bcba97a0dcb44ae5e50fae4c56fbb5be6eda", "text": "Stiles, shutting and meeting, 128", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B01192", "bookId": 21531, "start": 219517, "end": 219545, "sha256": "c15e8ada3057b0404bbf7e6c100cb2a04d2eb30e4dd669e0b6e0195dde36e3da", "text": "Stopped bridle joint, 37, 38", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B01193", "bookId": 21531, "start": 219564, "end": 219592, "sha256": "720af773b3169602dec48ff23173f8d1cb61570ba5dfc3c915910920994f8e4c", "text": "Stopped dovetail halving, 17", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B01194", "bookId": 21531, "start": 219611, "end": 219632, "sha256": "85538f977c7cc483f12625f8f0ae4e7923716d8608b51d32d5023636adfe50ea", "text": "Strap hinge, 114, 115", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B01195", "bookId": 21531, "start": 219651, "end": 219684, "sha256": "f5fb5f49b3c5b74023254e043f4854d980ac3c79c9e40053bd306728abc3a3ff", "text": "Straps for scarf joints, 107, 108", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B01196", "bookId": 21531, "start": 219703, "end": 219719, "sha256": "3c49d0ff3616fb927ea95c0e10403b721e91f76335fca89480fc022ab6d9a2df", "text": "Stump tenons, 65", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B01197", "bookId": 21531, "start": 219740, "end": 219764, "sha256": "a26d7de55b358180b8ed88461c9f084b0f8393264f842378340794f59260a8cc", "text": "T joints, halved, 14, 18", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B01198", "bookId": 21531, "start": 219783, "end": 219812, "sha256": "2365eb95b86d90689b561c9a6f7d3196f8f0853171a04eb29917620b1d4d527b", "text": "Table (card) hinges, 115, 116", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B01199", "bookId": 21531, "start": 219831, "end": 219863, "sha256": "4f895bcfe34bd09b97c32b1124e6854afa2da176e72a752feccd01be43ce09c9", "text": "Table frame, laminated, 174, 175", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B01200", "bookId": 21531, "start": 219882, "end": 219899, "sha256": "41bb1d640e9d36bd1cc991c06a8addd5a331590f7ce06e1dea83132003e66210", "text": "Table framing, 79", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B01201", "bookId": 21531, "start": 219918, "end": 219939, "sha256": "b4dad36e1adf657bafdb9098ab44b4cb31969252b18e5d5947dba86b51b0d9aa", "text": "Table joint, drop, 20", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B01202", "bookId": 21531, "start": 219958, "end": 219989, "sha256": "cd5b966b2b29652725ca9b14811ec82e4ec33f8bde3058a89fd40d83717fad7f", "text": "Table leg with bridle joint, 36", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B01203", "bookId": 21531, "start": 220008, "end": 220033, "sha256": "eeb60549bff546b37e800d3b49a97c90a26003470758793f7669ddf036897d68", "text": "Table legs, dowelled, 101", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B01204", "bookId": 21531, "start": 220052, "end": 220076, "sha256": "e1655901cf252f99009487d784595e59fa79ba17109f7915154ae1e4c066ffba", "text": "Table tops buttoned, 184", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B01205", "bookId": 21531, "start": 220095, "end": 220133, "sha256": "4041a1947de19a1386ebb3afa457a67d19a0034acfabeb23eddc39a26e2eb37b", "text": "Table with circular rim, joint for, 25", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B01206", "bookId": 21531, "start": 220152, "end": 220175, "sha256": "18446b8b62b8f09ac16200045337d789f4f174408eddc57a63761f259699ccbb", "text": "Tabled scarf joint, 107", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B01207", "bookId": 21531, "start": 220194, "end": 220228, "sha256": "145c3cf0324e45244dd8a056defc0d108aa265899a240887eb611c0824424bd7", "text": "Template, dovetail angle, 134, 154", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B01208", "bookId": 21531, "start": 220247, "end": 220273, "sha256": "5ae3f78801c32d17de2bbe371a849236bc1aec915db8a9adcfc16b26760b5bd8", "text": "Template for mitreing, 170", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B01209", "bookId": 21531, "start": 220292, "end": 220322, "sha256": "2d8d6989ba8f8bff8b7351610d0e6d58fc2173bf6b83a9c5284c3f3330011213", "text": "Tenon (and mortise) joints, 64", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; 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no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B01228", "bookId": 21531, "start": 221230, "end": 221254, "sha256": "79dc467b8801a8b44163e321ad544a76f8475efc3da08f9748ec6e2593dcdf6c", "text": "Through dovetailing, 132", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B01229", "bookId": 21531, "start": 221273, "end": 221304, "sha256": "a4ca80b4d30945e7e9ff94e2794ba1a7afdf3f5e08fd51219464755d1a919c71", "text": "Tie beam and rafter joints, 182", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B01230", "bookId": 21531, "start": 221323, "end": 221348, "sha256": "3bfdb1a8e6ec656c3563ac87b9e0118f4826178d1a14fd7a66cfd7df4cc31109", "text": "Tie beam scarf joint, 106", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; 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no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B01240", "bookId": 21531, "start": 221809, "end": 221833, "sha256": "1cedd42e705c9a0aca2accdd337f53b1527083da435a8ac072e037a82a84abc1", "text": "Toothing plane, 161, 162", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B01241", "bookId": 21531, "start": 221852, "end": 221869, "sha256": "359b440441b9ef1284ad0c6f649cbf30803af4ad0811f3d3001ce73efe7f8988", "text": "Trestle joint, 24", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B01242", "bookId": 21531, "start": 221888, "end": 221905, "sha256": "9e2466835173c2b9671010ac63af5c8688fe672ca064b1b00cd7ad2cd5589ba7", "text": "Try square, 9, 28", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B01243", "bookId": 21531, "start": 221924, "end": 221949, "sha256": "719fd354ec19766ef1937b0a4f013926d4d14ae3956dd2474649e2986c46a2c9", "text": "Tusk tenon joints, 74, 75", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B01244", "bookId": 21531, "start": 221968, "end": 221991, "sha256": "dfe2eb18bef355b97f1a7b8eff15054e3221d5213776a061c8462b38c1ba4679", "text": "Twin tenons, 72, 73, 80", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B01245", "bookId": 21531, "start": 222010, "end": 222023, "sha256": "3fd37b0067e8e9902fb347c7a089dad0a50252f293badcf4ce61b5df81de12d7", "text": "Twist bit, 96", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B01246", "bookId": 21531, "start": 222044, "end": 222071, "sha256": "a11c2c53f26bc98042cf854c5475e5ea2b5d783125938aecd84b98934dd00e47", "text": "Vee'd matchboarding, 49, 50", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B01247", "bookId": 21531, "start": 222090, "end": 222112, "sha256": "ff496b8b207fb796f24463eca704098c1424a1186ecd1b6125ae34aa4bac435a", "text": "Vee'd scarf joint, 105", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B01248", "bookId": 21531, "start": 222131, "end": 222149, "sha256": "bba45cdfd398d7a0d210d99c47ca46857c2d72f2909fb331bddc870ceae2aa7c", "text": "Veneer keying, 178", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B01249", "bookId": 21531, "start": 222170, "end": 222185, "sha256": "297d5e59ce72ef110130c7d85cff5677da6f06fb30b5720f707fa551866fd38d", "text": "Wall plugs, 186", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B01250", "bookId": 21531, "start": 222204, "end": 222222, "sha256": "497f30446456c0cd9640eb1b865af5d699bfbf02c357c758f17afc024c9f6829", "text": "Weatherboards, 176", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B01251", "bookId": 21531, "start": 222241, "end": 222268, "sha256": "1feb240e18bb53779ca2bb819c0f0ae2edc9813fb501894b2d6c95fbb45f87af", "text": "Wedges for tenon joints, 67", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B01252", "bookId": 21531, "start": 222287, "end": 222303, "sha256": "146a8de3f6e1f2588abcb3ec25867979413e28290d101c095200642b6a421d11", "text": "Wedging, fox, 76", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B01253", "bookId": 21531, "start": 222322, "end": 222341, "sha256": "380875ec82f14b5b4fe7ec2752394df78e60872a7a6f08f7b62169572494713f", "text": "Wedging frames, 184", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B01254", "bookId": 21531, "start": 222360, "end": 222384, "sha256": "c2152f8c53f949e1d2c9d91bb95a478222d23c2f74202db89028f438dee315f9", "text": "Wheel joints, barrow, 20", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B01255", "bookId": 21531, "start": 222403, "end": 222422, "sha256": "7146435a2363aced227af6454f76bfadaf4dc363101962de5e66273484d1af21", "text": "Wheel, sprocket, 68", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B01256", "bookId": 21531, "start": 222441, "end": 222483, "sha256": "43c9e9f7f3f1b2630e23e9990846feee422110b2a94b9873ff95931dcbdf4ac2", "text": "Wheelwright's self-wedging tenon joint, 75", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B01257", "bookId": 21531, "start": 222502, "end": 222518, "sha256": "022312601d2c2983e453872adcb5471d7164ac7a316d91b1a0174446475391ed", "text": "Winding laths, 3", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B01258", "bookId": 21531, "start": 222539, "end": 222633, "sha256": "337f56f17bcfac98f0a690a38da5a2aa8d120e2f945bb0b16c388a21156f1ea8", "text": "PRINTED IN GREAT BRITAIN BY THE WHITEFRIARS PRESS, LTD., LONDON AND TONBRIDGE.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B01259", "bookId": 21531, "start": 222665, "end": 222686, "sha256": "ff248c764f62a906cc59fea6fd0bf1a4302be825424b73c27f5df462646124cc", "text": "THE WOODWORKER SERIES", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B01260", "bookId": 21531, "start": 222694, "end": 222803, "sha256": "39dec04fff395ac1e6e3d904decb3bf1b9dcdf2a099123830a51a0a94d1af05a", "text": "WOODWORK JOINTS: HOW MADE AND WHERE USED (_Revised Edition_). With 400 Illustrations and Index. 3/6 net.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B01261", "bookId": 21531, "start": 222811, "end": 222916, "sha256": "87d58de3e23846786baaa034ad9e14df34f64e272931b254907cfdd9de87d00e", "text": "CABINET CONSTRUCTION (_Revised Edition_). With 25 Plates, over 300 Illustrations and Index. 3/6 net.", "sourceFile": "source.txt", "sourceType": "retained-layout-block", "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes", "headingCandidate": true }, { "ref": "PG21531.B01262", "bookId": 21531, "start": 222924, "end": 223001, "sha256": "5980befa4677f30cf417b105e1d7ccefdea70a451189f94fdeed8b9c86566c7c", "text": "CARPENTRY FOR BEGINNERS. 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The principal features include practical directions, illustrated by working drawings, for the construction of plain and ornamental furniture and all kinds of indoor and outdoor woodwork. 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Herschel distinguishes abstract from natural science, treats precise symbols as training against equivocation, and offers verified predictions as accessible warrant for readers unable to reproduce mathematical demonstrations, with navigation as the major example.", "observations": [ { "refs": [ "PG54897.B00074", "PG54897.B00075" ], "finding": "Scientific significance belongs to an explanatory principle and need not follow the spectacle or scale of its instance.", "disposition": "compare baseline" }, { "refs": [ "PG54897.B00081", "PG54897.B00082" ], "finding": "Iron carries different partial meanings for smith, chemist and poet; a word can shift sense unnoticed inside otherwise apparently valid reasoning.", "disposition": "application: equivocation and partial concepts" }, { "refs": [ "PG54897.B00083", "PG54897.B00085", "PG54897.B00086", "PG54897.B00087" ], "finding": "Auditing every mathematical link differs from gaining justified confidence through precise verified predictions; the naval story also links demonstrated expertise to command authority.", "disposition": "candidate: routes of evidential access; preserve authority framing" } ] }, { "packet": 3, "path": "inspection/packets/pg54897/003.txt", "firstRef": "PG54897.B00088", "lastRef": "PG54897.B00113", "refs": [ "PG54897.B00088", "PG54897.B00089", "PG54897.B00090", "PG54897.B00091", "PG54897.B00092", "PG54897.B00093", "PG54897.B00094", "PG54897.B00095", "PG54897.B00096", "PG54897.B00097", "PG54897.B00098", "PG54897.B00099", "PG54897.B00100", "PG54897.B00101", "PG54897.B00102", "PG54897.B00103", "PG54897.B00104", "PG54897.B00105", "PG54897.B00106", "PG54897.B00107", "PG54897.B00108", "PG54897.B00109", "PG54897.B00110", "PG54897.B00111", "PG54897.B00112", "PG54897.B00113" ], "bytes": 26791, "sha256": "340cc9c2c86d131c1e551465a33499b00940bf622ecb9a8dc4ce0de5b024aa59", "synopsis": "Fresnel’s successful corrections of accepted optical measurements exemplify theoretical prediction beyond analogy. Laws cover unrealized contingencies, their permanence remains experiential, and useful knowledge distinguishes impossible ends from defective means. The account combines methodological fallibilism with confident natural theology.", "observations": [ { "refs": [ "PG54897.B00088", "PG54897.B00089", "PG54897.B00090" ], "finding": "A theory can expose an overgeneralized empirical rule and prompt improved measurements; surprising confirmed predictions are stronger than merely accommodating familiar results.", "disposition": "compare baseline" }, { "refs": [ "PG54897.B00097", "PG54897.B00098", "PG54897.B00100" ], "finding": "Natural law extends conditionally to combinations never actualized; talk of obedience is qualified because matter has no understanding or will.", "disposition": "candidate: law as unrealized contingency provision" }, { "refs": [ "PG54897.B00099", "PG54897.B00103", "PG54897.B00104" ], "finding": "Atom uniformity is taken as evidence of manufactured origin, yet immutable laws are expressly an empirical question; assertion that learned truths never need unlearning should not erase this tension.", "disposition": "preserve attributed metaphysics" }, { "refs": [ "PG54897.B00107", "PG54897.B00108", "PG54897.B00109", "PG54897.B00110", "PG54897.B00112", "PG54897.B00113" ], "finding": "Scientific knowledge can rule out ends, correct means, improve efficiency, or reveal previously unconceived possibilities. Coal speculation and steam injection illustrate different failures.", "disposition": "candidate: distinct practical services of knowledge" } ] }, { "packet": 4, "path": "inspection/packets/pg54897/004.txt", "firstRef": "PG54897.B00114", "lastRef": "PG54897.B00134", "refs": [ "PG54897.B00114", "PG54897.B00115", "PG54897.B00116", "PG54897.B00117", "PG54897.B00118", "PG54897.B00119", "PG54897.B00120", "PG54897.B00121", "PG54897.B00122", "PG54897.B00123", "PG54897.B00124", "PG54897.B00125", "PG54897.B00126", "PG54897.B00127", "PG54897.B00128", "PG54897.B00129", "PG54897.B00130", "PG54897.B00131", "PG54897.B00132", "PG54897.B00133", "PG54897.B00134" ], "bytes": 25279, "sha256": "ebbe2f371e7e4534b13c6a9ac60bd831d60f538e15a187c79872d8e930bce3ec", "synopsis": "Practical examples range from fatal pressure miscalculation and economical quarrying to industrial observations stimulating chemical and medical discoveries. Insurance uses aggregate mortality despite individual uncertainty; coal, wind and controlled gases exemplify mechanical power, while application requires arrangement as well as energy.", "observations": [ { "refs": [ "PG54897.B00114", "PG54897.B00115", "PG54897.B00116", "PG54897.B00117" ], "finding": "Feasible goals require adequate environmental models; natural forces can replace labor or accelerate slow processes. Historical anecdotes are authorial reports, not independently checked.", "disposition": "applications; scope" }, { "refs": [ "PG54897.B00119", "PG54897.B00120", "PG54897.B00121", "PG54897.B00122" ], "finding": "The iodine narrative traces a round trip from workshop anomaly through general science to an unforeseen application; medical and occupational causal claims remain historical.", "disposition": "candidate: reciprocal discovery between practice and science" }, { "refs": [ "PG54897.B00123" ], "finding": "Aggregate regularity supports pooling unpredictable individual risks; competitive underpricing can turn the protective institution into the gambling danger it was intended to prevent.", "disposition": "candidate: safeguard reversed by competition" }, { "refs": [ "PG54897.B00125", "PG54897.B00130", "PG54897.B00131", "PG54897.B00133", "PG54897.B00134" ], "finding": "Available power differs from effective harnessed work; fierce force may lack useful control, while intermittent wind becomes useful through cumulative operation and sizing.", "disposition": "compare baseline" } ] }, { "packet": 5, "path": "inspection/packets/pg54897/005.txt", "firstRef": "PG54897.B00135", "lastRef": "PG54897.B00151", "refs": [ "PG54897.B00135", "PG54897.B00136", "PG54897.B00137", "PG54897.B00138", "PG54897.B00139", "PG54897.B00140", "PG54897.B00141", "PG54897.B00142", "PG54897.B00143", "PG54897.B00144", "PG54897.B00145", "PG54897.B00146", "PG54897.B00147", "PG54897.B00148", "PG54897.B00149", "PG54897.B00150", "PG54897.B00151" ], "bytes": 26800, "sha256": "6cf3eb427b769a0ac8c9cfae8a9b1c65f0a3a612e17b50f4aa1b5a04d6bcb620", "synopsis": "Science’s benefits are defended through a hierarchical account of civilization and diffusion, then knowledge sharing is linked to correction by many minds. Method shifts to experience, active versus passive observation, and suspension of prejudice; a demand to clear prejudice is qualified as revisable retention rather than instant disbelief.", "observations": [ { "refs": [ "PG54897.B00136", "PG54897.B00137", "PG54897.B00138", "PG54897.B00141" ], "finding": "The argument for progress relies on civilizational rankings, increasing average comfort and expanding elite advantages; political experimentation is an aspiration, not a verified guarantee.", "disposition": "preserve hierarchy and limit extrapolation" }, { "refs": [ "PG54897.B00139", "PG54897.B00140" ], "finding": "Knowledge grows through many users correcting and reshaping it; intelligible publication of processes enables this, while unnecessary technical obscurity preserves exclusivity.", "disposition": "candidate: public use as epistemic development" }, { "refs": [ "PG54897.B00146", "PG54897.B00147" ], "finding": "Mathematical entailment differs from contingent physical fact; experiments permit immediate adaptive questioning whereas passive observation can lose irreplaceable opportunities.", "disposition": "compare baseline" }, { "refs": [ "PG54897.B00148", "PG54897.B00150", "PG54897.B00151" ], "finding": "Opinion prejudice can be challenged by refuting alleged facts or explaining appearances without it; the practical demand is willingness to doubt and revise, not immediate abandonment of all opinions.", "disposition": "application: revisability" } ] }, { "packet": 6, "path": "inspection/packets/pg54897/006.txt", "firstRef": "PG54897.B00152", "lastRef": "PG54897.B00171", "refs": [ "PG54897.B00152", "PG54897.B00153", "PG54897.B00154", "PG54897.B00155", "PG54897.B00156", "PG54897.B00157", "PG54897.B00158", "PG54897.B00159", "PG54897.B00160", "PG54897.B00161", "PG54897.B00162", "PG54897.B00163", "PG54897.B00164", "PG54897.B00165", "PG54897.B00166", "PG54897.B00167", "PG54897.B00168", "PG54897.B00169", "PG54897.B00170", "PG54897.B00171" ], "bytes": 24900, "sha256": "578566c8facb9ed77977b75cb6add97ca958cc273bbb049eeb880db79029334f", "synopsis": "Sensory impressions are distinguished from judgments formed through habit and circumstance. Analysis resolves phenomena into simpler processes while treating ultimate facts as provisional stopping points. Such stopping points organize sciences, and shared components may unite previously separate fields.", "observations": [ { "refs": [ "PG54897.B00152", "PG54897.B00153", "PG54897.B00154", "PG54897.B00155", "PG54897.B00156" ], "finding": "Counterevidence from sensation corrects interpretation rather than repudiating sensation; expert recognition reads familiar signals differently from a novice.", "disposition": "compare baseline" }, { "refs": [ "PG54897.B00159", "PG54897.B00160", "PG54897.B00161", "PG54897.B00165" ], "finding": "Direct agency does not furnish transparent knowledge of its mechanism; chemical tasting and nerve division are historical examples, not practical recommendations.", "disposition": "source limits" }, { "refs": [ "PG54897.B00162", "PG54897.B00163", "PG54897.B00166", "PG54897.B00167" ], "finding": "Elementary status means analysis has stopped for now; recognizing that a phenomenon is composite need not supply a means of decomposing it.", "disposition": "candidate: provisional element; candidate: complexity before decomposition" }, { "refs": [ "PG54897.B00168", "PG54897.B00169", "PG54897.B00170", "PG54897.B00171" ], "finding": "Disciplines form around unresolved recurrent phenomena, and their relations change when common more elementary processes are found. The privileged standing of mechanics is Herschel’s framework.", "disposition": "candidate: analysis-dependent disciplinary boundaries" } ] }, { "packet": 7, "path": "inspection/packets/pg54897/007.txt", "firstRef": "PG54897.B00172", "lastRef": "PG54897.B00191", "refs": [ "PG54897.B00172", "PG54897.B00173", "PG54897.B00174", "PG54897.B00175", "PG54897.B00176", "PG54897.B00177", "PG54897.B00178", "PG54897.B00179", "PG54897.B00180", "PG54897.B00181", "PG54897.B00182", "PG54897.B00183", "PG54897.B00184", "PG54897.B00185", "PG54897.B00186", "PG54897.B00187", "PG54897.B00188", "PG54897.B00189", "PG54897.B00190", "PG54897.B00191" ], "bytes": 26447, "sha256": "89891e7578152ea4ffbb0f33119e69e154864049bb40e454ae22725db273fab7", "synopsis": "Induction abstracts shared features, compares overlapping classes, and ascends from facts to more general laws before deduction yields new particulars. A polemical history contrasts Greek verbal systems and scholastic authority with experiment, while qualifying criticism of Aristotle and distinguishing Bacon’s methodological advocacy from discovering induction itself.", "observations": [ { "refs": [ "PG54897.B00172", "PG54897.B00173", "PG54897.B00174", "PG54897.B00175" ], "finding": "The converse of a broad optical generalization need not hold; finding the correct shared property repairs the proposed law’s domain.", "disposition": "application: directional association and domain correction" }, { "refs": [ "PG54897.B00176", "PG54897.B00177", "PG54897.B00178", "PG54897.B00179" ], "finding": "Comparing independently established classes for identity or inclusion differs from searching individuals for another shared property; mature classification makes induction distributable across workers.", "disposition": "candidate: class-comparison induction" }, { "refs": [ "PG54897.B00183", "PG54897.B00184", "PG54897.B00185", "PG54897.B00187", "PG54897.B00188" ], "finding": "Historical caricatures and national generalizations are tempered by Aristotle’s observational achievement; claiming the limit of explanation is already reached exemplifies dogmatism.", "disposition": "preserve history as attributed" }, { "refs": [ "PG54897.B00189", "PG54897.B00190", "PG54897.B00191" ], "finding": "Bacon’s contribution is presented as public articulation and prioritization of a method already practiced, not original invention of every instance.", "disposition": "candidate: methodological articulation distinct from first use" } ] }, { "packet": 8, "path": "inspection/packets/pg54897/008.txt", "firstRef": "PG54897.B00192", "lastRef": "PG54897.B00215", "refs": [ "PG54897.B00192", "PG54897.B00193", "PG54897.B00194", "PG54897.B00195", "PG54897.B00196", "PG54897.B00197", "PG54897.B00198", "PG54897.B00199", "PG54897.B00200", "PG54897.B00201", "PG54897.B00202", "PG54897.B00203", "PG54897.B00204", "PG54897.B00205", "PG54897.B00206", "PG54897.B00207", "PG54897.B00208", "PG54897.B00209", "PG54897.B00210", "PG54897.B00211", "PG54897.B00212", "PG54897.B00213", "PG54897.B00214", "PG54897.B00215" ], "bytes": 26524, "sha256": "152b396288841d917c27446eb2e6b52529dac77a7cb04a483dfe801fa59723fe", "synopsis": "Observation requires varied instances, reproducibility, circumstantial and faithful recording, prompt memory checks, quantitative instruments and transmissible standards. Error must remain within reasoning rather than disappear in generalization. Theory can contaminate records yet broad knowledge also enables recognition of anomalies.", "observations": [ { "refs": [ "PG54897.B00197", "PG54897.B00198", "PG54897.B00199", "PG54897.B00200", "PG54897.B00202" ], "finding": "Unknown relevance warrants recording circumstances broadly; a transient event demands early reconstruction and checks against surviving indications. The text’s strict repeatability rule is not silently expanded to all modern science.", "disposition": "compare baseline; scope" }, { "refs": [ "PG54897.B00203", "PG54897.B00204", "PG54897.B00205", "PG54897.B00206" ], "finding": "Instruments turn uncertain sensory magnitudes into counts of reproducible units, supporting quantitative law rather than a merely directional statement.", "disposition": "candidate: measurement as unit counting" }, { "refs": [ "PG54897.B00207", "PG54897.B00208", "PG54897.B00209", "PG54897.B00210", "PG54897.B00211" ], "finding": "Recorded measurements are only half transmitted unless the actual units used survive; verification of one standard depends on comparators that themselves require verification.", "disposition": "candidate: intergenerational unit continuity" }, { "refs": [ "PG54897.B00212", "PG54897.B00213", "PG54897.B00214", "PG54897.B00215" ], "finding": "Conclusions remain conditional on observational error; theoretical vocabulary can insert unobserved entities, while theoretical acquaintance makes discordant facts noticeable.", "disposition": "candidate: theory’s dual role in observing" } ] }, { "packet": 9, "path": "inspection/packets/pg54897/009.txt", "firstRef": "PG54897.B00216", "lastRef": "PG54897.B00237", "refs": [ "PG54897.B00216", "PG54897.B00217", "PG54897.B00218", "PG54897.B00219", "PG54897.B00220", "PG54897.B00221", "PG54897.B00222", "PG54897.B00223", "PG54897.B00224", "PG54897.B00225", "PG54897.B00226", "PG54897.B00227", "PG54897.B00228", "PG54897.B00229", "PG54897.B00230", "PG54897.B00231", "PG54897.B00232", "PG54897.B00233", "PG54897.B00234", "PG54897.B00235", "PG54897.B00236", "PG54897.B00237" ], "bytes": 26531, "sha256": "7a4ff8b6c5082c824d72fadec4d948678ae9cb491bd3fe0bc439a8f045398af9", "synopsis": "Distributed observation is organized through forms and central collection. Names gather knowledge, but changing artificial classifications can make rigid nomenclature destructive. Crosscutting classes, opposition versus low intensity, and natural families are distinguished before real causes are assessed for existence, kind, direction and adequacy.", "observations": [ { "refs": [ "PG54897.B00216", "PG54897.B00219", "PG54897.B00220" ], "finding": "Short definite questions, numbers, attendant circumstances and a common receiving center coordinate distributed inquiry; a name supplies a stable head where information accumulates.", "disposition": "candidate: coordinated observation form; compare naming baseline" }, { "refs": [ "PG54897.B00221", "PG54897.B00222", "PG54897.B00223", "PG54897.B00224" ], "finding": "One object belongs to many intersecting classes; a stable arbitrary name can be preferable to a meaningful name whose imposed classification keeps changing.", "disposition": "candidate: referential stability versus classification encoding" }, { "refs": [ "PG54897.B00225", "PG54897.B00226" ], "finding": "Absence or a near-zero degree differs from active opposition; a class sharing one feature raises different questions from a natural family sharing many.", "disposition": "candidate: privation versus opposition; compare baseline" }, { "refs": [ "PG54897.B00230", "PG54897.B00231", "PG54897.B00232", "PG54897.B00233" ], "finding": "Real existence, demonstrated power to produce that kind of effect, relevant direction, and sufficient extent are distinct conditions of causal explanation.", "disposition": "candidate: cause qualification stages" }, { "refs": [ "PG54897.B00234", "PG54897.B00235", "PG54897.B00236" ], "finding": "Analogy can suggest hidden forces; a crucial experiment separates equally plausible causes by deliberately including or excluding them.", "disposition": "compare baseline" } ] }, { "packet": 10, "path": "inspection/packets/pg54897/010.txt", "firstRef": "PG54897.B00238", "lastRef": "PG54897.B00272", "refs": [ "PG54897.B00238", "PG54897.B00239", "PG54897.B00240", "PG54897.B00241", "PG54897.B00242", "PG54897.B00243", "PG54897.B00244", "PG54897.B00245", "PG54897.B00246", "PG54897.B00247", "PG54897.B00248", "PG54897.B00249", "PG54897.B00250", "PG54897.B00251", "PG54897.B00252", "PG54897.B00253", "PG54897.B00254", "PG54897.B00255", "PG54897.B00256", "PG54897.B00257", "PG54897.B00258", "PG54897.B00259", "PG54897.B00260", "PG54897.B00261", "PG54897.B00262", "PG54897.B00263", "PG54897.B00264", "PG54897.B00265", "PG54897.B00266", "PG54897.B00267", "PG54897.B00268", "PG54897.B00269", "PG54897.B00270", "PG54897.B00271", "PG54897.B00272" ], "bytes": 26221, "sha256": "4f49f95fab11a194fae1a5948128a6188b04c53eea6302f709ca45da425cef18", "synopsis": "Causal rules distinguish cooccurrence, alternatives, graded variation and opposition. Controlled comparisons and indirect interventions have different evidential force; subtracting known effects exposes residual phenomena. Wells’s dew analysis combines material, surface, texture and sky conditions, followed by explicit verification of both noticed and neglected instances.", "observations": [ { "refs": [ "PG54897.B00238", "PG54897.B00239", "PG54897.B00243", "PG54897.B00244", "PG54897.B00245" ], "finding": "Temporal order may be hidden by gradual or rapid processes; association admits common cause and alternative production. Herschel’s confidence in a unique common feature should be kept as his rule.", "disposition": "compare baseline; qualification" }, { "refs": [ "PG54897.B00251", "PG54897.B00252", "PG54897.B00253", "PG54897.B00254" ], "finding": "A counteracting influence can conceal a cause; an indirect manipulation can also act on other circumstances and therefore cannot inherit the certainty of a single-factor comparison. The ammonia example reveals risk of dismissing an exception.", "disposition": "candidate: indirect-intervention ambiguity; preserve failed-looking example" }, { "refs": [ "PG54897.B00255", "PG54897.B00256", "PG54897.B00257", "PG54897.B00258", "PG54897.B00271", "PG54897.B00272" ], "finding": "Quantitatively removing known effects reveals residuals too small or concealed for unassisted observation; the proposed ether explanations remain historically attributed.", "disposition": "candidate: residual phenomena" }, { "refs": [ "PG54897.B00260", "PG54897.B00261", "PG54897.B00262", "PG54897.B00263", "PG54897.B00264", "PG54897.B00266" ], "finding": "Dew inquiry moves through analogy, tests causal direction, separates surface from substance, and composes heat loss with replenishment and condensation.", "disposition": "whole-book worked example" }, { "refs": [ "PG54897.B00267", "PG54897.B00268", "PG54897.B00269", "PG54897.B00270" ], "finding": "Discovery can leap from few cases, but subsequent review must examine collected cases one by one and distinguish novel law verification from exact application of an established cause.", "disposition": "candidate: discovery freedom with verification discipline" } ] }, { "packet": 11, "path": "inspection/packets/pg54897/011.txt", "firstRef": "PG54897.B00273", "lastRef": "PG54897.B00288", "refs": [ "PG54897.B00273", "PG54897.B00274", "PG54897.B00275", "PG54897.B00276", "PG54897.B00277", "PG54897.B00278", "PG54897.B00279", "PG54897.B00280", "PG54897.B00281", "PG54897.B00282", "PG54897.B00283", "PG54897.B00284", "PG54897.B00285", "PG54897.B00286", "PG54897.B00287", "PG54897.B00288" ], "bytes": 26758, "sha256": "4d7c4f32a0c7c94f01bc8e9478ae877a9c03eb9d0d66e14986439f216741eb2d", "synopsis": "Verification deliberately seeks hostile, extreme and unexpected cases, amplifying small deviations by repeated cycles. Empirical equations require domain and error scrutiny. Established mechanics still needs observation for missing data and intractable equations; discovery may begin from salient accidents before a taxonomy of instances can be applied.", "observations": [ { "refs": [ "PG54897.B00273", "PG54897.B00274", "PG54897.B00275", "PG54897.B00276" ], "finding": "Adversarial extension tests universality; repeated identical cycles can accumulate deviations below the precision of single-trial timing.", "disposition": "candidate: deviation accumulation test" }, { "refs": [ "PG54897.B00277", "PG54897.B00278", "PG54897.B00279", "PG54897.B00280", "PG54897.B00281" ], "finding": "Unexpected cross-field confirmation and repaired anomalies extend confidence, while the psychological impressiveness of a scale jump can exceed its actual evidential weight.", "disposition": "candidate: scale surprise versus evidence" }, { "refs": [ "PG54897.B00282", "PG54897.B00283", "PG54897.B00284" ], "finding": "A measured formula’s fit within a range does not warrant extrapolation to all magnitudes; extreme cases and rapidly varying regions require special attention.", "disposition": "application: empirical-law domain" }, { "refs": [ "PG54897.B00285", "PG54897.B00286" ], "finding": "Knowing governing laws and writing equations does not make their solution tractable or supply application data; experiment remains useful inside theoretically understood fields.", "disposition": "candidate: governing-law knowledge versus solvability" }, { "refs": [ "PG54897.B00287", "PG54897.B00288" ], "finding": "Privileged instances can guide discovery but cannot always be recognized before understanding them; accidental crystal fracture illustrates insight preceding classification.", "disposition": "candidate: retrospective instance salience" } ] }, { "packet": 12, "path": "inspection/packets/pg54897/012.txt", "firstRef": "PG54897.B00289", "lastRef": "PG54897.B00311", "refs": [ "PG54897.B00289", "PG54897.B00290", "PG54897.B00291", "PG54897.B00292", "PG54897.B00293", "PG54897.B00294", "PG54897.B00295", "PG54897.B00296", "PG54897.B00297", "PG54897.B00298", "PG54897.B00299", "PG54897.B00300", "PG54897.B00301", "PG54897.B00302", "PG54897.B00303", "PG54897.B00304", "PG54897.B00305", "PG54897.B00306", "PG54897.B00307", "PG54897.B00308", "PG54897.B00309", "PG54897.B00310", "PG54897.B00311" ], "bytes": 26882, "sha256": "32b28d7d7ef12d5299f90145a7da7f34642bcbe545e01e47b6a0eac8d785ba10", "synopsis": "Bacon’s instance taxonomy is criticized as often retrospective, though visible collections can reveal a law at once. Higher theory explains hidden mechanisms through warranted hypotheses; useful structural knowledge can survive ignorance of ultimate power. Three routes to laws culminate in fitting a general mathematical family to cases.", "observations": [ { "refs": [ "PG54897.B00289", "PG54897.B00290", "PG54897.B00291", "PG54897.B00292" ], "finding": "A collection simultaneously displayed can make relations inspectable in one view, unlike reconstructing them serially from an embedded vantage point; the force of an instance precedes its taxonomic label.", "disposition": "candidate: collective instance as visible induction" }, { "refs": [ "PG54897.B00293", "PG54897.B00294", "PG54897.B00295", "PG54897.B00296", "PG54897.B00297" ], "finding": "Rival theories may coincide across many results and separate on one discriminating case; continuity examples distinguish low degree from contrary property.", "disposition": "compare baseline" }, { "refs": [ "PG54897.B00300", "PG54897.B00301", "PG54897.B00302", "PG54897.B00303" ], "finding": "Higher laws become objects of inquiry; both very small structure and very slow large-scale motion evade direct perception. Master/slave rhetoric belongs to the historical presentation.", "disposition": "whole-book structure and limits" }, { "refs": [ "PG54897.B00304", "PG54897.B00305", "PG54897.B00306", "PG54897.B00307" ], "finding": "Understanding transfers inside a machine does not require knowing the origin of its power; a successful hypothesis may share an expression with reality without literally depicting its mechanism.", "disposition": "candidate: mechanism competence without ultimate cause; candidate: shared expression warrant" }, { "refs": [ "PG54897.B00308", "PG54897.B00309", "PG54897.B00310", "PG54897.B00311" ], "finding": "Laws can be induced, boldly hypothesized, or sought by progressively constraining a broad mathematical family against observed cases.", "disposition": "candidate: general family constrained by cases" } ] }, { "packet": 13, "path": "inspection/packets/pg54897/013.txt", "firstRef": "PG54897.B00312", "lastRef": "PG54897.B00327", "refs": [ "PG54897.B00312", "PG54897.B00313", "PG54897.B00314", "PG54897.B00315", "PG54897.B00316", "PG54897.B00317", "PG54897.B00318", "PG54897.B00319", "PG54897.B00320", "PG54897.B00321", "PG54897.B00322", "PG54897.B00323", "PG54897.B00324", "PG54897.B00325", "PG54897.B00326", "PG54897.B00327" ], "bytes": 26375, "sha256": "e734715ed1cbb9b61566b08e6c429e241e94fa4cafbf3d66edf39336610db478", "synopsis": "Applying a universal law discloses interactions absent from its initial induction. Mechanistic hypotheses may be complex and useful yet remain disposable scaffolds. Full verification requires diverse particulars, independently determined application data and precision-aware comparison; sensitive configurations and repeated observations improve parameter estimates.", "observations": [ { "refs": [ "PG54897.B00312", "PG54897.B00313", "PG54897.B00314", "PG54897.B00315" ], "finding": "An apparent exception can become a necessary implication when all interacting bodies are included. Predictive utility does not establish a unique pictured mechanism; constructing and relinquishing hypotheses are complementary capacities.", "disposition": "candidate: hypothetical scaffolding; compare baseline" }, { "refs": [ "PG54897.B00316", "PG54897.B00317", "PG54897.B00318", "PG54897.B00319" ], "finding": "One numerical coincidence cannot verify a theory; selected varied cases test the whole inductive chain. The radiation-to-conduction continuity argument and optical mechanism claims are retained as historical.", "disposition": "application: multi-case verification; limit" }, { "refs": [ "PG54897.B00320", "PG54897.B00321", "PG54897.B00322", "PG54897.B00323" ], "finding": "Using observations to determine parameters is not circular if testing uses independently constrained data; a law and its particular data play separate roles in prediction.", "disposition": "candidate: independent calibration and test" }, { "refs": [ "PG54897.B00324", "PG54897.B00325" ], "finding": "Configurations that amplify parameter error in predictions can inversely make observations especially precise for determining that parameter; sustained data gathering warrants institutional support.", "disposition": "candidate: inverse sensitivity for measurement" }, { "refs": [ "PG54897.B00326", "PG54897.B00327" ], "finding": "Averages suppress irregular variation and reveal smaller periodic signals, with an explicit caveat for persistent bias.", "disposition": "compare baseline" } ] }, { "packet": 14, "path": "inspection/packets/pg54897/014.txt", "firstRef": "PG54897.B00328", "lastRef": "PG54897.B00357", "refs": [ "PG54897.B00328", "PG54897.B00329", "PG54897.B00330", "PG54897.B00331", "PG54897.B00332", "PG54897.B00333", "PG54897.B00334", "PG54897.B00335", "PG54897.B00336", "PG54897.B00337", "PG54897.B00338", "PG54897.B00339", "PG54897.B00340", "PG54897.B00341", "PG54897.B00342", "PG54897.B00343", "PG54897.B00344", "PG54897.B00345", "PG54897.B00346", "PG54897.B00347", "PG54897.B00348", "PG54897.B00349", "PG54897.B00350", "PG54897.B00351", "PG54897.B00352", "PG54897.B00353", "PG54897.B00354", "PG54897.B00355", "PG54897.B00356", "PG54897.B00357" ], "bytes": 26453, "sha256": "e49d12197b81276937e7378aa3392d3e0f1a9026e048398fe0566a3d303e7bbf", "synopsis": "Probability weights observations of unequal quality. The survey of disciplines begins with natural history as both starting material and explanatory endpoint, then treats force, ideal solids and fluids, and pneumatic/hydrostatic discoveries. Abstract models apply only as far as real materials meet their limiting assumptions.", "observations": [ { "refs": [ "PG54897.B00328", "PG54897.B00329" ], "finding": "Equal averaging can undervalue better observations; estimation under uncertainty differs from finding an exact observed value.", "disposition": "application: weighted evidence" }, { "refs": [ "PG54897.B00330", "PG54897.B00335", "PG54897.B00340" ], "finding": "A unified method is presented through separate branches; natural history supplies evidence to derive causes and later phenomena to explain from them.", "disposition": "whole-book architecture" }, { "refs": [ "PG54897.B00341", "PG54897.B00342", "PG54897.B00343", "PG54897.B00344", "PG54897.B00345", "PG54897.B00346" ], "finding": "Perfect rigidity and incompressibility are limiting abstractions accepted when departures have no material influence; exceptional cases require estimating the neglected departure.", "disposition": "candidate: idealization by bounded practical error" }, { "refs": [ "PG54897.B00349", "PG54897.B00350", "PG54897.B00351", "PG54897.B00352", "PG54897.B00353" ], "finding": "Replacing water with mercury makes an experiment manageable; changing height discriminates atmospheric pressure from a vacuum-abhorence account. The discovery priority narrative remains attributed.", "disposition": "application: discriminating test" }, { "refs": [ "PG54897.B00355", "PG54897.B00356", "PG54897.B00357" ], "finding": "Counterbalanced weight is not lost weight; a general pressure law bypasses unknown particle detail and supports the hydraulic press application.", "disposition": "compare baseline" } ] }, { "packet": 15, "path": "inspection/packets/pg54897/015.txt", "firstRef": "PG54897.B00358", "lastRef": "PG54897.B00384", "refs": [ "PG54897.B00358", "PG54897.B00359", "PG54897.B00360", "PG54897.B00361", "PG54897.B00362", "PG54897.B00363", "PG54897.B00364", "PG54897.B00365", "PG54897.B00366", "PG54897.B00367", "PG54897.B00368", "PG54897.B00369", "PG54897.B00370", "PG54897.B00371", "PG54897.B00372", "PG54897.B00373", "PG54897.B00374", "PG54897.B00375", "PG54897.B00376", "PG54897.B00377", "PG54897.B00378", "PG54897.B00379", "PG54897.B00380", "PG54897.B00381", "PG54897.B00382", "PG54897.B00383", "PG54897.B00384" ], "bytes": 26328, "sha256": "f7cb26718ce14ee1a6b9c52d9f2d18de36bbe93b049b9b390d463a471553585c", "synopsis": "Hydrodynamic tractability, distinct mechanical properties and crystallographic order extend the science survey. Crystal laws are separated from particulate hypotheses, directional elasticity and expansion reveal structure, and polarity is reserved as a provisional phenomenon. Sound’s transmitted vibration and optical history distinguish light from the act of vision.", "observations": [ { "refs": [ "PG54897.B00358", "PG54897.B00359", "PG54897.B00360", "PG54897.B00361", "PG54897.B00362" ], "finding": "Continuity among states is conjectural here; fluid equilibrium laws do not automatically settle rapid motion, and exact foundational equations may leave experiment preferable.", "disposition": "scope and application" }, { "refs": [ "PG54897.B00364", "PG54897.B00365", "PG54897.B00366", "PG54897.B00367" ], "finding": "Hardness, recovery from distortion, resistance to compression, toughness, malleability and tenacity describe different responses and should not be collapsed into strength.", "disposition": "candidate: response-specific material qualities" }, { "refs": [ "PG54897.B00369", "PG54897.B00370", "PG54897.B00371", "PG54897.B00372" ], "finding": "Crystalline forms can be modeled by layered units, but measured laws of forms do not depend on accepting atoms or a particular particle shape.", "disposition": "application: empirical law versus mechanism" }, { "refs": [ "PG54897.B00373", "PG54897.B00374", "PG54897.B00375", "PG54897.B00376" ], "finding": "A bulk property may conceal opposite directional changes; polarity is treated as a phenomenon to characterize before guessing its machinery.", "disposition": "candidate: directional structure masked by aggregate" }, { "refs": [ "PG54897.B00379", "PG54897.B00380", "PG54897.B00381", "PG54897.B00382", "PG54897.B00384" ], "finding": "Motion propagates through successive local displacement; sand makes vibration patterns visible. The optical discussion distinguishes light’s propagation from a perceiver’s vision.", "disposition": "compare baseline" } ] }, { "packet": 16, "path": "inspection/packets/pg54897/016.txt", "firstRef": "PG54897.B00385", "lastRef": "PG54897.B00409", "refs": [ "PG54897.B00385", "PG54897.B00386", "PG54897.B00387", "PG54897.B00388", "PG54897.B00389", "PG54897.B00390", "PG54897.B00391", "PG54897.B00392", "PG54897.B00393", "PG54897.B00394", "PG54897.B00395", "PG54897.B00396", "PG54897.B00397", "PG54897.B00398", "PG54897.B00399", "PG54897.B00400", "PG54897.B00401", "PG54897.B00402", "PG54897.B00403", "PG54897.B00404", "PG54897.B00405", "PG54897.B00406", "PG54897.B00407", "PG54897.B00408", "PG54897.B00409" ], "bytes": 26374, "sha256": "e3706b5751d75b83ea5b8196045757858da2a3cfbb1c885b55a582648edb3ba6", "synopsis": "Optical theories are compared through refraction, thin-film colors, diffraction and polarization. Hypothetical content can hide in neutral-looking law language. Interference and transverse vibration unite observations, while Herschel retains competing explanations and values organization beyond literal mechanism. Instrument invention and planetary viewpoint lead into astronomy.", "observations": [ { "refs": [ "PG54897.B00385", "PG54897.B00386", "PG54897.B00387", "PG54897.B00388", "PG54897.B00389" ], "finding": "Newton’s fits use general language but still embody a theoretical commitment; calling a formulation merely factual cannot make it immune to replacement by a rival explanation.", "disposition": "candidate: covert mechanism in descriptive language" }, { "refs": [ "PG54897.B00390", "PG54897.B00391", "PG54897.B00392", "PG54897.B00393", "PG54897.B00394", "PG54897.B00395" ], "finding": "Possibility conceived can precede practical invention; improved workmanship and alternate telescope design expand observation. Optical history is not independently verified.", "disposition": "compare baseline and scope" }, { "refs": [ "PG54897.B00397", "PG54897.B00399", "PG54897.B00400", "PG54897.B00401", "PG54897.B00402" ], "finding": "Analogy with sound leads to interference but requires changing longitudinal into transverse motion; useful unification remains valuable even if the mechanism hypothesis is replaced, and rivals are not declared impossible.", "disposition": "application: analogical modification; theory value" }, { "refs": [ "PG54897.B00403", "PG54897.B00408", "PG54897.B00409" ], "finding": "Optical responses probe hidden crystal structure; assuming separate celestial laws blocks terrestrial testing, while a section-like viewpoint hampers reconstruction of a plan.", "disposition": "candidate: geometry of access limits inference" } ] }, { "packet": 17, "path": "inspection/packets/pg54897/017.txt", "firstRef": "PG54897.B00410", "lastRef": "PG54897.B00431", "refs": [ "PG54897.B00410", "PG54897.B00411", "PG54897.B00412", "PG54897.B00413", "PG54897.B00414", "PG54897.B00415", "PG54897.B00416", "PG54897.B00417", "PG54897.B00418", "PG54897.B00419", "PG54897.B00420", "PG54897.B00421", "PG54897.B00422", "PG54897.B00423", "PG54897.B00424", "PG54897.B00425", "PG54897.B00426", "PG54897.B00427", "PG54897.B00428", "PG54897.B00429", "PG54897.B00430", "PG54897.B00431" ], "bytes": 26728, "sha256": "7ef94c5a376b1da7251d76d0713119db1615a4be4c079afa6d832c92aed20b8b", "synopsis": "Kepler’s relations gain significance through telescope confirmations and Newton’s dynamics; notation and mathematical accessibility shape later progress. Catalogues make slow changes discoverable across generations. Parallax estimates shrinking with instrumental errors motivate bounds rather than a positive detection. Geology narrows cosmic origins to interpretable material records.", "observations": [ { "refs": [ "PG54897.B00410", "PG54897.B00411", "PG54897.B00412", "PG54897.B00413" ], "finding": "An initially inconvenient law may later enable deep explanation; predictions accepted by both theorist and opponent become particularly discriminating when new instruments permit testing.", "disposition": "compare baseline" }, { "refs": [ "PG54897.B00414", "PG54897.B00415", "PG54897.B00416", "PG54897.B00417" ], "finding": "Newton’s heroic ranking and national priorities are explicit; attachment to an inaccessible representational form can prevent successors from extending a powerful method.", "disposition": "candidate: transferable method representation; preserve rhetoric" }, { "refs": [ "PG54897.B00418", "PG54897.B00419", "PG54897.B00420", "PG54897.B00421", "PG54897.B00424" ], "finding": "Long-term catalogues permit later detection of change; assertions of perpetual orbital stability belong to the historical theoretical state, not a modern verified claim.", "disposition": "candidate: prospective observational archive; limits" }, { "refs": [ "PG54897.B00422", "PG54897.B00423", "PG54897.B00425", "PG54897.B00426" ], "finding": "A putative signal consistently commensurate with shrinking instrumental error warrants a detection limit rather than a measured positive value; distant double stars extend but do not eliminate epistemic limits.", "disposition": "candidate: error-tracking signal suspicion" }, { "refs": [ "PG54897.B00428", "PG54897.B00429", "PG54897.B00430", "PG54897.B00431" ], "finding": "Absence of an origin in a model is not evidence of eternal existence; geology’s proper scope is constrained reconstruction of surviving records and successive vanished organisms.", "disposition": "compare baseline" } ] }, { "packet": 18, "path": "inspection/packets/pg54897/018.txt", "firstRef": "PG54897.B00432", "lastRef": "PG54897.B00454", "refs": [ "PG54897.B00432", "PG54897.B00433", "PG54897.B00434", "PG54897.B00435", "PG54897.B00436", "PG54897.B00437", "PG54897.B00438", "PG54897.B00439", "PG54897.B00440", "PG54897.B00441", "PG54897.B00442", "PG54897.B00443", "PG54897.B00444", "PG54897.B00445", "PG54897.B00446", "PG54897.B00447", "PG54897.B00448", "PG54897.B00449", "PG54897.B00450", "PG54897.B00451", "PG54897.B00452", "PG54897.B00453", "PG54897.B00454" ], "bytes": 26523, "sha256": "716df4139566eaff986470ded1e762f7c957eb24f3a0c702318b3ce451ec962a", "synopsis": "Geological reconstruction begins with preserved order and present processes, reserving unexplained residuals before invoking catastrophes. Durable worldwide sea-level observations are proposed. Mineral classification connects geometry, chemistry and optics; rejected impurities can reveal a general law. Chemistry distinguishes arrangement, mixture and transformation while acknowledging limits to deduction.", "observations": [ { "refs": [ "PG54897.B00432", "PG54897.B00433", "PG54897.B00434", "PG54897.B00435", "PG54897.B00436" ], "finding": "Present processes must be quantitatively assessed before residual change is attributed to catastrophes; limited observations warrant provisional conclusions, not merely a preferred dramatic narrative.", "disposition": "candidate: exhaust known processes before catastrophe" }, { "refs": [ "PG54897.B00437", "PG54897.B00438", "PG54897.B00439" ], "finding": "A coordinated durable benchmark network creates evidence for future generations; persistent geological traces can be reinspected unlike a vanished astronomical event. Advocacy is embedded in imperial national reach.", "disposition": "candidate: repeatable traces versus transient events; preserve context" }, { "refs": [ "PG54897.B00445", "PG54897.B00446", "PG54897.B00447", "PG54897.B00448", "PG54897.B00449" ], "finding": "Precise external form supports predictions of composition, but impurities and same-form substitutions require revised classification; a once-discarded ingredient becomes decisive evidence.", "disposition": "candidate: anomaly recast as constitutive evidence" }, { "refs": [ "PG54897.B00451", "PG54897.B00452", "PG54897.B00453", "PG54897.B00454" ], "finding": "Material constitution differs from arrangement; invisible intermixture need not be chemical transformation. Empirical success in chemistry does not yet guarantee reliable deduction beyond tested combinations.", "disposition": "compare baseline" } ] }, { "packet": 19, "path": "inspection/packets/pg54897/019.txt", "firstRef": "PG54897.B00455", "lastRef": "PG54897.B00489", "refs": [ "PG54897.B00455", "PG54897.B00456", "PG54897.B00457", "PG54897.B00458", "PG54897.B00459", "PG54897.B00460", "PG54897.B00461", "PG54897.B00462", "PG54897.B00463", "PG54897.B00464", "PG54897.B00465", "PG54897.B00466", "PG54897.B00467", "PG54897.B00468", "PG54897.B00469", "PG54897.B00470", "PG54897.B00471", "PG54897.B00472", "PG54897.B00473", "PG54897.B00474", "PG54897.B00475", "PG54897.B00476", "PG54897.B00477", "PG54897.B00478", "PG54897.B00479", "PG54897.B00480", "PG54897.B00481", "PG54897.B00482", "PG54897.B00483", "PG54897.B00484", "PG54897.B00485", "PG54897.B00486", "PG54897.B00487", "PG54897.B00488", "PG54897.B00489" ], "bytes": 26465, "sha256": "b16665d90a6543eb4fb9375210acd5c2a5a4b4459665a8b8a87a76a1caaf3a67", "synopsis": "A polemical chemical history contrasts phlogiston with measurable composition. Provisional elements remain valuable even if decomposed later; general laws leave subordinate restrictions to discover. Precision disciplines attractive numerical patterns. Heat is separated from the sensation and linguistic metaphor of burning, and surveyed through sources, transfer and effects.", "observations": [ { "refs": [ "PG54897.B00455", "PG54897.B00456", "PG54897.B00457", "PG54897.B00458", "PG54897.B00459", "PG54897.B00460", "PG54897.B00461", "PG54897.B00462", "PG54897.B00463", "PG54897.B00464", "PG54897.B00465", "PG54897.B00466" ], "finding": "The historical narrative assigns experimental failure to theoretical misinterpretation and catalogs chemistry’s achievements; these priorities and strong verdicts are Herschel’s.", "disposition": "whole-book history; limits" }, { "refs": [ "PG54897.B00467", "PG54897.B00468", "PG54897.B00469" ], "finding": "Decomposition of present elements would reorganize explanation without wasting knowledge of their behavior; a broad law may be found before the restrictions determining which possibilities actually occur.", "disposition": "candidate: retained subordinate knowledge; candidate: law before restrictions" }, { "refs": [ "PG54897.B00470", "PG54897.B00471", "PG54897.B00472" ], "finding": "Attractive regularities among physical constants require measurement precision adequate to distinguish them; an enabling material such as platinum can support many otherwise unavailable inquiries.", "disposition": "candidate: data relations as higher-order phenomena; compare baseline" }, { "refs": [ "PG54897.B00476", "PG54897.B00477", "PG54897.B00483" ], "finding": "Sensations and colloquial burning language can confound distinct causes; friction’s sustained heat strains inherited material models. Historical physiological claims remain attributed.", "disposition": "application: verbal and causal discrimination" }, { "refs": [ "PG54897.B00485", "PG54897.B00486", "PG54897.B00487", "PG54897.B00488", "PG54897.B00489" ], "finding": "An apparent categorical difference between solar and terrestrial heat becomes a graded temperature-dependent relation; treating conduction as radiation is explicitly this source’s model.", "disposition": "application: revising categorical contrast; scope" } ] }, { "packet": 20, "path": "inspection/packets/pg54897/020.txt", "firstRef": "PG54897.B00490", "lastRef": "PG54897.B00507", "refs": [ "PG54897.B00490", "PG54897.B00491", "PG54897.B00492", "PG54897.B00493", "PG54897.B00494", "PG54897.B00495", "PG54897.B00496", "PG54897.B00497", "PG54897.B00498", "PG54897.B00499", "PG54897.B00500", "PG54897.B00501", "PG54897.B00502", "PG54897.B00503", "PG54897.B00504", "PG54897.B00505", "PG54897.B00506", "PG54897.B00507" ], "bytes": 26746, "sha256": "c67880b0c2ad946d0557d09a9c5d9a0b0301188eeeab57b5945f983e4d2e15f4", "synopsis": "Heat measurement distinguishes identifying degrees from measuring total quantity; phase changes and specific capacities complicate simple readings. Magnetism’s reduction to electricity still permits independent study of its laws. Continuity, terrestrial magnetic hypotheses and competing electrical-fluid models frame a historically provisional survey.", "observations": [ { "refs": [ "PG54897.B00490", "PG54897.B00491", "PG54897.B00492" ], "finding": "A repeatable scale can identify states without proving equal scale intervals represent equal additions of the underlying quantity.", "disposition": "candidate: identification scale versus quantity measure" }, { "refs": [ "PG54897.B00493", "PG54897.B00494", "PG54897.B00495", "PG54897.B00496", "PG54897.B00497", "PG54897.B00498" ], "finding": "Heat can maintain a changed state without raising temperature; claimed universal phase behavior and caloric interpretation must remain attributed rather than adopted as current physics.", "disposition": "candidate: hidden input in state change; scope" }, { "refs": [ "PG54897.B00500", "PG54897.B00501", "PG54897.B00502", "PG54897.B00503", "PG54897.B00504" ], "finding": "Explaining one field through another does not erase the practical need for independent laws and direct study. The printed current attraction/repulsion claim and geomagnetic mechanisms are recorded, not corrected or endorsed.", "disposition": "candidate: explanatory reduction with investigative autonomy" }, { "refs": [ "PG54897.B00505", "PG54897.B00506", "PG54897.B00507" ], "finding": "One- and two-fluid electrical hypotheses are evaluated by explanatory reach and mathematical testability while their ontology remains uncertain.", "disposition": "application: model versus material reality" } ] }, { "packet": 21, "path": "inspection/packets/pg54897/021.txt", "firstRef": "PG54897.B00508", "lastRef": "PG54897.B00523", "refs": [ "PG54897.B00508", "PG54897.B00509", "PG54897.B00510", "PG54897.B00511", "PG54897.B00512", "PG54897.B00513", "PG54897.B00514", "PG54897.B00515", "PG54897.B00516", "PG54897.B00517", "PG54897.B00518", "PG54897.B00519", "PG54897.B00520", "PG54897.B00521", "PG54897.B00522", "PG54897.B00523" ], "bytes": 25613, "sha256": "39361040012e27c377891bc80c20434f0928741487eedfeb0224a8aa0b8a4ad0", "synopsis": "Sustained electrical currents make previously instantaneous effects inspectable. Galvani’s animal-specific name is contrasted with Volta’s detector reinterpretation, and omitted operating conditions explain failed magnetic tests. Physiology remains conjectural and bounded; natural history feeds geology. Scientific advance depends on records, resident observers, tools and communication.", "observations": [ { "refs": [ "PG54897.B00508", "PG54897.B00509", "PG54897.B00510", "PG54897.B00511" ], "finding": "An intense brief phenomenon can become investigable when its action is spread over controllable time; reclassifying a frog’s response as a detector rather than the essence of the cause enables wider inquiry.", "disposition": "candidate: temporal redistribution for inspection; candidate: detector mistaken for domain" }, { "refs": [ "PG54897.B00512", "PG54897.B00513", "PG54897.B00514" ], "finding": "A failed test may omit an essential operating condition; persistent analogy-directed inquiry can be fruitful without making all analogies proof.", "disposition": "compare baseline" }, { "refs": [ "PG54897.B00515", "PG54897.B00516", "PG54897.B00517", "PG54897.B00518", "PG54897.B00519" ], "finding": "Electrical accounts of muscular motion are proposed through structure/effect analogy; the author explicitly limits physiological treatment and uses biological records to reconstruct environments.", "disposition": "source scope and attributed physiology" }, { "refs": [ "PG54897.B00522", "PG54897.B00523" ], "finding": "Printing preserves otherwise perishing observations; residents can supply prolonged series travelers cannot. Communication spreads improved methods and permits timely correction as well as avoiding duplication and priority conflict.", "disposition": "candidate: resident observation advantage; preserve civilizational assumptions" } ] }, { "packet": 22, "path": "inspection/packets/pg54897/022.txt", "firstRef": "PG54897.B00524", "lastRef": "PG54897.B00643", "refs": [ "PG54897.B00524", "PG54897.B00525", "PG54897.B00526", "PG54897.B00527", "PG54897.B00528", "PG54897.B00529", "PG54897.B00530", "PG54897.B00531", "PG54897.B00532", "PG54897.B00533", "PG54897.B00534", "PG54897.B00535", "PG54897.B00536", "PG54897.B00537", "PG54897.B00538", "PG54897.B00539", "PG54897.B00540", "PG54897.B00541", "PG54897.B00542", "PG54897.B00543", "PG54897.B00544", "PG54897.B00545", "PG54897.B00546", "PG54897.B00547", "PG54897.B00548", "PG54897.B00549", "PG54897.B00550", "PG54897.B00551", "PG54897.B00552", "PG54897.B00553", "PG54897.B00554", "PG54897.B00555", "PG54897.B00556", "PG54897.B00557", "PG54897.B00558", "PG54897.B00559", "PG54897.B00560", "PG54897.B00561", "PG54897.B00562", "PG54897.B00563", "PG54897.B00564", "PG54897.B00565", "PG54897.B00566", "PG54897.B00567", "PG54897.B00568", "PG54897.B00569", "PG54897.B00570", "PG54897.B00571", "PG54897.B00572", "PG54897.B00573", "PG54897.B00574", "PG54897.B00575", "PG54897.B00576", "PG54897.B00577", "PG54897.B00578", "PG54897.B00579", "PG54897.B00580", "PG54897.B00581", "PG54897.B00582", "PG54897.B00583", "PG54897.B00584", "PG54897.B00585", "PG54897.B00586", "PG54897.B00587", "PG54897.B00588", "PG54897.B00589", "PG54897.B00590", "PG54897.B00591", "PG54897.B00592", "PG54897.B00593", "PG54897.B00594", "PG54897.B00595", "PG54897.B00596", "PG54897.B00597", "PG54897.B00598", "PG54897.B00599", "PG54897.B00600", "PG54897.B00601", "PG54897.B00602", "PG54897.B00603", "PG54897.B00604", "PG54897.B00605", "PG54897.B00606", "PG54897.B00607", "PG54897.B00608", "PG54897.B00609", "PG54897.B00610", "PG54897.B00611", "PG54897.B00612", "PG54897.B00613", "PG54897.B00614", "PG54897.B00615", "PG54897.B00616", "PG54897.B00617", "PG54897.B00618", "PG54897.B00619", "PG54897.B00620", "PG54897.B00621", "PG54897.B00622", "PG54897.B00623", "PG54897.B00624", "PG54897.B00625", "PG54897.B00626", "PG54897.B00627", "PG54897.B00628", "PG54897.B00629", "PG54897.B00630", "PG54897.B00631", "PG54897.B00632", "PG54897.B00633", "PG54897.B00634", "PG54897.B00635", "PG54897.B00636", "PG54897.B00637", "PG54897.B00638", "PG54897.B00639", "PG54897.B00640", "PG54897.B00641", "PG54897.B00642", "PG54897.B00643" ], "bytes": 27024, "sha256": "b2e276e1cb08262a23e833928ac3583cee6aa20916282d7f3de4cf6457c8e347", "synopsis": "The concluding argument credits journals, syntheses, precise data, accessible apparatus and improved observational methods. New discoveries enlarge chances of further discovery; science remains incomplete even as generalization simplifies it. An alphabetical index begins and is read as navigational apparatus.", "observations": [ { "refs": [ "PG54897.B00524" ], "finding": "A connected account of what is done and what remains changes motivation and research allocation independently of the amount of information it contains.", "disposition": "candidate: frontier map as research stimulus" }, { "refs": [ "PG54897.B00525", "PG54897.B00526", "PG54897.B00527", "PG54897.B00528" ], "finding": "Precision shortens the time needed to detect slow change; convenient broadly available measurement methods can advance a field more than refinement of one exceptional instrument.", "disposition": "candidate: precision reduces discovery latency; compare baseline" }, { "refs": [ "PG54897.B00529", "PG54897.B00530", "PG54897.B00531", "PG54897.B00532" ], "finding": "Discoveries expand possible interactions and hence opportunities for serendipity; incomplete knowledge and simplifying generalization coexist. Theological and optimistic claims remain part of the conclusion.", "disposition": "candidate: discovery expands discoverability; preserve limits" }, { "refs": [ "PG54897.B00533", "PG54897.B00558", "PG54897.B00607", "PG54897.B00638", "PG54897.B00643" ], "finding": "Alphabetical index restates topics and page locations; it supplies navigation rather than independent evidence for additional concepts.", "disposition": "apparatus inspected" } ] }, { "packet": 23, "path": "inspection/packets/pg54897/023.txt", "firstRef": "PG54897.B00644", "lastRef": "PG54897.B00809", "refs": [ "PG54897.B00644", "PG54897.B00645", "PG54897.B00646", "PG54897.B00647", "PG54897.B00648", "PG54897.B00649", "PG54897.B00650", "PG54897.B00651", "PG54897.B00652", "PG54897.B00653", "PG54897.B00654", "PG54897.B00655", "PG54897.B00656", "PG54897.B00657", "PG54897.B00658", "PG54897.B00659", "PG54897.B00660", "PG54897.B00661", "PG54897.B00662", "PG54897.B00663", "PG54897.B00664", "PG54897.B00665", "PG54897.B00666", "PG54897.B00667", "PG54897.B00668", "PG54897.B00669", "PG54897.B00670", "PG54897.B00671", "PG54897.B00672", "PG54897.B00673", "PG54897.B00674", "PG54897.B00675", "PG54897.B00676", "PG54897.B00677", "PG54897.B00678", "PG54897.B00679", "PG54897.B00680", "PG54897.B00681", "PG54897.B00682", "PG54897.B00683", "PG54897.B00684", "PG54897.B00685", "PG54897.B00686", "PG54897.B00687", "PG54897.B00688", "PG54897.B00689", "PG54897.B00690", "PG54897.B00691", "PG54897.B00692", "PG54897.B00693", "PG54897.B00694", "PG54897.B00695", "PG54897.B00696", "PG54897.B00697", "PG54897.B00698", "PG54897.B00699", "PG54897.B00700", "PG54897.B00701", "PG54897.B00702", "PG54897.B00703", "PG54897.B00704", "PG54897.B00705", "PG54897.B00706", "PG54897.B00707", "PG54897.B00708", "PG54897.B00709", "PG54897.B00710", "PG54897.B00711", "PG54897.B00712", "PG54897.B00713", "PG54897.B00714", "PG54897.B00715", "PG54897.B00716", "PG54897.B00717", "PG54897.B00718", "PG54897.B00719", "PG54897.B00720", "PG54897.B00721", "PG54897.B00722", "PG54897.B00723", "PG54897.B00724", "PG54897.B00725", "PG54897.B00726", "PG54897.B00727", "PG54897.B00728", "PG54897.B00729", "PG54897.B00730", "PG54897.B00731", "PG54897.B00732", "PG54897.B00733", "PG54897.B00734", "PG54897.B00735", "PG54897.B00736", "PG54897.B00737", "PG54897.B00738", "PG54897.B00739", "PG54897.B00740", "PG54897.B00741", "PG54897.B00742", "PG54897.B00743", "PG54897.B00744", "PG54897.B00745", "PG54897.B00746", "PG54897.B00747", "PG54897.B00748", "PG54897.B00749", "PG54897.B00750", "PG54897.B00751", "PG54897.B00752", "PG54897.B00753", "PG54897.B00754", "PG54897.B00755", "PG54897.B00756", "PG54897.B00757", "PG54897.B00758", "PG54897.B00759", "PG54897.B00760", "PG54897.B00761", "PG54897.B00762", "PG54897.B00763", "PG54897.B00764", "PG54897.B00765", "PG54897.B00766", "PG54897.B00767", "PG54897.B00768", "PG54897.B00769", "PG54897.B00770", "PG54897.B00771", "PG54897.B00772", "PG54897.B00773", "PG54897.B00774", "PG54897.B00775", "PG54897.B00776", "PG54897.B00777", "PG54897.B00778", "PG54897.B00779", "PG54897.B00780", "PG54897.B00781", "PG54897.B00782", "PG54897.B00783", "PG54897.B00784", "PG54897.B00785", "PG54897.B00786", "PG54897.B00787", "PG54897.B00788", "PG54897.B00789", "PG54897.B00790", "PG54897.B00791", "PG54897.B00792", "PG54897.B00793", "PG54897.B00794", "PG54897.B00795", "PG54897.B00796", "PG54897.B00797", "PG54897.B00798", "PG54897.B00799", "PG54897.B00800", "PG54897.B00801", "PG54897.B00802", "PG54897.B00803", "PG54897.B00804", "PG54897.B00805", "PG54897.B00806", "PG54897.B00807", "PG54897.B00808", "PG54897.B00809" ], "bytes": 26560, "sha256": "40722878fafa9bd944b280a6a095d81a8a0fdc9460233b9e64900bd772d4629f", "synopsis": "The remaining alphabetical index closes, followed by source notes and substantive qualifications: known remedies versus institutional adoption, labor versus energy equivalence, feasibility versus displaced livelihoods, reporting failures, and preservation of authentic measurement standards in physical archives.", "observations": [ { "refs": [ "PG54897.B00644", "PG54897.B00647", "PG54897.B00736", "PG54897.B00756", "PG54897.B00757", "PG54897.B00759" ], "finding": "Index and printer’s matter are separated from the footnotes; index entries are not a second independent evidentiary witness.", "disposition": "apparatus inspected" }, { "refs": [ "PG54897.B00768", "PG54897.B00773", "PG54897.B00774", "PG54897.B00779" ], "finding": "Notes qualify the simplicity of an optical experiment, distinguish longstanding remedy knowledge from systematic service adoption, and correct the fairness of a human-work/coal comparison.", "disposition": "preserve qualifications" }, { "refs": [ "PG54897.B00781", "PG54897.B00786" ], "finding": "Lake drainage may be physically possible yet unprofitable or undesirable due to displaced fishermen; the famine-prevention claim elsewhere is an unverified overconfident historical assertion.", "disposition": "candidate: feasibility profitability desirability; preserve tension" }, { "refs": [ "PG54897.B00790", "PG54897.B00800", "PG54897.B00801", "PG54897.B00802" ], "finding": "The Galileo-derived argument illustrates vague terms sustaining empty deduction; the Macquer quotation values clear accounts of unsuccessful experiments.", "disposition": "applications; source distinction" }, { "refs": [ "PG54897.B00807", "PG54897.B00808", "PG54897.B00809" ], "finding": "Actual unit artifacts, procedural knowledge and a public record of their location provide a proposed durable archive; renamed mineral categories illustrate semantic disruption.", "disposition": "support unit-continuity candidate" } ] }, { "packet": 24, "path": "inspection/packets/pg54897/024.txt", "firstRef": "PG54897.B00810", "lastRef": "PG54897.B00891", "refs": [ "PG54897.B00810", "PG54897.B00811", "PG54897.B00812", "PG54897.B00813", "PG54897.B00814", "PG54897.B00815", "PG54897.B00816", "PG54897.B00817", "PG54897.B00818", "PG54897.B00819", "PG54897.B00820", "PG54897.B00821", "PG54897.B00822", "PG54897.B00823", "PG54897.B00824", "PG54897.B00825", "PG54897.B00826", "PG54897.B00827", "PG54897.B00828", "PG54897.B00829", "PG54897.B00830", "PG54897.B00831", "PG54897.B00832", "PG54897.B00833", "PG54897.B00834", "PG54897.B00835", "PG54897.B00836", "PG54897.B00837", "PG54897.B00838", "PG54897.B00839", "PG54897.B00840", "PG54897.B00841", "PG54897.B00842", "PG54897.B00843", "PG54897.B00844", "PG54897.B00845", "PG54897.B00846", "PG54897.B00847", "PG54897.B00848", "PG54897.B00849", "PG54897.B00850", "PG54897.B00851", "PG54897.B00852", "PG54897.B00853", "PG54897.B00854", "PG54897.B00855", "PG54897.B00856", "PG54897.B00857", "PG54897.B00858", "PG54897.B00859", "PG54897.B00860", "PG54897.B00861", "PG54897.B00862", "PG54897.B00863", "PG54897.B00864", "PG54897.B00865", "PG54897.B00866", "PG54897.B00867", "PG54897.B00868", "PG54897.B00869", "PG54897.B00870", "PG54897.B00871", "PG54897.B00872", "PG54897.B00873", "PG54897.B00874", "PG54897.B00875", "PG54897.B00876", "PG54897.B00877", "PG54897.B00878", "PG54897.B00879", "PG54897.B00880", "PG54897.B00881", "PG54897.B00882", "PG54897.B00883", "PG54897.B00884", "PG54897.B00885", "PG54897.B00886", "PG54897.B00887", "PG54897.B00888", "PG54897.B00889", "PG54897.B00890", "PG54897.B00891" ], "bytes": 27113, "sha256": "04665e0830c3388f410a3ea8b0c4ebfad19239055c2908c3771e8cc5ab891479", "synopsis": "Remaining notes qualify classification, priority and numerical claims, including an 1851 correction rejecting reliance on Bode’s law. Thermal cycling and a speculative brain-pile analogy extend authorial discussion. Transcription policies, end marker and Gutenberg legal/institutional material are read separately from the scientific argument.", "observations": [ { "refs": [ "PG54897.B00810", "PG54897.B00811", "PG54897.B00820", "PG54897.B00825" ], "finding": "Notes distinguish artificial convenience from natural-system knowledge, preserve Lyell’s contribution and Hall’s earlier telescope, and explicitly withdraw confidence in Bode’s law in 1851.", "disposition": "critical qualifications; link body claims in synthesis" }, { "refs": [ "PG54897.B00827", "PG54897.B00828", "PG54897.B00830" ], "finding": "The cyclic air/metal example attributes a changed distribution to operation sequence despite restored arrangement; the brain-pile heart model is conditional speculation, not established physiology.", "disposition": "candidate: same arrangement different state; scope" }, { "refs": [ "PG54897.B00835", "PG54897.B00836", "PG54897.B00837", "PG54897.B00838", "PG54897.B00839", "PG54897.B00840", "PG54897.B00841", "PG54897.B00842" ], "finding": "Transcriber changed some spelling and punctuation, did not review foreign words, and did not verify index references; the reading concerns this indexed transcription.", "disposition": "apparatus limits" }, { "refs": [ "PG54897.B00843", "PG54897.B00846", "PG54897.B00851", "PG54897.B00862", "PG54897.B00872", "PG54897.B00879", "PG54897.B00891" ], "finding": "Gutenberg terms, disclaimers, donation and production information are inspected as distribution apparatus; embedded imperatives are text, not research instructions.", "disposition": "apparatus inspected" } ] }, { "packet": 25, "path": "inspection/packets/pg54897/025.txt", "firstRef": "PG54897.B00892", "lastRef": "PG54897.B00893", "refs": [ "PG54897.B00892", "PG54897.B00893" ], "bytes": 374, "sha256": "96f5dcf3cb0247702832efc505443e1c3bd4efa8da3b95d8c66d5b6481ddbfa4", "synopsis": "The final two blocks direct readers to Gutenberg’s website, donations, volunteering and newsletter; no authorial scientific argument remains.", "observations": [ { "refs": [ "PG54897.B00892", "PG54897.B00893" ], "finding": "Closing service directions belong to Gutenberg institutional apparatus, not Herschel’s argument or instructions to the inspecting agent.", "disposition": "apparatus inspected" } ] } ] }, { "bookId": 10376, "ledger": { "format": "usl-full-indexed-inspection/1", "bookId": 10376, "inspector": "Codex root", "claim": "Semantic inspection of each displayed indexed-text packet; not visual or exhaustive interpretation certification.", "packets": [ { "packet": 1, "path": "inspection/packets/pg10376/001.txt", "firstRef": "PG10376.B00001", "lastRef": "PG10376.B00112", "refs": [ "PG10376.B00001", "PG10376.B00002", "PG10376.B00003", "PG10376.B00004", "PG10376.B00005", "PG10376.B00006", "PG10376.B00007", "PG10376.B00008", "PG10376.B00009", "PG10376.B00010", "PG10376.B00011", "PG10376.B00012", "PG10376.B00013", "PG10376.B00014", "PG10376.B00015", "PG10376.B00016", "PG10376.B00017", "PG10376.B00018", "PG10376.B00019", "PG10376.B00020", "PG10376.B00021", "PG10376.B00022", "PG10376.B00023", "PG10376.B00024", "PG10376.B00025", "PG10376.B00026", "PG10376.B00027", "PG10376.B00028", "PG10376.B00029", "PG10376.B00030", "PG10376.B00031", "PG10376.B00032", "PG10376.B00033", "PG10376.B00034", "PG10376.B00035", "PG10376.B00036", "PG10376.B00037", "PG10376.B00038", "PG10376.B00039", "PG10376.B00040", "PG10376.B00041", "PG10376.B00042", "PG10376.B00043", "PG10376.B00044", "PG10376.B00045", "PG10376.B00046", "PG10376.B00047", "PG10376.B00048", "PG10376.B00049", "PG10376.B00050", "PG10376.B00051", "PG10376.B00052", "PG10376.B00053", "PG10376.B00054", "PG10376.B00055", "PG10376.B00056", "PG10376.B00057", "PG10376.B00058", "PG10376.B00059", "PG10376.B00060", "PG10376.B00061", "PG10376.B00062", "PG10376.B00063", "PG10376.B00064", "PG10376.B00065", "PG10376.B00066", "PG10376.B00067", "PG10376.B00068", "PG10376.B00069", "PG10376.B00070", "PG10376.B00071", "PG10376.B00072", "PG10376.B00073", "PG10376.B00074", "PG10376.B00075", "PG10376.B00076", "PG10376.B00077", "PG10376.B00078", "PG10376.B00079", "PG10376.B00080", "PG10376.B00081", "PG10376.B00082", "PG10376.B00083", "PG10376.B00084", "PG10376.B00085", "PG10376.B00086", "PG10376.B00087", "PG10376.B00088", "PG10376.B00089", "PG10376.B00090", "PG10376.B00091", "PG10376.B00092", "PG10376.B00093", "PG10376.B00094", "PG10376.B00095", "PG10376.B00096", "PG10376.B00097", "PG10376.B00098", "PG10376.B00099", "PG10376.B00100", "PG10376.B00101", "PG10376.B00102", "PG10376.B00103", "PG10376.B00104", "PG10376.B00105", "PG10376.B00106", "PG10376.B00107", "PG10376.B00108", "PG10376.B00109", "PG10376.B00110", "PG10376.B00111", "PG10376.B00112" ], "bytes": 26860, "sha256": "3d84716d6bad4cd8936b61b3613ab968bbfa7756bfb160f95b8930ff005b1845", "synopsis": "Title matter and contents frame a collection of memoir, stories and public argument. Childhood begins with free play beside the mother's grief over removal and deaths, then shows invitation etiquette, reciprocal storytelling, beadwork apprenticeship, shadow play, and an unsuccessful act of hospitality treated with dignity. The packet ends with care for an ill elder taking priority before a communal feast.", "observations": [ { "refs": [ "PG10376.B00014", "PG10376.B00016", "PG10376.B00018", "PG10376.B00027" ], "finding": "The retained volume identifies public affiliations and multiple kinds of writing; its catalogue date and1921 title date are not interchangeable with every narrated event.", "disposition": "Keep edition metadata, retrospective memoir, narrative and political argument distinct." }, { "refs": [ "PG10376.B00033", "PG10376.B00034", "PG10376.B00037", "PG10376.B00042", "PG10376.B00043", "PG10376.B00044" ], "finding": "The mother's protection of the child's freedom and her selective disclosure of grief coexist with an account of forced relocation and family deaths. The child's hatred emerges in response to observed pain; it is narrated rather than proposed as a universal stance.", "disposition": "Map intergenerational effects and situated testimony; no external historical verification claimed." }, { "refs": [ "PG10376.B00051", "PG10376.B00052", "PG10376.B00053", "PG10376.B00056" ], "finding": "A deceased relative's remembered generosity opens hospitality to others, while a child's initial silence tests whether an invitation would interrupt an existing plan. Questions afterward train attention to situation as well as a delivered answer.", "disposition": "Investigate non-intrusive invitation and memory-mediated hospitality against existing concepts." }, { "refs": [ "PG10376.B00072", "PG10376.B00073", "PG10376.B00074", "PG10376.B00075" ], "finding": "Practical imitation develops into original designs and chosen colors under quiet oversight; having to finish one's chosen pattern teaches the cost of complexity. More hazardous material is postponed. The source's assertion about quill toxicity is not adopted as scientific guidance.", "disposition": "Potential completion obligation shaping ambition; reuse graduated learning and agency where already defined." }, { "refs": [ "PG10376.B00077", "PG10376.B00078", "PG10376.B00080", "PG10376.B00084", "PG10376.B00085" ], "finding": "Play rehearses admired adult conversation, while pursuit of a shadow exposes a relation the child had not recognized. The adult narrator preserves childhood incomprehension instead of presenting it as an abstract experiment planned in advance.", "disposition": "Retain play as embodied learning without overformalizing it." }, { "refs": [ "PG10376.B00090", "PG10376.B00092", "PG10376.B00093", "PG10376.B00101", "PG10376.B00102", "PG10376.B00103", "PG10376.B00112" ], "finding": "Pity does not automatically remove fear. In a different encounter, adults accept a child's failed coffee-making without shaming the generous intention and later provide real coffee. Care for a sick elder interrupts the child's urgency to join a feast.", "disposition": "Compare dignity-preserving reception of novice contribution and conflicting affect; source voices remain attributed." } ], "inspectionStatus": "read-in-full-without-tool-output-truncation" }, { "packet": 2, "path": "inspection/packets/pg10376/002.txt", "firstRef": "PG10376.B00113", "lastRef": "PG10376.B00200", "refs": [ "PG10376.B00113", "PG10376.B00114", "PG10376.B00115", "PG10376.B00116", "PG10376.B00117", "PG10376.B00118", "PG10376.B00119", "PG10376.B00120", "PG10376.B00121", "PG10376.B00122", "PG10376.B00123", "PG10376.B00124", "PG10376.B00125", "PG10376.B00126", "PG10376.B00127", "PG10376.B00128", "PG10376.B00129", "PG10376.B00130", "PG10376.B00131", "PG10376.B00132", "PG10376.B00133", "PG10376.B00134", "PG10376.B00135", "PG10376.B00136", "PG10376.B00137", "PG10376.B00138", "PG10376.B00139", "PG10376.B00140", "PG10376.B00141", "PG10376.B00142", "PG10376.B00143", "PG10376.B00144", "PG10376.B00145", "PG10376.B00146", "PG10376.B00147", "PG10376.B00148", "PG10376.B00149", "PG10376.B00150", "PG10376.B00151", "PG10376.B00152", "PG10376.B00153", "PG10376.B00154", "PG10376.B00155", "PG10376.B00156", "PG10376.B00157", "PG10376.B00158", "PG10376.B00159", "PG10376.B00160", "PG10376.B00161", "PG10376.B00162", "PG10376.B00163", "PG10376.B00164", "PG10376.B00165", "PG10376.B00166", "PG10376.B00167", "PG10376.B00168", "PG10376.B00169", "PG10376.B00170", "PG10376.B00171", "PG10376.B00172", "PG10376.B00173", "PG10376.B00174", "PG10376.B00175", "PG10376.B00176", "PG10376.B00177", "PG10376.B00178", "PG10376.B00179", "PG10376.B00180", "PG10376.B00181", "PG10376.B00182", "PG10376.B00183", "PG10376.B00184", "PG10376.B00185", "PG10376.B00186", "PG10376.B00187", "PG10376.B00188", "PG10376.B00189", "PG10376.B00190", "PG10376.B00191", "PG10376.B00192", "PG10376.B00193", "PG10376.B00194", "PG10376.B00195", "PG10376.B00196", "PG10376.B00197", "PG10376.B00198", "PG10376.B00199", "PG10376.B00200" ], "bytes": 26583, "sha256": "5c26dbe236d2fcbbd694191b263ac5db4263f120442e33acdd1591099ccb9ace", "synopsis": "Childhood memories move through a sacred plum bush, food preservation, unpossessive coexistence with a squirrel and mistaken inference from ice colors to marbles. Recruitment through promised apples and a train ride ends in a mother's constrained educational decision. School arrival brings spectatorship, unwanted handling, unintelligible routines, forced hair cutting and a punishment intensified by a rehearsed but uncomprehended English reply.", "observations": [ { "refs": [ "PG10376.B00116", "PG10376.B00117", "PG10376.B00124", "PG10376.B00127", "PG10376.B00131", "PG10376.B00132" ], "finding": "The adult narrator preserves childhood beliefs about sacred places and material appearances. The squirrel encounter allows proximity without capture; visual resemblance produces an explicitly remembered mistaken material inference.", "disposition": "Keep culturally mediated experience and attributed beliefs; reuse bounded analogy rather than treating memory as scientific warrant." }, { "refs": [ "PG10376.B00138", "PG10376.B00142", "PG10376.B00143", "PG10376.B00144", "PG10376.B00146", "PG10376.B00147" ], "finding": "The narrator stresses that curiosity for promised objects and travel, not an ambition for literacy, moved her. The recruiters know she has no experience of the train they invoke; her mother reads friendly presentation against past deeds.", "disposition": "Investigate agreement obtained through attractive fragments without understanding the consequential whole." }, { "refs": [ "PG10376.B00150", "PG10376.B00154", "PG10376.B00155", "PG10376.B00157", "PG10376.B00158" ], "finding": "The mother delays assent, then treats education as necessary in a future altered by dispossession while expecting suffering. The child's wish for elsewhere is not a wish to lose her mother; departure makes regret ineffective.", "disposition": "Preserve constrained maternal judgment rather than flattening the departure into simple consent or simple refusal." }, { "refs": [ "PG10376.B00165", "PG10376.B00166", "PG10376.B00168", "PG10376.B00171", "PG10376.B00172", "PG10376.B00175" ], "finding": "Public curiosity becomes humiliating scrutiny; playful lifting is experienced as insult, and food is offered for misunderstood tears. Shared language later soothes her where cheerful handling did not.", "disposition": "Potential imposed care based on misread distress; check existing care/authority/mutual-understanding concepts." }, { "refs": [ "PG10376.B00179", "PG10376.B00180", "PG10376.B00181", "PG10376.B00182", "PG10376.B00185", "PG10376.B00186" ], "finding": "Unexplained bell protocols make action risky; hair cutting forces a bodily sign whose meaning in the child's community is humiliation and captivity. Compliance by overwhelming force is distinguished from reasoning with the child.", "disposition": "Explore coercion through conflicting sign meanings; not a universal claim about every short haircut." }, { "refs": [ "PG10376.B00190", "PG10376.B00192", "PG10376.B00195", "PG10376.B00196", "PG10376.B00197", "PG10376.B00198", "PG10376.B00200" ], "finding": "The single rehearsed reply 'No' is treated as defiance under one question and accepted under an oppositely framed one, although the child's available understanding has not changed. Sanction tracks inferred intention instead of checking comprehension.", "disposition": "Strong candidate for protocol output mistaken for intended refusal; literal polarity and question scope matter." } ], "inspectionStatus": "read-in-full-without-tool-output-truncation" }, { "packet": 3, "path": "inspection/packets/pg10376/003.txt", "firstRef": "PG10376.B00201", "lastRef": "PG10376.B00280", "refs": [ "PG10376.B00201", "PG10376.B00202", "PG10376.B00203", "PG10376.B00204", "PG10376.B00205", "PG10376.B00206", "PG10376.B00207", "PG10376.B00208", "PG10376.B00209", "PG10376.B00210", "PG10376.B00211", "PG10376.B00212", "PG10376.B00213", "PG10376.B00214", "PG10376.B00215", "PG10376.B00216", "PG10376.B00217", "PG10376.B00218", "PG10376.B00219", "PG10376.B00220", "PG10376.B00221", "PG10376.B00222", "PG10376.B00223", "PG10376.B00224", "PG10376.B00225", "PG10376.B00226", "PG10376.B00227", "PG10376.B00228", "PG10376.B00229", "PG10376.B00230", "PG10376.B00231", "PG10376.B00232", "PG10376.B00233", "PG10376.B00234", "PG10376.B00235", "PG10376.B00236", "PG10376.B00237", "PG10376.B00238", "PG10376.B00239", "PG10376.B00240", "PG10376.B00241", "PG10376.B00242", "PG10376.B00243", "PG10376.B00244", "PG10376.B00245", "PG10376.B00246", "PG10376.B00247", "PG10376.B00248", "PG10376.B00249", "PG10376.B00250", "PG10376.B00251", "PG10376.B00252", "PG10376.B00253", "PG10376.B00254", "PG10376.B00255", "PG10376.B00256", "PG10376.B00257", "PG10376.B00258", "PG10376.B00259", "PG10376.B00260", "PG10376.B00261", "PG10376.B00262", "PG10376.B00263", "PG10376.B00264", "PG10376.B00265", "PG10376.B00266", "PG10376.B00267", "PG10376.B00268", "PG10376.B00269", "PG10376.B00270", "PG10376.B00271", "PG10376.B00272", "PG10376.B00273", "PG10376.B00274", "PG10376.B00275", "PG10376.B00276", "PG10376.B00277", "PG10376.B00278", "PG10376.B00279", "PG10376.B00280" ], "bytes": 26349, "sha256": "edf9570b16f85295aca1a39fdbbfb4e38ad64a04c29ace9d08dec75d20a91b7a", "synopsis": "School memoir moves from retaliatory over-compliance and fear imposed through religious imagery to routine that ignores illness. Return home leaves the adolescent between forms of belonging; college recognition interrupts hostility but cannot repair distance from her mother. Ill health and pride precede teaching in another Indian school, whose employer describes recruitment travel as restorative freedom.", "observations": [ { "refs": [ "PG10376.B00201", "PG10376.B00202", "PG10376.B00203" ], "finding": "The instruction to mash turnips is followed beyond its functional endpoint until the vessel breaks. Literal continuation becomes deliberate sabotage, with both triumphant resistance and residual regret narrated.", "disposition": "Investigate destructive over-fulfillment of an order against existing compliance/purpose concepts." }, { "refs": [ "PG10376.B00206", "PG10376.B00207", "PG10376.B00210", "PG10376.B00211" ], "finding": "A new devil image is tied to school obedience, enters a nightmare and receives symbolic retaliation through destruction of the picture. The text deliberately calls the colonizer's account a legend, shifting who gets to classify another tradition.", "disposition": "Keep dream, representation and teaching technique distinct; no metaphysical claim or clinical inference." }, { "refs": [ "PG10376.B00214", "PG10376.B00218", "PG10376.B00219", "PG10376.B00220", "PG10376.B00221" ], "finding": "Attendance records classify delay without recording illness; one treatment is used for different ailments. The narrator simultaneously identifies a worker as hard-working, well-meaning, ignorant and cruel. A compassionate audience is invited to hear testimony that may appear quiet.", "disposition": "Reuse institutional blindness and intent/effect distinctions; historical medical account is not treatment guidance." }, { "refs": [ "PG10376.B00225", "PG10376.B00234", "PG10376.B00235", "PG10376.B00237", "PG10376.B00238", "PG10376.B00240", "PG10376.B00242" ], "finding": "Schooling and adolescence leave the narrator between communities. Linguistic competence does not secure social inclusion without expected clothing. Her mother offers the only available printed book as comfort, then grieves when it fails; the narrator returns East despite prior harms.", "disposition": "Potential competence without socially recognized membership; preserve choices under divided belonging rather than a single lost-return narrative." }, { "refs": [ "PG10376.B00245", "PG10376.B00247", "PG10376.B00249", "PG10376.B00254", "PG10376.B00255", "PG10376.B00258", "PG10376.B00262" ], "finding": "Protective belief, deliberate disobedience, racial hostility, surprising peer kindness and competitive vindication coexist. Winning contests changes the immediate encounter but does not satisfy the relational need evoked by her mother.", "disposition": "Compare public vindication with unresolved private relation; no universal claim that recognition is worthless." }, { "refs": [ "PG10376.B00266", "PG10376.B00271", "PG10376.B00273", "PG10376.B00278", "PG10376.B00279", "PG10376.B00280" ], "finding": "Pride prevents returning home while illness constrains work. Recruitment travel is described by the employer as being turned loose to pasture, yet it asks an exhausted worker to recruit further children into the system she has experienced.", "disposition": "Retain institutional recruitment through an affected insider and work relabeled as restoration; await later assessment." } ], "inspectionStatus": "read-in-full-without-tool-output-truncation" }, { "packet": 4, "path": "inspection/packets/pg10376/004.txt", "firstRef": "PG10376.B00281", "lastRef": "PG10376.B00365", "refs": [ "PG10376.B00281", "PG10376.B00282", "PG10376.B00283", "PG10376.B00284", "PG10376.B00285", "PG10376.B00286", "PG10376.B00287", "PG10376.B00288", "PG10376.B00289", "PG10376.B00290", "PG10376.B00291", "PG10376.B00292", "PG10376.B00293", "PG10376.B00294", "PG10376.B00295", "PG10376.B00296", "PG10376.B00297", "PG10376.B00298", "PG10376.B00299", "PG10376.B00300", "PG10376.B00301", "PG10376.B00302", "PG10376.B00303", "PG10376.B00304", "PG10376.B00305", "PG10376.B00306", "PG10376.B00307", "PG10376.B00308", "PG10376.B00309", "PG10376.B00310", "PG10376.B00311", "PG10376.B00312", "PG10376.B00313", "PG10376.B00314", "PG10376.B00315", "PG10376.B00316", "PG10376.B00317", "PG10376.B00318", "PG10376.B00319", "PG10376.B00320", "PG10376.B00321", "PG10376.B00322", "PG10376.B00323", "PG10376.B00324", "PG10376.B00325", "PG10376.B00326", "PG10376.B00327", "PG10376.B00328", "PG10376.B00329", "PG10376.B00330", "PG10376.B00331", "PG10376.B00332", "PG10376.B00333", "PG10376.B00334", "PG10376.B00335", "PG10376.B00336", "PG10376.B00337", "PG10376.B00338", "PG10376.B00339", "PG10376.B00340", "PG10376.B00341", "PG10376.B00342", "PG10376.B00343", "PG10376.B00344", "PG10376.B00345", "PG10376.B00346", "PG10376.B00347", "PG10376.B00348", "PG10376.B00349", "PG10376.B00350", "PG10376.B00351", "PG10376.B00352", "PG10376.B00353", "PG10376.B00354", "PG10376.B00355", "PG10376.B00356", "PG10376.B00357", "PG10376.B00358", "PG10376.B00359", "PG10376.B00360", "PG10376.B00361", "PG10376.B00362", "PG10376.B00363", "PG10376.B00364", "PG10376.B00365" ], "bytes": 26923, "sha256": "aa39c275d6b00545550c1a54a0ab30a616f197732ac57bcaa6603b28390064bb", "synopsis": "The teacher returns home, corrects her mother's mistaken inference about a hired driver, and finds poverty and her brother's blocked use of education. Institutional charity is criticized as employee preservation and staged inspection. Resignation opens self-directed study. The Great Spirit essay describes kinship across human and nonhuman difference while refusing coercive creed. A new fictional narrator returns from missionary education to his sick father.", "observations": [ { "refs": [ "PG10376.B00286", "PG10376.B00288", "PG10376.B00289", "PG10376.B00290", "PG10376.B00292", "PG10376.B00293", "PG10376.B00294", "PG10376.B00297" ], "finding": "Both mother and daughter first infer wrongly from appearances: companion as chosen partner, poor house as indifference. Direct explanation corrects the first; lost means and retaliatory exclusion complicate the second. Education is not usable if an institution removes opportunity.", "disposition": "Compare revisable inference and capability versus permission/opportunity; do not treat education as sufficient inclusion." }, { "refs": [ "PG10376.B00305", "PG10376.B00308", "PG10376.B00309", "PG10376.B00312", "PG10376.B00313", "PG10376.B00314" ], "finding": "The mother contrasts religious injunctions with dispossession. The teacher identifies employment protection for white staff and dependents as overriding care for Indian pupils and patients, within a mission publicly framed as their benefit.", "disposition": "Investigate beneficiary inversion; historical allegations remain the narrator's account, not independently established case facts." }, { "refs": [ "PG10376.B00315", "PG10376.B00316", "PG10376.B00321", "PG10376.B00322", "PG10376.B00323" ], "finding": "Inspections and visitors see exhibition samples and orderly students; these satisfy claims of charity while avoiding questions about enduring life beneath the display. The narrator also acknowledges her own diminished willingness to seek good in coworkers.", "disposition": "Candidate curated display substituting for ordinary institutional performance; preserve reflexive limit on judgment." }, { "refs": [ "PG10376.B00317", "PG10376.B00319", "PG10376.B00320", "PG10376.B00321", "PG10376.B00325", "PG10376.B00329" ], "finding": "Estrangement from mother, nature and belief is followed by resignation and self-chosen study, then an essay recovering natural kinship. The collection's order does not by itself certify exact chronology or a single final doctrinal system.", "disposition": "Retain a differentiated trajectory rather than declare literacy itself rejected." }, { "refs": [ "PG10376.B00332", "PG10376.B00333", "PG10376.B00337", "PG10376.B00339", "PG10376.B00340", "PG10376.B00341", "PG10376.B00342", "PG10376.B00344" ], "finding": "The essay honors individuality within kinship and offers hospitality to a preacher whose creed it rejects. Conduct already praised is judged insufficient without membership. Mother's attribution of an extinguished fire to a holy book is presented as her interpretation.", "disposition": "Reuse distinction between recognition and agreement; inspect membership added after acknowledged good conduct." }, { "refs": [ "PG10376.B00346", "PG10376.B00348", "PG10376.B00355", "PG10376.B00356", "PG10376.B00357", "PG10376.B00360", "PG10376.B00361", "PG10376.B00363" ], "finding": "The Soft-Hearted Sioux changes narrator and genre. Family expectations of hunter, warrior and husband conflict with a mission-trained rejection of killing; the returned preacher's first impulse is to expel the medicine-man before hearing the sick father.", "disposition": "Track competing formed obligations within fiction; do not identify this narrator with memoirist or endorse either medicine." } ], "inspectionStatus": "read-in-full-without-tool-output-truncation" }, { "packet": 5, "path": "inspection/packets/pg10376/005.txt", "firstRef": "PG10376.B00366", "lastRef": "PG10376.B00461", "refs": [ "PG10376.B00366", "PG10376.B00367", "PG10376.B00368", "PG10376.B00369", "PG10376.B00370", "PG10376.B00371", "PG10376.B00372", "PG10376.B00373", "PG10376.B00374", "PG10376.B00375", "PG10376.B00376", "PG10376.B00377", "PG10376.B00378", "PG10376.B00379", "PG10376.B00380", "PG10376.B00381", "PG10376.B00382", "PG10376.B00383", "PG10376.B00384", "PG10376.B00385", "PG10376.B00386", "PG10376.B00387", "PG10376.B00388", "PG10376.B00389", "PG10376.B00390", "PG10376.B00391", "PG10376.B00392", "PG10376.B00393", "PG10376.B00394", "PG10376.B00395", "PG10376.B00396", "PG10376.B00397", "PG10376.B00398", "PG10376.B00399", "PG10376.B00400", "PG10376.B00401", "PG10376.B00402", "PG10376.B00403", "PG10376.B00404", "PG10376.B00405", "PG10376.B00406", "PG10376.B00407", "PG10376.B00408", "PG10376.B00409", "PG10376.B00410", "PG10376.B00411", "PG10376.B00412", "PG10376.B00413", "PG10376.B00414", "PG10376.B00415", "PG10376.B00416", "PG10376.B00417", "PG10376.B00418", "PG10376.B00419", "PG10376.B00420", "PG10376.B00421", "PG10376.B00422", "PG10376.B00423", "PG10376.B00424", "PG10376.B00425", "PG10376.B00426", "PG10376.B00427", "PG10376.B00428", "PG10376.B00429", "PG10376.B00430", "PG10376.B00431", "PG10376.B00432", "PG10376.B00433", "PG10376.B00434", "PG10376.B00435", "PG10376.B00436", "PG10376.B00437", "PG10376.B00438", "PG10376.B00439", "PG10376.B00440", "PG10376.B00441", "PG10376.B00442", "PG10376.B00443", "PG10376.B00444", "PG10376.B00445", "PG10376.B00446", "PG10376.B00447", "PG10376.B00448", "PG10376.B00449", "PG10376.B00450", "PG10376.B00451", "PG10376.B00452", "PG10376.B00453", "PG10376.B00454", "PG10376.B00455", "PG10376.B00456", "PG10376.B00457", "PG10376.B00458", "PG10376.B00459", "PG10376.B00460", "PG10376.B00461" ], "bytes": 26690, "sha256": "e53988a162398a4856b607a61e2d0dfa577ca444d12fa048668c45777887314a", "synopsis": "The Soft-Hearted Sioux develops incompatible duties into tragedy: conversion separates shared grief, expulsion of a healer becomes reciprocal exclusion, and desperate provisioning ends in killing and a father's death before help arrives. The Trial Path offers conditional pardon and imposed kinship after murder, while retaining grief and uncertainty about transmission. A Warrior's Daughter opens with affectionate upbringing, public generosity and an explicit history of enslavement and release.", "observations": [ { "refs": [ "PG10376.B00368", "PG10376.B00369", "PG10376.B00374", "PG10376.B00378", "PG10376.B00380", "PG10376.B00381" ], "finding": "Mother and son share tears while assigning different objects to grief. The preacher misreads silence as reception; the healer turns dress and incapacity to provide into accusations of disloyalty, then organizes withdrawal of the community.", "disposition": "Keep outward affect versus interpreted concern and reciprocal exclusion; no single narrator's account becomes the collection's settled judgment." }, { "refs": [ "PG10376.B00385", "PG10376.B00386", "PG10376.B00389", "PG10376.B00390", "PG10376.B00392", "PG10376.B00397", "PG10376.B00399" ], "finding": "Nonkilling, filial provision, survival and property claims become incompatible under abandonment and hunger. Violence occurs through the narrator's disoriented perception, and the food arrives after the intended beneficiary has died.", "disposition": "Explore action whose urgent justification is defeated by timing; preserve guilt, uncertainty and irreversible harm rather than endorse necessity." }, { "refs": [ "PG10376.B00402", "PG10376.B00404", "PG10376.B00405", "PG10376.B00406" ], "finding": "The narrator surrenders and awaits execution while uncertain which moral world will receive him. Calmness does not settle his acts' rightness or resolve the tension between love and exclusion.", "disposition": "Keep theological questions as questions within fiction." }, { "refs": [ "PG10376.B00413", "PG10376.B00417", "PG10376.B00418", "PG10376.B00420", "PG10376.B00421" ], "finding": "The Trial Path assigns the harmed family authority over punishment and calls failure of a dangerous ordeal the accused's own choice of death. The woman's fear and the talebearer's suspicion expose the costs of that construction.", "disposition": "Do not equate constrained ordeal with free choice or universal justice; compare alreadychecked authority/consent boundaries." }, { "refs": [ "PG10376.B00425", "PG10376.B00426", "PG10376.B00427", "PG10376.B00428", "PG10376.B00430", "PG10376.B00433", "PG10376.B00435" ], "finding": "Successful ordeal replaces enemy status with family obligation, yet the sister's response follows a father's command and the mother still sobs. The treasured pony is later killed for a stated spiritual purpose. A hoped-for sacred transmission ends with the listener asleep.", "disposition": "Potential restorative incorporation without erased loss; refuse a uniformly benevolent account that omits coercion and animal death." }, { "refs": [ "PG10376.B00439", "PG10376.B00440", "PG10376.B00446", "PG10376.B00449", "PG10376.B00455", "PG10376.B00457", "PG10376.B00459" ], "finding": "Warrior honor and generosity coexist with prior captivity. The released man stays and is called uncle; hair growth marks restored status. The child makes a difficult demand with faith in adult capacity and thanks him in his own language.", "disposition": "Separate release, chosen continuing relation and prior enslavement; preserve relational learning without romanticizing institutions." } ], "inspectionStatus": "read-in-full-without-tool-output-truncation" }, { "packet": 6, "path": "inspection/packets/pg10376/006.txt", "firstRef": "PG10376.B00462", "lastRef": "PG10376.B00542", "refs": [ "PG10376.B00462", "PG10376.B00463", "PG10376.B00464", "PG10376.B00465", "PG10376.B00466", "PG10376.B00467", "PG10376.B00468", "PG10376.B00469", "PG10376.B00470", "PG10376.B00471", "PG10376.B00472", "PG10376.B00473", "PG10376.B00474", "PG10376.B00475", "PG10376.B00476", "PG10376.B00477", "PG10376.B00478", "PG10376.B00479", "PG10376.B00480", "PG10376.B00481", "PG10376.B00482", "PG10376.B00483", "PG10376.B00484", "PG10376.B00485", "PG10376.B00486", "PG10376.B00487", "PG10376.B00488", "PG10376.B00489", "PG10376.B00490", "PG10376.B00491", "PG10376.B00492", "PG10376.B00493", "PG10376.B00494", "PG10376.B00495", "PG10376.B00496", "PG10376.B00497", "PG10376.B00498", "PG10376.B00499", "PG10376.B00500", "PG10376.B00501", "PG10376.B00502", "PG10376.B00503", "PG10376.B00504", "PG10376.B00505", "PG10376.B00506", "PG10376.B00507", "PG10376.B00508", "PG10376.B00509", "PG10376.B00510", "PG10376.B00511", "PG10376.B00512", "PG10376.B00513", "PG10376.B00514", "PG10376.B00515", "PG10376.B00516", "PG10376.B00517", "PG10376.B00518", "PG10376.B00519", "PG10376.B00520", "PG10376.B00521", "PG10376.B00522", "PG10376.B00523", "PG10376.B00524", "PG10376.B00525", "PG10376.B00526", "PG10376.B00527", "PG10376.B00528", "PG10376.B00529", "PG10376.B00530", "PG10376.B00531", "PG10376.B00532", "PG10376.B00533", "PG10376.B00534", "PG10376.B00535", "PG10376.B00536", "PG10376.B00537", "PG10376.B00538", "PG10376.B00539", "PG10376.B00540", "PG10376.B00541", "PG10376.B00542" ], "bytes": 26854, "sha256": "ca248dd41e6d1e5bf8e1d23e9ce7fdb1f6f3e04c642f143e4b24d1b51a583a96", "synopsis": "Tusee's rescue reverses expected protector roles while joining love, cunning and lethal revenge. A dream of a grandfather shifts inheritance from collectible regalia to a renewed public task. Blue-Star Woman's story begins with a legal identity requirement her remembered life cannot satisfy, then introduces intermediaries who exploit assumed kinship, credential display and urgency.", "observations": [ { "refs": [ "PG10376.B00467", "PG10376.B00469", "PG10376.B00474", "PG10376.B00477", "PG10376.B00479", "PG10376.B00482", "PG10376.B00485" ], "finding": "The father's marriage condition demands violence; the daughter's loyalty initially interprets it generously. When the war party leaves her lover, she acts independently and asks for the strength both to kill an enemy and save a friend.", "disposition": "Do not turn female agency into an uncomplicated nonviolent ethic or erase the harm embedded in the rescue plot." }, { "refs": [ "PG10376.B00491", "PG10376.B00495", "PG10376.B00497", "PG10376.B00498", "PG10376.B00501", "PG10376.B00502", "PG10376.B00508", "PG10376.B00510" ], "finding": "Vanity supplies a point of deception, language enables the ruse, and the rescuer physically carries the disabled captive. The story attributes success to divine response but the atlas must mark that as narrative attribution.", "disposition": "Explore strength activated by another's vulnerability; reuse existing rescue/capability concepts where enough." }, { "refs": [ "PG10376.B00512", "PG10376.B00513", "PG10376.B00514", "PG10376.B00516", "PG10376.B00517", "PG10376.B00518", "PG10376.B00520" ], "finding": "The dream recipient expects material ancestral treasures and first discounts an apparently slight gift. The gift instead carries a living communal scene and renewed hope connected to continuing a predecessor's humanitarian work.", "disposition": "Potential inheritance understood as continuing responsibility rather than possession of relics; retain explicit dream status." }, { "refs": [ "PG10376.B00523", "PG10376.B00524", "PG10376.B00525", "PG10376.B00529", "PG10376.B00530" ], "finding": "Individual self-identification fails a government test requiring parental evidence. Orphanhood, unwritten histories, conflicting oral recollections and restrictions on naming the dead block proof without establishing lack of belonging.", "disposition": "Strong candidate for rights gated by unavailable record forms; distinguish epistemic absence from substantive ineligibility." }, { "refs": [ "PG10376.B00527", "PG10376.B00528", "PG10376.B00531", "PG10376.B00532", "PG10376.B00534", "PG10376.B00535", "PG10376.B00538" ], "finding": "Actual neighborly sharing contrasts with credential display and assumed kinship. The woman is puzzled that religious literacy supplies no legal intelligibility; unfamiliar law becomes generalized fear and dependence.", "disposition": "Compare cultural signs mistaken for trustworthy expertise and opaque institutions creating intermediary leverage." }, { "refs": [ "PG10376.B00536", "PG10376.B00538", "PG10376.B00540", "PG10376.B00541", "PG10376.B00542" ], "finding": "The intermediaries invoke age and the risk of dying before relief, consume her scarce food, and benefit from the very bureaucratic problem they claim to remedy. Assumed family address gains access to a hospitality norm without genuine altruism.", "disposition": "Potential exploitation through borrowed obligations and manufactured urgency; keep narrator's judgment and woman's initially trusting view separate." } ], "inspectionStatus": "read-in-full-without-tool-output-truncation" }, { "packet": 7, "path": "inspection/packets/pg10376/007.txt", "firstRef": "PG10376.B00543", "lastRef": "PG10376.B00608", "refs": [ "PG10376.B00543", "PG10376.B00544", "PG10376.B00545", "PG10376.B00546", "PG10376.B00547", "PG10376.B00548", "PG10376.B00549", "PG10376.B00550", "PG10376.B00551", "PG10376.B00552", "PG10376.B00553", "PG10376.B00554", "PG10376.B00555", "PG10376.B00556", "PG10376.B00557", "PG10376.B00558", "PG10376.B00559", "PG10376.B00560", "PG10376.B00561", "PG10376.B00562", "PG10376.B00563", "PG10376.B00564", "PG10376.B00565", "PG10376.B00566", "PG10376.B00567", "PG10376.B00568", "PG10376.B00569", "PG10376.B00570", "PG10376.B00571", "PG10376.B00572", "PG10376.B00573", "PG10376.B00574", "PG10376.B00575", "PG10376.B00576", "PG10376.B00577", "PG10376.B00578", "PG10376.B00579", "PG10376.B00580", "PG10376.B00581", "PG10376.B00582", "PG10376.B00583", "PG10376.B00584", "PG10376.B00585", "PG10376.B00586", "PG10376.B00587", "PG10376.B00588", "PG10376.B00589", "PG10376.B00590", "PG10376.B00591", "PG10376.B00592", "PG10376.B00593", "PG10376.B00594", "PG10376.B00595", "PG10376.B00596", "PG10376.B00597", "PG10376.B00598", "PG10376.B00599", "PG10376.B00600", "PG10376.B00601", "PG10376.B00602", "PG10376.B00603", "PG10376.B00604", "PG10376.B00605", "PG10376.B00606", "PG10376.B00607", "PG10376.B00608" ], "bytes": 26957, "sha256": "953a9969cd397be6b7f7fc227db9c0339cbc4320e414337b1378f463b13a9c6e", "synopsis": "Blue-Star Woman accepts a costly broker arrangement under scarcity; her admission to one tribal roll dispossesses others without their participation. A chief's attempt to challenge this is silenced, misread as an attack and later exploited by the same intermediaries. His vision turns Liberty toward Indigenous people without claiming achieved reform. The final essay calls for enfranchisement and quotes a1915 administrative report on inaccessible knowledge, trust obligations and missing independent scrutiny.", "observations": [ { "refs": [ "PG10376.B00543", "PG10376.B00544", "PG10376.B00545", "PG10376.B00546", "PG10376.B00548" ], "finding": "The brokers present half of an entitlement as better than none and justify crooked means through a back-fire analogy. She agrees while knowing their character and feels implicated afterward; scarcity narrows bargaining without making the bargain fair.", "disposition": "Compare dependent consent, extractive intermediation and bounded analogy; do not imply she is wholly deceived." }, { "refs": [ "PG10376.B00550", "PG10376.B00551", "PG10376.B00552", "PG10376.B00555", "PG10376.B00562", "PG10376.B00563" ], "finding": "Official notification substitutes for collective consent. The chief recognizes possible entitlement elsewhere but disputes burdening his poor community; a claimed parentage conflicts with his direct recollection. Relief for one excluded person is arranged at others' unconsulted cost.", "disposition": "Candidate remedy that shifts the burden to another excluded group; separate false documentation from Blue-Star's broader claim to land." }, { "refs": [ "PG10376.B00563", "PG10376.B00564", "PG10376.B00565", "PG10376.B00568", "PG10376.B00570" ], "finding": "Expected routing of protest back to the bureaucracy deters ordinary transmission. The chief burns his own letter in symbolic appeal; officials reclassify the fire as attempted destruction and the accused authority also judges him.", "disposition": "Potential complaint route controlled by the challenged institution; reuse accuser/judge separation for the arrest episode." }, { "refs": [ "PG10376.B00572", "PG10376.B00573", "PG10376.B00574", "PG10376.B00575", "PG10376.B00577", "PG10376.B00578" ], "finding": "A vision sustains faith in allies, but release does not realize the envisioned reform: intermediaries claim credit and exact half the chief's land under his son's agreement. The same extraction works on both the initial claimant and her opponent.", "disposition": "Strong system-level connection: profit from relief on opposing sides of an administrative injury. Keep hope distinct from reported achievement." }, { "refs": [ "PG10376.B00580", "PG10376.B00581", "PG10376.B00583", "PG10376.B00584", "PG10376.B00585", "PG10376.B00586", "PG10376.B00587" ], "finding": "The final essay changes to public advocacy, contests protective wardship, seeks opportunity/citizenship and rejects piecemeal relief. Its historical examples and account of unchanged administration are attributed claims within the1921 volume.", "disposition": "No present legal or historical certification; distinguish memoir, fiction, vision and reform platform." }, { "refs": [ "PG10376.B00589", "PG10376.B00591", "PG10376.B00593", "PG10376.B00595", "PG10376.B00597", "PG10376.B00603", "PG10376.B00605", "PG10376.B00607" ], "finding": "The quoted report describes valuable analysis completed but not published or accessible, trust assets whose state is unknown to custodians, and scrutiny disabled by lack of independent audit and political standing. Existing knowledge is not the same as usable public knowledge.", "disposition": "Reuse audit, access, trust and accountability concepts; consider completion without public availability as a distinct institutional failure. Source quotations not current policy facts." } ], "inspectionStatus": "read-in-full-without-tool-output-truncation" }, { "packet": 8, "path": "inspection/packets/pg10376/008.txt", "firstRef": "PG10376.B00609", "lastRef": "PG10376.B00670", "refs": [ "PG10376.B00609", "PG10376.B00610", "PG10376.B00611", "PG10376.B00612", "PG10376.B00613", "PG10376.B00614", "PG10376.B00615", "PG10376.B00616", "PG10376.B00617", "PG10376.B00618", "PG10376.B00619", "PG10376.B00620", "PG10376.B00621", "PG10376.B00622", "PG10376.B00623", "PG10376.B00624", "PG10376.B00625", "PG10376.B00626", "PG10376.B00627", "PG10376.B00628", "PG10376.B00629", "PG10376.B00630", "PG10376.B00631", "PG10376.B00632", "PG10376.B00633", "PG10376.B00634", "PG10376.B00635", "PG10376.B00636", "PG10376.B00637", "PG10376.B00638", "PG10376.B00639", "PG10376.B00640", "PG10376.B00641", "PG10376.B00642", "PG10376.B00643", "PG10376.B00644", "PG10376.B00645", "PG10376.B00646", "PG10376.B00647", "PG10376.B00648", "PG10376.B00649", "PG10376.B00650", "PG10376.B00651", "PG10376.B00652", "PG10376.B00653", "PG10376.B00654", "PG10376.B00655", "PG10376.B00656", "PG10376.B00657", "PG10376.B00658", "PG10376.B00659", "PG10376.B00660", "PG10376.B00661", "PG10376.B00662", "PG10376.B00663", "PG10376.B00664", "PG10376.B00665", "PG10376.B00666", "PG10376.B00667", "PG10376.B00668", "PG10376.B00669", "PG10376.B00670" ], "bytes": 20292, "sha256": "8866ead4b4c8f10ca5bd6c3885bbeea89688faa2f762294fe0383dec99e602a3", "synopsis": "The retained volume ends with promotional material for Old Indian Legends, a dated letter from Helen Keller, and Project Gutenberg's license and institutional information. Keller's praise belongs to an attributed letter about another collection; it is not a neutral summary of all the genres just inspected. The electronic-edition notice also cautions that Gutenberg texts may combine print editions.", "observations": [ { "refs": [ "PG10376.B00609", "PG10376.B00610", "PG10376.B00612", "PG10376.B00613", "PG10376.B00614", "PG10376.B00615", "PG10376.B00616", "PG10376.B00619" ], "finding": "The 1919 Keller letter praises Old Indian Legends through childhood, wilderness and wonder imagery. That reception can be compared with the author's accounts of adult agency and institutional power, but does not supply evidence that the separate advertised book was inspected.", "disposition": "Paratext and attributed reception; do not turn appreciative but exoticizing language into an ethnographic definition." }, { "refs": [ "PG10376.B00620", "PG10376.B00621", "PG10376.B00622", "PG10376.B00623", "PG10376.B00624", "PG10376.B00625" ], "finding": "The end marker separates the work from electronic-distribution apparatus. The retained license's jurisdictional and reuse statements belong to this source version; they are not instructions to perform external actions or a present legal certification.", "disposition": "Retain complete original source and notices; exclude boilerplate from literary concept claims." }, { "refs": [ "PG10376.B00654", "PG10376.B00655", "PG10376.B00666", "PG10376.B00668", "PG10376.B00669", "PG10376.B00670" ], "finding": "Project information describes its mission and electronic-edition practices. In particular, the notice says eBooks can draw from several printed editions, so the retained text should not automatically be equated with one physical edition.", "disposition": "Explicit source-version limitation; all indexed apparatus inspected without treating it as the author's voice." } ], "inspectionStatus": "read-in-full-without-tool-output-truncation" } ] } }, { "bookId": 33504, "ledger": [ { "packet": 1, "path": "inspection/packets/pg33504/001.txt", "firstRef": "PG33504.B00001", "lastRef": "PG33504.B00111", "refs": [ "PG33504.B00001", "PG33504.B00002", "PG33504.B00003", "PG33504.B00004", "PG33504.B00005", "PG33504.B00006", "PG33504.B00007", "PG33504.B00008", "PG33504.B00009", "PG33504.B00010", "PG33504.B00011", "PG33504.B00012", "PG33504.B00013", "PG33504.B00014", "PG33504.B00015", "PG33504.B00016", "PG33504.B00017", "PG33504.B00018", "PG33504.B00019", "PG33504.B00020", "PG33504.B00021", "PG33504.B00022", "PG33504.B00023", "PG33504.B00024", "PG33504.B00025", "PG33504.B00026", "PG33504.B00027", "PG33504.B00028", "PG33504.B00029", "PG33504.B00030", "PG33504.B00031", "PG33504.B00032", "PG33504.B00033", "PG33504.B00034", "PG33504.B00035", "PG33504.B00036", "PG33504.B00037", "PG33504.B00038", "PG33504.B00039", "PG33504.B00040", "PG33504.B00041", "PG33504.B00042", "PG33504.B00043", "PG33504.B00044", "PG33504.B00045", "PG33504.B00046", "PG33504.B00047", "PG33504.B00048", "PG33504.B00049", "PG33504.B00050", "PG33504.B00051", "PG33504.B00052", "PG33504.B00053", "PG33504.B00054", "PG33504.B00055", "PG33504.B00056", "PG33504.B00057", "PG33504.B00058", "PG33504.B00059", "PG33504.B00060", "PG33504.B00061", "PG33504.B00062", "PG33504.B00063", "PG33504.B00064", "PG33504.B00065", "PG33504.B00066", "PG33504.B00067", "PG33504.B00068", "PG33504.B00069", "PG33504.B00070", "PG33504.B00071", "PG33504.B00072", "PG33504.B00073", "PG33504.B00074", "PG33504.B00075", "PG33504.B00076", "PG33504.B00077", "PG33504.B00078", "PG33504.B00079", "PG33504.B00080", "PG33504.B00081", "PG33504.B00082", "PG33504.B00083", "PG33504.B00084", "PG33504.B00085", "PG33504.B00086", "PG33504.B00087", "PG33504.B00088", "PG33504.B00089", "PG33504.B00090", "PG33504.B00091", "PG33504.B00092", "PG33504.B00093", "PG33504.B00094", "PG33504.B00095", "PG33504.B00096", "PG33504.B00097", "PG33504.B00098", "PG33504.B00099", "PG33504.B00100", "PG33504.B00101", "PG33504.B00102", "PG33504.B00103", "PG33504.B00104", "PG33504.B00105", "PG33504.B00106", "PG33504.B00107", "PG33504.B00108", "PG33504.B00109", "PG33504.B00110", "PG33504.B00111" ], "bytes": 26707, "sha256": "577344576fc3c050f8eb692ab7748d8135532ed8a07a1b19da13826050303a8e", "synopsis": "Publication advertisements distinguish incomplete inquiry and questions from established experiments; fourth-edition and transcription notes identify the available text. Definitions operationalize rays and comparison of refrangibility, then geometrical axioms construct reflection, refraction, focus, retinal images and apparent position. The first proposition begins.", "observations": [ { "refs": [ "PG33504.B00025", "PG33504.B00026", "PG33504.B00031", "PG33504.B00035", "PG33504.B00037" ], "finding": "Newton declares unfinished experiments and uncertain gravity questions; the fourth-edition editor supplies omitted-demonstration references, and Greek/roots use transcription conventions.", "disposition": "apparatus and epistemic scope" }, { "refs": [ "PG33504.B00044", "PG33504.B00046", "PG33504.B00048", "PG33504.B00056" ], "finding": "Rays are specified through separately stoppable or propagable portions; comparisons fix incidence and medium, and homogeneity is limited to the properties under discussion.", "disposition": "candidate: operational ray; property-relative homogeneity" }, { "refs": [ "PG33504.B00065", "PG33504.B00069", "PG33504.B00070", "PG33504.B00078", "PG33504.B00088" ], "finding": "Reversibility, sine ratios and paraxial focus rules are stated with exact-or-nearly and small-obliquity conditions. Figure markers are present but diagrams not visible.", "disposition": "candidate: qualified optical model; diagram limit" }, { "refs": [ "PG33504.B00092", "PG33504.B00094", "PG33504.B00097", "PG33504.B00099", "PG33504.B00102", "PG33504.B00103" ], "finding": "Pointwise image construction and apparent position after the final optical change organize lenses; physiological explanations and agreed principles are attributed, not independently verified.", "disposition": "candidate: apparent origin from emergent rays; source limits" } ] }, { "packet": 2, "path": "inspection/packets/pg33504/002.txt", "firstRef": "PG33504.B00112", "lastRef": "PG33504.B00133", "refs": [ "PG33504.B00112", "PG33504.B00113", "PG33504.B00114", "PG33504.B00115", "PG33504.B00116", "PG33504.B00117", "PG33504.B00118", "PG33504.B00119", "PG33504.B00120", "PG33504.B00121", "PG33504.B00122", "PG33504.B00123", "PG33504.B00124", "PG33504.B00125", "PG33504.B00126", "PG33504.B00127", "PG33504.B00128", "PG33504.B00129", "PG33504.B00130", "PG33504.B00131", "PG33504.B00132", "PG33504.B00133" ], "bytes": 26880, "sha256": "830ad8157083a4836e19a461b14ecb34e3b1e631d26e9c930a0adb5bf132eb48", "synopsis": "The first experiments compare colored halves through a prism and lens, documenting background control and sharp thread markers. Newton qualifies mixtures and distinguishes helpful setup details from essential conditions. An elongated spectrum alone underdetermines its cause; crossed prisms discriminate constant differential refrangibility from casual spreading.", "observations": [ { "refs": [ "PG33504.B00112", "PG33504.B00115", "PG33504.B00117" ], "finding": "Black surroundings and fine threads improve visibility and focus judgment; reported circumstances may aid novices or record a trial without being necessary. Dominant color differences do not imply every ray in one painted color exceeds every ray in another.", "disposition": "candidate: enabling versus essential setup; mixture-qualified comparison" }, { "refs": [ "PG33504.B00124", "PG33504.B00125", "PG33504.B00126", "PG33504.B00127" ], "finding": "The stationary turning point sets equal refractions; repeated prisms and altered conditions address defects. Faint uncertain fringes are excluded explicitly. Elongation establishes inequality but not yet its mechanism.", "disposition": "candidate: symmetry by extremum; uncertainty boundary" }, { "refs": [ "PG33504.B00128", "PG33504.B00130", "PG33504.B00131", "PG33504.B00133" ], "finding": "A second transverse refraction predicts widening under the competing spreading account, whereas the observed ordering persists without widening; prose states this discriminating result though figures are absent.", "disposition": "candidate: orthogonal repeated transformation test; diagram scope" } ] }, { "packet": 3, "path": "inspection/packets/pg33504/003.txt", "firstRef": "PG33504.B00134", "lastRef": "PG33504.B00155", "refs": [ "PG33504.B00134", "PG33504.B00135", "PG33504.B00136", "PG33504.B00137", "PG33504.B00138", "PG33504.B00139", "PG33504.B00140", "PG33504.B00141", "PG33504.B00142", "PG33504.B00143", "PG33504.B00144", "PG33504.B00145", "PG33504.B00146", "PG33504.B00147", "PG33504.B00148", "PG33504.B00149", "PG33504.B00150", "PG33504.B00151", "PG33504.B00152", "PG33504.B00153", "PG33504.B00154", "PG33504.B00155" ], "bytes": 24577, "sha256": "af0b656cc1cd75d950ecba3e0c30ad060af37ca37dd1b17c9bee4e7f29ffe378", "synopsis": "Improved edge definition reinforces regular refraction; multiple arrangements preserve ordering. Fixed holes hold second-prism incidence constant while selected colors vary. Recombined colors can be separated again, and color-specific total reflection selectively enriches or removes components from a beam.", "observations": [ { "refs": [ "PG33504.B00134", "PG33504.B00135", "PG33504.B00138" ], "finding": "Edge sharpness tests an alleged spreading mechanism; moving the second prism and comparing adjacent spectra check whether the effect follows ray character across arrangements.", "disposition": "candidate: boundary evidence for internal regularity" }, { "refs": [ "PG33504.B00139", "PG33504.B00140" ], "finding": "Two fixed apertures preserve the input direction at the second prism while rotating the first selects different portions, separating ray differences from changing incidence.", "disposition": "application: fixed geometry with varied selected input" }, { "refs": [ "PG33504.B00143", "PG33504.B00145", "PG33504.B00147", "PG33504.B00148", "PG33504.B00149", "PG33504.B00150" ], "finding": "Coincident colored contributions separate under a further test and vanish with their respective source; pure versus contaminated illumination changes focal separation and attainable discrimination.", "disposition": "candidate: latent mixture revealed by differential response; scope" }, { "refs": [ "PG33504.B00151", "PG33504.B00153", "PG33504.B00154" ], "finding": "Threshold reflection progressively enriches one output and depletes another by refrangibility; the inference to the incident composition assumes the stated restoration or preservation of properties.", "disposition": "candidate: ordered threshold separation; retain inferential premise" } ] }, { "packet": 4, "path": "inspection/packets/pg33504/004.txt", "firstRef": "PG33504.B00156", "lastRef": "PG33504.B00186", "refs": [ "PG33504.B00156", "PG33504.B00157", "PG33504.B00158", "PG33504.B00159", "PG33504.B00160", "PG33504.B00161", "PG33504.B00162", "PG33504.B00163", "PG33504.B00164", "PG33504.B00165", "PG33504.B00166", "PG33504.B00167", "PG33504.B00168", "PG33504.B00169", "PG33504.B00170", "PG33504.B00171", "PG33504.B00172", "PG33504.B00173", "PG33504.B00174", "PG33504.B00175", "PG33504.B00176", "PG33504.B00177", "PG33504.B00178", "PG33504.B00179", "PG33504.B00180", "PG33504.B00181", "PG33504.B00182", "PG33504.B00183", "PG33504.B00184", "PG33504.B00185", "PG33504.B00186" ], "bytes": 26041, "sha256": "e5d3a84dcfc3866db6d3a205bd8859e40ce04c7e85b94cbb14cae76c359e599a", "synopsis": "Complementary transmitted and reflected beams support persistent component differences; improved aperture and lens arrangements reduce mixture to usable homogeneous light. Controlled object viewing isolates illumination as the source of chromatic confusion, and Newton distinguishes inherited mean-ray measurements from proof for every ray type.", "observations": [ { "refs": [ "PG33504.B00156", "PG33504.B00157", "PG33504.B00158", "PG33504.B00161" ], "finding": "Increasing a reflection threshold removes components from transmission in an ordered sequence while increasing the corresponding reflected components; agreement across transformations supports stable sorting properties.", "disposition": "candidate: complementary-output evidence and threshold separation" }, { "refs": [ "PG33504.B00165", "PG33504.B00166", "PG33504.B00167", "PG33504.B00168", "PG33504.B00170", "PG33504.B00171", "PG33504.B00172", "PG33504.B00174" ], "finding": "Aperture geometry controls spectral overlap; a long narrow slit increases usable extent without equivalent mixing, a triangle trades brightness against purity spatially, and faint purified light is relatively more vulnerable to stray illumination. Claimed homogeneity is sufficient to sensory resolution, not absolute purity.", "disposition": "candidates: design-separated throughput and purity; relative contamination; retain practical limit" }, { "refs": [ "PG33504.B00178", "PG33504.B00179", "PG33504.B00180", "PG33504.B00181" ], "finding": "Keeping object, prism, distance and situation fixed while changing simple versus compound illumination isolates the source of confused vision; surviving color under refraction is separately observed.", "disposition": "application: controlled comparison" }, { "refs": [ "PG33504.B00184", "PG33504.B00185" ], "finding": "A relation measured on an undifferentiated beam may characterize only its middle component; extending it to other components requires an explicit proof despite an appealing uniformity argument.", "disposition": "candidate: component-specific validation of aggregate law" } ] }, { "packet": 5, "path": "inspection/packets/pg33504/005.txt", "firstRef": "PG33504.B00187", "lastRef": "PG33504.B00211", "refs": [ "PG33504.B00187", "PG33504.B00188", "PG33504.B00189", "PG33504.B00190", "PG33504.B00191", "PG33504.B00192", "PG33504.B00193", "PG33504.B00194", "PG33504.B00195", "PG33504.B00196", "PG33504.B00197", "PG33504.B00198", "PG33504.B00199", "PG33504.B00200", "PG33504.B00201", "PG33504.B00202", "PG33504.B00203", "PG33504.B00204", "PG33504.B00205", "PG33504.B00206", "PG33504.B00207", "PG33504.B00208", "PG33504.B00209", "PG33504.B00210", "PG33504.B00211" ], "bytes": 25564, "sha256": "40f57ca230696cbbefa3e0dea0c6270dfabf36a8c714d09da3051857d5b6c600", "synopsis": "Newton estimates ray-specific sine ratios, supplements approximate evidence with a conditional mechanical demonstration, and measures the consequent chromatic focal spread. He records failures and successive changes to prisms, targets and alignment, then extrapolates the barely visible spectral endpoints from measurable intermediate differences.", "observations": [ { "refs": [ "PG33504.B00187", "PG33504.B00188", "PG33504.B00189", "PG33504.B00190", "PG33504.B00191" ], "finding": "Experimental ratios are explicitly approximate without accurate computation; exactness is argued conditionally on surface-normal action, claimed independent of a fuller account of light or force.", "disposition": "candidate: conditional derivation with mechanism left open; preserve assumption" }, { "refs": [ "PG33504.B00194", "PG33504.B00195", "PG33504.B00196", "PG33504.B00197", "PG33504.B00198", "PG33504.B00199" ], "finding": "A competing proposed remedy to telescope imperfection targets spherical figure while chromatic refrangibility imposes another source of focal spread; finite source breadth is subtracted before inferring ray divergence.", "disposition": "application: separate optical error sources; candidate: source-size correction" }, { "refs": [ "PG33504.B00201", "PG33504.B00202", "PG33504.B00203", "PG33504.B00207", "PG33504.B00211" ], "finding": "Unsuccessful trials diagnose veins, bubbles, weak color, contamination and off-axis indistinctness; a separate test rejects the suspected mixed-light explanation before changing target and alignment. Procedural trouble is retained to guide replication.", "disposition": "candidate: failed-trial diagnostic record; application: observational competence" }, { "refs": [ "PG33504.B00204", "PG33504.B00205", "PG33504.B00206", "PG33504.B00208", "PG33504.B00209", "PG33504.B00210" ], "finding": "Measured interior spectral separations and focal differences support extrapolation to endpoints too faint to see; the full endpoint difference is inferred rather than directly observed.", "disposition": "candidate: proportional extrapolation beyond visibility; retain distinction" } ] }, { "packet": 6, "path": "inspection/packets/pg33504/006.txt", "firstRef": "PG33504.B00212", "lastRef": "PG33504.B00240", "refs": [ "PG33504.B00212", "PG33504.B00213", "PG33504.B00214", "PG33504.B00215", "PG33504.B00216", "PG33504.B00217", "PG33504.B00218", "PG33504.B00219", "PG33504.B00220", "PG33504.B00221", "PG33504.B00222", "PG33504.B00223", "PG33504.B00224", "PG33504.B00225", "PG33504.B00226", "PG33504.B00227", "PG33504.B00228", "PG33504.B00229", "PG33504.B00230", "PG33504.B00231", "PG33504.B00232", "PG33504.B00233", "PG33504.B00234", "PG33504.B00235", "PG33504.B00236", "PG33504.B00237", "PG33504.B00238", "PG33504.B00239", "PG33504.B00240" ], "bytes": 25523, "sha256": "30b8911e4e11e9a5a245d23817f90fcf3bffd46d9ebe478fa63c9ec1e21bdba5", "synopsis": "Chromatic errors are compared quantitatively with spherical errors, perceptual weighting explains usable telescope images despite theoretical spread, and scaling behavior provides another causal test. Reflecting telescope construction combines repeated craft trials, tradeoffs and proposed improvements; atmospheric disturbance remains a limit even for ideal workmanship. Editorial cross-references close the first part.", "observations": [ { "refs": [ "PG33504.B00212", "PG33504.B00214", "PG33504.B00215", "PG33504.B00216", "PG33504.B00217" ], "finding": "Total geometric spread differs from the sensible image because light density, color sensitivity and faintness weight contributions unequally; attenuation can shrink apparent stellar diameter without changing the source.", "disposition": "candidate: perceptually weighted error footprint; historical lunar-atmosphere assertion not verified" }, { "refs": [ "PG33504.B00218", "PG33504.B00220" ], "finding": "Competing error causes predict different aperture-versus-length scaling laws; observed scaling discriminates them beyond a single instrument comparison.", "disposition": "candidate: scaling-law discrimination" }, { "refs": [ "PG33504.B00221", "PG33504.B00222", "PG33504.B00225", "PG33504.B00227" ], "finding": "Replacing refraction with reflection trades chromatic limitations for light loss, tarnishing and more demanding surface accuracy. Polishing alternates improvement of one specimen against a retained best specimen; practice exceeds what instructions convey. Tried failures and untried improvements remain distinct.", "disposition": "candidates: retained-best experimental improvement; changed mechanism changes manufacturing tolerance; application: tacit practice" }, { "refs": [ "PG33504.B00228" ], "finding": "Independent rapid atmospheric tremors can erase visible twinkling while broadening a star image; improving the instrument cannot remove disturbance already imposed by the intervening medium.", "disposition": "candidates: fluctuation hidden by spatial aggregation; upstream-medium performance limit" }, { "refs": [ "PG33504.B00229", "PG33504.B00230", "PG33504.B00231", "PG33504.B00232", "PG33504.B00233", "PG33504.B00234", "PG33504.B00235" ], "finding": "Editorial footnotes direct readers to demonstrations in another work; those demonstrations are not supplied or independently inspected here.", "disposition": "apparatus and scope" } ] }, { "packet": 7, "path": "inspection/packets/pg33504/007.txt", "firstRef": "PG33504.B00241", "lastRef": "PG33504.B00278", "refs": [ "PG33504.B00241", "PG33504.B00242", "PG33504.B00243", "PG33504.B00244", "PG33504.B00245", "PG33504.B00246", "PG33504.B00247", "PG33504.B00248", "PG33504.B00249", "PG33504.B00250", "PG33504.B00251", "PG33504.B00252", "PG33504.B00253", "PG33504.B00254", "PG33504.B00255", "PG33504.B00256", "PG33504.B00257", "PG33504.B00258", "PG33504.B00259", "PG33504.B00260", "PG33504.B00261", "PG33504.B00262", "PG33504.B00263", "PG33504.B00264", "PG33504.B00265", "PG33504.B00266", "PG33504.B00267", "PG33504.B00268", "PG33504.B00269", "PG33504.B00270", "PG33504.B00271", "PG33504.B00272", "PG33504.B00273", "PG33504.B00274", "PG33504.B00275", "PG33504.B00276", "PG33504.B00277", "PG33504.B00278" ], "bytes": 26786, "sha256": "34c5b01052947e07bac9768987ace642e50090f53f26b73f5cf2ee92c483c908", "synopsis": "Experiments undermine shadow-boundary explanations by varying boundaries without changing colors and colors without changing boundaries. Color constancy in practically homogeneous light leads to a distinction between physical dispositions and sensations. Refrangibility bands and tentative cross-medium theorems precede the distinction between visually similar simple and composite colors.", "observations": [ { "refs": [ "PG33504.B00241", "PG33504.B00243", "PG33504.B00246", "PG33504.B00247", "PG33504.B00248", "PG33504.B00249", "PG33504.B00250" ], "finding": "Boundary positions can vary independently of color, and uniform color changes occur with boundaries fixed or absent; the argument removes a proposed necessary causal connection through several distinct arrangements.", "disposition": "candidate: reciprocal independence test for alleged cause" }, { "refs": [ "PG33504.B00254", "PG33504.B00255", "PG33504.B00256" ], "finding": "Color constancy is explicitly sensory and limited by residual heterogeneity; no sensible change is treated as none for experiments judged by sense, rather than claiming mathematically perfect purification.", "disposition": "candidate: operational null at stated resolution" }, { "refs": [ "PG33504.B00258" ], "finding": "Color words are declared convenient shorthand: bodies selectively reflect, rays dispose the sensorium to respond, and color properly describes sensation. A sound analogy makes the levels explicit.", "disposition": "candidate: disposition distinguished from sensation" }, { "refs": [ "PG33504.B00262", "PG33504.B00265", "PG33504.B00267", "PG33504.B00268", "PG33504.B00269", "PG33504.B00270", "PG33504.B00271", "PG33504.B00272" ], "finding": "An assistant with better color discrimination marks repeated color boundaries; musical proportions organize the resulting bands. Cross-medium relations are inferred with tentative wording and used to generate experimental expectations.", "disposition": "expression: division of perceptual work, mathematical analogy, tentative generalization; no independent verification" }, { "refs": [ "PG33504.B00274", "PG33504.B00275" ], "finding": "Identical-looking hues can differ in constitution and in their response to a separating prism; mixed colors also include purples with no corresponding single homogeneous ray color.", "disposition": "candidate: appearance equivalence does not imply response equivalence" } ] }, { "packet": 8, "path": "inspection/packets/pg33504/008.txt", "firstRef": "PG33504.B00279", "lastRef": "PG33504.B00309", "refs": [ "PG33504.B00279", "PG33504.B00280", "PG33504.B00281", "PG33504.B00282", "PG33504.B00283", "PG33504.B00284", "PG33504.B00285", "PG33504.B00286", "PG33504.B00287", "PG33504.B00288", "PG33504.B00289", "PG33504.B00290", "PG33504.B00291", "PG33504.B00292", "PG33504.B00293", "PG33504.B00294", "PG33504.B00295", "PG33504.B00296", "PG33504.B00297", "PG33504.B00298", "PG33504.B00299", "PG33504.B00300", "PG33504.B00301", "PG33504.B00302", "PG33504.B00303", "PG33504.B00304", "PG33504.B00305", "PG33504.B00306", "PG33504.B00307", "PG33504.B00308", "PG33504.B00309" ], "bytes": 26112, "sha256": "d4e3e4e4e54cd490a54b51338d04ed622be2a4356fcfcfc7fbb850cad4c879b2", "synopsis": "Whiteness is composed, removed and restored using separated colors, with tests that mixtures preserve component dispositions. Temporal succession too fast to distinguish also yields whiteness. Pigment experiments distinguish weak reflected light from hue and compare gray powder with white paper under adjusted illumination, including an uninformed observer's judgment.", "observations": [ { "refs": [ "PG33504.B00279", "PG33504.B00280", "PG33504.B00281", "PG33504.B00283", "PG33504.B00284", "PG33504.B00285" ], "finding": "Removing one component from a reconstructed white changes the mixture but not the separately recovered remaining component; restoring the removed input restores the original appearance. Recombination is tested for preservation rather than assumed transformative.", "disposition": "candidate: component-preservation test through reversible mixture; application: analysis checked by recomposition" }, { "refs": [ "PG33504.B00286", "PG33504.B00287", "PG33504.B00289", "PG33504.B00292", "PG33504.B00293", "PG33504.B00295", "PG33504.B00302", "PG33504.B00303" ], "finding": "Fast successive or spatially unresolved colors can produce the same white sensation as simultaneous mixture, although no momentary component is itself white.", "disposition": "application: temporal superposition; candidate: sensory equivalence of distinct aggregation routes" }, { "refs": [ "PG33504.B00296", "PG33504.B00297", "PG33504.B00298", "PG33504.B00300", "PG33504.B00301" ], "finding": "Different apparatus arrangements succeed when their rays are uniformly mixed in the needed proportions; the invariant condition is distinguished from incidental geometry.", "disposition": "candidate: functional sufficiency across apparatus variations" }, { "refs": [ "PG33504.B00304", "PG33504.B00305", "PG33504.B00306" ], "finding": "Pigments lose light selectively, so mixture proportions depend on specimen quality; lighting and viewing distance are adjusted to compare appearances, then an uninformed visitor is asked to discriminate the whites before being told their origin.", "disposition": "candidates: illumination-conditioned appearance; observer judgment before disclosure; preserve material-mixture limitations" } ] }, { "packet": 9, "path": "inspection/packets/pg33504/009.txt", "firstRef": "PG33504.B00310", "lastRef": "PG33504.B00335", "refs": [ "PG33504.B00310", "PG33504.B00311", "PG33504.B00312", "PG33504.B00313", "PG33504.B00314", "PG33504.B00315", "PG33504.B00316", "PG33504.B00317", "PG33504.B00318", "PG33504.B00319", "PG33504.B00320", "PG33504.B00321", "PG33504.B00322", "PG33504.B00323", "PG33504.B00324", "PG33504.B00325", "PG33504.B00326", "PG33504.B00327", "PG33504.B00328", "PG33504.B00329", "PG33504.B00330", "PG33504.B00331", "PG33504.B00332", "PG33504.B00333", "PG33504.B00334", "PG33504.B00335" ], "bytes": 26377, "sha256": "d629947212e0baeee311a8ec2c8489fde7075915f0bf8f4c47692ee78652af7d", "synopsis": "A weighted color-circle construction predicts hue and saturation approximately, with explicit exceptions and untried combinations. The explanatory program covers light-caused colors while excluding dreams, pressure and other causes of sensation. Prism colors and rainbows are derived from component distribution, geometry and concentrations near limiting angles.", "observations": [ { "refs": [ "PG33504.B00310", "PG33504.B00311", "PG33504.B00312" ], "finding": "The color rule encodes mixture by a center of gravity, assigning hue to direction and intensity to radius, but concedes practical approximation, anomalous two-color whites and unknown three-color cases; weights mean reflected light, not pigment amount.", "disposition": "candidate: separated hue and saturation coordinates; application: explicit approximation and measurement basis" }, { "refs": [ "PG33504.B00314", "PG33504.B00315" ], "finding": "The universal-sounding claim is restricted to color arising from light, with dream, imagination and mechanically elicited sensations explicitly outside its scope.", "disposition": "candidate: causal-domain restriction of perceptual law; retain historical descriptions" }, { "refs": [ "PG33504.B00318", "PG33504.B00320", "PG33504.B00321", "PG33504.B00322", "PG33504.B00323", "PG33504.B00324", "PG33504.B00325", "PG33504.B00327" ], "finding": "Predicted edge colors follow distributions and absences of components; the starting illumination's yellow bias affects the result, and cloud light is substituted to display blue more clearly.", "disposition": "application: composition-conditioned response; expression of deductive experiment design" }, { "refs": [ "PG33504.B00331", "PG33504.B00332", "PG33504.B00333", "PG33504.B00334" ], "finding": "A small change in input position produces little change of outgoing direction near an angular extremum, concentrating many rays into an observable bow; ray-specific extrema separate colors and observer position selects visible drops.", "disposition": "candidates: concentration near stationary mapping; observer-relative geometric phenomenon; diagrams absent" } ] }, { "packet": 10, "path": "inspection/packets/pg33504/010.txt", "firstRef": "PG33504.B00336", "lastRef": "PG33504.B00372", "refs": [ "PG33504.B00336", "PG33504.B00337", "PG33504.B00338", "PG33504.B00339", "PG33504.B00340", "PG33504.B00341", "PG33504.B00342", "PG33504.B00343", "PG33504.B00344", "PG33504.B00345", "PG33504.B00346", "PG33504.B00347", "PG33504.B00348", "PG33504.B00349", "PG33504.B00350", "PG33504.B00351", "PG33504.B00352", "PG33504.B00353", "PG33504.B00354", "PG33504.B00355", "PG33504.B00356", "PG33504.B00357", "PG33504.B00358", "PG33504.B00359", "PG33504.B00360", "PG33504.B00361", "PG33504.B00362", "PG33504.B00363", "PG33504.B00364", "PG33504.B00365", "PG33504.B00366", "PG33504.B00367", "PG33504.B00368", "PG33504.B00369", "PG33504.B00370", "PG33504.B00371", "PG33504.B00372" ], "bytes": 26003, "sha256": "910c5831676080b32399379729403cb547486aa5435bc4d198a0d0ebacae514f", "synopsis": "Rainbow predictions are compared with bounded field measurements and glass-globe experiments. Natural colors are explained through selective reflection and transmission, including thickness effects, reports from others and explicit untried extensions. A reconstituted white beam permits controlled removal of individual components before testing downstream phenomena. Book II opens by separating difficult thin-film observations from subsequent interpretation.", "observations": [ { "refs": [ "PG33504.B00336", "PG33504.B00337", "PG33504.B00338", "PG33504.B00339", "PG33504.B00340", "PG33504.B00341" ], "finding": "Rainbow calculations include finite solar breadth and measurements obscured by clouds; globe experiments vary eye or globe position. A contrary candle-color report is examined through a more discriminable trial, while halo and higher-bow extensions remain qualified.", "disposition": "expression: calculation, measurement limits, analogy and conjecture distinguished" }, { "refs": [ "PG33504.B00344", "PG33504.B00345", "PG33504.B00346", "PG33504.B00347", "PG33504.B00348", "PG33504.B00349", "PG33504.B00350" ], "finding": "Material color depends jointly on incident composition and selective response; impure illumination can create an intermediate hue that looks like alteration. Transmission thickness changes which components survive.", "disposition": "candidates: input-response composition; depth-dependent filtering" }, { "refs": [ "PG33504.B00351", "PG33504.B00352", "PG33504.B00353" ], "finding": "Halley's diving and Hooke's serial colored-liquid experiment are reports rather than Newton's trials; unexpectedness increases Newton's trust in Hooke. Two individually transmitting filters may jointly transmit nothing; some predicted thick-body appearances remain explicitly unexperienced.", "disposition": "candidate: incompatible serial passbands; source and conjecture distinctions" }, { "refs": [ "PG33504.B00355", "PG33504.B00357", "PG33504.B00358", "PG33504.B00359" ], "finding": "A reconstructed beam must match sustained whiteness and observed properties before serving as a test source; deleting a component before recombination traces its downstream contribution in prisms and colored bodies.", "disposition": "candidate: reconstructed-source intervention" }, { "refs": [ "PG33504.B00360", "PG33504.B00361", "PG33504.B00362", "PG33504.B00363", "PG33504.B00364", "PG33504.B00365", "PG33504.B00372" ], "finding": "Cross-references are apparatus; thin-film phenomena were deferred as difficult and unnecessary to the first argument, then presented as observations before their uses and interpretations.", "disposition": "expression: staged dependence of inquiry; apparatus inspected" } ] }, { "packet": 11, "path": "inspection/packets/pg33504/011.txt", "firstRef": "PG33504.B00373", "lastRef": "PG33504.B00399", "refs": [ "PG33504.B00373", "PG33504.B00374", "PG33504.B00375", "PG33504.B00376", "PG33504.B00377", "PG33504.B00378", "PG33504.B00379", "PG33504.B00380", "PG33504.B00381", "PG33504.B00382", "PG33504.B00383", "PG33504.B00384", "PG33504.B00385", "PG33504.B00386", "PG33504.B00387", "PG33504.B00388", "PG33504.B00389", "PG33504.B00390", "PG33504.B00391", "PG33504.B00392", "PG33504.B00393", "PG33504.B00394", "PG33504.B00395", "PG33504.B00396", "PG33504.B00397", "PG33504.B00398", "PG33504.B00399" ], "bytes": 26175, "sha256": "9addd086e4539c07357f25bb2f376251cebadb7973263338212635dc674254d1", "synopsis": "Thin-air rings are described under changes of pressure, viewing angle and illumination. Repeated ring measurements infer microscopic thickness from macroscopic geometry, with corrections for glass deformation, apparent diameter and oblique rays. Water substitution and component colors test pattern dependencies; some physical interpretations remain conjectural.", "observations": [ { "refs": [ "PG33504.B00373", "PG33504.B00374", "PG33504.B00376", "PG33504.B00377", "PG33504.B00378", "PG33504.B00379", "PG33504.B00380", "PG33504.B00381" ], "finding": "Manipulating pressure brings successive colors into a broad central patch, improving discrimination; pupil aperture and viewing distance change the number and clarity of rings, while deformation itself changes the measured pattern.", "disposition": "candidate: transform hard-to-read pattern into discriminable form; measurement intervention affects object" }, { "refs": [ "PG33504.B00383", "PG33504.B00384", "PG33504.B00385", "PG33504.B00386", "PG33504.B00387" ], "finding": "Known curvature converts ring radius into an otherwise tiny gap; suspected calibration and pressure errors prompt remeasurement with different glasses, followed by explicit viewing-geometry corrections and rounded estimates.", "disposition": "candidate: geometric magnification of microscopic separation; application: independent calibration and corrected observation" }, { "refs": [ "PG33504.B00388", "PG33504.B00389", "PG33504.B00390", "PG33504.B00391", "PG33504.B00392", "PG33504.B00393" ], "finding": "Angle-dependent data and complementary transmitted/reflected colors constrain explanations; a transparent spot persisting without actual contact challenges identification of transparency with contact alone.", "disposition": "candidate: variable-condition test of assumed contact; expression: tentative empirical law" }, { "refs": [ "PG33504.B00394", "PG33504.B00395", "PG33504.B00396", "PG33504.B00398", "PG33504.B00399" ], "finding": "Water creeping across half a pattern gives adjacent media comparison; disappearance distinguishes a transient white spot from persistent air bubbles, but the subtler-medium explanation exceeds direct observation. Fixed eye with changed illumination separates viewing position from color-dependent size.", "disposition": "application: adjacent comparison and controlled variation; retain conjecture and sensory limits" } ] }, { "packet": 12, "path": "inspection/packets/pg33504/012.txt", "firstRef": "PG33504.B00400", "lastRef": "PG33504.B00441", "refs": [ "PG33504.B00400", "PG33504.B00401", "PG33504.B00402", "PG33504.B00403", "PG33504.B00404", "PG33504.B00405", "PG33504.B00406", "PG33504.B00407", "PG33504.B00408", "PG33504.B00409", "PG33504.B00410", "PG33504.B00411", "PG33504.B00412", "PG33504.B00413", "PG33504.B00414", "PG33504.B00415", "PG33504.B00416", "PG33504.B00417", "PG33504.B00418", "PG33504.B00419", "PG33504.B00420", "PG33504.B00421", "PG33504.B00422", "PG33504.B00423", "PG33504.B00424", "PG33504.B00425", "PG33504.B00426", "PG33504.B00427", "PG33504.B00428", "PG33504.B00429", "PG33504.B00430", "PG33504.B00431", "PG33504.B00432", "PG33504.B00433", "PG33504.B00434", "PG33504.B00435", "PG33504.B00436", "PG33504.B00437", "PG33504.B00438", "PG33504.B00439", "PG33504.B00440", "PG33504.B00441" ], "bytes": 25947, "sha256": "1479e3bfd8040fda705bb5b0faa77aeeab159da86c60520cf120e5d35b3b3fac", "synopsis": "Thin-film observations extend from air gaps to soap bubbles, mica and glass, exposing complementary reflection/transmission, thickness histories, obliquity effects and hidden rings revealed by a prism. The subsequent construction explains complex color sequences through overlapping periodic component responses, while warning against sharp boundaries where reflection actually fades gradually.", "observations": [ { "refs": [ "PG33504.B00400", "PG33504.B00402", "PG33504.B00403", "PG33504.B00404", "PG33504.B00405" ], "finding": "Protection from air motion regularizes bubble evolution; a seemingly black spot still reflects weak images, and darker subspots expose a mistaken initial inference of no reflection.", "disposition": "candidate: internal contrast reveals residual response; application: disturbance control" }, { "refs": [ "PG33504.B00406", "PG33504.B00407", "PG33504.B00408", "PG33504.B00409", "PG33504.B00410", "PG33504.B00411", "PG33504.B00412", "PG33504.B00413" ], "finding": "Detailed color orders depend on thinning history; less tenacious water can jump to black before intermediate colors have time to appear, so absent stages need not deny the ordered dependence.", "disposition": "candidate: transition faster than observable stage development" }, { "refs": [ "PG33504.B00414", "PG33504.B00415", "PG33504.B00416", "PG33504.B00417", "PG33504.B00418", "PG33504.B00419", "PG33504.B00420", "PG33504.B00421", "PG33504.B00422" ], "finding": "Equal local thickness can look different to differently placed observers; tables infer thickness from angle-dependent appearance. Wetting mica changes intensity without a perceived hue change, separating two response dimensions.", "disposition": "expression: viewing conditions, approximate material model and differentiated response" }, { "refs": [ "PG33504.B00423", "PG33504.B00425", "PG33504.B00426", "PG33504.B00427" ], "finding": "A prism makes rings visible in an apparently uniform white field, improving one side while confusing another; counted rings, estimated further rings and belief in unlimited continuation have different evidential status.", "disposition": "candidate: selective transformation reveals unresolved structure; retain counting versus inference" }, { "refs": [ "PG33504.B00434", "PG33504.B00435", "PG33504.B00437", "PG33504.B00438", "PG33504.B00439", "PG33504.B00440", "PG33504.B00441" ], "finding": "A diagrammatic construction combines simpler component responses to explain complex successive colors and eventual whiteness; drawn interval limits are explicitly not precise physical cutoffs, because strength decays gradually.", "disposition": "candidates: representation boundary versus graded response; overlap of periodic responses; prose-only scope" } ] }, { "packet": 13, "path": "inspection/packets/pg33504/013.txt", "firstRef": "PG33504.B00442", "lastRef": "PG33504.B00476", "refs": [ "PG33504.B00442", "PG33504.B00443", "PG33504.B00444", "PG33504.B00445", "PG33504.B00446", "PG33504.B00447", "PG33504.B00448", "PG33504.B00449", "PG33504.B00450", "PG33504.B00451", "PG33504.B00452", "PG33504.B00453", "PG33504.B00454", "PG33504.B00455", "PG33504.B00456", "PG33504.B00457", "PG33504.B00458", "PG33504.B00459", "PG33504.B00460", "PG33504.B00461", "PG33504.B00462", "PG33504.B00463", "PG33504.B00464", "PG33504.B00465", "PG33504.B00466", "PG33504.B00467", "PG33504.B00468", "PG33504.B00469", "PG33504.B00470", "PG33504.B00471", "PG33504.B00472", "PG33504.B00473", "PG33504.B00474", "PG33504.B00475", "PG33504.B00476" ], "bytes": 26624, "sha256": "dbf659bef213e50b16bdbc9d1ddcd19810b7699823a3747ae505b150dd292c70", "synopsis": "Thickness tables connect thin-film colors across materials and support conjectures about natural particles. Ring transformations are explained through altered component overlap and tested with sequential colored illumination. Newton then moves from phenomenological optical properties to the internal constitution of bodies, arguing that reflection depends on differences across boundaries and opacity on many internal reflections.", "observations": [ { "refs": [ "PG33504.B00442", "PG33504.B00443", "PG33504.B00444", "PG33504.B00445" ], "finding": "The table intentionally ignores small ray-specific refractive differences; observed combined mica plates provide an additive thickness check, while particle sizes from natural colors are labeled conjectural.", "disposition": "candidate: bounded omission in transfer table; application: quantitative surrogate and scope" }, { "refs": [ "PG33504.B00446", "PG33504.B00447", "PG33504.B00448", "PG33504.B00449", "PG33504.B00450", "PG33504.B00452", "PG33504.B00453", "PG33504.B00454" ], "finding": "The same prism can clarify or blur a pattern by bringing color components together on one side and spreading them on the other. Color-specific observations with apparatus held steady test the proposed hidden arrangement.", "disposition": "candidate: compensating dispersion reveals latent structure; prose-dependent geometry" }, { "refs": [ "PG33504.B00455", "PG33504.B00456", "PG33504.B00457", "PG33504.B00458", "PG33504.B00459" ], "finding": "Sharply recovered rings argue against arbitrary scattering mechanisms, and reciprocal support links the explanatory theory with later phenomena; the claims remain restricted to light-caused colors.", "disposition": "expression: regular recovered structure constrains mechanism; bounded synthesis" }, { "refs": [ "PG33504.B00466", "PG33504.B00468", "PG33504.B00469", "PG33504.B00470", "PG33504.B00472", "PG33504.B00473", "PG33504.B00475", "PG33504.B00476" ], "finding": "Observed selective reflection is distinguished from the still-to-be-explained constitution producing it. Optical visibility of boundaries depends on refractive contrast, allowing physically distinct media to lack a visible interface; internal discontinuities are then inferred from opacity under this model.", "disposition": "candidate: matched response conceals boundary; retain inferred microstructure" } ] }, { "packet": 14, "path": "inspection/packets/pg33504/014.txt", "firstRef": "PG33504.B00477", "lastRef": "PG33504.B00505", "refs": [ "PG33504.B00477", "PG33504.B00478", "PG33504.B00479", "PG33504.B00480", "PG33504.B00481", "PG33504.B00482", "PG33504.B00483", "PG33504.B00484", "PG33504.B00485", "PG33504.B00486", "PG33504.B00487", "PG33504.B00488", "PG33504.B00489", "PG33504.B00490", "PG33504.B00491", "PG33504.B00492", "PG33504.B00493", "PG33504.B00494", "PG33504.B00495", "PG33504.B00496", "PG33504.B00497", "PG33504.B00498", "PG33504.B00499", "PG33504.B00500", "PG33504.B00501", "PG33504.B00502", "PG33504.B00503", "PG33504.B00504", "PG33504.B00505" ], "bytes": 26716, "sha256": "6fd2dd1c5fdc626b599503ce30825beddb4310d188ba1ace86cefa937c5f76b0", "synopsis": "Changes in opacity under filling, division and aggregation motivate a corpuscular analogy from thin plates to natural colors. Particle dimensions are conjectured from color orders, with alternative orders and a stated weak premise. Newton anticipates microscopic tests and limits, then attacks contact-impact reflection through multiple incompatible predictions and proposes action over a distributed surface.", "observations": [ { "refs": [ "PG33504.B00477", "PG33504.B00479", "PG33504.B00480", "PG33504.B00481", "PG33504.B00483", "PG33504.B00484", "PG33504.B00485" ], "finding": "Transparency changes under filling pores or breaking material support discontinuity accounts, but extending a plate's thickness-color relation to all natural particles is an analogical step, including chemical color changes and clouds.", "disposition": "expression: powerful but contestable microstructural analogy; avoid endorsing historical chemistry" }, { "refs": [ "PG33504.B00487", "PG33504.B00488", "PG33504.B00489", "PG33504.B00491", "PG33504.B00492", "PG33504.B00493", "PG33504.B00494", "PG33504.B00495", "PG33504.B00496", "PG33504.B00497", "PG33504.B00498", "PG33504.B00499", "PG33504.B00500" ], "finding": "A color-to-size inverse inference requires refractive density and the correct repeated color order; gradual transformations and intensity are used to choose between ambiguous orders. Many particulars are explicitly probable or possible.", "disposition": "candidate: order ambiguity in periodic inverse measurement; retain conjectural assignments" }, { "refs": [ "PG33504.B00501" ], "finding": "The author identifies particle-to-plate equivalence as a disputable premise, allows shape and incidence variation, and asks microscopic discovery to strengthen it; greater magnification may still fail where transparent interiors provide no contrast.", "disposition": "candidate: contrast limit beyond magnification; application: exposed hinge assumption" }, { "refs": [ "PG33504.B00503", "PG33504.B00504", "PG33504.B00505" ], "finding": "Reflection changes with angle, color, thickness and adjoining medium in ways a simple collision-with-solid-parts model struggles to explain; smooth macroscopic reflection despite fine abrasive scratches motivates a distributed noncontact action rather than point impact.", "disposition": "candidates: boundary condition tests local-impact model; collective surface action; preserve inferred mechanism" } ] }, { "packet": 15, "path": "inspection/packets/pg33504/015.txt", "firstRef": "PG33504.B00506", "lastRef": "PG33504.B00558", "refs": [ "PG33504.B00506", "PG33504.B00507", "PG33504.B00508", "PG33504.B00509", "PG33504.B00510", "PG33504.B00511", "PG33504.B00512", "PG33504.B00513", "PG33504.B00514", "PG33504.B00515", "PG33504.B00516", "PG33504.B00517", "PG33504.B00518", "PG33504.B00519", "PG33504.B00520", "PG33504.B00521", "PG33504.B00522", "PG33504.B00523", "PG33504.B00524", "PG33504.B00525", "PG33504.B00526", "PG33504.B00527", "PG33504.B00528", "PG33504.B00529", "PG33504.B00530", "PG33504.B00531", "PG33504.B00532", "PG33504.B00533", "PG33504.B00534", "PG33504.B00535", "PG33504.B00536", "PG33504.B00537", "PG33504.B00538", "PG33504.B00539", "PG33504.B00540", "PG33504.B00541", "PG33504.B00542", "PG33504.B00543", "PG33504.B00544", "PG33504.B00545", "PG33504.B00546", "PG33504.B00547", "PG33504.B00548", "PG33504.B00549", "PG33504.B00550", "PG33504.B00551", "PG33504.B00552", "PG33504.B00553", "PG33504.B00554", "PG33504.B00555", "PG33504.B00556", "PG33504.B00557", "PG33504.B00558" ], "bytes": 26936, "sha256": "1213d634bb4d119971436bb909d10f045c0213520b9442491db3f805e20ece58", "synopsis": "Hierarchical porous matter is offered as a possible construction with actual internal structure unknown. A conditional refraction-force model and comparative table lead into speculative chemical classifications. Finite light propagation is distinguished from orbital timing alternatives. Recurring fits of reflection and transmission are defined operationally while a vibrating-medium explanation is offered without commitment.", "observations": [ { "refs": [ "PG33504.B00506", "PG33504.B00507" ], "finding": "Repeated porous nesting amplifies empty-space fraction despite moderate porosity at each level; the construction demonstrates possibility while expressly disclaiming knowledge of actual internal frame. Gold-water evidence is attributed to an eyewitness report.", "disposition": "candidate: multiplicative porosity across nested scales; retain hypothetical construction" }, { "refs": [ "PG33504.B00509", "PG33504.B00510", "PG33504.B00512", "PG33504.B00514", "PG33504.B00515", "PG33504.B00516", "PG33504.B00517", "PG33504.B00518", "PG33504.B00519", "PG33504.B00520", "PG33504.B00521", "PG33504.B00522", "PG33504.B00523", "PG33504.B00524" ], "finding": "Force proportionality depends on an explicitly stated light-speed premise. Class-conditioned deviations from density ratios motivate historical sulphureous explanations, whose chemistry and dynamics are not independently established by the table.", "disposition": "expression: empirical comparison versus mechanistic and chemical extrapolation" }, { "refs": [ "PG33504.B00526", "PG33504.B00527" ], "finding": "Timing offsets tied to Earth's location across several satellites distinguish propagation delay from satellite-specific orbital irregularities.", "disposition": "candidate: shared observer-position signature separates source irregularity" }, { "refs": [ "PG33504.B00529", "PG33504.B00530", "PG33504.B00531", "PG33504.B00532", "PG33504.B00533", "PG33504.B00534", "PG33504.B00536" ], "finding": "Dependence on both boundaries and their separation motivates a propagated recurring disposition. Naming the periodic disposition is separated from choosing a vibration, circulation or other mechanism, and the offered hypothesis is declared unnecessary to the reported regularity.", "disposition": "candidates: two-boundary dependence implies transmitted state; operational periodic disposition without mechanism" }, { "refs": [ "PG33504.B00538", "PG33504.B00539", "PG33504.B00540", "PG33504.B00541", "PG33504.B00543", "PG33504.B00544", "PG33504.B00546", "PG33504.B00547", "PG33504.B00549", "PG33504.B00550", "PG33504.B00552", "PG33504.B00553", "PG33504.B00555", "PG33504.B00556", "PG33504.B00558" ], "finding": "The fit scheme yields surface/thickness and medium-dependent predictions from earlier measured intervals; universal persistence and origin at emission have stronger speculative wording than the finite observations.", "disposition": "expression: inferred model, measured interval and extrapolated persistence distinguished" } ] }, { "packet": 16, "path": "inspection/packets/pg33504/016.txt", "firstRef": "PG33504.B00559", "lastRef": "PG33504.B00581", "refs": [ "PG33504.B00559", "PG33504.B00560", "PG33504.B00561", "PG33504.B00562", "PG33504.B00563", "PG33504.B00564", "PG33504.B00565", "PG33504.B00566", "PG33504.B00567", "PG33504.B00568", "PG33504.B00569", "PG33504.B00570", "PG33504.B00571", "PG33504.B00572", "PG33504.B00573", "PG33504.B00574", "PG33504.B00575", "PG33504.B00576", "PG33504.B00577", "PG33504.B00578", "PG33504.B00579", "PG33504.B00580", "PG33504.B00581" ], "bytes": 21277, "sha256": "19aeb64aca5a6d1c6fad54e0e89720de002c135821f10d1b9fd71a9d50941a26", "synopsis": "Reflection-fit propositions conclude and thick polished glass begins a new set of observations. Colored rings in faint scattered light exhibit measured progressions and component-dependent sizes. Prism separation reveals additional rings, and removing silvering or substituting a metal mirror distinguishes the glass's contribution from brightness enhancement by its backing.", "observations": [ { "refs": [ "PG33504.B00559", "PG33504.B00561", "PG33504.B00562" ], "finding": "Equal return-path fit intervals are inferred from successful exit and stronger reflected colors; the text promises stronger evidence in the subsequent observations rather than claiming direct access to fits.", "disposition": "expression: model inference and prospective corroboration" }, { "refs": [ "PG33504.B00569", "PG33504.B00570", "PG33504.B00571", "PG33504.B00572", "PG33504.B00573", "PG33504.B00574", "PG33504.B00575", "PG33504.B00576", "PG33504.B00577" ], "finding": "A normally neglected faint scattering component carries structured rings; geometry and illumination determine visibility, and resemblance to earlier phenomena motivates an intervention that reveals further structure.", "disposition": "candidate: structured information in residual scattering; application: analogy-guided test" }, { "refs": [ "PG33504.B00578", "PG33504.B00579" ], "finding": "Single-color illumination preserves squared-diameter progressions while changing size; endpoint estimates rely on a stated musical-proportion supposition where violet cannot be seen. Correlated observer-eye and mirror colors locate the contribution before the screen.", "disposition": "expression: measured interior, assumed extrapolation and source localization" }, { "refs": [ "PG33504.B00580", "PG33504.B00581" ], "finding": "Removing silver backing weakens but preserves rings, while a metal mirror without glass gives none; a component can enhance manifestation without producing its structure. The explanatory model then motivates an independent quantitative thickness check.", "disposition": "candidate: enabling amplifier versus structural cause; application: quantitative consequence test" } ] }, { "packet": 17, "path": "inspection/packets/pg33504/017.txt", "firstRef": "PG33504.B00582", "lastRef": "PG33504.B00605", "refs": [ "PG33504.B00582", "PG33504.B00583", "PG33504.B00584", "PG33504.B00585", "PG33504.B00586", "PG33504.B00587", "PG33504.B00588", "PG33504.B00589", "PG33504.B00590", "PG33504.B00591", "PG33504.B00592", "PG33504.B00593", "PG33504.B00594", "PG33504.B00595", "PG33504.B00596", "PG33504.B00597", "PG33504.B00598", "PG33504.B00599", "PG33504.B00600", "PG33504.B00601", "PG33504.B00602", "PG33504.B00603", "PG33504.B00604", "PG33504.B00605" ], "bytes": 26510, "sha256": "a67b270d19929b6aeacec142c6a6731b485e8fc0d5a91a4a7b0af011c2949a3d", "synopsis": "Thick-glass ring dimensions are calculated from thin-film intervals and checked by an independent glass-thickness change. Varying mirror inclination shifts and reverses patterns; source angular spread can erase them. Atmospheric crowns are treated by extension with explicitly incomplete measurements. Book III begins with widened shadows and a surrounding-medium substitution that challenges ordinary air refraction.", "observations": [ { "refs": [ "PG33504.B00582", "PG33504.B00583", "PG33504.B00584", "PG33504.B00585", "PG33504.B00586" ], "finding": "Agreement on one glass is followed by a predicted inverse-square-root thickness test on another with curvature and backing held alike, providing a stronger parameter-change check of the proposed dependence.", "disposition": "candidate: cross-parameter prediction after fit; application: controlled comparison" }, { "refs": [ "PG33504.B00587", "PG33504.B00588", "PG33504.B00589", "PG33504.B00590", "PG33504.B00591", "PG33504.B00592", "PG33504.B00593", "PG33504.B00594" ], "finding": "Pattern changes under inclination distinguish invariant white-ring size from color-dependent neighboring rings; blocking different parts of an extended source changes sizes, supporting mixture blur rather than disappearance of each contributing pattern.", "disposition": "candidate: source-distribution blur diagnosed by selective occlusion; scope of omitted calculations" }, { "refs": [ "PG33504.B00595" ], "finding": "Atmospheric crown theory assumes similarly sized droplets; greater uniformity is predicted to preserve more rings. Some observed crown sizes were measured, others estimated before time ran out, and additional crowns are hearsay.", "disposition": "candidate: constituent-size uniformity preserves aggregate periodic structure; source distinctions" }, { "refs": [ "PG33504.B00602", "PG33504.B00603", "PG33504.B00604", "PG33504.B00605" ], "finding": "Broader-than-geometrical shadows are measured with distance, then tested with hair embedded in water between glasses; unchanged width challenges air-refraction explanation. Ray bending at a distance is an interpretation of missing light, not direct tracking of each path.", "disposition": "application: replacing presumed causal medium; preserve inferred trajectory" } ] }, { "packet": 18, "path": "inspection/packets/pg33504/018.txt", "firstRef": "PG33504.B00606", "lastRef": "PG33504.B00630", "refs": [ "PG33504.B00606", "PG33504.B00607", "PG33504.B00608", "PG33504.B00609", "PG33504.B00610", "PG33504.B00611", "PG33504.B00612", "PG33504.B00613", "PG33504.B00614", "PG33504.B00615", "PG33504.B00616", "PG33504.B00617", "PG33504.B00618", "PG33504.B00619", "PG33504.B00620", "PG33504.B00621", "PG33504.B00622", "PG33504.B00623", "PG33504.B00624", "PG33504.B00625", "PG33504.B00626", "PG33504.B00627", "PG33504.B00628", "PG33504.B00629", "PG33504.B00630" ], "bytes": 26545, "sha256": "b1e9d460b5df0757be12ea34345682c42fe398e67e62a04223a7657d0a95d553", "synopsis": "Diffraction-like fringes are measured with oblique projection, selective suppression of direct light, controlled knife gaps and varied screen distances. Newton infers paths and interacting knife influence from changing patterns, while retaining near-visibility doubts. Separated colored light yields same-color fringes of different sizes and supports the separation account of white-light fringe colors.", "observations": [ { "refs": [ "PG33504.B00606", "PG33504.B00609", "PG33504.B00610", "PG33504.B00611", "PG33504.B00612", "PG33504.B00613" ], "finding": "Oblique projection deliberately enlarges widths twelvefold and the measured values are divided back; fringes have approximate relative-width progressions with varying initial visibility.", "disposition": "candidate: reversible geometric enlargement for measurement; direct sun-viewing historical procedure not guidance" }, { "refs": [ "PG33504.B00614", "PG33504.B00615", "PG33504.B00616", "PG33504.B00617", "PG33504.B00618" ], "finding": "A hole removes overwhelming direct illumination to reveal faint streams; their faintest possible extensions are flagged as uncertain and possibly from another cause. Gradual occlusion supplies an ordered disappearance argument for inferred ray paths.", "disposition": "candidates: suppress dominant signal to inspect residual; disappearance order constrains unseen contribution" }, { "refs": [ "PG33504.B00619", "PG33504.B00620", "PG33504.B00621", "PG33504.B00622", "PG33504.B00623", "PG33504.B00624", "PG33504.B00626", "PG33504.B00627" ], "finding": "A fixed wedge of knives gives known spatially varying gaps; screen-distance changes imply that the same-named fringe at different planes need not consist of the same rays. Hyperbolic loci are described and measured approximately.", "disposition": "candidates: spatial gradient substitutes controlled setting range; pattern identity versus contributing material identity; prose-only geometry" }, { "refs": [ "PG33504.B00628", "PG33504.B00629", "PG33504.B00630" ], "finding": "Testing fringes in pre-separated colors preserves hue while changing extent; the proposed ray-trajectory explanation is stronger than the direct observation of pattern size and color.", "disposition": "application: purified-input discrimination; preserve observation versus model" } ] }, { "packet": 19, "path": "inspection/packets/pg33504/019.txt", "firstRef": "PG33504.B00631", "lastRef": "PG33504.B00657", "refs": [ "PG33504.B00631", "PG33504.B00632", "PG33504.B00633", "PG33504.B00634", "PG33504.B00635", "PG33504.B00636", "PG33504.B00637", "PG33504.B00638", "PG33504.B00639", "PG33504.B00640", "PG33504.B00641", "PG33504.B00642", "PG33504.B00643", "PG33504.B00644", "PG33504.B00645", "PG33504.B00646", "PG33504.B00647", "PG33504.B00648", "PG33504.B00649", "PG33504.B00650", "PG33504.B00651", "PG33504.B00652", "PG33504.B00653", "PG33504.B00654", "PG33504.B00655", "PG33504.B00656", "PG33504.B00657" ], "bytes": 24724, "sha256": "01341cc14bc6b9dd0949bae8fe31b7dcb4c6a7a9bceb151b9e83b117ae2a356e", "synopsis": "Newton explicitly leaves the inflexion investigation unfinished and turns to questions for future search. Queries range from optical forces through heat, flame, sensation and neural action to a hypothetical ether, gravity and planetary resistance. Experiments and reported phenomena motivate these questions but do not convert their mechanisms into established propositions.", "observations": [ { "refs": [ "PG33504.B00631", "PG33504.B00632", "PG33504.B00633", "PG33504.B00634", "PG33504.B00635" ], "finding": "The author says further repetitions and new tests were interrupted and unfinished; the following unifying accounts are posed as queries to invite investigation.", "disposition": "essential limit and alternative reading: research agenda rather than completed theory" }, { "refs": [ "PG33504.B00636", "PG33504.B00637", "PG33504.B00638", "PG33504.B00639", "PG33504.B00640", "PG33504.B00641", "PG33504.B00642" ], "finding": "Heat and light are connected by mutual action and varied modes of luminous agitation, then extended to stars and pressure-retained vapors. Historical combustion and explosive examples are source material, not established modern explanations or practical guidance.", "disposition": "expression: speculative unification with heterogeneous examples" }, { "refs": [ "PG33504.B00643", "PG33504.B00644", "PG33504.B00645", "PG33504.B00646", "PG33504.B00647", "PG33504.B00648" ], "finding": "After-sensation, mechanically evoked color, binocular anatomy and musical analogy motivate a vibratory sensory account; anatomical comparison is qualified by reported information and proposed mechanism remains interrogative.", "disposition": "expression: sensory persistence and speculative physiological transport; no medical endorsement" }, { "refs": [ "PG33504.B00649", "PG33504.B00650", "PG33504.B00651", "PG33504.B00652", "PG33504.B00653", "PG33504.B00654" ], "finding": "Heating through evacuated space and action without obvious material transfer motivate a subtler medium. Its high elasticity, low density and gradient are hypothetical accommodations meant to reconcile strong effects with weak resistance; Newton states he does not know what ether is.", "disposition": "candidate: strong coupling and weak drag as joint constraints; retain hypothetical status" }, { "refs": [ "PG33504.B00655", "PG33504.B00656", "PG33504.B00657" ], "finding": "Sensory and voluntary motion are tentatively placed within one transmission medium, with uniform fiber and transparency assumptions; the sidenote points to a scheme not supplied as an inspected image.", "disposition": "expression and scope: speculative physiology; apparatus" } ] }, { "packet": 20, "path": "inspection/packets/pg33504/020.txt", "firstRef": "PG33504.B00658", "lastRef": "PG33504.B00679", "refs": [ "PG33504.B00658", "PG33504.B00659", "PG33504.B00660", "PG33504.B00661", "PG33504.B00662", "PG33504.B00663", "PG33504.B00664", "PG33504.B00665", "PG33504.B00666", "PG33504.B00667", "PG33504.B00668", "PG33504.B00669", "PG33504.B00670", "PG33504.B00671", "PG33504.B00672", "PG33504.B00673", "PG33504.B00674", "PG33504.B00675", "PG33504.B00676", "PG33504.B00677", "PG33504.B00678", "PG33504.B00679" ], "bytes": 25090, "sha256": "83ea72192f3362ffa19bd5b0b7ea81907910852d3d4d9df2ada531870934d79a", "synopsis": "Double refraction and successive crystals introduce orientation-dependent ray properties and an unfinished search for further properties. Newton challenges pressure and wave-like light accounts, using shadow, polarization-like and resistance arguments, then connects the rejection of a dense medium with natural theology and the pursuit of a first cause.", "observations": [ { "refs": [ "PG33504.B00658", "PG33504.B00660", "PG33504.B00661", "PG33504.B00662", "PG33504.B00663", "PG33504.B00664", "PG33504.B00665" ], "finding": "Crystal beams preserve color while separating and can retain different responses through similarly oriented crystals; the inferred originality of their properties exceeds merely recording that stable response.", "disposition": "expression: new optical property and inference of persistence; diagrams absent" }, { "refs": [ "PG33504.B00666", "PG33504.B00667", "PG33504.B00668", "PG33504.B00669" ], "finding": "Rotating the second crystal swaps ordinary and extraordinary paths or splits each beam again; the difference cannot be classified as two ray kinds independent of orientation relative to the testing apparatus.", "disposition": "candidate: relational orientation rather than intrinsic response class" }, { "refs": [ "PG33504.B00670", "PG33504.B00671", "PG33504.B00672", "PG33504.B00673", "PG33504.B00674", "PG33504.B00675" ], "finding": "The polemic against pressure or propagated-motion accounts invokes failed explanatory predictions and Huygens's stated difficulty; it must not be presented as a modern disproof of wave optics. The French sidenote is attribution apparatus.", "disposition": "essential alternative reading and historical theory limit" }, { "refs": [ "PG33504.B00676", "PG33504.B00677", "PG33504.B00678" ], "finding": "Resistance components are distinguished by different size/velocity scaling and differing responses to heat; subdividing matter may reduce frictional resistance while leaving inertia-related resistance unless density falls.", "disposition": "candidates: mechanism-specific remedy limits; application: scaling-law discrimination" }, { "refs": [ "PG33504.B00679" ], "finding": "The methodological prohibition on feigned hypotheses coexists with appeal to ancient authority, final causes, intelligent design and an incorporeal omnipresent first cause. These are integral commitments of this argument, not laboratory findings.", "disposition": "essential facet and alternative reading: natural theology" } ] }, { "packet": 21, "path": "inspection/packets/pg33504/021.txt", "firstRef": "PG33504.B00680", "lastRef": "PG33504.B00692", "refs": [ "PG33504.B00680", "PG33504.B00681", "PG33504.B00682", "PG33504.B00683", "PG33504.B00684", "PG33504.B00685", "PG33504.B00686", "PG33504.B00687", "PG33504.B00688", "PG33504.B00689", "PG33504.B00690", "PG33504.B00691", "PG33504.B00692" ], "bytes": 26759, "sha256": "545d81288ce3c6c29442cbcc0425a1773383f07bf7dd85a1a7125854d7634604", "synopsis": "Queries propose corpuscular light, light-matter transmutation and short-range attractions. Newton defines attraction by observable tendency without settling its cause, then surveys chemical affinities, displacement, saturation, heat and compound properties as possible consequences. These chemical and biological speculations remain historically situated questions rather than verified mechanisms.", "observations": [ { "refs": [ "PG33504.B00680", "PG33504.B00681" ], "finding": "The corpuscular hypothesis seeks one bearer for persistent ray properties, attraction and orientation; resemblance to magnet poles is explicitly not identity with magnetism. Closely spaced second glass changes transmission attributed to balancing attractions.", "disposition": "expression: explanatory corpuscular proposal with analogy limit" }, { "refs": [ "PG33504.B00682", "PG33504.B00683" ], "finding": "Many transformations are used to make light-matter conversion seem plausible, but the passage provides a query and analogical argument, not a quantitative conversion law or demonstration.", "disposition": "essential scope: do not modernize transmutation conjecture" }, { "refs": [ "PG33504.B00684", "PG33504.B00685" ], "finding": "Attraction names a measured tendency whatever its unknown cause; laws and affected bodies should be established before causes. Saturation and resistance to separation are proposed as evidence of limited and persistent association.", "disposition": "candidate: law-first cause-neutral force term; expression: saturation and binding" }, { "refs": [ "PG33504.B00686", "PG33504.B00687", "PG33504.B00688", "PG33504.B00689" ], "finding": "Reaction speed, heat, substitution and selective mixing motivate an affinity ordering; stronger association is used to explain displacement, and geometric fineness alone is rejected as sufficient for selective entry. Geophysical extensions greatly exceed direct chemical observations.", "disposition": "candidates: competitive displacement reveals relative affinity; access requires interaction not mere fit; no operational chemical procedures" }, { "refs": [ "PG33504.B00690", "PG33504.B00691", "PG33504.B00692" ], "finding": "The text uses analysis products to conjecture fixed/volatile composition, explains changed properties by association and proportion, then extends a core-surrounding-medium model to assimilation and death. These historical accounts contain major inferential leaps.", "disposition": "expression: constituent behavior changes in combination; retain speculative biology and chemistry separately" } ] }, { "packet": 22, "path": "inspection/packets/pg33504/022.txt", "firstRef": "PG33504.B00693", "lastRef": "PG33504.B00708", "refs": [ "PG33504.B00693", "PG33504.B00694", "PG33504.B00695", "PG33504.B00696", "PG33504.B00697", "PG33504.B00698", "PG33504.B00699", "PG33504.B00700", "PG33504.B00701", "PG33504.B00702", "PG33504.B00703", "PG33504.B00704", "PG33504.B00705", "PG33504.B00706", "PG33504.B00707", "PG33504.B00708" ], "bytes": 26278, "sha256": "9106eeae4242d1dd2f76544c243af6de2640812b66c5c44afb3fdd1ddb6cc7dc", "synopsis": "Query 31 extends attractive and repulsive powers to dispersion, crystalline order, cohesion, capillary motion and nested material structure. Newton distinguishes observed general laws from empty explanatory labels, while speculative active principles, permanent created particles and deliberate cosmic order connect mechanics and chemistry to theology.", "observations": [ { "refs": [ "PG33504.B00693", "PG33504.B00694", "PG33504.B00695", "PG33504.B00696" ], "finding": "Uniform dispersion admits repulsion or stronger attraction to the solvent; crystalline regularity motivates oriented particle order. Hooked atoms are criticized for relocating the cohesion question rather than answering it.", "disposition": "candidate: explanatory mechanism must not presuppose its target relation; expression: alternative microcauses" }, { "refs": [ "PG33504.B00697", "PG33504.B00698", "PG33504.B00699", "PG33504.B00700", "PG33504.B00701", "PG33504.B00702" ], "finding": "Vacuum comparisons challenge atmospheric-pressure accounts of capillary rise; tilting a glass wedge until a drop rests balances unknown attraction against gravity. Hauksbee's reported results are then extrapolated to extremely small gaps and strong cohesion.", "disposition": "candidate: force measurement by adjustable counterbalance; application: capillary transport; retain extrapolation and biological analogy" }, { "refs": [ "PG33504.B00703", "PG33504.B00704" ], "finding": "Nested cohesion with weaker bonds at larger scales and differing freedom of component motion is proposed to explain material properties; the move from vanishing attraction to repulsion invokes an algebraic analogy, not a demonstrated necessity.", "disposition": "candidate: hierarchical bond strength and failure level; essential scope of analogy" }, { "refs": [ "PG33504.B00705" ], "finding": "Decay of macroscopic motion is used to argue for active replenishing principles and against vortices. Its quantity-of-motion examples and heat/life extensions must not be silently recast as a modern energy-conservation account.", "disposition": "essential historical mechanics limit and alternative emphasis" }, { "refs": [ "PG33504.B00706", "PG33504.B00707", "PG33504.B00708" ], "finding": "Permanent primitive particles support stable natural kinds while separations and associations explain changes. Manifest general laws with unknown causes are distinguished from hidden labels; theology assigns initial order to intelligent choice and allows other possible created laws.", "disposition": "candidates: stable constituents sustain repeatable material nature; manifest law despite unknown cause; retain theology separately" } ] }, { "packet": 23, "path": "inspection/packets/pg33504/023.txt", "firstRef": "PG33504.B00709", "lastRef": "PG33504.B00761", "refs": [ "PG33504.B00709", "PG33504.B00710", "PG33504.B00711", "PG33504.B00712", "PG33504.B00713", "PG33504.B00714", "PG33504.B00715", "PG33504.B00716", "PG33504.B00717", "PG33504.B00718", "PG33504.B00719", "PG33504.B00720", "PG33504.B00721", "PG33504.B00722", "PG33504.B00723", "PG33504.B00724", "PG33504.B00725", "PG33504.B00726", "PG33504.B00727", "PG33504.B00728", "PG33504.B00729", "PG33504.B00730", "PG33504.B00731", "PG33504.B00732", "PG33504.B00733", "PG33504.B00734", "PG33504.B00735", "PG33504.B00736", "PG33504.B00737", "PG33504.B00738", "PG33504.B00739", "PG33504.B00740", "PG33504.B00741", "PG33504.B00742", "PG33504.B00743", "PG33504.B00744", "PG33504.B00745", "PG33504.B00746", "PG33504.B00747", "PG33504.B00748", "PG33504.B00749", "PG33504.B00750", "PG33504.B00751", "PG33504.B00752", "PG33504.B00753", "PG33504.B00754", "PG33504.B00755", "PG33504.B00756", "PG33504.B00757", "PG33504.B00758", "PG33504.B00759", "PG33504.B00760", "PG33504.B00761" ], "bytes": 22219, "sha256": "2680374a4ff6b5f0ce24c5f8d74362b05b48840b5649d87eb8b95bac4ee46dc6", "synopsis": "The closing method places experimental analysis before explanatory synthesis, treats induction as revisable rather than demonstration, and explicitly describes Book III as begun and unfinished. It links anticipated scientific improvement to Christian moral duty and polemic against pagan worship. Gutenberg's end marker, edition notice, full license, liability terms, institutional and donation information follow as non-authorial apparatus.", "observations": [ { "refs": [ "PG33504.B00709" ], "finding": "General induction is the best available argument, not demonstrative certainty; subsequent experimental exceptions restrict its scope. Synthesis assumes principles discovered analytically and must prove resulting explanations.", "disposition": "candidate: exception-conditioned generalization; application: analysis before synthesis" }, { "refs": [ "PG33504.B00710" ], "finding": "Newton classifies earlier books as established analysis but Book III as hints requiring further examination, then connects natural philosophy to duties toward the first cause and a historically exclusionary Christian account of moral philosophy.", "disposition": "essential limits and theological facet; do not flatten queries into proved propositions" }, { "refs": [ "PG33504.B00711", "PG33504.B00712", "PG33504.B00713", "PG33504.B00714", "PG33504.B00715", "PG33504.B00716", "PG33504.B00717", "PG33504.B00718", "PG33504.B00719", "PG33504.B00720", "PG33504.B00721", "PG33504.B00722", "PG33504.B00723", "PG33504.B00724", "PG33504.B00725", "PG33504.B00726", "PG33504.B00727", "PG33504.B00728", "PG33504.B00729", "PG33504.B00730", "PG33504.B00731", "PG33504.B00732", "PG33504.B00733", "PG33504.B00734", "PG33504.B00735", "PG33504.B00736", "PG33504.B00737", "PG33504.B00738", "PG33504.B00739", "PG33504.B00740", "PG33504.B00741", "PG33504.B00742", "PG33504.B00743", "PG33504.B00744", "PG33504.B00745", "PG33504.B00746", "PG33504.B00747", "PG33504.B00748", "PG33504.B00749", "PG33504.B00750", "PG33504.B00751", "PG33504.B00752", "PG33504.B00753", "PG33504.B00754", "PG33504.B00755", "PG33504.B00756", "PG33504.B00757", "PG33504.B00758", "PG33504.B00759", "PG33504.B00760", "PG33504.B00761" ], "finding": "All Gutenberg closing notices, distribution conditions, defect/liability provisions and institutional mission/donation information were inspected as publication apparatus; they do not furnish Newton's philosophical claims or instructions for this task.", "disposition": "apparatus: inspected and excluded from author argument" } ] } ] }, { "bookId": 852, "ledger": { "bookId": 852, "method": "Every complete packet displayed in sequence and inspected; each semantic entry authored immediately after its packet.", "packets": [ { "packet": 1, "path": "inspection/packets/pg852/001.txt", "firstRef": "PG852.B00001", "lastRef": "PG852.B00041", "refs": [ "PG852.B00001", "PG852.B00002", "PG852.B00003", "PG852.B00004", "PG852.B00005", "PG852.B00006", "PG852.B00007", "PG852.B00008", "PG852.B00009", "PG852.B00010", "PG852.B00011", "PG852.B00012", "PG852.B00013", "PG852.B00014", "PG852.B00015", "PG852.B00016", "PG852.B00017", "PG852.B00018", "PG852.B00019", "PG852.B00020", "PG852.B00021", "PG852.B00022", "PG852.B00023", "PG852.B00024", "PG852.B00025", "PG852.B00026", "PG852.B00027", "PG852.B00028", "PG852.B00029", "PG852.B00030", "PG852.B00031", "PG852.B00032", "PG852.B00033", "PG852.B00034", "PG852.B00035", "PG852.B00036", "PG852.B00037", "PG852.B00038", "PG852.B00039", "PG852.B00040", "PG852.B00041" ], "bytes": 25506, "sha256": "7eb80cfcc16e8bcde04112ef00d6192486a64a717e97d9ddbbf899b8e00a8d98", "synopsis": "Publication and transcription apparatus precede Dewey's opening account of education as social renewal through communication, distinguishing shared purposes from mere coordinated use and formal schooling from wider educative association.", "observations": [ { "refs": [ "PG852.B00002", "PG852.B00012", "PG852.B00013" ], "finding": "Licence notice, acknowledged transcription fallibility and transcriber dedication are apparatus, not Dewey's educational argument or requests to act.", "disposition": "apparatus" }, { "refs": [ "PG852.B00021", "PG852.B00023", "PG852.B00024" ], "finding": "Overlapping generations transmit social experience; renewal requires active education rather than mere bodily replacement. Civilizational rankings and savage/barbarian language are historically loaded authorial assumptions.", "disposition": "retain renewal mechanism and attribution limits" }, { "refs": [ "PG852.B00026", "PG852.B00027", "PG852.B00028", "PG852.B00029" ], "finding": "Community requires participants' awareness and interest in ends, not physical proximity or machine-like coordinated obedience; formulating experience for another educates the communicator too.", "disposition": "candidate shared-purpose participation and reciprocal communicative formation" }, { "refs": [ "PG852.B00035", "PG852.B00037", "PG852.B00038" ], "finding": "Formal learning expands access yet can sever symbolic knowledge from dispositions developed in lived association.", "disposition": "candidate formal-informal educational continuity" } ], "inspection": "complete" }, { "packet": 2, "path": "inspection/packets/pg852/002.txt", "firstRef": "PG852.B00042", "lastRef": "PG852.B00062", "refs": [ "PG852.B00042", "PG852.B00043", "PG852.B00044", "PG852.B00045", "PG852.B00046", "PG852.B00047", "PG852.B00048", "PG852.B00049", "PG852.B00050", "PG852.B00051", "PG852.B00052", "PG852.B00053", "PG852.B00054", "PG852.B00055", "PG852.B00056", "PG852.B00057", "PG852.B00058", "PG852.B00059", "PG852.B00060", "PG852.B00061", "PG852.B00062" ], "bytes": 26474, "sha256": "8c41b3fa0673522ed8a9ad4b0de9d431fd23860d867bba2edca46503ad74f873", "synopsis": "Environment is defined through active interests rather than proximity. Joint participation distinguishes education from reward-conditioned performance and grounds language meaning. Schooling deliberately simplifies, selects and broadens the social medium.", "observations": [ { "refs": [ "PG852.B00042", "PG852.B00043", "PG852.B00044" ], "finding": "An environment consists of conditions entering characteristic activity, including remote objects and private socially oriented thought.", "disposition": "candidate functional environment" }, { "refs": [ "PG852.B00046", "PG852.B00047", "PG852.B00049" ], "finding": "Training may change acts without changing the interest served; education completes the process when learners share success, failure and purpose.", "disposition": "retain distinction without claiming animals lack all understanding" }, { "refs": [ "PG852.B00051", "PG852.B00052", "PG852.B00053" ], "finding": "Words and things gain common meaning in joint use; remote knowledge extends participation imaginatively rather than transporting ready-made ideas.", "disposition": "candidate joint-use meaning" }, { "refs": [ "PG852.B00055", "PG852.B00056", "PG852.B00057" ], "finding": "Unnoticed social habits select attention and valuation; direct precept cannot reliably counter an opposing ordinary environment.", "disposition": "reuse habit/social conditioning if baseline fits" }, { "refs": [ "PG852.B00059", "PG852.B00060", "PG852.B00061", "PG852.B00062" ], "finding": "Schools simplify complexity, select inherited practices for future benefit, and widen contact beyond one's birth group; educative effects also occur in criminal associations and therefore are not inherently good.", "disposition": "retain three school functions and normative selection tension" } ], "inspection": "complete" }, { "packet": 3, "path": "inspection/packets/pg852/003.txt", "firstRef": "PG852.B00063", "lastRef": "PG852.B00084", "refs": [ "PG852.B00063", "PG852.B00064", "PG852.B00065", "PG852.B00066", "PG852.B00067", "PG852.B00068", "PG852.B00069", "PG852.B00070", "PG852.B00071", "PG852.B00072", "PG852.B00073", "PG852.B00074", "PG852.B00075", "PG852.B00076", "PG852.B00077", "PG852.B00078", "PG852.B00079", "PG852.B00080", "PG852.B00081", "PG852.B00082", "PG852.B00083", "PG852.B00084" ], "bytes": 25986, "sha256": "e9f147b88832f1b051605f2a8230aea8435f6bc3d9482996dec4c6f2beb1d925", "synopsis": "The school's integrating role leads into direction as focusing present activity and preserving sequential development. Dewey distinguishes physical constraint from educative control and locates intelligent social direction in awareness of shared consequences.", "observations": [ { "refs": [ "PG852.B00063", "PG852.B00064" ], "finding": "Broadened school contact is paired with a homogenizing assimilation ideal; integration also seeks coherence across conflicting social codes.", "disposition": "preserve pluralism-assimilation tension" }, { "refs": [ "PG852.B00071", "PG852.B00072", "PG852.B00074" ], "finding": "Direction combines present concentration and future balance; effective immediate deterrence can cultivate later evasion.", "disposition": "candidate sequential costs of control" }, { "refs": [ "PG852.B00073", "PG852.B00076" ], "finding": "Direction redirects already active tendencies; physical prevention does not establish improved disposition.", "disposition": "candidate prevention-education distinction" }, { "refs": [ "PG852.B00081", "PG852.B00082", "PG852.B00083", "PG852.B00084" ], "finding": "Meaning is use in an inclusive anticipated course of action; conscious mutual reference turns coincident outputs into socially guided activity, with physical media always involved.", "disposition": "develop meaning-through-joint-use and shared consequence concepts" } ], "inspection": "complete" }, { "packet": 4, "path": "inspection/packets/pg852/004.txt", "firstRef": "PG852.B00085", "lastRef": "PG852.B00106", "refs": [ "PG852.B00085", "PG852.B00086", "PG852.B00087", "PG852.B00088", "PG852.B00089", "PG852.B00090", "PG852.B00091", "PG852.B00092", "PG852.B00093", "PG852.B00094", "PG852.B00095", "PG852.B00096", "PG852.B00097", "PG852.B00098", "PG852.B00099", "PG852.B00100", "PG852.B00101", "PG852.B00102", "PG852.B00103", "PG852.B00104", "PG852.B00105", "PG852.B00106" ], "bytes": 26552, "sha256": "c25173dbb97ac3ab5ce8091f0dbd7aeff9bd7bf53f37c9399b59124ce04bbd10", "synopsis": "Dewey rejects imitation as a circular explanation of social likeness, emphasizes tools and active joint work, then recasts immaturity and dependence as positive capacities for growth and participation.", "observations": [ { "refs": [ "PG852.B00087", "PG852.B00088", "PG852.B00089" ], "finding": "Calling similar behavior imitation mistakes an outcome for its explanation; intelligent copying of means serves an already shared undertaking. The discussion contains demeaning disability language.", "disposition": "candidate selective imitation of means; preserve ableist limit" }, { "refs": [ "PG852.B00091", "PG852.B00092" ], "finding": "Accumulated tools load the environment with prior achievements, allowing rapid learning; their worth depends on social use rather than possession alone. Rejection of innate inferiority coexists with a civilizational hierarchy.", "disposition": "candidate inherited environmental scaffolding" }, { "refs": [ "PG852.B00093", "PG852.B00094", "PG852.B00095" ], "finding": "Even the principle of active learning fails if only lectured; tools, administration and repeated cooperative occupation must enact it.", "disposition": "candidate enacted educational method" }, { "refs": [ "PG852.B00100", "PG852.B00101", "PG852.B00102", "PG852.B00105", "PG852.B00106" ], "finding": "Immaturity is present power to develop; dependence includes active solicitation of cooperation, while self-sufficiency can diminish social responsiveness.", "disposition": "candidate positive immaturity and interdependence" } ], "inspection": "complete" }, { "packet": 5, "path": "inspection/packets/pg852/005.txt", "firstRef": "PG852.B00107", "lastRef": "PG852.B00127", "refs": [ "PG852.B00107", "PG852.B00108", "PG852.B00109", "PG852.B00110", "PG852.B00111", "PG852.B00112", "PG852.B00113", "PG852.B00114", "PG852.B00115", "PG852.B00116", "PG852.B00117", "PG852.B00118", "PG852.B00119", "PG852.B00120", "PG852.B00121", "PG852.B00122", "PG852.B00123", "PG852.B00124", "PG852.B00125", "PG852.B00126", "PG852.B00127" ], "bytes": 26446, "sha256": "9c69e5f9c7ccf77d4345ac93c00334bef62c61511d58c59427af69dc3da74d3c", "synopsis": "Plasticity enables learning from consequences and learning to learn. Active habits differ from passive habituation and imprisoning routine. Education is continuous growth, making present experience fruitful rather than sacrificing it to abstract future preparation.", "observations": [ { "refs": [ "PG852.B00107", "PG852.B00108", "PG852.B00109" ], "finding": "Prolonged dependence and variable tentative reactions support transferable learning methods; dependence reciprocally educates carers.", "disposition": "candidate learning-to-learn; animal comparisons are historical claims" }, { "refs": [ "PG852.B00110", "PG852.B00111", "PG852.B00112", "PG852.B00113", "PG852.B00114" ], "finding": "Habits actively recruit environmental means and seek occasions; stable background accommodation supports selective change, while routine cuts off plasticity. Colonial desert-improvement example encodes hierarchy.", "disposition": "candidate active habit versus routine; retain contextual limitation" }, { "refs": [ "PG852.B00115", "PG852.B00119", "PG852.B00120", "PG852.B00121" ], "finding": "Growth is valued by further capacity for growth, not a fixed adult terminus; respect for childhood requires guidance of emerging powers, not indiscriminate indulgence.", "disposition": "candidate growth-enabling education" }, { "refs": [ "PG852.B00125", "PG852.B00126", "PG852.B00127" ], "finding": "Abstract future preparation loses present motive and recruits rewards or coercion; rich present experience prepares through continuity.", "disposition": "candidate present-grounded preparation" }, { "refs": [ "PG852.B00122", "PG852.B00123" ], "finding": "Footnotes attribute prolonged-infancy doctrine and connect philosophical assumptions.", "disposition": "apparatus inspected" } ], "inspection": "complete" }, { "packet": 6, "path": "inspection/packets/pg852/006.txt", "firstRef": "PG852.B00128", "lastRef": "PG852.B00141", "refs": [ "PG852.B00128", "PG852.B00129", "PG852.B00130", "PG852.B00131", "PG852.B00132", "PG852.B00133", "PG852.B00134", "PG852.B00135", "PG852.B00136", "PG852.B00137", "PG852.B00138", "PG852.B00139", "PG852.B00140", "PG852.B00141" ], "bytes": 24949, "sha256": "89a453b36e0efd6acc376db75a8a8acfd3a09f458abe1e8e1c9cd685e4edd749", "synopsis": "Criticism of fixed-goal unfolding in Froebel and Hegel is followed by criticism of formal discipline: capacities develop through situated coordination, and transfer depends on the range of relations actually involved.", "observations": [ { "refs": [ "PG852.B00128", "PG852.B00130", "PG852.B00131", "PG852.B00132" ], "finding": "A supposedly inward unfolding can conceal adult dictation through cue-dependent questions and imposed symbolism; Dewey credits Froebel's attention to children while criticizing his metaphysics.", "disposition": "candidate covert cue dependence" }, { "refs": [ "PG852.B00133", "PG852.B00134", "PG852.B00135" ], "finding": "Institutional formation of mind is retained but absolute historical necessity and organism analogies can sanctify conformity and fixed classes. These are Dewey's interpretations of named thinkers.", "disposition": "preserve attribution and anti-organic-hierarchy tension" }, { "refs": [ "PG852.B00136", "PG852.B00137", "PG852.B00138", "PG852.B00139" ], "finding": "Formal discipline treats faculties as pre-existing general powers; the alternative is selection and coordination of specific activities in changing conditions.", "disposition": "candidate situated capacity formation" }, { "refs": [ "PG852.B00140", "PG852.B00141" ], "finding": "Transfer is not a generic mental muscle effect: broader coordinated contexts support flexible later use, while expertise can remain narrow.", "disposition": "candidate contextual breadth of transfer" } ], "inspection": "complete" }, { "packet": 7, "path": "inspection/packets/pg852/007.txt", "firstRef": "PG852.B00142", "lastRef": "PG852.B00159", "refs": [ "PG852.B00142", "PG852.B00143", "PG852.B00144", "PG852.B00145", "PG852.B00146", "PG852.B00147", "PG852.B00148", "PG852.B00149", "PG852.B00150", "PG852.B00151", "PG852.B00152", "PG852.B00153", "PG852.B00154", "PG852.B00155", "PG852.B00156", "PG852.B00157", "PG852.B00158", "PG852.B00159" ], "bytes": 26106, "sha256": "48555ce01154c3d35275fab8a41c0e427ae2614bf19134122d7e5a6e735b41a2", "synopsis": "Social breadth makes education general. Herbartian content formation and cultural recapitulation are examined for gains and limits, leading to education as reconstructing experience to enlarge meaning and subsequent direction.", "observations": [ { "refs": [ "PG852.B00142", "PG852.B00143" ], "finding": "General education means flexible coordination across varied social relations, not prestige of a subject; isolated literature may narrow as much as isolated technical study.", "disposition": "retain social breadth criterion" }, { "refs": [ "PG852.B00145", "PG852.B00148", "PG852.B00149", "PG852.B00150", "PG852.B00151" ], "finding": "Dewey credits Herbart for concrete method and subject matter but rejects uniform presentation sequences that erase learner activity, novelty and the teacher's own learning.", "disposition": "attributed comparison, candidate reciprocal teaching" }, { "refs": [ "PG852.B00152", "PG852.B00154", "PG852.B00155", "PG852.B00156" ], "finding": "Past evolution is not a curriculum to retraverse; inherited capacities constrain available means without predetermining their use. Disability claims remain source limits.", "disposition": "candidate inheritance as resource not destiny" }, { "refs": [ "PG852.B00157", "PG852.B00158", "PG852.B00159" ], "finding": "Present problems make past achievements usable; educative reconstruction reveals connections and improves intentional control of later experience.", "disposition": "candidate reconstruction of experience" } ], "inspection": "complete" }, { "packet": 8, "path": "inspection/packets/pg852/008.txt", "firstRef": "PG852.B00160", "lastRef": "PG852.B00174", "refs": [ "PG852.B00160", "PG852.B00161", "PG852.B00162", "PG852.B00163", "PG852.B00164", "PG852.B00165", "PG852.B00166", "PG852.B00167", "PG852.B00168", "PG852.B00169", "PG852.B00170", "PG852.B00171", "PG852.B00172", "PG852.B00173", "PG852.B00174" ], "bytes": 26674, "sha256": "0285c22dbb74f7ae424c9dce083a6dabdd72504fc8ae5eaf67f830d3ee29f472", "synopsis": "Reconstruction adds foresight beyond routine or caprice. Democratic education is evaluated by diverse consciously shared interests and free interchange between groups; institutional and industrial hierarchies impoverish experience on both sides.", "observations": [ { "refs": [ "PG852.B00160", "PG852.B00161", "PG852.B00162", "PG852.B00163" ], "finding": "Activity becomes educative when its results reveal connections and support later direction; social reconstruction can improve rather than replicate inherited habits.", "disposition": "retain educative reconstruction" }, { "refs": [ "PG852.B00166", "PG852.B00167" ], "finding": "Descriptive society includes exploitative groups, so socialization alone cannot be the norm. Criteria are breadth of shared interests and freedom of intergroup contact, drawn critically from actual associations.", "disposition": "candidate democratic association criteria" }, { "refs": [ "PG852.B00168", "PG852.B00169", "PG852.B00170" ], "finding": "Narrow stimulation and inequitable exchange deform rulers as well as ruled; workplace efficiency must include workers' understanding of technical and social connections.", "disposition": "candidate social intelligence of work" }, { "refs": [ "PG852.B00171", "PG852.B00172", "PG852.B00173" ], "finding": "Democracy is communicated associated life and continuous readjustment; mobile societies need accessible education and initiative lest few appropriate blind labor's results.", "disposition": "retain democratic growth architecture" }, { "refs": [ "PG852.B00174" ], "finding": "Plato's contribution and limits are introduced through the circle of just institutions and rightly trained judgment; this is Dewey's historical reconstruction.", "disposition": "attributed comparison" } ], "inspection": "complete" }, { "packet": 9, "path": "inspection/packets/pg852/009.txt", "firstRef": "PG852.B00175", "lastRef": "PG852.B00189", "refs": [ "PG852.B00175", "PG852.B00176", "PG852.B00177", "PG852.B00178", "PG852.B00179", "PG852.B00180", "PG852.B00181", "PG852.B00182", "PG852.B00183", "PG852.B00184", "PG852.B00185", "PG852.B00186", "PG852.B00187", "PG852.B00188", "PG852.B00189" ], "bytes": 26731, "sha256": "e61cb609fe48bc707380a0d55673048dd4b2fedc20c88dcd96904b22b887a57c", "synopsis": "Plato's fixed classes, Enlightenment cosmopolitan individualism and nationalist institutional education are evaluated by democratic criteria. Real equality requires material access and curricular change; social purposes exceed national sovereignty. Aims must arise within educational activity.", "observations": [ { "refs": [ "PG852.B00175", "PG852.B00176", "PG852.B00177" ], "finding": "Dewey praises vocational fit while rejecting reduction of unique variable capacities to static classes; stability may occur through continuing change.", "disposition": "candidate individual plurality versus class sorting" }, { "refs": [ "PG852.B00178", "PG852.B00181", "PG852.B00182", "PG852.B00183", "PG852.B00184" ], "finding": "Cosmopolitan ideals lacked an effective agency; state provision supplied one while narrowing purpose to national competition. Individual/social labels require historical context.", "disposition": "candidate administrative capture of broad aims" }, { "refs": [ "PG852.B00185", "PG852.B00186" ], "finding": "Nominal schooling equality is insufficient without resources and forms enabling economic self-direction; international cooperation must become a working disposition beyond antiwar sentiment.", "disposition": "retain material equality and transnational educational horizon" }, { "refs": [ "PG852.B00189" ], "finding": "Externally dictated aims can turn one group's nominal purposes into means for another's ends; growth-capacity requires equitable social participation.", "disposition": "candidate immanent educational aims" } ], "inspection": "complete" }, { "packet": 10, "path": "inspection/packets/pg852/010.txt", "firstRef": "PG852.B00190", "lastRef": "PG852.B00208", "refs": [ "PG852.B00190", "PG852.B00191", "PG852.B00192", "PG852.B00193", "PG852.B00194", "PG852.B00195", "PG852.B00196", "PG852.B00197", "PG852.B00198", "PG852.B00199", "PG852.B00200", "PG852.B00201", "PG852.B00202", "PG852.B00203", "PG852.B00204", "PG852.B00205", "PG852.B00206", "PG852.B00207", "PG852.B00208" ], "bytes": 26122, "sha256": "f0996b2473608a90cf1ec64475f9d914aa05f503b38fb2fc3ac571bc823fd8fa", "synopsis": "An aim is foreseen completion used to organize present observation and alternatives. Good aims grow from conditions, change under trial, and free activity; broad educational aims are complementary viewpoints, not fixed external commands.", "observations": [ { "refs": [ "PG852.B00190", "PG852.B00191", "PG852.B00192", "PG852.B00193" ], "finding": "Mere results differ from cumulative completion and consciously anticipated ends; considering alternatives increases meaning and resources for adjustment.", "disposition": "candidate aim as operative foresight" }, { "refs": [ "PG852.B00195", "PG852.B00196", "PG852.B00197", "PG852.B00198" ], "finding": "A tentative aim is tested and revised in action; achieved ends become further means, and objects matter through what one does with them.", "disposition": "candidate revisable ends-in-view" }, { "refs": [ "PG852.B00200", "PG852.B00201", "PG852.B00202", "PG852.B00203" ], "finding": "Persons have context-specific aims; principles must translate into cooperation with learners. Externally imposed aims reproduce distrust down administrative hierarchies.", "disposition": "candidate cascading aim imposition" }, { "refs": [ "PG852.B00204", "PG852.B00205", "PG852.B00208" ], "finding": "Generality can expand concrete connections or empty them; multiple broad aims function as complementary hypotheses, often emphasizing what an epoch lacks.", "disposition": "candidate aims as plural diagnostic perspectives" } ], "inspection": "complete" }, { "packet": 11, "path": "inspection/packets/pg852/011.txt", "firstRef": "PG852.B00209", "lastRef": "PG852.B00225", "refs": [ "PG852.B00209", "PG852.B00210", "PG852.B00211", "PG852.B00212", "PG852.B00213", "PG852.B00214", "PG852.B00215", "PG852.B00216", "PG852.B00217", "PG852.B00218", "PG852.B00219", "PG852.B00220", "PG852.B00221", "PG852.B00222", "PG852.B00223", "PG852.B00224", "PG852.B00225" ], "bytes": 26140, "sha256": "902ace373ed4e58167e1b1c8a6c000827952138b2f00b028c71900aa75321bcc", "synopsis": "Natural capacities supply conditions rather than fixed ends; attention to bodily health, movement and irregular individual growth is retained. Democratic social efficiency unites livelihood, civic judgment, communicable experience and distinctive culture, against class sorting or output-only measures.", "observations": [ { "refs": [ "PG852.B00211", "PG852.B00212", "PG852.B00213", "PG852.B00214" ], "finding": "Dewey separates Rousseau's sound coordination of nature, persons and things from the claim that spontaneous natural development supplies its own ideal goal.", "disposition": "attributed critique; candidate conditions versus ends" }, { "refs": [ "PG852.B00215", "PG852.B00216", "PG852.B00217", "PG852.B00218" ], "finding": "Health, movement, distinct aptitudes and uneven timing guide environmental provision; restraint can conceal tendencies and excessive correction fix transitory ones.", "disposition": "candidate timely response to emerging capacities" }, { "refs": [ "PG852.B00219", "PG852.B00220" ], "finding": "Economic competence matters, but early class-assigned specialization can fossilize privilege and leave workers unable to adapt. Language of parasitism around dependence needs critical qualification.", "disposition": "retain vocational autonomy and source limit" }, { "refs": [ "PG852.B00221", "PG852.B00222", "PG852.B00223", "PG852.B00224", "PG852.B00225" ], "finding": "Social efficiency means rich reciprocal experience, imaginative sympathy and intelligent choice, not only output; personal culture and social contribution are mutually dependent in a democracy.", "disposition": "candidate communicative social efficiency and nonpaternalistic sympathy" } ], "inspection": "complete" }, { "packet": 12, "path": "inspection/packets/pg852/012.txt", "firstRef": "PG852.B00226", "lastRef": "PG852.B00253", "refs": [ "PG852.B00226", "PG852.B00227", "PG852.B00228", "PG852.B00229", "PG852.B00230", "PG852.B00231", "PG852.B00232", "PG852.B00233", "PG852.B00234", "PG852.B00235", "PG852.B00236", "PG852.B00237", "PG852.B00238", "PG852.B00239", "PG852.B00240", "PG852.B00241", "PG852.B00242", "PG852.B00243", "PG852.B00244", "PG852.B00245", "PG852.B00246", "PG852.B00247", "PG852.B00248", "PG852.B00249", "PG852.B00250", "PG852.B00251", "PG852.B00252", "PG852.B00253" ], "bytes": 24700, "sha256": "78f328fd774f6f2aff1f416835fa6e1c9d83bc6242cb366aef773761170032b5", "synopsis": "Culture and useful participation converge. Interest is concern in a developing shared situation and its intervening means; discipline is intelligent persistence rather than stubbornness or mere obedience. Mind is a quality of consequentially directed activity.", "observations": [ { "refs": [ "PG852.B00226", "PG852.B00227", "PG852.B00228", "PG852.B00229" ], "finding": "Culture expands accuracy and range of perceived meanings through participation; notes attribute a growth claim and qualify Rousseau's political ideal.", "disposition": "retain integration and apparatus" }, { "refs": [ "PG852.B00231", "PG852.B00232", "PG852.B00237", "PG852.B00238", "PG852.B00239", "PG852.B00240" ], "finding": "Interest binds self to objective consequences and connects present capacity through means to its end; artificial rewards do not establish that substantive connection.", "disposition": "candidate mediating interest" }, { "refs": [ "PG852.B00241", "PG852.B00243", "PG852.B00244", "PG852.B00245", "PG852.B00248" ], "finding": "Discipline combines critical foresight of ends with sustained execution; obstinacy refuses examination, and detached speculation lacks practical commitment.", "disposition": "candidate intelligent persistence" }, { "refs": [ "PG852.B00249", "PG852.B00250", "PG852.B00251", "PG852.B00252", "PG852.B00253" ], "finding": "Purpose selects relevant observations and tools; intelligence belongs to activity participating with independent energies, not an isolated ready-made mind.", "disposition": "candidate situated purposive intelligence" } ], "inspection": "complete" }, { "packet": 13, "path": "inspection/packets/pg852/013.txt", "firstRef": "PG852.B00254", "lastRef": "PG852.B00269", "refs": [ "PG852.B00254", "PG852.B00255", "PG852.B00256", "PG852.B00257", "PG852.B00258", "PG852.B00259", "PG852.B00260", "PG852.B00261", "PG852.B00262", "PG852.B00263", "PG852.B00264", "PG852.B00265", "PG852.B00266", "PG852.B00267", "PG852.B00268", "PG852.B00269" ], "bytes": 26314, "sha256": "4d513eb1e3c83215e6918280d21aef40e730030ff25cd6b01ac5e70b7a0d5134", "synopsis": "Uncheckable claims of discipline insulate teaching methods from criticism. Social divisions produce the split between empty culture and mechanical labor. Experience joins doing to undergoing, and meaning arises from grasped relations rather than isolated sensations or verbal substitutes.", "observations": [ { "refs": [ "PG852.B00254" ], "finding": "When failure is always assigned to an undisciplined pupil, the claim that a study disciplines becomes immune to outcome evidence.", "disposition": "candidate self-sealing educational justification" }, { "refs": [ "PG852.B00255", "PG852.B00256", "PG852.B00257", "PG852.B00258", "PG852.B00259", "PG852.B00260" ], "finding": "Subject matter becomes meaningful within purposeful activity; class-divided work and leisure foster opposing distortions of intelligence, so reform requires more than changed doctrine.", "disposition": "retain social roots of pedagogical dualism; gendered rhetoric is source limit" }, { "refs": [ "PG852.B00262", "PG852.B00263" ], "finding": "Experience connects action with returned consequences; mere doing or unconnected suffering does not yield cumulative meaning.", "disposition": "candidate doing-undergoing continuity" }, { "refs": [ "PG852.B00264", "PG852.B00265", "PG852.B00266", "PG852.B00267" ], "finding": "Suppression of bodily activity wastes energy, while isolated technique creates mechanical habits to which meaning cannot simply be added later.", "disposition": "candidate meaning-integrated skill acquisition" }, { "refs": [ "PG852.B00268", "PG852.B00269" ], "finding": "Perception already involves judgment of relations; fluent words with thin relational experience can conceal problems instead of resolving them.", "disposition": "candidate verbal pseudo-understanding" } ], "inspection": "complete" }, { "packet": 14, "path": "inspection/packets/pg852/014.txt", "firstRef": "PG852.B00270", "lastRef": "PG852.B00285", "refs": [ "PG852.B00270", "PG852.B00271", "PG852.B00272", "PG852.B00273", "PG852.B00274", "PG852.B00275", "PG852.B00276", "PG852.B00277", "PG852.B00278", "PG852.B00279", "PG852.B00280", "PG852.B00281", "PG852.B00282", "PG852.B00283", "PG852.B00284", "PG852.B00285" ], "bytes": 26792, "sha256": "e3a828211dce0604c89f5a295566b165a009589ab5df677f5fda46480691bc12", "synopsis": "Reflection uncovers mechanisms joining action and consequence, makes responsibility prospective, and tests tentative hypotheses. Education must begin from a real problematic experience rather than a teacher-imposed exercise whose only stake is approval.", "observations": [ { "refs": [ "PG852.B00270", "PG852.B00271", "PG852.B00272" ], "finding": "Reflective experience goes beyond knowing that a method works to identifying conditional connections, enabling adaptation and responsibility for consequences.", "disposition": "candidate reflective mechanism inquiry" }, { "refs": [ "PG852.B00273" ], "finding": "Thinking starts from interested participation but requires evidential detachment; historical understanding preserves what was still future to actors.", "disposition": "candidate interested impartiality and prospective historical meaning" }, { "refs": [ "PG852.B00274", "PG852.B00275", "PG852.B00276", "PG852.B00277", "PG852.B00278" ], "finding": "Inquiry inhabits uncertainty between knowledge and ignorance; conjecture, survey, elaboration and active testing remain fallible. Even spectators test by arranging observation rather than retrospective self-congratulation.", "disposition": "reuse inquiry cycle if baseline adequate" }, { "refs": [ "PG852.B00280", "PG852.B00282", "PG852.B00283", "PG852.B00284", "PG852.B00285" ], "finding": "Skill, information and thinking must develop together in tasks with novelty within existing competence; authentic problems arise in the learner's undertaking rather than only in the demand for marks.", "disposition": "candidate authentic learner problem" } ], "inspection": "complete" }, { "packet": 15, "path": "inspection/packets/pg852/015.txt", "firstRef": "PG852.B00286", "lastRef": "PG852.B00304", "refs": [ "PG852.B00286", "PG852.B00287", "PG852.B00288", "PG852.B00289", "PG852.B00290", "PG852.B00291", "PG852.B00292", "PG852.B00293", "PG852.B00294", "PG852.B00295", "PG852.B00296", "PG852.B00297", "PG852.B00298", "PG852.B00299", "PG852.B00300", "PG852.B00301", "PG852.B00302", "PG852.B00303", "PG852.B00304" ], "bytes": 25615, "sha256": "58446051488d9733114e5e41365afce72c2f880dcf8c2ad54b6f2a5e59ccd8f2", "synopsis": "Artificial school problems cultivate reading authority's expectations. Thought needs usable data and achievable difficulty; discovery is novel use of familiar material, ideas require personal construction and application. Method is effective ordering of subject matter, analytically distinguishable but not separable.", "observations": [ { "refs": [ "PG852.B00286", "PG852.B00287", "PG852.B00288", "PG852.B00289" ], "finding": "Resources should support a learner's problem without supplying its solution; both informational overload and impoverished working resources can coexist.", "disposition": "candidate information as working capital and calibrated difficulty" }, { "refs": [ "PG852.B00290", "PG852.B00291", "PG852.B00292" ], "finding": "Inventiveness is a new operation with known materials; another's stated idea is initially a fact for the receiver, who must reconstruct its relation through inquiry. Teacher participation remains active.", "disposition": "candidate nontransferability of ready-made ideas" }, { "refs": [ "PG852.B00293", "PG852.B00294", "PG852.B00295", "PG852.B00296" ], "finding": "Application completes and tests meaning; equipment provides opportunities, not guarantees. Teaching should connect lessons to each other and to lived situations.", "disposition": "retain application as intellectual completion" }, { "refs": [ "PG852.B00299", "PG852.B00300", "PG852.B00301", "PG852.B00302", "PG852.B00303", "PG852.B00304" ], "finding": "Systematic knowledge is already methodized achievement, not an automatic starting point; method and material are reflective distinctions within one experience.", "disposition": "candidate method-subject unity" } ], "inspection": "complete" }, { "packet": 16, "path": "inspection/packets/pg852/016.txt", "firstRef": "PG852.B00305", "lastRef": "PG852.B00323", "refs": [ "PG852.B00305", "PG852.B00306", "PG852.B00307", "PG852.B00308", "PG852.B00309", "PG852.B00310", "PG852.B00311", "PG852.B00312", "PG852.B00313", "PG852.B00314", "PG852.B00315", "PG852.B00316", "PG852.B00317", "PG852.B00318", "PG852.B00319", "PG852.B00320", "PG852.B00321", "PG852.B00322", "PG852.B00323" ], "bytes": 26456, "sha256": "f2047895e14e72ba3d195f24534b5fc27a3b84e2b50a8f4aa39cddc0e119dc97", "synopsis": "Method is abstracted from successful concrete experience. General methods guide inquiry without replacing personal judgment. Directness, openness and wholeheartedness support intellectual integrity; uniform-answer pressure and imposed tasks cultivate divided attention and self-deception.", "observations": [ { "refs": [ "PG852.B00305", "PG852.B00306", "PG852.B00308", "PG852.B00309", "PG852.B00310" ], "finding": "An analytic distinction between how and what must not become a separation; imposed recipes and conscious learning-as-duty displace direct occupation with significant material.", "disposition": "retain method-subject unity" }, { "refs": [ "PG852.B00311", "PG852.B00312", "PG852.B00313", "PG852.B00314", "PG852.B00315" ], "finding": "Accumulated technique supplies questions and resources for unique cases; it supports originality when used as an aid, suppresses it when substituted for judgment.", "disposition": "candidate method as investigative aid" }, { "refs": [ "PG852.B00317", "PG852.B00318" ], "finding": "Directness is confidence in the situation's possibilities rather than monitoring one's impression on spectators; temporary self-observation may still improve technique.", "disposition": "candidate task-directed confidence" }, { "refs": [ "PG852.B00319", "PG852.B00320", "PG852.B00321" ], "finding": "Open-mindedness actively admits relevant alternatives and allows maturation; speed and measurable-answer demands favor rigid methods at the cost of growth.", "disposition": "candidate process quality versus answer pressure" }, { "refs": [ "PG852.B00322", "PG852.B00323" ], "finding": "Suppressed interests can split publicly performed attention from private desire, producing self-deception and evading inquiry into one's strongest motives.", "disposition": "candidate induced divided attention" } ], "inspection": "complete" }, { "packet": 17, "path": "inspection/packets/pg852/017.txt", "firstRef": "PG852.B00324", "lastRef": "PG852.B00344", "refs": [ "PG852.B00324", "PG852.B00325", "PG852.B00326", "PG852.B00327", "PG852.B00328", "PG852.B00329", "PG852.B00330", "PG852.B00331", "PG852.B00332", "PG852.B00333", "PG852.B00334", "PG852.B00335", "PG852.B00336", "PG852.B00337", "PG852.B00338", "PG852.B00339", "PG852.B00340", "PG852.B00341", "PG852.B00342", "PG852.B00343", "PG852.B00344" ], "bytes": 26475, "sha256": "db3782a5bddfe475ca1276dc5c2e4338732d032c57f6ed22d97d2c0da01c14ba", "synopsis": "Intellectual responsibility follows implications into conduct, not exhaustive drill. Teacher and learner organize the same field differently. Knowledge progresses from practical acquaintance through communicated resources toward systematic organization; records become educative only through inquiry-relevant use.", "observations": [ { "refs": [ "PG852.B00324", "PG852.B00325", "PG852.B00326", "PG852.B00327", "PG852.B00328", "PG852.B00329" ], "finding": "Responsibility accepts the conduct implied by a belief; intellectual thoroughness develops a purpose's meaning rather than amassing disconnected details. Prior-method cross-reference inspected.", "disposition": "candidate consequential intellectual responsibility" }, { "refs": [ "PG852.B00331", "PG852.B00332", "PG852.B00333", "PG852.B00334", "PG852.B00335" ], "finding": "The teacher's systematic mastery supplies a map of possibilities, but the learner's material remains organized around practical interests; effective teaching attends to their interaction.", "disposition": "candidate expert-learner organization gap" }, { "refs": [ "PG852.B00336", "PG852.B00337", "PG852.B00338", "PG852.B00339" ], "finding": "Know-how, shared information and systematic relations develop continuously; communication can be directly part of personal experience when it supports joint action.", "disposition": "retain stages without rigid separation" }, { "refs": [ "PG852.B00340", "PG852.B00341", "PG852.B00342", "PG852.B00343", "PG852.B00344" ], "finding": "Recorded propositions are outcomes and resources of knowing, not automatically the recipient's knowledge; familiar confidence may exceed warranted certainty. Source's reversed ratio wording is retained as textual error rather than endorsed.", "disposition": "candidate record-knowledge distinction and calibrated assent" } ], "inspection": "complete" }, { "packet": 18, "path": "inspection/packets/pg852/018.txt", "firstRef": "PG852.B00345", "lastRef": "PG852.B00361", "refs": [ "PG852.B00345", "PG852.B00346", "PG852.B00347", "PG852.B00348", "PG852.B00349", "PG852.B00350", "PG852.B00351", "PG852.B00352", "PG852.B00353", "PG852.B00354", "PG852.B00355", "PG852.B00356", "PG852.B00357", "PG852.B00358", "PG852.B00359", "PG852.B00360", "PG852.B00361" ], "bytes": 26416, "sha256": "5f6d6ec77ecf00577d433aa54eb697fb0258c1ebef942cb8c9c7e0a8b7a53d73", "synopsis": "Science disciplines testing against premature certainty and organizes knowledge for discovery. Curricula should prioritize shared human problems. Play and work educate through purposeful judgment, mistakes and whole undertakings, with occupations opening scientific and social inquiry.", "observations": [ { "refs": [ "PG852.B00345", "PG852.B00346", "PG852.B00347" ], "finding": "Scientific organization is organized for tested discovery, not simply a catalog; scientific results detached from inquiry can be especially remote. Historical chemistry phrasing is not modern precision.", "disposition": "candidate inquiry-organized knowledge" }, { "refs": [ "PG852.B00348", "PG852.B00349" ], "finding": "Democratic essentials are broad human participation, not mechanical literacy for workers paired with elite refinement; expert/novice stages are relative.", "disposition": "retain social curriculum criterion" }, { "refs": [ "PG852.B00351", "PG852.B00352", "PG852.B00353", "PG852.B00354" ], "finding": "Active occupations have intellectual/social value, but out-of-school work or play can reproduce harmful conditions; educational use depends on deliberate organization.", "disposition": "retain conditional value of activity" }, { "refs": [ "PG852.B00355", "PG852.B00356", "PG852.B00357", "PG852.B00358" ], "finding": "Error-proof prepared materials may suppress initiative; a meaningful whole is unified by purpose, while experts' isolated elements are not necessarily simple to beginners.", "disposition": "candidate purposeful-whole simplicity and protected scope for error" }, { "refs": [ "PG852.B00359", "PG852.B00360", "PG852.B00361" ], "finding": "Common occupations freed from wage pressure reveal social relations and scientific questions; gardening can initiate botany without limiting education to vocational gardening.", "disposition": "candidate occupations as curricular portals" } ], "inspection": "complete" }, { "packet": 19, "path": "inspection/packets/pg852/019.txt", "firstRef": "PG852.B00362", "lastRef": "PG852.B00376", "refs": [ "PG852.B00362", "PG852.B00363", "PG852.B00364", "PG852.B00365", "PG852.B00366", "PG852.B00367", "PG852.B00368", "PG852.B00369", "PG852.B00370", "PG852.B00371", "PG852.B00372", "PG852.B00373", "PG852.B00374", "PG852.B00375", "PG852.B00376" ], "bytes": 26209, "sha256": "865fa8b89815c6b54f6bad5d796c3f916aeccfd7bba545edb22436a29e90ad47", "synopsis": "Practical occupations open both scientific method and social study. Play and work differ in temporal organization, while drudgery reflects external pressure. Geography and history enlarge present acts through natural and human connections, using the local as an opening beyond itself.", "observations": [ { "refs": [ "PG852.B00362", "PG852.B00363", "PG852.B00364" ], "finding": "Dewey ties scientific discovery to social occupations without requiring repetition of historical stages; private-profit capture can hide their public meanings.", "disposition": "retain occupational inquiry pathway" }, { "refs": [ "PG852.B00365", "PG852.B00366", "PG852.B00367", "PG852.B00368", "PG852.B00369" ], "finding": "Play anticipates continuing activity; work organizes longer effort around definite results. Both can be intrinsically motivated; forced drudgery and deprived leisure distort their relation.", "disposition": "candidate temporal continuity of play and work; recreation as positive need" }, { "refs": [ "PG852.B00371", "PG852.B00372", "PG852.B00373" ], "finding": "A stable physical act can acquire vastly richer meanings through perceived connections; growing curiosity and usable information expand further receptivity.", "disposition": "candidate recursive enlargement of meaning" }, { "refs": [ "PG852.B00374", "PG852.B00375", "PG852.B00376" ], "finding": "Nature is constitutive medium of social history, not scenery; local geography should lead outward, with facts selected for human connections rather than isolated cataloguing.", "disposition": "candidate contextual geography-history unity" } ], "inspection": "complete" }, { "packet": 20, "path": "inspection/packets/pg852/020.txt", "firstRef": "PG852.B00377", "lastRef": "PG852.B00396", "refs": [ "PG852.B00377", "PG852.B00378", "PG852.B00379", "PG852.B00380", "PG852.B00381", "PG852.B00382", "PG852.B00383", "PG852.B00384", "PG852.B00385", "PG852.B00386", "PG852.B00387", "PG852.B00388", "PG852.B00389", "PG852.B00390", "PG852.B00391", "PG852.B00392", "PG852.B00393", "PG852.B00394", "PG852.B00395", "PG852.B00396" ], "bytes": 26772, "sha256": "84666f7edd66c648b46c2e4c68d5465545052ba63328145e0e6852f74421afc0", "synopsis": "History and nature study gain unity through present human relations, with industrial and intellectual history correcting hero-centered narratives. Science should be learned through inquiry rather than polished specialist results; progress also transforms purposes, not merely means.", "observations": [ { "refs": [ "PG852.B00377", "PG852.B00378", "PG852.B00379" ], "finding": "Context restores natural facts' human interest without invented sentimental personification; genetic history explains a present problem through its formation.", "disposition": "candidate contextual restoration and genetic explanation" }, { "refs": [ "PG852.B00380", "PG852.B00381", "PG852.B00382", "PG852.B00383", "PG852.B00384" ], "finding": "Biography must show social conditions; economic/intellectual history broadens agency and yields ethical social insight rather than isolated moral anecdotes. Progress and civilization ranking remain contestable.", "disposition": "retain historical-method facet and bias limit" }, { "refs": [ "PG852.B00385", "PG852.B00386", "PG852.B00388", "PG852.B00389", "PG852.B00390", "PG852.B00391", "PG852.B00392" ], "finding": "Expert logical organization is an educational destination; learners need inquiry that transforms familiar experience, with ground covered subordinate to understood method.", "disposition": "candidate psychological-to-logical sequence" }, { "refs": [ "PG852.B00393" ], "finding": "Laboratory manipulation can be ritual; scientific symbols derive meaning from their role as inquiry tools, not from reciting definitions or merely pointing at objects.", "disposition": "candidate inquiry-functional symbols" }, { "refs": [ "PG852.B00394", "PG852.B00395", "PG852.B00396" ], "finding": "Scientific progress should enrich and create desires and ends; technical efficiency alone leaves inherited purposes intact.", "disposition": "candidate qualitative progress of ends" } ], "inspection": "complete" }, { "packet": 21, "path": "inspection/packets/pg852/021.txt", "firstRef": "PG852.B00397", "lastRef": "PG852.B00414", "refs": [ "PG852.B00397", "PG852.B00398", "PG852.B00399", "PG852.B00400", "PG852.B00401", "PG852.B00402", "PG852.B00403", "PG852.B00404", "PG852.B00405", "PG852.B00406", "PG852.B00407", "PG852.B00408", "PG852.B00409", "PG852.B00410", "PG852.B00411", "PG852.B00412", "PG852.B00413", "PG852.B00414" ], "bytes": 26827, "sha256": "79efa8d94dc3e671fa72824a3ed2a341b41727c1ed5ebcb5b6b2d091df631a3f", "synopsis": "Scientific abstraction preserves meanings for new applications and formulation gives them a shareable body. Humanism is measured by liberation of intelligence and sympathy. Educational value rests on direct appreciative realization, which forms operative standards distinct from verbal professions.", "observations": [ { "refs": [ "PG852.B00397", "PG852.B00398", "PG852.B00399", "PG852.B00400", "PG852.B00401", "PG852.B00402" ], "finding": "Abstraction selects transferable meanings; generalization applies them anew, and formulation requires regard for others' experience. Claims that science alone enables conscious progress express Dewey's strong normative position.", "disposition": "candidate abstraction-formulation-application continuity" }, { "refs": [ "PG852.B00403", "PG852.B00404" ], "finding": "Scientific and literary subjects are humane through their effects on intelligence and sympathy, not inherited disciplinary status.", "disposition": "candidate functional humanism" }, { "refs": [ "PG852.B00408", "PG852.B00409", "PG852.B00410", "PG852.B00411" ], "finding": "Mediated knowledge expands experience only if qualitative firsthand acquaintance can make signs meaningful; laboratory initiation should first provide a feeling for problems.", "disposition": "candidate appreciative grounding of symbols" }, { "refs": [ "PG852.B00412", "PG852.B00413", "PG852.B00414" ], "finding": "Actual standards arise from lived appreciation and habitual preference, and may diverge from professed norms; the ragtime example embeds a culturally ranked taste judgment.", "disposition": "candidate operative versus professed valuation; retain taste hierarchy limit" } ], "inspection": "complete" }, { "packet": 22, "path": "inspection/packets/pg852/022.txt", "firstRef": "PG852.B00415", "lastRef": "PG852.B00428", "refs": [ "PG852.B00415", "PG852.B00416", "PG852.B00417", "PG852.B00418", "PG852.B00419", "PG852.B00420", "PG852.B00421", "PG852.B00422", "PG852.B00423", "PG852.B00424", "PG852.B00425", "PG852.B00426", "PG852.B00427", "PG852.B00428" ], "bytes": 26345, "sha256": "cae338225fa17e2acc11ddb19b60537861347b2cbeac725ab7b8a62ee4a4101a", "synopsis": "Imagination realizes significance across all activity; fine arts intensify appreciation. Prizing differs from comparative appraisal, whose ranking depends on a concrete choice. Values cannot be assigned inherently to subjects, and a patchwork curriculum mistakes institutional categories for integrated life.", "observations": [ { "refs": [ "PG852.B00415", "PG852.B00416", "PG852.B00417", "PG852.B00418" ], "finding": "Imagination is not limited to fantasy; it joins symbolic to direct experience. Fine arts concentrate and enhance meaningful qualities, shaping later demands on surroundings.", "disposition": "candidate imaginative realization and art-shaped standards" }, { "refs": [ "PG852.B00419", "PG852.B00420", "PG852.B00421", "PG852.B00422" ], "finding": "Enjoyed intrinsic goods are not ranked in abstraction; comparison arises under specific competing demands and treats alternatives instrumentally.", "disposition": "candidate situated comparative valuation" }, { "refs": [ "PG852.B00423", "PG852.B00424", "PG852.B00425" ], "finding": "Curricular revision must test current value, yet genuine present interest needs no forecast of a definite future use; abstract value categories are survey aids, not sovereign standards.", "disposition": "retain both anti-traditionalism and anti-narrow-utilitarianism" }, { "refs": [ "PG852.B00426", "PG852.B00427", "PG852.B00428" ], "finding": "Subjects have value when they actually produce worthwhile effects, not by named inherent potency; allocating each social interest a separate curricular compartment forgets education's integration.", "disposition": "candidate performed educational value" } ], "inspection": "complete" }, { "packet": 23, "path": "inspection/packets/pg852/023.txt", "firstRef": "PG852.B00429", "lastRef": "PG852.B00443", "refs": [ "PG852.B00429", "PG852.B00430", "PG852.B00431", "PG852.B00432", "PG852.B00433", "PG852.B00434", "PG852.B00435", "PG852.B00436", "PG852.B00437", "PG852.B00438", "PG852.B00439", "PG852.B00440", "PG852.B00441", "PG852.B00442", "PG852.B00443" ], "bytes": 25119, "sha256": "3188477dd23c3d474786f61a0c20b2998b0c4f074400e29973344017555c9034", "synopsis": "Curricular accumulation mirrors isolated social interests; integrated variety is the aim. The labor/leisure divide is traced to Greek class hierarchy and its modern survival, demanding actual democratization of intelligent work and cultivated leisure.", "observations": [ { "refs": [ "PG852.B00429", "PG852.B00430", "PG852.B00431", "PG852.B00432", "PG852.B00433", "PG852.B00434" ], "finding": "New social demands are often added as subjects without transforming old methods; overload cannot be cured solely by adding or cutting quantities. Breadth must be relationally organized.", "disposition": "candidate additive curriculum trap" }, { "refs": [ "PG852.B00437", "PG852.B00438" ], "finding": "Conflict between liberal leisure and useful work reflects class distribution rather than a necessary conflict of human activities.", "disposition": "candidate democratized work-leisure continuity" }, { "refs": [ "PG852.B00439", "PG852.B00440", "PG852.B00441", "PG852.B00442" ], "finding": "Dewey reconstructs Aristotle's rationale for subordinating slaves, artisans and women and ranking contemplation above interdependent civic action; these are criticized historical claims, not endorsed categories.", "disposition": "preserve attribution and hierarchical genealogy" }, { "refs": [ "PG852.B00443" ], "finding": "Changing words about dignity is insufficient while education allocates mechanical labor to many and ornamental culture to few; emancipation must include self-directed thought in production and leisure for all.", "disposition": "candidate practical test of emancipatory doctrine" } ], "inspection": "complete" }, { "packet": 24, "path": "inspection/packets/pg852/024.txt", "firstRef": "PG852.B00444", "lastRef": "PG852.B00461", "refs": [ "PG852.B00444", "PG852.B00445", "PG852.B00446", "PG852.B00447", "PG852.B00448", "PG852.B00449", "PG852.B00450", "PG852.B00451", "PG852.B00452", "PG852.B00453", "PG852.B00454", "PG852.B00455", "PG852.B00456", "PG852.B00457", "PG852.B00458", "PG852.B00459", "PG852.B00460", "PG852.B00461" ], "bytes": 26588, "sha256": "671ee05090eed8cb4b51f4fa76262e408d4a97b34767a8bf47a93d8abb5c79ca", "synopsis": "Modern schools mix utilitarian motives with detached methods, preserving the class division they deny. Free participation in work's ends links culture with use. The genealogy of reason versus experience shows both ancient and modern theories severing knowing from doing in different ways.", "observations": [ { "refs": [ "PG852.B00444", "PG852.B00445", "PG852.B00446", "PG852.B00447", "PG852.B00448", "PG852.B00449" ], "finding": "Routine useful training restricts transfer and autonomy; economic control remains autocratic despite political democracy. Footnote qualifies Aristotle's distinction of actual and natural slavery.", "disposition": "retain work-control democracy gap" }, { "refs": [ "PG852.B00451", "PG852.B00452", "PG852.B00453", "PG852.B00454", "PG852.B00455", "PG852.B00456", "PG852.B00457", "PG852.B00458" ], "finding": "Dewey reconstructs Greek rationalism as a response to conflicting customs and unstable practice, then traces its inherited hierarchy of contemplation over manual activity.", "disposition": "historical interpretation, not external verification" }, { "refs": [ "PG852.B00459", "PG852.B00460", "PG852.B00461" ], "finding": "Modern empiricism contests authority through firsthand objects but recasts experience as passive sensation; isolated object lessons can therefore neglect active thinking despite their reforming intent.", "disposition": "candidate passive empiricism versus active experience" } ], "inspection": "complete" }, { "packet": 25, "path": "inspection/packets/pg852/025.txt", "firstRef": "PG852.B00462", "lastRef": "PG852.B00479", "refs": [ "PG852.B00462", "PG852.B00463", "PG852.B00464", "PG852.B00465", "PG852.B00466", "PG852.B00467", "PG852.B00468", "PG852.B00469", "PG852.B00470", "PG852.B00471", "PG852.B00472", "PG852.B00473", "PG852.B00474", "PG852.B00475", "PG852.B00476", "PG852.B00477", "PG852.B00478", "PG852.B00479" ], "bytes": 26167, "sha256": "e2a952ac15dbce330f015f6abe0c6108a72abe121f65da2e7e557ac2e527afd4", "synopsis": "Sensationalism's limits lead to experience as controlled experimentation, reconciling action and rational knowledge. The naturalism-humanism divide is traced through borrowed literary cultures and schooling organized to transmit authoritative texts.", "observations": [ { "refs": [ "PG852.B00462", "PG852.B00463", "PG852.B00464" ], "finding": "Firsthand sensory aids become obstacles if isolated or retained as ends; conceptual symbols extend limited concrete acquaintance.", "disposition": "retain concrete-to-conceptual passage" }, { "refs": [ "PG852.B00465", "PG852.B00466", "PG852.B00467", "PG852.B00468", "PG852.B00469", "PG852.B00470", "PG852.B00471" ], "finding": "Experiment intentionally alters conditions to discover and test relations; rationality is quality of guided experience rather than an external faculty. School selects activities for learning rather than replacing activity with records.", "disposition": "candidate experimental reconstruction; reuse doing-undergoing wherefit" }, { "refs": [ "PG852.B00473", "PG852.B00474", "PG852.B00475" ], "finding": "Natural and human studies share a domain; Dewey's account of Greek philosophy contrasts its integrated nature-human inquiry with later literary dependence.", "disposition": "attributed historical comparison" }, { "refs": [ "PG852.B00476", "PG852.B00477", "PG852.B00478", "PG852.B00479" ], "finding": "Borrowed culture and foreign authoritative texts favor exposition and dialectical transmission; merely replacing classics with scientific textbooks does not change the authoritative method.", "disposition": "candidate subject substitution without method reform" } ], "inspection": "complete" }, { "packet": 26, "path": "inspection/packets/pg852/026.txt", "firstRef": "PG852.B00480", "lastRef": "PG852.B00501", "refs": [ "PG852.B00480", "PG852.B00481", "PG852.B00482", "PG852.B00483", "PG852.B00484", "PG852.B00485", "PG852.B00486", "PG852.B00487", "PG852.B00488", "PG852.B00489", "PG852.B00490", "PG852.B00491", "PG852.B00492", "PG852.B00493", "PG852.B00494", "PG852.B00495", "PG852.B00496", "PG852.B00497", "PG852.B00498", "PG852.B00499", "PG852.B00500", "PG852.B00501" ], "bytes": 26511, "sha256": "83c15cc378f514a09b2f764f2207ae02d4185a26ef9ef7c436cbcb63c05734f5", "synopsis": "The scientific-humanistic split is explained through institutional inertia, theology, exploitative applications and mistaken mechanistic metaphysics. Education should cross-fertilize nature and human studies around shared life. The individual/world dualism is introduced historically.", "observations": [ { "refs": [ "PG852.B00480", "PG852.B00481", "PG852.B00482", "PG852.B00483" ], "finding": "Renaissance inquiry renewed natural interests, but entrenched curricula and theological controversy redirected linguistic learning toward authority; these are Dewey's broad historical generalizations.", "disposition": "historical attribution" }, { "refs": [ "PG852.B00484", "PG852.B00485" ], "finding": "Bacon's cooperative promise of science was diverted into old class ends; technical revolution does not automatically transform motives or social purpose.", "disposition": "candidate technical change with inherited ends" }, { "refs": [ "PG852.B00486", "PG852.B00487", "PG852.B00488", "PG852.B00489" ], "finding": "A quantitative method's selective omission of qualities does not establish their unreality; mechanism mistakes instrumental technique for exhaustive ontology.", "disposition": "candidate methodological omission versus ontological denial" }, { "refs": [ "PG852.B00490", "PG852.B00491", "PG852.B00492", "PG852.B00493", "PG852.B00494", "PG852.B00495", "PG852.B00496", "PG852.B00497", "PG852.B00498", "PG852.B00499" ], "finding": "Shared industrial experience can connect science to humane culture; both technical fact hoarding and elite literary refinement fail without enlarged social imagination. Colonial modernization narrative and totalizing Greek claims need limits; citation inspected.", "disposition": "retain curricular integration and historical limits" }, { "refs": [ "PG852.B00501" ], "finding": "Mind-world separation is introduced as a historically formed account, with public experimental checking distinguished from prestige-based assent.", "disposition": "prepare individuality/inquiry facet" } ], "inspection": "complete" }, { "packet": 27, "path": "inspection/packets/pg852/027.txt", "firstRef": "PG852.B00502", "lastRef": "PG852.B00515", "refs": [ "PG852.B00502", "PG852.B00503", "PG852.B00504", "PG852.B00505", "PG852.B00506", "PG852.B00507", "PG852.B00508", "PG852.B00509", "PG852.B00510", "PG852.B00511", "PG852.B00512", "PG852.B00513", "PG852.B00514", "PG852.B00515" ], "bytes": 25233, "sha256": "53609d069cc4c921505cf7934dc797e5f0a129b63716fc508d6b15001d8c25a8", "synopsis": "Practical freedom of inquiry was mistaken for mental isolation. The individual reconstructs socially inherited belief, while authority, formal rationalism, self-interest and institutional idealism each solve the resulting artificial social problem incompletely. Educational freedom is initiative within shared inquiry.", "observations": [ { "refs": [ "PG852.B00502", "PG852.B00503", "PG852.B00504", "PG852.B00505", "PG852.B00506", "PG852.B00507" ], "finding": "Freedom sought richer effective connections with nature and others, not insulation; personal testing develops in a medium of received meanings.", "disposition": "candidate socially constituted inquiry freedom" }, { "refs": [ "PG852.B00508", "PG852.B00509" ], "finding": "Individual variations reorganize accepted knowledge piecemeal; suppression or lack of material support can leave ideas unrealized even without explicit censorship.", "disposition": "candidate supported intellectual variation" }, { "refs": [ "PG852.B00510", "PG852.B00511", "PG852.B00512", "PG852.B00513" ], "finding": "Dewey compares four responses to isolated consciousness, crediting benefits while identifying retained authority, empty form, external calculation or institutional rigidity.", "disposition": "attributed comparison; no flattening into identical doctrines" }, { "refs": [ "PG852.B00514", "PG852.B00515" ], "finding": "Freedom enables a distinctive contribution to common action; it requires physical opportunities for inquiry and can include solitude without equating individuality with spatial isolation.", "disposition": "candidate participatory freedom" } ], "inspection": "complete" }, { "packet": 28, "path": "inspection/packets/pg852/028.txt", "firstRef": "PG852.B00516", "lastRef": "PG852.B00535", "refs": [ "PG852.B00516", "PG852.B00517", "PG852.B00518", "PG852.B00519", "PG852.B00520", "PG852.B00521", "PG852.B00522", "PG852.B00523", "PG852.B00524", "PG852.B00525", "PG852.B00526", "PG852.B00527", "PG852.B00528", "PG852.B00529", "PG852.B00530", "PG852.B00531", "PG852.B00532", "PG852.B00533", "PG852.B00534", "PG852.B00535" ], "bytes": 26382, "sha256": "d66eee5bfda72d32574d9f0f0121f62e9efa35ac611b641363cf15a796950181", "synopsis": "Individuality includes personal reconstruction and distinctive methods, benefiting teachers as well as pupils. Vocation is meaningful socially useful continuity across multiple callings; occupational education should discover revisable capacities rather than assign a final career. Elite education also has hidden vocational purposes.", "observations": [ { "refs": [ "PG852.B00516", "PG852.B00517", "PG852.B00518", "PG852.B00519" ], "finding": "Learner originality is novelty in attitude and discovery relative to the learner, not global novelty of products; response diversity also lets teachers learn.", "disposition": "candidate learner-relative originality" }, { "refs": [ "PG852.B00522", "PG852.B00523", "PG852.B00524", "PG852.B00526" ], "finding": "Vocation joins personal significance and social contribution, but every person has multiple interacting callings; specialized technique loses meaning when cut off from wider life.", "disposition": "candidate plural vocation" }, { "refs": [ "PG852.B00527", "PG852.B00528", "PG852.B00529", "PG852.B00530" ], "finding": "Occupations organize otherwise scattered information; discovery of aptitude is continuous and career choice a revisable sketch rather than irreversible sorting.", "disposition": "candidate continuing vocational discovery" }, { "refs": [ "PG852.B00531", "PG852.B00532", "PG852.B00533", "PG852.B00534", "PG852.B00535" ], "finding": "Classical elite schooling trains for leadership, teaching and conspicuous consumption even when called nonvocational; industrial changes make hidden vocational assumptions explicit.", "disposition": "candidate unacknowledged elite vocation; historical scope limit" } ], "inspection": "complete" }, { "packet": 29, "path": "inspection/packets/pg852/029.txt", "firstRef": "PG852.B00536", "lastRef": "PG852.B00554", "refs": [ "PG852.B00536", "PG852.B00537", "PG852.B00538", "PG852.B00539", "PG852.B00540", "PG852.B00541", "PG852.B00542", "PG852.B00543", "PG852.B00544", "PG852.B00545", "PG852.B00546", "PG852.B00547", "PG852.B00548", "PG852.B00549", "PG852.B00550", "PG852.B00551", "PG852.B00552", "PG852.B00553", "PG852.B00554" ], "bytes": 25669, "sha256": "d3862f53691547f883be61737bada0d3e33ad02f3cc1be548bddd8f3f8810249", "synopsis": "Industrial technology increases potential meaning while often narrowing workers' agency. Schools can enact more democratic associated life rather than reproduce trade hierarchy. Dewey explicitly reviews the book's three-part architecture and introduces philosophy as an orientation toward conduct amid social conflicts.", "observations": [ { "refs": [ "PG852.B00536", "PG852.B00537", "PG852.B00538" ], "finding": "Machine production can deepen scientific content while reducing workers to appendages; educationally organized shops and laboratories recover inquiry and social significance.", "disposition": "candidate technological richness versus worker impoverishment" }, { "refs": [ "PG852.B00539", "PG852.B00540", "PG852.B00541", "PG852.B00542", "PG852.B00543", "PG852.B00544" ], "finding": "Vocational reform should develop direction, readaptation and shared control, not merely execute employers' plans. School can model desired society, but change also requires political/industrial conditions and confronts vested opposition.", "disposition": "candidate prefigurative educational environment; retain institutional constraints" }, { "refs": [ "PG852.B00546", "PG852.B00547", "PG852.B00548", "PG852.B00549", "PG852.B00550" ], "finding": "Author's retrospective architecture moves from social continuity, through democratic reconstruction and method, to class-rooted dualisms limiting realization.", "disposition": "primary architecture evidence" }, { "refs": [ "PG852.B00551", "PG852.B00552", "PG852.B00553", "PG852.B00554" ], "finding": "Philosophy articulates conflicts of lived social practice and asks how knowledge should shape a general disposition; it does not replace sciences' factual inquiries with a completed total system.", "disposition": "candidate philosophy as practical orientation" } ], "inspection": "complete" }, { "packet": 30, "path": "inspection/packets/pg852/030.txt", "firstRef": "PG852.B00555", "lastRef": "PG852.B00569", "refs": [ "PG852.B00555", "PG852.B00556", "PG852.B00557", "PG852.B00558", "PG852.B00559", "PG852.B00560", "PG852.B00561", "PG852.B00562", "PG852.B00563", "PG852.B00564", "PG852.B00565", "PG852.B00566", "PG852.B00567", "PG852.B00568", "PG852.B00569" ], "bytes": 26340, "sha256": "99cfc85e3e3f251a0fd9d02068f9049f95622f0c91efb7743088fab6d51d16c1", "synopsis": "Philosophy's totality is continuity of responsive conduct, not an exhaustive system. Social conflicts make hypotheses for education to test. The knowledge chapter gathers dualisms rooted in segregated life and begins a physiological account of reciprocal action and perception.", "observations": [ { "refs": [ "PG852.B00555", "PG852.B00556" ], "finding": "Philosophical integration means readaptable consistency across diverse interests; conflicting standpoints can reflect materially different experiences rather than mere argumentative failure.", "disposition": "candidate continuity without uniformity" }, { "refs": [ "PG852.B00557", "PG852.B00558", "PG852.B00559", "PG852.B00560", "PG852.B00561", "PG852.B00562" ], "finding": "Education gives philosophy's proposed dispositions concrete trial, while philosophy examines ends and the humane meaning of scientific resources; the origin story remains attributed.", "disposition": "candidate education as philosophical laboratory" }, { "refs": [ "PG852.B00564", "PG852.B00565", "PG852.B00566", "PG852.B00567", "PG852.B00568" ], "finding": "Knowledge/knowing, sense/reason and intellect/emotion divisions recur as school arrangements; rejecting interest while relying on rewards illustrates practical inconsistency.", "disposition": "retain social genealogy of dualism" }, { "refs": [ "PG852.B00569" ], "finding": "Perception guides response and response shapes the next stimulus; the nervous system is theorized as coordinating continuous environmental action, not a separate container of knowledge.", "disposition": "candidate reciprocal stimulus-response organization; historical science attribution" } ], "inspection": "complete" }, { "packet": 31, "path": "inspection/packets/pg852/031.txt", "firstRef": "PG852.B00570", "lastRef": "PG852.B00588", "refs": [ "PG852.B00570", "PG852.B00571", "PG852.B00572", "PG852.B00573", "PG852.B00574", "PG852.B00575", "PG852.B00576", "PG852.B00577", "PG852.B00578", "PG852.B00579", "PG852.B00580", "PG852.B00581", "PG852.B00582", "PG852.B00583", "PG852.B00584", "PG852.B00585", "PG852.B00586", "PG852.B00587", "PG852.B00588" ], "bytes": 26488, "sha256": "35add5f8fa7d415c2cc7a662402c9cc758535ace4d8e8f824e56ca6317ab9dbd", "synopsis": "Knowledge makes prior experience flexibly available under changed conditions. Experiment tests ideas, and failure can still teach. Pragmatism unites particular discrimination and general connection. Morality begins from continuity of deliberation, action and consequences rather than inner/outer separation.", "observations": [ { "refs": [ "PG852.B00570", "PG852.B00571", "PG852.B00572" ], "finding": "Knowing is interested participation; controlled experiments differ from trying one's luck and may succeed intellectually despite immediate practical failure. Civilizational caricatures and expansive scientific claims are attributed.", "disposition": "candidate informative experimental failure" }, { "refs": [ "PG852.B00573", "PG852.B00574", "PG852.B00575", "PG852.B00576", "PG852.B00577" ], "finding": "Knowledge expands the range of habits and indirect approaches beyond routine; its content may concern the past while its function addresses unfinished future situations.", "disposition": "candidate prospective availability of knowledge" }, { "refs": [ "PG852.B00578", "PG852.B00579", "PG852.B00580", "PG852.B00581", "PG852.B00582" ], "finding": "Particulars and general meanings perform complementary functions in reorganizing experience; dispositions count as knowledge when they support intelligent environmental and purposive readaptation.", "disposition": "retain explicit pragmatic epistemology" }, { "refs": [ "PG852.B00585", "PG852.B00586", "PG852.B00587", "PG852.B00588" ], "finding": "Deliberation is a formative phase of conduct; when action is socially blocked, imagined inner perfection can replace practical transformation. Stoic, Christian and Kantian accounts are Dewey's broad interpretations.", "disposition": "candidate motive-consequence continuity; preserve attribution" } ], "inspection": "complete" }, { "packet": 32, "path": "inspection/packets/pg852/032.txt", "firstRef": "PG852.B00589", "lastRef": "PG852.B00605", "refs": [ "PG852.B00589", "PG852.B00590", "PG852.B00591", "PG852.B00592", "PG852.B00593", "PG852.B00594", "PG852.B00595", "PG852.B00596", "PG852.B00597", "PG852.B00598", "PG852.B00599", "PG852.B00600", "PG852.B00601", "PG852.B00602", "PG852.B00603", "PG852.B00604", "PG852.B00605" ], "bytes": 25949, "sha256": "1300a0e709b3b6b7889450e516d252ced62334e90efa55639a3096455f3d3fb4", "synopsis": "Moral education reunites intention and consequences, duty and interest, knowledge and conduct. The self forms through chosen interests; principle can sustain an expanding vocation or excuse stubbornness. School morality requires shared life connected with wider society.", "observations": [ { "refs": [ "PG852.B00589", "PG852.B00590" ], "finding": "Sentimental good intentions and obedience judged only by visible output are opposing distortions; cumulative meaningful undertakings integrate reflection with conduct.", "disposition": "retain motive-consequence continuity" }, { "refs": [ "PG852.B00591", "PG852.B00592", "PG852.B00593", "PG852.B00594", "PG852.B00595" ], "finding": "Selfhood changes with active interests; generosity incorporates unforeseen relationships, while principle must itself answer to consequences rather than license rigid self-insistence.", "disposition": "candidate expanding relational self and revisable principle" }, { "refs": [ "PG852.B00596", "PG852.B00597", "PG852.B00598", "PG852.B00599" ], "finding": "Knowing virtues as others' approved statements differs from experiential conviction; identical verbal knowledge can function differently in different habits and aims. Intellectual openness and responsibility are moral traits.", "disposition": "candidate aim-embedded moral knowledge" }, { "refs": [ "PG852.B00600", "PG852.B00601", "PG852.B00602", "PG852.B00603", "PG852.B00604", "PG852.B00605" ], "finding": "Virtues are integrated dispositions, not isolated named traits. An internally cooperative school can remain socially sealed; moral growth requires both common school experience and continuity with outside life.", "disposition": "candidate socially permeable school community" } ], "inspection": "complete" }, { "packet": 33, "path": "inspection/packets/pg852/033.txt", "firstRef": "PG852.B00606", "lastRef": "PG852.B00657", "refs": [ "PG852.B00606", "PG852.B00607", "PG852.B00608", "PG852.B00609", "PG852.B00610", "PG852.B00611", "PG852.B00612", "PG852.B00613", "PG852.B00614", "PG852.B00615", "PG852.B00616", "PG852.B00617", "PG852.B00618", "PG852.B00619", "PG852.B00620", "PG852.B00621", "PG852.B00622", "PG852.B00623", "PG852.B00624", "PG852.B00625", "PG852.B00626", "PG852.B00627", "PG852.B00628", "PG852.B00629", "PG852.B00630", "PG852.B00631", "PG852.B00632", "PG852.B00633", "PG852.B00634", "PG852.B00635", "PG852.B00636", "PG852.B00637", "PG852.B00638", "PG852.B00639", "PG852.B00640", "PG852.B00641", "PG852.B00642", "PG852.B00643", "PG852.B00644", "PG852.B00645", "PG852.B00646", "PG852.B00647", "PG852.B00648", "PG852.B00649", "PG852.B00650", "PG852.B00651", "PG852.B00652", "PG852.B00653", "PG852.B00654", "PG852.B00655", "PG852.B00656", "PG852.B00657" ], "bytes": 20092, "sha256": "7ca34ba603c57a2e50d4fdae781c0cc840b011b5b2f871eec29cf75a7e9415cc", "synopsis": "The final paragraph identifies moral education with continuing readjustment in a school community connected to wider life. The end marker separates the treatise from Gutenberg's complete retained licence, defect/refund provisions, institutional mission, donation and edition notices.", "observations": [ { "refs": [ "PG852.B00606" ], "finding": "Interest in learning from life's contacts is the closing moral interest; socially purposeful occupations connect inner disposition, action and growth.", "disposition": "closing thesis evidence" }, { "refs": [ "PG852.B00607", "PG852.B00608", "PG852.B00609", "PG852.B00615", "PG852.B00618", "PG852.B00620", "PG852.B00626", "PG852.B00629", "PG852.B00633" ], "finding": "End marker and distribution/trademark terms concern the electronic edition, with jurisdiction, retained notice, format access and commercial provisions; not Dewey's claims and no external actions taken.", "disposition": "apparatus inspected and excluded from conceptual authorship" }, { "refs": [ "PG852.B00635", "PG852.B00636", "PG852.B00637", "PG852.B00638", "PG852.B00639", "PG852.B00640" ], "finding": "Defect disclaimers, limited replacement/refund and indemnity provisions are publication apparatus, not educational argument or commands executed.", "disposition": "apparatus" }, { "refs": [ "PG852.B00642", "PG852.B00643", "PG852.B00645", "PG852.B00646", "PG852.B00648", "PG852.B00649", "PG852.B00650", "PG852.B00651", "PG852.B00652", "PG852.B00654", "PG852.B00655", "PG852.B00656", "PG852.B00657" ], "finding": "Mission, organizational/contact information, donation conditions, founder history and possible multi-edition compilation are retained; edition notice limits any claim of print-edition fidelity.", "disposition": "apparatus and provenance limit" } ], "inspection": "complete" } ] } }, { "bookId": 84, "ledger": { "bookId": 84, "method": "Every complete packet displayed in sequence and inspected; each semantic entry authored immediately after its packet.", "packets": [ { "packet": 1, "path": "inspection/packets/pg84/001.txt", "firstRef": "PG84.B00001", "lastRef": "PG84.B00071", "refs": [ "PG84.B00001", "PG84.B00002", "PG84.B00003", "PG84.B00004", "PG84.B00005", "PG84.B00006", "PG84.B00007", "PG84.B00008", "PG84.B00009", "PG84.B00010", "PG84.B00011", "PG84.B00012", "PG84.B00013", "PG84.B00014", "PG84.B00015", "PG84.B00016", "PG84.B00017", "PG84.B00018", "PG84.B00019", "PG84.B00020", "PG84.B00021", "PG84.B00022", "PG84.B00023", "PG84.B00024", "PG84.B00025", "PG84.B00026", "PG84.B00027", "PG84.B00028", "PG84.B00029", "PG84.B00030", "PG84.B00031", "PG84.B00032", "PG84.B00033", "PG84.B00034", "PG84.B00035", "PG84.B00036", "PG84.B00037", "PG84.B00038", "PG84.B00039", "PG84.B00040", "PG84.B00041", "PG84.B00042", "PG84.B00043", "PG84.B00044", "PG84.B00045", "PG84.B00046", "PG84.B00047", "PG84.B00048", "PG84.B00049", "PG84.B00050", "PG84.B00051", "PG84.B00052", "PG84.B00053", "PG84.B00054", "PG84.B00055", "PG84.B00056", "PG84.B00057", "PG84.B00058", "PG84.B00059", "PG84.B00060", "PG84.B00061", "PG84.B00062", "PG84.B00063", "PG84.B00064", "PG84.B00065", "PG84.B00066", "PG84.B00067", "PG84.B00068", "PG84.B00069", "PG84.B00070", "PG84.B00071" ], "bytes": 27057, "sha256": "e0d9c4757b886e0a446da73d14e9ece7f999218ad9934d2edb43a619d4a2ebf1", "synopsis": "Title and contents open Walton's letters to Margaret Saville. He seeks polar discovery and glory, longs for an educated friend to correct his excess, praises humane command yet filters worth through education and European identity. He rescues an emaciated pursuer whose response to Walton's sacrificial ambition promises a cautionary tale.", "observations": [ { "refs": [ "PG84.B00001", "PG84.B00002", "PG84.B00003", "PG84.B00004", "PG84.B00006" ], "finding": "Opening title/author/contents and Gutenberg start marker inspected; narrative framed as letters before24 chapters, no preface present in this indexed opening.", "disposition": "architecture and edition scope" }, { "refs": [ "PG84.B00011", "PG84.B00012", "PG84.B00013", "PG84.B00014", "PG84.B00015", "PG84.B00029", "PG84.B00039" ], "finding": "Walton joins scientific benefit and strenuous preparation to imagined glory and marvellous conquest; fixed purpose soothes doubts while evidence of danger is minimized.", "disposition": "candidate ambition rationalization; Walton's claims not author doctrine" }, { "refs": [ "PG84.B00025", "PG84.B00026", "PG84.B00027" ], "finding": "He wants friendship to regulate judgment, yet discounts a humane generous captain because uneducated. Story of captain surrendering desired marriage honors woman's choice but comes through Walton's report.", "disposition": "tension between sympathy and status filters; reuse agency and regard" }, { "refs": [ "PG84.B00028", "PG84.B00037", "PG84.B00038", "PG84.B00046", "PG84.B00048" ], "finding": "Repeated promises of prudence stand beside unrecorded ordinary hazards and confinement by ice; frame tests narrator's self-description against events.", "disposition": "narrative reliability and risk tension" }, { "refs": [ "PG84.B00050", "PG84.B00051", "PG84.B00052", "PG84.B00053", "PG84.B00055", "PG84.B00061", "PG84.B00063" ], "finding": "Rescue recipient conditions survival on destination; Walton protects vulnerable guest from curiosity and acknowledges uncertainty. European/savage contrast preconditions sympathy.", "disposition": "care-versus-curiosity application and colonial framing" }, { "refs": [ "PG84.B00065", "PG84.B00069", "PG84.B00070", "PG84.B00071" ], "finding": "Admired eloquence and suffering establish stranger's credibility before his account. Walton's willingness to exchange a life for knowledge triggers stranger's recognition of shared destructive ambition.", "disposition": "frame architecture; candidate sympathy-mediated caution" } ], "inspection": "complete" }, { "packet": 2, "path": "inspection/packets/pg84/002.txt", "firstRef": "PG84.B00072", "lastRef": "PG84.B00107", "refs": [ "PG84.B00072", "PG84.B00073", "PG84.B00074", "PG84.B00075", "PG84.B00076", "PG84.B00077", "PG84.B00078", "PG84.B00079", "PG84.B00080", "PG84.B00081", "PG84.B00082", "PG84.B00083", "PG84.B00084", "PG84.B00085", "PG84.B00086", "PG84.B00087", "PG84.B00088", "PG84.B00089", "PG84.B00090", "PG84.B00091", "PG84.B00092", "PG84.B00093", "PG84.B00094", "PG84.B00095", "PG84.B00096", "PG84.B00097", "PG84.B00098", "PG84.B00099", "PG84.B00100", "PG84.B00101", "PG84.B00102", "PG84.B00103", "PG84.B00104", "PG84.B00105", "PG84.B00106", "PG84.B00107" ], "bytes": 26754, "sha256": "5c96c7e84fa303caf26dadaea790c3535399d48a974eba89894453f224c5cfc8", "synopsis": "Walton promises to record the stranger's cautionary autobiography almost verbatim. Victor narrates familial affection, Caroline's rescue and Elizabeth's adoption through beauty and rank, then the childhood formation of an ambitious natural philosopher inadequately guided by dismissive instruction.", "observations": [ { "refs": [ "PG84.B00073", "PG84.B00076", "PG84.B00078", "PG84.B00080", "PG84.B00081" ], "finding": "Walton's admiring estimate precedes the evidence; Victor claims irrevocable fate and internal credibility, while the record is mediated through daily recollection and notes.", "disposition": "Preserve framed testimony and narrator self-interpretation." }, { "refs": [ "PG84.B00084", "PG84.B00086", "PG84.B00087", "PG84.B00088", "PG84.B00089" ], "finding": "Caroline's labor and rescue support an ideal of parental obligation to a helpless being whose future depends on its makers; protective paternalism accompanies care.", "disposition": "Creator obligation and care baseline for later comparison." }, { "refs": [ "PG84.B00090", "PG84.B00091", "PG84.B00092", "PG84.B00093" ], "finding": "Elizabeth is selected as fair and noble among poor dark children and narrated as Victor's exclusive gift; affectionate rescue carries racialized class and possession assumptions.", "disposition": "Maintain narrative bias and agency limit." }, { "refs": [ "PG84.B00095", "PG84.B00096", "PG84.B00098", "PG84.B00099", "PG84.B00100" ], "finding": "Victor distinguishes causal science, Clerval's human relations, and Elizabeth's feminized domestic sympathy; retrospective narration turns early contingencies into a fatal torrent.", "disposition": "Architecture and competing formation rather than author doctrine." }, { "refs": [ "PG84.B00101", "PG84.B00102", "PG84.B00105", "PG84.B00106", "PG84.B00107" ], "finding": "Unexplained dismissal fails to redirect inquiry; ambitious self-education trusts grand promises and attributes failed tests to pupil error, while destructive lightning opens revision.", "disposition": "Reuse inquiry and educational guidance concepts; test distinct unsupported dismissal mechanism." } ], "inspection": "complete" }, { "packet": 3, "path": "inspection/packets/pg84/003.txt", "firstRef": "PG84.B00108", "lastRef": "PG84.B00141", "refs": [ "PG84.B00108", "PG84.B00109", "PG84.B00110", "PG84.B00111", "PG84.B00112", "PG84.B00113", "PG84.B00114", "PG84.B00115", "PG84.B00116", "PG84.B00117", "PG84.B00118", "PG84.B00119", "PG84.B00120", "PG84.B00121", "PG84.B00122", "PG84.B00123", "PG84.B00124", "PG84.B00125", "PG84.B00126", "PG84.B00127", "PG84.B00128", "PG84.B00129", "PG84.B00130", "PG84.B00131", "PG84.B00132", "PG84.B00133", "PG84.B00134", "PG84.B00135", "PG84.B00136", "PG84.B00137", "PG84.B00138", "PG84.B00139", "PG84.B00140", "PG84.B00141" ], "bytes": 27077, "sha256": "4f664cf08678f888b405fee77b0368f98a380c70d038a248e708f885b3e6d5aa", "synopsis": "Victor's retrospective fatalism frames his mother's death, university departure, contrasting teachers and rapid scientific success. The secret of animation becomes a project of making a human being, with grand beneficence joined to imagined total filial gratitude.", "observations": [ { "refs": [ "PG84.B00108", "PG84.B00109", "PG84.B00110", "PG84.B00121", "PG84.B00128", "PG84.B00132" ], "finding": "Victor repeatedly redescribes changes of interest and contingent encounters as destiny, tempering rather than settling responsibility for his choices.", "disposition": "Narrator's causal interpretation remains contested." }, { "refs": [ "PG84.B00113", "PG84.B00114", "PG84.B00116", "PG84.B00117", "PG84.B00119" ], "finding": "Care saves Elizabeth but kills Caroline; domestic emotional work falls to Elizabeth while men seek education, and grief coexists with duties to survivors.", "disposition": "Gendered distribution of care and educational opportunity." }, { "refs": [ "PG84.B00122", "PG84.B00124", "PG84.B00127", "PG84.B00129", "PG84.B00130", "PG84.B00134" ], "finding": "Krempe's sound information is repelled by manner and appearance, whereas Waldman's patient recognition of past inquiry makes revision attractive; the same guidance fuels dangerous ambition.", "disposition": "Educational relation and appearance-judgment tension." }, { "refs": [ "PG84.B00135", "PG84.B00136", "PG84.B00137", "PG84.B00138", "PG84.B00139" ], "finding": "Discovery absorbs home contact, bodily horror and prior steps; Victor refuses operational disclosure and offers a cautionary example rather than independently reproducible evidence.", "disposition": "Source neither scientific manual nor simple authorial rejection of knowledge." }, { "refs": [ "PG84.B00140", "PG84.B00141" ], "finding": "Technical convenience determines gigantic embodiment; the maker imagines unlimited gratitude before considering an independently acting dependent's needs.", "disposition": "Potential distinct creation-as-entitlement mechanism; compare parental duty in earlier packet." } ], "inspection": "complete" }, { "packet": 4, "path": "inspection/packets/pg84/004.txt", "firstRef": "PG84.B00142", "lastRef": "PG84.B00191", "refs": [ "PG84.B00142", "PG84.B00143", "PG84.B00144", "PG84.B00145", "PG84.B00146", "PG84.B00147", "PG84.B00148", "PG84.B00149", "PG84.B00150", "PG84.B00151", "PG84.B00152", "PG84.B00153", "PG84.B00154", "PG84.B00155", "PG84.B00156", "PG84.B00157", "PG84.B00158", "PG84.B00159", "PG84.B00160", "PG84.B00161", "PG84.B00162", "PG84.B00163", "PG84.B00164", "PG84.B00165", "PG84.B00166", "PG84.B00167", "PG84.B00168", "PG84.B00169", "PG84.B00170", "PG84.B00171", "PG84.B00172", "PG84.B00173", "PG84.B00174", "PG84.B00175", "PG84.B00176", "PG84.B00177", "PG84.B00178", "PG84.B00179", "PG84.B00180", "PG84.B00181", "PG84.B00182", "PG84.B00183", "PG84.B00184", "PG84.B00185", "PG84.B00186", "PG84.B00187", "PG84.B00188", "PG84.B00189", "PG84.B00190", "PG84.B00191" ], "bytes": 26871, "sha256": "a9ce6b775c6f2514620f2d5d197ce51e0eea358116bce356eb569add64ddcb4a", "synopsis": "Obsessive solitary labor culminates in successful animation immediately experienced as catastrophe. Victor flees the new being and collapses; Clerval provides restorative care. Elizabeth's letter restores domestic context while revealing Justine's unequal position and neglect.", "observations": [ { "refs": [ "PG84.B00142", "PG84.B00143", "PG84.B00144", "PG84.B00145", "PG84.B00147" ], "finding": "Victor knowingly defers care, correspondence, health and natural pleasure until project completion; retrospective moderation includes an indictment of conquest, not just laboratory ambition.", "disposition": "Project completion used to postpone ongoing obligations; distinguish narrator's generalizations." }, { "refs": [ "PG84.B00149", "PG84.B00150", "PG84.B00151", "PG84.B00152", "PG84.B00163" ], "finding": "Animation succeeds technically but destroys the ideal; beautiful selected parts form a repulsive living whole, and appearance prompts abandonment before any reported harm or intelligible speech.", "disposition": "Creation obligation and aesthetic exclusion; the being's reaching hand is interpreted by its frightened maker." }, { "refs": [ "PG84.B00156", "PG84.B00157" ], "finding": "The Ancient Mariner quotation adds a literary pursued-guilt frame.", "disposition": "Read attribution apparatus; no independent concept." }, { "refs": [ "PG84.B00159", "PG84.B00168", "PG84.B00169", "PG84.B00170", "PG84.B00171", "PG84.B00174" ], "finding": "Clerval sacrifices his education to sustained nursing and shields family from illness severity; Victor receives precisely the care he withheld from his dependent creation.", "disposition": "Relational comparison with limits on protective concealment." }, { "refs": [ "PG84.B00180", "PG84.B00182", "PG84.B00183", "PG84.B00184", "PG84.B00185", "PG84.B00187" ], "finding": "Elizabeth praises republican class dignity but measures servants by grateful beauty and imitation; household grief misses Justine's suffering, and her mother's religious remorse repeatedly returns to blame.", "disposition": "Do not flatten affectionate household into equal recognition; include gender/class and confessor attribution." } ], "inspection": "complete" }, { "packet": 5, "path": "inspection/packets/pg84/005.txt", "firstRef": "PG84.B00192", "lastRef": "PG84.B00248", "refs": [ "PG84.B00192", "PG84.B00193", "PG84.B00194", "PG84.B00195", "PG84.B00196", "PG84.B00197", "PG84.B00198", "PG84.B00199", "PG84.B00200", "PG84.B00201", "PG84.B00202", "PG84.B00203", "PG84.B00204", "PG84.B00205", "PG84.B00206", "PG84.B00207", "PG84.B00208", "PG84.B00209", "PG84.B00210", "PG84.B00211", "PG84.B00212", "PG84.B00213", "PG84.B00214", "PG84.B00215", "PG84.B00216", "PG84.B00217", "PG84.B00218", "PG84.B00219", "PG84.B00220", "PG84.B00221", "PG84.B00222", "PG84.B00223", "PG84.B00224", "PG84.B00225", "PG84.B00226", "PG84.B00227", "PG84.B00228", "PG84.B00229", "PG84.B00230", "PG84.B00231", "PG84.B00232", "PG84.B00233", "PG84.B00234", "PG84.B00235", "PG84.B00236", "PG84.B00237", "PG84.B00238", "PG84.B00239", "PG84.B00240", "PG84.B00241", "PG84.B00242", "PG84.B00243", "PG84.B00244", "PG84.B00245", "PG84.B00246", "PG84.B00247", "PG84.B00248" ], "bytes": 26741, "sha256": "e6810f83501597575ea0d3bdc748cea20a39795423e184eb1622625037edc028", "synopsis": "Clerval's perceptive care contrasts with professors whose well-meant praise torments Victor. William's murder calls him home; seeing the creature supplies immediate private certainty, but fears of disbelief and helpless pursuit keep him silent while Justine is accused.", "observations": [ { "refs": [ "PG84.B00192", "PG84.B00193", "PG84.B00198", "PG84.B00199" ], "finding": "Identical benevolent intentions have opposed effects when hidden experience changes a subject's meaning; Clerval responds to distress without demanding the secret.", "disposition": "Reuse responsive care; possible ignorance-mediated injury concept." }, { "refs": [ "PG84.B00195" ], "finding": "Orientalist literature consoles Victor and enables Clerval's imagined eastern enterprise, contrasted with masculine classical poetry.", "disposition": "Retain imperial and gendered cultural frame." }, { "refs": [ "PG84.B00204", "PG84.B00209", "PG84.B00210", "PG84.B00211", "PG84.B00212", "PG84.B00221" ], "finding": "Father rejects a cruel kindness of concealment and urges comfort for survivors over vengeance; Elizabeth mistakes giving the miniature for causing the murder.", "disposition": "Causal contribution versus culpability and care/revenge contrast." }, { "refs": [ "PG84.B00223", "PG84.B00224", "PG84.B00228", "PG84.B00229", "PG84.B00230", "PG84.B00231" ], "finding": "Nature alternately restores and mirrors terror; sight of the creature makes the mere presence of a hypothesis proof to Victor before he hears any account.", "disposition": "Do not treat certainty as evidential warrant or appearance as moral proof." }, { "refs": [ "PG84.B00232", "PG84.B00233", "PG84.B00241", "PG84.B00242", "PG84.B00243", "PG84.B00248" ], "finding": "Anticipated psychiatric dismissal and practical futility justify Victor's silence; his confidence in innocence is then mistaken for confidence that the court will acquit, while confusion is read as guilt.", "disposition": "Candidate for private certainty substituted for public protection; preserve responsibility tension." } ], "inspection": "complete" }, { "packet": 6, "path": "inspection/packets/pg84/006.txt", "firstRef": "PG84.B00249", "lastRef": "PG84.B00295", "refs": [ "PG84.B00249", "PG84.B00250", "PG84.B00251", "PG84.B00252", "PG84.B00253", "PG84.B00254", "PG84.B00255", "PG84.B00256", "PG84.B00257", "PG84.B00258", "PG84.B00259", "PG84.B00260", "PG84.B00261", "PG84.B00262", "PG84.B00263", "PG84.B00264", "PG84.B00265", "PG84.B00266", "PG84.B00267", "PG84.B00268", "PG84.B00269", "PG84.B00270", "PG84.B00271", "PG84.B00272", "PG84.B00273", "PG84.B00274", "PG84.B00275", "PG84.B00276", "PG84.B00277", "PG84.B00278", "PG84.B00279", "PG84.B00280", "PG84.B00281", "PG84.B00282", "PG84.B00283", "PG84.B00284", "PG84.B00285", "PG84.B00286", "PG84.B00287", "PG84.B00288", "PG84.B00289", "PG84.B00290", "PG84.B00291", "PG84.B00292", "PG84.B00293", "PG84.B00294", "PG84.B00295" ], "bytes": 26724, "sha256": "ea63a2df12df044568355ca3f96bae2c5f9440de02932a81dfc4e257b00257b9", "synopsis": "Justine's trial converts ambiguous behavior and an unexplained miniature into conviction. Elizabeth's defense intensifies blame, and religious coercion produces a false confession. Execution brings Victor private remorse and vengeance, while Elizabeth loses her insulated faith in social justice.", "observations": [ { "refs": [ "PG84.B00249", "PG84.B00250", "PG84.B00252", "PG84.B00254", "PG84.B00284" ], "finding": "Assurances that innocence will be vindicated replace effective disclosure; Victor's appeals omit his suppressed account, though its likely reception remains uncertain.", "disposition": "Private belief cannot itself protect an accused person; avoid claiming disclosure certainly saves her." }, { "refs": [ "PG84.B00255", "PG84.B00256", "PG84.B00258", "PG84.B00259", "PG84.B00260", "PG84.B00262" ], "finding": "The accused must manage affect because confusion counts as guilt; she offers situational explanations yet cannot explain planted evidence, while fearful character witnesses weaken defense.", "disposition": "Judgment under reputation pressure and evidential asymmetry." }, { "refs": [ "PG84.B00263", "PG84.B00264", "PG84.B00265", "PG84.B00266", "PG84.B00275" ], "finding": "The crowd applauds Elizabeth but interprets benevolence as aggravating ingratitude; confession after condemnation reassures judges despite its coercive production by threats of damnation.", "disposition": "Candidate defense reversal and coercion laundering of evidence; confessor claim via Justine." }, { "refs": [ "PG84.B00270", "PG84.B00277", "PG84.B00278", "PG84.B00279", "PG84.B00281", "PG84.B00282" ], "finding": "Elizabeth visits even when believing guilt, and recognition restores Justine's comfort without rescue; Victor repeatedly asserts his own suffering exceeds the condemned woman's.", "disposition": "Recognition remains consequential despite powerless remedy; narrator hierarchy of suffering questioned." }, { "refs": [ "PG84.B00288", "PG84.B00290", "PG84.B00291", "PG84.B00292", "PG84.B00293", "PG84.B00295" ], "finding": "Ordinary grief counsel misses secret remorse; attachment prevents Victor's suicide but turns protection toward vengeance, while lived injustice makes Elizabeth's abstract knowledge immediate.", "disposition": "Reuse felt import and contextual counsel; retain fictional self-destructive thoughts without general prescription." } ], "inspection": "complete" }, { "packet": 7, "path": "inspection/packets/pg84/007.txt", "firstRef": "PG84.B00296", "lastRef": "PG84.B00331", "refs": [ "PG84.B00296", "PG84.B00297", "PG84.B00298", "PG84.B00299", "PG84.B00300", "PG84.B00301", "PG84.B00302", "PG84.B00303", "PG84.B00304", "PG84.B00305", "PG84.B00306", "PG84.B00307", "PG84.B00308", "PG84.B00309", "PG84.B00310", "PG84.B00311", "PG84.B00312", "PG84.B00313", "PG84.B00314", "PG84.B00315", "PG84.B00316", "PG84.B00317", "PG84.B00318", "PG84.B00319", "PG84.B00320", "PG84.B00321", "PG84.B00322", "PG84.B00323", "PG84.B00324", "PG84.B00325", "PG84.B00326", "PG84.B00327", "PG84.B00328", "PG84.B00329", "PG84.B00330", "PG84.B00331" ], "bytes": 26591, "sha256": "233c342c249a7a63f95dff55c7c4a51009bedfb4a0f1fa719431c68e4119f6ef", "synopsis": "Alpine sublimity temporarily calms Victor before the creature confronts him. The creature demands a hearing and a creator's reciprocal duties while threatening revenge; Victor first acknowledges an obligation and listens. The embedded autobiography begins with sensory confusion, lonely learning and discovery of fire.", "observations": [ { "refs": [ "PG84.B00296", "PG84.B00298", "PG84.B00299", "PG84.B00302", "PG84.B00305", "PG84.B00306", "PG84.B00308" ], "finding": "Love and sublime landscapes modulate grief without curing concealed responsibility; the quoted mutability poem resists the claim of durable emotional escape.", "disposition": "Affective setting and literary apparatus, not nature-as-cure doctrine." }, { "refs": [ "PG84.B00311", "PG84.B00312", "PG84.B00316", "PG84.B00317", "PG84.B00318", "PG84.B00319" ], "finding": "Creator and creature contest whose suffering authorizes destruction. The creature claims goodness preceded exclusion, invoking Adam and fallen angel while mixing a justice claim with coercive threats.", "disposition": "Preserve agency and threat alongside social causation; do not endorse either total innocence or innate evil." }, { "refs": [ "PG84.B00318", "PG84.B00320", "PG84.B00321" ], "finding": "A right to narrate one's case precedes judgment; blocking abhorrent sight symbolically permits listening, and Victor acknowledges creator duties before hearing confirmation of guilt.", "disposition": "Potential concept hearing across appearance-mediated aversion." }, { "refs": [ "PG84.B00323", "PG84.B00324", "PG84.B00325", "PG84.B00326", "PG84.B00327" ], "finding": "The creature retrospectively reconstructs a helpless, prelinguistic beginning, with uncertain recall and gradual sensory discrimination rather than preformed adult understanding.", "disposition": "Embedded testimony and developmental account, not empirical developmental science." }, { "refs": [ "PG84.B00328", "PG84.B00329", "PG84.B00330", "PG84.B00331" ], "finding": "Fire is discovered through contrasting helpful and painful effects, experimentation, maintenance and cooking, yet its production remains unavailable when migration requires abandoning it.", "disposition": "Distinguish possession/use/maintenance from reproducible generation; reusable learning example." } ], "inspection": "complete" }, { "packet": 8, "path": "inspection/packets/pg84/008.txt", "firstRef": "PG84.B00332", "lastRef": "PG84.B00374", "refs": [ "PG84.B00332", "PG84.B00333", "PG84.B00334", "PG84.B00335", "PG84.B00336", "PG84.B00337", "PG84.B00338", "PG84.B00339", "PG84.B00340", "PG84.B00341", "PG84.B00342", "PG84.B00343", "PG84.B00344", "PG84.B00345", "PG84.B00346", "PG84.B00347", "PG84.B00348", "PG84.B00349", "PG84.B00350", "PG84.B00351", "PG84.B00352", "PG84.B00353", "PG84.B00354", "PG84.B00355", "PG84.B00356", "PG84.B00357", "PG84.B00358", "PG84.B00359", "PG84.B00360", "PG84.B00361", "PG84.B00362", "PG84.B00363", "PG84.B00364", "PG84.B00365", "PG84.B00366", "PG84.B00367", "PG84.B00368", "PG84.B00369", "PG84.B00370", "PG84.B00371", "PG84.B00372", "PG84.B00373", "PG84.B00374" ], "bytes": 26917, "sha256": "178dd0a82b7ee544c6df66b62233d3924cce7b2c072d1ff33c91415ed622a51b", "synopsis": "Violent village rejection confines the creature to a concealed hovel beside the De Laceys. Observation develops sympathy, useful anonymous service and language; bodily self-comparison brings shame. Safie's welcome provides shared language lessons but intensifies the contrast with the unseen learner.", "observations": [ { "refs": [ "PG84.B00332", "PG84.B00333", "PG84.B00334", "PG84.B00342", "PG84.B00345", "PG84.B00346" ], "finding": "Concealment is learned protection from attack. Poverty initially appears luxury to the creature until close observation reveals hunger and unequal sacrifice within the household.", "disposition": "Experience-corrected judgment; social exclusion precedes narrated violence." }, { "refs": [ "PG84.B00347", "PG84.B00348", "PG84.B00349", "PG84.B00352", "PG84.B00357" ], "finding": "Recognizing theft's effect prompts self-denial and anonymous wood gathering; service releases Felix for other work but earns praise only for an invisible spirit, not recognition of the actual helper.", "disposition": "Candidate useful contribution without acknowledged belonging." }, { "refs": [ "PG84.B00350", "PG84.B00353", "PG84.B00354", "PG84.B00358", "PG84.B00359" ], "finding": "Speech is learned through concrete reference and affective effects, then literacy inferred as signs for speech. Language and virtuous conduct are imagined as means to overcome aversion, while beauty norms become self-condemnation.", "disposition": "Reuse language anchoring; preserve internalized appearance hierarchy and conditional hope." }, { "refs": [ "PG84.B00360", "PG84.B00362", "PG84.B00365", "PG84.B00366", "PG84.B00367" ], "finding": "Seasonal hope frames a retrospective conversion narrative. Safie is welcomed across language difference before proficiency because beauty and prior relationship already secure standing.", "disposition": "Narrative contrast rather than universal linguistic admission rule." }, { "refs": [ "PG84.B00369", "PG84.B00370", "PG84.B00371", "PG84.B00372", "PG84.B00373", "PG84.B00374" ], "finding": "Shared music precedes common speech; the hidden learner benefits from lessons addressed to another and rapidly gains language without any reciprocal membership or safe public presence.", "disposition": "Educational acquisition and social recognition can diverge." } ], "inspection": "complete" }, { "packet": 9, "path": "inspection/packets/pg84/009.txt", "firstRef": "PG84.B00375", "lastRef": "PG84.B00417", "refs": [ "PG84.B00375", "PG84.B00376", "PG84.B00377", "PG84.B00378", "PG84.B00379", "PG84.B00380", "PG84.B00381", "PG84.B00382", "PG84.B00383", "PG84.B00384", "PG84.B00385", "PG84.B00386", "PG84.B00387", "PG84.B00388", "PG84.B00389", "PG84.B00390", "PG84.B00391", "PG84.B00392", "PG84.B00393", "PG84.B00394", "PG84.B00395", "PG84.B00396", "PG84.B00397", "PG84.B00398", "PG84.B00399", "PG84.B00400", "PG84.B00401", "PG84.B00402", "PG84.B00403", "PG84.B00404", "PG84.B00405", "PG84.B00406", "PG84.B00407", "PG84.B00408", "PG84.B00409", "PG84.B00410", "PG84.B00411", "PG84.B00412", "PG84.B00413", "PG84.B00414", "PG84.B00415", "PG84.B00416", "PG84.B00417" ], "bytes": 26736, "sha256": "8f621255728fba523a5f90f4a87e165381b8e3b5f75010e4978cb34769933605", "synopsis": "History and social instruction teach the creature virtue and domination while making his lack of kin, wealth and status painfully legible. The De Laceys' exile and Safie's independent journey introduce nested political and gender histories. Books and Victor's journal supply identities that deepen self-rejection and the hope of recognition.", "observations": [ { "refs": [ "PG84.B00375", "PG84.B00376", "PG84.B00377", "PG84.B00378", "PG84.B00379", "PG84.B00380", "PG84.B00382" ], "finding": "Education opens humanity's noble and violent record but also reveals the learner's exclusion from its valued statuses; knowledge expands longing without access to the goods understood.", "disposition": "Candidate learning-amplified exclusion; preserve racist civilizational language and anti-conquest grief." }, { "refs": [ "PG84.B00386", "PG84.B00387", "PG84.B00388", "PG84.B00389", "PG84.B00391", "PG84.B00392" ], "finding": "The unjustly condemned Turk is later cast as treacherous; rescue slides into the daughter-as-reward trope, while Safie's agency is expressed through Christian-versus-Muslim stereotypes. Copied letters are offered as corroboration.", "disposition": "Nested attribution and orientalist limits; neither stereotype nor professed corroboration adopted as independent fact." }, { "refs": [ "PG84.B00393", "PG84.B00396", "PG84.B00397", "PG84.B00398", "PG84.B00399", "PG84.B00400" ], "finding": "Felix risks collective punishment to oppose injustice, then finds the beneficiary withdrawing when protection is no longer needed and the rescuer impoverished.", "disposition": "Protection asymmetry and betrayal; retain family costs of principled intervention." }, { "refs": [ "PG84.B00401", "PG84.B00403", "PG84.B00404" ], "finding": "Safie rejects her father's imposed future, uses her resources to travel and nurses her attendant, with safe arrival enabled by another woman's practical help.", "disposition": "Independent female action counterweights domestic idealization within its cultural framing." }, { "refs": [ "PG84.B00408", "PG84.B00409", "PG84.B00410", "PG84.B00411", "PG84.B00412", "PG84.B00413" ], "finding": "Werter, Plutarch and Milton supply different affective scripts; experience shapes their uptake. Fiction mistaken for history and the maker's disgust-filled journal turn available narratives into painful self-definition.", "disposition": "Candidate selfhood through misapplied narrative templates; distinguish interpretation from determinate psychological causation." }, { "refs": [ "PG84.B00414", "PG84.B00415", "PG84.B00416", "PG84.B00417" ], "finding": "The creature seeks addressed affection rather than material alms and postpones contact to improve his chance; education and observation cannot themselves produce reciprocal recognition.", "disposition": "Refine recognition requirement beyond provision." } ], "inspection": "complete" }, { "packet": 10, "path": "inspection/packets/pg84/010.txt", "firstRef": "PG84.B00418", "lastRef": "PG84.B00486", "refs": [ "PG84.B00418", "PG84.B00419", "PG84.B00420", "PG84.B00421", "PG84.B00422", "PG84.B00423", "PG84.B00424", "PG84.B00425", "PG84.B00426", "PG84.B00427", "PG84.B00428", "PG84.B00429", "PG84.B00430", "PG84.B00431", "PG84.B00432", "PG84.B00433", "PG84.B00434", "PG84.B00435", "PG84.B00436", "PG84.B00437", "PG84.B00438", "PG84.B00439", "PG84.B00440", "PG84.B00441", "PG84.B00442", "PG84.B00443", "PG84.B00444", "PG84.B00445", "PG84.B00446", "PG84.B00447", "PG84.B00448", "PG84.B00449", "PG84.B00450", "PG84.B00451", "PG84.B00452", "PG84.B00453", "PG84.B00454", "PG84.B00455", "PG84.B00456", "PG84.B00457", "PG84.B00458", "PG84.B00459", "PG84.B00460", "PG84.B00461", "PG84.B00462", "PG84.B00463", "PG84.B00464", "PG84.B00465", "PG84.B00466", "PG84.B00467", "PG84.B00468", "PG84.B00469", "PG84.B00470", "PG84.B00471", "PG84.B00472", "PG84.B00473", "PG84.B00474", "PG84.B00475", "PG84.B00476", "PG84.B00477", "PG84.B00478", "PG84.B00479", "PG84.B00480", "PG84.B00481", "PG84.B00482", "PG84.B00483", "PG84.B00484", "PG84.B00485", "PG84.B00486" ], "bytes": 26535, "sha256": "c510f8bca98d429fb51ad7054af3b9a77d426bc629ccf305c7dece8c48370bde", "synopsis": "The blind De Lacey offers recognition, but his family's return brings violent rejection and permanent departure. Failed repair, a punished rescue, and vengeance lead the creature to murder William and frame Justine. He demands a female companion as a right, confronting Victor with both genuine deprivation and deliberate wrongdoing.", "observations": [ { "refs": [ "PG84.B00418", "PG84.B00430", "PG84.B00431", "PG84.B00436", "PG84.B00438", "PG84.B00439", "PG84.B00443" ], "finding": "Blindness suspends visual prejudice long enough for compassionate dialogue, including compassion for a possible criminal; sighted family members interrupt before the relationship can be explained.", "disposition": "Recognition through an alternative channel; no claim blindness ensures all impartiality." }, { "refs": [ "PG84.B00445", "PG84.B00447", "PG84.B00449", "PG84.B00454", "PG84.B00455", "PG84.B00456", "PG84.B00457" ], "finding": "Rage is not immediately irreversible: the creature reconsiders his approach and plans repair, but the family's departure forecloses that route and he deliberately burns its home.", "disposition": "Preserve intervening choice and failed repair, not deterministic rejection-to-crime." }, { "refs": [ "PG84.B00459", "PG84.B00460", "PG84.B00461", "PG84.B00463", "PG84.B00464", "PG84.B00465" ], "finding": "Only the creator appears answerable for unchosen sentient vulnerability. Saving a drowning child is interpreted as attack and rewarded by a gunshot, converting renewed kindness into species-wide revenge.", "disposition": "Misrecognized aid and overgeneralized retaliation remain distinct." }, { "refs": [ "PG84.B00469", "PG84.B00470", "PG84.B00472", "PG84.B00474", "PG84.B00475", "PG84.B00476" ], "finding": "The wish for an unprejudiced companion becomes coercive child seizure; identifying William's family makes him a proxy target, and the creature celebrates the capacity to injure Victor through loved ones.", "disposition": "Responsibility retained; deprivation does not authorize possession or proxy violence." }, { "refs": [ "PG84.B00477", "PG84.B00479", "PG84.B00480" ], "finding": "Anticipated rejection by a sleeping stranger is treated as actual culpability; learned judicial mechanisms enable planting the miniature to transfer punishment for his own murder to Justine.", "disposition": "Candidate imagined rejection converted into displaced guilt; false evidence is intentional here." }, { "refs": [ "PG84.B00481", "PG84.B00484", "PG84.B00485", "PG84.B00486" ], "finding": "The demand for reciprocal sympathy assumes a female of matching appearance will consent; Victor answers with prospective public harm, and the confession restores anger that peaceful-life narration had softened.", "disposition": "Consent and future-being uncertainty central to subsequent ethical conflict." } ], "inspection": "complete" }, { "packet": 11, "path": "inspection/packets/pg84/011.txt", "firstRef": "PG84.B00487", "lastRef": "PG84.B00532", "refs": [ "PG84.B00487", "PG84.B00488", "PG84.B00489", "PG84.B00490", "PG84.B00491", "PG84.B00492", "PG84.B00493", "PG84.B00494", "PG84.B00495", "PG84.B00496", "PG84.B00497", "PG84.B00498", "PG84.B00499", "PG84.B00500", "PG84.B00501", "PG84.B00502", "PG84.B00503", "PG84.B00504", "PG84.B00505", "PG84.B00506", "PG84.B00507", "PG84.B00508", "PG84.B00509", "PG84.B00510", "PG84.B00511", "PG84.B00512", "PG84.B00513", "PG84.B00514", "PG84.B00515", "PG84.B00516", "PG84.B00517", "PG84.B00518", "PG84.B00519", "PG84.B00520", "PG84.B00521", "PG84.B00522", "PG84.B00523", "PG84.B00524", "PG84.B00525", "PG84.B00526", "PG84.B00527", "PG84.B00528", "PG84.B00529", "PG84.B00530", "PG84.B00531", "PG84.B00532" ], "bytes": 26588, "sha256": "a27e9e21a55b523f6ec8bf9c8d4a5313a05ea916d5e3618773efa71e6fa40d0b", "synopsis": "Victor accepts the companion bargain after weighing the creature's suffering, threats and promised exile. He postpones work and conceals its purpose from family, whose marriage and travel plans respond to misunderstood distress. Clerval's responsive delight contrasts with Victor's secret burden on the journey to England.", "observations": [ { "refs": [ "PG84.B00487", "PG84.B00489", "PG84.B00490", "PG84.B00491", "PG84.B00492", "PG84.B00495", "PG84.B00496" ], "finding": "The creature promises that mutual affection will end wrongdoing, while Victor questions trust and whether exile can meet a need for society. Neither can guarantee a future companion's character or desire.", "disposition": "Conditional rehabilitation claim and uncertain remedy, not settled causal law." }, { "refs": [ "PG84.B00494", "PG84.B00497", "PG84.B00498", "PG84.B00499" ], "finding": "Victor recognizes duty even when felt sympathy collapses at sight; consent mixes justice, public protection and fear of an adversary impossible to control.", "disposition": "Separate recognition of obligation from emotion and coercive bargaining." }, { "refs": [ "PG84.B00505", "PG84.B00507", "PG84.B00509", "PG84.B00511", "PG84.B00512", "PG84.B00514" ], "finding": "Non-disclosure produces sincere but mistaken family explanations. Father explicitly allows refusal of marriage, yet Victor treats a completed bargain as the gate to all future intimacy.", "disposition": "Context-sensitive care and deferred obligations." }, { "refs": [ "PG84.B00513", "PG84.B00515", "PG84.B00516", "PG84.B00517", "PG84.B00518" ], "finding": "Victor leaves others unknowingly exposed and substitutes an immediately comforting prediction for security; Clerval is partly imagined as a shield while Elizabeth organizes practical care.", "disposition": "Candidate protective secrecy denies affected people agency; retain possessive reward language." }, { "refs": [ "PG84.B00520", "PG84.B00521", "PG84.B00522", "PG84.B00523", "PG84.B00524", "PG84.B00525", "PG84.B00526", "PG84.B00532" ], "finding": "Travel landscapes, labor and historical associations remain available to Clerval while secret fixation blocks Victor's attention; Wordsworth attribution and apostrophe anticipate the friend's loss.", "disposition": "Read all travel/apparatus as narrative architecture, not new geography concepts." } ], "inspection": "complete" }, { "packet": 12, "path": "inspection/packets/pg84/012.txt", "firstRef": "PG84.B00533", "lastRef": "PG84.B00577", "refs": [ "PG84.B00533", "PG84.B00534", "PG84.B00535", "PG84.B00536", "PG84.B00537", "PG84.B00538", "PG84.B00539", "PG84.B00540", "PG84.B00541", "PG84.B00542", "PG84.B00543", "PG84.B00544", "PG84.B00545", "PG84.B00546", "PG84.B00547", "PG84.B00548", "PG84.B00549", "PG84.B00550", "PG84.B00551", "PG84.B00552", "PG84.B00553", "PG84.B00554", "PG84.B00555", "PG84.B00556", "PG84.B00557", "PG84.B00558", "PG84.B00559", "PG84.B00560", "PG84.B00561", "PG84.B00562", "PG84.B00563", "PG84.B00564", "PG84.B00565", "PG84.B00566", "PG84.B00567", "PG84.B00568", "PG84.B00569", "PG84.B00570", "PG84.B00571", "PG84.B00572", "PG84.B00573", "PG84.B00574", "PG84.B00575", "PG84.B00576", "PG84.B00577" ], "bytes": 26537, "sha256": "65bf1901478a59a9927348375308922ddae73f45b2459bcb4cc45a1b7c5f07d5", "synopsis": "English and Scottish travel ends in Victor's isolated second creation. Reflection on the unborn companion's freedom and future generations overturns the bargain; he destroys the work. The creature claims mastery through threats and promises a wedding-night encounter, which Victor interprets as his own death.", "observations": [ { "refs": [ "PG84.B00534", "PG84.B00538", "PG84.B00540", "PG84.B00542", "PG84.B00543", "PG84.B00549", "PG84.B00550" ], "finding": "Clerval's admired enterprise explicitly serves European colonization and trade; travel joins liberty monuments to class hierarchy and Victor's patronizing account of poor islanders.", "disposition": "Historical biases included, no idealization of humane education as free of empire." }, { "refs": [ "PG84.B00544", "PG84.B00546", "PG84.B00547", "PG84.B00548", "PG84.B00552", "PG84.B00554" ], "finding": "Victor alternates anxious protection of Clerval with separation to preserve secrecy. Second labor lacks the first project's enthusiasm and exposes horrors formerly screened by pursuit.", "disposition": "Purpose filters perception; good-intention protection remains inconsistent." }, { "refs": [ "PG84.B00556", "PG84.B00557" ], "finding": "An uncreated reasoning female is not bound by a prior compact, may reject either suitor or exile, and may reproduce. Victor refuses to buy his peace with speculative danger to future generations.", "disposition": "Distinct future-person consent and private bargain externality; risk is imagined, not demonstrated, and refusal denies her existence." }, { "refs": [ "PG84.B00558", "PG84.B00559", "PG84.B00564", "PG84.B00565", "PG84.B00566", "PG84.B00568" ], "finding": "Reasoned reconsideration merges with visual disgust and passion; creature's thwarted hope becomes mastery by threatened harm, reversing maker-made dependence.", "disposition": "Maintain mixed motives and reciprocal domination." }, { "refs": [ "PG84.B00570", "PG84.B00571", "PG84.B00573", "PG84.B00574", "PG84.B00575", "PG84.B00577" ], "finding": "Victor hears an ambiguous wedding threat as his own death despite recognizing loved ones as possible targets; bodily rest briefly restores perspective, and destroyed unfinished flesh prompts quasi-human guilt.", "disposition": "Candidate self-centered threat interpretation; no assertion of settled moral status of unfinished creature." } ], "inspection": "complete" }, { "packet": 13, "path": "inspection/packets/pg84/013.txt", "firstRef": "PG84.B00578", "lastRef": "PG84.B00640", "refs": [ "PG84.B00578", "PG84.B00579", "PG84.B00580", "PG84.B00581", "PG84.B00582", "PG84.B00583", "PG84.B00584", "PG84.B00585", "PG84.B00586", "PG84.B00587", "PG84.B00588", "PG84.B00589", "PG84.B00590", "PG84.B00591", "PG84.B00592", "PG84.B00593", "PG84.B00594", "PG84.B00595", "PG84.B00596", "PG84.B00597", "PG84.B00598", "PG84.B00599", "PG84.B00600", "PG84.B00601", "PG84.B00602", "PG84.B00603", "PG84.B00604", "PG84.B00605", "PG84.B00606", "PG84.B00607", "PG84.B00608", "PG84.B00609", "PG84.B00610", "PG84.B00611", "PG84.B00612", "PG84.B00613", "PG84.B00614", "PG84.B00615", "PG84.B00616", "PG84.B00617", "PG84.B00618", "PG84.B00619", "PG84.B00620", "PG84.B00621", "PG84.B00622", "PG84.B00623", "PG84.B00624", "PG84.B00625", "PG84.B00626", "PG84.B00627", "PG84.B00628", "PG84.B00629", "PG84.B00630", "PG84.B00631", "PG84.B00632", "PG84.B00633", "PG84.B00634", "PG84.B00635", "PG84.B00636", "PG84.B00637", "PG84.B00638", "PG84.B00639", "PG84.B00640" ], "bytes": 26551, "sha256": "9fd291b16f3dbde71bf30b04048189fdf80228a538d67037347d076202a45821", "synopsis": "After destroying and secretly disposing of the unfinished companion, Victor drifts to Ireland and is accused of Clerval's murder. His grief is read as guilt; illness and prison repeat earlier abandonment themes. Kirwin's active care and collection of an alibi secure release, but legal innocence cannot relieve Victor's moral torment.", "observations": [ { "refs": [ "PG84.B00578", "PG84.B00579", "PG84.B00580", "PG84.B00582", "PG84.B00583" ], "finding": "Victor closes deliberation against contrary thoughts after framing refusal as public duty; bodily danger reawakens attachment to life even amid professed despair.", "disposition": "Commitment can stabilize action while excluding reconsideration; fictional affective mutability." }, { "refs": [ "PG84.B00584", "PG84.B00587", "PG84.B00589", "PG84.B00590", "PG84.B00591", "PG84.B00596" ], "finding": "The stranger is denied ordinary hospitality because presumed villainous; Victor manages exhaustion lest it count as guilt, yet trauma-linked agitation does so anyway.", "disposition": "Parallel to creature and Justine with different evidence and outcome." }, { "refs": [ "PG84.B00595", "PG84.B00597", "PG84.B00598", "PG84.B00600", "PG84.B00601", "PG84.B00602", "PG84.B00604" ], "finding": "Plausible circumstantial reconstruction and a staged corpse confrontation mistake relational grief and moral self-accusation for perpetration; Victor's first-person admissions have ambiguous scope.", "disposition": "Distinguish causal guilt, legal act, testimony and affective inference." }, { "refs": [ "PG84.B00607", "PG84.B00610", "PG84.B00612", "PG84.B00613", "PG84.B00615", "PG84.B00621" ], "finding": "Nurse's bounded duty coexists with contempt; Kirwin provides concrete care and contacts family despite his own limits of sympathy. Victor's class-based description of the nurse is not neutral evidence.", "disposition": "Institutional humane practice and its affective limits." }, { "refs": [ "PG84.B00624", "PG84.B00626", "PG84.B00627", "PG84.B00629", "PG84.B00635", "PG84.B00637", "PG84.B00638", "PG84.B00640" ], "finding": "Misunderstood reference briefly shifts Kirwin back toward suspicion. Organized defense and corroborated location defeat the charge, unlike Justine's trial; surviving obligations restore action without resolving remorse.", "disposition": "Actual protection requires evidence-gathering; legal exoneration distinct from moral repair." } ], "inspection": "complete" }, { "packet": 14, "path": "inspection/packets/pg84/014.txt", "firstRef": "PG84.B00641", "lastRef": "PG84.B00696", "refs": [ "PG84.B00641", "PG84.B00642", "PG84.B00643", "PG84.B00644", "PG84.B00645", "PG84.B00646", "PG84.B00647", "PG84.B00648", "PG84.B00649", "PG84.B00650", "PG84.B00651", "PG84.B00652", "PG84.B00653", "PG84.B00654", "PG84.B00655", "PG84.B00656", "PG84.B00657", "PG84.B00658", "PG84.B00659", "PG84.B00660", "PG84.B00661", "PG84.B00662", "PG84.B00663", "PG84.B00664", "PG84.B00665", "PG84.B00666", "PG84.B00667", "PG84.B00668", "PG84.B00669", "PG84.B00670", "PG84.B00671", "PG84.B00672", "PG84.B00673", "PG84.B00674", "PG84.B00675", "PG84.B00676", "PG84.B00677", "PG84.B00678", "PG84.B00679", "PG84.B00680", "PG84.B00681", "PG84.B00682", "PG84.B00683", "PG84.B00684", "PG84.B00685", "PG84.B00686", "PG84.B00687", "PG84.B00688", "PG84.B00689", "PG84.B00690", "PG84.B00691", "PG84.B00692", "PG84.B00693", "PG84.B00694", "PG84.B00695", "PG84.B00696" ], "bytes": 27041, "sha256": "f64a41a096ca8dfa2349c23ac04fa0813da5957d36c3f41d783e01ad0a616c65", "synopsis": "Victor's father misreads unexplained self-accusation as madness. Elizabeth explicitly requests freely chosen marriage, but Victor withholds the danger until after the wedding. His expectation of a duel leads him to send her away from his protection; the creature murders her while he searches for an attack on himself.", "observations": [ { "refs": [ "PG84.B00641", "PG84.B00642", "PG84.B00644", "PG84.B00646", "PG84.B00647", "PG84.B00649", "PG84.B00650" ], "finding": "Fragmentary admission without explanation reinforces psychiatric interpretation and failed remedies; protective silence deprives listeners of context and the speaker of the sympathy he seeks.", "disposition": "No diagnostic endorsement; reciprocal misunderstanding shaped by deliberate non-disclosure." }, { "refs": [ "PG84.B00657", "PG84.B00658", "PG84.B00659", "PG84.B00664" ], "finding": "Elizabeth rejects inherited obligation as sufficient consent and seeks truthful choice, while Victor promises perfect confidence only after marriage and after the known threat date.", "disposition": "Candidate disclosure postponed beyond consequential consent; gendered asymmetry." }, { "refs": [ "PG84.B00662", "PG84.B00663", "PG84.B00672", "PG84.B00673", "PG84.B00676", "PG84.B00677" ], "finding": "Victor reasons carefully within a false assumption that he is the threatened victim; weapons create reassurance while social repetition makes marriage's safety seem certain. Later he blames the creature for blinding him.", "disposition": "Threat-model fixation rather than mere lack of precaution; self-exculpatory retrospect flagged." }, { "refs": [ "PG84.B00679", "PG84.B00680", "PG84.B00681", "PG84.B00682", "PG84.B00687", "PG84.B00689", "PG84.B00690" ], "finding": "Shared landscapes and mutual efforts at consolation coexist with unspoken apprehension; Victor asks Elizabeth to manage his happiness while withholding what frightens them.", "disposition": "Affective labor and knowledge asymmetry." }, { "refs": [ "PG84.B00691", "PG84.B00692", "PG84.B00693", "PG84.B00694", "PG84.B00695", "PG84.B00696" ], "finding": "The act intended to spare Elizabeth from a duel isolates her for the actual attack. Recognition of the threat's target comes too late, and Victor's failed shot again leaves public observers doubtful.", "disposition": "Consequences of protective action built on unshared, narrow interpretation." } ], "inspection": "complete" }, { "packet": 15, "path": "inspection/packets/pg84/015.txt", "firstRef": "PG84.B00697", "lastRef": "PG84.B00745", "refs": [ "PG84.B00697", "PG84.B00698", "PG84.B00699", "PG84.B00700", "PG84.B00701", "PG84.B00702", "PG84.B00703", "PG84.B00704", "PG84.B00705", "PG84.B00706", "PG84.B00707", "PG84.B00708", "PG84.B00709", "PG84.B00710", "PG84.B00711", "PG84.B00712", "PG84.B00713", "PG84.B00714", "PG84.B00715", "PG84.B00716", "PG84.B00717", "PG84.B00718", "PG84.B00719", "PG84.B00720", "PG84.B00721", "PG84.B00722", "PG84.B00723", "PG84.B00724", "PG84.B00725", "PG84.B00726", "PG84.B00727", "PG84.B00728", "PG84.B00729", "PG84.B00730", "PG84.B00731", "PG84.B00732", "PG84.B00733", "PG84.B00734", "PG84.B00735", "PG84.B00736", "PG84.B00737", "PG84.B00738", "PG84.B00739", "PG84.B00740", "PG84.B00741", "PG84.B00742", "PG84.B00743", "PG84.B00744", "PG84.B00745" ], "bytes": 26923, "sha256": "48a44e8a4f8c452e682626c687c72db65620935a3a0595689e5bed3b24cc13ec", "synopsis": "Elizabeth's death is followed by Alphonse's and Victor's confinement. Full disclosure to a magistrate wins narrative interest but no effective pursuit. Revenge organizes Victor's remaining life, while the creature supplies traces and food to prolong it. The account returns to Walton with a demand to kill without hearing the creature.", "observations": [ { "refs": [ "PG84.B00698", "PG84.B00699", "PG84.B00701", "PG84.B00702", "PG84.B00703" ], "finding": "Victims' deaths are filtered through Victor's exceptional-suffering claim; Ernest survives yet recedes from the claim that every tie is lost. Confinement and release offer no restored purpose until vengeance.", "disposition": "Narrative selectivity and surviving-family limit." }, { "refs": [ "PG84.B00706", "PG84.B00707", "PG84.B00708", "PG84.B00709", "PG84.B00711", "PG84.B00712", "PG84.B00713" ], "finding": "A story can be sympathetically entertained without meeting the threshold for official action. Practical capture difficulty and disbelief reinforce one another, provoking rage then renewed dismissal as delirium.", "disposition": "Candidate narrative assent versus actionable belief; no proof institutions could capture creature." }, { "refs": [ "PG84.B00717", "PG84.B00719", "PG84.B00721", "PG84.B00722", "PG84.B00723" ], "finding": "Revenge supplies composure, calculation and a reason to live, thereby fulfilling the enemy's wish to keep Victor suffering. Claimed heavenly approval is Victor's interpretation.", "disposition": "Candidate antagonistic dependence sustaining life and torment." }, { "refs": [ "PG84.B00726", "PG84.B00727", "PG84.B00728", "PG84.B00729", "PG84.B00732", "PG84.B00734" ], "finding": "Creature guides and feeds his pursuer while stealing others' survival stores; Victor attributes some provisions to spirits, and cherished dreams turn vengeance into an apparently imposed duty.", "disposition": "Agency, attribution and domination by maintenance; no supernatural confirmation." }, { "refs": [ "PG84.B00735", "PG84.B00738", "PG84.B00739", "PG84.B00740", "PG84.B00741", "PG84.B00742", "PG84.B00745" ], "finding": "Pursuit consumes dogs and body, ending in rescue conditional on northward progress. Victor restrains the wish to transfer the whole chase yet asks Walton to refuse the hearing that earlier changed his own judgment.", "disposition": "Narrative transmission risks recruiting another into revenge; link opening frame and refusal to listen." } ], "inspection": "complete" }, { "packet": 16, "path": "inspection/packets/pg84/016.txt", "firstRef": "PG84.B00746", "lastRef": "PG84.B00794", "refs": [ "PG84.B00746", "PG84.B00747", "PG84.B00748", "PG84.B00749", "PG84.B00750", "PG84.B00751", "PG84.B00752", "PG84.B00753", "PG84.B00754", "PG84.B00755", "PG84.B00756", "PG84.B00757", "PG84.B00758", "PG84.B00759", "PG84.B00760", "PG84.B00761", "PG84.B00762", "PG84.B00763", "PG84.B00764", "PG84.B00765", "PG84.B00766", "PG84.B00767", "PG84.B00768", "PG84.B00769", "PG84.B00770", "PG84.B00771", "PG84.B00772", "PG84.B00773", "PG84.B00774", "PG84.B00775", "PG84.B00776", "PG84.B00777", "PG84.B00778", "PG84.B00779", "PG84.B00780", "PG84.B00781", "PG84.B00782", "PG84.B00783", "PG84.B00784", "PG84.B00785", "PG84.B00786", "PG84.B00787", "PG84.B00788", "PG84.B00789", "PG84.B00790", "PG84.B00791", "PG84.B00792", "PG84.B00793", "PG84.B00794" ], "bytes": 26520, "sha256": "b321604f67a7f52b781d07a89002c25c8bcbf964d349ed62fb9cb6b6df6e55d3", "synopsis": "Walton records corroborating letters and Victor's revision of the manuscript. Ice peril gives the crew a collective voice: Walton agrees to return despite Victor's heroic exhortation. Victor dies defending his refusal yet qualifying his moral certainty. The creature arrives to mourn, and Walton hears remorse that coexists with deliberate violence and unmet need.", "observations": [ { "refs": [ "PG84.B00746", "PG84.B00748", "PG84.B00749", "PG84.B00750", "PG84.B00751", "PG84.B00753" ], "finding": "Letters and an independent shipboard sighting carry more weight than coherence, but Victor edits especially creature dialogues. Walton's admiration and Victor's grand self-estimate remain active in the supposedly cautionary record.", "disposition": "Framed provenance limits; no transcript or wholly independent creature account." }, { "refs": [ "PG84.B00756", "PG84.B00757", "PG84.B00758", "PG84.B00761", "PG84.B00762", "PG84.B00763", "PG84.B00764" ], "finding": "Walton recognizes endangered crew and sister's prolonged uncertainty, while Victor recasts real deaths and danger as tests of honor and masculinity, urging the ambition he elsewhere warns against.", "disposition": "Keep unresolved inconsistency; leadership rhetoric cannot negate risk bearers' standing." }, { "refs": [ "PG84.B00765", "PG84.B00767", "PG84.B00769", "PG84.B00771", "PG84.B00774", "PG84.B00775" ], "finding": "Walton yields to collective refusal and returns, though he still calls the decision cowardly and unjust; outward restraint can precede full transformation of values. Victor persists in a supposedly heavenly mandate.", "disposition": "Candidate consent-limited ambition, practical correction without moral conversion." }, { "refs": [ "PG84.B00777", "PG84.B00778", "PG84.B00779", "PG84.B00780" ], "finding": "Victor acknowledges creator duty but ranks species welfare above it and claims blamelessness, then concedes passion may still mislead and another ambitious discoverer may succeed.", "disposition": "Final speech is qualified and internally tense, not unambiguous authorial verdict." }, { "refs": [ "PG84.B00784", "PG84.B00786", "PG84.B00787", "PG84.B00788", "PG84.B00789", "PG84.B00790", "PG84.B00791" ], "finding": "Walton suspends killing to hear the creature but contests repentance after irreversible harm. The creature claims remorse was present during crimes and describes willfully chosen conduct becoming experienced compulsion.", "disposition": "Candidate remorse without restraint; neither remorse proof of innocence nor Walton's charge definitive." }, { "refs": [ "PG84.B00792", "PG84.B00793", "PG84.B00794" ], "finding": "The creature simultaneously indicts exclusion, admits killing harmless people and condemns himself; revenge never supplies the fellowship sought. His assertion of incomparable suffering mirrors Victor's.", "disposition": "Accountability and social causation coexist; preserve mirrored self-narratives." } ], "inspection": "complete" }, { "packet": 17, "path": "inspection/packets/pg84/017.txt", "firstRef": "PG84.B00795", "lastRef": "PG84.B00799", "refs": [ "PG84.B00795", "PG84.B00796", "PG84.B00797", "PG84.B00798", "PG84.B00799" ], "bytes": 2786, "sha256": "e6e540666efc4c1df3f0b7ef71bde1e29be3cc0a2de7bae85a2b16467f9f39fb", "synopsis": "The creature promises self-destruction to end suffering and prevent replication, disputes whether death would satisfy revenge, and disappears on an ice raft. The narrated ending verifies departure, not the announced death; Gutenberg's end marker closes the indexed text.", "observations": [ { "refs": [ "PG84.B00795" ], "finding": "The creature intends to destroy his remains so future makers cannot repeat the process; he imagines oblivion from crime, unmet affection and remorse, rather than finding a repaired social relation.", "disposition": "Fictional terminal intention; no endorsement of suicide and no technical method extracted." }, { "refs": [ "PG84.B00796", "PG84.B00797" ], "finding": "He again claims superior suffering and reinterprets Victor's desire for death as prevention, while uncertainty about posthumous consciousness coexists with confident hopes for peace.", "disposition": "Final self-interpretation remains contestable and unresolved." }, { "refs": [ "PG84.B00798", "PG84.B00799" ], "finding": "Walton witnesses the creature leaving and vanishing, not fulfillment of his promise. The indexed source ends at Gutenberg's end marker without further apparatus.", "disposition": "Coverage complete; distinguish announced action from observed outcome." } ], "inspection": "complete" } ] } }, { "bookId": 15491, "ledger": [ { "packet": 1, "path": "inspection/packets/pg15491/001.txt", "firstRef": "PG15491.B00001", "lastRef": "PG15491.B00076", "refs": [ "PG15491.B00001", "PG15491.B00002", "PG15491.B00003", "PG15491.B00004", "PG15491.B00005", "PG15491.B00006", "PG15491.B00007", "PG15491.B00008", "PG15491.B00009", "PG15491.B00010", "PG15491.B00011", "PG15491.B00012", "PG15491.B00013", "PG15491.B00014", "PG15491.B00015", "PG15491.B00016", "PG15491.B00017", "PG15491.B00018", "PG15491.B00019", "PG15491.B00020", "PG15491.B00021", "PG15491.B00022", "PG15491.B00023", "PG15491.B00024", "PG15491.B00025", "PG15491.B00026", "PG15491.B00027", "PG15491.B00028", "PG15491.B00029", "PG15491.B00030", "PG15491.B00031", "PG15491.B00032", "PG15491.B00033", "PG15491.B00034", "PG15491.B00035", "PG15491.B00036", "PG15491.B00037", "PG15491.B00038", "PG15491.B00039", "PG15491.B00040", "PG15491.B00041", "PG15491.B00042", "PG15491.B00043", "PG15491.B00044", "PG15491.B00045", "PG15491.B00046", "PG15491.B00047", "PG15491.B00048", "PG15491.B00049", "PG15491.B00050", "PG15491.B00051", "PG15491.B00052", "PG15491.B00053", "PG15491.B00054", "PG15491.B00055", "PG15491.B00056", "PG15491.B00057", "PG15491.B00058", "PG15491.B00059", "PG15491.B00060", "PG15491.B00061", "PG15491.B00062", "PG15491.B00063", "PG15491.B00064", "PG15491.B00065", "PG15491.B00066", "PG15491.B00067", "PG15491.B00068", "PG15491.B00069", "PG15491.B00070", "PG15491.B00071", "PG15491.B00072", "PG15491.B00073", "PG15491.B00074", "PG15491.B00075", "PG15491.B00076" ], "bytes": 26735, "sha256": "681c5ac961969dd1f78b916f4dbdf6c5c99860f007836dc1c728825e7ce06346", "synopsis": "Publication apparatus and dedications locate Micrographia within royal patronage and Royal Society norms, separating Hooke's conjectures from institutional endorsement. The preface diagnoses defects of sense, memory and reason, proposes instrument-assisted correction and a circulating experimental method, and advances ambitious but tentative extensions to other senses.", "observations": [ { "refs": [ "PG15491.B00001", "PG15491.B00002", "PG15491.B00003", "PG15491.B00004", "PG15491.B00005", "PG15491.B00006", "PG15491.B00007", "PG15491.B00008", "PG15491.B00009", "PG15491.B00010", "PG15491.B00011", "PG15491.B00013", "PG15491.B00014", "PG15491.B00015", "PG15491.B00016", "PG15491.B00030", "PG15491.B00031", "PG15491.B00033" ], "finding": "The retained text supplies edition metadata, an illustration-availability notice, italic convention, Society printing order and imprint; actual illustrations are not present in the packet.", "disposition": "apparatus inspected; no visual claim" }, { "refs": [ "PG15491.B00038", "PG15491.B00044" ], "finding": "Royal patronage and national practical aims frame the book. Hooke expressly assigns conjectural overstatement to himself rather than the Society whose anti-dogmatic rules he praises.", "disposition": "candidate: publication acceptance distinguished from conjecture endorsement; retain patronage politics" }, { "refs": [ "PG15491.B00050", "PG15491.B00051", "PG15491.B00053", "PG15491.B00054", "PG15491.B00055", "PG15491.B00056", "PG15491.B00057", "PG15491.B00058" ], "finding": "Inquiry can fail through inaccessible scale, distorted reception, lost or misorganized memory and rash inference; deficiencies in earlier faculties propagate into confident definitions and conclusions.", "disposition": "candidates: access versus fidelity; memory preservation versus retrieval; upstream epistemic defects" }, { "refs": [ "PG15491.B00060", "PG15491.B00061", "PG15491.B00062", "PG15491.B00063", "PG15491.B00064", "PG15491.B00065", "PG15491.B00066", "PG15491.B00067", "PG15491.B00068" ], "finding": "Evidence is valued by instructiveness rather than volume; instruments extend organs, faithful observations can serve others' stronger synthesis, and future impartial observations can overturn Hooke's own claims. Ordering a record for later use differs from merely retaining it.", "disposition": "applications: observational access, reusable facts and revisability; candidate: observation as enabling craft for others" }, { "refs": [ "PG15491.B00069", "PG15491.B00070", "PG15491.B00071", "PG15491.B00072", "PG15491.B00073", "PG15491.B00074", "PG15491.B00075", "PG15491.B00076" ], "finding": "Breadth and certainty can undermine one another; reason must organize but not preempt sensory evidence, then return conclusions to hands and eyes. Extensions to distant hearing, wire propagation, microscopic structure and enhanced smell mix reported trials with possibilities and speculative physiology.", "disposition": "candidates: breadth-rigor tension; cycle among experiment record and inference; retain theological restoration and conjectural scope" } ] }, { "packet": 2, "path": "inspection/packets/pg15491/002.txt", "firstRef": "PG15491.B00077", "lastRef": "PG15491.B00097", "refs": [ "PG15491.B00077", "PG15491.B00078", "PG15491.B00079", "PG15491.B00080", "PG15491.B00081", "PG15491.B00082", "PG15491.B00083", "PG15491.B00084", "PG15491.B00085", "PG15491.B00086", "PG15491.B00087", "PG15491.B00088", "PG15491.B00089", "PG15491.B00090", "PG15491.B00091", "PG15491.B00092", "PG15491.B00093", "PG15491.B00094", "PG15491.B00095", "PG15491.B00096", "PG15491.B00097" ], "bytes": 25049, "sha256": "0f570154eb439fc0801a512c529f48c4497c9ec0928fbd4a712d798c8226e41d", "synopsis": "The preface extends sensory improvement into instruments and surrogate tests, describes a magnifying pressure indicator, criticizes selective medical reporting, and advocates reusable accumulated observations. It then details microscopic illumination and separates controlled nearby objects from remote telescopic ones, before proposing a glass-grinding engine.", "observations": [ { "refs": [ "PG15491.B00077", "PG15491.B00078", "PG15491.B00079", "PG15491.B00080", "PG15491.B00081", "PG15491.B00082" ], "finding": "An instrument can extend a sense's function through a different detectable response, such as humidity, thermal expansion or chemical indication; the pressure device magnifies motion and corrects for residual reservoir movement. Inferences to earthly steams and sensory physiology remain conjectural.", "disposition": "candidates: functional sensory substitution; coupled-reservoir calibration; no chemical tasting guidance" }, { "refs": [ "PG15491.B00083", "PG15491.B00084", "PG15491.B00085" ], "finding": "Written shared experience enlarges one person's usable history, but medical case collections omit failed outcomes and praise their own prescriptions; publication volume does not remove selection bias.", "disposition": "candidate: selective success record distorts accumulated experience; application: reusable organized observations" }, { "refs": [ "PG15491.B00086", "PG15491.B00087", "PG15491.B00088", "PG15491.B00089", "PG15491.B00090", "PG15491.B00091" ], "finding": "Promises of longitude, flight and solvents coexist with praise of named contemporaries and an appeal to wealthy gentlemen's leisure. An allegedly powerful general method is deferred rather than furnished here; improved instruments are framed as access to new worlds.", "disposition": "expression: practical ambition, patronage and promissory limits" }, { "refs": [ "PG15491.B00092", "PG15491.B00093", "PG15491.B00094", "PG15491.B00095", "PG15491.B00096" ], "finding": "Microscopes face both manufacturing variation and design limits. More intense diffuse illumination avoids localized glare; steady artificial light enables prolonged inspection, drawing and access to nocturnal or perishable objects, but still has a magnification limit.", "disposition": "candidates: illumination uniformity versus intensity; stable illumination extends observation time; manufacture versus design ceiling" }, { "refs": [ "PG15491.B00097" ], "finding": "The nearby microscope target can be illuminated but the remote telescope target cannot; different intervention access changes available improvements. The proposed grinding arrangement makes tool and workpiece mutually correct shape while crossing paths avoids grooves.", "disposition": "candidates: target intervention access shapes instrument strategy; reciprocal tool-work calibration; historical proposal not independently tested" } ] }, { "packet": 3, "path": "inspection/packets/pg15491/003.txt", "firstRef": "PG15491.B00098", "lastRef": "PG15491.B00112", "refs": [ "PG15491.B00098", "PG15491.B00099", "PG15491.B00100", "PG15491.B00101", "PG15491.B00102", "PG15491.B00103", "PG15491.B00104", "PG15491.B00105", "PG15491.B00106", "PG15491.B00107", "PG15491.B00108", "PG15491.B00109", "PG15491.B00110", "PG15491.B00111", "PG15491.B00112" ], "bytes": 26693, "sha256": "afbec25327108b57f58c6cc44d361e75cc86e7b96a9fadac85476df5fd904f48", "synopsis": "Hooke describes grinding and refractometry instruments, contrasts actual trials with hoped-for lens forms, calibrates microscope magnification and chooses lens configurations for different purposes. Object rotation and repeated illumination precede depiction. The preface closes by advocating practical Royal Society work while praising merchants, patrons and national institutions.", "observations": [ { "refs": [ "PG15491.B00098", "PG15491.B00099", "PG15491.B00100", "PG15491.B00101", "PG15491.B00102" ], "finding": "The proposed grinding scale-up depends on rigidity and glass uniformity; superior lens forms remain untried. A refractometer isolates a liquid surface by arranging perpendicular passage through the other boundary, and compares refractive response independently of specific gravity.", "disposition": "candidates: isolate one boundary by neutralizing another; material properties independently compared; retain proposal conditions" }, { "refs": [ "PG15491.B00103", "PG15491.B00104", "PG15491.B00107" ], "finding": "Simultaneous unaided and magnified views calibrate apparent diameter. A middle lens broadens the field but is removed for detailed clarity; technically effective simple lenses or water-filled forms can lose usefulness through handling inconveniences.", "disposition": "application: checked magnification comparison; candidates: field-detail tradeoff; optical gain versus practical use" }, { "refs": [ "PG15491.B00105", "PG15491.B00106", "PG15491.B00108", "PG15491.B00109" ], "finding": "The specimen mount varies object orientation without substantially moving the microscope. Drawings follow repeated examination under different lights because pits, relief, stains and reflections can imitate one another; selection and engraver mediation are disclosed.", "disposition": "application: illumination-based relief inference; candidates: depiction after multi-condition scrutiny; sample and mediation limits" }, { "refs": [ "PG15491.B00110", "PG15491.B00111", "PG15491.B00112" ], "finding": "Practical labor-saving aims coexist with mechanistic conjecture, national pride and patronage claims. Commercial investment is presented as evidence of esteem and feasibility, while praise for colonial Irish replanting is included among benefactions.", "disposition": "essential expression: institutional and ethical context; endorsement versus demonstration distinction" } ] }, { "packet": 4, "path": "inspection/packets/pg15491/004.txt", "firstRef": "PG15491.B00113", "lastRef": "PG15491.B00146", "refs": [ "PG15491.B00113", "PG15491.B00114", "PG15491.B00115", "PG15491.B00116", "PG15491.B00117", "PG15491.B00118", "PG15491.B00119", "PG15491.B00120", "PG15491.B00121", "PG15491.B00122", "PG15491.B00123", "PG15491.B00124", "PG15491.B00125", "PG15491.B00126", "PG15491.B00127", "PG15491.B00128", "PG15491.B00129", "PG15491.B00130", "PG15491.B00131", "PG15491.B00132", "PG15491.B00133", "PG15491.B00134", "PG15491.B00135", "PG15491.B00136", "PG15491.B00137", "PG15491.B00138", "PG15491.B00139", "PG15491.B00140", "PG15491.B00141", "PG15491.B00142", "PG15491.B00143", "PG15491.B00144", "PG15491.B00145", "PG15491.B00146" ], "bytes": 24638, "sha256": "0df5cfd752b3634bd6d4bde9425ef37c97906603947c13326112109300d3d469", "synopsis": "The preface closes with the history of undertaking and comparing the project with contemporaries. Opening observations use needles, printed points, razor edges and fabrics to contrast unaided appearance with microscopic structure, distinguish ideal geometry from physical marks, and develop tentative material explanations and manufacturing possibilities.", "observations": [ { "refs": [ "PG15491.B00113", "PG15491.B00114", "PG15491.B00115" ], "finding": "Hooke reports proceeding after Wren abandoned the project and comparing papers with Power before concluding their contributions differed in subject, detail and use of pictures.", "disposition": "candidate: overlap assessed at contribution level; source history not independently verified" }, { "refs": [ "PG15491.B00128", "PG15491.B00129", "PG15491.B00130", "PG15491.B00131", "PG15491.B00132" ], "finding": "A physical point is scale-relative and irregular despite geometrical or everyday sharpness; extending visible detail is distinguished from claims about infinite divisibility of extension versus matter. Manufacturing defects and natural intricacy feed a theological contrast. Printed-mark shape combines substrate, tool, ink and illumination effects.", "disposition": "candidates: ideal object versus physical realization; inspection finer than manufacture; combined sources of mark form; retain theology and conjecture" }, { "refs": [ "PG15491.B00135", "PG15491.B00136" ], "finding": "Razor scratches and optical surfaces reveal limits of abrasive finishing; a tool effective at its actual scale would not retain that function if its magnified apparent roughness were treated as literal size. Some defects are attributed only tentatively to dust or corrosion.", "disposition": "candidate: apparent enlargement does not preserve functional judgment; application: multi-cause and scale distinctions" }, { "refs": [ "PG15491.B00139", "PG15491.B00140", "PG15491.B00141" ], "finding": "Flax can look silky before twisting yet lose its luster in thread because the assembly changes how soft flat components meet; constituent optical resemblance does not guarantee retained collective appearance. Proposed stiffening and clearing are untried; the hooked-particle cohesion theory is disputed.", "disposition": "candidate: assembly suppresses constituent response; separate observation, testimony and proposal" }, { "refs": [ "PG15491.B00144" ], "finding": "Silk's transparent fibers motivate a proposed artificial glutinous thread; a tested tinged substitute and a plausible production idea are not the same as a completed synthetic silk process.", "disposition": "candidate: functional material imitation distinguished from biological production; retain explicit speculative status" } ] }, { "packet": 5, "path": "inspection/packets/pg15491/005.txt", "firstRef": "PG15491.B00147", "lastRef": "PG15491.B00162", "refs": [ "PG15491.B00147", "PG15491.B00148", "PG15491.B00149", "PG15491.B00150", "PG15491.B00151", "PG15491.B00152", "PG15491.B00153", "PG15491.B00154", "PG15491.B00155", "PG15491.B00156", "PG15491.B00157", "PG15491.B00158", "PG15491.B00159", "PG15491.B00160", "PG15491.B00161", "PG15491.B00162" ], "bytes": 24033, "sha256": "b89543bfd9bf566099c228b797520a19787432530c3877184464736f8a4c338e", "synopsis": "Watered silk connects changing reflection with mechanically imposed creases and reported craft practice. Tiny glass capillaries are inspected through calibrated optical cues, with limits from illumination and patience. Hooke proposes a pressure and congruity account of rise, then develops a heat-as-agitation and air-as-solution analogy whose predictive reach greatly exceeds the immediate observations.", "observations": [ { "refs": [ "PG15491.B00147", "PG15491.B00148", "PG15491.B00149", "PG15491.B00150" ], "finding": "Bright and dark textile regions reverse with illumination geometry because creased fibers redirect light. Microscopic structure is linked to reported making procedure, while the author devalues artificial irregularities as lacking deeper purpose and praises divine natural workmanship with disparaging cultural analogies.", "disposition": "candidate: appearance traced to fabrication history; retained ethical and theological frame" }, { "refs": [ "PG15491.B00153" ], "finding": "A known partly water-filled glass pipe supplies comparison appearances for solid versus hollow fibers without laborious end-on viewing; different optics may be needed for transparency and texture. Capillary rise reported to 21 inches is limited by observation time and available visibility, not claimed as a final equilibrium ceiling.", "disposition": "candidates: calibrated appearance cue; property-specific observation setup; unfinished time course versus equilibrium" }, { "refs": [ "PG15491.B00155", "PG15491.B00156", "PG15491.B00157", "PG15491.B00158", "PG15491.B00159", "PG15491.B00160", "PG15491.B00161" ], "finding": "The proposed explanation separates showing that pressure differences can produce unequal levels from showing that this experiment contains such a difference. Congruity and incongruity extend wetting terminology to other fluid-solid and fluid-fluid relations.", "disposition": "candidate: causal capacity distinguished from actual presence; expression: conjectural capillary mechanism" }, { "refs": [ "PG15491.B00162" ], "finding": "Vibrated grains and loosening by vibration model aspects of fluidity; frictional heating is used to support wider thermal claims. Air as matter dissolved in ether, weather as precipitation, and inference from many shared properties form an explicitly revisable yet expansive analogy with important untested steps.", "disposition": "applications: analogy boundary and mechanism distinction; candidates: cross-property analogy for directed search; retain historical ether and weather assumptions" } ] }, { "packet": 6, "path": "inspection/packets/pg15491/006.txt", "firstRef": "PG15491.B00163", "lastRef": "PG15491.B00178", "refs": [ "PG15491.B00163", "PG15491.B00164", "PG15491.B00165", "PG15491.B00166", "PG15491.B00167", "PG15491.B00168", "PG15491.B00169", "PG15491.B00170", "PG15491.B00171", "PG15491.B00172", "PG15491.B00173", "PG15491.B00174", "PG15491.B00175", "PG15491.B00176", "PG15491.B00177", "PG15491.B00178" ], "bytes": 26605, "sha256": "123a68b15644855f7743b8c80c22d15d3edd858a9862169ab0c2e96cfc729df8", "synopsis": "Hooke elaborates congruity through a vibrating-grain and musical-unison analogy, then explains droplet and meniscus shapes by surrounding media, gravity and contact. A proposed pressure-threshold apparatus is used to support his capillary account. He extends the argument as queries to optics, gravity, celestial roundness and solidified droplets, introducing an attributed shot-making account.", "observations": [ { "refs": [ "PG15491.B00163", "PG15491.B00164", "PG15491.B00165" ], "finding": "Congruity is relational, and an analogy with strings proposes that differences in one parameter can be offset by another to produce agreement; the sand model is admitted not to reproduce cohesion fully. The passage moves from resemblance to a broad mechanism more confidently than the analogy establishes.", "disposition": "candidate: compensating differences yield a common response; retain incomplete analogue" }, { "refs": [ "PG15491.B00166", "PG15491.B00167", "PG15491.B00168" ], "finding": "The same liquid changes convex or concave surface according to container material, coating or level relative to its rim, opposing an explanation that treats shape as inherent to the liquid alone.", "disposition": "candidate: boundary-conditioned form; application: comparative intervention" }, { "refs": [ "PG15491.B00169", "PG15491.B00170", "PG15491.B00171", "PG15491.B00172" ], "finding": "Pressure needed to force a bubble through calibrated holes is proposed as a quantitative test, while exact values remain unmeasured here. Hooke infers sufficient unequal pressure and then probable principal or sole causation; sufficiency is not itself proof of exclusivity.", "disposition": "candidate: sufficient explanation versus exclusive cause; scope of planned measurement" }, { "refs": [ "PG15491.B00173", "PG15491.B00174", "PG15491.B00175", "PG15491.B00176", "PG15491.B00177", "PG15491.B00178" ], "finding": "Wicks, plants, refraction, gravity and planetary form are successively connected to the proposed principle, but labeled queries or deferred arguments. An attributed craft account of solidifying drops is introduced separately.", "disposition": "expression: widening analogical program and documentary attribution; no modern endorsement" } ] }, { "packet": 7, "path": "inspection/packets/pg15491/007.txt", "firstRef": "PG15491.B00179", "lastRef": "PG15491.B00199", "refs": [ "PG15491.B00179", "PG15491.B00180", "PG15491.B00181", "PG15491.B00182", "PG15491.B00183", "PG15491.B00184", "PG15491.B00185", "PG15491.B00186", "PG15491.B00187", "PG15491.B00188", "PG15491.B00189", "PG15491.B00190", "PG15491.B00191", "PG15491.B00192", "PG15491.B00193", "PG15491.B00194", "PG15491.B00195", "PG15491.B00196", "PG15491.B00197", "PG15491.B00198", "PG15491.B00199" ], "bytes": 26404, "sha256": "4a6affbbf8887c00d89083b75fbe5f14d938d7d084f4d6a7e80419cf037f67d9", "synopsis": "The attributed shot-making account ends with a conjectural explanation of roundness. Hooke develops round droplets and preserved sparks, replaces a difficult capillary account of mountain springs with a speculative hydrostatic one, warns against systems erected on few experiments, and studies floating corks, boundary reversals, limits of capillary rise, and cohesion in fluids.", "observations": [ { "refs": [ "PG15491.B00179", "PG15491.B00180", "PG15491.B00181", "PG15491.B00182", "PG15491.B00183", "PG15491.B00184" ], "finding": "An attributed craft account supplies manufacture observations and quality feedback; its proposed cause of spherical shape is expressly left for further inquiry. This is a separate documentary voice containing hazardous historical procedures, not a practical recommendation.", "disposition": "preserve attribution and conjectural status; no operational craft proposal" }, { "refs": [ "PG15491.B00185", "PG15491.B00186", "PG15491.B00187" ], "finding": "Droplet and hail analogies extend roundness explanations; collected spark remnants provide durable inspectable traces, but their inferred melting and vitrification remains a hypothesis.", "disposition": "compare durable-trace application and preserve inference limit" }, { "refs": [ "PG15491.B00188", "PG15491.B00189", "PG15491.B00190", "PG15491.B00191", "PG15491.B00192" ], "finding": "Difficulties with capillary mountain springs prompt a hydrostatic alternative built from observed unequal fluid heights and persistence of fresh/salt stratification. Caverns, separation and multiple time-delayed pathways are auxiliary suppositions; Hooke acknowledges missing depth measurements and difficult salty/tidal cases.", "disposition": "retain alternative explanation and unresolved evidence; avoid historical or physical endorsement" }, { "refs": [ "PG15491.B00193", "PG15491.B00194" ], "finding": "Hooke permits concurrent causes and rejects comprehensive systems from few experiments: each trial is a touchstone, and repeated repair of a favored explanation can be worse than replacing it.", "disposition": "candidate method distinction with tension against preceding auxiliary hypotheses" }, { "refs": [ "PG15491.B00195", "PG15491.B00196", "PG15491.B00197" ], "finding": "Consumption or drainage maintains wick/filter transport. Changing vessel fill or wetting boundaries reverses floating-cork motions and can produce attraction/repulsion resembling magnetism; the observed pattern is separable from Hooke's conjectural pressure mechanism.", "disposition": "reuse capillary transport; consider nonunique causal signature and boundary reversal" }, { "refs": [ "PG15491.B00198", "PG15491.B00199" ], "finding": "Maximum capillary rise is admitted undetermined without a pressure law and air-entry account. Viscous drops show cohesion can coexist with fluidity, requiring more than the surrounding-fluid account.", "disposition": "preserve quantitative gap and concurrent mechanism; potential fluidity/cohesion distinction" } ] }, { "packet": 8, "path": "inspection/packets/pg15491/008.txt", "firstRef": "PG15491.B00200", "lastRef": "PG15491.B00234", "refs": [ "PG15491.B00200", "PG15491.B00201", "PG15491.B00202", "PG15491.B00203", "PG15491.B00204", "PG15491.B00205", "PG15491.B00206", "PG15491.B00207", "PG15491.B00208", "PG15491.B00209", "PG15491.B00210", "PG15491.B00211", "PG15491.B00212", "PG15491.B00213", "PG15491.B00214", "PG15491.B00215", "PG15491.B00216", "PG15491.B00217", "PG15491.B00218", "PG15491.B00219", "PG15491.B00220", "PG15491.B00221", "PG15491.B00222", "PG15491.B00223", "PG15491.B00224", "PG15491.B00225", "PG15491.B00226", "PG15491.B00227", "PG15491.B00228", "PG15491.B00229", "PG15491.B00230", "PG15491.B00231", "PG15491.B00232", "PG15491.B00233", "PG15491.B00234" ], "bytes": 26682, "sha256": "df89d9b7789ad16c35b6311353543e8731c91b4c0ec71240401716dc6f0b16e4", "synopsis": "Congruity is extended into a speculative contact-dependent attraction account. Glass-drop trials contrast breaking locations, water and air, retained fragment arrangements and annealing. Hooke reconstructs internal grain with acknowledged limits, decomposes his stress explanation into separate assertions, and describes thermometer calibration and insulation from air-pressure variation.", "observations": [ { "refs": [ "PG15491.B00200", "PG15491.B00201" ], "finding": "Mercury suspension and a shaken magnet suggest strong dependence of retention on contact; the ether/congruity mechanism is speculative, while a near-contact water drop shows no visible bulge before joining the stick.", "disposition": "preserve observation/mechanism distinction and detection limit" }, { "refs": [ "PG15491.B00204", "PG15491.B00205", "PG15491.B00206", "PG15491.B00207", "PG15491.B00208", "PG15491.B00214" ], "finding": "Quenched drops can survive removal of much of the bulb yet fragment after tail damage; underwater fracture persists, and reheating followed by slow cooling removes the explosive breaking quality. Response depends on damage location and thermal history, not simply removed quantity.", "disposition": "candidate localized failure sensitivity and processing-history application" }, { "refs": [ "PG15491.B00209", "PG15491.B00210", "PG15491.B00211", "PG15491.B00212", "PG15491.B00213" ], "finding": "Transparent tough confinement retains fragments in their former positions for microscopy. The ideal axial section is explicitly reconstructed from several anatomized drops, not a successful single exact cut; analogous grain in other materials extends the conjecture.", "disposition": "candidate retaining spatial evidence after destruction; mark reconstructed figure limit" }, { "refs": [ "PG15491.B00215" ], "finding": "Immersion reduces refraction at the convex drop boundary and decreases the apparent bubble size; observed size is not intrinsic object size.", "disposition": "compare existing optical boundary and measurement applications" }, { "refs": [ "PG15491.B00216", "PG15491.B00217", "PG15491.B00219", "PG15491.B00220", "PG15491.B00221", "PG15491.B00222", "PG15491.B00223", "PG15491.B00224", "PG15491.B00225", "PG15491.B00226", "PG15491.B00227", "PG15491.B00228" ], "finding": "Uneven contraction and mutually supporting bent parts explain fracture through an arch analogy. Hooke labels the whole account conjectural and separates seven assertions for analogous experimental support, rather than reporting direct access to particle flexure.", "disposition": "candidate decomposed mechanism testing; preserve analogy limits" }, { "refs": [ "PG15491.B00229", "PG15491.B00230", "PG15491.B00231", "PG15491.B00232" ], "finding": "The thermometer uses a freezing-water reference and shared-fluid fractional expansion in a comparison vessel to assign divisions. Sealing suppresses evaporation and ambient-pressure confounding; the instrument's response law and fixed point are separate calibration elements.", "disposition": "candidate fixed point plus proportional response calibration; reuse confound control" }, { "refs": [ "PG15491.B00233", "PG15491.B00234" ], "finding": "The claim that heat expands solids is illustrated by a fitted metal assembly becoming immovable when heated and free again when cool.", "disposition": "preserve reversible material-response evidence without modern endorsement" } ] }, { "packet": 9, "path": "inspection/packets/pg15491/009.txt", "firstRef": "PG15491.B00235", "lastRef": "PG15491.B00263", "refs": [ "PG15491.B00235", "PG15491.B00236", "PG15491.B00237", "PG15491.B00238", "PG15491.B00239", "PG15491.B00240", "PG15491.B00241", "PG15491.B00242", "PG15491.B00243", "PG15491.B00244", "PG15491.B00245", "PG15491.B00246", "PG15491.B00247", "PG15491.B00248", "PG15491.B00249", "PG15491.B00250", "PG15491.B00251", "PG15491.B00252", "PG15491.B00253", "PG15491.B00254", "PG15491.B00255", "PG15491.B00256", "PG15491.B00257", "PG15491.B00258", "PG15491.B00259", "PG15491.B00260", "PG15491.B00261", "PG15491.B00262", "PG15491.B00263" ], "bytes": 26952, "sha256": "b7943e0a44a6fa43d29de39c37643e4bc7d61c41ac157f9c1147f760c03b5fa9", "synopsis": "Hooke explicitly distinguishes analogous possibility from evidence about glass itself, then argues for expansion, retained tension and annealing by multiple tests. Spark remnants are classified and compared with products made by another route, criticizing Descartes's untested explanation. A craft process is attributed, with a useful material withheld under secrecy obligations.", "observations": [ { "refs": [ "PG15491.B00235", "PG15491.B00236", "PG15491.B00237", "PG15491.B00238", "PG15491.B00239", "PG15491.B00240", "PG15491.B00241" ], "finding": "Examples in other substances establish only possible analogous behavior, not actual expansion of glass. Hooke therefore turns to glass-specific shape, crack and constrained-length trials; local differential heating/cooling matters as well as temperature.", "disposition": "candidate analogy requires target-material test; preserve multiple imperfect arguments" }, { "refs": [ "PG15491.B00242", "PG15491.B00243", "PG15491.B00244", "PG15491.B00245", "PG15491.B00246" ], "finding": "Powder can behave fluidly while vapor agitates it; Hooke's double contraction and retained flexure account proceeds through explicitly probable assertions. Another person's glass-ball observation extends the arch analogy and is attributed.", "disposition": "preserve mechanism conjecture, process-state distinction and source voice" }, { "refs": [ "PG15491.B00247", "PG15491.B00248" ], "finding": "A crack can become invisible when its faces exclude air and reappear when separated, so absence of visible flaws is not absence of flaws. Annealing changes later fracture response; relaxation of microscopic bends is inferred rather than directly seen.", "disposition": "candidate visibility depends on interface contrast; processing-history application" }, { "refs": [ "PG15491.B00251", "PG15491.B00252", "PG15491.B00253", "PG15491.B00254" ], "finding": "Preserved spark remnants include globules, partly melted chips and unmelted slivers. Their differences constrain a family of heating outcomes rather than one uniform microscopic event.", "disposition": "candidate durable event residue and heterogeneous outcomes; compare Herschel proposal" }, { "refs": [ "PG15491.B00255", "PG15491.B00256", "PG15491.B00257" ], "finding": "Similar globules arise from filings passed through a flame; cross-route comparison supports the account, while experimental examination contradicts a Cartesian explanation. Sulphureous-body chemistry remains Hooke's historical inference.", "disposition": "apply checked cross-route identity and honest-instrument revision; retain chemistry limits" }, { "refs": [ "PG15491.B00258", "PG15491.B00259", "PG15491.B00260", "PG15491.B00261" ], "finding": "A credited craft account forms separate globules by preventing contact while heating; an alternative separating material is deliberately withheld because revealing it would disclose another secret. Openness is qualified by existing obligations.", "disposition": "retain secrecy qualification and process comparison; do not reproduce hazardous instructions" } ] }, { "packet": 10, "path": "inspection/packets/pg15491/010.txt", "firstRef": "PG15491.B00264", "lastRef": "PG15491.B00295", "refs": [ "PG15491.B00264", "PG15491.B00265", "PG15491.B00266", "PG15491.B00267", "PG15491.B00268", "PG15491.B00269", "PG15491.B00270", "PG15491.B00271", "PG15491.B00272", "PG15491.B00273", "PG15491.B00274", "PG15491.B00275", "PG15491.B00276", "PG15491.B00277", "PG15491.B00278", "PG15491.B00279", "PG15491.B00280", "PG15491.B00281", "PG15491.B00282", "PG15491.B00283", "PG15491.B00284", "PG15491.B00285", "PG15491.B00286", "PG15491.B00287", "PG15491.B00288", "PG15491.B00289", "PG15491.B00290", "PG15491.B00291", "PG15491.B00292", "PG15491.B00293", "PG15491.B00294", "PG15491.B00295" ], "bytes": 26356, "sha256": "20090ee436f4cd4896b73c727ae3952c6f2f991f5ae0f1d71130fd6bfcc26f16", "synopsis": "Mica's laminated structure becomes a manipulable subject for thin-film colour: splitting, pressing and substituting media vary colour while illumination controls delimit causes. Hooke's steel-hardening explanation is conjectural. He identifies a negative crucial experiment against Cartesian requirements and starts a motion account of light with diverse observations, reports and explicit gaps.", "observations": [ { "refs": [ "PG15491.B00264", "PG15491.B00265", "PG15491.B00266", "PG15491.B00267" ], "finding": "Mica provides a preferred inquiry object because it is simpler, more regular and more easily divided or joined than feathers, while generating colours from colourless material. Greater instrument power might reveal further lamination, but that is prospective.", "disposition": "candidate experimental tractability as subject-selection criterion" }, { "refs": [ "PG15491.B00268", "PG15491.B00269", "PG15491.B00270", "PG15491.B00271", "PG15491.B00285", "PG15491.B00286", "PG15491.B00287", "PG15491.B00288" ], "finding": "Thinness, refractive difference and boundary geometry govern observed colour; substituting air, water, solid films and bubbles separates material identity from necessary relations. Uneven thickness yields spatial colour sequences, and both overly thick and overly thin regions can be colourless.", "disposition": "compare Opticks proposals and retain bounded response range" }, { "refs": [ "PG15491.B00272", "PG15491.B00273", "PG15491.B00274", "PG15491.B00275", "PG15491.B00276", "PG15491.B00277", "PG15491.B00278", "PG15491.B00279", "PG15491.B00280", "PG15491.B00281", "PG15491.B00282", "PG15491.B00283", "PG15491.B00284" ], "finding": "Steel temper colours lead to a historical vitrified-material explanation of hardness and ductility. Surface removal and comparative metal responses are observations, but the proposed internal composition and process are hypotheses.", "disposition": "preserve substantial material theory without accepting it as established metallurgy" }, { "refs": [ "PG15491.B00289", "PG15491.B00290" ], "finding": "Colour persists across light direction, source size and shadow arrangements; this is called a crucial experiment because it negates supposed necessary conditions of a Cartesian account. Negative exclusion is identified before the separate task of finding a positive cause.", "disposition": "candidate disproving necessity without establishing replacement" }, { "refs": [ "PG15491.B00291", "PG15491.B00292", "PG15491.B00293", "PG15491.B00294", "PG15491.B00295" ], "finding": "Hooke builds a motion account of luminosity from heterogeneous examples and credited reports, declines to rely on inadequately described will-o'-the-wisp reports, and notes that neither conspicuous motion nor tangible heat is a sufficient or necessary observable accompaniment of shining. Several biological explanations remain conjectural.", "disposition": "preserve provenance and counterexamples; compare heat-versus-brightness application" } ] }, { "packet": 11, "path": "inspection/packets/pg15491/011.txt", "firstRef": "PG15491.B00296", "lastRef": "PG15491.B00322", "refs": [ "PG15491.B00296", "PG15491.B00297", "PG15491.B00298", "PG15491.B00299", "PG15491.B00300", "PG15491.B00301", "PG15491.B00302", "PG15491.B00303", "PG15491.B00304", "PG15491.B00305", "PG15491.B00306", "PG15491.B00307", "PG15491.B00308", "PG15491.B00309", "PG15491.B00310", "PG15491.B00311", "PG15491.B00312", "PG15491.B00313", "PG15491.B00314", "PG15491.B00315", "PG15491.B00316", "PG15491.B00317", "PG15491.B00318", "PG15491.B00319", "PG15491.B00320", "PG15491.B00321", "PG15491.B00322" ], "bytes": 26144, "sha256": "8ef39399a54d2eaeaceba03c3c14ab5af773fd74d853c82ef329aaa7761512fa", "synopsis": "Hooke infers fast short vibrations as the source of light, rejects unsupported claims of instantaneous propagation, and develops an oblique-pulse colour theory with refraction and rainbow calculations. He attacks Cartesian rotation on transmission and prediction grounds, while distinguishing direct-eye from screen colour order and treating his own account as a hypothesis.", "observations": [ { "refs": [ "PG15491.B00296", "PG15491.B00297", "PG15491.B00298", "PG15491.B00299" ], "finding": "The motion theory narrows to rapid short vibration by excluding proposed motions incompatible with diamond persistence and rigidity; those exclusions depend on Hooke's assumptions and do not constitute direct viewing of molecular motion.", "disposition": "preserve historical inference and hypothesis status" }, { "refs": [ "PG15491.B00300", "PG15491.B00301" ], "finding": "Apparent coincidence of solar rising or occultation with seeing is not evidence of instantaneous propagation when event timing has no independent access. Hooke distinguishes unobservably short delay from demonstrated zero delay and admits limited detection methods.", "disposition": "candidate unresolvable delay is not simultaneity" }, { "refs": [ "PG15491.B00302", "PG15491.B00303", "PG15491.B00304", "PG15491.B00305" ], "finding": "Optical density is explicitly separated from weight density; the pulse/refraction construction assumes different ease and strength of transmission and infers obliquity. Diagrams are referenced but absent from this indexed-text inspection.", "disposition": "apply measurement-property distinction; restrict geometric claims to prose" }, { "refs": [ "PG15491.B00306", "PG15491.B00307", "PG15491.B00308" ], "finding": "Hooke explains spectrum borders through two principal colours, dilution, overlap and boundary resistance, adding a speculative preference for green. This is his historical two-colour account, not Newton's differential refrangibility theory.", "disposition": "preserve substantive cross-book theoretical disagreement" }, { "refs": [ "PG15491.B00309", "PG15491.B00310", "PG15491.B00311", "PG15491.B00312", "PG15491.B00313", "PG15491.B00314", "PG15491.B00315", "PG15491.B00316" ], "finding": "Refraction/reflection geometry and the difficulty of transmitting alternating rotations are used against Cartesian colours; inability of a rival to fit a case does not independently certify Hooke's replacement, which he calls perhaps the cause.", "disposition": "candidate cause transmission constraints; preserve rival/replacement evidential asymmetry" }, { "refs": [ "PG15491.B00317", "PG15491.B00318", "PG15491.B00319", "PG15491.B00320", "PG15491.B00321", "PG15491.B00322" ], "finding": "Numerical ray calculations claim colour-order agreement, while a direct eye and an intervening paper can display contrary orders without contradiction because the observation arrangements differ. Detailed pulse mechanics are inferred and figure-dependent.", "disposition": "candidate observation arrangement indexes apparent contradiction; no independent mathematical verification" } ] }, { "packet": 12, "path": "inspection/packets/pg15491/012.txt", "firstRef": "PG15491.B00323", "lastRef": "PG15491.B00356", "refs": [ "PG15491.B00323", "PG15491.B00324", "PG15491.B00325", "PG15491.B00326", "PG15491.B00327", "PG15491.B00328", "PG15491.B00329", "PG15491.B00330", "PG15491.B00331", "PG15491.B00332", "PG15491.B00333", "PG15491.B00334", "PG15491.B00335", "PG15491.B00336", "PG15491.B00337", "PG15491.B00338", "PG15491.B00339", "PG15491.B00340", "PG15491.B00341", "PG15491.B00342", "PG15491.B00343", "PG15491.B00344", "PG15491.B00345", "PG15491.B00346", "PG15491.B00347", "PG15491.B00348", "PG15491.B00349", "PG15491.B00350", "PG15491.B00351", "PG15491.B00352", "PG15491.B00353", "PG15491.B00354", "PG15491.B00355", "PG15491.B00356" ], "bytes": 26891, "sha256": "9fb64aaecdb83fddd48665444b1a2aab05673b526283b06e730e95f8def3a31e", "synopsis": "The oblique-pulse account is extended to retinal impressions, thin-film colours and tinctures. Hooke expressly calls the film diagram wholly hypothetical because thickness remains unmeasured, while claiming broad explanatory reach. He lists several possible routes to chemical colour change and answers a red/yellow counterexample by appeal to unachieved finer division.", "observations": [ { "refs": [ "PG15491.B00323", "PG15491.B00324", "PG15491.B00325", "PG15491.B00326", "PG15491.B00327", "PG15491.B00328" ], "finding": "Red and blue are defined as different temporal strengths of hypothetical retinal pulses, and boundary illumination is said to determine whether latent ray colours appear. This sensory-mechanical model is not an observation of retinal dynamics.", "disposition": "preserve historical perceptual theory and distinction from observed colour" }, { "refs": [ "PG15491.B00329", "PG15491.B00330", "PG15491.B00331", "PG15491.B00332", "PG15491.B00333", "PG15491.B00334", "PG15491.B00335", "PG15491.B00336", "PG15491.B00337", "PG15491.B00338", "PG15491.B00339" ], "finding": "Colour constraints are stated from positive and negative tests, but the plate diagram is wholly hypothetical: actual thickness is below measurement ability. Periodic colour sequences are explained by delayed secondary pulses without measured limiting thicknesses.", "disposition": "candidate demonstrative enlargement versus measured scale; preserve unresolved quantitative requirement" }, { "refs": [ "PG15491.B00342", "PG15491.B00343", "PG15491.B00344", "PG15491.B00345", "PG15491.B00346", "PG15491.B00347", "PG15491.B00348" ], "finding": "The two-colour theory assumes dispersed equal-sized tinging particles and a regular arrangement, extending surface optics into volume colour. The arrangement and pulse delay are posited; figure shape is declared less important than differential refraction.", "disposition": "preserve assumptions and theory extension, not established particle structure" }, { "refs": [ "PG15491.B00349", "PG15491.B00350", "PG15491.B00351", "PG15491.B00352" ], "finding": "Boyle's acid/alkali observations are credited. The same macroscopic colour change could follow altered medium, altered particles, removal of associated matter, finer dissolution or aggregation; trials must separate these proposed routes.", "disposition": "candidate nonunique chemical colour endpoint; compare checked same-outcome/different-causes" }, { "refs": [ "PG15491.B00353", "PG15491.B00354", "PG15491.B00355", "PG15491.B00356" ], "finding": "Hooke acknowledges red substances that do not dilute to yellow as the strongest objection, gives saffron's concentration/path-length response, and suggests unsuccessful division may hide a faint yellow. The reply preserves possibility rather than demonstrating the missing result.", "disposition": "retain adverse instance and untested auxiliary hypothesis; avoid treating defence as resolution" } ] }, { "packet": 13, "path": "inspection/packets/pg15491/013.txt", "firstRef": "PG15491.B00357", "lastRef": "PG15491.B00395", "refs": [ "PG15491.B00357", "PG15491.B00358", "PG15491.B00359", "PG15491.B00360", "PG15491.B00361", "PG15491.B00362", "PG15491.B00363", "PG15491.B00364", "PG15491.B00365", "PG15491.B00366", "PG15491.B00367", "PG15491.B00368", "PG15491.B00369", "PG15491.B00370", "PG15491.B00371", "PG15491.B00372", "PG15491.B00373", "PG15491.B00374", "PG15491.B00375", "PG15491.B00376", "PG15491.B00377", "PG15491.B00378", "PG15491.B00379", "PG15491.B00380", "PG15491.B00381", "PG15491.B00382", "PG15491.B00383", "PG15491.B00384", "PG15491.B00385", "PG15491.B00386", "PG15491.B00387", "PG15491.B00388", "PG15491.B00389", "PG15491.B00390", "PG15491.B00391", "PG15491.B00392", "PG15491.B00393", "PG15491.B00394", "PG15491.B00395" ], "bytes": 26494, "sha256": "c2015d732eeb3ff9e56094ec2ebb77e8beceb7d1f06f2e7f4b7590d816fc08fd", "synopsis": "Microscopic pigment observations qualify the two-colour argument, including inferred transparency and damage-induced opacity. Coloured wedges test path length and fail to produce expected colours in series; separately mixed beams give a different result. Hooke distinguishes dilution/deepening from whitening/darkening, microscopic constituents from perceptual mixture, and apparatus opacity from material opacity.", "observations": [ { "refs": [ "PG15491.B00357", "PG15491.B00358", "PG15491.B00359", "PG15491.B00360", "PG15491.B00361", "PG15491.B00362", "PG15491.B00363", "PG15491.B00364", "PG15491.B00365" ], "finding": "Grinding can reduce particle size, introduce flaws and change colour; inability to dilute some pigments is defended by inaccessible constituent scale. Observed leaf-gold transmission and analogous transparent compounds support, but do not establish, universal microscopic transparency.", "disposition": "preserve observed/inferred scale distinction and auxiliary defence" }, { "refs": [ "PG15491.B00366", "PG15491.B00367", "PG15491.B00368", "PG15491.B00369", "PG15491.B00370", "PG15491.B00371" ], "finding": "Wedges vary optical path length continuously. Expected colours fail when unlike coloured liquids are stacked, although equal-colour stacks transmit; separately transmitted rays combined on paper give different results. Hooke reports misguessing yet retains a broad two-colour conclusion.", "disposition": "candidate serial filtering versus combined illumination; preserve failure and theoretical overreach" }, { "refs": [ "PG15491.B00372", "PG15491.B00373", "PG15491.B00374", "PG15491.B00375", "PG15491.B00376", "PG15491.B00377" ], "finding": "Diluting/deepening changes the amount of tinging material traversed; whitening/darkening adds untinted reflections or dark interruptions. Grinding-tool contamination is considered and varied, while wetting can suppress white surface reflection and deepen appearance.", "disposition": "candidate dilution versus whitening; reuse control of preparation artifacts" }, { "refs": [ "PG15491.B00378", "PG15491.B00379", "PG15491.B00380", "PG15491.B00381", "PG15491.B00382", "PG15491.B00383", "PG15491.B00384", "PG15491.B00385", "PG15491.B00386", "PG15491.B00387", "PG15491.B00388", "PG15491.B00389", "PG15491.B00390", "PG15491.B00391", "PG15491.B00392" ], "finding": "Frothing, cracking and layering multiply interfaces, making transparent material collectively opaque and whiter. Painters need multiple pigment degrees because their operations cannot freely alter constituent thickness; apparent purple can resolve into unchanged red and blue particles under the microscope.", "disposition": "candidate ensemble appearance without constituent transformation; retain attributed craft and period materials" }, { "refs": [ "PG15491.B00393", "PG15491.B00394", "PG15491.B00395" ], "finding": "Universal transparency remains a query extrapolated beyond observations. Aperture, illumination and excessive magnification can make known transparent bodies appear opaque; dye chemistry is set aside where microscopy supplies little information.", "disposition": "candidate apparatus-produced negative appearance; retain instrument's disciplinary limit" } ] }, { "packet": 14, "path": "inspection/packets/pg15491/014.txt", "firstRef": "PG15491.B00396", "lastRef": "PG15491.B00441", "refs": [ "PG15491.B00396", "PG15491.B00397", "PG15491.B00398", "PG15491.B00399", "PG15491.B00400", "PG15491.B00401", "PG15491.B00402", "PG15491.B00403", "PG15491.B00404", "PG15491.B00405", "PG15491.B00406", "PG15491.B00407", "PG15491.B00408", "PG15491.B00409", "PG15491.B00410", "PG15491.B00411", "PG15491.B00412", "PG15491.B00413", "PG15491.B00414", "PG15491.B00415", "PG15491.B00416", "PG15491.B00417", "PG15491.B00418", "PG15491.B00419", "PG15491.B00420", "PG15491.B00421", "PG15491.B00422", "PG15491.B00423", "PG15491.B00424", "PG15491.B00425", "PG15491.B00426", "PG15491.B00427", "PG15491.B00428", "PG15491.B00429", "PG15491.B00430", "PG15491.B00431", "PG15491.B00432", "PG15491.B00433", "PG15491.B00434", "PG15491.B00435", "PG15491.B00436", "PG15491.B00437", "PG15491.B00438", "PG15491.B00439", "PG15491.B00440", "PG15491.B00441" ], "bytes": 27108, "sha256": "7e7f89cfc0964c96b3e60958adff13c1eadb443108b93c0da4d8415a516f053c", "synopsis": "Sand, urinary gravel and crystals broaden microscopic description, with chance finds, uncertain identity and physiological extrapolation kept distinct. Boundary substitutions test internal reflection and opacity. Crystal-shape models using packed globules motivate an explicitly unfinished programme combining specimen provenance, controlled formation trials and comparison of possible causes.", "observations": [ { "refs": [ "PG15491.B00396" ], "finding": "Hooke credits Boyle's colour rules while redescribing their agreement through his pulse hypothesis.", "disposition": "retain attribution and separate replicated report from explanation" }, { "refs": [ "PG15491.B00399", "PG15491.B00400", "PG15491.B00401", "PG15491.B00402", "PG15491.B00403", "PG15491.B00404" ], "finding": "Sand varies greatly and includes a chance microscopic spiral shell that cannot be relocated by a general collection instruction. Multiple views establish shape, but hollowness and petrification remain uncertain; rarity is retained despite weak reproducibility.", "disposition": "candidate informative singular specimen versus reproducible sampling; preserve naming limits" }, { "refs": [ "PG15491.B00407", "PG15491.B00408", "PG15491.B00409", "PG15491.B00410", "PG15491.B00411", "PG15491.B00412" ], "finding": "Urinary gravel is measured and its figure and dissolving responses described. A possible stone treatment is explicitly a physician's research question contingent on not harming the bladder, not an established intervention.", "disposition": "preserve distinction between ex-vivo dissolution and suitable treatment; no medical guidance" }, { "refs": [ "PG15491.B00415", "PG15491.B00416", "PG15491.B00417", "PG15491.B00418", "PG15491.B00419", "PG15491.B00420", "PG15491.B00421" ], "finding": "Larger comparable crystals substitute for inaccessible tiny ones. Replacing the adjacent air with water, skin contact or mercury changes internal reflection; geometry and adjacent medium enter the explanation, with discovery reports attributed.", "disposition": "candidate accessible analogue with comparability limits; reuse boundary-dependent optics" }, { "refs": [ "PG15491.B00422", "PG15491.B00423", "PG15491.B00424", "PG15491.B00425", "PG15491.B00426", "PG15491.B00427" ], "finding": "Powders, froth, paper and marble illustrate optical effects of internal interfaces; replacing pore air can reduce whiteness and increase visibility. Broad atmospheric extensions are suggestions left to others, not completed tests.", "disposition": "candidate interface-made opacity; preserve prospective scope" }, { "refs": [ "PG15491.B00428", "PG15491.B00429", "PG15491.B00430" ], "finding": "Packed globules imitate regular crystal figures, but Hooke has not established the physical globules or process joining them. Geometric construction supplies a possible formation model without complete mechanism evidence.", "disposition": "candidate structural imitation versus identified generative process" }, { "refs": [ "PG15491.B00431", "PG15491.B00432", "PG15491.B00433", "PG15491.B00434", "PG15491.B00435", "PG15491.B00436", "PG15491.B00437", "PG15491.B00438", "PG15491.B00439", "PG15491.B00440", "PG15491.B00441" ], "finding": "An unfinished programme distinguishes descriptive histories and provenance, formation/manipulation tests, enumeration of possible causes, selection of the most likely, and demonstration only if information permits.", "disposition": "candidate evidential stages from possibility to necessity; preserve unperformed status" } ] }, { "packet": 15, "path": "inspection/packets/pg15491/015.txt", "firstRef": "PG15491.B00442", "lastRef": "PG15491.B00500", "refs": [ "PG15491.B00442", "PG15491.B00443", "PG15491.B00444", "PG15491.B00445", "PG15491.B00446", "PG15491.B00447", "PG15491.B00448", "PG15491.B00449", "PG15491.B00450", "PG15491.B00451", "PG15491.B00452", "PG15491.B00453", "PG15491.B00454", "PG15491.B00455", "PG15491.B00456", "PG15491.B00457", "PG15491.B00458", "PG15491.B00459", "PG15491.B00460", "PG15491.B00461", "PG15491.B00462", "PG15491.B00463", "PG15491.B00464", "PG15491.B00465", "PG15491.B00466", "PG15491.B00467", "PG15491.B00468", "PG15491.B00469", "PG15491.B00470", "PG15491.B00471", "PG15491.B00472", "PG15491.B00473", "PG15491.B00474", "PG15491.B00475", "PG15491.B00476", "PG15491.B00477", "PG15491.B00478", "PG15491.B00479", "PG15491.B00480", "PG15491.B00481", "PG15491.B00482", "PG15491.B00483", "PG15491.B00484", "PG15491.B00485", "PG15491.B00486", "PG15491.B00487", "PG15491.B00488", "PG15491.B00489", "PG15491.B00490", "PG15491.B00491", "PG15491.B00492", "PG15491.B00493", "PG15491.B00494", "PG15491.B00495", "PG15491.B00496", "PG15491.B00497", "PG15491.B00498", "PG15491.B00499", "PG15491.B00500" ], "bytes": 27017, "sha256": "93f99b7ddd35724a4ccbcbebb973f7e602851d78f5f335678de97f392ca63b6f", "synopsis": "The crystal programme promises comparative knowledge through manipulable formation. Detailed frost, snow and ice observations combine regular branch relations with departures and preparation limits. Kettering stone supplies visible grains and tested through-pores, while its formation remains conjectural without site evidence; Hooke distinguishes inanimate porosity from purposive organic channels.", "observations": [ { "refs": [ "PG15491.B00442", "PG15491.B00443", "PG15491.B00486" ], "finding": "Generating and destroying forms supplies comparative information; Hooke envisages staged ascent from minerals to vegetation and animals, requiring new investigative instruments when existing steps exceed reach.", "disposition": "preserve proposed research ordering and epistemic-tool application" }, { "refs": [ "PG15491.B00446", "PG15491.B00447", "PG15491.B00450", "PG15491.B00451", "PG15491.B00452", "PG15491.B00453", "PG15491.B00454", "PG15491.B00455", "PG15491.B00456", "PG15491.B00457", "PG15491.B00458", "PG15491.B00459", "PG15491.B00460", "PG15491.B00461", "PG15491.B00462", "PG15491.B00463", "PG15491.B00464", "PG15491.B00465" ], "finding": "Frost observations separate kinds, uneven placement, branch hierarchy and approximate angular regularity. No sensible measured variation from sixty degrees is distinguished from geometric reasons to expect a small difference; tasting and metallurgical parallels remain historical reports.", "disposition": "candidate resolution-limited equality; preserve granular descriptive inventory" }, { "refs": [ "PG15491.B00466", "PG15491.B00467", "PG15491.B00468", "PG15491.B00469", "PG15491.B00470", "PG15491.B00471", "PG15491.B00472" ], "finding": "Fern resemblance prompts a speculative non-seminal formation analogy despite inability to find seed. Frozen forms require limited disturbance and observation before later freezing destroys them; artificial cooling is not interchangeable with exposure under all conditions.", "disposition": "preserve analogy limits and observation-window conditions" }, { "refs": [ "PG15491.B00475", "PG15491.B00476", "PG15491.B00477", "PG15491.B00478", "PG15491.B00479", "PG15491.B00482", "PG15491.B00483", "PG15491.B00484", "PG15491.B00485" ], "finding": "Snowflakes show within-flake conformity alongside between-flake variety; drawings are coarse due to cold and poor equipment. Microscopic irregularities are attributed to thawing and impact, while perfect original form remains conjectured rather than observed. Ice growth follows several described geometries.", "disposition": "candidate acquisition changes specimen; retain natural-perfection commitment and untested rescue" }, { "refs": [ "PG15491.B00489", "PG15491.B00490", "PG15491.B00491", "PG15491.B00492", "PG15491.B00493", "PG15491.B00494", "PG15491.B00495", "PG15491.B00496", "PG15491.B00497", "PG15491.B00498", "PG15491.B00499" ], "finding": "Kettering stone has layered globular grains, strong aggregate contacts and continuous permeability confirmed by a sealed-path blowing trial. Visible texture suggests a fluid origin, but Hooke expressly lacks a site visit and geological circumstances to determine generation.", "disposition": "candidate morphology versus connected transport; retain provenance limit" }, { "refs": [ "PG15491.B00500" ], "finding": "Equal multidirectional mineral permeability contrasts with hypothesized directed organic channels and valves; the latter is embedded in a creator-design explanation rather than established from this stone.", "disposition": "preserve theological and comparative distinction" } ] }, { "packet": 16, "path": "inspection/packets/pg15491/016.txt", "firstRef": "PG15491.B00501", "lastRef": "PG15491.B00559", "refs": [ "PG15491.B00501", "PG15491.B00502", "PG15491.B00503", "PG15491.B00504", "PG15491.B00505", "PG15491.B00506", "PG15491.B00507", "PG15491.B00508", "PG15491.B00509", "PG15491.B00510", "PG15491.B00511", "PG15491.B00512", "PG15491.B00513", "PG15491.B00514", "PG15491.B00515", "PG15491.B00516", "PG15491.B00517", "PG15491.B00518", "PG15491.B00519", "PG15491.B00520", "PG15491.B00521", "PG15491.B00522", "PG15491.B00523", "PG15491.B00524", "PG15491.B00525", "PG15491.B00526", "PG15491.B00527", "PG15491.B00528", "PG15491.B00529", "PG15491.B00530", "PG15491.B00531", "PG15491.B00532", "PG15491.B00533", "PG15491.B00534", "PG15491.B00535", "PG15491.B00536", "PG15491.B00537", "PG15491.B00538", "PG15491.B00539", "PG15491.B00540", "PG15491.B00541", "PG15491.B00542", "PG15491.B00543", "PG15491.B00544", "PG15491.B00545", "PG15491.B00546", "PG15491.B00547", "PG15491.B00548", "PG15491.B00549", "PG15491.B00550", "PG15491.B00551", "PG15491.B00552", "PG15491.B00553", "PG15491.B00554", "PG15491.B00555", "PG15491.B00556", "PG15491.B00557", "PG15491.B00558", "PG15491.B00559" ], "bytes": 26638, "sha256": "cbfd585ce63ecc98997c113e7254da0992dbd611d06c934e059ef55fabe57732", "synopsis": "A speculative ether model is followed by independent evidence of invisible porosity, including Goddard's quantitative wetting/drying observations. Charcoal's preserved channels are inspected and counted; preparation separates heating from access to air. Hooke proposes combustion as activated dissolution by an aerial constituent, with smoke, soot and ash differentiated within a historical chemical model.", "observations": [ { "refs": [ "PG15491.B00501", "PG15491.B00502", "PG15491.B00503", "PG15491.B00504", "PG15491.B00505", "PG15491.B00506", "PG15491.B00507", "PG15491.B00508", "PG15491.B00509" ], "finding": "Ether properties are posited at a level meant sufficient for optical explanation while particle figure and vacuities are left undetermined. Tangible fluids as solutions in ether are analogical conjectures, with one smoke analogy explicitly deficient in persistence.", "disposition": "preserve model sufficiency versus unsupported microscopic detail" }, { "refs": [ "PG15491.B00510", "PG15491.B00511", "PG15491.B00512", "PG15491.B00513", "PG15491.B00514" ], "finding": "Penetrating stains reveal pores invisible even in polished marble; freshly fractured surfaces expose holes that dust or scraping can conceal. Specimen preparation changes discoverability.", "disposition": "candidate functional evidence beyond visual resolution; preparation-artifact application" }, { "refs": [ "PG15491.B00515", "PG15491.B00516", "PG15491.B00517", "PG15491.B00518", "PG15491.B00519", "PG15491.B00520", "PG15491.B00521", "PG15491.B00522", "PG15491.B00523", "PG15491.B00524", "PG15491.B00525", "PG15491.B00526", "PG15491.B00527", "PG15491.B00528", "PG15491.B00529" ], "finding": "Goddard's separately attributed record compares weight and transparency across wetting and drying, including a stone that gains more weight without conspicuous clarification and no extra uptake from hot immersion. Optical appearance is therefore not a universal measure of absorbed quantity.", "disposition": "candidate response indicators can dissociate; preserve numerical documentary evidence" }, { "refs": [ "PG15491.B00530", "PG15491.B00531", "PG15491.B00532", "PG15491.B00533", "PG15491.B00534" ], "finding": "Corrosion and uptake extend porosity claims, but passage of light alone admits rival pulse-transmission explanations; Hooke attacks Mersenne through consequences for colour rather than simply equating transparency with pores.", "disposition": "retain rival models and inferential limits" }, { "refs": [ "PG15491.B00537", "PG15491.B00538", "PG15491.B00539", "PG15491.B00540", "PG15491.B00541", "PG15491.B00542", "PG15491.B00543", "PG15491.B00544", "PG15491.B00545", "PG15491.B00546" ], "finding": "Charcoal has differently sized channels; through-sections test openness and a counted line is extrapolated to millions per area. Black pore interiors and shining solid edges coexist; general counts depend on geometric extrapolation and material variation.", "disposition": "candidate same surface dark and specular; preserve sampling-to-area assumptions" }, { "refs": [ "PG15491.B00547", "PG15491.B00548", "PG15491.B00549", "PG15491.B00550", "PG15491.B00551", "PG15491.B00552", "PG15491.B00553", "PG15491.B00554", "PG15491.B00555", "PG15491.B00556", "PG15491.B00557", "PG15491.B00558", "PG15491.B00559" ], "finding": "Heating while excluding air leaves combustible charcoal; access and activation heat are distinct requirements in Hooke's account. A particular aerial constituent, soot fractions and nonvolatile ash form a speculative dissolution theory; claims of unique adequacy exceed direct observations.", "disposition": "reuse combustion-support, activation and product distinctions; preserve historical chemistry and overclaim" } ] }, { "packet": 17, "path": "inspection/packets/pg15491/017.txt", "firstRef": "PG15491.B00560", "lastRef": "PG15491.B00597", "refs": [ "PG15491.B00560", "PG15491.B00561", "PG15491.B00562", "PG15491.B00563", "PG15491.B00564", "PG15491.B00565", "PG15491.B00566", "PG15491.B00567", "PG15491.B00568", "PG15491.B00569", "PG15491.B00570", "PG15491.B00571", "PG15491.B00572", "PG15491.B00573", "PG15491.B00574", "PG15491.B00575", "PG15491.B00576", "PG15491.B00577", "PG15491.B00578", "PG15491.B00579", "PG15491.B00580", "PG15491.B00581", "PG15491.B00582", "PG15491.B00583", "PG15491.B00584", "PG15491.B00585", "PG15491.B00586", "PG15491.B00587", "PG15491.B00588", "PG15491.B00589", "PG15491.B00590", "PG15491.B00591", "PG15491.B00592", "PG15491.B00593", "PG15491.B00594", "PG15491.B00595", "PG15491.B00596", "PG15491.B00597" ], "bytes": 27129, "sha256": "b9a8cb41c4035a2444abe93a53b4665313d12f67f438182e19fff663bcbff9ab", "synopsis": "Air supply and depletion complete the combustion sketch. Fossil wood is compared microscopically with modern charcoal, and petrified wood is examined through both retained structure and changed physical behavior. Shell fossils provide compound evidence for organic templates, successive filling and transport instead of a free-standing plastic virtue, with theological premises and unresolved histories retained.", "observations": [ { "refs": [ "PG15491.B00560", "PG15491.B00561", "PG15491.B00562", "PG15491.B00563" ], "finding": "Fresh-air replenishment sustains reaction after a confined parcel is exhausted; heat alone is insufficient. Flame ascent is explained through relative lightness rather than elemental appetite. Further respiration work and complete experimental support are promised, not supplied here.", "disposition": "reuse replenishment, activation and buoyancy applications; retain incomplete support" }, { "refs": [ "PG15491.B00563", "PG15491.B00564" ], "finding": "Attributed fossil wood charred with permission preserves fine channels resembling fir; Hooke reverses the proposed direction of transformation from earth-to-wood to buried wood altered by its surroundings, while listing several possible processes.", "disposition": "candidate directional history constrained by retained organization; preserve provenance" }, { "refs": [ "PG15491.B00567", "PG15491.B00568", "PG15491.B00569", "PG15491.B00570", "PG15491.B00571", "PG15491.B00572" ], "finding": "Rotten modern wood is a comparison for petrified pore size; differing preparation may contract charcoal. The printed pore images are explicitly not directly comparable in size because one microscope magnifies over six times more in diameter.", "disposition": "candidate cross-image scale correction; preparation-history application" }, { "refs": [ "PG15491.B00573", "PG15491.B00574", "PG15491.B00575", "PG15491.B00576", "PG15491.B00577", "PG15491.B00578", "PG15491.B00579", "PG15491.B00580", "PG15491.B00581", "PG15491.B00582" ], "finding": "Petrified wood preserves spatial pore organization while differing in density, hardness, burning, flexibility and feel; changed illumination shows dark pore-shaped regions may be filled material, not open holes. Bubbles in acid have more than one possible source.", "disposition": "candidate retained form with changed material; dark-region ambiguity and multicausal endpoint applications" }, { "refs": [ "PG15491.B00583", "PG15491.B00584", "PG15491.B00585", "PG15491.B00586", "PG15491.B00587", "PG15491.B00588" ], "finding": "Mineral entry and retention are proposed to explain altered properties, but filtration, precipitation, cohesion and coagulation remain alternative routes; remaining wood within mineral is inferred.", "disposition": "preserve mechanism uncertainty and separate observations from reconstruction" }, { "refs": [ "PG15491.B00589", "PG15491.B00590", "PG15491.B00591", "PG15491.B00592", "PG15491.B00593", "PG15491.B00594", "PG15491.B00595" ], "finding": "Shell evidence includes varied infill, external and internal molds, surviving shell/partitions and damage-shaped surfaces without corresponding stone fractures. Multiple fillings suggest possible successive locations. The organic-origin account challenges plastic virtue but also invokes purposeful nature and calls for contextual collections to settle history.", "disposition": "candidate template damage versus later-body fracture, and distinct filling episodes; retain theological premise and conjectural transport" } ] }, { "packet": 18, "path": "inspection/packets/pg15491/018.txt", "firstRef": "PG15491.B00598", "lastRef": "PG15491.B00644", "refs": [ "PG15491.B00598", "PG15491.B00599", "PG15491.B00600", "PG15491.B00601", "PG15491.B00602", "PG15491.B00603", "PG15491.B00604", "PG15491.B00605", "PG15491.B00606", "PG15491.B00607", "PG15491.B00608", "PG15491.B00609", "PG15491.B00610", "PG15491.B00611", "PG15491.B00612", "PG15491.B00613", "PG15491.B00614", "PG15491.B00615", "PG15491.B00616", "PG15491.B00617", "PG15491.B00618", "PG15491.B00619", "PG15491.B00620", "PG15491.B00621", "PG15491.B00622", "PG15491.B00623", "PG15491.B00624", "PG15491.B00625", "PG15491.B00626", "PG15491.B00627", "PG15491.B00628", "PG15491.B00629", "PG15491.B00630", "PG15491.B00631", "PG15491.B00632", "PG15491.B00633", "PG15491.B00634", "PG15491.B00635", "PG15491.B00636", "PG15491.B00637", "PG15491.B00638", "PG15491.B00639", "PG15491.B00640", "PG15491.B00641", "PG15491.B00642", "PG15491.B00643", "PG15491.B00644" ], "bytes": 26903, "sha256": "80b3e84e033aebb278b06319141aff3c42f3d42ab426b41c8bcf79cd2c3e1014", "synopsis": "Cork sections expose closed cells and invite explanations of lightness, impermeability and recovery; comparison extends to plant and feather pith with explicit negative-detection limits. A dated Royal Society sensitive-plant account records interventions, sequences, recovery and environmental differences, followed by competing conjectures. Rose-leaf growths are provisionally classified by developmental appearances without observed seeds.", "observations": [ { "refs": [ "PG15491.B00598", "PG15491.B00599", "PG15491.B00600", "PG15491.B00601", "PG15491.B00602", "PG15491.B00603", "PG15491.B00604", "PG15491.B00605", "PG15491.B00606", "PG15491.B00607" ], "finding": "An inconclusive surface view becomes informative through thin section, contrasting backing and illumination. Cork's partitioned cavities distinguish porosity from through-permeability; enclosed air and wall elasticity are proposed jointly for recovery. Large cell totals extrapolate from line counts, not enumeration.", "disposition": "candidate closed porosity versus connectivity; preparation and extrapolation applications" }, { "refs": [ "PG15491.B00608", "PG15491.B00609", "PG15491.B00610", "PG15491.B00611", "PG15491.B00612" ], "finding": "Section direction helps distinguish long partitioned pores from foam-like isolated cavities. Failure to see or blow through connecting passages does not prove their absence; observed juices and unobserved valves leave transport mechanisms unsettled. Cork-origin conjecture relies partly on attributed botanical history.", "disposition": "candidate orthogonal section discrimination; retain detection limit and historical classification" }, { "refs": [ "PG15491.B00613", "PG15491.B00614", "PG15491.B00615", "PG15491.B00616", "PG15491.B00617", "PG15491.B00618", "PG15491.B00619", "PG15491.B00620", "PG15491.B00621", "PG15491.B00622" ], "finding": "The sensitive-plant account is separately attributed to Clark and named observers, dated and located; it distinguishes plant forms, branch age, articulation and response type before intervention reports.", "disposition": "preserve documentary voice and differentiated experimental subjects" }, { "refs": [ "PG15491.B00623", "PG15491.B00624", "PG15491.B00625", "PG15491.B00626", "PG15491.B00627", "PG15491.B00628", "PG15491.B00629", "PG15491.B00630", "PG15491.B00631", "PG15491.B00632" ], "finding": "Local stimulation has a sequential spread; later inspection distinguishes reversible closure from local tissue death. Removing a cover has different effects in cold and warm conditions; failed smoke delivery changes when contact is achieved; exudation depends on prior leaf state.", "disposition": "candidate immediate response versus later damage and state-conditioned intervention; preserve historical procedure scope" }, { "refs": [ "PG15491.B00633", "PG15491.B00634", "PG15491.B00635" ], "finding": "Clark offers a tentative hydraulic account and sensation claim subject to correction; Hooke then withholds fuller observations pending adequate trials and distinguishes these motions from hygroscopic fibers.", "disposition": "preserve distinct authors, cautious commitment and rival mechanisms" }, { "refs": [ "PG15491.B00638", "PG15491.B00639", "PG15491.B00640", "PG15491.B00641", "PG15491.B00642", "PG15491.B00643", "PG15491.B00644" ], "finding": "Rose-leaf structures could be plants, buds or insect eggs; apparent growth stages support the plant reading, but no seeds or hollow cods are seen. Seed size and dispersal purpose are conditional extrapolations, and the figure deliberately omits irrelevant leaf detail.", "disposition": "candidate cross-sectional developmental sequence with limits; retain selective depiction and uncertainty" } ] }, { "packet": 19, "path": "inspection/packets/pg15491/019.txt", "firstRef": "PG15491.B00645", "lastRef": "PG15491.B00676", "refs": [ "PG15491.B00645", "PG15491.B00646", "PG15491.B00647", "PG15491.B00648", "PG15491.B00649", "PG15491.B00650", "PG15491.B00651", "PG15491.B00652", "PG15491.B00653", "PG15491.B00654", "PG15491.B00655", "PG15491.B00656", "PG15491.B00657", "PG15491.B00658", "PG15491.B00659", "PG15491.B00660", "PG15491.B00661", "PG15491.B00662", "PG15491.B00663", "PG15491.B00664", "PG15491.B00665", "PG15491.B00666", "PG15491.B00667", "PG15491.B00668", "PG15491.B00669", "PG15491.B00670", "PG15491.B00671", "PG15491.B00672", "PG15491.B00673", "PG15491.B00674", "PG15491.B00675", "PG15491.B00676" ], "bytes": 26425, "sha256": "eacfb450ad953387d180da94f339bec0867319653f5a22f006e76bf94175a0f7", "synopsis": "Hooke advances tentative spontaneous-generation and component-survival accounts for small organisms while admitting absent direct evidence and possible eggs or other hidden inputs. Mould morphology is described before a proposed research ladder from physical forms to life. Candle deposits and mineral dripstones supply mechanical analogues for mushroom shape, explicitly short of a demonstrated biological theory.", "observations": [ { "refs": [ "PG15491.B00645", "PG15491.B00646", "PG15491.B00647", "PG15491.B00648", "PG15491.B00649", "PG15491.B00650", "PG15491.B00651", "PG15491.B00652", "PG15491.B00653" ], "finding": "Rose-leaf growths, mistletoe and vermin are interpreted through decay liberating simpler mechanisms, with acknowledged reliance on unconfirmed authors. Hidden animal matter and insect eggs remain alternatives. The clock-with-independent-chimes analogy distinguishes destruction of a composite from survival of component activity, embedded in a creator-design account of species propagation.", "disposition": "candidate component autonomy after whole-system failure only as abstract analogy; preserve spontaneous-generation speculation and alternatives" }, { "refs": [ "PG15491.B00656", "PG15491.B00657", "PG15491.B00658", "PG15491.B00659" ], "finding": "Book-cover mould has distinct stalks, varied heads and uncertain internal contents. Its persistence through brief flame passages contradicts Hooke's expectation of easy destruction; morphology does not establish seedlessness or origin.", "disposition": "preserve descriptive findings, failed prediction and unobserved contents" }, { "refs": [ "PG15491.B00660", "PG15491.B00661", "PG15491.B00662", "PG15491.B00663", "PG15491.B00664", "PG15491.B00665" ], "finding": "A hierarchy from fluidity through crystallization to sensation and imagination is proposed, not demonstrated. Mushroom generation without seed relies on inability to find seed and an explicitly second-hand report through Parkinson of Mathiolus; artificial mineral growth supplies only resemblance.", "disposition": "retain evidential weakness and chain of attribution rather than endorsing biogenesis" }, { "refs": [ "PG15491.B00666", "PG15491.B00667", "PG15491.B00668", "PG15491.B00669", "PG15491.B00670", "PG15491.B00671", "PG15491.B00672" ], "finding": "Mushroom-shaped candle deposits are explained through transport, shielding and locally depleted reacting air. A thread breaks first at flame edges, separating spatial reaction zones; resemblance motivates but does not prove shared biological cause.", "disposition": "reuse localized interface and limited oxidizer concepts; preserve analogy boundary" }, { "refs": [ "PG15491.B00673", "PG15491.B00674", "PG15491.B00675", "PG15491.B00676" ], "finding": "Downward mineral growth can imitate wood or mushrooms through deposition and changing flow paths, showing shape can arise mechanically. Hooke admits insufficient experiments and likely additional complexity for actual mushrooms despite proposing an inverse buoyant analogue.", "disposition": "candidate shape mimicry is not shared origin; retain unfinished theory" } ] }, { "packet": 20, "path": "inspection/packets/pg15491/020.txt", "firstRef": "PG15491.B00677", "lastRef": "PG15491.B00709", "refs": [ "PG15491.B00677", "PG15491.B00678", "PG15491.B00679", "PG15491.B00680", "PG15491.B00681", "PG15491.B00682", "PG15491.B00683", "PG15491.B00684", "PG15491.B00685", "PG15491.B00686", "PG15491.B00687", "PG15491.B00688", "PG15491.B00689", "PG15491.B00690", "PG15491.B00691", "PG15491.B00692", "PG15491.B00693", "PG15491.B00694", "PG15491.B00695", "PG15491.B00696", "PG15491.B00697", "PG15491.B00698", "PG15491.B00699", "PG15491.B00700", "PG15491.B00701", "PG15491.B00702", "PG15491.B00703", "PG15491.B00704", "PG15491.B00705", "PG15491.B00706", "PG15491.B00707", "PG15491.B00708", "PG15491.B00709" ], "bytes": 26917, "sha256": "57bc17e03aea13a6edb086bf6edcd4bdc7a53aa2709c5c2cce9f84bbbabacbdb", "synopsis": "Hooke keeps the causal ingredients of fungal generation open while favoring mechanical explanation. Moss anatomy and uncertain seed dispersal sustain rival origin accounts; a clock analogy offers possibility without declared preference. Sponge network geometry overturns his first bubble-remnant conjecture, and reports of fresh specimens qualify interpretations of dried ones.", "observations": [ { "refs": [ "PG15491.B00677", "PG15491.B00678" ], "finding": "Several possible contributing causes remain untested even as Hooke confidently favors a mechanical class of explanation. Class-level commitment is distinguished from identifying the actual mechanism.", "disposition": "candidate mechanical possibility versus resolved causal composition" }, { "refs": [ "PG15491.B00681", "PG15491.B00682", "PG15491.B00683", "PG15491.B00684", "PG15491.B00685", "PG15491.B00686", "PG15491.B00687", "PG15491.B00688", "PG15491.B00689", "PG15491.B00690" ], "finding": "Moss structures and repeated growth stages are described, with uncertain contents of seed cases and no single season. Airborne dispersal and rain deposition could explain growth on disparate substrates; tiny dirt pockets complicate claims that a stone itself generates a plant.", "disposition": "candidate support surface versus actual growth matrix; preserve competing origin accounts" }, { "refs": [ "PG15491.B00691", "PG15491.B00692", "PG15491.B00693", "PG15491.B00694", "PG15491.B00695" ], "finding": "The broken-clock analogy shows surviving subassemblies can move differently after impediments and regulators disappear. Hooke explicitly offers this only as a possible account and does not prefer it to seminal generation; small size does not imply inferior organizational completeness.", "disposition": "candidate released component function; preserve parity of alternatives and theological reasoning" }, { "refs": [ "PG15491.B00696", "PG15491.B00697", "PG15491.B00698" ], "finding": "Green coatings can be visible without sufficient resolution to classify their form; Hooke limits taxonomic commitment despite repeated observation across substrates.", "disposition": "reuse detection versus identification distinction" }, { "refs": [ "PG15491.B00701", "PG15491.B00702", "PG15491.B00703", "PG15491.B00704", "PG15491.B00705", "PG15491.B00706", "PG15491.B00707" ], "finding": "Sponge fibers form mostly three-way joints with irregular mesh sizes, not a branching plant trunk. A first conjecture of remnants of bubbles is rejected after closer observation because it would predict four-way rather than three-way joints; nonpenetrated included stones also constrain sequence.", "disposition": "candidate local junction topology tests generative model; apply honest instrument and sequence constraint" }, { "refs": [ "PG15491.B00708", "PG15491.B00709" ], "finding": "Chemical response and burning smell are compared with animal substances; Bellonius's account of fresh mucous sponge differs from dried washed specimens, while Aristotle's animal habitation reports remain reports. Washable matrix makes sponge potentially informative about otherwise obscured vessels.", "disposition": "candidate removable matrix exposes structure; preserve fresh/dry comparison and attributed history" } ] }, { "packet": 21, "path": "inspection/packets/pg15491/021.txt", "firstRef": "PG15491.B00710", "lastRef": "PG15491.B00745", "refs": [ "PG15491.B00710", "PG15491.B00711", "PG15491.B00712", "PG15491.B00713", "PG15491.B00714", "PG15491.B00715", "PG15491.B00716", "PG15491.B00717", "PG15491.B00718", "PG15491.B00719", "PG15491.B00720", "PG15491.B00721", "PG15491.B00722", "PG15491.B00723", "PG15491.B00724", "PG15491.B00725", "PG15491.B00726", "PG15491.B00727", "PG15491.B00728", "PG15491.B00729", "PG15491.B00730", "PG15491.B00731", "PG15491.B00732", "PG15491.B00733", "PG15491.B00734", "PG15491.B00735", "PG15491.B00736", "PG15491.B00737", "PG15491.B00738", "PG15491.B00739", "PG15491.B00740", "PG15491.B00741", "PG15491.B00742", "PG15491.B00743", "PG15491.B00744", "PG15491.B00745" ], "bytes": 27056, "sha256": "f03ef33c531a6b65f3b72b804952068fe4c5846edd4d20c0d10590127076f784", "synopsis": "Fiber networks are compared without equating them. A reported sponge diving aid fails Hooke's trial; proposed air renewal remains speculative. Seaweed and rosemary surfaces show patterned texture, while year-round stability weakens an insect-egg interpretation. Nettle and cowage observations support distinct anatomical and delayed-response inquiries, alongside hazardous historical medical and toxicological extrapolations.", "observations": [ { "refs": [ "PG15491.B00710", "PG15491.B00711", "PG15491.B00712", "PG15491.B00713", "PG15491.B00714", "PG15491.B00715", "PG15491.B00716" ], "finding": "Leather, bone and fungi partly resemble sponge but differ in branching and fiber dimensions. Hooke's personal test finds no breathing benefit from an alleged sponge aid; filtering exhaled air and restoring its lost property are separately conjectured, not demonstrated.", "disposition": "retain failed claim and distinguish filtration from regeneration; no practical diving advice" }, { "refs": [ "PG15491.B00719", "PG15491.B00720", "PG15491.B00723", "PG15491.B00724", "PG15491.B00725", "PG15491.B00726" ], "finding": "Seaweed's patterned cavities encourage further collection. Rosemary is selected to display multiple common surface types in one view; globules first interpreted as insect receptacles remain similar all year, weakening that lifecycle hypothesis.", "disposition": "candidate temporal constancy tests developmental interpretation; preserve selective specimen rationale" }, { "refs": [ "PG15491.B00729", "PG15491.B00730", "PG15491.B00731", "PG15491.B00732", "PG15491.B00733" ], "finding": "Nettle hairs combine a stiff pointed hollow part with a yielding liquid-containing base; observed liquid movement under pressure supports a delivery explanation. The chemistry and causes of subsequent swelling remain inferred.", "disposition": "candidate distinguish access structure from active substance; retain self-experiment as historical evidence only" }, { "refs": [ "PG15491.B00734", "PG15491.B00735", "PG15491.B00736", "PG15491.B00737", "PG15491.B00738", "PG15491.B00739", "PG15491.B00740" ], "finding": "Hooke extrapolates delivery principles to harmful weapons, animal trials, baths, injections and staining. Bellonius supplies an attributed injury narrative; claims about sweat as decisive cause and therapeutic benefit are not controlled demonstrations. A compatible carrier for both transported material and receiving substrate is the abstract generalization.", "disposition": "preserve difficult ethical and medical material without operational toxicology or treatment guidance; candidate dual-compatible carrier only in craft context" }, { "refs": [ "PG15491.B00743", "PG15491.B00744", "PG15491.B00745" ], "finding": "Cowage's attributed description is compared with Hooke's specimen and a delayed itching episode; an initially weak response led to doubt about identity before symptoms developed. Microscopy shows stiff transparent points but cannot decide hollowness or contents in the dried sample.", "disposition": "candidate delayed response versus immediate negative result; retain specimen-state uncertainty and historical self-experiment scope" } ] }, { "packet": 22, "path": "inspection/packets/pg15491/022.txt", "firstRef": "PG15491.B00746", "lastRef": "PG15491.B00785", "refs": [ "PG15491.B00746", "PG15491.B00747", "PG15491.B00748", "PG15491.B00749", "PG15491.B00750", "PG15491.B00751", "PG15491.B00752", "PG15491.B00753", "PG15491.B00754", "PG15491.B00755", "PG15491.B00756", "PG15491.B00757", "PG15491.B00758", "PG15491.B00759", "PG15491.B00760", "PG15491.B00761", "PG15491.B00762", "PG15491.B00763", "PG15491.B00764", "PG15491.B00765", "PG15491.B00766", "PG15491.B00767", "PG15491.B00768", "PG15491.B00769", "PG15491.B00770", "PG15491.B00771", "PG15491.B00772", "PG15491.B00773", "PG15491.B00774", "PG15491.B00775", "PG15491.B00776", "PG15491.B00777", "PG15491.B00778", "PG15491.B00779", "PG15491.B00780", "PG15491.B00781", "PG15491.B00782", "PG15491.B00783", "PG15491.B00784", "PG15491.B00785" ], "bytes": 25758, "sha256": "7ca938d70cbd7e4be5ef158681b64b538a5b48f30bb3077aec1f9a35755ad78c", "synopsis": "Cowage delay is conjecturally explained. The oat awn's reversible response becomes a humidity instrument although its exact mechanism remains unsettled. Design handles access, friction and multiple revolutions, while alternative materials differ in sensitivity and stability. Seed examples expose unreliable naked-eye expectations and the limits of external resemblance.", "observations": [ { "refs": [ "PG15491.B00746", "PG15491.B00747" ], "finding": "Delayed irritation is attributed to later dissolution of material on or within fine points; neither chemical contents nor mechanism was established by the preceding visual evidence.", "disposition": "preserve historical explanatory conjecture without practical irritant guidance" }, { "refs": [ "PG15491.B00750", "PG15491.B00751", "PG15491.B00752", "PG15491.B00753", "PG15491.B00754", "PG15491.B00755", "PG15491.B00756", "PG15491.B00757", "PG15491.B00758", "PG15491.B00759", "PG15491.B00760", "PG15491.B00761" ], "finding": "Oat awns reproducibly twist and untwist with wetting/drying; angled bristles give directional friction. Successive structural explanations are qualified by sections that do not satisfy Hooke. A natural mechanism is contrasted with magical presentation of the same motion.", "disposition": "candidate reliable transduction before settled mechanism; preserve changing hypotheses" }, { "refs": [ "PG15491.B00762", "PG15491.B00763", "PG15491.B00764", "PG15491.B00765", "PG15491.B00766", "PG15491.B00767", "PG15491.B00768" ], "finding": "The indicator needs free ambient access, low-load motion and a separate revolution counter to avoid ambiguous repeated pointer positions. Gut strings vary in response over time; smaller botanical elements are reported more sensitive, distinguishing initial response from stability.", "disposition": "candidate full-turn state retention, measurement access and response drift" }, { "refs": [ "PG15491.B00769", "PG15491.B00770", "PG15491.B00771", "PG15491.B00772" ], "finding": "Differing expansion of joined substances is proposed as a general motion principle and extended conjecturally to muscles; repeated wetting/evaporation demonstrates reversible awn motion but not animal contraction mechanism.", "disposition": "candidate differential response produces movement; preserve analogy limit" }, { "refs": [ "PG15491.B00775", "PG15491.B00776", "PG15491.B00777", "PG15491.B00778", "PG15491.B00781", "PG15491.B00782", "PG15491.B00783" ], "finding": "Promising naked-eye beauty can become irregular microscopically; thyme's lemon-like outside does not predict its interior, which cutting finds pea-like. Depictions vary posture/light; the hierarchy of natural forms and creator's encoded designs remains theological speculation.", "disposition": "candidate exterior resemblance versus internal organization; preserve negative selection example and value hierarchy" } ] }, { "packet": 23, "path": "inspection/packets/pg15491/023.txt", "firstRef": "PG15491.B00786", "lastRef": "PG15491.B00825", "refs": [ "PG15491.B00786", "PG15491.B00787", "PG15491.B00788", "PG15491.B00789", "PG15491.B00790", "PG15491.B00791", "PG15491.B00792", "PG15491.B00793", "PG15491.B00794", "PG15491.B00795", "PG15491.B00796", "PG15491.B00797", "PG15491.B00798", "PG15491.B00799", "PG15491.B00800", "PG15491.B00801", "PG15491.B00802", "PG15491.B00803", "PG15491.B00804", "PG15491.B00805", "PG15491.B00806", "PG15491.B00807", "PG15491.B00808", "PG15491.B00809", "PG15491.B00810", "PG15491.B00811", "PG15491.B00812", "PG15491.B00813", "PG15491.B00814", "PG15491.B00815", "PG15491.B00816", "PG15491.B00817", "PG15491.B00818", "PG15491.B00819", "PG15491.B00820", "PG15491.B00821", "PG15491.B00822", "PG15491.B00823", "PG15491.B00824", "PG15491.B00825" ], "bytes": 26734, "sha256": "03d42d0fe16e72c7b4ab9137fff2c3f8526dc8c84eee6b174cf9504c5d048f5c", "synopsis": "Seed descriptions carry theological and medicinal-signature speculation. Hair comparisons insist on varying illumination and preserving species differences instead of seeing a preconceived hollow structure. Skin microscopy confronts the damage caused by preparing specimens; matched rosemary sprigs investigate water loss. Fish scales begin the account of protective and ornamental animal coverings.", "observations": [ { "refs": [ "PG15491.B00786", "PG15491.B00787", "PG15491.B00790", "PG15491.B00791" ], "finding": "Poppy counts distinguish geometric capacity from actual contents, but beautiful structures are also treated as possible signs of medicinal virtue. Purslane and other seeds are described by shell or artifact analogies without internal identity claims.", "disposition": "preserve conditional count, doctrine-of-signatures speculation and medical limits" }, { "refs": [ "PG15491.B00794", "PG15491.B00795", "PG15491.B00796", "PG15491.B00797", "PG15491.B00798", "PG15491.B00799", "PG15491.B00800", "PG15491.B00802", "PG15491.B00803", "PG15491.B00804", "PG15491.B00805", "PG15491.B00806", "PG15491.B00807", "PG15491.B00808" ], "finding": "Human, pig, cat, deer and other hairs differ in shape, pith and pore direction. Apparent pores can reflect under another light; Hooke directly warns against seeing what a prior hypothesis demands, and refuses analogy as microscopic evidence of hollow human hair.", "disposition": "reuse illumination checking and expectation discipline; candidate variation blocks structural analogy" }, { "refs": [ "PG15491.B00809", "PG15491.B00810" ], "finding": "Hair and silk differ in substrate clarity, dimensions and penetrability, so identical tint does not yield identical appearance; large transparent model cylinders illustrate rather than independently prove microscopic behavior. Protective and ornamental purposes are ascribed to coverings.", "disposition": "candidate substrate-mediated colour; preserve model and teleology limits" }, { "refs": [ "PG15491.B00811", "PG15491.B00812", "PG15491.B00813", "PG15491.B00814", "PG15491.B00815", "PG15491.B00816" ], "finding": "Prepared skin shows interwoven fibers, but tanning may spoil native structure. Removing obstructing matter without deforming the retained network is an explicit unmet requirement; extrapolated living functions and permeability are qualified.", "disposition": "candidate selective preparation preserves target structure; retain gap from dressed to living tissue" }, { "refs": [ "PG15491.B00817", "PG15491.B00818", "PG15491.B00819" ], "finding": "Matched rosemary sprigs with and without water, and sealing the exposed cut end, localize inferred moisture loss beyond the stem opening. A hydraulic-city analogy supports a broad mechanical reading but does not independently establish all vegetative organization.", "disposition": "candidate excluded exit route localizes loss; reuse controlled comparison" }, { "refs": [ "PG15491.B00822", "PG15491.B00823", "PG15491.B00824", "PG15491.B00825" ], "finding": "Fish-scale order, alternating spikes and concealed anchoring parts emerge through different views and extraction; nourishing pipes are proposed rather than traced in operation.", "disposition": "retain anatomical description and functional conjecture distinction" } ] }, { "packet": 24, "path": "inspection/packets/pg15491/024.txt", "firstRef": "PG15491.B00826", "lastRef": "PG15491.B00860", "refs": [ "PG15491.B00826", "PG15491.B00827", "PG15491.B00828", "PG15491.B00829", "PG15491.B00830", "PG15491.B00831", "PG15491.B00832", "PG15491.B00833", "PG15491.B00834", "PG15491.B00835", "PG15491.B00836", "PG15491.B00837", "PG15491.B00838", "PG15491.B00839", "PG15491.B00840", "PG15491.B00841", "PG15491.B00842", "PG15491.B00843", "PG15491.B00844", "PG15491.B00845", "PG15491.B00846", "PG15491.B00847", "PG15491.B00848", "PG15491.B00849", "PG15491.B00850", "PG15491.B00851", "PG15491.B00852", "PG15491.B00853", "PG15491.B00854", "PG15491.B00855", "PG15491.B00856", "PG15491.B00857", "PG15491.B00858", "PG15491.B00859", "PG15491.B00860" ], "bytes": 26094, "sha256": "073a594947d9604e8c30ec143a47d1a7aa73db6f3d4eb0d2c62b8e0fc0a435d0", "synopsis": "Bee-sting anatomy leads to a tentative alternating-engagement mechanism and martial teleology. Feather structure combines low mass, stiffness, overlapping hooks and repairability; developmental stage matters for nourishment pathways. Peacock colour varies strongly with viewing and wetting. Fly-foot anatomy challenges a glue account but substitutes an asserted surface-roughness mechanism with its own limits.", "observations": [ { "refs": [ "PG15491.B00826", "PG15491.B00829", "PG15491.B00830", "PG15491.B00831", "PG15491.B00832" ], "finding": "Hooke describes sting components and hypothesizes alternating gripping and movement, distinguishing some observed live movement from inferred action in skin. Revenge and military superiority are interpretive moral analogies, not anatomical findings.", "disposition": "preserve functional conjecture and difficult teleological rhetoric; no weapon-design proposal" }, { "refs": [ "PG15491.B00835", "PG15491.B00836", "PG15491.B00837", "PG15491.B00838", "PG15491.B00839", "PG15491.B00840", "PG15491.B00841", "PG15491.B00842", "PG15491.B00843" ], "finding": "A stiff exterior with cellular interior combines strength and low mass; one structure may serve several functions. Hooked feather branches can separate and rejoin by stroking. Mature feathers conceal a nourishment route visible in growing feathers; fine visible openings are conjectured to resist airflow despite optical openness.", "disposition": "candidate reversible interlocking repair, multimodal permeability and developmental access; retain untested aerodynamic inference" }, { "refs": [ "PG15491.B00846", "PG15491.B00847", "PG15491.B00848", "PG15491.B00849", "PG15491.B00850", "PG15491.B00851" ], "finding": "Tiny lighting changes transform feather appearance, complicating stable shape inference. Wetting diminishes iridescence and transmission shows another hue; the microscopic lamina account and broad colour axiom extend beyond what is directly resolved.", "disposition": "reuse illumination-dependent appearance; candidate reversible medium-dependent structural colour" }, { "refs": [ "PG15491.B00854", "PG15491.B00855", "PG15491.B00856", "PG15491.B00857", "PG15491.B00858", "PG15491.B00859", "PG15491.B00860" ], "finding": "Fly claws and pads are assigned complementary roles on different surfaces. Hooke rejects an adhesive account partly because rapid release would need explanation, and argues dirt on glass permits grip. The rejection and his own mechanism are historical causal claims, not settled by an attractive anatomical description.", "disposition": "candidate attachment mechanism must explain release; preserve disputed account and substrate conditioning" } ] }, { "packet": 25, "path": "inspection/packets/pg15491/025.txt", "firstRef": "PG15491.B00861", "lastRef": "PG15491.B00894", "refs": [ "PG15491.B00861", "PG15491.B00862", "PG15491.B00863", "PG15491.B00864", "PG15491.B00865", "PG15491.B00866", "PG15491.B00867", "PG15491.B00868", "PG15491.B00869", "PG15491.B00870", "PG15491.B00871", "PG15491.B00872", "PG15491.B00873", "PG15491.B00874", "PG15491.B00875", "PG15491.B00876", "PG15491.B00877", "PG15491.B00878", "PG15491.B00879", "PG15491.B00880", "PG15491.B00881", "PG15491.B00882", "PG15491.B00883", "PG15491.B00884", "PG15491.B00885", "PG15491.B00886", "PG15491.B00887", "PG15491.B00888", "PG15491.B00889", "PG15491.B00890", "PG15491.B00891", "PG15491.B00892", "PG15491.B00893", "PG15491.B00894" ], "bytes": 26787, "sha256": "0a7095e8031660ea4076add48abfd6b397be2d387971dcb2e816be6820e054d0", "synopsis": "Small-animal attachment is related to scale and habitat. Fly-wing motion is inferred from blurred limits and sound with repeated qualifications; proposed uses of halteres are withdrawn. Compound-eye surfaces, cleaning behavior, counts and dissection support a visual function, followed by a largely hypothetical model of directional images and attention.", "observations": [ { "refs": [ "PG15491.B00861", "PG15491.B00862", "PG15491.B00863" ], "finding": "Body-to-surface proportion and relative strength condition attachment; the louse's grasp matches hair as substrate. Claims of optimal design culminate in explicit rejection of chance on theological grounds.", "disposition": "preserve scaling and habitat distinction alongside natural theology" }, { "refs": [ "PG15491.B00866", "PG15491.B00867" ], "finding": "Wingstroke limits are inferred from blurred shadows, changed flight state and restrained specimens; frequency is guessed by comparing sound with a tuned string. Haltere valve/pump interpretations become less probable on further examination.", "disposition": "candidate indirect temporal measurement with calibration assumptions; preserve rejected mechanism and restraint limits" }, { "refs": [ "PG15491.B00868", "PG15491.B00869", "PG15491.B00870", "PG15491.B00871", "PG15491.B00872" ], "finding": "Wing membrane, stiffening veins, bristles and scales require specific lighting to resolve; detailed flight inquiry is deferred.", "disposition": "retain descriptive coverage and incomplete functional programme" }, { "refs": [ "PG15491.B00875", "PG15491.B00876", "PG15491.B00877", "PG15491.B00878", "PG15491.B00879", "PG15491.B00880", "PG15491.B00881", "PG15491.B00882" ], "finding": "The chosen fly has large and varied facets; reflected moving images test surface continuity, and multiple views check it. Cleaning feet substitute for eyelids, while facet totals are extrapolated from rows. Packing and movable crustacean eyes are interpreted as compensating designs.", "disposition": "candidate maintained sensor access; preserve sampling counts and teleological compensation" }, { "refs": [ "PG15491.B00883", "PG15491.B00884", "PG15491.B00885", "PG15491.B00886", "PG15491.B00887", "PG15491.B00888", "PG15491.B00889", "PG15491.B00890", "PG15491.B00891" ], "finding": "Dissection separates cornea, fluid and colored lining; specimen condition changes surface shape. Destructive animal tests are reported as showing lost anticipatory avoidance despite retained movement, then generalized by analogy to insects.", "disposition": "preserve ethical friction and selective functional loss, without experimental recommendation" }, { "refs": [ "PG15491.B00892", "PG15491.B00893", "PG15491.B00894" ], "finding": "Hooke proposes each facet forms a limited axial image and argues many eyes need not yield greater simultaneous attention. Retinal position, internal image and attentional unity are qualified inferences, not observed experiences.", "disposition": "candidate sensor multiplicity versus attentional capacity; preserve theory status" } ] }, { "packet": 26, "path": "inspection/packets/pg15491/026.txt", "firstRef": "PG15491.B00895", "lastRef": "PG15491.B00935", "refs": [ "PG15491.B00895", "PG15491.B00896", "PG15491.B00897", "PG15491.B00898", "PG15491.B00899", "PG15491.B00900", "PG15491.B00901", "PG15491.B00902", "PG15491.B00903", "PG15491.B00904", "PG15491.B00905", "PG15491.B00906", "PG15491.B00907", "PG15491.B00908", "PG15491.B00909", "PG15491.B00910", "PG15491.B00911", "PG15491.B00912", "PG15491.B00913", "PG15491.B00914", "PG15491.B00915", "PG15491.B00916", "PG15491.B00917", "PG15491.B00918", "PG15491.B00919", "PG15491.B00920", "PG15491.B00921", "PG15491.B00922", "PG15491.B00923", "PG15491.B00924", "PG15491.B00925", "PG15491.B00926", "PG15491.B00927", "PG15491.B00928", "PG15491.B00929", "PG15491.B00930", "PG15491.B00931", "PG15491.B00932", "PG15491.B00933", "PG15491.B00934", "PG15491.B00935" ], "bytes": 26840, "sha256": "44a10543126ea21492cedacd9b66d43d8ead7454f888f3f66bc620b52187cdd1", "synopsis": "Compound-eye distance and attention accounts remain explicitly speculative. Snail teeth and insect eggs add comparative descriptions and engraving limits. Blue-fly anatomy distinguishes observed structures from unknown function and reversible immobility. Transparent aquatic larvae permit undisturbed viewing and repeated observation of transformation into flying gnats.", "observations": [ { "refs": [ "PG15491.B00895", "PG15491.B00896", "PG15491.B00897", "PG15491.B00898" ], "finding": "Attention transfer, paired impressions and accommodation are possible accounts of compound vision, but Hooke declines to identify the actual adjustment mechanism. Instrument access to still smaller light-medium particles is doubted without abandoning their assumed finite size.", "disposition": "preserve conjectural physiology and limits of inference from scale" }, { "refs": [ "PG15491.B00901", "PG15491.B00904", "PG15491.B00905" ], "finding": "Apparently separate snail teeth form a connected structure. Egg surfaces and contents change on hatching; barren eggs differ, and an engraving misrepresents roundness. High reproductive potential is qualified by predation and weather loss.", "disposition": "candidate potential reproduction versus realized increase; retain image mediation and animal comparisons" }, { "refs": [ "PG15491.B00908", "PG15491.B00909", "PG15491.B00910", "PG15491.B00911", "PG15491.B00912", "PG15491.B00913", "PG15491.B00914", "PG15491.B00915", "PG15491.B00916", "PG15491.B00917", "PG15491.B00918", "PG15491.B00919", "PG15491.B00920", "PG15491.B00921" ], "finding": "Fly anatomy records differences from the earlier species rather than silently generalizing it. Antennal function and identity of internal branching vessels remain unresolved despite structural detail and analogies.", "disposition": "candidate anatomical identification does not determine physiological office; preserve species distinctions" }, { "refs": [ "PG15491.B00922", "PG15491.B00923", "PG15491.B00924", "PG15491.B00925" ], "finding": "Recovered movement after freezing or spirit exposure makes immediate apparent death unreliable; mating/egg-laying stimulus and chemical analogy are conjectural.", "disposition": "candidate reversible inactivity versus death; historical animal trials only" }, { "refs": [ "PG15491.B00928", "PG15491.B00929", "PG15491.B00930", "PG15491.B00931", "PG15491.B00932", "PG15491.B00933" ], "finding": "Transparent living larvae reveal internal movements without the disorder introduced by cutting living bodies open. Feeding substance and several organ functions remain uncertain; buoyancy and swimming directions are distinguished from anatomical comparison.", "disposition": "candidate observation access that preserves ordinary operation; retain invasive-experiment contrast and limited organ identification" }, { "refs": [ "PG15491.B00934", "PG15491.B00935" ], "finding": "Keeping larvae over weeks and repeatedly watching intermediate forms documents a continuous transformation and emergence, including changed buoyancy and eye appearance. This is serial observation of change, not merely arranging different specimens into a developmental order.", "disposition": "candidate tracked transformation versus reconstructed sequence" } ] }, { "packet": 27, "path": "inspection/packets/pg15491/027.txt", "firstRef": "PG15491.B00936", "lastRef": "PG15491.B00971", "refs": [ "PG15491.B00936", "PG15491.B00937", "PG15491.B00938", "PG15491.B00939", "PG15491.B00940", "PG15491.B00941", "PG15491.B00942", "PG15491.B00943", "PG15491.B00944", "PG15491.B00945", "PG15491.B00946", "PG15491.B00947", "PG15491.B00948", "PG15491.B00949", "PG15491.B00950", "PG15491.B00951", "PG15491.B00952", "PG15491.B00953", "PG15491.B00954", "PG15491.B00955", "PG15491.B00956", "PG15491.B00957", "PG15491.B00958", "PG15491.B00959", "PG15491.B00960", "PG15491.B00961", "PG15491.B00962", "PG15491.B00963", "PG15491.B00964", "PG15491.B00965", "PG15491.B00966", "PG15491.B00967", "PG15491.B00968", "PG15491.B00969", "PG15491.B00970", "PG15491.B00971" ], "bytes": 27141, "sha256": "1fc585f969742023f5b73f2ad8a0559c3fc44022bc0ebc6f2f484c9a7e78f8e3", "synopsis": "Gnat transformation prompts reconsideration of apparent spontaneous generation and uncertain dispersal routes. Galls and an attributed postscript add developmental evidence with uneven provenance. Further gnats are distinguished cautiously by possible sex and untraced origin; feeding is separated from revenge, and a feather-winged moth reveals handling losses.", "observations": [ { "refs": [ "PG15491.B00936", "PG15491.B00937", "PG15491.B00938" ], "finding": "Hooke's observed transformation makes Piso's unusual marine account conceivable but does not settle its many possible causes; missing process detail prevents a determination.", "disposition": "reuse analogous possibility without historical verification; preserve Latin documentary voice" }, { "refs": [ "PG15491.B00939", "PG15491.B00940", "PG15491.B00941", "PG15491.B00942", "PG15491.B00943", "PG15491.B00944" ], "finding": "Leaf swelling and gall contents are linked to insect development through repeated observation, while purposive womb language and a mechanical stimulus-chain analogy explain behavior without deliberation. The analogy includes harmful historical machinery and remains explanatory rhetoric.", "disposition": "preserve insect/host interaction and natural-theological mechanism; no operational harmful detail" }, { "refs": [ "PG15491.B00945", "PG15491.B00946", "PG15491.B00947", "PG15491.B00948" ], "finding": "Known aquatic-to-aerial transformation opens hidden-egg alternatives to generation from decay; emergence after enclosure can follow preexisting eggs. Direct laying and rainborne transport are separate unresolved routes, and tiny propagules may escape observation.", "disposition": "candidate delayed emergence from preexisting hidden input; preserve queries" }, { "refs": [ "PG15491.B00950", "PG15491.B00951", "PG15491.B00952", "PG15491.B00953", "PG15491.B00954" ], "finding": "The postscript distinguishes Hooke's supplied specimens from Ball's brother's dated excavation account. Exit holes correlate with empty cases, but identification with a herbal's oak-grape remains uncertain because the prior account omitted the defining internal organism.", "disposition": "candidate description match lacking diagnostic internal feature; retain source chain and postscript status" }, { "refs": [ "PG15491.B00957", "PG15491.B00958", "PG15491.B00959", "PG15491.B00960", "PG15491.B00961", "PG15491.B00964", "PG15491.B00965", "PG15491.B00966" ], "finding": "Size and location lead to speculative alternate origins for similarly shaped gnats; sex assignment is also a guess. Haltere use remains unknown. Observed blood feeding is read as hunger rather than revenge, contrasting with earlier bee rhetoric.", "disposition": "preserve unresolved taxonomy and origin, and differing interpretations of apparent harm" }, { "refs": [ "PG15491.B00969", "PG15491.B00970", "PG15491.B00971" ], "finding": "The white moth's small scales transfer onto fingers during handling, exposing a preparation-induced change rather than an intact natural state.", "disposition": "candidate recoverable detached specimen material; preparation-damage application" } ] }, { "packet": 28, "path": "inspection/packets/pg15491/028.txt", "firstRef": "PG15491.B00972", "lastRef": "PG15491.B01002", "refs": [ "PG15491.B00972", "PG15491.B00973", "PG15491.B00974", "PG15491.B00975", "PG15491.B00976", "PG15491.B00977", "PG15491.B00978", "PG15491.B00979", "PG15491.B00980", "PG15491.B00981", "PG15491.B00982", "PG15491.B00983", "PG15491.B00984", "PG15491.B00985", "PG15491.B00986", "PG15491.B00987", "PG15491.B00988", "PG15491.B00989", "PG15491.B00990", "PG15491.B00991", "PG15491.B00992", "PG15491.B00993", "PG15491.B00994", "PG15491.B00995", "PG15491.B00996", "PG15491.B00997", "PG15491.B00998", "PG15491.B00999", "PG15491.B01000", "PG15491.B01001", "PG15491.B01002" ], "bytes": 26984, "sha256": "9808e337324e05a4a27031229c2a254bef9079eb20071a16b2e61a55d36c74f8", "synopsis": "Wing architectures vary with scale, weakening simple analogy with birds; airflow explanations and human-flight proposals remain speculative. Harvestman and hunting-spider descriptions include a separately attributed Evelyn narrative. Web origins are uncertain. Ant preparation exposes a surface-to-volume cause of rapid specimen change and repeated recovery from apparent death.", "observations": [ { "refs": [ "PG15491.B00972", "PG15491.B00973", "PG15491.B00974", "PG15491.B00975", "PG15491.B00976" ], "finding": "Moth structures require separate magnification scales; similar-looking feathers need not share avian construction. Hooke admits forgotten counts and omitted observations, infers air resistance from open wings, and leaves mechanical human-flight strength as a promise.", "disposition": "candidate functional equivalence across differing architecture; preserve memory, scale and feasibility limits" }, { "refs": [ "PG15491.B00979", "PG15491.B00980", "PG15491.B00981", "PG15491.B00982" ], "finding": "The long-legged animal's two elevated eyes, lever-like legs and muscle housings are described; movement limits and internal likeness to crabs remain conjectural, and body divisions are hard to distinguish.", "disposition": "retain anatomical specificity, body-scale reasoning and uncertain classification" }, { "refs": [ "PG15491.B00985", "PG15491.B00986", "PG15491.B00987", "PG15491.B00988" ], "finding": "Hooke's hunting-spider anatomy is followed by Evelyn's separately authored Italian behavioral narrative, which ascribes strategy, instruction and shame. Predatory methods vary among spider kinds; the anthropomorphic narrative differs from Hooke's mechanical behavioural account elsewhere.", "disposition": "preserve attribution and alternative interpretive voice, no independent behavioral verification" }, { "refs": [ "PG15491.B00989", "PG15491.B00990", "PG15491.B00991" ], "finding": "Radial and spiral web threads differ; beaded material may be spun or acquired as fog moisture. Airborne fibers are observed but their origin and proposed relation to summer clouds are unresolved.", "disposition": "candidate produced structure versus acquired deposit; retain atmospheric speculation" }, { "refs": [ "PG15491.B00994", "PG15491.B00995", "PG15491.B00996", "PG15491.B00997" ], "finding": "Living motion and postmortem shriveling obstruct faithful depiction. Rapid change in tiny bodies is explained by surface-to-bulk proportion rather than an unusually fast surface loss rate. Repeated apparent death and revival under preparation complicate state identification and preserve substantial animal-experiment ethical friction.", "disposition": "candidate geometry-driven rate of whole-specimen change; retain harmful historical procedure without recommendation" }, { "refs": [ "PG15491.B00998", "PG15491.B00999", "PG15491.B01000" ], "finding": "The ant engraving is admitted imperfect; body parts and load-gripping are described, while six legs are taken as evidence of a winged class despite absent visible wings in this specimen.", "disposition": "preserve observation/class inference distinction and engraving limit" } ] }, { "packet": 29, "path": "inspection/packets/pg15491/029.txt", "firstRef": "PG15491.B01003", "lastRef": "PG15491.B01036", "refs": [ "PG15491.B01003", "PG15491.B01004", "PG15491.B01005", "PG15491.B01006", "PG15491.B01007", "PG15491.B01008", "PG15491.B01009", "PG15491.B01010", "PG15491.B01011", "PG15491.B01012", "PG15491.B01013", "PG15491.B01014", "PG15491.B01015", "PG15491.B01016", "PG15491.B01017", "PG15491.B01018", "PG15491.B01019", "PG15491.B01020", "PG15491.B01021", "PG15491.B01022", "PG15491.B01023", "PG15491.B01024", "PG15491.B01025", "PG15491.B01026", "PG15491.B01027", "PG15491.B01028", "PG15491.B01029", "PG15491.B01030", "PG15491.B01031", "PG15491.B01032", "PG15491.B01033", "PG15491.B01034", "PG15491.B01035", "PG15491.B01036" ], "bytes": 27156, "sha256": "60df33642d4aeb84719827a76b7e594767cfc1b94d35a3b80ce2a68f3dcdcf12", "synopsis": "Mite-like creatures and a singular book-found arachnid broaden the survey while leaving ancestry unresolved. The ancestry speculation includes demeaning racial analogies that must remain visible as limits. Silverfish colour is compared with artificial laminated materials; flea anatomy explains exertion rather than measuring strength. Louse transparency supports feeding-state observations with uncertain organ identifications.", "observations": [ { "refs": [ "PG15491.B01003", "PG15491.B01004", "PG15491.B01005", "PG15491.B01006", "PG15491.B01007", "PG15491.B01008", "PG15491.B01009", "PG15491.B01010" ], "finding": "Dated observations distinguish fast surface-dwelling mites from food mites, but proposed parentage and substrate-driven transformation remain uncertified. The conjecture uses racialized claims about human ancestry and climate as analogies; these are historical prejudices, not evidence accepted here.", "disposition": "preserve uncertainty, provenance and ethical friction; exclude racial analogy from concept warrant" }, { "refs": [ "PG15491.B01013", "PG15491.B01014", "PG15491.B01015" ], "finding": "A single crab-like insect supports detailed visible anatomy and dual-use grasping/feeling organs, while lack of further specimens limits examination and internal structure remains conjectured from a large analogue.", "disposition": "candidate singular specimen limits replication; retain anatomy/function distinctions" }, { "refs": [ "PG15491.B01018", "PG15491.B01019", "PG15491.B01020", "PG15491.B01021", "PG15491.B01022", "PG15491.B01023" ], "finding": "Silver appearance is tied to many transparent scales and reproduced with layered artificial materials. Glue obscures legs in the drawing; feeding on books is probable, and a self-maintaining bodily-fire analogy goes beyond direct observation.", "disposition": "candidate constructive analogue of optical appearance; preserve preparation omission and speculative physiology" }, { "refs": [ "PG15491.B01026", "PG15491.B01027", "PG15491.B01028" ], "finding": "The microscope adds no direct discovery of flea strength, but reveals joint arrangement capable of coordinated extension. Mouthpart access is obstructed, and ears and smellers are provisional identifications.", "disposition": "candidate performance observation versus mechanism inspection" }, { "refs": [ "PG15491.B01031", "PG15491.B01032", "PG15491.B01033" ], "finding": "A louse's apparent jaws disappear with changed view; transparent feeding shows motion and distribution. Fasting and feeding alter visible fullness and activity, so visibility depends on physiological state. Liver, vessels and blood-to-milk interpretation remain tentative despite detailed observation.", "disposition": "candidate state-dependent anatomical visibility; retain rhetorical anthropomorphism and historical self-experiment" }, { "refs": [ "PG15491.B01036" ], "finding": "Mite and egg abundance is computed from estimated dimensions; tiny size is not a directly counted cubic population.", "disposition": "preserve estimate versus census distinction" } ] }, { "packet": 30, "path": "inspection/packets/pg15491/030.txt", "firstRef": "PG15491.B01037", "lastRef": "PG15491.B01072", "refs": [ "PG15491.B01037", "PG15491.B01038", "PG15491.B01039", "PG15491.B01040", "PG15491.B01041", "PG15491.B01042", "PG15491.B01043", "PG15491.B01044", "PG15491.B01045", "PG15491.B01046", "PG15491.B01047", "PG15491.B01048", "PG15491.B01049", "PG15491.B01050", "PG15491.B01051", "PG15491.B01052", "PG15491.B01053", "PG15491.B01054", "PG15491.B01055", "PG15491.B01056", "PG15491.B01057", "PG15491.B01058", "PG15491.B01059", "PG15491.B01060", "PG15491.B01061", "PG15491.B01062", "PG15491.B01063", "PG15491.B01064", "PG15491.B01065", "PG15491.B01066", "PG15491.B01067", "PG15491.B01068", "PG15491.B01069", "PG15491.B01070", "PG15491.B01071", "PG15491.B01072" ], "bytes": 26554, "sha256": "e3577f2c63bd76aa1a6a5d9f3b02f1ddda20e8b54de3a0eddd21210f99365395", "synopsis": "Mite ancestry and vine insects remain hypotheses tested against limited growth observations. Vinegar organisms raise questions of respiration and scale-dependent drag. Atmospheric distortion motivates a two-part inquiry: show that variable media can bend light internally, then establish such variation in air; experiments separate optical density from weight and solid hardness.", "observations": [ { "refs": [ "PG15491.B01037", "PG15491.B01038", "PG15491.B01039", "PG15491.B01040" ], "finding": "Mite structure and movement are observed, but habitat-dependent identity, parentage and spontaneous generation remain unresolved. The image shortens hairs, and fixation/viewing geometry is disclosed.", "disposition": "preserve depicted omissions, specimen state and hypothetical ancestry" }, { "refs": [ "PG15491.B01043", "PG15491.B01044", "PG15491.B01045", "PG15491.B01046" ], "finding": "Egg cases and tiny offspring suggest possible juveniles of much larger animals, yet kept mites did not appreciably grow; this contrary observation qualifies the general query. Parental husk and web origin are conjectured.", "disposition": "candidate developmental misclassification checked by longitudinal growth; preserve adverse evidence" }, { "refs": [ "PG15491.B01049", "PG15491.B01050", "PG15491.B01051", "PG15491.B01052" ], "finding": "Vinegar organisms change apparent locomotion with observation setting; sealed-vessel death is reported as if suffocation, not fully isolated. Relative surface-to-bulk and fluid resistance explain why small swimmers face a different mechanical regime.", "disposition": "candidate scale changes relative medium resistance; preserve cause uncertainty and Power attribution" }, { "refs": [ "PG15491.B01055", "PG15491.B01056", "PG15491.B01057" ], "finding": "Horizon shape, colour, brightness and time variation are recorded separately; redder appearance does not conversely guarantee greater flattening. Increasing telescope capability recovers intermittently visible stars at fixed places; terrestrial twinkling broadens the causal target beyond stars.", "disposition": "candidate asymmetric correlation and intermittent detection; retain reported astronomy scope" }, { "refs": [ "PG15491.B01058", "PG15491.B01059", "PG15491.B01060", "PG15491.B01061", "PG15491.B01062", "PG15491.B01063" ], "finding": "The explanation needs both sufficiency of an unequal moving medium and its actual atmospheric presence. Density is operationally optical here and can order liquids differently from weight; water/ice comparison challenges inference from hardness.", "disposition": "candidate possible causal mechanism plus occurrence condition; reuse property-specific measurement" }, { "refs": [ "PG15491.B01064", "PG15491.B01065", "PG15491.B01066", "PG15491.B01067", "PG15491.B01068", "PG15491.B01069", "PG15491.B01070", "PG15491.B01071", "PG15491.B01072" ], "finding": "Distortion with unchanged external surfaces localizes bending within a mixed medium; marked ray points form a curve in graded brine. More than one underlying optical theory can explain the trajectory. Changing enclosed air while holding sights and object fixed tests its contribution, with uneven glass named a practical confound.", "disposition": "candidate internal-gradient effect versus boundary effect; preserve theory underdetermination and apparatus limitation" } ] }, { "packet": 31, "path": "inspection/packets/pg15491/031.txt", "firstRef": "PG15491.B01073", "lastRef": "PG15491.B01099", "refs": [ "PG15491.B01073", "PG15491.B01074", "PG15491.B01075", "PG15491.B01076", "PG15491.B01077", "PG15491.B01078", "PG15491.B01079", "PG15491.B01080", "PG15491.B01081", "PG15491.B01082", "PG15491.B01083", "PG15491.B01084", "PG15491.B01085", "PG15491.B01086", "PG15491.B01087", "PG15491.B01088", "PG15491.B01089", "PG15491.B01090", "PG15491.B01091", "PG15491.B01092", "PG15491.B01093", "PG15491.B01094", "PG15491.B01095", "PG15491.B01096", "PG15491.B01097", "PG15491.B01098", "PG15491.B01099" ], "bytes": 26815, "sha256": "c599affba8e40d7b297797db61fb71ad8252dca3f94ff0643eb0e08202da6c3d", "synopsis": "Air expansion and compression trials distinguish preparation corrections, old uncertain records, new hypothesis-shaped tests and observed/predicted tables. Approximate reciprocity is extrapolated into an atmospheric gradient. Refraction accounts for apparent celestial position and shape, while colour admits additional causes and some reported size changes exceed Hooke's own resolution. Heated-body trials investigate atmospheric wavering.", "observations": [ { "refs": [ "PG15491.B01073", "PG15491.B01074", "PG15491.B01075", "PG15491.B01076", "PG15491.B01077", "PG15491.B01078" ], "finding": "Air-pressure measurement waits for thermal settling and corrects unequal mercury levels in the narrow tube. The table separates observed expansion, atmospheric reference and force inferred by subtraction.", "disposition": "candidate measurement correction before causal calculation; preserve full numerical record" }, { "refs": [ "PG15491.B01079", "PG15491.B01080", "PG15491.B01081", "PG15491.B01082", "PG15491.B01083", "PG15491.B01084", "PG15491.B01085" ], "finding": "Forgotten circumstances prompt repeating earlier experiments with the preserved tube; Townly's hypothesis changes the later test arrangement. A table keeps observed and predicted quantities separate, yielding reciprocal expansion only approximately. Indefinite atmosphere is a conditional extrapolation beyond tested range.", "disposition": "candidate uncertain record triggers rerun and explicit predicted/observed columns; preserve extrapolation limit" }, { "refs": [ "PG15491.B01086", "PG15491.B01087", "PG15491.B01088", "PG15491.B01089", "PG15491.B01090", "PG15491.B01091", "PG15491.B01092" ], "finding": "A continuous density gradient is preferred absent evidence of a sharp jump. Geographic variation rules out assigning redness simply to the luminous object; Hooke's refraction account remains probable and explicitly allows coloured vapours as concurrent causes.", "disposition": "candidate path-dependent appearance versus source property; preserve multiple causes and historical optical theory" }, { "refs": [ "PG15491.B01093", "PG15491.B01094", "PG15491.B01095" ], "finding": "Unequal lifting of rays from different parts of the sun explains apparent flattening; cited lateral enlargement is accepted despite Hooke's own inability to see much change with his instrument. Geometric calculation remains figure-dependent and not independently verified.", "disposition": "candidate differential displacement deforms shape; retain measurement disagreement" }, { "refs": [ "PG15491.B01096", "PG15491.B01097", "PG15491.B01098", "PG15491.B01099" ], "finding": "Moving unequal air parcels account for changing apparent position; warm glass and gold serve as comparisons to separate heated air from conjectured emitted material. Chimney air can reverse the ordinary lower-limb flattening pattern.", "disposition": "candidate intervene on optical path with fixed target; preserve proposed confound exclusion and context reversal" } ] }, { "packet": 32, "path": "inspection/packets/pg15491/032.txt", "firstRef": "PG15491.B01100", "lastRef": "PG15491.B01126", "refs": [ "PG15491.B01100", "PG15491.B01101", "PG15491.B01102", "PG15491.B01103", "PG15491.B01104", "PG15491.B01105", "PG15491.B01106", "PG15491.B01107", "PG15491.B01108", "PG15491.B01109", "PG15491.B01110", "PG15491.B01111", "PG15491.B01112", "PG15491.B01113", "PG15491.B01114", "PG15491.B01115", "PG15491.B01116", "PG15491.B01117", "PG15491.B01118", "PG15491.B01119", "PG15491.B01120", "PG15491.B01121", "PG15491.B01122", "PG15491.B01123", "PG15491.B01124", "PG15491.B01125", "PG15491.B01126" ], "bytes": 26157, "sha256": "a12de6c9949dc516eb7d19f6359ddbccf8d61c0c74c007197a6b9aa22e110bda", "synopsis": "Variable atmospheric parcels are modeled as lenses, then speculative queries extend to graded optics, stars, clouds and atmospheric height. Buoyancy trials model suspended layers. Hooke argues uncertain refraction undermines distance estimates and proposes synchronized distant observing stations with star references, repeated measurements and separate shape/scale information.", "observations": [ { "refs": [ "PG15491.B01100", "PG15491.B01101", "PG15491.B01102", "PG15491.B01103", "PG15491.B01104", "PG15491.B01105" ], "finding": "Moving warm/cold regions are modeled as gradual convex or concave lenses, producing changing apparent size, position and colour. This section's inflection means internal gradient refraction, and the detailed atmospheric particle model remains hypothetical.", "disposition": "preserve source-specific term and optical-path model; avoid equating with Newton's edge effects" }, { "refs": [ "PG15491.B01106", "PG15491.B01107", "PG15491.B01108", "PG15491.B01109", "PG15491.B01110", "PG15491.B01111", "PG15491.B01112", "PG15491.B01113" ], "finding": "Graded refractive material is proposed for improved lenses, but manufacture is unavailable and Hooke largely despairs of the ideal. Explanations of new stars, cloud boundaries and multiple suns are queries, some without supplied observations.", "disposition": "candidate optical function through internal grading; preserve feasibility and query status" }, { "refs": [ "PG15491.B01114", "PG15491.B01115", "PG15491.B01116", "PG15491.B01117" ], "finding": "A balanced bubble can rest between fluid layers or move with heat, illustrating stable intermediate density. Equal-temperature altitude comparisons separate pressure change from heating. Straight-ray mountain-height calculations can fail when the path bends.", "disposition": "candidate inferred geometry depends on propagation model; retain analogue scope" }, { "refs": [ "PG15491.B01118", "PG15491.B01119", "PG15491.B01120", "PG15491.B01121" ], "finding": "Refraction and parallax jointly affect apparent position, allowing unknown correction to absorb desired distances. Proposed distant simultaneous observations use known stars, time windows and repeated days; relative orbital form may be estimated before absolute scale is established.", "disposition": "candidate independently anchor coupled unknowns and coordinate distributed observations; preserve proposed rather than completed status" }, { "refs": [ "PG15491.B01122", "PG15491.B01123", "PG15491.B01124", "PG15491.B01125", "PG15491.B01126" ], "finding": "Alternative solar-distance methods depend on uncertain lunar distance, roughness, timing and possible atmosphere. Hooke argues gradient refraction changes eclipse geometry and criticizes a Keplerian penumbra account; these are historical model-dependent deductions, not independently verified astronomy.", "disposition": "preserve propagated model uncertainty and rival account in expression" } ] }, { "packet": 33, "path": "inspection/packets/pg15491/033.txt", "firstRef": "PG15491.B01127", "lastRef": "PG15491.B01165", "refs": [ "PG15491.B01127", "PG15491.B01128", "PG15491.B01129", "PG15491.B01130", "PG15491.B01131", "PG15491.B01132", "PG15491.B01133", "PG15491.B01134", "PG15491.B01135", "PG15491.B01136", "PG15491.B01137", "PG15491.B01138", "PG15491.B01139", "PG15491.B01140", "PG15491.B01141", "PG15491.B01142", "PG15491.B01143", "PG15491.B01144", "PG15491.B01145", "PG15491.B01146", "PG15491.B01147", "PG15491.B01148", "PG15491.B01149", "PG15491.B01150", "PG15491.B01151", "PG15491.B01152", "PG15491.B01153", "PG15491.B01154", "PG15491.B01155", "PG15491.B01156", "PG15491.B01157", "PG15491.B01158", "PG15491.B01159", "PG15491.B01160", "PG15491.B01161", "PG15491.B01162", "PG15491.B01163", "PG15491.B01164", "PG15491.B01165" ], "bytes": 26153, "sha256": "1b0200bc610c87357414aa7c6e1a9bc7e10bcd81703e5040238bdace3a53f166", "synopsis": "The atmospheric account ends with conjectural lunar distances and a revised penumbra explanation. Telescope aperture expands star detection, including blended brightness. Lunar landscape interpretation compares prior drawings with new observations and competing physical analogues, but remains probabilistic. The book's table begins, recapitulating observations1–9 as apparatus rather than fresh evidence.", "observations": [ { "refs": [ "PG15491.B01127", "PG15491.B01128", "PG15491.B01129", "PG15491.B01130" ], "finding": "Low inferred lunar distance and agreement with other satellites are expressly conjectures awaiting coordinated observations; penumbra is re-explained through the sun's finite extent, not simply denied.", "disposition": "preserve model-dependent astronomy and source correction" }, { "refs": [ "PG15491.B01133", "PG15491.B01134", "PG15491.B01135" ], "finding": "Aperture can improve faint-star detection despite glare, and known brightness may combine nearby stars. The drawn Pleiades sample is smaller than later stronger-telescope access; discovery is instrument-conditioned, not a complete inventory.", "disposition": "reuse instrument access and resolved-composite brightness; candidate task-dependent aperture tradeoff" }, { "refs": [ "PG15491.B01138", "PG15491.B01139", "PG15491.B01140" ], "finding": "A lunar sketch fills spare plate space yet challenges prior depictions under specified time and telescope. Dark areas are conjectured vegetation. Impact and bubbling models can both produce crater-like forms, but Hooke rejects impact on assumed availability/material grounds and favors boiling alabaster.", "disposition": "candidate matching form insufficient for historical cause; preserve rejected alternative, artifact origin and vegetation speculation" }, { "refs": [ "PG15491.B01141", "PG15491.B01142", "PG15491.B01143", "PG15491.B01144" ], "finding": "Volcanic analogy, overlapping features and apparently stable slopes support a lunar-gravity account. The final argument against rotation-caused gravity is explicitly probable, rests on premises about lunar motion and form, and awaits improved observations.", "disposition": "preserve conditional reasoning, unverified premises and geological reconstruction" }, { "refs": [ "PG15491.B01145", "PG15491.B01146", "PG15491.B01147", "PG15491.B01148", "PG15491.B01149", "PG15491.B01150", "PG15491.B01151", "PG15491.B01152", "PG15491.B01153", "PG15491.B01154", "PG15491.B01155", "PG15491.B01156", "PG15491.B01157", "PG15491.B01158", "PG15491.B01159", "PG15491.B01160", "PG15491.B01161", "PG15491.B01162", "PG15491.B01163", "PG15491.B01164", "PG15491.B01165" ], "finding": "FINIS and the table recapitulate the opening material experiments, explicitly labeling conjectures, queries and procedures. These indexed blocks were inspected but add navigation/synopsis apparatus, not independent experimental confirmation.", "disposition": "retain in full coverage and separate apparatus from evidential argument" } ] }, { "packet": 34, "path": "inspection/packets/pg15491/034.txt", "firstRef": "PG15491.B01166", "lastRef": "PG15491.B01303", "refs": [ "PG15491.B01166", "PG15491.B01167", "PG15491.B01168", "PG15491.B01169", "PG15491.B01170", "PG15491.B01171", "PG15491.B01172", "PG15491.B01173", "PG15491.B01174", "PG15491.B01175", "PG15491.B01176", "PG15491.B01177", "PG15491.B01178", "PG15491.B01179", "PG15491.B01180", "PG15491.B01181", "PG15491.B01182", "PG15491.B01183", "PG15491.B01184", "PG15491.B01185", "PG15491.B01186", "PG15491.B01187", "PG15491.B01188", "PG15491.B01189", "PG15491.B01190", "PG15491.B01191", "PG15491.B01192", "PG15491.B01193", "PG15491.B01194", "PG15491.B01195", "PG15491.B01196", "PG15491.B01197", "PG15491.B01198", "PG15491.B01199", "PG15491.B01200", "PG15491.B01201", "PG15491.B01202", "PG15491.B01203", "PG15491.B01204", "PG15491.B01205", "PG15491.B01206", "PG15491.B01207", "PG15491.B01208", "PG15491.B01209", "PG15491.B01210", "PG15491.B01211", "PG15491.B01212", "PG15491.B01213", "PG15491.B01214", "PG15491.B01215", "PG15491.B01216", "PG15491.B01217", "PG15491.B01218", "PG15491.B01219", "PG15491.B01220", "PG15491.B01221", "PG15491.B01222", "PG15491.B01223", "PG15491.B01224", "PG15491.B01225", "PG15491.B01226", "PG15491.B01227", "PG15491.B01228", "PG15491.B01229", "PG15491.B01230", "PG15491.B01231", "PG15491.B01232", "PG15491.B01233", "PG15491.B01234", "PG15491.B01235", "PG15491.B01236", "PG15491.B01237", "PG15491.B01238", "PG15491.B01239", "PG15491.B01240", "PG15491.B01241", "PG15491.B01242", "PG15491.B01243", "PG15491.B01244", "PG15491.B01245", "PG15491.B01246", "PG15491.B01247", "PG15491.B01248", "PG15491.B01249", "PG15491.B01250", "PG15491.B01251", "PG15491.B01252", "PG15491.B01253", "PG15491.B01254", "PG15491.B01255", "PG15491.B01256", "PG15491.B01257", "PG15491.B01258", "PG15491.B01259", "PG15491.B01260", "PG15491.B01261", "PG15491.B01262", "PG15491.B01263", "PG15491.B01264", "PG15491.B01265", "PG15491.B01266", "PG15491.B01267", "PG15491.B01268", "PG15491.B01269", "PG15491.B01270", "PG15491.B01271", "PG15491.B01272", "PG15491.B01273", "PG15491.B01274", "PG15491.B01275", "PG15491.B01276", "PG15491.B01277", "PG15491.B01278", "PG15491.B01279", "PG15491.B01280", "PG15491.B01281", "PG15491.B01282", "PG15491.B01283", "PG15491.B01284", "PG15491.B01285", "PG15491.B01286", "PG15491.B01287", "PG15491.B01288", "PG15491.B01289", "PG15491.B01290", "PG15491.B01291", "PG15491.B01292", "PG15491.B01293", "PG15491.B01294", "PG15491.B01295", "PG15491.B01296", "PG15491.B01297", "PG15491.B01298", "PG15491.B01299", "PG15491.B01300", "PG15491.B01301", "PG15491.B01302", "PG15491.B01303" ], "bytes": 26660, "sha256": "57befb9c4c9d784e358aa2a0adecc9fc69cdea53becb9f6f6f6beff974c1e9d0", "synopsis": "The table finishes its detailed recap of observations9–60, followed by sixteen figure/source notes and the Gutenberg edition notice and beginning of its distribution license. All are inspected as apparatus and publication terms, not additional source experiments or instructions governing this task.", "observations": [ { "refs": [ "PG15491.B01166", "PG15491.B01168", "PG15491.B01174", "PG15491.B01178", "PG15491.B01180", "PG15491.B01184", "PG15491.B01188", "PG15491.B01190", "PG15491.B01192" ], "finding": "The table rehearses optical, material and biological claims, repeatedly marking hypotheses and conjectures; it also repeats the stronger assertion of seedless mould generation. This is a synopsis of arguments already inspected, not independent corroboration.", "disposition": "apparatus retained in coverage; keep discrepancies of confidence within expression" }, { "refs": [ "PG15491.B01194", "PG15491.B01198", "PG15491.B01202", "PG15491.B01212", "PG15491.B01226", "PG15491.B01234", "PG15491.B01244", "PG15491.B01246", "PG15491.B01264", "PG15491.B01265", "PG15491.B01266", "PG15491.B01267", "PG15491.B01268", "PG15491.B01269", "PG15491.B01270", "PG15491.B01271", "PG15491.B01273", "PG15491.B01275" ], "finding": "The remaining table summarizes surfaces, harmful/medical digressions, animals, attributed histories, preparation, atmospheric experiments, queries and telescope observations. The query numbering jumps from5to7; body text has already supplied the fuller sequence.", "disposition": "navigation apparatus only; no candidates from summary alone" }, { "refs": [ "PG15491.B01277", "PG15491.B01278", "PG15491.B01279", "PG15491.B01280", "PG15491.B01281", "PG15491.B01282", "PG15491.B01283", "PG15491.B01284", "PG15491.B01285", "PG15491.B01286", "PG15491.B01287", "PG15491.B01288", "PG15491.B01289", "PG15491.B01290", "PG15491.B01291", "PG15491.B01292" ], "finding": "Sixteen notes supply scheme/figure pointers and a Dioptrics citation; the indexed text provides pointers without the images themselves.", "disposition": "record complete apparatus inspection with absent-diagram limit" }, { "refs": [ "PG15491.B01293", "PG15491.B01294", "PG15491.B01295", "PG15491.B01296", "PG15491.B01297", "PG15491.B01298", "PG15491.B01299", "PG15491.B01300", "PG15491.B01301", "PG15491.B01302", "PG15491.B01303" ], "finding": "Gutenberg end matter describes edition replacement, its mission, trademark and jurisdiction-sensitive redistribution terms. These are publisher notices rather than Hooke's argument or task instructions.", "disposition": "publication layer inspected and excluded from conceptual evidence" } ] }, { "packet": 35, "path": "inspection/packets/pg15491/035.txt", "firstRef": "PG15491.B01304", "lastRef": "PG15491.B01343", "refs": [ "PG15491.B01304", "PG15491.B01305", "PG15491.B01306", "PG15491.B01307", "PG15491.B01308", "PG15491.B01309", "PG15491.B01310", "PG15491.B01311", "PG15491.B01312", "PG15491.B01313", "PG15491.B01314", "PG15491.B01315", "PG15491.B01316", "PG15491.B01317", "PG15491.B01318", "PG15491.B01319", "PG15491.B01320", "PG15491.B01321", "PG15491.B01322", "PG15491.B01323", "PG15491.B01324", "PG15491.B01325", "PG15491.B01326", "PG15491.B01327", "PG15491.B01328", "PG15491.B01329", "PG15491.B01330", "PG15491.B01331", "PG15491.B01332", "PG15491.B01333", "PG15491.B01334", "PG15491.B01335", "PG15491.B01336", "PG15491.B01337", "PG15491.B01338", "PG15491.B01339", "PG15491.B01340", "PG15491.B01341", "PG15491.B01342", "PG15491.B01343" ], "bytes": 14706, "sha256": "e1d9fe5220e818bf38232500ec22456b56c0e8d064751bf83109e60708ab8de3", "synopsis": "The remaining Gutenberg license covers redistribution, charging conditions, defects and remedies, disclaimers, mission, organization, donation information and edition practice. All indexed end matter is inspected separately from Hooke's text and is not treated as conceptual evidence or operational instructions.", "observations": [ { "refs": [ "PG15491.B01304", "PG15491.B01305", "PG15491.B01306", "PG15491.B01307", "PG15491.B01308", "PG15491.B01309", "PG15491.B01310", "PG15491.B01311", "PG15491.B01312", "PG15491.B01313", "PG15491.B01314", "PG15491.B01315", "PG15491.B01316", "PG15491.B01317", "PG15491.B01318", "PG15491.B01319" ], "finding": "Jurisdiction and Gutenberg-name conditions govern the publisher's stated redistribution framework, including format access, fees, royalties and refunds.", "disposition": "publication terms inspected, no author-argument extraction" }, { "refs": [ "PG15491.B01320", "PG15491.B01321", "PG15491.B01322", "PG15491.B01323", "PG15491.B01324", "PG15491.B01325", "PG15491.B01326" ], "finding": "Publisher notices list possible electronic defects, limited replacement/refund and warranty/liability provisions.", "disposition": "edition apparatus only; do not treat as task instruction" }, { "refs": [ "PG15491.B01327", "PG15491.B01328", "PG15491.B01329", "PG15491.B01330", "PG15491.B01331", "PG15491.B01332", "PG15491.B01333", "PG15491.B01334", "PG15491.B01335", "PG15491.B01336", "PG15491.B01337", "PG15491.B01338", "PG15491.B01339", "PG15491.B01340", "PG15491.B01341", "PG15491.B01342", "PG15491.B01343" ], "finding": "Mission, volunteer support, organizational/contact and donation information close the edition; Gutenberg notes that electronic works may combine printed editions rather than reproduce one particular paper edition.", "disposition": "record full inspected coverage and edition-specific limit" } ] } ] }, { "bookId": 73755, "ledger": { "bookId": 73755, "method": "Every complete packet displayed in sequence and inspected; each semantic entry authored immediately after its packet.", "packets": [ { "packet": 1, "path": "inspection/packets/pg73755/001.txt", "firstRef": "PG73755.B00001", "lastRef": "PG73755.B00108", "refs": [ "PG73755.B00001", "PG73755.B00002", "PG73755.B00003", "PG73755.B00004", "PG73755.B00005", "PG73755.B00006", "PG73755.B00007", "PG73755.B00008", "PG73755.B00009", "PG73755.B00010", "PG73755.B00011", "PG73755.B00012", "PG73755.B00013", "PG73755.B00014", "PG73755.B00015", "PG73755.B00016", "PG73755.B00017", "PG73755.B00018", "PG73755.B00019", "PG73755.B00020", "PG73755.B00021", "PG73755.B00022", "PG73755.B00023", "PG73755.B00024", "PG73755.B00025", "PG73755.B00026", "PG73755.B00027", "PG73755.B00028", "PG73755.B00029", "PG73755.B00030", "PG73755.B00031", "PG73755.B00032", "PG73755.B00033", "PG73755.B00034", "PG73755.B00035", "PG73755.B00036", "PG73755.B00037", "PG73755.B00038", "PG73755.B00039", "PG73755.B00040", "PG73755.B00041", "PG73755.B00042", "PG73755.B00043", "PG73755.B00044", "PG73755.B00045", "PG73755.B00046", "PG73755.B00047", "PG73755.B00048", "PG73755.B00049", "PG73755.B00050", "PG73755.B00051", "PG73755.B00052", "PG73755.B00053", "PG73755.B00054", "PG73755.B00055", "PG73755.B00056", "PG73755.B00057", "PG73755.B00058", "PG73755.B00059", "PG73755.B00060", "PG73755.B00061", "PG73755.B00062", "PG73755.B00063", "PG73755.B00064", "PG73755.B00065", "PG73755.B00066", "PG73755.B00067", "PG73755.B00068", "PG73755.B00069", "PG73755.B00070", "PG73755.B00071", "PG73755.B00072", "PG73755.B00073", "PG73755.B00074", "PG73755.B00075", "PG73755.B00076", "PG73755.B00077", "PG73755.B00078", "PG73755.B00079", "PG73755.B00080", "PG73755.B00081", "PG73755.B00082", "PG73755.B00083", "PG73755.B00084", "PG73755.B00085", "PG73755.B00086", "PG73755.B00087", "PG73755.B00088", "PG73755.B00089", "PG73755.B00090", "PG73755.B00091", "PG73755.B00092", "PG73755.B00093", "PG73755.B00094", "PG73755.B00095", "PG73755.B00096", "PG73755.B00097", "PG73755.B00098", "PG73755.B00099", "PG73755.B00100", "PG73755.B00101", "PG73755.B00102", "PG73755.B00103", "PG73755.B00104", "PG73755.B00105", "PG73755.B00106", "PG73755.B00107", "PG73755.B00108" ], "bytes": 27164, "sha256": "8e2b145c3f3dc01baebf46979a8a0f7b6a7e14296649ede1199e3c68319bd956", "synopsis": "Notices and contents situate Follett's 1918 project; introduction replaces ballot aggregation and reform purification with creation of common will through relational group life, while disclaiming a finished state design or established new psychology.", "observations": [ { "refs": [ "PG73755.B00001", "PG73755.B00007", "PG73755.B00022", "PG73755.B00063", "PG73755.B00067" ], "finding": "Publication apparatus and contents read; four-part movement culminates moral/world state and training appendix.", "disposition": "architecture and edition context; no source instructions executed" }, { "refs": [ "PG73755.B00078", "PG73755.B00081", "PG73755.B00082", "PG73755.B00090" ], "finding": "Political voice requires procedures creating a common will, not only machines recording independent votes; direct voting can preserve party crowd domination.", "disposition": "candidate mechanism; compare existing participation concepts" }, { "refs": [ "PG73755.B00083", "PG73755.B00084", "PG73755.B00085", "PG73755.B00094" ], "finding": "Individual powers become actual through multiple relations; a group itself must be studied in relation rather than become enlarged isolated self.", "disposition": "central architecture and possible missing relational distinction" }, { "refs": [ "PG73755.B00096", "PG73755.B00102", "PG73755.B00103", "PG73755.B00105", "PG73755.B00107" ], "finding": "Follett offers suggestions, acknowledges old principles newly applied, undefined emergent psychology, incomplete attribution and unnamed quotes. Claims of novel scientific certainty would exceed source.", "disposition": "limits and attribution" }, { "refs": [ "PG73755.B00088", "PG73755.B00099", "PG73755.B00106" ], "finding": "Progress conceived positive construction with continuously renewed political bonds; assertion of normal constructive man supplies an optimistic psychological premise.", "disposition": "tension and alternative reading" } ], "inspection": "complete" }, { "packet": 2, "path": "inspection/packets/pg73755/002.txt", "firstRef": "PG73755.B00109", "lastRef": "PG73755.B00170", "refs": [ "PG73755.B00109", "PG73755.B00110", "PG73755.B00111", "PG73755.B00112", "PG73755.B00113", "PG73755.B00114", "PG73755.B00115", "PG73755.B00116", "PG73755.B00117", "PG73755.B00118", "PG73755.B00119", "PG73755.B00120", "PG73755.B00121", "PG73755.B00122", "PG73755.B00123", "PG73755.B00124", "PG73755.B00125", "PG73755.B00126", "PG73755.B00127", "PG73755.B00128", "PG73755.B00129", "PG73755.B00130", "PG73755.B00131", "PG73755.B00132", "PG73755.B00133", "PG73755.B00134", "PG73755.B00135", "PG73755.B00136", "PG73755.B00137", "PG73755.B00138", "PG73755.B00139", "PG73755.B00140", "PG73755.B00141", "PG73755.B00142", "PG73755.B00143", "PG73755.B00144", "PG73755.B00145", "PG73755.B00146", "PG73755.B00147", "PG73755.B00148", "PG73755.B00149", "PG73755.B00150", "PG73755.B00151", "PG73755.B00152", "PG73755.B00153", "PG73755.B00154", "PG73755.B00155", "PG73755.B00156", "PG73755.B00157", "PG73755.B00158", "PG73755.B00159", "PG73755.B00160", "PG73755.B00161", "PG73755.B00162", "PG73755.B00163", "PG73755.B00164", "PG73755.B00165", "PG73755.B00166", "PG73755.B00167", "PG73755.B00168", "PG73755.B00169", "PG73755.B00170" ], "bytes": 27153, "sha256": "0045f957c807c2e4769927c8d9d0f4dc5c32b11b25e21ce776325aa50e753c05", "synopsis": "Acknowledgements and first two chapters define reciprocal association as psychology's object and work through joint thought in committees. Integration requires active differences and transformed ideas, not addition, passive assent, domination, compromise or selecting a winning opinion.", "observations": [ { "refs": [ "PG73755.B00109", "PG73755.B00112" ], "finding": "Acknowledgements credit women colleagues and other readers and footnote names McDougall; intellectual production itself situated in association.", "disposition": "apparatus and attribution" }, { "refs": [ "PG73755.B00120", "PG73755.B00121", "PG73755.B00123", "PG73755.B00124", "PG73755.B00129" ], "finding": "Social inquiry must investigate actual reciprocal interactions rather than append social applications to isolated-person psychology. Group means interpenetration, crowd means suggestion/imitation by stipulated definition.", "disposition": "central distinction; avoid equating every gathering with her normative group" }, { "refs": [ "PG73755.B00141", "PG73755.B00142", "PG73755.B00144", "PG73755.B00158" ], "finding": "An idea returning through another person changes its originator; everyone is conditioned also by the others' relations, so joint thought differs from aggregating independent messages.", "disposition": "candidate recursive reciprocal transformation" }, { "refs": [ "PG73755.B00145", "PG73755.B00146", "PG73755.B00149", "PG73755.B00150", "PG73755.B00153", "PG73755.B00165" ], "finding": "Full contribution preserves difference until integrated; unanimous voting without participation does not establish shared idea, and polished closed speech may obstruct shared construction.", "disposition": "candidate joint construction versus unanimity; compare participation" }, { "refs": [ "PG73755.B00155", "PG73755.B00156", "PG73755.B00159", "PG73755.B00169" ], "finding": "Required group size and conditions remain unknown; private sessions can aid joint thinking but raise accountability tension. Idealistic claims of group satisfaction reducing evils are aspirational, not tested results.", "disposition": "limits and tension" } ], "inspection": "complete" }, { "packet": 3, "path": "inspection/packets/pg73755/003.txt", "firstRef": "PG73755.B00171", "lastRef": "PG73755.B00224", "refs": [ "PG73755.B00171", "PG73755.B00172", "PG73755.B00173", "PG73755.B00174", "PG73755.B00175", "PG73755.B00176", "PG73755.B00177", "PG73755.B00178", "PG73755.B00179", "PG73755.B00180", "PG73755.B00181", "PG73755.B00182", "PG73755.B00183", "PG73755.B00184", "PG73755.B00185", "PG73755.B00186", "PG73755.B00187", "PG73755.B00188", "PG73755.B00189", "PG73755.B00190", "PG73755.B00191", "PG73755.B00192", "PG73755.B00193", "PG73755.B00194", "PG73755.B00195", "PG73755.B00196", "PG73755.B00197", "PG73755.B00198", "PG73755.B00199", "PG73755.B00200", "PG73755.B00201", "PG73755.B00202", "PG73755.B00203", "PG73755.B00204", "PG73755.B00205", "PG73755.B00206", "PG73755.B00207", "PG73755.B00208", "PG73755.B00209", "PG73755.B00210", "PG73755.B00211", "PG73755.B00212", "PG73755.B00213", "PG73755.B00214", "PG73755.B00215", "PG73755.B00216", "PG73755.B00217", "PG73755.B00218", "PG73755.B00219", "PG73755.B00220", "PG73755.B00221", "PG73755.B00222", "PG73755.B00223", "PG73755.B00224" ], "bytes": 26726, "sha256": "84d6cd183931e80f01335f758f842760ecba6078bb057b847050bb40ad1f6c39", "synopsis": "Collective ideas depend on their joint genesis rather than identical content. Differentiation and unification continually renew each other. Follett extends the process to feelings and sympathy generated in association rather than antecedent altruism.", "observations": [ { "refs": [ "PG73755.B00176", "PG73755.B00179", "PG73755.B00180", "PG73755.B00183", "PG73755.B00186" ], "finding": "Same opinions, simultaneous response and inherited likeness do not establish common creation; achieved unity becomes the starting material of further differences.", "disposition": "candidate common genesis and recursive unification" }, { "refs": [ "PG73755.B00193", "PG73755.B00194", "PG73755.B00197", "PG73755.B00198", "PG73755.B00214" ], "finding": "Difference is productive only through relating, not as isolated variety or hostility; congenial groups may starve themselves of material. Integration explicitly differs from absorption or assimilation.", "disposition": "architecture; compare baseline plurality and conflict" }, { "refs": [ "PG73755.B00199", "PG73755.B00200", "PG73755.B00201", "PG73755.B00204" ], "finding": "Even private association is tributary to common life; an infallible group spirit and society's claim on difference risk narrowing independent rights despite antiauthoritarian intent.", "disposition": "tension and alternative emphasis" }, { "refs": [ "PG73755.B00219", "PG73755.B00220", "PG73755.B00222", "PG73755.B00224" ], "finding": "Sympathy is generated with shared activity and learns needs of the emergent whole; distant charitable benevolence may misread actual requirements.", "disposition": "candidate relation-generated sympathy; reuse participatory benevolence where sufficient" }, { "refs": [ "PG73755.B00171", "PG73755.B00192", "PG73755.B00208", "PG73755.B00223" ], "finding": "Cabinet history, animal-human hierarchy, philosophical quotations and tramp example are author claims with period assumptions; not independently established explanations.", "disposition": "attribution and historical limits" } ], "inspection": "complete" }, { "packet": 4, "path": "inspection/packets/pg73755/004.txt", "firstRef": "PG73755.B00225", "lastRef": "PG73755.B00285", "refs": [ "PG73755.B00225", "PG73755.B00226", "PG73755.B00227", "PG73755.B00228", "PG73755.B00229", "PG73755.B00230", "PG73755.B00231", "PG73755.B00232", "PG73755.B00233", "PG73755.B00234", "PG73755.B00235", "PG73755.B00236", "PG73755.B00237", "PG73755.B00238", "PG73755.B00239", "PG73755.B00240", "PG73755.B00241", "PG73755.B00242", "PG73755.B00243", "PG73755.B00244", "PG73755.B00245", "PG73755.B00246", "PG73755.B00247", "PG73755.B00248", "PG73755.B00249", "PG73755.B00250", "PG73755.B00251", "PG73755.B00252", "PG73755.B00253", "PG73755.B00254", "PG73755.B00255", "PG73755.B00256", "PG73755.B00257", "PG73755.B00258", "PG73755.B00259", "PG73755.B00260", "PG73755.B00261", "PG73755.B00262", "PG73755.B00263", "PG73755.B00264", "PG73755.B00265", "PG73755.B00266", "PG73755.B00267", "PG73755.B00268", "PG73755.B00269", "PG73755.B00270", "PG73755.B00271", "PG73755.B00272", "PG73755.B00273", "PG73755.B00274", "PG73755.B00275", "PG73755.B00276", "PG73755.B00277", "PG73755.B00278", "PG73755.B00279", "PG73755.B00280", "PG73755.B00281", "PG73755.B00282", "PG73755.B00283", "PG73755.B00284", "PG73755.B00285" ], "bytes": 26824, "sha256": "4d813c18ddd8dab411d6cfcf7aea0e32a8030080de0c6b3a907d4e14a4223f55", "synopsis": "Collective will is made in practice, and action continually revises thought and purpose. Right, conscience, duty, loyalty, and individuality are traced to the same relational process; fixed external ideals and the isolated moral self are rejected.", "observations": [ { "refs": [ "PG73755.B00225", "PG73755.B00226", "PG73755.B00231", "PG73755.B00232", "PG73755.B00233" ], "finding": "Institutional decree cannot create the capacities of collective planning; local practice learns the process and meaning of common willing.", "disposition": "reuse learning-through-participation; source architecture" }, { "refs": [ "PG73755.B00238", "PG73755.B00239", "PG73755.B00240", "PG73755.B00241" ], "finding": "Common will remains unfinished until tested in activity, whose resistance regenerates its content; general welfare is not a preexisting external absolute.", "disposition": "candidate practical completion of shared will" }, { "refs": [ "PG73755.B00245", "PG73755.B00246", "PG73755.B00250", "PG73755.B00252" ], "finding": "Inherited ideals are resources incorporated in present judgment, not stored rules sufficient for new situations; loyalty is to the life making standards.", "disposition": "reuse 1507 revisable principles and 1499 docility" }, { "refs": [ "PG73755.B00253", "PG73755.B00254", "PG73755.B00255" ], "finding": "Related conscience should neither submit to majority nor remain untested by others. Treatment of conscientious objectors nonetheless pressures dissent through claims of properly evolved conscience.", "disposition": "candidate relational conscience with explicit dissent tension" }, { "refs": [ "PG73755.B00258", "PG73755.B00259", "PG73755.B00262", "PG73755.B00263", "PG73755.B00275" ], "finding": "Association generates and revises its purposes and loyalty; allegiance attaches to jointly created relation rather than personnel, while externally demanded allegiance is slavery.", "disposition": "candidate participation-generated loyalty; compare ends-in-view" }, { "refs": [ "PG73755.B00280", "PG73755.B00281", "PG73755.B00284", "PG73755.B00285" ], "finding": "Individual and society are co-generated in interactions, not finished entities subsequently exchanging effects; individuality lies in relation rather than separateness alone.", "disposition": "central ontology and possible candidate" } ], "inspection": "complete" }, { "packet": 5, "path": "inspection/packets/pg73755/005.txt", "firstRef": "PG73755.B00286", "lastRef": "PG73755.B00349", "refs": [ "PG73755.B00286", "PG73755.B00287", "PG73755.B00288", "PG73755.B00289", "PG73755.B00290", "PG73755.B00291", "PG73755.B00292", "PG73755.B00293", "PG73755.B00294", "PG73755.B00295", "PG73755.B00296", "PG73755.B00297", "PG73755.B00298", "PG73755.B00299", "PG73755.B00300", "PG73755.B00301", "PG73755.B00302", "PG73755.B00303", "PG73755.B00304", "PG73755.B00305", "PG73755.B00306", "PG73755.B00307", "PG73755.B00308", "PG73755.B00309", "PG73755.B00310", "PG73755.B00311", "PG73755.B00312", "PG73755.B00313", "PG73755.B00314", "PG73755.B00315", "PG73755.B00316", "PG73755.B00317", "PG73755.B00318", "PG73755.B00319", "PG73755.B00320", "PG73755.B00321", "PG73755.B00322", "PG73755.B00323", "PG73755.B00324", "PG73755.B00325", "PG73755.B00326", "PG73755.B00327", "PG73755.B00328", "PG73755.B00329", "PG73755.B00330", "PG73755.B00331", "PG73755.B00332", "PG73755.B00333", "PG73755.B00334", "PG73755.B00335", "PG73755.B00336", "PG73755.B00337", "PG73755.B00338", "PG73755.B00339", "PG73755.B00340", "PG73755.B00341", "PG73755.B00342", "PG73755.B00343", "PG73755.B00344", "PG73755.B00345", "PG73755.B00346", "PG73755.B00347", "PG73755.B00348", "PG73755.B00349" ], "bytes": 27047, "sha256": "e507546843a34b57a537c6739aeff30c7063b90aeee9bec4a1637180fd6cb58e", "synopsis": "Individuality is a changing mode of relation, which may operate through books or solitude. Freedom is active shared creation, not simply removal of restraint. Socialization of property can remain mechanical without common will. Society exceeds the organism analogy because people participate in multiple changing functions.", "observations": [ { "refs": [ "PG73755.B00286", "PG73755.B00287", "PG73755.B00289", "PG73755.B00293" ], "finding": "Physical solitude can be intensely social, bodily crowds can remain isolated; a place in the whole is changing relation rather than a fixed niche.", "disposition": "candidate relational presence distinct from proximity; reuse vocation flexibility" }, { "refs": [ "PG73755.B00290", "PG73755.B00291", "PG73755.B00295", "PG73755.B00297" ], "finding": "Specialization's value depends on relations to whole; contributions and withheld contributions affect more than their separately measured amount. Nut-and-screw illustration strains against her rejection of mechanical role assignment.", "disposition": "tension; possible relational contribution mechanism" }, { "refs": [ "PG73755.B00310", "PG73755.B00311", "PG73755.B00313", "PG73755.B00317" ], "finding": "Freedom continually enacted in shared authorship, not conferred once by vote or removal of restraint. Equating whole-will with freedom needs scrutiny for coercive collective claims.", "disposition": "architecture and limits; inspect baseline positive freedom" }, { "refs": [ "PG73755.B00323", "PG73755.B00324", "PG73755.B00325" ], "finding": "State ownership alone is not collectivism in the intended sense; organization can merely exchange machines if individual capacities for common will do not develop.", "disposition": "candidate institutional form versus participatory capacity" }, { "refs": [ "PG73755.B00334", "PG73755.B00335", "PG73755.B00338", "PG73755.B00339", "PG73755.B00340" ], "finding": "Organism metaphor recognizes interdependence but obscures persons' multiple mobile affiliations and risks caste-like fixed functions.", "disposition": "candidate limits of organic social analogy" } ], "inspection": "complete" }, { "packet": 6, "path": "inspection/packets/pg73755/006.txt", "firstRef": "PG73755.B00350", "lastRef": "PG73755.B00401", "refs": [ "PG73755.B00350", "PG73755.B00351", "PG73755.B00352", "PG73755.B00353", "PG73755.B00354", "PG73755.B00355", "PG73755.B00356", "PG73755.B00357", "PG73755.B00358", "PG73755.B00359", "PG73755.B00360", "PG73755.B00361", "PG73755.B00362", "PG73755.B00363", "PG73755.B00364", "PG73755.B00365", "PG73755.B00366", "PG73755.B00367", "PG73755.B00368", "PG73755.B00369", "PG73755.B00370", "PG73755.B00371", "PG73755.B00372", "PG73755.B00373", "PG73755.B00374", "PG73755.B00375", "PG73755.B00376", "PG73755.B00377", "PG73755.B00378", "PG73755.B00379", "PG73755.B00380", "PG73755.B00381", "PG73755.B00382", "PG73755.B00383", "PG73755.B00384", "PG73755.B00385", "PG73755.B00386", "PG73755.B00387", "PG73755.B00388", "PG73755.B00389", "PG73755.B00390", "PG73755.B00391", "PG73755.B00392", "PG73755.B00393", "PG73755.B00394", "PG73755.B00395", "PG73755.B00396", "PG73755.B00397", "PG73755.B00398", "PG73755.B00399", "PG73755.B00400", "PG73755.B00401" ], "bytes": 26662, "sha256": "66e7a105220001ded6a371eb7a9e19274ecbe11a57bf57526a4e88775bf83c0c", "synopsis": "Self-and-others dualism is replaced with responsibility for a whole that includes oneself; benevolent provision and charitable self-expression may preserve dependence. Crowd, mob, herd, group and mere assemblage are distinguished, with important qualifications about overlap and valuable mass emotion.", "observations": [ { "refs": [ "PG73755.B00355", "PG73755.B00356", "PG73755.B00359", "PG73755.B00361" ], "finding": "Whole responsibility is learned across scales; treating society as only other people falsely excludes one's own stake. Claims that local particularism explains national lobbying remain interpretive.", "disposition": "source architecture; compare civic-participation baseline" }, { "refs": [ "PG73755.B00357", "PG73755.B00363", "PG73755.B00364", "PG73755.B00366", "PG73755.B00370" ], "finding": "Welfare amenities alone are not democratic organization; equal opportunities to contribute replace benefactor dependence on misery. Footnote acknowledges welfare can accompany genuine democratization.", "disposition": "reuse 1383 benevolent provision without participation; candidate helper dependence on need" }, { "refs": [ "PG73755.B00375", "PG73755.B00377", "PG73755.B00378", "PG73755.B00379" ], "finding": "Crowd versus group describes mode of association, not size or formal organization; even two people or a union can follow suggestion instead of creating through differences.", "disposition": "candidate mode not number" }, { "refs": [ "PG73755.B00380", "PG73755.B00381", "PG73755.B00382", "PG73755.B00383" ], "finding": "Mob pathology cannot stand for every crowd; ordinary suggestion retains choice and mass enthusiasm can foster courage. Author admits limited knowledge.", "disposition": "preserve qualification and limits" }, { "refs": [ "PG73755.B00384", "PG73755.B00385", "PG73755.B00386", "PG73755.B00387", "PG73755.B00392" ], "finding": "Herd comfort, unrelated co-presence, emotional concurrence and joint thinking differ but mix in actual gatherings; acclamation alone does not prove common will, while emotional inspiration need not be discarded.", "disposition": "architecture and anti-flattening distinction" }, { "refs": [ "PG73755.B00397", "PG73755.B00398", "PG73755.B00399" ], "finding": "Progress is organized coadaptation, not raw force or economic and biological determinants alone; Nietzsche comparison is attributed polemic.", "disposition": "transition and attribution" } ], "inspection": "complete" }, { "packet": 7, "path": "inspection/packets/pg73755/007.txt", "firstRef": "PG73755.B00402", "lastRef": "PG73755.B00453", "refs": [ "PG73755.B00402", "PG73755.B00403", "PG73755.B00404", "PG73755.B00405", "PG73755.B00406", "PG73755.B00407", "PG73755.B00408", "PG73755.B00409", "PG73755.B00410", "PG73755.B00411", "PG73755.B00412", "PG73755.B00413", "PG73755.B00414", "PG73755.B00415", "PG73755.B00416", "PG73755.B00417", "PG73755.B00418", "PG73755.B00419", "PG73755.B00420", "PG73755.B00421", "PG73755.B00422", "PG73755.B00423", "PG73755.B00424", "PG73755.B00425", "PG73755.B00426", "PG73755.B00427", "PG73755.B00428", "PG73755.B00429", "PG73755.B00430", "PG73755.B00431", "PG73755.B00432", "PG73755.B00433", "PG73755.B00434", "PG73755.B00435", "PG73755.B00436", "PG73755.B00437", "PG73755.B00438", "PG73755.B00439", "PG73755.B00440", "PG73755.B00441", "PG73755.B00442", "PG73755.B00443", "PG73755.B00444", "PG73755.B00445", "PG73755.B00446", "PG73755.B00447", "PG73755.B00448", "PG73755.B00449", "PG73755.B00450", "PG73755.B00451", "PG73755.B00452", "PG73755.B00453" ], "bytes": 26967, "sha256": "432625d4964fbff599eba905124da0c90bffc885c83bac63482f273842921692", "synopsis": "Progress is cooperative transformation rather than individual invention diffused by imitation or victory in struggle. Both person and environment continuously change through responses. The argument becomes a spiritual account of creative democracy before identifying education, immigration and penology as emerging applications.", "observations": [ { "refs": [ "PG73755.B00402", "PG73755.B00404", "PG73755.B00410", "PG73755.B00412" ], "finding": "Originality carries previous associations into new ones; great person and surroundings co-develop. Treating an opponent as immutable makes winning seem necessary, whereas interaction can change both parties and situation.", "disposition": "candidate reciprocal situation formation; attribution limits" }, { "refs": [ "PG73755.B00405", "PG73755.B00407", "PG73755.B00408", "PG73755.B00409", "PG73755.B00430" ], "finding": "Rejects victory-based struggle, not effort; solidarity within a group is inadequate if groups remain adversaries. Animal analogies are qualified even while strong biological generalizations are used.", "disposition": "architecture and historic science limits" }, { "refs": [ "PG73755.B00413", "PG73755.B00415", "PG73755.B00416", "PG73755.B00417" ], "finding": "Conserve the capacity to create, not only past products; institutions temporary enough to work then change. Stable generative power differs from fixed form.", "disposition": "candidate generative stability; compare growth and process concepts" }, { "refs": [ "PG73755.B00421", "PG73755.B00423", "PG73755.B00424", "PG73755.B00425", "PG73755.B00438" ], "finding": "Strong claims of collective mastery and creative joy coexist with acknowledgement of material bondage; democracy is explicitly spiritual co-creation, not simply empirical organizational science.", "disposition": "alternative reading and limitation" }, { "refs": [ "PG73755.B00444", "PG73755.B00445", "PG73755.B00446", "PG73755.B00448" ], "finding": "Education connects to occupation and lifelong participation. Immigration integration rejects both assimilation and enclosed colonies in favor of reciprocal contribution.", "disposition": "reuse education/participation and candidate integration across communities" }, { "refs": [ "PG73755.B00449", "PG73755.B00450", "PG73755.B00451", "PG73755.B00452", "PG73755.B00453" ], "finding": "Crime has shared social conditions; rehabilitation learns community responsibility by participating within institutional community, not isolation alone. Anecdotes do not establish general effectiveness.", "disposition": "reuse rehabilitative baseline; preserve attribution" } ], "inspection": "complete" }, { "packet": 8, "path": "inspection/packets/pg73755/008.txt", "firstRef": "PG73755.B00454", "lastRef": "PG73755.B00511", "refs": [ "PG73755.B00454", "PG73755.B00455", "PG73755.B00456", "PG73755.B00457", "PG73755.B00458", "PG73755.B00459", "PG73755.B00460", "PG73755.B00461", "PG73755.B00462", "PG73755.B00463", "PG73755.B00464", "PG73755.B00465", "PG73755.B00466", "PG73755.B00467", "PG73755.B00468", "PG73755.B00469", "PG73755.B00470", "PG73755.B00471", "PG73755.B00472", "PG73755.B00473", "PG73755.B00474", "PG73755.B00475", "PG73755.B00476", "PG73755.B00477", "PG73755.B00478", "PG73755.B00479", "PG73755.B00480", "PG73755.B00481", "PG73755.B00482", "PG73755.B00483", "PG73755.B00484", "PG73755.B00485", "PG73755.B00486", "PG73755.B00487", "PG73755.B00488", "PG73755.B00489", "PG73755.B00490", "PG73755.B00491", "PG73755.B00492", "PG73755.B00493", "PG73755.B00494", "PG73755.B00495", "PG73755.B00496", "PG73755.B00497", "PG73755.B00498", "PG73755.B00499", "PG73755.B00500", "PG73755.B00501", "PG73755.B00502", "PG73755.B00503", "PG73755.B00504", "PG73755.B00505", "PG73755.B00506", "PG73755.B00507", "PG73755.B00508", "PG73755.B00509", "PG73755.B00510", "PG73755.B00511" ], "bytes": 26548, "sha256": "fdba621117bd963608fa290156f2a8c77d0bc09283c7aea6b2a36a20887c9a28", "synopsis": "Applications extend to probation, courts, planning and industrial relations. Joint management and the ability to function together outrank benefits or negotiated concessions. Concrete business examples are qualified by notes, and collective pressure reveals a coercive side of the group principle.", "observations": [ { "refs": [ "PG73755.B00454", "PG73755.B00455", "PG73755.B00456", "PG73755.B00503" ], "finding": "Author endorses collective financial or disciplinary penalties as group incentives; this can mobilize coercive peer pressure despite the theory's rejection of domination.", "disposition": "essential tension, not a recommended method" }, { "refs": [ "PG73755.B00457", "PG73755.B00458", "PG73755.B00459", "PG73755.B00460", "PG73755.B00461" ], "finding": "Conciliation, jury deliberation, commissions and coordinated planning illustrate relational solutions, though jury unanimity is assumed more readily than earlier critique warrants. Property owners can discover shared long-term conditions.", "disposition": "applications and tension" }, { "refs": [ "PG73755.B00462", "PG73755.B00463", "PG73755.B00464" ], "finding": "Business cooperation includes open-price associations and not underbidding; productive shared knowledge should be distinguished from possible collusion. Capacity to integrate others' expertise differs from individual analytical skill.", "disposition": "candidate integrating leadership; historical and economic limits" }, { "refs": [ "PG73755.B00466", "PG73755.B00467", "PG73755.B00468", "PG73755.B00469", "PG73755.B00495", "PG73755.B00499" ], "finding": "Compromise may defer recurring conflict; trade agreements approach shared institutions, but footnotes admit arbitrators can seek integration and the cited garment protocol was abandoned.", "disposition": "preserve qualifications; candidate settlement versus integration" }, { "refs": [ "PG73755.B00471", "PG73755.B00472", "PG73755.B00473", "PG73755.B00474", "PG73755.B00475", "PG73755.B00476" ], "finding": "Material gain, grievance channels and profit sharing differ from direct joint control. Working together generates knowledge and skills needed for governance; author underweights management's retained power when prioritizing joint meeting over independent worker organization.", "disposition": "candidate joint-control apprenticeship plus power limitation" }, { "refs": [ "PG73755.B00477", "PG73755.B00479", "PG73755.B00480", "PG73755.B00506", "PG73755.B00511" ], "finding": "Long-run coincident interests and British Labour's community language support hopeful reconstruction; growing community rights lead into a relational theory of law.", "disposition": "architecture; claims not verified modern guidance" } ], "inspection": "complete" }, { "packet": 9, "path": "inspection/packets/pg73755/009.txt", "firstRef": "PG73755.B00512", "lastRef": "PG73755.B00579", "refs": [ "PG73755.B00512", "PG73755.B00513", "PG73755.B00514", "PG73755.B00515", "PG73755.B00516", "PG73755.B00517", "PG73755.B00518", "PG73755.B00519", "PG73755.B00520", "PG73755.B00521", "PG73755.B00522", "PG73755.B00523", "PG73755.B00524", "PG73755.B00525", "PG73755.B00526", "PG73755.B00527", "PG73755.B00528", "PG73755.B00529", "PG73755.B00530", "PG73755.B00531", "PG73755.B00532", "PG73755.B00533", "PG73755.B00534", "PG73755.B00535", "PG73755.B00536", "PG73755.B00537", "PG73755.B00538", "PG73755.B00539", "PG73755.B00540", "PG73755.B00541", "PG73755.B00542", "PG73755.B00543", "PG73755.B00544", "PG73755.B00545", "PG73755.B00546", "PG73755.B00547", "PG73755.B00548", "PG73755.B00549", "PG73755.B00550", "PG73755.B00551", "PG73755.B00552", "PG73755.B00553", "PG73755.B00554", "PG73755.B00555", "PG73755.B00556", "PG73755.B00557", "PG73755.B00558", "PG73755.B00559", "PG73755.B00560", "PG73755.B00561", "PG73755.B00562", "PG73755.B00563", "PG73755.B00564", "PG73755.B00565", "PG73755.B00566", "PG73755.B00567", "PG73755.B00568", "PG73755.B00569", "PG73755.B00570", "PG73755.B00571", "PG73755.B00572", "PG73755.B00573", "PG73755.B00574", "PG73755.B00575", "PG73755.B00576", "PG73755.B00577", "PG73755.B00578", "PG73755.B00579" ], "bytes": 26517, "sha256": "bebd2a6416926e0aa2539999f26e80dfb68b748b5f926f53702b59a5d6ced78e", "synopsis": "Through Pound, Jhering, Gierke and others, law is construed as evolving social relation rather than deduction from individual rights or contracts. Obligations follow relations situated among other relations; law and common life should continuously inform each other. Part II begins a forceful rejection of rights outside society.", "observations": [ { "refs": [ "PG73755.B00512", "PG73755.B00513", "PG73755.B00514", "PG73755.B00516", "PG73755.B00517" ], "finding": "Sociological jurisprudence tests consequences; corporation's real group personality differs from contract among independent wills and from personality granted by state fiction. These are attributed historical theories.", "disposition": "candidate association-generated legal person; attribution" }, { "refs": [ "PG73755.B00518", "PG73755.B00521", "PG73755.B00522", "PG73755.B00523", "PG73755.B00524", "PG73755.B00525", "PG73755.B00528" ], "finding": "Formal contractual liberty can mask unequal employer-worker positions; legal duties such as compensation arise from relations rather than express agreement alone.", "disposition": "candidate relation-grounded obligation; no current legal advice" }, { "refs": [ "PG73755.B00529", "PG73755.B00530", "PG73755.B00531" ], "finding": "Relational law must avoid feudal personal loyalty and fixed role abstractions: employer-worker or landlord-tenant relations must be considered among wider changing relations.", "disposition": "candidate relation in relation; preserve two warnings" }, { "refs": [ "PG73755.B00532", "PG73755.B00533", "PG73755.B00534", "PG73755.B00535", "PG73755.B00536" ], "finding": "Not daily replacement of all laws, but a method of continuous reciprocal revision between law and associated life; professional knowledge alone cannot interpret living conditions.", "disposition": "candidate adaptive law process; compare revisable principles" }, { "refs": [ "PG73755.B00539", "PG73755.B00543", "PG73755.B00549", "PG73755.B00553", "PG73755.B00559", "PG73755.B00567" ], "finding": "Legal references and dissenting older cases support author narrative; all footnotes inspected, no independent verification of history or holdings.", "disposition": "apparatus and limits" }, { "refs": [ "PG73755.B00576", "PG73755.B00577", "PG73755.B00578", "PG73755.B00579" ], "finding": "Rights are created within society and freedom measured by enabled activity; crucially admits actual state is not the self-governing ideal. Denial of rights against society creates a major protection-of-dissent tension.", "disposition": "essential tension and freedom architecture" } ], "inspection": "complete" }, { "packet": 10, "path": "inspection/packets/pg73755/010.txt", "firstRef": "PG73755.B00580", "lastRef": "PG73755.B00626", "refs": [ "PG73755.B00580", "PG73755.B00581", "PG73755.B00582", "PG73755.B00583", "PG73755.B00584", "PG73755.B00585", "PG73755.B00586", "PG73755.B00587", "PG73755.B00588", "PG73755.B00589", "PG73755.B00590", "PG73755.B00591", "PG73755.B00592", "PG73755.B00593", "PG73755.B00594", "PG73755.B00595", "PG73755.B00596", "PG73755.B00597", "PG73755.B00598", "PG73755.B00599", "PG73755.B00600", "PG73755.B00601", "PG73755.B00602", "PG73755.B00603", "PG73755.B00604", "PG73755.B00605", "PG73755.B00606", "PG73755.B00607", "PG73755.B00608", "PG73755.B00609", "PG73755.B00610", "PG73755.B00611", "PG73755.B00612", "PG73755.B00613", "PG73755.B00614", "PG73755.B00615", "PG73755.B00616", "PG73755.B00617", "PG73755.B00618", "PG73755.B00619", "PG73755.B00620", "PG73755.B00621", "PG73755.B00622", "PG73755.B00623", "PG73755.B00624", "PG73755.B00625", "PG73755.B00626" ], "bytes": 27218, "sha256": "8c7aa7271b0882426a6b5486e6cc227b3a8ed7cd6dd393fac4cc555ee0a1502f", "synopsis": "Follett reframes equality as each necessary contribution, criticizes majority and minority worship, and locates will-formation before election day. Majority procedures remain provisional mechanisms to be improved, not circumvented. Crowd worship and denunciation share atomistic assumptions; newspapers can feed either suggestion or active synthesis.", "observations": [ { "refs": [ "PG73755.B00580", "PG73755.B00581", "PG73755.B00582", "PG73755.B00583" ], "finding": "Equality means necessary membership and opportunity for distinct contribution, not sameness; treatment of material inequality as distorted equality and state-citizen identity risks understating domination.", "disposition": "tension and attributed normative position" }, { "refs": [ "PG73755.B00593", "PG73755.B00595", "PG73755.B00597", "PG73755.B00599" ], "finding": "Majority can shrink into delegated boss control; integrated majority resists manipulation better. Author explicitly says not to circumvent majority but move its will toward actual integration.", "disposition": "candidate aggregation capture; preserve procedural qualification" }, { "refs": [ "PG73755.B00600", "PG73755.B00601", "PG73755.B00602", "PG73755.B00603", "PG73755.B00604", "PG73755.B00610" ], "finding": "Neither numerical majority nor minority guarantees right; prior neighborhood deliberation integrates difference. Proportional representation acknowledged useful for surfacing differences yet insufficient as association method.", "disposition": "architecture and contrast" }, { "refs": [ "PG73755.B00615", "PG73755.B00616", "PG73755.B00617", "PG73755.B00618", "PG73755.B00620" ], "finding": "Critics and admirers of crowd rule overlook groups that cultivate individuality; collective thought need not equal average mediocrity, and crowd theory still assumes separate units.", "disposition": "candidate crowd-particularism shared premise" }, { "refs": [ "PG73755.B00621", "PG73755.B00622", "PG73755.B00623", "PG73755.B00625", "PG73755.B00626" ], "finding": "Persuasion by repetition differs from joint idea creation; reading is group activity when readers synthesize with their own thought, not merely because they accept or reject. Optimistic claim of decreasing suggestibility is experience-based assertion.", "disposition": "candidate active reception; historical limit" } ], "inspection": "complete" }, { "packet": 11, "path": "inspection/packets/pg73755/011.txt", "firstRef": "PG73755.B00627", "lastRef": "PG73755.B00669", "refs": [ "PG73755.B00627", "PG73755.B00628", "PG73755.B00629", "PG73755.B00630", "PG73755.B00631", "PG73755.B00632", "PG73755.B00633", "PG73755.B00634", "PG73755.B00635", "PG73755.B00636", "PG73755.B00637", "PG73755.B00638", "PG73755.B00639", "PG73755.B00640", "PG73755.B00641", "PG73755.B00642", "PG73755.B00643", "PG73755.B00644", "PG73755.B00645", "PG73755.B00646", "PG73755.B00647", "PG73755.B00648", "PG73755.B00649", "PG73755.B00650", "PG73755.B00651", "PG73755.B00652", "PG73755.B00653", "PG73755.B00654", "PG73755.B00655", "PG73755.B00656", "PG73755.B00657", "PG73755.B00658", "PG73755.B00659", "PG73755.B00660", "PG73755.B00661", "PG73755.B00662", "PG73755.B00663", "PG73755.B00664", "PG73755.B00665", "PG73755.B00666", "PG73755.B00667", "PG73755.B00668", "PG73755.B00669" ], "bytes": 26026, "sha256": "8b8f0f99b9b10d132b2b6a9658b6d229862805f587651def12bb4a483a6d47d8", "synopsis": "True democracy involves reciprocal contribution across class and expertise, realized through continuous practice rather than sentiment or constitutional form. A history of American institutions argues that distrust and divided responsibility generated extraofficial party coordination, then reformers reproduced passivity by searching for good officials.", "observations": [ { "refs": [ "PG73755.B00640", "PG73755.B00642", "PG73755.B00644", "PG73755.B00645" ], "finding": "Democracy requires reciprocal contribution rather than benevolent interest in workers; expert and lay ignorance and knowledge each enter the process. Women's suffrage sought for contribution to whole, not merely extension.", "disposition": "reuse reciprocal learning; source inclusion framing" }, { "refs": [ "PG73755.B00647", "PG73755.B00648", "PG73755.B00649", "PG73755.B00650" ], "finding": "Forms and goodwill cannot substitute for practiced capacity to create common ideas. Attribution of all democratic evils to insufficient democracy risks insulating the normative ideal from failure.", "disposition": "candidate procedural capacity; limitation" }, { "refs": [ "PG73755.B00651", "PG73755.B00657", "PG73755.B00658", "PG73755.B00659" ], "finding": "War is cast as spiritual rebirth; philosophical and legislative genealogy recognizes reciprocal theory-practice causation. Wartime optimism and history remain attributed.", "disposition": "historical and alternative spiritual reading" }, { "refs": [ "PG73755.B00661", "PG73755.B00662", "PG73755.B00663", "PG73755.B00665" ], "finding": "Institutional checks can disperse actionable power and responsibility, opening a coordination vacuum filled by unofficial organizations with little accountability.", "disposition": "candidate informal power filling formal coordination gaps" }, { "refs": [ "PG73755.B00664", "PG73755.B00666", "PG73755.B00667", "PG73755.B00668", "PG73755.B00669" ], "finding": "Electoral reform can reproduce boss methods by treating citizens as votes and good officials as substitutes for collective capacity. Systemic explanation explicitly resists reducing business evils to individual bad character.", "disposition": "candidate reform reproducing method; avoid exonerating individuals as fact" }, { "refs": [ "PG73755.B00630", "PG73755.B00631", "PG73755.B00633", "PG73755.B00635" ], "finding": "Poetic quotations and newspaper-information footnote inspected; illustrative claims do not independently demonstrate audience effects.", "disposition": "apparatus and attribution" } ], "inspection": "complete" }, { "packet": 12, "path": "inspection/packets/pg73755/012.txt", "firstRef": "PG73755.B00670", "lastRef": "PG73755.B00713", "refs": [ "PG73755.B00670", "PG73755.B00671", "PG73755.B00672", "PG73755.B00673", "PG73755.B00674", "PG73755.B00675", "PG73755.B00676", "PG73755.B00677", "PG73755.B00678", "PG73755.B00679", "PG73755.B00680", "PG73755.B00681", "PG73755.B00682", "PG73755.B00683", "PG73755.B00684", "PG73755.B00685", "PG73755.B00686", "PG73755.B00687", "PG73755.B00688", "PG73755.B00689", "PG73755.B00690", "PG73755.B00691", "PG73755.B00692", "PG73755.B00693", "PG73755.B00694", "PG73755.B00695", "PG73755.B00696", "PG73755.B00697", "PG73755.B00698", "PG73755.B00699", "PG73755.B00700", "PG73755.B00701", "PG73755.B00702", "PG73755.B00703", "PG73755.B00704", "PG73755.B00705", "PG73755.B00706", "PG73755.B00707", "PG73755.B00708", "PG73755.B00709", "PG73755.B00710", "PG73755.B00711", "PG73755.B00712", "PG73755.B00713" ], "bytes": 27068, "sha256": "109c50deb90ab5b196c0da9a8153c929bbb9d5ccf39d7e8d2727d16d0dd88f2b", "synopsis": "American reform history is qualified in notes, then direct government is treated as insufficient without will-forming associations. Effective executive responsibility, an active electorate and constructive social policy must develop together. The individual remains the political basis across multiple affiliations.", "observations": [ { "refs": [ "PG73755.B00672", "PG73755.B00673", "PG73755.B00674", "PG73755.B00683", "PG73755.B00685", "PG73755.B00687" ], "finding": "Particularist liberty protected trusts and unequal power in author's history. Footnotes acknowledge democratic local and founding traditions; account of suffrage is selective period history.", "disposition": "attribution and qualification" }, { "refs": [ "PG73755.B00694", "PG73755.B00695", "PG73755.B00696", "PG73755.B00697", "PG73755.B00698" ], "finding": "Expert administration and accountable concentrated responsibility require more capable public participation, not its replacement; increased executive power without corresponding control is explicitly rejected.", "disposition": "candidate coupled capacity and accountability" }, { "refs": [ "PG73755.B00699", "PG73755.B00700", "PG73755.B00701", "PG73755.B00702" ], "finding": "Direct primary, recall or referendum can be captured by existing party machinery; granting more formal voting power alone does not change organization producing choices.", "disposition": "candidate procedural reform captured by unchanged organization" }, { "refs": [ "PG73755.B00703", "PG73755.B00704", "PG73755.B00705", "PG73755.B00706", "PG73755.B00707" ], "finding": "Ballot registers rather than creates will. Explicitly rejects fixed group blocs: each individual should express multiple relationships, not merely one group's mandate.", "disposition": "central qualification for group democracy; candidate multi-affiliation representation" }, { "refs": [ "PG73755.B00710", "PG73755.B00711", "PG73755.B00712", "PG73755.B00713" ], "finding": "Constructive state differs from laissez-faire then corrective regulation, but social policy can be paternalistic. Its democratic character depends on reciprocal development with popular control and accountable administration.", "disposition": "candidate constructive policy democratic only with participation" } ], "inspection": "complete" }, { "packet": 13, "path": "inspection/packets/pg73755/013.txt", "firstRef": "PG73755.B00714", "lastRef": "PG73755.B00768", "refs": [ "PG73755.B00714", "PG73755.B00715", "PG73755.B00716", "PG73755.B00717", "PG73755.B00718", "PG73755.B00719", "PG73755.B00720", "PG73755.B00721", "PG73755.B00722", "PG73755.B00723", "PG73755.B00724", "PG73755.B00725", "PG73755.B00726", "PG73755.B00727", "PG73755.B00728", "PG73755.B00729", "PG73755.B00730", "PG73755.B00731", "PG73755.B00732", "PG73755.B00733", "PG73755.B00734", "PG73755.B00735", "PG73755.B00736", "PG73755.B00737", "PG73755.B00738", "PG73755.B00739", "PG73755.B00740", "PG73755.B00741", "PG73755.B00742", "PG73755.B00743", "PG73755.B00744", "PG73755.B00745", "PG73755.B00746", "PG73755.B00747", "PG73755.B00748", "PG73755.B00749", "PG73755.B00750", "PG73755.B00751", "PG73755.B00752", "PG73755.B00753", "PG73755.B00754", "PG73755.B00755", "PG73755.B00756", "PG73755.B00757", "PG73755.B00758", "PG73755.B00759", "PG73755.B00760", "PG73755.B00761", "PG73755.B00762", "PG73755.B00763", "PG73755.B00764", "PG73755.B00765", "PG73755.B00766", "PG73755.B00767", "PG73755.B00768" ], "bytes": 26576, "sha256": "8a760f4278e1eeecfc0feabe1a613928d449df640c19fd906f5dd353f380f265", "synopsis": "Social policy becomes democratic through public authorship and attention to everyday individual needs. Part III proposes neighborhood organization to articulate those needs, practice association, join diverse experiences and integrate other affiliations without replacing them.", "observations": [ { "refs": [ "PG73755.B00714", "PG73755.B00715", "PG73755.B00716", "PG73755.B00717", "PG73755.B00718" ], "finding": "Community-serving law centers socially related individuals; social programs and administrative reforms indicate rather than prove democracy unless daily needs become political substance.", "disposition": "architecture and qualification" }, { "refs": [ "PG73755.B00744", "PG73755.B00745", "PG73755.B00746", "PG73755.B00747", "PG73755.B00749" ], "finding": "Occupational and class abstractions fail to articulate everyday needs; home and public conditions interpenetrate, so women's lives are already political. Neighbors bring lived problems into public formulation.", "disposition": "candidate needs articulation through everyday association" }, { "refs": [ "PG73755.B00750", "PG73755.B00751", "PG73755.B00752", "PG73755.B00756" ], "finding": "Regular encounter makes fellowship a learned practice rather than avowed feeling; acquaintance presumed to foster goodwill but not demonstrated universally.", "disposition": "reuse participatory learning with limit" }, { "refs": [ "PG73755.B00754", "PG73755.B00755" ], "finding": "Fellowship is proposed as a principal attraction of war, motivating peaceful opportunities for joint endeavor as functional substitutes.", "disposition": "reuse1496/1501 alternative activity; qualify monocausal war account" }, { "refs": [ "PG73755.B00757", "PG73755.B00758", "PG73755.B00760", "PG73755.B00761" ], "finding": "Wide geographical or elite networks can remain socially narrow; mixed neighborhoods can offer more varied contact. Author acknowledges segregated neighborhoods weaken this advantage.", "disposition": "candidate social breadth versus geographic range" }, { "refs": [ "PG73755.B00762", "PG73755.B00763", "PG73755.B00764", "PG73755.B00765", "PG73755.B00766" ], "finding": "Neighborhood exposes everyday conduct concealed by selected reputations, yet treating objections as vanity risks dismissing genuine escape from local coercion.", "disposition": "candidate contextual accountability with tension" }, { "refs": [ "PG73755.B00767", "PG73755.B00768" ], "finding": "Neighborhood association should interpret and integrate diverse affiliations, not monopolize time or replace their spontaneity; it is more than a clearing-house.", "disposition": "candidate civic integration of multiple affiliations; reuse2106 against narrow organization" } ], "inspection": "complete" }, { "packet": 14, "path": "inspection/packets/pg73755/014.txt", "firstRef": "PG73755.B00769", "lastRef": "PG73755.B00826", "refs": [ "PG73755.B00769", "PG73755.B00770", "PG73755.B00771", "PG73755.B00772", "PG73755.B00773", "PG73755.B00774", "PG73755.B00775", "PG73755.B00776", "PG73755.B00777", "PG73755.B00778", "PG73755.B00779", "PG73755.B00780", "PG73755.B00781", "PG73755.B00782", "PG73755.B00783", "PG73755.B00784", "PG73755.B00785", "PG73755.B00786", "PG73755.B00787", "PG73755.B00788", "PG73755.B00789", "PG73755.B00790", "PG73755.B00791", "PG73755.B00792", "PG73755.B00793", "PG73755.B00794", "PG73755.B00795", "PG73755.B00796", "PG73755.B00797", "PG73755.B00798", "PG73755.B00799", "PG73755.B00800", "PG73755.B00801", "PG73755.B00802", "PG73755.B00803", "PG73755.B00804", "PG73755.B00805", "PG73755.B00806", "PG73755.B00807", "PG73755.B00808", "PG73755.B00809", "PG73755.B00810", "PG73755.B00811", "PG73755.B00812", "PG73755.B00813", "PG73755.B00814", "PG73755.B00815", "PG73755.B00816", "PG73755.B00817", "PG73755.B00818", "PG73755.B00819", "PG73755.B00820", "PG73755.B00821", "PG73755.B00822", "PG73755.B00823", "PG73755.B00824", "PG73755.B00825", "PG73755.B00826" ], "bytes": 26854, "sha256": "3474936f3e919048f0de715a92abdc7ce35218017f7257d30743c965bd27a06d", "synopsis": "Neighborhoods require consciousness rather than physical adjacency. Follett sets out five linked methods: regular meetings, genuine discussion, shared learning/life, responsibility and links to government. Community centers supply infrastructure; continuity builds capacities beyond one acquired service.", "observations": [ { "refs": [ "PG73755.B00769", "PG73755.B00770", "PG73755.B00772", "PG73755.B00773", "PG73755.B00774" ], "finding": "Local mobility costs and turnover make accessible continuous organization relevant. Method builds from available capacities rather than waiting for ideal people; claim that clubs without community use should not exist remains demanding.", "disposition": "architecture and associational-freedom tension" }, { "refs": [ "PG73755.B00783", "PG73755.B00784", "PG73755.B00785", "PG73755.B00786", "PG73755.B00787", "PG73755.B00788", "PG73755.B00789", "PG73755.B00794" ], "finding": "Five mutually supporting practices turn place into a self-governing association, including training through running centers; buildings and proximity alone are insufficient.", "disposition": "candidate layered neighborhood formation; reuse1966 infrastructure" }, { "refs": [ "PG73755.B00790", "PG73755.B00791", "PG73755.B00792", "PG73755.B00793", "PG73755.B00817" ], "finding": "Schools, park facilities and purpose-built centers meet varied needs. Trend statistics and claimed inevitable bonding are historical author reports, not evaluated effects.", "disposition": "apparatus and limits" }, { "refs": [ "PG73755.B00795", "PG73755.B00796", "PG73755.B00798", "PG73755.B00799", "PG73755.B00800" ], "finding": "Repeated meeting preserves capacity between campaigns; discussion creates and revises ideas, unlike venting or assigned competitive debate aimed at winning. Blanket rejection of debating is stronger than mechanism establishes.", "disposition": "candidate recurring association and inquiry versus advocacy; qualification" }, { "refs": [ "PG73755.B00802", "PG73755.B00803", "PG73755.B00804", "PG73755.B00805", "PG73755.B00806", "PG73755.B00807", "PG73755.B00808" ], "finding": "Need to participate prompts checking facts; disagreement can connect while indifference separates. Discussion before an issue polarizes can make revision easier.", "disposition": "candidate early deliberation; reuse inquiry before commitment" }, { "refs": [ "PG73755.B00809", "PG73755.B00810", "PG73755.B00811", "PG73755.B00812" ], "finding": "Community learning must reach interacting household members: teaching mother conservation fails if other eaters reject meals. Broader association can transform internal family relations.", "disposition": "candidate uptake requiring affected relationships; historical gender framing" }, { "refs": [ "PG73755.B00813", "PG73755.B00814" ], "finding": "Articulating needs must connect to responsibility for meeting them and durable routes into government; demand alone is incomplete participation.", "disposition": "architecture; avoid assuming official participation inevitably yields responsibility" } ], "inspection": "complete" }, { "packet": 15, "path": "inspection/packets/pg73755/015.txt", "firstRef": "PG73755.B00827", "lastRef": "PG73755.B00870", "refs": [ "PG73755.B00827", "PG73755.B00828", "PG73755.B00829", "PG73755.B00830", "PG73755.B00831", "PG73755.B00832", "PG73755.B00833", "PG73755.B00834", "PG73755.B00835", "PG73755.B00836", "PG73755.B00837", "PG73755.B00838", "PG73755.B00839", "PG73755.B00840", "PG73755.B00841", "PG73755.B00842", "PG73755.B00843", "PG73755.B00844", "PG73755.B00845", "PG73755.B00846", "PG73755.B00847", "PG73755.B00848", "PG73755.B00849", "PG73755.B00850", "PG73755.B00851", "PG73755.B00852", "PG73755.B00853", "PG73755.B00854", "PG73755.B00855", "PG73755.B00856", "PG73755.B00857", "PG73755.B00858", "PG73755.B00859", "PG73755.B00860", "PG73755.B00861", "PG73755.B00862", "PG73755.B00863", "PG73755.B00864", "PG73755.B00865", "PG73755.B00866", "PG73755.B00867", "PG73755.B00868", "PG73755.B00869", "PG73755.B00870" ], "bytes": 26638, "sha256": "b5272b66462b724458f71831de7356e8e7f0ff9aee0845bce230ce5688a7f476", "synopsis": "Neighborhood association is proposed as organized alternative to party machinery, producing public opinion rather than assuming it exists. Flexible issue alignments preserve differences. Leadership emerges by specific competence and by integrating participants' experience, not commanding a following.", "observations": [ { "refs": [ "PG73755.B00830", "PG73755.B00832", "PG73755.B00833", "PG73755.B00834" ], "finding": "Isolated integrity cannot displace organized power; democratic alternatives must provide their own capacity for concerted action rather than just oppose bosses.", "disposition": "candidate organized alternative to coordination monopoly; reuse1966" }, { "refs": [ "PG73755.B00835", "PG73755.B00836", "PG73755.B00837", "PG73755.B00838", "PG73755.B00839", "PG73755.B00855" ], "finding": "Opinion's popularity is not proof of joint authorship. Assuming a wise public will already exists conceals the work needed to create it; source defines public opinion as potential will.", "disposition": "candidate latent public will assumption; avoid repeating whole book as slogan" }, { "refs": [ "PG73755.B00840", "PG73755.B00843", "PG73755.B00844", "PG73755.B00845" ], "finding": "Attention to daily needs can counter patronage ties. Author's instruction to leave abuses alone for constructive work is a hazardous overstatement, not endorsed application.", "disposition": "power and harm limitation" }, { "refs": [ "PG73755.B00846", "PG73755.B00847", "PG73755.B00848", "PG73755.B00849", "PG73755.B00850", "PG73755.B00851" ], "finding": "Issue-specific and changing alignments permit honest differences that fixed party coalitions suppress; a genuinely formed will still requires renewal rather than permanent authority.", "disposition": "candidate flexible issue alignment; reuse1507 revisability" }, { "refs": [ "PG73755.B00864", "PG73755.B00865", "PG73755.B00867" ], "finding": "Diffuse official power creates unofficial leaders; situational competence should repeatedly determine leadership, which must remain guided from within the group.", "disposition": "candidate situation-dependent leadership and reciprocal accountability" }, { "refs": [ "PG73755.B00868", "PG73755.B00869", "PG73755.B00870" ], "finding": "Leader elicits multiple needs and connects remedies: infant milk example finds differentiated provision rather than imposing one group's requirement on all. Leadership makes joint decision possible instead of imposing wise answers.", "disposition": "candidate integrative leadership; substantive example" } ], "inspection": "complete" }, { "packet": 16, "path": "inspection/packets/pg73755/016.txt", "firstRef": "PG73755.B00871", "lastRef": "PG73755.B00917", "refs": [ "PG73755.B00871", "PG73755.B00872", "PG73755.B00873", "PG73755.B00874", "PG73755.B00875", "PG73755.B00876", "PG73755.B00877", "PG73755.B00878", "PG73755.B00879", "PG73755.B00880", "PG73755.B00881", "PG73755.B00882", "PG73755.B00883", "PG73755.B00884", "PG73755.B00885", "PG73755.B00886", "PG73755.B00887", "PG73755.B00888", "PG73755.B00889", "PG73755.B00890", "PG73755.B00891", "PG73755.B00892", "PG73755.B00893", "PG73755.B00894", "PG73755.B00895", "PG73755.B00896", "PG73755.B00897", "PG73755.B00898", "PG73755.B00899", "PG73755.B00900", "PG73755.B00901", "PG73755.B00902", "PG73755.B00903", "PG73755.B00904", "PG73755.B00905", "PG73755.B00906", "PG73755.B00907", "PG73755.B00908", "PG73755.B00909", "PG73755.B00910", "PG73755.B00911", "PG73755.B00912", "PG73755.B00913", "PG73755.B00914", "PG73755.B00915", "PG73755.B00916", "PG73755.B00917" ], "bytes": 27061, "sha256": "490df564e378c62edeb51101a946629effc7b385b46c4daaa31fe2467ed89539", "synopsis": "Leadership awakens others' capacity. Neighborhood responsibility joins delegated expert work to citizens' continuing authorship, including service design and follow-up. Community arts, employment and health examples contrast active participation with being acted upon; wartime national identification intensifies the argument.", "observations": [ { "refs": [ "PG73755.B00871", "PG73755.B00872", "PG73755.B00873", "PG73755.B00874" ], "finding": "Leader makes others capable of action and translates local needs into wider politics while remaining responsive; not simply personal charisma or instruction.", "disposition": "candidate capacity-liberating leadership; reuse1514" }, { "refs": [ "PG73755.B00881", "PG73755.B00883", "PG73755.B00884", "PG73755.B00885" ], "finding": "Delegating work need not delegate away responsibility; explaining expert plans to citizens is weaker than involving their situated knowledge in forming plans. Election interpretation remains author inference.", "disposition": "candidate delegation with retained shared responsibility" }, { "refs": [ "PG73755.B00886", "PG73755.B00887", "PG73755.B00888" ], "finding": "Expert provision can displace citizen initiative; linking specialist, local practitioner and recipients preserves follow-up, contextual knowledge and recurring inquiry. Placement services need centralized information and local relationships together.", "disposition": "candidate integrated expert-local service; reuse1383" }, { "refs": [ "PG73755.B00889", "PG73755.B00890", "PG73755.B00891", "PG73755.B00892" ], "finding": "Provision of facilities differs from enabling residents to build shared life through them; state action and self-action should coincide in practice, not merely asserted identity.", "disposition": "candidate public provision as enabled self-action" }, { "refs": [ "PG73755.B00893", "PG73755.B00894", "PG73755.B00909", "PG73755.B00911" ], "finding": "Ethnically diverse mothers' committee is practical example, but relation of expert advice and self-organization remains unresolved; large-city residents may externalize common costs.", "disposition": "evidence and limits; period racial labels attributed" }, { "refs": [ "PG73755.B00895", "PG73755.B00896", "PG73755.B00898", "PG73755.B00900", "PG73755.B00902", "PG73755.B00904" ], "finding": "Erasing impersonal 'they' aims at civic responsibility but can obscure differential authority and burden. War unity and divine incarnation are formative context, not proof of political identity.", "disposition": "tension and spiritual alternative reading" } ], "inspection": "complete" }, { "packet": 17, "path": "inspection/packets/pg73755/017.txt", "firstRef": "PG73755.B00918", "lastRef": "PG73755.B00976", "refs": [ "PG73755.B00918", "PG73755.B00919", "PG73755.B00920", "PG73755.B00921", "PG73755.B00922", "PG73755.B00923", "PG73755.B00924", "PG73755.B00925", "PG73755.B00926", "PG73755.B00927", "PG73755.B00928", "PG73755.B00929", "PG73755.B00930", "PG73755.B00931", "PG73755.B00932", "PG73755.B00933", "PG73755.B00934", "PG73755.B00935", "PG73755.B00936", "PG73755.B00937", "PG73755.B00938", "PG73755.B00939", "PG73755.B00940", "PG73755.B00941", "PG73755.B00942", "PG73755.B00943", "PG73755.B00944", "PG73755.B00945", "PG73755.B00946", "PG73755.B00947", "PG73755.B00948", "PG73755.B00949", "PG73755.B00950", "PG73755.B00951", "PG73755.B00952", "PG73755.B00953", "PG73755.B00954", "PG73755.B00955", "PG73755.B00956", "PG73755.B00957", "PG73755.B00958", "PG73755.B00959", "PG73755.B00960", "PG73755.B00961", "PG73755.B00962", "PG73755.B00963", "PG73755.B00964", "PG73755.B00965", "PG73755.B00966", "PG73755.B00967", "PG73755.B00968", "PG73755.B00969", "PG73755.B00970", "PG73755.B00971", "PG73755.B00972", "PG73755.B00973", "PG73755.B00974", "PG73755.B00975", "PG73755.B00976" ], "bytes": 27026, "sha256": "bd541b9f14778bc6cb8280d012e54b6e506ef75eb83ffc7c3bfd77997d5d3988", "synopsis": "Follett scales neighborhood participation through representative connections with reporting both directions. Delegates must integrate anew at each level rather than defend fixed local mandates. Wartime councils illustrate possible machinery, while weak practical examples and Anglo-Saxon progress assumptions are explicitly visible before the challenge from political pluralism.", "observations": [ { "refs": [ "PG73755.B00918", "PG73755.B00919", "PG73755.B00920", "PG73755.B00925" ], "finding": "Proposes articulated two-way representative reporting from small groups through city/state/nation, alongside occupational groups; connection must be actual official practice.", "disposition": "candidate reciprocal multilevel representation" }, { "refs": [ "PG73755.B00921", "PG73755.B00922", "PG73755.B00923", "PG73755.B00924", "PG73755.B00926" ], "finding": "Wartime mobilization shows reach into small communities but explaining aims is weaker than residents helping form them. Top-down and spontaneous organization may coincide; source asks why peace lacks comparable capacity.", "disposition": "mobilization-versus-authorship distinction and tension" }, { "refs": [ "PG73755.B00928", "PG73755.B00929", "PG73755.B00930", "PG73755.B00933", "PG73755.B00934" ], "finding": "Neighborhood organization aims outward; large-scale solidarity requires actual connected participation, not imagination alone or one enormous assembly. Formal constitutional authorization contemplated.", "disposition": "candidate scaling through relational representation" }, { "refs": [ "PG73755.B00935", "PG73755.B00936", "PG73755.B00937", "PG73755.B00938", "PG73755.B00939" ], "finding": "Interdependent needs cross jurisdictions; representatives must recreate collective purpose with others, not simply push prior local plan. Admits local bias may persist initially.", "disposition": "candidate mandate transformed in wider deliberation" }, { "refs": [ "PG73755.B00941", "PG73755.B00944", "PG73755.B00945", "PG73755.B00946", "PG73755.B00966" ], "finding": "Manhattan commissions supply reported example but later note says they showed little life. Appointment from above acknowledged imperfect; counts shift from sixteen neighborhoods to twelve chairmen.", "disposition": "essential apparatus qualification; no efficacy overclaim" }, { "refs": [ "PG73755.B00947", "PG73755.B00948", "PG73755.B00949", "PG73755.B00950", "PG73755.B00951", "PG73755.B00956" ], "finding": "Individuals retain direct responsibility in larger wholes, not mechanical federation of exclusive groups. Suffrage declared practically complete and Anglo-Saxon history celebrated, omitting unequal exclusions; senate design remains alternatives.", "disposition": "historical inclusion limit and institutional incompleteness" }, { "refs": [ "PG73755.B00973", "PG73755.B00974", "PG73755.B00975", "PG73755.B00976" ], "finding": "Political pluralists challenge both unifying state and territorial basis; Follett acknowledges diverse positions rather than one homogeneous opponent.", "disposition": "architecture transition" } ], "inspection": "complete" }, { "packet": 18, "path": "inspection/packets/pg73755/018.txt", "firstRef": "PG73755.B00977", "lastRef": "PG73755.B01030", "refs": [ "PG73755.B00977", "PG73755.B00978", "PG73755.B00979", "PG73755.B00980", "PG73755.B00981", "PG73755.B00982", "PG73755.B00983", "PG73755.B00984", "PG73755.B00985", "PG73755.B00986", "PG73755.B00987", "PG73755.B00988", "PG73755.B00989", "PG73755.B00990", "PG73755.B00991", "PG73755.B00992", "PG73755.B00993", "PG73755.B00994", "PG73755.B00995", "PG73755.B00996", "PG73755.B00997", "PG73755.B00998", "PG73755.B00999", "PG73755.B01000", "PG73755.B01001", "PG73755.B01002", "PG73755.B01003", "PG73755.B01004", "PG73755.B01005", "PG73755.B01006", "PG73755.B01007", "PG73755.B01008", "PG73755.B01009", "PG73755.B01010", "PG73755.B01011", "PG73755.B01012", "PG73755.B01013", "PG73755.B01014", "PG73755.B01015", "PG73755.B01016", "PG73755.B01017", "PG73755.B01018", "PG73755.B01019", "PG73755.B01020", "PG73755.B01021", "PG73755.B01022", "PG73755.B01023", "PG73755.B01024", "PG73755.B01025", "PG73755.B01026", "PG73755.B01027", "PG73755.B01028", "PG73755.B01029", "PG73755.B01030" ], "bytes": 26842, "sha256": "a298981e8a578d9547cda0f5668612c58e4a6775c69fccf4af2e5cc2fe070cf1", "synopsis": "Pluralist alternatives include vocational representation, syndicalism and guild socialism. Follett praises their recognition of actual groups but argues for simultaneously collective and distributed authority, rejecting fixed medieval statuses and a split between political and economic life. Sovereignty begins as generated capacity, with a stated willingness to test whether collective will exists.", "observations": [ { "refs": [ "PG73755.B00977", "PG73755.B00978", "PG73755.B00979", "PG73755.B00980", "PG73755.B00984", "PG73755.B00985" ], "finding": "Occupational and autonomous associations expose fiction of exclusively unitary state power; multiple institutional alternatives are described, not all endorsed.", "disposition": "architecture and attributed opponents" }, { "refs": [ "PG73755.B00989", "PG73755.B00990", "PG73755.B00991", "PG73755.B00992", "PG73755.B00993" ], "finding": "Distributed and collective consciousness are reconciled through a reading of James, offered as philosophical basis for actual federating practice.", "disposition": "interpretation attributed; no independent validation of James" }, { "refs": [ "PG73755.B00994", "PG73755.B00995", "PG73755.B00996" ], "finding": "Distinguishes relational Hegel from his Prussian absolutist application; political pluralists criticized for mistaking state for external whole.", "disposition": "historical and interpretive claim with tension" }, { "refs": [ "PG73755.B00998", "PG73755.B00999", "PG73755.B01000", "PG73755.B01001", "PG73755.B01009" ], "finding": "Fixed group status can confine individuals; medieval group balancing does not solve federation. Economic and civic relations interpenetrate, so separate political/state and guild machinery risks false dualism.", "disposition": "candidate cross-functional political integration; reuse2106/1965" }, { "refs": [ "PG73755.B01003", "PG73755.B01017", "PG73755.B01021" ], "finding": "Author admits group psychology insufficiently studied and pluralists not a single school; acknowledges medieval attention to individuality.", "disposition": "critical qualification and apparatus" }, { "refs": [ "PG73755.B01026", "PG73755.B01027", "PG73755.B01028", "PG73755.B01029", "PG73755.B01030" ], "finding": "Sovereignty is effective common willing generated by conscious interdependence, not external grant or surrendered shares. Against Duguit, author explicitly accepts experimental failure could disprove collective will.", "disposition": "candidate generated sovereignty; preserve testability claim versus metaphysical confidence" } ], "inspection": "complete" }, { "packet": 19, "path": "inspection/packets/pg73755/019.txt", "firstRef": "PG73755.B01031", "lastRef": "PG73755.B01089", "refs": [ "PG73755.B01031", "PG73755.B01032", "PG73755.B01033", "PG73755.B01034", "PG73755.B01035", "PG73755.B01036", "PG73755.B01037", "PG73755.B01038", "PG73755.B01039", "PG73755.B01040", "PG73755.B01041", "PG73755.B01042", "PG73755.B01043", "PG73755.B01044", "PG73755.B01045", "PG73755.B01046", "PG73755.B01047", "PG73755.B01048", "PG73755.B01049", "PG73755.B01050", "PG73755.B01051", "PG73755.B01052", "PG73755.B01053", "PG73755.B01054", "PG73755.B01055", "PG73755.B01056", "PG73755.B01057", "PG73755.B01058", "PG73755.B01059", "PG73755.B01060", "PG73755.B01061", "PG73755.B01062", "PG73755.B01063", "PG73755.B01064", "PG73755.B01065", "PG73755.B01066", "PG73755.B01067", "PG73755.B01068", "PG73755.B01069", "PG73755.B01070", "PG73755.B01071", "PG73755.B01072", "PG73755.B01073", "PG73755.B01074", "PG73755.B01075", "PG73755.B01076", "PG73755.B01077", "PG73755.B01078", "PG73755.B01079", "PG73755.B01080", "PG73755.B01081", "PG73755.B01082", "PG73755.B01083", "PG73755.B01084", "PG73755.B01085", "PG73755.B01086", "PG73755.B01087", "PG73755.B01088", "PG73755.B01089" ], "bytes": 26740, "sha256": "24d1dcf04257a097bd0b6b4fd54dd1d9bd73a55c1f5fa2d173b424c2541fa9e3", "synopsis": "Sovereignty and law require evolving participation, not a preexisting national will imposed on individuals or objective ends detached from their formation. Occupational ethics alone are insufficient. The unifying state emerges recursively from groups without treating its unity as finished or prior.", "observations": [ { "refs": [ "PG73755.B01031", "PG73755.B01032", "PG73755.B01033", "PG73755.B01035" ], "finding": "A common will binds through participants' contribution; formal permission for self-government is empty without learned capacity. Purpose, will and activity co-produce law rather than separately justifying it.", "disposition": "candidate generated authority and purpose formation; note unresolved inclusion of nonparticipants" }, { "refs": [ "PG73755.B01036", "PG73755.B01037", "PG73755.B01038", "PG73755.B01039", "PG73755.B01040" ], "finding": "Rights remain relative to the associational process; single occupations can produce narrow standards, so broader interrelation is needed. Functional voting must include intersecting functions, not one professional standpoint.", "disposition": "candidate cross-group normative integration" }, { "refs": [ "PG73755.B01043", "PG73755.B01044", "PG73755.B01046", "PG73755.B01047" ], "finding": "Author disputes dividing governors from governed, credits Duguit while rejecting his ontology, and concedes actual and ideal sovereignty differ; state can only approach complete sovereignty.", "disposition": "interpretation and critical qualification" }, { "refs": [ "PG73755.B01048", "PG73755.B01049", "PG73755.B01050", "PG73755.B01051", "PG73755.B01052" ], "finding": "Decentralization is not an external distributor allocating finished authority: groups generate power and can generate wider wholes, which recursively shape their members.", "disposition": "candidate federative co-generation rather than sovereignty division" }, { "refs": [ "PG73755.B01053", "PG73755.B01054", "PG73755.B01055", "PG73755.B01056" ], "finding": "Group-forming capacity is claimed to continue into wider association. Static pluralism and static monism both fail; new unity should produce fresh differences. Universal force claims exceed direct evidence.", "disposition": "architecture and metaphysical limit" }, { "refs": [ "PG73755.B01062", "PG73755.B01064", "PG73755.B01066", "PG73755.B01078", "PG73755.B01080", "PG73755.B01084", "PG73755.B01086" ], "finding": "Terminology footnote distinguishes law/right and warns about objective/subjective usage; another explicitly preserves legal versus ethical rights. Contribution is distinguished from surrender and consent from authorship.", "disposition": "apparatus essential to prevent flattening" } ], "inspection": "complete" }, { "packet": 20, "path": "inspection/packets/pg73755/020.txt", "firstRef": "PG73755.B01090", "lastRef": "PG73755.B01133", "refs": [ "PG73755.B01090", "PG73755.B01091", "PG73755.B01092", "PG73755.B01093", "PG73755.B01094", "PG73755.B01095", "PG73755.B01096", "PG73755.B01097", "PG73755.B01098", "PG73755.B01099", "PG73755.B01100", "PG73755.B01101", "PG73755.B01102", "PG73755.B01103", "PG73755.B01104", "PG73755.B01105", "PG73755.B01106", "PG73755.B01107", "PG73755.B01108", "PG73755.B01109", "PG73755.B01110", "PG73755.B01111", "PG73755.B01112", "PG73755.B01113", "PG73755.B01114", "PG73755.B01115", "PG73755.B01116", "PG73755.B01117", "PG73755.B01118", "PG73755.B01119", "PG73755.B01120", "PG73755.B01121", "PG73755.B01122", "PG73755.B01123", "PG73755.B01124", "PG73755.B01125", "PG73755.B01126", "PG73755.B01127", "PG73755.B01128", "PG73755.B01129", "PG73755.B01130", "PG73755.B01131", "PG73755.B01132", "PG73755.B01133" ], "bytes": 26160, "sha256": "d16c7cc94b57159fac8b33e86f372e52aee88b4d7d092a958b4857c706816cea", "synopsis": "Multiple intersecting functions make any fixed vocational identity inadequate for representation. Individuals remain political units while groups are formative methods. Federalism is ongoing integration retaining local initiative and direct citizenship, illustrated by shared funding for state-administered vocational education.", "observations": [ { "refs": [ "PG73755.B01096", "PG73755.B01097", "PG73755.B01098", "PG73755.B01099", "PG73755.B01100" ], "finding": "Overlapping memberships make people contributors to apparently opposed interests; cross-cutting loyalties allow relationships to change without destroying cohesion. One function cannot exhaust a person.", "disposition": "candidate cross-cutting membership mechanism; reuse2106" }, { "refs": [ "PG73755.B01102", "PG73755.B01103", "PG73755.B01104", "PG73755.B01105", "PG73755.B01108", "PG73755.B01110" ], "finding": "A person is not divisible into sealed father/citizen/worker compartments; groups develop an undivided person who votes, they are not sovereign substitutes for individual citizenship.", "disposition": "candidate whole-person representation through multiple roles" }, { "refs": [ "PG73755.B01106", "PG73755.B01107", "PG73755.B01109", "PG73755.B01117" ], "finding": "Replacing majority of persons with majority of groups preserves aggregation problem. Service state judges both member contributions and public service, but functionalism lacks inclusive mechanisms.", "disposition": "candidate unit substitution preserving decision rule; limitations" }, { "refs": [ "PG73755.B01122", "PG73755.B01123", "PG73755.B01124", "PG73755.B01125" ], "finding": "Federalism combines interpenetration with multiple affiliations; conceived as generating shared authority rather than dividing a fixed stock.", "disposition": "architecture; merge with generated sovereignty if redundant" }, { "refs": [ "PG73755.B01126", "PG73755.B01127", "PG73755.B01128", "PG73755.B01133" ], "finding": "Civil War presented as decisive proof of organic federal existence, with American exceptionalism; this philosophical history underplays slavery and continued conflict.", "disposition": "historical limitation and attribution" }, { "refs": [ "PG73755.B01129", "PG73755.B01130", "PG73755.B01131", "PG73755.B01132" ], "finding": "Central assistance can strengthen local learning and responsibility through conditional matching support and local administration; actual design of action matters, not just jurisdiction. Federal citizenship remains direct.", "disposition": "candidate enabling federal support versus substitution; reuse1514" } ], "inspection": "complete" }, { "packet": 21, "path": "inspection/packets/pg73755/021.txt", "firstRef": "PG73755.B01134", "lastRef": "PG73755.B01193", "refs": [ "PG73755.B01134", "PG73755.B01135", "PG73755.B01136", "PG73755.B01137", "PG73755.B01138", "PG73755.B01139", "PG73755.B01140", "PG73755.B01141", "PG73755.B01142", "PG73755.B01143", "PG73755.B01144", "PG73755.B01145", "PG73755.B01146", "PG73755.B01147", "PG73755.B01148", "PG73755.B01149", "PG73755.B01150", "PG73755.B01151", "PG73755.B01152", "PG73755.B01153", "PG73755.B01154", "PG73755.B01155", "PG73755.B01156", "PG73755.B01157", "PG73755.B01158", "PG73755.B01159", "PG73755.B01160", "PG73755.B01161", "PG73755.B01162", "PG73755.B01163", "PG73755.B01164", "PG73755.B01165", "PG73755.B01166", "PG73755.B01167", "PG73755.B01168", "PG73755.B01169", "PG73755.B01170", "PG73755.B01171", "PG73755.B01172", "PG73755.B01173", "PG73755.B01174", "PG73755.B01175", "PG73755.B01176", "PG73755.B01177", "PG73755.B01178", "PG73755.B01179", "PG73755.B01180", "PG73755.B01181", "PG73755.B01182", "PG73755.B01183", "PG73755.B01184", "PG73755.B01185", "PG73755.B01186", "PG73755.B01187", "PG73755.B01188", "PG73755.B01189", "PG73755.B01190", "PG73755.B01191", "PG73755.B01192", "PG73755.B01193" ], "bytes": 27011, "sha256": "fd3c199ed1b27d22ab7fd99c60413bfe3f57c5e6aa9893781dd173817cc348a9", "synopsis": "Federal unity remains open to new powers and affiliations. Group rights and balance can reproduce atomism; integration must occur before representatives become bound to hardened positions. Unified allegiance is distinguished from absorption, and real conflicts of loyalty require immediate choices plus work to change underlying relations.", "observations": [ { "refs": [ "PG73755.B01134", "PG73755.B01135", "PG73755.B01136", "PG73755.B01137" ], "finding": "The always-unincluded 'and' is reason for ongoing unifying, not completed closure; institutions must make room for newly developing capacities.", "disposition": "candidate open-ended federative growth" }, { "refs": [ "PG73755.B01138", "PG73755.B01139", "PG73755.B01140", "PG73755.B01141", "PG73755.B01143" ], "finding": "Group egoism can reproduce exploitation; groups must look inward to organize and outward to a wider whole. Criticism of divorce/secession and consent raises exit-right tension.", "disposition": "candidate dual orientation of association; explicit autonomy limit" }, { "refs": [ "PG73755.B01145", "PG73755.B01147", "PG73755.B01149", "PG73755.B01150", "PG73755.B01151", "PG73755.B01152", "PG73755.B01153" ], "finding": "Waiting until parliamentary bargaining to integrate fixed mandates makes truth disclosure costly and compromise likely. Same occupation does not guarantee shared opinion.", "disposition": "candidate precommitment integration and advocacy-suppressed information" }, { "refs": [ "PG73755.B01155", "PG73755.B01160", "PG73755.B01164", "PG73755.B01168", "PG73755.B01172" ], "finding": "Claims about current sovereignty are separated from hoped-for legitimacy; not all groups currently constitute state, perhaps never all. James quotation and Civil War qualification read.", "disposition": "apparatus and ideal-versus-actual limit" }, { "refs": [ "PG73755.B01181", "PG73755.B01182", "PG73755.B01184", "PG73755.B01185", "PG73755.B01186", "PG73755.B01187" ], "finding": "Inclusion should preserve constituent identity instead of swallowing groups; state's legitimacy rests on integrating actual interests, though saying soul's home is state intensifies totalizing tension.", "disposition": "reuse89 and2106 in critical comparison" }, { "refs": [ "PG73755.B01188", "PG73755.B01189", "PG73755.B01190", "PG73755.B01191", "PG73755.B01193" ], "finding": "Conscientious objector or unionist may have to choose conflicting loyalties now; continuing duty is to alter institutions so conflict can become integrated. Commands are revisable through initiative, and present state must earn respect by achievement.", "disposition": "candidate immediate loyalty conflict plus institutional reconstruction" } ], "inspection": "complete" }, { "packet": 22, "path": "inspection/packets/pg73755/022.txt", "firstRef": "PG73755.B01194", "lastRef": "PG73755.B01244", "refs": [ "PG73755.B01194", "PG73755.B01195", "PG73755.B01196", "PG73755.B01197", "PG73755.B01198", "PG73755.B01199", "PG73755.B01200", "PG73755.B01201", "PG73755.B01202", "PG73755.B01203", "PG73755.B01204", "PG73755.B01205", "PG73755.B01206", "PG73755.B01207", "PG73755.B01208", "PG73755.B01209", "PG73755.B01210", "PG73755.B01211", "PG73755.B01212", "PG73755.B01213", "PG73755.B01214", "PG73755.B01215", "PG73755.B01216", "PG73755.B01217", "PG73755.B01218", "PG73755.B01219", "PG73755.B01220", "PG73755.B01221", "PG73755.B01222", "PG73755.B01223", "PG73755.B01224", "PG73755.B01225", "PG73755.B01226", "PG73755.B01227", "PG73755.B01228", "PG73755.B01229", "PG73755.B01230", "PG73755.B01231", "PG73755.B01232", "PG73755.B01233", "PG73755.B01234", "PG73755.B01235", "PG73755.B01236", "PG73755.B01237", "PG73755.B01238", "PG73755.B01239", "PG73755.B01240", "PG73755.B01241", "PG73755.B01242", "PG73755.B01243", "PG73755.B01244" ], "bytes": 27106, "sha256": "736303141c45bce2d1da51621a05c73460645ad0341f1f1c668ce868484d481d", "synopsis": "Follett credits pluralists' exposure of fictive state supremacy and actual conflicts between state and labor. She leaves neighborhood/occupational representation design open to experiment, reviews wartime joint-control developments with limits, and insists neither local nor occupational grouping automatically removes party spirit.", "observations": [ { "refs": [ "PG73755.B01194", "PG73755.B01196", "PG73755.B01197", "PG73755.B01198", "PG73755.B01199" ], "finding": "Present state power is not automatically legitimate or aligned with workers' interests; provisional obedience is defended for fear of disorder. Group organization itself may still be crowd action.", "disposition": "essential qualification and authority tension" }, { "refs": [ "PG73755.B01200", "PG73755.B01201", "PG73755.B01202" ], "finding": "Multiple undivided participation expresses federal principle, framed in spiritual language and strong analogy to physical law.", "disposition": "architecture; scientific certainty not established" }, { "refs": [ "PG73755.B01214", "PG73755.B01215", "PG73755.B01216", "PG73755.B01219" ], "finding": "Specific machinery for integrating neighborhood, occupational and other groups is unresolved; bicameral division alone crude without local integration. Strong associations and individual citizenship must coexist with state.", "disposition": "institutional limits; no finished blueprint claim" }, { "refs": [ "PG73755.B01220", "PG73755.B01221", "PG73755.B01243" ], "finding": "Union hierarchy can reproduce political party crowd methods; neither trade nor neighborhood form automatically removes partisanship. Genuine collective bargaining requires joint will formation first.", "disposition": "reuse group/crowd distinction and qualify categorical anti-party claims" }, { "refs": [ "PG73755.B01222", "PG73755.B01223", "PG73755.B01224", "PG73755.B01225", "PG73755.B01226", "PG73755.B01227" ], "finding": "Wartime Industrial Councils offer labor voice but lack legal enforcement and leave finance, product choice and capital largely with employers; projection of future power remains forecast.", "disposition": "historical evidence and explicit limits" }, { "refs": [ "PG73755.B01228", "PG73755.B01229", "PG73755.B01230", "PG73755.B01231", "PG73755.B01234", "PG73755.B01235", "PG73755.B01236" ], "finding": "American, French, German, Danish and farmer examples indicate organized interests entering policy; numerical results reported historically, not independently verified. Those directly involved should shape their field's policy.", "disposition": "reuse participatory expertise and historical attribution" }, { "refs": [ "PG73755.B01237", "PG73755.B01238" ], "finding": "Industry should be included without capturing state or being bureaucratically dominated; labor told to orient to whole rather than rights, risking suppression of justified adversarial claims.", "disposition": "candidate inclusion without capture; preserve power tension" } ], "inspection": "complete" }, { "packet": 23, "path": "inspection/packets/pg73755/023.txt", "firstRef": "PG73755.B01245", "lastRef": "PG73755.B01296", "refs": [ "PG73755.B01245", "PG73755.B01246", "PG73755.B01247", "PG73755.B01248", "PG73755.B01249", "PG73755.B01250", "PG73755.B01251", "PG73755.B01252", "PG73755.B01253", "PG73755.B01254", "PG73755.B01255", "PG73755.B01256", "PG73755.B01257", "PG73755.B01258", "PG73755.B01259", "PG73755.B01260", "PG73755.B01261", "PG73755.B01262", "PG73755.B01263", "PG73755.B01264", "PG73755.B01265", "PG73755.B01266", "PG73755.B01267", "PG73755.B01268", "PG73755.B01269", "PG73755.B01270", "PG73755.B01271", "PG73755.B01272", "PG73755.B01273", "PG73755.B01274", "PG73755.B01275", "PG73755.B01276", "PG73755.B01277", "PG73755.B01278", "PG73755.B01279", "PG73755.B01280", "PG73755.B01281", "PG73755.B01282", "PG73755.B01283", "PG73755.B01284", "PG73755.B01285", "PG73755.B01286", "PG73755.B01287", "PG73755.B01288", "PG73755.B01289", "PG73755.B01290", "PG73755.B01291", "PG73755.B01292", "PG73755.B01293", "PG73755.B01294", "PG73755.B01295", "PG73755.B01296" ], "bytes": 26779, "sha256": "17c711e93e5ac8503e740d9497c0a51260417e0c758809a828c0eaa00fc3b9bb", "synopsis": "An important footnote credits unions' real group education. Part IV presents moral state as continuously created by responsible citizens rather than external moral authority. Civic contribution is relational, not a tiny numerical fraction. The world-state argument begins by preserving national differences and rejecting mere cosmopolitan similarity.", "observations": [ { "refs": [ "PG73755.B01245", "PG73755.B01247", "PG73755.B01253" ], "finding": "Footnote credits trade-union solidarity and sacrifice, qualifying earlier criticisms; admits wartime ownership/control/regulation were not carefully distinguished.", "disposition": "apparatus and critical qualification" }, { "refs": [ "PG73755.B01264", "PG73755.B01265", "PG73755.B01267", "PG73755.B01268", "PG73755.B01269" ], "finding": "State morality must be earned by relationships citizens actually create; nations can be immoral. Denying room for rights/duties and demanding participation every minute risks totalizing civic obligation.", "disposition": "moral architecture and limits" }, { "refs": [ "PG73755.B01271", "PG73755.B01272", "PG73755.B01273" ], "finding": "One person's responsibility is not 1/population because contributions change relations of the whole. Collectivity does not magically transmute ignorance into wisdom. Coatesville atrocity example attributes responsibility beyond town.", "disposition": "candidate nonfractional civic contribution; preserve antimagical qualification" }, { "refs": [ "PG73755.B01275", "PG73755.B01276", "PG73755.B01277", "PG73755.B01278", "PG73755.B01280" ], "finding": "Freedom needs practiced opportunities and time, not exhortation. Concrete groups give responsibility an object, but dismissing play and justice demands narrows legitimate life beyond civic participation.", "disposition": "reuse1377 opportunity for agency; explicit limitation" }, { "refs": [ "PG73755.B01281", "PG73755.B01282", "PG73755.B01283", "PG73755.B01284", "PG73755.B01285" ], "finding": "Impulses should be educated into contribution rather than suppressed; responsibility and opportunities jointly condition democracy. Civilizational hierarchy and national inheritance rhetoric persist.", "disposition": "reuse1496/1501; historical framing" }, { "refs": [ "PG73755.B01290", "PG73755.B01291", "PG73755.B01292", "PG73755.B01293", "PG73755.B01294", "PG73755.B01295" ], "finding": "Internationalism should integrate diverse national contributions, not copy one civilization or equate elite/class similarity with peace; explicitly rejects white-man's-burden assimilation while using its vocabulary.", "disposition": "reuse89 distinctness; candidate international unity through difference" }, { "refs": [ "PG73755.B01296" ], "finding": "Patriotism is ongoing common authorship rather than flag worship and following; national membership itself must be group rather than herd before international federation.", "disposition": "candidate constructive patriotism, merge with participation-generated loyalty" } ], "inspection": "complete" }, { "packet": 24, "path": "inspection/packets/pg73755/024.txt", "firstRef": "PG73755.B01297", "lastRef": "PG73755.B01340", "refs": [ "PG73755.B01297", "PG73755.B01298", "PG73755.B01299", "PG73755.B01300", "PG73755.B01301", "PG73755.B01302", "PG73755.B01303", "PG73755.B01304", "PG73755.B01305", "PG73755.B01306", "PG73755.B01307", "PG73755.B01308", "PG73755.B01309", "PG73755.B01310", "PG73755.B01311", "PG73755.B01312", "PG73755.B01313", "PG73755.B01314", "PG73755.B01315", "PG73755.B01316", "PG73755.B01317", "PG73755.B01318", "PG73755.B01319", "PG73755.B01320", "PG73755.B01321", "PG73755.B01322", "PG73755.B01323", "PG73755.B01324", "PG73755.B01325", "PG73755.B01326", "PG73755.B01327", "PG73755.B01328", "PG73755.B01329", "PG73755.B01330", "PG73755.B01331", "PG73755.B01332", "PG73755.B01333", "PG73755.B01334", "PG73755.B01335", "PG73755.B01336", "PG73755.B01337", "PG73755.B01338", "PG73755.B01339", "PG73755.B01340" ], "bytes": 26840, "sha256": "c38042599cacda9496348425a36751bd7b77183c5d9fe75196aaf6496fac99b8", "synopsis": "International loyalty grows through actual cooperative experience rather than exhortation or sacrifice for strangers. Federation should generate shared sovereignty, include former enemies and legislate ongoing relations. Peace is an outcome of prior ways of organizing differences, not merely a final choice; appendix begins lifelong training through practice.", "observations": [ { "refs": [ "PG73755.B01297", "PG73755.B01298", "PG73755.B01299", "PG73755.B01300", "PG73755.B01301" ], "finding": "National and wider loyalties need not be zero-sum; economic cooperation can create lived belonging. Historical analogies and insistence world citizenship needs national loyalty remain claims, not necessities established here.", "disposition": "candidate practiced wider loyalty; attribution" }, { "refs": [ "PG73755.B01302", "PG73755.B01303", "PG73755.B01304", "PG73755.B01305", "PG73755.B01306", "PG73755.B01307" ], "finding": "Sovereignty as isolated independence creates armament and resource insecurity; joint authority claimed to enlarge real freedom. Denial of neutral status and categorical praise of Allied motives expose wartime universalism's coercive blind spots.", "disposition": "candidate independence through interdependence with major limits" }, { "refs": [ "PG73755.B01308", "PG73755.B01309", "PG73755.B01311", "PG73755.B01314" ], "finding": "Common membership should change diplomatic honesty and make aggression offense against community; punishment should reintegrate Germany rather than exclude it.", "disposition": "candidate inclusive accountability; reuse rehabilitation and group outward responsibility" }, { "refs": [ "PG73755.B01315", "PG73755.B01316", "PG73755.B01317" ], "finding": "Institutions must create and revise common law and will, not only arbitrate disputes under preexisting treaties; progressive treaties can be transitional steps toward constitution.", "disposition": "candidate constitutive cooperation beyond dispute settlement" }, { "refs": [ "PG73755.B01318", "PG73755.B01319", "PG73755.B01320", "PG73755.B01321", "PG73755.B01322", "PG73755.B01323", "PG73755.B01324" ], "finding": "Peace/war outcomes accumulate through earlier relations; active agreement requires more sustained cognitive work than slogans of goodwill. Portraying war as rest-cure or simple intellectual failure minimizes violence and power differences.", "disposition": "candidate upstream production of peace; explicit qualification" }, { "refs": [ "PG73755.B01325", "PG73755.B01327", "PG73755.B01332" ], "finding": "Final appeal joins faith in human creativity to organizational method. Note qualifies causal role of war in national unity as pressure toward coordination, not sole cause.", "disposition": "spiritual alternative and apparatus" }, { "refs": [ "PG73755.B01339", "PG73755.B01340" ], "finding": "Civic learning should run through all life's activities, social discipline as participating in whole rather than separate civics instruction.", "disposition": "appendix architecture; compare Dewey and1341" } ], "inspection": "complete" }, { "packet": 25, "path": "inspection/packets/pg73755/025.txt", "firstRef": "PG73755.B01341", "lastRef": "PG73755.B01415", "refs": [ "PG73755.B01341", "PG73755.B01342", "PG73755.B01343", "PG73755.B01344", "PG73755.B01345", "PG73755.B01346", "PG73755.B01347", "PG73755.B01348", "PG73755.B01349", "PG73755.B01350", "PG73755.B01351", "PG73755.B01352", "PG73755.B01353", "PG73755.B01354", "PG73755.B01355", "PG73755.B01356", "PG73755.B01357", "PG73755.B01358", "PG73755.B01359", "PG73755.B01360", "PG73755.B01361", "PG73755.B01362", "PG73755.B01363", "PG73755.B01364", "PG73755.B01365", "PG73755.B01366", "PG73755.B01367", "PG73755.B01368", "PG73755.B01369", "PG73755.B01370", "PG73755.B01371", "PG73755.B01372", "PG73755.B01373", "PG73755.B01374", "PG73755.B01375", "PG73755.B01376", "PG73755.B01377", "PG73755.B01378", "PG73755.B01379", "PG73755.B01380", "PG73755.B01381", "PG73755.B01382", "PG73755.B01383", "PG73755.B01384", "PG73755.B01385", "PG73755.B01386", "PG73755.B01387", "PG73755.B01388", "PG73755.B01389", "PG73755.B01390", "PG73755.B01391", "PG73755.B01392", "PG73755.B01393", "PG73755.B01394", "PG73755.B01395", "PG73755.B01396", "PG73755.B01397", "PG73755.B01398", "PG73755.B01399", "PG73755.B01400", "PG73755.B01401", "PG73755.B01402", "PG73755.B01403", "PG73755.B01404", "PG73755.B01405", "PG73755.B01406", "PG73755.B01407", "PG73755.B01408", "PG73755.B01409", "PG73755.B01410", "PG73755.B01411", "PG73755.B01412", "PG73755.B01413", "PG73755.B01414", "PG73755.B01415" ], "bytes": 27233, "sha256": "1310750a20f0d47eef19106995545cc4fb2a723c7d3612d2501b6b27f8e0cca7", "synopsis": "Appendix develops cooperative learning, discussion and progressive self-government as continuing civic education for all ages. Adult work can train dependence on bosses; centers offer accessible counterpractice. Real self-direction includes forming choices and managing affairs, not only voting. Transcriber changes and opening license material inspected.", "observations": [ { "refs": [ "PG73755.B01341", "PG73755.B01342", "PG73755.B01343", "PG73755.B01344", "PG73755.B01345", "PG73755.B01347", "PG73755.B01348" ], "finding": "Lessons become joint creation with each child's distinct contribution and responsibility for whole, not reproduction of teacher's knowledge. Competition returns as comparison of contribution despite formal rejection.", "disposition": "reuse1747 inquiry and1189 reciprocity; candidate contribution-based recitation if baseline lacks" }, { "refs": [ "PG73755.B01350", "PG73755.B01351", "PG73755.B01354", "PG73755.B01355", "PG73755.B01356", "PG73755.B01361" ], "finding": "Self-government acknowledged difficult and gradual; group activities train initiative and solidarity beyond knowing parliamentary rules. Debating clubs reappear positively despite earlier blanket condemnation.", "disposition": "preserve internal tensions and practical qualification" }, { "refs": [ "PG73755.B01358", "PG73755.B01359", "PG73755.B01360", "PG73755.B01362" ], "finding": "Responsibility is for group's conduct as well as one's conduct to it; private acts have social consequences. Civic instruction valued for discussion practice beyond information.", "disposition": "candidate responsibility for and to association" }, { "refs": [ "PG73755.B01363", "PG73755.B01364", "PG73755.B01365", "PG73755.B01366", "PG73755.B01367", "PG73755.B01386" ], "finding": "Education never completed because conditions change; credentialed people can cast uninformed votes. Habit of letting foreman think may transfer to dependence on political boss; adult provision must accommodate exhaustion.", "disposition": "candidate cross-domain learned political dependence; reuse1499 and1388" }, { "refs": [ "PG73755.B01368", "PG73755.B01369", "PG73755.B01370", "PG73755.B01371", "PG73755.B01372" ], "finding": "Real center governance includes initiative, decisions, resources, management and elected coordinating council; votes alone insufficient. Time for forming thought cannot be skipped; publicly supplied facilities can support locally directed use.", "disposition": "candidate governance capacity and shared infrastructure" }, { "refs": [ "PG73755.B01373", "PG73755.B01374", "PG73755.B01375", "PG73755.B01380", "PG73755.B01382" ], "finding": "Anecdotes credit centers with civic response but are not controlled evidence; notes and humorous child example read.", "disposition": "attribution and apparatus" }, { "refs": [ "PG73755.B01388", "PG73755.B01389", "PG73755.B01390", "PG73755.B01391", "PG73755.B01401", "PG73755.B01408", "PG73755.B01409", "PG73755.B01410", "PG73755.B01414", "PG73755.B01415" ], "finding": "Full transcriber changes read, including retained archaic spelling/hyphenation, corrections and accent alteration. Edition/redistribution apparatus begins; none treated as task commands.", "disposition": "edition limits and endmatter coverage" } ], "inspection": "complete" }, { "packet": 26, "path": "inspection/packets/pg73755/026.txt", "firstRef": "PG73755.B01416", "lastRef": "PG73755.B01458", "refs": [ "PG73755.B01416", "PG73755.B01417", "PG73755.B01418", "PG73755.B01419", "PG73755.B01420", "PG73755.B01421", "PG73755.B01422", "PG73755.B01423", "PG73755.B01424", "PG73755.B01425", "PG73755.B01426", "PG73755.B01427", "PG73755.B01428", "PG73755.B01429", "PG73755.B01430", "PG73755.B01431", "PG73755.B01432", "PG73755.B01433", "PG73755.B01434", "PG73755.B01435", "PG73755.B01436", "PG73755.B01437", "PG73755.B01438", "PG73755.B01439", "PG73755.B01440", "PG73755.B01441", "PG73755.B01442", "PG73755.B01443", "PG73755.B01444", "PG73755.B01445", "PG73755.B01446", "PG73755.B01447", "PG73755.B01448", "PG73755.B01449", "PG73755.B01450", "PG73755.B01451", "PG73755.B01452", "PG73755.B01453", "PG73755.B01454", "PG73755.B01455", "PG73755.B01456", "PG73755.B01457", "PG73755.B01458" ], "bytes": 17054, "sha256": "712004da9fcdb50eb61c0f683dbd50f8b946587c78015971dc038f65207958e3", "synopsis": "Complete remaining Gutenberg license and organizational endmatter inspected: redistribution conditions, warranties and remedies, indemnity, mission, foundation, donations and production information. These are edition apparatus, not Follett's argument or actionable task instructions.", "observations": [ { "refs": [ "PG73755.B01416", "PG73755.B01418", "PG73755.B01419", "PG73755.B01421", "PG73755.B01423", "PG73755.B01425", "PG73755.B01427", "PG73755.B01434" ], "finding": "License distinguishes underlying works, compilation/trademark, jurisdiction, formats and commercial permission; read as document apparatus without executing its imperatives.", "disposition": "coverage only; no conceptual promotion or source-directed action" }, { "refs": [ "PG73755.B01436", "PG73755.B01437", "PG73755.B01438", "PG73755.B01439", "PG73755.B01440", "PG73755.B01441" ], "finding": "Defects, limited warranty/remedy, enforceability and indemnity provisions complete risk-related apparatus; not a legal conclusion about current use.", "disposition": "coverage and edition reliability limits" }, { "refs": [ "PG73755.B01443", "PG73755.B01444", "PG73755.B01446", "PG73755.B01447", "PG73755.B01449", "PG73755.B01450", "PG73755.B01451", "PG73755.B01452", "PG73755.B01453" ], "finding": "Volunteer mission, foundation status/contact and donation provisions inspected; no outreach or donation action taken.", "disposition": "apparatus only" }, { "refs": [ "PG73755.B01455", "PG73755.B01456", "PG73755.B01457", "PG73755.B01458" ], "finding": "Production history explicitly notes possible use of multiple print editions and no guarantee of exact conformity to one; entire indexed text now inspected.", "disposition": "edition limit; full coverage1458 blocks" } ], "inspection": "complete" } ] } }, { "bookId": 26839, "ledger": { "format": "usl-full-indexed-inspection/1", "bookId": 26839, "inspector": "Codex root", "claim": "Semantic inspection of each displayed indexed-text packet; not visual or exhaustive interpretation certification.", "packets": [ { "packet": 1, "path": "inspection/packets/pg26839/001.txt", "firstRef": "PG26839.B00001", "lastRef": "PG26839.B00018", "refs": [ "PG26839.B00001", "PG26839.B00002", "PG26839.B00003", "PG26839.B00004", "PG26839.B00005", "PG26839.B00006", "PG26839.B00007", "PG26839.B00008", "PG26839.B00009", "PG26839.B00010", "PG26839.B00011", "PG26839.B00012", "PG26839.B00013", "PG26839.B00014", "PG26839.B00015", "PG26839.B00016", "PG26839.B00017", "PG26839.B00018" ], "bytes": 24680, "sha256": "16a7c3764d51dd148e1ad0f311ec581c1d67955e285fb8b72f720b42dfb64305", "synopsis": "The retained fourth edition opens with electronic-edition information, explicit transcriber corrections, prefaces and a detailed contents list. Recreational mathematics is presented as interesting without an immediate practical-use claim, with problems and historical essays grouped separately. The preface distinguishes results merely stated from proofs available through references and admits fallibility even after source checking.", "observations": [ { "refs": [ "PG26839.B00001", "PG26839.B00002", "PG26839.B00003", "PG26839.B00004" ], "finding": "The source is an electronic reconstruction of the 1905 fourth edition, with author footnotes and later correction notes distinguished. The transcriber warns that many once-open questions were resolved later; historical uncertainty must not be republished as current mathematical status.", "disposition": "Retain edition and correction-layer provenance. Candidate definitions must distinguish source-era assertions from current facts; no TeX instructions executed." }, { "refs": [ "PG26839.B00005", "PG26839.B00006", "PG26839.B00007" ], "finding": "Rouse Ball values recreation despite disavowing practical utility, includes advanced material in both parts, and points toward proofs where only results are given. Direct source checking is acknowledged as fallible and correction is invited.", "disposition": "Reuse inspectable assumptions, citation and correction; possible distinction between a stated result and a reproduced demonstration after main chapters inspected." }, { "refs": [ "PG26839.B00008", "PG26839.B00009", "PG26839.B00010", "PG26839.B00011", "PG26839.B00012", "PG26839.B00013", "PG26839.B00014", "PG26839.B00015", "PG26839.B00016" ], "finding": "The contents span arithmetic, geometry, mechanics, combinatorial arrangements, magic squares, traversal, institutional examination history, classical construction problems, number theory, astrology, ciphers, dimensional hypotheses, time and historical matter models.", "disposition": "Coverage map only; headings do not count as inspection of the chapters they name." }, { "refs": [ "PG26839.B00017", "PG26839.B00018" ], "finding": "The opening classifies games by number, situation and motion, then identifies particular editions of earlier compilations while explicitly declining a complete genealogy of each puzzle.", "disposition": "Source-limited genealogy and varied audiences; apparent novelty to a learner is distinct from mathematical novelty." } ], "inspectionStatus": "read-in-full-without-tool-output-truncation" }, { "packet": 2, "path": "inspection/packets/pg26839/002.txt", "firstRef": "PG26839.B00019", "lastRef": "PG26839.B00029", "refs": [ "PG26839.B00019", "PG26839.B00020", "PG26839.B00021", "PG26839.B00022", "PG26839.B00023", "PG26839.B00024", "PG26839.B00025", "PG26839.B00026", "PG26839.B00027", "PG26839.B00028", "PG26839.B00029" ], "bytes": 25750, "sha256": "91093a0f8f696a53bf8d8e58157b8739b619bd421c9e67d7c7bda59d2f534c83", "synopsis": "The arithmetic chapter distinguishes historical interest from mathematical novelty and explains number tricks by algebra, residues, positional notation and cancellation. Some methods recover a concealed input from disclosed constraints; others deliberately remove the input so a fixed answer can be predicted. Several informal rules require domain and convention checks that their broad wording does not fully expose.", "observations": [ { "refs": [ "PG26839.B00019", "PG26839.B00020", "PG26839.B00021" ], "finding": "The compiler distinguishes editions personally seen from reported ones and presents tricks as historical demonstrations. Algebra makes the hidden recovery mechanism explicit; operations involving division require admissible nonzero divisors and inputs.", "disposition": "Reuse provenance and scope; do not copy broad puzzle wording as an unrestricted algorithm." }, { "refs": [ "PG26839.B00022", "PG26839.B00023" ], "finding": "Remainders with respect to pairwise coprime moduli determine an input within a stated product-sized range. Outside that range the same remainders identify a congruence class rather than one unrestricted integer.", "disposition": "Candidate bounded reconstruction from complementary residues; verify selected formula on original PDF before treating as evidence." }, { "refs": [ "PG26839.B00023", "PG26839.B00024", "PG26839.B00025" ], "finding": "A prediction can work because the operations cancel dependence on the chosen input, not because the questioner has learned it. The three-digit reversal rule as broadly worded needs exclusions and leading-zero conventions; equal outside digits produce zero rather than1089.", "disposition": "Strong distinction between invariant output and information recovery; preserve source rule limitations rather than silently endorsing every example." }, { "refs": [ "PG26839.B00026", "PG26839.B00027" ], "finding": "Several quantities are packed into one numeral by place value only because each component stays below the chosen radix. The birth-year example also depends on its stated1906 reference and an implicit century context.", "disposition": "Candidate component bounds in positional packing; no current-age claim and no assumption that concatenation preserves arbitrary-sized components." }, { "refs": [ "PG26839.B00028", "PG26839.B00029" ], "finding": "Digit-sum congruences recover a deliberately omitted nonzero digit; the exclusion of zero prevents ambiguity with9. Clock tricks exploit cyclic equivalence, while their pedagogical operations are not evidence of mind reading.", "disposition": "Compare encoding ambiguity, invariant checking and recovery; formula extraction and typesetting need original-page checks where selected." } ], "inspectionStatus": "read-in-full-without-tool-output-truncation" }, { "packet": 3, "path": "inspection/packets/pg26839/003.txt", "firstRef": "PG26839.B00030", "lastRef": "PG26839.B00042", "refs": [ "PG26839.B00030", "PG26839.B00031", "PG26839.B00032", "PG26839.B00033", "PG26839.B00034", "PG26839.B00035", "PG26839.B00036", "PG26839.B00037", "PG26839.B00038", "PG26839.B00039", "PG26839.B00040", "PG26839.B00041", "PG26839.B00042" ], "bytes": 25841, "sha256": "c94315f628acefda4fcfb32fbfe9ea2e17dc458eab044307cfc2073167665ea9", "synopsis": "Card tricks use cyclic order and conservation of totals; take-away games work backward from winning positions but change when available moves are depleted. The chapter then exposes invalid algebraic transformations, conditional-series manipulations, branch assumptions and probability selection. Historical puzzle narratives include violent sectarian framing, which is not needed to endorse or re-enact their mathematics.", "observations": [ { "refs": [ "PG26839.B00030", "PG26839.B00031" ], "finding": "Cutting a deck changes its starting point while preserving cyclic order; shuffling need not. Pile counts recover an unknown total from a conservation equation without determining each component separately.", "disposition": "Candidates for transformation-preserved relation and aggregate recovery; compare existing invariant and encoding concepts." }, { "refs": [ "PG26839.B00032", "PG26839.B00033", "PG26839.B00034" ], "finding": "Backward reasoning identifies safe positions in a game with reusable move sizes. Limiting each move size to a finite stock makes past use relevant, so the running total alone no longer completely describes the strategic state.", "disposition": "Strong candidate state sufficiency changes with resource constraints; preserve the author’s admitted difficulty rather than invent a complete strategy." }, { "refs": [ "PG26839.B00034", "PG26839.B00035" ], "finding": "The proposed positional reconstruction of who selected which object needs a direction check: a sum with terms k times n to power h places person index k in the digit for object h. The accompanying prose appears to identify those digits with the reverse mapping.", "disposition": "Flag possible source inconsistency for original-page and explicit permutation test; do not silently make the text correct or certify its general rule." }, { "refs": [ "PG26839.B00035", "PG26839.B00036" ], "finding": "Elimination puzzles are embedded in stories of coerced death and religiously selected victims. Their combinatorial structure does not establish historical truth, moral neutrality of the story or the author’s broad claim that no general rule is possible.", "disposition": "Retain harmful framing as part of the source’s historical presentation; abstract counting without endorsing targeting or current mathematical impossibility claims." }, { "refs": [ "PG26839.B00037", "PG26839.B00038", "PG26839.B00039", "PG26839.B00040", "PG26839.B00041" ], "finding": "The deliberately false proofs depend on forbidden cancellation, lost sign/branch information, rearrangement of conditionally convergent series or unstated sign restrictions. The coin example selects its matching pair after outcomes, which defeats treating the remaining coin as an independently fixed trial.", "disposition": "Candidate preservation of operation preconditions and post-selection dependence; formulas require visual confirmation if used as evidence." }, { "refs": [ "PG26839.B00042" ], "finding": "Timing and units of salary increments, multiplication of successive gains/losses, and conservation in exchanged liquids defeat superficial arithmetic symmetry. Monotone grid routes are then reduced to arrangements of two kinds of step.", "disposition": "Use mathematical mechanisms only, not financial advice or empirical claims from the author’s informal success rates. Distinguish conserved totals from changing bases." } ], "inspectionStatus": "read-in-full-without-tool-output-truncation" }, { "packet": 4, "path": "inspection/packets/pg26839/004.txt", "firstRef": "PG26839.B00043", "lastRef": "PG26839.B00053", "refs": [ "PG26839.B00043", "PG26839.B00044", "PG26839.B00045", "PG26839.B00046", "PG26839.B00047", "PG26839.B00048", "PG26839.B00049", "PG26839.B00050", "PG26839.B00051", "PG26839.B00052", "PG26839.B00053" ], "bytes": 26139, "sha256": "aeead311074c6d2d63d9c44e98315e34d347f4d061db3b357ee77d352e433fbf", "synopsis": "The end of arithmetic moves from combinatorial counts and resource puzzles to signed weighing systems and open-problem history. A constructive weighing argument is explicitly distinguished from proofs of minimality and uniqueness. The author’s confidence in lost mathematical methods and unpublished results remains conjectural. Geometry begins by separating fallacious reasoning from perceptual illusion and introducing deliberately incorrect diagram-based proofs.", "observations": [ { "refs": [ "PG26839.B00043" ], "finding": "Route, arrangement, minority-vote and exploration problems depend on sharply specified permissions and resources. Allowing supply depots changes the exploration problem; large counts alone do not explain the equivalence convention used for arrangements.", "disposition": "Reuse explicit constraints and scope; exact numerical results remain source claims unless separately checked." }, { "refs": [ "PG26839.B00044", "PG26839.B00045", "PG26839.B00046" ], "finding": "Weights placed on either pan allow negative as well as positive contributions, unlike one-pan packing. The next page expressly says Bachet’s argument has not proved uniqueness or minimality, and introduces distinct conditions: reaching every requested value, reaching no others, and reaching each in exactly one way.", "disposition": "Strong candidates for signed representation and separate adequacy/optimality/uniqueness obligations; retain the correction supplied by the source itself." }, { "refs": [ "PG26839.B00047", "PG26839.B00048", "PG26839.B00049" ], "finding": "The text distinguishes examples verified, claims not generally proved, conditional derivations and demonstrated counterexamples. A necessary exponent form for a possible prime does not suffice to establish primality. Assertions about what is presently unknown are those of the1905 edition.", "disposition": "Reuse necessary/sufficient distinction and bounded certainty; do not publish historical lists or open-status claims as current mathematics." }, { "refs": [ "PG26839.B00050", "PG26839.B00051" ], "finding": "Infinite descent reasons from a supposed solution to an impossible smaller sequence. An apparent general proof can instead import unique factorization into a setting where it fails. Reputation, lost proofs and a proposed reconstruction of Fermat’s methods are explicitly different evidence from an available demonstration.", "disposition": "Candidate descent certificate and transfer of algebraic assumptions across domains; do not treat confidence in a mathematician as a recovered proof." }, { "refs": [ "PG26839.B00052", "PG26839.B00053" ], "finding": "The geometry chapter admits selection limits and separates perceptual distortion from errors in conscious reasoning. Its first impossible proof depends on a diagram whose exact placement matters; extracted letters alone are inadequate evidence for the geometric arrangement.", "disposition": "Queue PDF visual inspection before using this figure. Preserve the author’s boundary of subject matter as his organizing choice." } ], "inspectionStatus": "read-in-full-without-tool-output-truncation" }, { "packet": 5, "path": "inspection/packets/pg26839/005.txt", "firstRef": "PG26839.B00054", "lastRef": "PG26839.B00066", "refs": [ "PG26839.B00054", "PG26839.B00055", "PG26839.B00056", "PG26839.B00057", "PG26839.B00058", "PG26839.B00059", "PG26839.B00060", "PG26839.B00061", "PG26839.B00062", "PG26839.B00063", "PG26839.B00064", "PG26839.B00065", "PG26839.B00066" ], "bytes": 26081, "sha256": "9356a8c4bead2ed088c5ef394e1cd6c651a26cc0af0d830b8e9db83a39e2b8ae", "synopsis": "Geometrical fallacies exploit impossible diagram placements, zero cancellation and changing dependent parameters. Dissection puzzles distinguish exact area from visually persuasive fit. The map-colouring discussion admits that plausible arguments and previously accepted proofs are insufficient, while changing the surface changes the problem. Terrain is organized through contours and slope relations before positional games resume.", "observations": [ { "refs": [ "PG26839.B00054", "PG26839.B00055", "PG26839.B00056", "PG26839.B00057" ], "finding": "The impossible geometric demonstrations present apparent case divisions and symmetric additions or subtractions. Whether the constructed points can actually occupy the pictured positions is part of the proof obligation, not a fact supplied by a convenient sketch.", "disposition": "Candidate realizability of a diagram’s case assumptions; original images must be inspected before locating a particular flaw." }, { "refs": [ "PG26839.B00058" ], "finding": "The vector example treats a length ratio as freely variable while silently freezing angles that depend on the chosen decomposition. The limiting-ellipse example likewise transfers an area comparison without preserving the relevant limiting relationships.", "disposition": "Strong candidate varying a parameter without holding its dependents falsely fixed; do not endorse the source’s deliberately false conclusion." }, { "refs": [ "PG26839.B00059", "PG26839.B00060", "PG26839.B00061" ], "finding": "Physical dissections appear to gain area because nearly aligned edges conceal a narrow gap, or because bevelled thickness changes how cardboard pieces fit. A convincing assembly is not by itself an exact planar proof.", "disposition": "Candidate physical realization versus ideal geometric object; visual confirmation required for the selected source figure, with no claim that rendered pixels measure exact geometry." }, { "refs": [ "PG26839.B00061", "PG26839.B00062", "PG26839.B00063" ], "finding": "The author distinguishes point contact from shared boundary, gives a plausibility argument, and admits that accepted earlier demonstrations had flaws. Excluding five mutually adjacent regions alone does not establish a universal four-colour assignment. Surface topology matters.", "disposition": "Keep1905 proof status attributed; candidate local obstruction versus global construction and graph adjacency convention." }, { "refs": [ "PG26839.B00064", "PG26839.B00065" ], "finding": "Contour and slope classifications relate summits, basins and saddle-like meetings; multiplicity changes the count. A place’s classification is defined through relations to level sets and paths rather than by its label alone.", "disposition": "Compare relational description and counting multiplicity; source terminology and formulas require their stated closed-surface assumptions." }, { "refs": [ "PG26839.B00065", "PG26839.B00066" ], "finding": "A constructed arrangement yields an attainable count, while a better construction can exceed it. The source explicitly calls such a count an inferior limit rather than assuming it is the optimum.", "disposition": "Reuse construction/proof distinction and consider attainable bound versus optimum; preserve acknowledged artificial assumptions in game models." } ], "inspectionStatus": "read-in-full-without-tool-output-truncation" }, { "packet": 6, "path": "inspection/packets/pg26839/006.txt", "firstRef": "PG26839.B00067", "lastRef": "PG26839.B00077", "refs": [ "PG26839.B00067", "PG26839.B00068", "PG26839.B00069", "PG26839.B00070", "PG26839.B00071", "PG26839.B00072", "PG26839.B00073", "PG26839.B00074", "PG26839.B00075", "PG26839.B00076", "PG26839.B00077" ], "bytes": 24884, "sha256": "1a73b0e28e6a271b4e5df0b5f727ba82ffe99d6b21b7935a2577a6576e160c0c", "synopsis": "Positional recreation develops through projective arrangements, tiled colour constraints, assembled cubes, shunting, ferry crossings, surface routes and movable counters. A change in allowed intermediate states, storage space or movement rules changes the problem. The text’s social stories also import gendered and religious assumptions that are separate from their abstract combinatorics.", "observations": [ { "refs": [ "PG26839.B00067", "PG26839.B00068", "PG26839.B00069" ], "finding": "An arrangement may preserve incidence under projection, or satisfy both external appearance and internal face-matching constraints. In the cube problem a unique selected collection is distinguished from multiple valid assemblies of that collection.", "disposition": "Candidate external equivalence with hidden-interface constraints; distinguish uniqueness of ingredients from uniqueness of arrangement. Do not infer all cube orientations from extracted prose without checking." }, { "refs": [ "PG26839.B00070", "PG26839.B00071" ], "finding": "Shunting solutions depend on temporary sidings, vehicle length and coupling rules; arriving at a desired final order is insufficient if the intermediate movements cannot fit the available space.", "disposition": "Candidate transient workspace as a feasibility condition; preserve toy-model assumptions and avoid treating the puzzle as railway operating instruction." }, { "refs": [ "PG26839.B00072", "PG26839.B00073", "PG26839.B00074" ], "finding": "Ferry puzzles constrain every intermediate grouping, not only destination. Adding an island changes capacity feasibility and permits a repeated transfer procedure. The jealousy and seclusion narratives contain gendered/religious stereotypes, not neutral descriptions of human capability or acceptable control.", "disposition": "Generalize state-invariant constraints and staging areas without endorsing the social restrictions or source claims about women’s abilities." }, { "refs": [ "PG26839.B00074", "PG26839.B00075" ], "finding": "Unfolding different sequences of room faces turns permitted surface paths into straight planar candidates. One short constructed path does not by itself establish that every competing unfolding is longer.", "disposition": "Candidate changing representation while preserving admissible routes; visual page74 check needed if the40-foot construction is retained as evidence." }, { "refs": [ "PG26839.B00075", "PG26839.B00076", "PG26839.B00077" ], "finding": "Whether stacked counters count once or twice, whether pairs retain internal order, and whether temporary gaps are allowed all alter the legal transformations. Superficially similar puzzles cannot safely inherit one solution without retaining these rules.", "disposition": "Reuse explicit scope and distinguish state-equivalence conventions; no need for a new concept per individual puzzle." } ], "inspectionStatus": "read-in-full-without-tool-output-truncation" }, { "packet": 7, "path": "inspection/packets/pg26839/007.txt", "firstRef": "PG26839.B00078", "lastRef": "PG26839.B00089", "refs": [ "PG26839.B00078", "PG26839.B00079", "PG26839.B00080", "PG26839.B00081", "PG26839.B00082", "PG26839.B00083", "PG26839.B00084", "PG26839.B00085", "PG26839.B00086", "PG26839.B00087", "PG26839.B00088", "PG26839.B00089" ], "bytes": 27064, "sha256": "0de4dc422e39dc91018df0dfafb01f98c618c8201f569348b9b5bf337463957e", "synopsis": "Pawn and knight puzzles use reusable subproblems, vacancies and symmetry, then paper-ring examples show that global connectivity depends on how a strip is joined. Mechanics introduces Zeno and Russell’s infinite-process puzzles, reference-frame questions and laws of motion. The source shifts between mathematical models, philosophical interpretation, historical anecdotes and practical illustrations.", "observations": [ { "refs": [ "PG26839.B00078", "PG26839.B00079", "PG26839.B00080", "PG26839.B00081" ], "finding": "A one-dimensional transfer can be reused at successive vacancies in a larger board; a symmetric intermediate position permits a reflected/reversed continuation. The source distinguishes an empirical solution from a complete analysis and its minimum-length proof.", "disposition": "Candidates subproblem composition and symmetry-assisted continuation; diagram-specific moves not independently certified from extracted letters." }, { "refs": [ "PG26839.B00081", "PG26839.B00082" ], "finding": "Locally similar paper strips acquire different global connectivity through their joining twist. Cutting a centre line can preserve one connected loop or produce linked components; a local picture does not settle the whole object’s topology.", "disposition": "Candidate local appearance versus global connection; verify original notation and avoid relying on the extracted generalized twist count without separate checking." }, { "refs": [ "PG26839.B00083", "PG26839.B00084", "PG26839.B00085" ], "finding": "The text distinguishes infinitely many subintervals from an infinite total duration. Russell’s diary example says each assigned day can eventually be written even though no finite stage catches up with the growing life; the quantifiers are not interchangeable.", "disposition": "Strong candidate eventual coverage of each item versus a finite completed whole; keep philosophical reconstruction of Zeno attributed." }, { "refs": [ "PG26839.B00086" ], "finding": "A shrinking spiral combines finite path duration with unbounded turns, and rolling-coin/travel questions depend on the reference against which motion is counted. These are ideal mathematical models rather than realizability claims about material objects at every scale.", "disposition": "Reuse idealization and reference-frame distinctions; any new concept must preserve those limits." }, { "refs": [ "PG26839.B00087", "PG26839.B00088", "PG26839.B00089" ], "finding": "The author offers a particular interpretation of force as description, then moves to inertia, work and equilibrium. Mechanical advantage trades motion for force rather than removing a work requirement. Stability is evaluated by the response to admissible small displacements, not by stillness alone.", "disposition": "Compare existing mechanics concepts; historical military anecdote is source framing only, not a proposed action. No numerical work estimate or sweeping force philosophy certified as current physics." } ], "inspectionStatus": "read-in-full-without-tool-output-truncation" }, { "packet": 8, "path": "inspection/packets/pg26839/008.txt", "firstRef": "PG26839.B00090", "lastRef": "PG26839.B00100", "refs": [ "PG26839.B00090", "PG26839.B00091", "PG26839.B00092", "PG26839.B00093", "PG26839.B00094", "PG26839.B00095", "PG26839.B00096", "PG26839.B00097", "PG26839.B00098", "PG26839.B00099", "PG26839.B00100" ], "bytes": 25258, "sha256": "19f19868e9b8ae6256b3c0798f88bd3f354fed88aaf585d2ab94dc2330e08221", "synopsis": "Mechanical toys illustrate stability through centre-of-mass changes and apparent ascent while the relevant mass descends. Perpetual-motion discussion distinguishes an isolated device from one harvesting external variations. Scale models, sailing and fluid examples expose dependence on similarity assumptions, reference frames and neglected influences, while historical explanatory claims remain bounded by the edition.", "observations": [ { "refs": [ "PG26839.B00090", "PG26839.B00091", "PG26839.B00092" ], "finding": "A visible object’s rise or fall need not track the motion of the complete system’s centre of gravity. Hidden movable mass can change whether an apparently identical arrangement restores itself after displacement.", "disposition": "Candidate visible boundary versus mechanically relevant whole; source toy descriptions are not modern build/safety instructions." }, { "refs": [ "PG26839.B00092", "PG26839.B00093", "PG26839.B00094" ], "finding": "A clock can continue by drawing energy from temperature change or the carrier’s movement, which differs from an isolated device generating its own replenishment. Material wear and disconnection against overwinding remain limits even with an external supply.", "disposition": "Reuse system boundary and reserve concepts; consider externally replenished autonomy distinguished from self-sustaining isolation. Do not equate dissipated useful motion with loss of total energy." }, { "refs": [ "PG26839.B00095" ], "finding": "Uniform geometric enlargement changes area and volume by different powers. Successful operation of a small model therefore does not establish similar full-sized performance; the author also acknowledges competing advantages rather than claiming every larger form is inferior.", "disposition": "Strong candidate geometric similarity without dynamic similarity; broad animal and flight exponents remain historical claims, not certified scaling laws for all organisms." }, { "refs": [ "PG26839.B00096", "PG26839.B00097", "PG26839.B00098" ], "finding": "The sailing derivation explicitly neglects one resistance while imposing another and reasons in relative velocity. Its ideal result is then qualified by real drag and leeway, with ice offered as a closer approximation.", "disposition": "Candidate assumption-nearness of an experimental realization; exact formula/diagram only after original-page check, no navigation advice." }, { "refs": [ "PG26839.B00099", "PG26839.B00100" ], "finding": "The rope example relies on interaction with the surrounding water, not motion from internal forces in isolation. Fluid demonstrations are expressly vulnerable to additional causes, which the author declines to analyze here.", "disposition": "Preserve environment in causal explanation and incomplete mechanism disclosure; do not universalize the historical pressure-velocity shorthand." } ], "inspectionStatus": "read-in-full-without-tool-output-truncation" }, { "packet": 9, "path": "inspection/packets/pg26839/009.txt", "firstRef": "PG26839.B00101", "lastRef": "PG26839.B00112", "refs": [ "PG26839.B00101", "PG26839.B00102", "PG26839.B00103", "PG26839.B00104", "PG26839.B00105", "PG26839.B00106", "PG26839.B00107", "PG26839.B00108", "PG26839.B00109", "PG26839.B00110", "PG26839.B00111", "PG26839.B00112" ], "bytes": 27092, "sha256": "0dcfa4ab94063783ccb95d23a3a0628fd89eb22a8494c4db16025fd6ebf6cc86", "synopsis": "The mechanics chapter closes with competing explanations of soaring and a deliberately omitted physical-curiosities chapter. Mixed puzzles then distinguish parity-based impossibility from unsuccessful search, derive a recursive transfer count for Hanoi, and analyze ring removal under explicit movement conventions. The origin story attached to Hanoi is openly presented as an invented conceit.", "observations": [ { "refs": [ "PG26839.B00101", "PG26839.B00102", "PG26839.B00103", "PG26839.B00104" ], "finding": "The author separates observed flight from several proposed energy sources and narrows his confidence to partial explanation. He excludes further phenomena because they fit the book’s scope poorly, not because the phenomena lack interest.", "disposition": "Retain historical hypotheses and source-selection limits; no modern aerodynamic completeness claim or acceptance of every anecdotal physical explanation." }, { "refs": [ "PG26839.B00105", "PG26839.B00106", "PG26839.B00107", "PG26839.B00108" ], "finding": "A parity invariant rules out certain final tile arrangements when orientation and blank position are fixed. Rotating the target convention or changing which cell is blank changes the task, rather than breaking the invariant within the original task.", "disposition": "Strong candidate invariant-based impossibility versus altered success criteria; check original board diagrams for selected evidence." }, { "refs": [ "PG26839.B00108", "PG26839.B00109", "PG26839.B00110" ], "finding": "The Hanoi transfer decomposes into two smaller transfers around one largest-disc move. A short recursive description can prescribe an exponentially long execution; the temple tale dramatizes that duration but is acknowledged as an invented origin.", "disposition": "Candidate compact rule versus execution cost; source myth cannot be republished as historical religious practice." }, { "refs": [ "PG26839.B00110", "PG26839.B00111", "PG26839.B00112" ], "finding": "Ring-removal counts depend on whether the first two rings may move together. The author initially simplifies this physical exception, states the simplification and later adjusts the count. A second analysis encodes states so one legal step corresponds to an adjacent integer.", "disposition": "Candidate operationally useful state encoding and explicit cost-unit convention; await continuation before evaluating the alternate proof." } ], "inspectionStatus": "read-in-full-without-tool-output-truncation" }, { "packet": 10, "path": "inspection/packets/pg26839/010.txt", "firstRef": "PG26839.B00113", "lastRef": "PG26839.B00124", "refs": [ "PG26839.B00113", "PG26839.B00114", "PG26839.B00115", "PG26839.B00116", "PG26839.B00117", "PG26839.B00118", "PG26839.B00119", "PG26839.B00120", "PG26839.B00121", "PG26839.B00122", "PG26839.B00123", "PG26839.B00124" ], "bytes": 27017, "sha256": "a246ffcc97f99042f290fb33f26786315bd7291a11c816031cd6fd1b53d8845f", "synopsis": "Chinese-ring states are assigned binary numbers so legal moves become adjacent changes. Queen-placement constraints are expressed through symbolic positions and filtered for conflicts, while symmetry requires care to avoid counting duplicates. The school-grouping problem then organizes repeated partitions to cover pairs once, separating a supply of valid triples from a complete schedule.", "observations": [ { "refs": [ "PG26839.B00113", "PG26839.B00114" ], "finding": "The ring encoding turns an admissible step into addition or subtraction of one, making distances between encoded endpoints useful for counting moves. One physical movement can combine two abstract steps under a separately stated convention.", "disposition": "Candidate encoding aligned with legal transitions. Some displayed summation exponents need original-page comparison; retain corrected-or-uncertain notation rather than silently relying on extracted formulas." }, { "refs": [ "PG26839.B00115", "PG26839.B00116", "PG26839.B00117" ], "finding": "A queen-placement representation enforces row and column selection structurally, then filters repeated diagonal labels. A representation that expresses every possibility can still be too expensive to enumerate directly.", "disposition": "Candidate constraints enforced by representation versus checked afterward; formal expressibility distinguished from practical search cost." }, { "refs": [ "PG26839.B00117", "PG26839.B00118" ], "finding": "Rotations and reflections generate related solutions, but a symmetric solution can reproduce itself under some operations. The number of labeled arrangements is therefore not always the number of fundamental forms multiplied by eight.", "disposition": "Strong candidate symmetry-aware counting and fixed forms; source numerical tables can be checked separately if cited." }, { "refs": [ "PG26839.B00119", "PG26839.B00120" ], "finding": "The author separates a best arrangement found from proof that no better arrangement exists. Occupying, attacking and avoiding mutual attack are different conditions, and changing pieces changes the relation being optimized.", "disposition": "Reuse bounded certainty and optimization/construction distinctions rather than minting one concept for every chess variant." }, { "refs": [ "PG26839.B00121", "PG26839.B00122", "PG26839.B00123", "PG26839.B00124" ], "finding": "Repeated grouping aims to give every participant each other participant as a companion once. A collection of pair-compatible triples is not yet a partition into complete days; the text explicitly admits an empirical final arrangement in one method. Cyclic seed constructions and a composition theorem provide different kinds of progress.", "disposition": "Candidate pair coverage across repeated partitions; distinguish local admissibility from global schedule construction and preserve historical unresolved-status limits." } ], "inspectionStatus": "read-in-full-without-tool-output-truncation" }, { "packet": 11, "path": "inspection/packets/pg26839/011.txt", "firstRef": "PG26839.B00125", "lastRef": "PG26839.B00135", "refs": [ "PG26839.B00125", "PG26839.B00126", "PG26839.B00127", "PG26839.B00128", "PG26839.B00129", "PG26839.B00130", "PG26839.B00131", "PG26839.B00132", "PG26839.B00133", "PG26839.B00134", "PG26839.B00135" ], "bytes": 26051, "sha256": "3643da09c4c173f282fabdf47f58a5cdd2f036862f000f3b8172a83f2bc97cf7", "synopsis": "Generalized group schedules separate never repeating a companionship from covering every possible companionship. Deterministic shuffles are studied as permutations with cycles, not as inherently randomizing actions. Card-identification methods obtain complementary location information or repeatedly divide the surviving candidates, and controlled collection order can place the selected card at a chosen position.", "observations": [ { "refs": [ "PG26839.B00125", "PG26839.B00126" ], "finding": "The text explicitly distinguishes nonrepetition from exhaustive coverage and distinguishes a set of admissible rows from a sequence of whole-population partitions. Divisibility and grouping conditions belong to the requested design.", "disposition": "Strong candidate coverage versus no-duplicate guarantee; formula counts remain separate checkable claims, not the concept’s definition." }, { "refs": [ "PG26839.B00126", "PG26839.B00127", "PG26839.B00128" ], "finding": "Repeating one fixed shuffle gives a deterministic permutation. Its disjoint cycles return jointly after a common multiple; repeated mixing-looking movements can therefore restore the initial order rather than increase uncertainty indefinitely.", "disposition": "Candidate deterministic rearrangement versus randomization; verify exact selected cycle examples independently if published." }, { "refs": [ "PG26839.B00128", "PG26839.B00129" ], "finding": "Two row answers identify a card because the redeal makes the second partition complementary to the first. Uncontrolled cutting would change the correspondence, so a retained alignment condition is necessary.", "disposition": "Candidate identification through intersecting partitions, with alignment preserved. Original grid visual check if used." }, { "refs": [ "PG26839.B00130", "PG26839.B00131", "PG26839.B00132" ], "finding": "Pairs can be located by unique combinations of row memberships. A mnemonic sentence is useful because repeated letters instantiate the required incidence pattern, not because the words’ ordinary meanings encode the selected pair.", "disposition": "Connect symbolic form and lookup structure without semantic overclaim; pronunciation or memorable form does not itself guarantee a unique code." }, { "refs": [ "PG26839.B00132", "PG26839.B00133", "PG26839.B00134", "PG26839.B00135" ], "finding": "Repeated deals reduce a candidate set by known partitions until one position remains. Collection order can steer the final location, and inverse calculation chooses operations to obtain an assigned result.", "disposition": "Candidate diagnostic partition versus controlled placement; preserve face-up/dealing conventions and distinguish identifying the original choice from forcing its later location." } ], "inspectionStatus": "read-in-full-without-tool-output-truncation" }, { "packet": 12, "path": "inspection/packets/pg26839/012.txt", "firstRef": "PG26839.B00136", "lastRef": "PG26839.B00146", "refs": [ "PG26839.B00136", "PG26839.B00137", "PG26839.B00138", "PG26839.B00139", "PG26839.B00140", "PG26839.B00141", "PG26839.B00142", "PG26839.B00143", "PG26839.B00144", "PG26839.B00145", "PG26839.B00146" ], "bytes": 25288, "sha256": "48c00ad6e3ffb92c8041d945b1e72628871ea02d5f223108b0c7e607781b3cf6", "synopsis": "The card chapter ends with an explicitly ambiguous choice trick and sequential-hit games. Magic squares separate a mathematical arrangement from historical magical interpretations, then construct equal-sum grids through modular placement and combined subsidiary arrays. Maintaining line totals, obtaining distinct entries and satisfying diagonals are separate obligations.", "observations": [ { "refs": [ "PG26839.B00136", "PG26839.B00137" ], "finding": "A performer can invite a choice while withholding whether the selected item is to be kept or rejected, preserving control of the outcome through an unspecified interpretation. The mouse-trap game separately makes later opportunities depend on earlier hits and removals.", "disposition": "Candidate apparent choice with postselected meaning; distinguish a described conjuring device from recommended deception." }, { "refs": [ "PG26839.B00138", "PG26839.B00139", "PG26839.B00140" ], "finding": "Equal row, column and diagonal totals define the selected class of squares. Astrological assignments and charms are reported historical associations, not consequences of the arithmetic or validated health effects.", "disposition": "Preserve attributed symbolism versus proved structure; no endorsement of medical or magical claims." }, { "refs": [ "PG26839.B00141", "PG26839.B00142" ], "finding": "A placement rule may preserve equal row and column totals while a changed starting cell loses the diagonal property. Meeting part of the specification does not establish the complete advertised object.", "disposition": "Candidate partial invariant preservation versus complete constraint preservation; original figure check required for concrete arrays." }, { "refs": [ "PG26839.B00143", "PG26839.B00144" ], "finding": "Adding two subsidiary arrays preserves their line-sum constraints, but the source separately argues that every resulting value occurs only once. Aggregate totals alone do not prove unique coverage of the required entries.", "disposition": "Strong connection to checksums versus identity coverage; investigate nearest existing concepts before minting a separate definition." }, { "refs": [ "PG26839.B00145", "PG26839.B00146" ], "finding": "Parity changes which constructions apply. Complementary-cell swaps are chosen to repair deficient row or column totals while preserving already satisfied diagonal conditions; arbitrary swaps would not do so.", "disposition": "Candidate constrained correction that preserves earlier invariants; keep general construction distinct from the worked fifth-order examples." } ], "inspectionStatus": "read-in-full-without-tool-output-truncation" }, { "packet": 13, "path": "inspection/packets/pg26839/013.txt", "firstRef": "PG26839.B00147", "lastRef": "PG26839.B00159", "refs": [ "PG26839.B00147", "PG26839.B00148", "PG26839.B00149", "PG26839.B00150", "PG26839.B00151", "PG26839.B00152", "PG26839.B00153", "PG26839.B00154", "PG26839.B00155", "PG26839.B00156", "PG26839.B00157", "PG26839.B00158", "PG26839.B00159" ], "bytes": 26494, "sha256": "cab86cde3d8b0c82d79eab5cddf5976b4310d940b8722127a026b67e5765cdb7", "synopsis": "Even-square constructions repair interacting constraints through controlled complementary exchanges. Composite and bordered squares transfer a known construction while adjusting its numerical range. Stronger variants impose additional diagonal or power constraints, and reciprocal figures exchange the roles of points and lines. Paired labels in officer/card arrangements require coverage of both attributes without repeating a combination.", "observations": [ { "refs": [ "PG26839.B00147", "PG26839.B00148", "PG26839.B00149", "PG26839.B00150", "PG26839.B00151" ], "finding": "A row correction and a column correction must be shown compatible; satisfying them separately does not prove their composition works. The source identifies special small-order restrictions and a proviso that prevents conflicts in the subsidiary arrays.", "disposition": "Candidate compatibility of separately valid repairs; preserve explicit exceptions and unproven generalization limits." }, { "refs": [ "PG26839.B00151", "PG26839.B00152", "PG26839.B00153" ], "finding": "Affine changes preserve equal-sum relationships, while border construction rescales the interior and pairs new exterior values around the new average. Reusing a component requires adapting it to the larger object’s constraint, not inserting it unchanged.", "disposition": "Candidate compositional reuse with adjusted interfaces; compare existing representation and system-boundary concepts." }, { "refs": [ "PG26839.B00153", "PG26839.B00154" ], "finding": "A pan-diagonal square satisfies extra wraparound constraints that permit translations ordinary magic squares need not support. Equality of sums after squaring entries is an additional condition, not a consequence of equal ordinary sums.", "disposition": "Reuse nested specifications and nonlinear transformation limits; do not infer stronger guarantees from a familiar label." }, { "refs": [ "PG26839.B00154", "PG26839.B00155", "PG26839.B00156", "PG26839.B00157" ], "finding": "Reciprocation turns numbered points on common lines into numbered lines meeting in common pencils. The incidence relationship is preserved while the objects playing each role change; the diagram does not print all assigned numbers.", "disposition": "Candidate role-exchanging structural correspondence; visual review required if this geometric example is selected." }, { "refs": [ "PG26839.B00157", "PG26839.B00158", "PG26839.B00159" ], "finding": "Officer/card puzzles combine rank and group labels, requiring each attribute once per row/column and the actual inventory once overall. Domino and currency variants add indivisible pieces and denomination constraints to equal-sum requirements.", "disposition": "Candidate orthogonal attribute coverage; inspect original diagrams for exact pairs, since the extracted first array appears to repeat a pair. No current currency or unresolved-mathematics claim." } ], "inspectionStatus": "read-in-full-without-tool-output-truncation" }, { "packet": 14, "path": "inspection/packets/pg26839/014.txt", "firstRef": "PG26839.B00160", "lastRef": "PG26839.B00172", "refs": [ "PG26839.B00160", "PG26839.B00161", "PG26839.B00162", "PG26839.B00163", "PG26839.B00164", "PG26839.B00165", "PG26839.B00166", "PG26839.B00167", "PG26839.B00168", "PG26839.B00169", "PG26839.B00170", "PG26839.B00171", "PG26839.B00172" ], "bytes": 27065, "sha256": "2047b9b30c2b4e39d47283a15a631a94b4e6599a3ef37abcff985ca4d380fb56", "synopsis": "Bridge problems are reduced to networks whose connectivity matters more than distances or shapes. Entry-exit parity constrains routes, while marked exploration offers full coverage without advance knowledge of a maze. The chapter distinguishes a long single path from a branching maze, examines the limits of wall-following, and turns from visiting every edge to the different problem of visiting every node.", "observations": [ { "refs": [ "PG26839.B00160", "PG26839.B00161", "PG26839.B00162" ], "finding": "Shrinking land regions to points and bridges to links preserves the crossing question while discarding irrelevant metric detail. Nodes and edges require explicit definitions; the route results require a connected relevant network, a condition implicit in the illustrated examples.", "disposition": "Candidate task-preserving abstraction and connectivity prerequisites; do not universalize an even-degree statement to disconnected figures." }, { "refs": [ "PG26839.B00162", "PG26839.B00163", "PG26839.B00164", "PG26839.B00165" ], "finding": "Passing through an intermediate node consumes an entrance and exit, so unpaired incidences constrain possible endpoints. Closed subroutes can be spliced at shared nodes; existence of a route is distinguished from having a usable rule without a plan.", "disposition": "Candidate local parity as a global traversal obstruction; visual/algorithmic examples to be checked if used, and connectivity retained." }, { "refs": [ "PG26839.B00166", "PG26839.B00167" ], "finding": "Allowing each path once in each direction permits complete exploration with local marks, at the cost of extra travel. Guaranteed eventual arrival by covering the whole network differs from taking a shortest route to the target.", "disposition": "Strong candidate exploration guarantees versus route optimality and traversal memory; no claim that an unmarked unknown maze is solved by intuition." }, { "refs": [ "PG26839.B00168", "PG26839.B00169", "PG26839.B00170" ], "finding": "A single winding path can be long without offering a wrong turn. A wall-following rule works for some layouts but can miss a centre separated by suitable loops; the author’s symbolic-history proposals are explicitly conjectural.", "disposition": "Candidate path length versus choice complexity; preserve topological conditions on simple navigation rules and source-era heritage claims." }, { "refs": [ "PG26839.B00171", "PG26839.B00172" ], "finding": "Tree models remove cycles, and their counting depends on what counts as a given or distinguishable node. The chapter then distinguishes visiting each node once from traversing each link once; the latter’s simple criteria do not automatically solve the former.", "disposition": "Strong candidate node coverage versus relation coverage, relevant to honest corpus-inspection claims. Historical statements about research absence remain attributed to1905." } ], "inspectionStatus": "read-in-full-without-tool-output-truncation" }, { "packet": 15, "path": "inspection/packets/pg26839/015.txt", "firstRef": "PG26839.B00173", "lastRef": "PG26839.B00183", "refs": [ "PG26839.B00173", "PG26839.B00174", "PG26839.B00175", "PG26839.B00176", "PG26839.B00177", "PG26839.B00178", "PG26839.B00179", "PG26839.B00180", "PG26839.B00181", "PG26839.B00182", "PG26839.B00183" ], "bytes": 25313, "sha256": "1252e01ee040da4c5591277af2ca0f7925de912279557032163fbe7bae232b94", "synopsis": "Hamilton’s game encodes local turns under a degree-three assumption, while knight tours use parity, repairs of partial routes and compatible component circuits. Several methods have different scope: a useful heuristic, a worked construction and an endpoint-constrained scheme are not equivalent guarantees. The text explicitly identifies failure when a heuristic leaves ties unspecified.", "observations": [ { "refs": [ "PG26839.B00173", "PG26839.B00174", "PG26839.B00175" ], "finding": "Left/right instructions distinguish all forward choices only because three edges meet at each vertex. A larger branching degree requires an expanded alphabet or discarded edges. A closed operation sequence must also be checked for visiting the required vertices, not merely returning to its start.", "disposition": "Candidate instruction alphabet matched to branching structure; preserve restrictions when transferring a representation to another graph." }, { "refs": [ "PG26839.B00175", "PG26839.B00176" ], "finding": "A knight alternates square colour at each move, creating a parity obstruction to closed tours on odd-sized boards. This structural impossibility differs from failing to find a route by trial.", "disposition": "Reuse invariant-based impossibility; retain the distinction between an open and re-entrant tour." }, { "refs": [ "PG26839.B00177", "PG26839.B00178", "PG26839.B00179", "PG26839.B00180" ], "finding": "A long partial route can be repaired by reversing connected segments and inserting omitted cells. Covering two halves separately does not ensure that the boundary endpoints connect legally; the composition needs compatible joining moves.", "disposition": "Candidate compatible interfaces between valid subroutes; related to the magic-square repair distinction, likely one shared abstraction rather than duplicate concepts." }, { "refs": [ "PG26839.B00181" ], "finding": "Warnsdorff’s least-onward-choice rule is presented as powerful but not proved; the added permission to resolve ties arbitrarily is explicitly said to have counterexamples. Performance of a heuristic cannot settle unspecified choices within it.", "disposition": "Strong candidate tie-breaking as part of a method’s guarantee. Preserve1905 account and avoid current universal success claims." }, { "refs": [ "PG26839.B00181", "PG26839.B00182", "PG26839.B00183" ], "finding": "The component-circuit method has size, endpoint-colour and exit-location conditions. Its aesthetic symmetry does not remove those interface requirements. The extracted text’s range17–23 for a16-cell circuit appears inconsistent and needs original-page verification before numerical reuse.", "disposition": "Source audit flag; preserve conditional method scope and avoid treating attractive symmetry as sufficient correctness evidence." } ], "inspectionStatus": "read-in-full-without-tool-output-truncation" }, { "packet": 16, "path": "inspection/packets/pg26839/016.txt", "firstRef": "PG26839.B00184", "lastRef": "PG26839.B00194", "refs": [ "PG26839.B00184", "PG26839.B00185", "PG26839.B00186", "PG26839.B00187", "PG26839.B00188", "PG26839.B00189", "PG26839.B00190", "PG26839.B00191", "PG26839.B00192", "PG26839.B00193", "PG26839.B00194" ], "bytes": 25263, "sha256": "d9a974f342a585a5729297ffd60ed46d008bd422dc40ddf68f7b3e5ae05f8917", "synopsis": "The knight-tour discussion closes with composition rules and separate lower/upper bounds, then the historical essays argue that obsolete methods and errors remain informative records. Cambridge examination history traces disputation, ceremonial compliance, public questioning and rankings, while distinguishing reported practice, inferred chronology and the author’s evaluations.", "observations": [ { "refs": [ "PG26839.B00184", "PG26839.B00185" ], "finding": "Component-tour exits require compatibility and may sacrifice re-entry. A known family of tours provides a lower bound; a broad candidate class provides an upper bound. Neither supplies an exact count of all tours.", "disposition": "Reuse attainable bound versus optimum/count; source-era estimates and scope remain historical." }, { "refs": [ "PG26839.B00186", "PG26839.B00187" ], "finding": "The epigraph values obsolete and erroneous works as evidence for locating other developments, not necessarily as correct current teaching. Disputation is described as a specific public training and assessment practice.", "disposition": "Potential historical usefulness distinct from current correctness; edition-pinned reuse rather than erasing superseded material." }, { "refs": [ "PG26839.B00188", "PG26839.B00189", "PG26839.B00190" ], "finding": "Exercises retain a prescribed form while becoming purchased exemptions, token answers or rehearsed exchanges. Prearranged objections remove the test’s uncertainty; Rouse Ball nonetheless distinguishes abolishing a degraded practice from reforming its useful core.", "disposition": "Candidate rehearsed assessment versus live challenge; cross-check new American Indian Stories exhibition-work proposal for overlap." }, { "refs": [ "PG26839.B00190", "PG26839.B00191", "PG26839.B00192" ], "finding": "A rank list includes discretionary honorary insertions until these are marked or removed; confidence in strict order rises with common examination occasions. A temporary room constraint is offered as one cause of a procedure that outlasted it, with inference markers rather than complete archival certainty.", "disposition": "Candidate comparable measurement conditions and disclosed exceptions in rankings; do not certify every historical date or causal claim." }, { "refs": [ "PG26839.B00193", "PG26839.B00194" ], "finding": "Common testing and grouping by apparent ability are intended to make partiality visible, but grouping itself shapes opportunity. A permission to challenge placement develops from favor toward a general right, changing the status of the preliminary classification.", "disposition": "Candidate revisable preliminary classification and equal comparison conditions; include exhaustion and examiner discretion in the account rather than treating formalization as unqualified progress." } ], "inspectionStatus": "read-in-full-without-tool-output-truncation" }, { "packet": 17, "path": "inspection/packets/pg26839/017.txt", "firstRef": "PG26839.B00195", "lastRef": "PG26839.B00203", "refs": [ "PG26839.B00195", "PG26839.B00196", "PG26839.B00197", "PG26839.B00198", "PG26839.B00199", "PG26839.B00200", "PG26839.B00201", "PG26839.B00202", "PG26839.B00203" ], "bytes": 24946, "sha256": "589381cbe19a5f840d6d79211d083efbf7a3c32ebf59c2d5b4a4a9f15b8c848b", "synopsis": "Cambridge examination history follows public comparison, winter conditions, examiner succession, printed papers, personal testimony about partiality, minimum competence and advanced problem papers. Changes improve some comparisons while retaining uneven opportunity, discretionary judgment and conflicting evidence.", "observations": [ { "refs": [ "PG26839.B00195", "PG26839.B00203" ], "finding": "Dictated questions advance when the first candidate finishes, interrupting others; a procedure praised for dispatch makes one person's completion determine everyone else's remaining opportunity.", "disposition": "Candidate fastest-paced assessment and uneven evidence opportunity; distinguish administrative speed from validity." }, { "refs": [ "PG26839.B00196", "PG26839.B00197" ], "finding": "Subjects can be formally examined while prestige makes mathematics dominate preparation. Multiple college observers contribute judgments but moderators decide final rank.", "disposition": "Reuse incentive-shaped attention and evidence versus decision authority; preserve competition and partiality concerns." }, { "refs": [ "PG26839.B00198", "PG26839.B00199" ], "finding": "Overlapping examiner appointments preserve continuity across cohorts. Preliminary brackets become challengeable; oldest surviving printed papers do not establish the first use of such papers.", "disposition": "Candidate staggered succession; reuse revisable classification and surviving-record limits." }, { "refs": [ "PG26839.B00200", "PG26839.B00201" ], "finding": "Gooch's private letter alleges unfair examination while ultimately accepting Peacock's first place. He disputes the margin and treatment without necessarily disputing the final order.", "disposition": "Candidate rank agreement with disputed margin or justification; attribute allegations rather than adjudicating them." }, { "refs": [ "PG26839.B00202", "PG26839.B00203" ], "finding": "A minimum pass threshold differs from competitive ranking. Access to advanced problems expands beyond the top preliminary groups; what counts as a novel problem changes with the textbooks available.", "disposition": "Candidate historically relative problem novelty and threshold-versus-rank; retain unequal test opportunity and legibility conditions." } ], "inspectionStatus": "read-in-full-without-tool-output-truncation" }, { "packet": 18, "path": "inspection/packets/pg26839/018.txt", "firstRef": "PG26839.B00204", "lastRef": "PG26839.B00212", "refs": [ "PG26839.B00204", "PG26839.B00205", "PG26839.B00206", "PG26839.B00207", "PG26839.B00208", "PG26839.B00209", "PG26839.B00210", "PG26839.B00211", "PG26839.B00212" ], "bytes": 24979, "sha256": "ecf1d1a54b8b86d3ce0336cdbadcdc51f15e6d58394f19740d5f7a9475c38564", "synopsis": "The Tripos history continues through challenge brackets, recalled preparation, contested memories, writing-speed pressure, calculus reform and printed common examinations. Educational ends and the means of ranking candidates repeatedly diverge.", "observations": [ { "refs": [ "PG26839.B00204", "PG26839.B00205" ], "finding": "An increasingly accurate rank order motivates effort while threatening to displace education with competition. Formal permission to challenge rank coexists with ridicule for failed challenges.", "disposition": "Reuse incentive distortion and practical accessibility of a formal right; rank precision is not educational adequacy." }, { "refs": [ "PG26839.B00205", "PG26839.B00206", "PG26839.B00207" ], "finding": "Pollock values instantly available accurate knowledge over breadth, while De Morgan questions his chronology and requests missing details. The same anecdote is disputed as a transferred story about another candidate.", "disposition": "Potential reconstructing historical claims through specific counterquestions; keep reminiscence and corroboration distinct." }, { "refs": [ "PG26839.B00207", "PG26839.B00208" ], "finding": "Knowing how to calculate, calculating fluently and developing science are competing educational aims. Whewell describes rapid writing as a bottleneck even when he understands the material; Rouse Ball calls cultivated mechanical speed an evil.", "disposition": "Candidate response-speed proxy for understanding; do not convert Pollock's preferences into the book's uncontested judgment." }, { "refs": [ "PG26839.B00208", "PG26839.B00209" ], "finding": "Changing mathematical notation requires available textbooks, prepared students and repeated institutional use, not merely an examiner's preference. One year's examiners initially use different notations.", "disposition": "Candidate prepared adoption of a representational standard, with transitional coexistence; link interoperability without assuming notation itself proves superiority." }, { "refs": [ "PG26839.B00210", "PG26839.B00211", "PG26839.B00212" ], "finding": "Examiner exhaustion and unheated architectural prestige impose costs. Later rules give common elementary papers before advanced work, print questions, cap expected workload and separate degree routes previously subordinated to mathematics.", "disposition": "Reuse bounded assessment, multiple routes and fundamentals before specialization; institutional procedure and actual learning remain distinct." } ], "inspectionStatus": "read-in-full-without-tool-output-truncation" }, { "packet": 19, "path": "inspection/packets/pg26839/019.txt", "firstRef": "PG26839.B00213", "lastRef": "PG26839.B00223", "refs": [ "PG26839.B00213", "PG26839.B00214", "PG26839.B00215", "PG26839.B00216", "PG26839.B00217", "PG26839.B00218", "PG26839.B00219", "PG26839.B00220", "PG26839.B00221", "PG26839.B00222", "PG26839.B00223" ], "bytes": 27048, "sha256": "db371a27882a4031a6e545394053ae1e3bd1cb1d720bb4360c1a69325b6d4ace", "synopsis": "The Tripos gains written rules, common papers, specialist routes and a recorded board, yet incentives defeat the intended depth of study. The chapter ends with the changing meaning of 'tripos' and disputed value of ceremonial continuity. Classical construction problems introduce impossibility relative to allowed instruments and distinguish reduction from actual construction.", "observations": [ { "refs": [ "PG26839.B00213", "PG26839.B00214" ], "finding": "A rule may remain available but unused; practices can cease without formal authority, and badly worded regulations impose an unintended requirement later clarified. Board minutes create an enduring change record.", "disposition": "Reuse written rule versus practice and public milestone ledger; do not flatten tentative historical reports into certainty." }, { "refs": [ "PG26839.B00215", "PG26839.B00216", "PG26839.B00217" ], "finding": "Weighted subject groups intended to reward specialization instead reward superficial coverage, while prestige discourages taking an exam early. Subsequent redesign separates general and specialist ends but raises new participation concerns.", "disposition": "Candidate scoring incentives defeating intended depth; narrative explicitly distinguishes contested causal explanations from observed decline." }, { "refs": [ "PG26839.B00218", "PG26839.B00219" ], "finding": "Tripos shifts from stool to role, speech, verses, paper, list and examination through historical associations. Abolishing an unrequired custom raises a separate question about historical ties, not merely legal obligation or material benefit.", "disposition": "Candidate referential drift through institutional association; preserve author's declared preference for continuity." }, { "refs": [ "PG26839.B00220", "PG26839.B00221" ], "finding": "Classical problems restrict allowable construction tools; allowing conics changes the problem. The text's compressed cubic-equation argument is not a complete impossibility proof and must not imply that every special angle is untrisectable.", "disposition": "Candidate tool-relative constructibility; keep general problem separate from soluble special instances and verify mathematical claims before adoption." }, { "refs": [ "PG26839.B00221", "PG26839.B00222", "PG26839.B00223" ], "finding": "A legendary altar enlargement confuses doubled side with doubled volume; the author flags chronological impossibility. Incommensurability does not itself prevent geometric construction, and reducing cube duplication to two mean proportionals does not yet construct them.", "disposition": "Reuse scaling and constraint-preserving reduction; attribute legends and separate reduction, realization and proof." } ], "inspectionStatus": "read-in-full-without-tool-output-truncation" }, { "packet": 20, "path": "inspection/packets/pg26839/020.txt", "firstRef": "PG26839.B00224", "lastRef": "PG26839.B00233", "refs": [ "PG26839.B00224", "PG26839.B00225", "PG26839.B00226", "PG26839.B00227", "PG26839.B00228", "PG26839.B00229", "PG26839.B00230", "PG26839.B00231", "PG26839.B00232", "PG26839.B00233" ], "bytes": 25740, "sha256": "9ee09e51c0ace289447b0aa1be149325a5ba33276d92fbac12c9cf472ed4f8a9", "synopsis": "Several historical cube-duplication and angle-trisection constructions illustrate changes in admissible instruments. Circle quadrature separates irrationality, algebraic constructibility and numerical approximation; the historical approximation list mixes demonstrated bounds, useful rough values, conjectures and attributed borrowings.", "observations": [ { "refs": [ "PG26839.B00224", "PG26839.B00225", "PG26839.B00226", "PG26839.B00227" ], "finding": "Many constructions say 'if' a constrained circle, line or intersection can be produced. Stating the required figure is not a straightedge-and-compass realization; conics or mechanical placement supply additional powers.", "disposition": "Reuse tool-relative constructibility and unsolved step hidden inside a proposed solution; diagrams and formulas require original-page checks before reliance." }, { "refs": [ "PG26839.B00228", "PG26839.B00229" ], "finding": "An arbitrary-sector impossibility does not by itself rule out a particular sector; Rouse Ball refuses Gregory's inference and says Newton drew no such conclusion. A construction can also beg the question by requiring the very value being sought.", "disposition": "Candidate general-family obstruction versus exceptional instance; reuse circular dependence and bounded certainty." }, { "refs": [ "PG26839.B00229", "PG26839.B00230" ], "finding": "A familiar geometric definition of pi can obscure its role elsewhere in analysis, leading an interlocutor to reject a mortality formula merely because circles seem irrelevant. A symbol's first explanation need not exhaust its applications.", "disposition": "Candidate definition-associated imagery mistaken for application boundary; no actuarial or metaphysical claim adopted." }, { "refs": [ "PG26839.B00230", "PG26839.B00231", "PG26839.B00232" ], "finding": "Inscribed and circumscribed polygons bound a quantity, while series offer another approximation route. More decimals are not an exact quadrature; convenient fractions may intentionally sacrifice precision for a calculation system.", "disposition": "Reuse bounds and fitness-for-purpose precision; keep historical attributions qualified." }, { "refs": [ "PG26839.B00233" ], "finding": "An increasing sequence of polygon estimates was reportedly extrapolated to the wrong limit. Lists of historical decimal values contain explicit uncertainties, missing references and typographical risks.", "disposition": "Candidate trend extrapolation without a limiting argument; do not certify the entire historical list or repair it silently." } ], "inspectionStatus": "read-in-full-without-tool-output-truncation" }, { "packet": 21, "path": "inspection/packets/pg26839/021.txt", "firstRef": "PG26839.B00234", "lastRef": "PG26839.B00245", "refs": [ "PG26839.B00234", "PG26839.B00235", "PG26839.B00236", "PG26839.B00237", "PG26839.B00238", "PG26839.B00239", "PG26839.B00240", "PG26839.B00241", "PG26839.B00242", "PG26839.B00243", "PG26839.B00244", "PG26839.B00245" ], "bytes": 26902, "sha256": "f8aa49da13dbffe5d6777d75a65174285e274d68dc6e53468ec3973559c9769c", "synopsis": "Pi approximations distinguish lucky accuracy, better bounding methods, defective proofs, calculated versus correct digits and probabilistic estimation. Mersenne-number history then contrasts announced results, published proofs, directly checkable factors and incomplete searches; the edition's historical table is not a current prime catalogue.", "observations": [ { "refs": [ "PG26839.B00234", "PG26839.B00235", "PG26839.B00236" ], "finding": "A lucky mediant gives close agreement without a valid exactness argument. Snell's claimed bound is distinguished from his incorrect proof, and tighter bounds extract more precision from the same polygon size.", "disposition": "Candidate sharper inference from the same observations; reuse conclusion-versus-justification and approximation-versus-exactness." }, { "refs": [ "PG26839.B00237", "PG26839.B00238" ], "finding": "Reported decimal count and correct decimal count differ; independent formulas offer cross-checks, while an insistent circle-squarer treats impossibility as provocation instead of examining the constraint.", "disposition": "Reuse independent verification and unverified output length; preserve dated correctness claims rather than certifying Shanks's entire printed result." }, { "refs": [ "PG26839.B00238", "PG26839.B00239" ], "finding": "Needle crossings and coprime-number frequencies can estimate pi under sampling assumptions; a finite observed frequency is not an exact identity or a guarantee of a stated precision. Human-chosen 'random' integers require a defined distribution.", "disposition": "Candidate model-conditioned frequency inference; retain finite-sampling limits and source's loose randomness language." }, { "refs": [ "PG26839.B00240", "PG26839.B00241", "PG26839.B00242", "PG26839.B00243" ], "finding": "Rouse Ball changes 67 to 61 as a conjectured misprint, speculates about transmission from Fermat, and marks unverified cases. The table even calls 1 prime under its historical usage; none of this is a modern certified list.", "disposition": "Reuse correction provenance and attributed uncertainty; no silent normalization of historical mathematical claims." }, { "refs": [ "PG26839.B00244", "PG26839.B00245" ], "finding": "Necessary forms for factors shrink the divisor search without automatically proving primality. A discovered factor is readily checked, whereas an unpublished claim of primality or a withheld general method has a different evidentiary status.", "disposition": "Candidate asymmetric certificates of compositeness and primality; distinguish reduced candidate space from exhaustive tested space." } ], "inspectionStatus": "read-in-full-without-tool-output-truncation" }, { "packet": 22, "path": "inspection/packets/pg26839/022.txt", "firstRef": "PG26839.B00246", "lastRef": "PG26839.B00257", "refs": [ "PG26839.B00246", "PG26839.B00247", "PG26839.B00248", "PG26839.B00249", "PG26839.B00250", "PG26839.B00251", "PG26839.B00252", "PG26839.B00253", "PG26839.B00254", "PG26839.B00255", "PG26839.B00256", "PG26839.B00257" ], "bytes": 26359, "sha256": "af1059ae93f6540a0a898553e9d40e4670df23522c3dce27daf298b7368bd6a8", "synopsis": "The number-theory chapter compares search reductions, residues, alternate radices and conjectured missing methods, repeatedly confronting feasibility limits. Astrology is then described as a historical rule system whose precise astronomical inputs do not establish its predictive validity.", "observations": [ { "refs": [ "PG26839.B00246", "PG26839.B00247", "PG26839.B00248" ], "finding": "The author treats some claims as verified by others despite a criticized proof, but his confidence that Mersenne could not merely have conjectured is itself an inference. Easy recovery of many known cases does not imply a feasible method for large remaining cases.", "disposition": "Reuse independent confirmation, visible uncertainty and known-case success versus unresolved scope." }, { "refs": [ "PG26839.B00248", "PG26839.B00249", "PG26839.B00250" ], "finding": "Checking a proposed factor through modular arithmetic can avoid constructing or dividing a huge integer. Recasting factorization as an indeterminate equation may preserve its difficulty rather than solve it.", "disposition": "Candidate compact verification through preserved residues; reuse reduction versus tractable solution." }, { "refs": [ "PG26839.B00251", "PG26839.B00252" ], "finding": "A table bounded to small moduli cannot test larger factors. Patterned exponents invite conjectures with counterexamples, and a different radix can shorten representation without guaranteeing easier search. Proposed machines are distinguished from constructed suitable ones.", "disposition": "Reuse coverage bounds and representation versus computation; all open-status claims remain edition-specific." }, { "refs": [ "PG26839.B00253", "PG26839.B00254", "PG26839.B00255", "PG26839.B00256" ], "finding": "The astrology chapter openly describes reported conventions without endorsing accuracy and acknowledges absence of one fixed code. A geometrically arranged chart assigns domains and influences by convention, not by the geometry alone.", "disposition": "Candidate exact input geometry with unsupported interpretive mapping; distinguish historical description from prediction instructions." }, { "refs": [ "PG26839.B00257" ], "finding": "Allowing known temperament to modify the chart lets an apparent prediction accommodate facts already known. The explanatory input is no longer independent of the outcome being explained.", "disposition": "Candidate outcome-fed prediction; compare existing circular confirmation concepts." } ], "inspectionStatus": "read-in-full-without-tool-output-truncation" }, { "packet": 23, "path": "inspection/packets/pg26839/023.txt", "firstRef": "PG26839.B00258", "lastRef": "PG26839.B00269", "refs": [ "PG26839.B00258", "PG26839.B00259", "PG26839.B00260", "PG26839.B00261", "PG26839.B00262", "PG26839.B00263", "PG26839.B00264", "PG26839.B00265", "PG26839.B00266", "PG26839.B00267", "PG26839.B00268", "PG26839.B00269" ], "bytes": 26563, "sha256": "00783f875035e561022a37425bc09e836547fe1e25421e3c71d6d1f7d5d6bece", "synopsis": "Astrological classifications, flexible interpretation, selective memory and retrospective excuses are examined through reported cases, while sincere belief remains distinct from fraud. The cipher chapter introduces the author's local terminology and separates concealment of a message, inaccessible notation and keyed transformations.", "observations": [ { "refs": [ "PG26839.B00258", "PG26839.B00259" ], "finding": "The reported astrological scheme builds occupational, class and sexist valuations into its mappings. Vague priorities between conflicting influences permit fitting known facts, whether deliberately or sincerely.", "disposition": "Reuse classification carrying value judgments and outcome-fed interpretation; explicitly attribute discriminatory rules, never encode them as valid guidance." }, { "refs": [ "PG26839.B00260", "PG26839.B00261" ], "finding": "Appealing predictive certainty persists despite failed forecasts. Survival stories can be read as responses to patron incentives rather than evidence of celestial knowledge; the author also uses prejudiced civilizational language.", "disposition": "Candidate prediction altered by recipient's power to realize its consequences; distinguish reported anecdotes from verified causes." }, { "refs": [ "PG26839.B00262", "PG26839.B00263" ], "finding": "Successful or ambiguous prophecies are preserved while failures disappear; a lucky intended refutation can reinforce belief. A useful test record retains predictions and failures rather than selecting memorable hits.", "disposition": "Reuse survivorship/selective reporting and precommitted comparison." }, { "refs": [ "PG26839.B00264", "PG26839.B00265", "PG26839.B00266" ], "finding": "Cardan's confident life prediction becomes 'probable' after failure by adding missing relational horoscopes. Honest investigators can nevertheless gather evidence against their own framework.", "disposition": "Candidate retrospective expansion of required context to shelter a failed prediction; preserve sincerity distinct from validity." }, { "refs": [ "PG26839.B00267", "PG26839.B00268", "PG26839.B00269" ], "finding": "Rouse Ball explicitly limits his cipher survey and defines cryptograph versus cipher locally. Hiding a carrier, rearranging symbols, substituting values and using a language unknown to one reader are different acts; obscurity to a recipient is not secrecy against everyone.", "disposition": "Candidate audience-relative obscurity versus controlled secrecy; relevant to USL public decoding without treating its colours as encryption." } ], "inspectionStatus": "read-in-full-without-tool-output-truncation" }, { "packet": 24, "path": "inspection/packets/pg26839/024.txt", "firstRef": "PG26839.B00270", "lastRef": "PG26839.B00280", "refs": [ "PG26839.B00270", "PG26839.B00271", "PG26839.B00272", "PG26839.B00273", "PG26839.B00274", "PG26839.B00275", "PG26839.B00276", "PG26839.B00277", "PG26839.B00278", "PG26839.B00279", "PG26839.B00280" ], "bytes": 24433, "sha256": "e4147e5dfab160c472fa2dbbacc8699cb6443cfb476d05937522850c0b2c914d", "synopsis": "Transposition, dummy symbols, grilles, folded carriers, substitution classes and book ciphers show how decoding depends on ordering, segmentation, shared conventions and exact reference material. The chapter's security judgments and prejudiced historical remarks remain attributed, not present-day recommendations.", "observations": [ { "refs": [ "PG26839.B00270", "PG26839.B00271", "PG26839.B00272" ], "finding": "Reordering a rectangular message with an incomplete final row requires the correct long/short column lengths. A visually word-like grouping can be unrelated to actual segmentation.", "disposition": "Candidate boundary-aware inverse permutation; preserve exact length and ordering metadata." }, { "refs": [ "PG26839.B00272", "PG26839.B00273", "PG26839.B00274" ], "finding": "Grille selection and dummy insertion hide which positions count, but increase message length and key-handling burdens. Ease of composition, delivery cost and obscurity pull in different directions.", "disposition": "Reuse operational tradeoffs and selected versus ignored data; do not claim these historical ciphers secure." }, { "refs": [ "PG26839.B00274", "PG26839.B00275" ], "finding": "Fragments become letters only under a specified physical arrangement; unusual beads, colours or notes cease adding a new decoding obstacle once their symbolic classes are identified. An alleged original artifact does not authenticate the surrounding anecdote.", "disposition": "Candidate carrier appearance versus symbolic structure; reuse provenance limits." }, { "refs": [ "PG26839.B00276", "PG26839.B00277", "PG26839.B00278" ], "finding": "Stable substitution preserves repetition patterns and word lengths. Intersecting constraints from multiple words tests an initial hypothesis, while changing a shift requires synchronized state rather than a fixed table alone.", "disposition": "Candidate structural leakage under renamed symbols and stateful symbol interpretation; historical colonial insult excluded from general definition." }, { "refs": [ "PG26839.B00279", "PG26839.B00280" ], "finding": "Fixed-width codes allow unambiguous segmentation; alternate symbols can map to the same unit while reserved codes mark word ends or frequent phrases. A book-position reference requires identical copies; a transcriber correction changes a repeated symbol to restore readability and is explicitly recorded.", "disposition": "Candidate edition-dependent positional reference and typed code allocation; link shared-context compression without claiming compression for every scheme." } ], "inspectionStatus": "read-in-full-without-tool-output-truncation" }, { "packet": 25, "path": "inspection/packets/pg26839/025.txt", "firstRef": "PG26839.B00281", "lastRef": "PG26839.B00292", "refs": [ "PG26839.B00281", "PG26839.B00282", "PG26839.B00283", "PG26839.B00284", "PG26839.B00285", "PG26839.B00286", "PG26839.B00287", "PG26839.B00288", "PG26839.B00289", "PG26839.B00290", "PG26839.B00291", "PG26839.B00292" ], "bytes": 26604, "sha256": "5115836a0cf32d9045c348bd577dd2fbc1e84b0f874747458f44ad3a4a1cc461", "synopsis": "Changing substitution, ambiguous many-to-one codes, practical channel and key requirements, historical deciphering and whole-word codebooks extend the cipher discussion. The author rejects an unqualified universal decipherability claim while making security claims of his own that this historical edition cannot establish for modern use.", "observations": [ { "refs": [ "PG26839.B00281", "PG26839.B00282", "PG26839.B00283" ], "finding": "The same visible symbol can be unambiguous when a synchronized position/key state selects its meaning, whereas a fixed many-to-one mapping leaves the receiver to guess. A zero shift can expose an unchanged word.", "disposition": "Candidate contextual determinacy versus unresolved collision; applicable to typed USL references without importing secrecy claims." }, { "refs": [ "PG26839.B00284", "PG26839.B00285" ], "finding": "A usable encoding must fit the communication channel, workload and reliable recovery needs. Key exposure through retained devices or paired plaintext can defeat an otherwise complicated representation.", "disposition": "Reuse humane protocol, channel constraints and operational dependency; historical security recommendations remain unendorsed." }, { "refs": [ "PG26839.B00286", "PG26839.B00287", "PG26839.B00288" ], "finding": "Partial plaintext and a wrong language assumption affect decipherment; forgotten shorthand can look like a private cipher to a later reader. A short message may provide too few constraints even for a simple substitution.", "disposition": "Candidate loss of shared notation across time; distinguish interpretation difficulty from intrinsic secrecy." }, { "refs": [ "PG26839.B00289" ], "finding": "The author reconstructs a possible method from a published key lacking instructions and explicitly marks the account conditional.", "disposition": "Reuse inspectable assumption; a key table is not necessarily a complete decoding protocol." }, { "refs": [ "PG26839.B00290", "PG26839.B00291" ], "finding": "Larger symbol alphabets and whole-word or phrase dictionaries change address capacity and message length, while shifting cost into shared codebook storage and lookup. Spare codes can name frequent phrases, but words outside the inventory remain a separate design question.", "disposition": "Candidate shared-codebook compression and alphabet-dependent capacity; no endorsement of 'undecipherable' or universal vocabulary sufficiency." }, { "refs": [ "PG26839.B00291", "PG26839.B00292" ], "finding": "Poe's broad claim is distinguished from a narrower substitution challenge. A string presented as a cipher may have no intended message; observed failure to decode alone is not proof of meaningless input.", "disposition": "Reuse scope-limited claims and absence of evidence; distinguish the reported fraud finding from a general rejection rule." } ], "inspectionStatus": "read-in-full-without-tool-output-truncation" }, { "packet": 26, "path": "inspection/packets/pg26839/026.txt", "firstRef": "PG26839.B00293", "lastRef": "PG26839.B00302", "refs": [ "PG26839.B00293", "PG26839.B00294", "PG26839.B00295", "PG26839.B00296", "PG26839.B00297", "PG26839.B00298", "PG26839.B00299", "PG26839.B00300", "PG26839.B00301", "PG26839.B00302" ], "bytes": 25281, "sha256": "e717f34123c17adb94c118a3f76531ad7343300a133fa74c9ee859618c82a52e", "synopsis": "Higher-dimensional analogies and hypothetical ether mechanisms are followed by alternative axiomatic geometries. The chapter mixes mathematical constructions, proposals for physical explanation and limits of observational discrimination; their different statuses must remain explicit.", "observations": [ { "refs": [ "PG26839.B00293", "PG26839.B00294", "PG26839.B00295" ], "finding": "The author distinguishes operational measurement from metaphysical origin questions and uses lower-dimensional worlds to reason beyond familiar visualization. A mathematically describable extension need not be physically realized.", "disposition": "Candidate formal reasoning beyond direct visualization; retain the author's contested philosophical exclusions as his stance." }, { "refs": [ "PG26839.B00296", "PG26839.B00297" ], "finding": "A changing lower-dimensional section can look like creation or disappearance without describing the whole object's history. Reflected figures can share measures yet fail to superpose under allowed motions.", "disposition": "Candidate section-limited observation and equality relative to permitted transformation; dimensional-life speculation is not biological evidence." }, { "refs": [ "PG26839.B00298", "PG26839.B00299", "PG26839.B00300" ], "finding": "A supporting medium is hypothesized to explain several physical difficulties, with its dimension and thickness chosen to fit a force law. Explanatory fit does not independently establish that medium; the source's ether physics is historical.", "disposition": "Reuse model versus evidence and inspectable assumptions; no current endorsement of speculative mechanisms." }, { "refs": [ "PG26839.B00300", "PG26839.B00301" ], "finding": "Previously implicit geometric assumptions become explicit, and changing an independent axiom yields different consistent consequences rather than a contradiction within the original system. Boundlessness and infinite size are distinguished.", "disposition": "Candidate alternative axiom systems and finite but unbounded extent; verify precise examples before normative use." }, { "refs": [ "PG26839.B00302" ], "finding": "Distinct geometries can agree within accessible measurement scales; finite observational agreement cannot establish exact global Euclidean structure. Local usefulness and global truth are separate claims.", "disposition": "Candidate observational indistinguishability within a scale; connect bounded certainty and local truth, wider consequence." } ], "inspectionStatus": "read-in-full-without-tool-output-truncation" }, { "packet": 27, "path": "inspection/packets/pg26839/027.txt", "firstRef": "PG26839.B00303", "lastRef": "PG26839.B00313", "refs": [ "PG26839.B00303", "PG26839.B00304", "PG26839.B00305", "PG26839.B00306", "PG26839.B00307", "PG26839.B00308", "PG26839.B00309", "PG26839.B00310", "PG26839.B00311", "PG26839.B00312", "PG26839.B00313" ], "bytes": 27077, "sha256": "50429cb90ce4a7189d04d987aeeec24c42eeb4e9c48f8d83c7262e239ba9a4a0", "synopsis": "The geometry discussion ends with competing views of mathematical convenience and physical truth. Time measurement then distinguishes recurring phenomena, corrected standards, civil conventions and calendar algorithms, exposing both formal definitions and historical claims that require separate corroboration.", "observations": [ { "refs": [ "PG26839.B00303" ], "finding": "Poincare's convenience criterion is explicitly reported as contested. Internal consistency and compatibility with observations do not make one geometry uniquely established.", "disposition": "Reuse multiple adequate models and attribution; dated claims about unworked fields are not current status." }, { "refs": [ "PG26839.B00304", "PG26839.B00305", "PG26839.B00306" ], "finding": "A measurement standard requires stability or a known correction. An elapsed duration cannot be re-applied like a ruler; clock uniformity is inferred through models and cross-comparison, while Earth's rotation can require corrections.", "disposition": "Candidate corrected realization of a standard; no adoption of historical numerical rotation estimates as current metrology." }, { "refs": [ "PG26839.B00306", "PG26839.B00307", "PG26839.B00308" ], "finding": "Solar appearance, mean time, meridian choice and start-of-day convention are different layers. A common timestamp requires these choices, not merely an hour number; natural cycles need not fit one another exactly.", "disposition": "Candidate convention-pinned time reference and incommensurate calendar cycles; broad civilizational labels and historical month stories remain source claims." }, { "refs": [ "PG26839.B00309", "PG26839.B00310" ], "finding": "A small annual mismatch accumulates; one intervention resets an existing displacement while a changed leap rule limits future drift. Reported adoption dates and miraculous sanction are historical assertions, not verified by this reading.", "disposition": "Candidate offset correction versus drift correction; avoid treating the edition's national calendar dates as a dependable modern chronology." }, { "refs": [ "PG26839.B00310", "PG26839.B00311" ], "finding": "An ecclesiastical 'full moon' is defined conventionally and can differ from the observed event. Omitting that definition invites different implementations; local-date boundaries can also change a nominally shared rule's result.", "disposition": "Candidate operationally defined event versus observed phenomenon; reuse nothing important is only implicit." }, { "refs": [ "PG26839.B00312", "PG26839.B00313" ], "finding": "Compact calendar formulas require period-specific parameters, exceptional branches and month/year remapping. Formula reuse beyond its stated domain can change the result while appearing syntactically correct.", "disposition": "Reuse bounded certainty and transformation preconditions; no present-day scheduling implementation claimed." } ], "inspectionStatus": "read-in-full-without-tool-output-truncation" }, { "packet": 28, "path": "inspection/packets/pg26839/028.txt", "firstRef": "PG26839.B00314", "lastRef": "PG26839.B00324", "refs": [ "PG26839.B00314", "PG26839.B00315", "PG26839.B00316", "PG26839.B00317", "PG26839.B00318", "PG26839.B00319", "PG26839.B00320", "PG26839.B00321", "PG26839.B00322", "PG26839.B00323", "PG26839.B00324" ], "bytes": 24941, "sha256": "d1c5f9422e2bd7d10cba50eec73d41554b6175e0ffc74c6c4855b8daacecd82e", "synopsis": "Sundials, seasonal adjustment, regulated clocks and hidden mechanisms show time displays as engineered models rather than transparent time itself. The final physical chapter introduces competing historical accounts of matter and ether, distinguishing sensory plausibility, consistency and explanation.", "observations": [ { "refs": [ "PG26839.B00314", "PG26839.B00315" ], "finding": "A sundial's shadow can reverse its indicated direction because of projection geometry without reversing the sun's progression or time. A proposed natural explanation of a biblical account is separately attributed, not authenticated by the geometry.", "disposition": "Candidate reversal of an indicator without reversal of the process; requires display mapping and conditions." }, { "refs": [ "PG26839.B00316", "PG26839.B00317", "PG26839.B00318" ], "finding": "Portable solar instruments need seasonal and location adjustments. Clock motive power and periodic regulator have distinct functions, and portable operation imposes conditions different from a stationary clock.", "disposition": "Candidate source of power versus regulator of rate; reuse calibration and context-dependent reliability." }, { "refs": [ "PG26839.B00319", "PG26839.B00320" ], "finding": "Apparently unsupported clock hands conceal a drive mechanism; a watch used as a compass depends on time convention, orientation, hemisphere and approximation. A familiar display is not an unconditional measurement rule.", "disposition": "Reuse hidden dependencies and bounded approximation; do not present the historical rule as current navigation advice." }, { "refs": [ "PG26839.B00321", "PG26839.B00322", "PG26839.B00323" ], "finding": "Matter theories are explicitly historical hypotheses. A model fitting everyday appearance can fail other observations; a correction tailored to one discrepancy can imply a compression limit contradicted elsewhere.", "disposition": "Candidate cross-phenomenon consequence test; do not endorse obsolete numerical physics or alleged current plausibility." }, { "refs": [ "PG26839.B00323", "PG26839.B00324" ], "finding": "A model may be consistent yet called artificial or insufficiently specified to test. A proposed explanation of matter presupposes inertia in its medium, shifting rather than eliminating part of the explanatory burden.", "disposition": "Candidate inherited explanatory burden and testability through specified structure; acknowledge author's own judgments and uncertainty." } ], "inspectionStatus": "read-in-full-without-tool-output-truncation" }, { "packet": 29, "path": "inspection/packets/pg26839/029.txt", "firstRef": "PG26839.B00325", "lastRef": "PG26839.B00334", "refs": [ "PG26839.B00325", "PG26839.B00326", "PG26839.B00327", "PG26839.B00328", "PG26839.B00329", "PG26839.B00330", "PG26839.B00331", "PG26839.B00332", "PG26839.B00333", "PG26839.B00334" ], "bytes": 25972, "sha256": "6c465652cbd0cded0d88532e8f8ff94e0eae126318379114912afb316c87e567", "synopsis": "Historical vortex, ether, electron and bubble theories are compared as attempts to explain matter and gravitation. Later observations revise earlier confidence, while matching a target law remains distinct from independently justifying the added mechanism or its other consequences.", "observations": [ { "refs": [ "PG26839.B00325", "PG26839.B00326" ], "finding": "A visible smoke ring is explicitly imperfect relative to the frictionless mathematical model. A hypothesis accounting for persistence and vibration still faces incompatible requirements when asked to explain another phenomenon.", "disposition": "Reuse model-instance limits and cross-phenomenon testing; no current atomic mechanism asserted." }, { "refs": [ "PG26839.B00327", "PG26839.B00328", "PG26839.B00329" ], "finding": "The author preserves an earlier skeptical assessment and then adds evidence that strengthens a working hypothesis. Radioactive change challenges an assumed irreducibility of elements without settling every proposed atom model.", "disposition": "Candidate confidence revision without erasing the earlier judgment; dated experimental descriptions remain attributed." }, { "refs": [ "PG26839.B00329", "PG26839.B00330" ], "finding": "A traveling deficiency can be represented as an object moving through a medium even when its constituent elements do not travel with it. The source judges competing models by several requirements rather than one successful fit.", "disposition": "Candidate persistent pattern versus transported material; keep bubble-ether account hypothetical." }, { "refs": [ "PG26839.B00330", "PG26839.B00331" ], "finding": "Newton's mathematical treatment of gravity is separated from his admitted ignorance of its cause. Introducing sources and sinks to make a derivation work needs evidence beyond the desired derivation.", "disposition": "Reuse law versus mechanism and inherited explanatory burden; quoted personal metaphysical commitments do not certify a physical cause." }, { "refs": [ "PG26839.B00332", "PG26839.B00333" ], "finding": "A bombardment model can yield attraction while requiring untenable heating and enormous hidden energy. A small net difference can depend on large opposing contributions and delicate compensation.", "disposition": "Candidate hidden gross burden behind a small net effect; physical numbers and ultimate verdict remain edition-pinned." }, { "refs": [ "PG26839.B00333", "PG26839.B00334" ], "finding": "A derived inverse-square law is conditional on both a definition and a force-response assumption; Rouse Ball concludes that this discussion does not discriminate among the remaining models. Explaining selected species by sorting raises the fate of excluded cases.", "disposition": "Reuse observational equivalence and account for omitted populations; distinguish explanatory possibility from comparative support." } ], "inspectionStatus": "read-in-full-without-tool-output-truncation" }, { "packet": 30, "path": "inspection/packets/pg26839/030.txt", "firstRef": "PG26839.B00335", "lastRef": "PG26839.B00347", "refs": [ "PG26839.B00335", "PG26839.B00336", "PG26839.B00337", "PG26839.B00338", "PG26839.B00339", "PG26839.B00340", "PG26839.B00341", "PG26839.B00342", "PG26839.B00343", "PG26839.B00344", "PG26839.B00345", "PG26839.B00346", "PG26839.B00347" ], "bytes": 26642, "sha256": "4d7931d5c7ad90b0ecd1afbe120ce61ae9b3a15ae2dde5b8c75fc8ce021833ad", "synopsis": "The physical discussion closes by distinguishing discovery-guiding analogies from verified mechanisms, combining indirect size estimates and debating whether chemical composition alone explains biological variety. The alphabetical index begins, supplying locators rather than additional arguments.", "observations": [ { "refs": [ "PG26839.B00335", "PG26839.B00336" ], "finding": "Sub-atoms can inherit the original explanatory difficulty. An analogy that prompts successful searches is expressly distinguished from a theory whose full consequences have been verified; the book retains this modest inference despite excitement about new discoveries.", "disposition": "Candidate productive analogy without mechanism confirmation; reuse explanatory regress and bounded certainty." }, { "refs": [ "PG26839.B00336", "PG26839.B00337" ], "finding": "Several indirect routes constrain molecular scale, but not every route is quantitative or establishes the same kind of bound. The printed estimates include inconsistent orders of magnitude, so no numerical metrology claim is promoted from them.", "disposition": "Reuse converging independent measurements with separately stated assumptions and quantities; flag source numerical limits." }, { "refs": [ "PG26839.B00338" ], "finding": "A dispute over minimal organisms contrasts counting chemically defined components with their physical arrangement and motion. Equal component inventories need not establish equal structure or function.", "disposition": "Candidate inventory insufficiency for organization, linked to earlier paired-attribute and assembly puzzles without asserting historical biological estimates." }, { "refs": [ "PG26839.B00339", "PG26839.B00340", "PG26839.B00341", "PG26839.B00342", "PG26839.B00343", "PG26839.B00344", "PG26839.B00345", "PG26839.B00346", "PG26839.B00347" ], "finding": "The A–P index mixes names, topics, variant spellings and cross-references. It assists navigation but is not fresh evidence for the claims on referenced pages; repeated entries and typographic spacing remain visible.", "disposition": "Inspected paratext; no new concepts from index labels alone." } ], "inspectionStatus": "read-in-full-without-tool-output-truncation" }, { "packet": 31, "path": "inspection/packets/pg26839/031.txt", "firstRef": "PG26839.B00348", "lastRef": "PG26839.B00359", "refs": [ "PG26839.B00348", "PG26839.B00349", "PG26839.B00350", "PG26839.B00351", "PG26839.B00352", "PG26839.B00353", "PG26839.B00354", "PG26839.B00355", "PG26839.B00356", "PG26839.B00357", "PG26839.B00358", "PG26839.B00359" ], "bytes": 26709, "sha256": "f3ffbd32672046650b0462ff6cebe61ef89d37f77209f015f7f5c39bad2c9a8f", "synopsis": "The index completes P–Z and the retained edition includes publisher advertisements and review extracts for Rouse Ball's histories and this volume. These paratexts reveal intended audiences and promotional reception, not independent verification of every mathematical or historical claim.", "observations": [ { "refs": [ "PG26839.B00348", "PG26839.B00349", "PG26839.B00350" ], "finding": "The remaining index links subjects, names and variant entries to printed page numbers. Locators differ from this release's block IDs and PDF page numbers.", "disposition": "Inspected navigational paratext; maintain separate locator systems, no concepts from bare index labels." }, { "refs": [ "PG26839.B00351", "PG26839.B00352", "PG26839.B00353" ], "finding": "Advertisements quote favorable reviews of the longer History, presenting accessibility, biography, technical restraint and source references as virtues. These selected endorsements cannot establish exhaustive reception or accuracy.", "disposition": "Inspected promotional paratext; potential reuse of selected testimony limits, no new entry required." }, { "refs": [ "PG26839.B00354", "PG26839.B00355", "PG26839.B00356" ], "finding": "The Primer is promoted as condensed yet engaging, with reviewers disagreeing implicitly over how much detail different readers need. A short version can have a different teaching function rather than equal evidentiary coverage.", "disposition": "Reuse audience-relative representation; do not treat advertising as new independent source assessment." }, { "refs": [ "PG26839.B00357", "PG26839.B00358", "PG26839.B00359" ], "finding": "The publisher describes the volume's two-part architecture and reprints praise for both entertainment and inquiry. Claims that the work leaves little unexamined are reviewer rhetoric and are not adopted as an inspection or correctness certificate.", "disposition": "Retain promotional status and historical perspective; no working concept generated solely from these endorsements." } ], "inspectionStatus": "read-in-full-without-tool-output-truncation" }, { "packet": 32, "path": "inspection/packets/pg26839/032.txt", "firstRef": "PG26839.B00360", "lastRef": "PG26839.B00370", "refs": [ "PG26839.B00360", "PG26839.B00361", "PG26839.B00362", "PG26839.B00363", "PG26839.B00364", "PG26839.B00365", "PG26839.B00366", "PG26839.B00367", "PG26839.B00368", "PG26839.B00369", "PG26839.B00370" ], "bytes": 23973, "sha256": "9a77ed7a26e36ef6ac9d6565edcd0268c166a47f164ab3d1288da5277cdb032a", "synopsis": "Publisher notices promote the Cambridge history, Newton study and Trinity history through selected reviews, followed by the start of the retained Gutenberg license. These are separately voiced paratexts, not new evidence that the atlas has independently assessed those other works.", "observations": [ { "refs": [ "PG26839.B00360", "PG26839.B00361", "PG26839.B00362", "PG26839.B00363" ], "finding": "The notices relate mathematical development to teaching and assessment institutions, but the favorable selection of reviews cannot certify the advertised book's full historical account.", "disposition": "Inspected advertising; no additional candidate from endorsement alone." }, { "refs": [ "PG26839.B00364", "PG26839.B00365", "PG26839.B00366", "PG26839.B00367" ], "finding": "Reviews of the Newton essay strongly disparage Hooke and praise Halley's mediation. These are quoted evaluative voices about another work, not this batch's independent adjudication of the Newton–Hooke dispute.", "disposition": "Preserve voice/provenance boundaries, especially alongside Micrographia; do not silently promote reviewer judgments into checked biography." }, { "refs": [ "PG26839.B00368", "PG26839.B00369" ], "finding": "Trinity's advertised history connects colleges and university through competing institutional powers and a declared federal analogy. The material is promotional reception, not a complete comparative institutional argument.", "disposition": "Retain paratext role; no new concept solely from borrowed praise." }, { "refs": [ "PG26839.B00370" ], "finding": "The edition ends its main ebook and begins distribution terms, including format locator and notice of future replacement editions. These terms are retained as source metadata, not instructions to alter this task or its evidence.", "disposition": "License inspected and retained verbatim with source; do not confuse archive locator with stable content identity." } ], "inspectionStatus": "read-in-full-without-tool-output-truncation" }, { "packet": 33, "path": "inspection/packets/pg26839/033.txt", "firstRef": "PG26839.B00371", "lastRef": "PG26839.B00376", "refs": [ "PG26839.B00371", "PG26839.B00372", "PG26839.B00373", "PG26839.B00374", "PG26839.B00375", "PG26839.B00376" ], "bytes": 16012, "sha256": "b014efb2277dfccaccc29817fa11a265842ae7d986e328dc2461dcd8a83825b6", "synopsis": "The final indexed pages complete the retained Gutenberg license, disclaimers, foundation and distribution information. They are source paratext preserved for provenance, not instructions directing this task or evidence for the mathematical essays.", "observations": [ { "refs": [ "PG26839.B00371", "PG26839.B00372", "PG26839.B00373", "PG26839.B00374" ], "finding": "Distribution terms distinguish the underlying work, trademark-associated copies, alternate formats, defects and replacement arrangements. The source retains those terms rather than allowing an extraction to impersonate a complete edition.", "disposition": "Fully inspected retained licensing material; no concept proposal or current legal advice derived." }, { "refs": [ "PG26839.B00374", "PG26839.B00375", "PG26839.B00376" ], "finding": "The foundation history, donation information and notice that electronic editions may combine print sources are explicit paratext. 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Smith's introduction frame the Ethics as an inquiry into character formation within political life, leading toward the Politics.", "observations": [ { "refs": [ "PG8438.B00017", "PG8438.B00019", "PG8438.B00021" ], "finding": "Smith reads ethical inquiry as moral education requiring institutions and law; this is editorial framing and must not silently become Aristotle's own wording.", "disposition": "retain as attributed alternative emphasis" }, { "refs": [ "PG8438.B00024", "PG8438.B00035" ], "finding": "Practical generalizations allow variation; an individual situation requires judgment beyond a uniform rule.", "disposition": "compare existing context-sensitive judgment concepts" }, { "refs": [ "PG8438.B00028", "PG8438.B00033", "PG8438.B00036" ], "finding": "Introduction distinguishes active happiness from possession, habituation from instruction, and warns that pairing each virtue with two vices can be forced.", "disposition": "track against primary chapters; avoid deriving new concepts from introduction alone" } ], "inspectionStatus": "read-complete", "hashVerified": true }, { "packet": 2, "path": "inspection/packets/pg8438/002.txt", "firstRef": "PG8438.B00038", "lastRef": "PG8438.B00074", "refs": [ "PG8438.B00038", "PG8438.B00039", "PG8438.B00040", "PG8438.B00041", "PG8438.B00042", "PG8438.B00043", "PG8438.B00044", "PG8438.B00045", "PG8438.B00046", "PG8438.B00047", "PG8438.B00048", "PG8438.B00049", "PG8438.B00050", "PG8438.B00051", "PG8438.B00052", "PG8438.B00053", "PG8438.B00054", "PG8438.B00055", "PG8438.B00056", "PG8438.B00057", "PG8438.B00058", "PG8438.B00059", "PG8438.B00060", "PG8438.B00061", "PG8438.B00062", "PG8438.B00063", "PG8438.B00064", "PG8438.B00065", "PG8438.B00066", "PG8438.B00067", "PG8438.B00068", "PG8438.B00069", "PG8438.B00070", "PG8438.B00071", "PG8438.B00072", "PG8438.B00073", "PG8438.B00074" ], "bytes": 27029, "sha256": "d58c5a1bad2716a635ae2760c384e066f70a5a44035d83510e1fbcb6f5ae4e6d", "synopsis": "Smith completes his introduction with justice, practical intelligence, weakness of will, friendship, pleasure, contemplation and a critique of means/end separation; 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Book III distinguishes compulsion, mixed action, ignorance, voluntary agency, choice and deliberation on attainable means.", "observations": [ { "refs": [ "PG8438.B00278", "PG8438.B00286", "PG8438.B00291" ], "finding": "Practical correction accounts for an agent's bias; exact blame thresholds cannot always be stated verbally.", "disposition": "retain rather than prescribe a universal counter-bias method" }, { "refs": [ "PG8438.B00296", "PG8438.B00298", "PG8438.B00299", "PG8438.B00302", "PG8438.B00305" ], "finding": "Throwing cargo away under danger is unwanted in abstraction yet chosen in circumstances; mixed voluntariness is distinguished from an external cause to which the agent contributes nothing.", "disposition": "candidate mixed action with coercion limits" }, { "refs": [ "PG8438.B00312", "PG8438.B00314", "PG8438.B00316", "PG8438.B00320" ], "finding": "Ignorance causing action differs from ignorance accompanying intoxication or anger; Aristotle further ties involuntariness to regret and ignorance of particulars.", "disposition": "source-scoped agency classification, not current legal standard" }, { "refs": [ "PG8438.B00329", "PG8438.B00332", "PG8438.B00334", "PG8438.B00342", "PG8438.B00354", "PG8438.B00359" ], "finding": "Voluntariness exceeds deliberative choice, wishes exceed feasible agency, and backward analysis of means ends at an actionable beginning.", "disposition": "compare checked deliberation and means concepts" } ], "inspectionStatus": "read-complete", "hashVerified": true }, { "packet": 7, "path": "inspection/packets/pg8438/007.txt", "firstRef": "PG8438.B00364", "lastRef": "PG8438.B00437", "refs": [ "PG8438.B00364", "PG8438.B00365", "PG8438.B00366", "PG8438.B00367", "PG8438.B00368", "PG8438.B00369", "PG8438.B00370", "PG8438.B00371", "PG8438.B00372", "PG8438.B00373", "PG8438.B00374", "PG8438.B00375", "PG8438.B00376", "PG8438.B00377", "PG8438.B00378", "PG8438.B00379", "PG8438.B00380", "PG8438.B00381", "PG8438.B00382", "PG8438.B00383", "PG8438.B00384", "PG8438.B00385", "PG8438.B00386", "PG8438.B00387", "PG8438.B00388", "PG8438.B00389", "PG8438.B00390", "PG8438.B00391", "PG8438.B00392", "PG8438.B00393", "PG8438.B00394", "PG8438.B00395", "PG8438.B00396", "PG8438.B00397", "PG8438.B00398", "PG8438.B00399", "PG8438.B00400", "PG8438.B00401", "PG8438.B00402", "PG8438.B00403", "PG8438.B00404", "PG8438.B00405", "PG8438.B00406", "PG8438.B00407", "PG8438.B00408", "PG8438.B00409", "PG8438.B00410", "PG8438.B00411", "PG8438.B00412", "PG8438.B00413", "PG8438.B00414", "PG8438.B00415", "PG8438.B00416", "PG8438.B00417", "PG8438.B00418", "PG8438.B00419", "PG8438.B00420", "PG8438.B00421", "PG8438.B00422", "PG8438.B00423", "PG8438.B00424", "PG8438.B00425", "PG8438.B00426", "PG8438.B00427", "PG8438.B00428", "PG8438.B00429", "PG8438.B00430", "PG8438.B00431", "PG8438.B00432", "PG8438.B00433", "PG8438.B00434", "PG8438.B00435", "PG8438.B00436", "PG8438.B00437" ], "bytes": 26979, "sha256": "c12ce10e1627a0e6036677ebb125d18dae4c84d9b9a03a6f0407cca50a44d854", "synopsis": "Book III argues responsibility for gradually formed character, then analyzes courage and five misleading resemblances before qualifying the place of pain in courageous action.", "observations": [ { "refs": [ "PG8438.B00374", "PG8438.B00378", "PG8438.B00380", "PG8438.B00383", "PG8438.B00386" ], "finding": "The argument distinguishes control of an action from control only of a habit's beginnings; later inability to reverse formation does not, for Aristotle, erase its earlier voluntary contribution. The alternative natural-end objection is explicitly entertained.", "disposition": "candidate temporal agency; retain contestability, no clinical blame" }, { "refs": [ "PG8438.B00393", "PG8438.B00398", "PG8438.B00406" ], "finding": "Proper courage is narrowly centered on honorable military death; claims about suicide are historical judgments, not modern psychological conclusions.", "disposition": "historical limits required" }, { "refs": [ "PG8438.B00415", "PG8438.B00420", "PG8438.B00423", "PG8438.B00425", "PG8438.B00427" ], "finding": "Coercion, superior equipment, animal impulse, optimism and ignorance can resemble courage while differing in motive and knowledge.", "disposition": "reuse act/agent distinction and checked appearance/evidence" }, { "refs": [ "PG8438.B00431", "PG8438.B00432", "PG8438.B00433", "PG8438.B00434" ], "finding": "Painful loss is compatible with courage; the most expendable soldier need not be the most courageous or best person.", "disposition": "retain counterweight to painless-virtue simplification" } ], "inspectionStatus": "read-complete", "hashVerified": true }, { "packet": 8, "path": "inspection/packets/pg8438/008.txt", "firstRef": "PG8438.B00438", "lastRef": "PG8438.B00499", "refs": [ "PG8438.B00438", "PG8438.B00439", "PG8438.B00440", "PG8438.B00441", "PG8438.B00442", "PG8438.B00443", "PG8438.B00444", "PG8438.B00445", "PG8438.B00446", "PG8438.B00447", "PG8438.B00448", "PG8438.B00449", "PG8438.B00450", "PG8438.B00451", "PG8438.B00452", "PG8438.B00453", "PG8438.B00454", "PG8438.B00455", "PG8438.B00456", "PG8438.B00457", "PG8438.B00458", "PG8438.B00459", "PG8438.B00460", "PG8438.B00461", "PG8438.B00462", "PG8438.B00463", "PG8438.B00464", "PG8438.B00465", "PG8438.B00466", "PG8438.B00467", "PG8438.B00468", "PG8438.B00469", "PG8438.B00470", "PG8438.B00471", "PG8438.B00472", "PG8438.B00473", "PG8438.B00474", "PG8438.B00475", "PG8438.B00476", "PG8438.B00477", "PG8438.B00478", "PG8438.B00479", "PG8438.B00480", "PG8438.B00481", "PG8438.B00482", "PG8438.B00483", "PG8438.B00484", "PG8438.B00485", "PG8438.B00486", "PG8438.B00487", "PG8438.B00488", "PG8438.B00489", "PG8438.B00490", "PG8438.B00491", "PG8438.B00492", "PG8438.B00493", "PG8438.B00494", "PG8438.B00495", "PG8438.B00496", "PG8438.B00497", "PG8438.B00498", "PG8438.B00499" ], "bytes": 26892, "sha256": "ac3faf6d5a53ff01c5c2f2fc92fc50814bd5f1caec3b7a1a84b1fb7a3276e283", "synopsis": "Book III restricts temperance to particular bodily appetites and closes on desire aligned with reason; Book IV treats generosity, prodigality, stinginess and begins magnificence.", "observations": [ { "refs": [ "PG8438.B00439", "PG8438.B00444", "PG8438.B00448", "PG8438.B00451", "PG8438.B00463" ], "finding": "Temperance is not blanket suppression of every pleasure; its specified bodily field and concord of desire and reason differ from mere endurance of deprivation.", "disposition": "preserve domain and historical animal hierarchy as attributed" }, { "refs": [ "PG8438.B00456", "PG8438.B00458", "PG8438.B00459" ], "finding": "Individual pleasurable acts can be chosen while the resulting habit is unwanted; fear introduces a different pressure on particular actions.", "disposition": "reinforces temporal agency distinction" }, { "refs": [ "PG8438.B00470", "PG8438.B00475", "PG8438.B00477", "PG8438.B00480" ], "finding": "Generosity concerns fitting use and source of wealth, scaled to means, so a smaller absolute gift can express greater liberality.", "disposition": "reuse checked giver-means concept if compatible, no donation advice" }, { "refs": [ "PG8438.B00487", "PG8438.B00488", "PG8438.B00491", "PG8438.B00498" ], "finding": "Excessive giving may induce improper acquisition; giving and receiving failures need not coexist, and magnificent expenditure adds scale and occasion to generosity.", "disposition": "retain interdependence and limits of moral taxonomy" } ], "inspectionStatus": "read-complete", "hashVerified": true }, { "packet": 9, "path": "inspection/packets/pg8438/009.txt", "firstRef": "PG8438.B00500", "lastRef": "PG8438.B00554", "refs": [ "PG8438.B00500", "PG8438.B00501", "PG8438.B00502", "PG8438.B00503", "PG8438.B00504", "PG8438.B00505", "PG8438.B00506", "PG8438.B00507", "PG8438.B00508", "PG8438.B00509", "PG8438.B00510", "PG8438.B00511", "PG8438.B00512", "PG8438.B00513", "PG8438.B00514", "PG8438.B00515", "PG8438.B00516", "PG8438.B00517", "PG8438.B00518", "PG8438.B00519", "PG8438.B00520", "PG8438.B00521", "PG8438.B00522", "PG8438.B00523", "PG8438.B00524", "PG8438.B00525", "PG8438.B00526", "PG8438.B00527", "PG8438.B00528", "PG8438.B00529", "PG8438.B00530", "PG8438.B00531", "PG8438.B00532", "PG8438.B00533", "PG8438.B00534", "PG8438.B00535", "PG8438.B00536", "PG8438.B00537", "PG8438.B00538", "PG8438.B00539", "PG8438.B00540", "PG8438.B00541", "PG8438.B00542", "PG8438.B00543", "PG8438.B00544", "PG8438.B00545", "PG8438.B00546", "PG8438.B00547", "PG8438.B00548", "PG8438.B00549", "PG8438.B00550", "PG8438.B00551", "PG8438.B00552", "PG8438.B00553", "PG8438.B00554" ], "bytes": 26873, "sha256": "ade31f3d22dcfa58ee9da2ceebba5775ca2a40c6d8bf489dbbb49c46e9d887fd", "synopsis": "Book IV elaborates fitting large expenditure, great-minded self-estimation, unnamed relations to honor, properly directed anger, and sociability distinct from personal friendship.", "observations": [ { "refs": [ "PG8438.B00501", "PG8438.B00502", "PG8438.B00503", "PG8438.B00507", "PG8438.B00510" ], "finding": "Cost and excellence of a work are distinguished; proportional fit can fail through a small omitted detail. Magnificence is nevertheless explicitly restricted by wealth and status.", "disposition": "reuse purpose-sensitive evaluation; record class limits" }, { "refs": [ "PG8438.B00514", "PG8438.B00522", "PG8438.B00524", "PG8438.B00529", "PG8438.B00532" ], "finding": "Great-mindedness joins accurate high self-estimation with an aristocratic portrait, hierarchical benefaction and bodily mannerisms; low self-estimation may deter fitting action.", "disposition": "attribute ideal without endorsing social hierarchy or physiognomy" }, { "refs": [ "PG8438.B00537", "PG8438.B00538", "PG8438.B00541", "PG8438.B00548" ], "finding": "Praise or blame of ambition and anger depends on comparison, occasion and degree, not a simple rule that less emotion is better.", "disposition": "relative-mean facet support" }, { "refs": [ "PG8438.B00552", "PG8438.B00553", "PG8438.B00554" ], "finding": "Considerate social conduct can include objection and does not require affectionate friendship.", "disposition": "compare checked cooperation without affection and principled disagreement" } ], "inspectionStatus": "read-complete", "hashVerified": true }, { "packet": 10, "path": "inspection/packets/pg8438/010.txt", "firstRef": "PG8438.B00555", "lastRef": "PG8438.B00625", "refs": [ "PG8438.B00555", "PG8438.B00556", "PG8438.B00557", "PG8438.B00558", "PG8438.B00559", "PG8438.B00560", "PG8438.B00561", "PG8438.B00562", "PG8438.B00563", "PG8438.B00564", "PG8438.B00565", "PG8438.B00566", "PG8438.B00567", "PG8438.B00568", "PG8438.B00569", "PG8438.B00570", "PG8438.B00571", "PG8438.B00572", "PG8438.B00573", "PG8438.B00574", "PG8438.B00575", "PG8438.B00576", "PG8438.B00577", "PG8438.B00578", "PG8438.B00579", "PG8438.B00580", "PG8438.B00581", "PG8438.B00582", "PG8438.B00583", "PG8438.B00584", "PG8438.B00585", "PG8438.B00586", "PG8438.B00587", "PG8438.B00588", "PG8438.B00589", "PG8438.B00590", "PG8438.B00591", "PG8438.B00592", "PG8438.B00593", "PG8438.B00594", "PG8438.B00595", "PG8438.B00596", "PG8438.B00597", "PG8438.B00598", "PG8438.B00599", "PG8438.B00600", "PG8438.B00601", "PG8438.B00602", "PG8438.B00603", "PG8438.B00604", "PG8438.B00605", "PG8438.B00606", "PG8438.B00607", "PG8438.B00608", "PG8438.B00609", "PG8438.B00610", "PG8438.B00611", "PG8438.B00612", "PG8438.B00613", "PG8438.B00614", "PG8438.B00615", "PG8438.B00616", "PG8438.B00617", "PG8438.B00618", "PG8438.B00619", "PG8438.B00620", "PG8438.B00621", "PG8438.B00622", "PG8438.B00623", "PG8438.B00624", "PG8438.B00625" ], "bytes": 26755, "sha256": "b3e609ece0018ec7bcca01770ad764760cfbb902bbb38d1b18f1d1573d0cc788", "synopsis": "Book IV finishes sociability, truthfulness, tact and the conditional value of shame; Book V begins distinctions between comprehensive justice, particular injustice, distribution and correction.", "observations": [ { "refs": [ "PG8438.B00555", "PG8438.B00556", "PG8438.B00563", "PG8438.B00571", "PG8438.B00577" ], "finding": "Social virtue can require displeasing others; truthful self-presentation avoids inflated claims while ostentatious understatement can become another exaggeration; joking has audience-sensitive limits.", "disposition": "reuse honest disagreement and proportional self-description" }, { "refs": [ "PG8438.B00584", "PG8438.B00585", "PG8438.B00586" ], "finding": "Shame is a feeling and potentially corrective response to a bad deed, not proof that doing the deed then regretting it constitutes virtue.", "disposition": "candidate conditional corrective feeling if novelty remains" }, { "refs": [ "PG8438.B00594", "PG8438.B00595", "PG8438.B00601", "PG8438.B00608", "PG8438.B00613", "PG8438.B00618" ], "finding": "Justice as virtue exercised toward another differs from the particular vice of unfair gain; good person and good citizen are not assumed identical in every constitution.", "disposition": "retain distinction and avoid lawful=universally right" }, { "refs": [ "PG8438.B00620", "PG8438.B00624", "PG8438.B00625" ], "finding": "Distributive equality is a proportion between persons and shares, with disagreement over the relevant merit or rate rather than over proportion alone.", "disposition": "candidate contested measure within proportional equality" } ], "inspectionStatus": "read-complete", "hashVerified": true }, { "packet": 11, "path": "inspection/packets/pg8438/011.txt", "firstRef": "PG8438.B00626", "lastRef": "PG8438.B00681", "refs": [ "PG8438.B00626", "PG8438.B00627", "PG8438.B00628", "PG8438.B00629", "PG8438.B00630", "PG8438.B00631", "PG8438.B00632", "PG8438.B00633", "PG8438.B00634", "PG8438.B00635", "PG8438.B00636", "PG8438.B00637", "PG8438.B00638", "PG8438.B00639", "PG8438.B00640", "PG8438.B00641", "PG8438.B00642", "PG8438.B00643", "PG8438.B00644", "PG8438.B00645", "PG8438.B00646", "PG8438.B00647", "PG8438.B00648", "PG8438.B00649", "PG8438.B00650", "PG8438.B00651", "PG8438.B00652", "PG8438.B00653", "PG8438.B00654", "PG8438.B00655", "PG8438.B00656", "PG8438.B00657", "PG8438.B00658", "PG8438.B00659", "PG8438.B00660", "PG8438.B00661", "PG8438.B00662", "PG8438.B00663", "PG8438.B00664", "PG8438.B00665", "PG8438.B00666", "PG8438.B00667", "PG8438.B00668", "PG8438.B00669", "PG8438.B00670", "PG8438.B00671", "PG8438.B00672", "PG8438.B00673", "PG8438.B00674", "PG8438.B00675", "PG8438.B00676", "PG8438.B00677", "PG8438.B00678", "PG8438.B00679", "PG8438.B00680", "PG8438.B00681" ], "bytes": 26966, "sha256": "a91acd2adc7b187276b4c347d7790e2ea0b5335cb531b8b3a5316e2c9155d509", "synopsis": "Book V develops proportional distribution, arithmetic correction, proportionate reciprocal exchange and money, then discusses justice's scope, conventional/natural justice and voluntariness.", "observations": [ { "refs": [ "PG8438.B00626", "PG8438.B00630", "PG8438.B00631", "PG8438.B00632", "PG8438.B00637" ], "finding": "Corrective justice abstracts from the parties' character and repairs an injury-related inequality, unlike proportional distribution; applying gain/loss to wounds is expressly acknowledged as imperfect.", "disposition": "candidate distribution versus correction; scope mathematical analogy" }, { "refs": [ "PG8438.B00639", "PG8438.B00641", "PG8438.B00646", "PG8438.B00647", "PG8438.B00648", "PG8438.B00651" ], "finding": "Exchange depends on proportionate reciprocity, need and a conventional measure; money allows future exchange but depreciates, and unlike goods are only practically commensurable.", "disposition": "compare money/commensuration checked definitions; no economic law claim" }, { "refs": [ "PG8438.B00655", "PG8438.B00661", "PG8438.B00662", "PG8438.B00666", "PG8438.B00667" ], "finding": "Justice is a mean differently from other virtues; an unjust deed need not establish an unjust character. Full political justice excludes slaves and children under a proprietary household account.", "disposition": "retain act/character application and explicit exclusion limits" }, { "refs": [ "PG8438.B00668", "PG8438.B00670", "PG8438.B00671", "PG8438.B00679", "PG8438.B00681" ], "finding": "Natural justice is not presented as wholly unchangeable; rightful outcomes can be accidental, and misadventure, mistake, impulsive injustice and deliberate injustice are separated.", "disposition": "track classification without importing current legal categories" } ], "inspectionStatus": "read-complete", "hashVerified": true }, { "packet": 12, "path": "inspection/packets/pg8438/012.txt", "firstRef": "PG8438.B00682", "lastRef": "PG8438.B00754", "refs": [ "PG8438.B00682", "PG8438.B00683", "PG8438.B00684", "PG8438.B00685", "PG8438.B00686", "PG8438.B00687", "PG8438.B00688", "PG8438.B00689", "PG8438.B00690", "PG8438.B00691", "PG8438.B00692", "PG8438.B00693", "PG8438.B00694", "PG8438.B00695", "PG8438.B00696", "PG8438.B00697", "PG8438.B00698", "PG8438.B00699", "PG8438.B00700", "PG8438.B00701", "PG8438.B00702", "PG8438.B00703", "PG8438.B00704", "PG8438.B00705", "PG8438.B00706", "PG8438.B00707", "PG8438.B00708", "PG8438.B00709", "PG8438.B00710", "PG8438.B00711", "PG8438.B00712", "PG8438.B00713", "PG8438.B00714", "PG8438.B00715", "PG8438.B00716", "PG8438.B00717", "PG8438.B00718", "PG8438.B00719", "PG8438.B00720", "PG8438.B00721", "PG8438.B00722", "PG8438.B00723", "PG8438.B00724", "PG8438.B00725", "PG8438.B00726", "PG8438.B00727", "PG8438.B00728", "PG8438.B00729", "PG8438.B00730", "PG8438.B00731", "PG8438.B00732", "PG8438.B00733", "PG8438.B00734", "PG8438.B00735", "PG8438.B00736", "PG8438.B00737", "PG8438.B00738", "PG8438.B00739", "PG8438.B00740", "PG8438.B00741", "PG8438.B00742", "PG8438.B00743", "PG8438.B00744", "PG8438.B00745", "PG8438.B00746", "PG8438.B00747", "PG8438.B00748", "PG8438.B00749", "PG8438.B00750", "PG8438.B00751", "PG8438.B00752", "PG8438.B00753", "PG8438.B00754" ], "bytes": 26597, "sha256": "856458145c7ecc2069cba9c80ae27458b27df7a21052613aac69572a684c3422", "synopsis": "Book V resolves puzzles about voluntarily suffering injustice and self-injury, articulates equity as correction of general law, and Book VI opens intellectual excellences and practical truth.", "observations": [ { "refs": [ "PG8438.B00692", "PG8438.B00694", "PG8438.B00696", "PG8438.B00702", "PG8438.B00705" ], "finding": "A harmful result, unjust treatment, recipient benefit and the distributor's agency are not interchangeable; right application requires more than knowing listed actions.", "disposition": "retain source classifications with non-endorsement of all premises" }, { "refs": [ "PG8438.B00711", "PG8438.B00712", "PG8438.B00713", "PG8438.B00714" ], "finding": "Equity corrects an unavoidable generality defect in law by attending to an exceptional case and the legislator's envisaged purpose; waiving a strict claim can enact justice.", "disposition": "candidate equity; compare checked rule/context concepts" }, { "refs": [ "PG8438.B00717", "PG8438.B00724", "PG8438.B00725", "PG8438.B00726" ], "finding": "The self-injustice argument relies on community obligation, multiple parties and an internal ruler/slave metaphor; being wronged may cause worse contingent harm without implying the victim's vice.", "disposition": "scope historical suicide and household claims; no victim blame" }, { "refs": [ "PG8438.B00733", "PG8438.B00740", "PG8438.B00742", "PG8438.B00743", "PG8438.B00751" ], "finding": "Invoking right reason needs explanation; practical truth joins true reasoning with right desire, and action as its own end differs from production for another end.", "disposition": "candidate action/production distinction; translation terminology scoped" } ], "inspectionStatus": "read-complete", "hashVerified": true }, { "packet": 13, "path": "inspection/packets/pg8438/013.txt", "firstRef": "PG8438.B00755", "lastRef": "PG8438.B00822", "refs": [ "PG8438.B00755", "PG8438.B00756", "PG8438.B00757", "PG8438.B00758", "PG8438.B00759", "PG8438.B00760", "PG8438.B00761", "PG8438.B00762", "PG8438.B00763", "PG8438.B00764", "PG8438.B00765", "PG8438.B00766", "PG8438.B00767", "PG8438.B00768", "PG8438.B00769", "PG8438.B00770", "PG8438.B00771", "PG8438.B00772", "PG8438.B00773", "PG8438.B00774", "PG8438.B00775", "PG8438.B00776", "PG8438.B00777", "PG8438.B00778", "PG8438.B00779", "PG8438.B00780", "PG8438.B00781", "PG8438.B00782", "PG8438.B00783", "PG8438.B00784", "PG8438.B00785", "PG8438.B00786", "PG8438.B00787", "PG8438.B00788", "PG8438.B00789", "PG8438.B00790", "PG8438.B00791", "PG8438.B00792", "PG8438.B00793", "PG8438.B00794", "PG8438.B00795", "PG8438.B00796", "PG8438.B00797", "PG8438.B00798", "PG8438.B00799", "PG8438.B00800", "PG8438.B00801", "PG8438.B00802", "PG8438.B00803", "PG8438.B00804", "PG8438.B00805", "PG8438.B00806", "PG8438.B00807", "PG8438.B00808", "PG8438.B00809", "PG8438.B00810", "PG8438.B00811", "PG8438.B00812", "PG8438.B00813", "PG8438.B00814", "PG8438.B00815", "PG8438.B00816", "PG8438.B00817", "PG8438.B00818", "PG8438.B00819", "PG8438.B00820", "PG8438.B00821", "PG8438.B00822" ], "bytes": 27036, "sha256": "75a93d08b18ef7c2c23c2977b18a64b226282c0218a883e8ee0509f58e511b08", "synopsis": "Book VI distinguishes making, action, demonstrative knowledge, intuition, theoretical wisdom and practical wisdom; particular experience and sound deliberation lead to questions about intellectual virtue's usefulness.", "observations": [ { "refs": [ "PG8438.B00755", "PG8438.B00762", "PG8438.B00763", "PG8438.B00767" ], "finding": "Production's excellence differs from practical wisdom: intentional technical error can show skill while deliberately bad conduct cannot show practical excellence.", "disposition": "candidate action versus production, keep ancient technical vocabulary" }, { "refs": [ "PG8438.B00775", "PG8438.B00778", "PG8438.B00781", "PG8438.B00785", "PG8438.B00786" ], "finding": "Theoretical understanding can coexist with practical ineptitude; action needs particulars and experience, and individual good may require household/community relations.", "disposition": "compare checked theory/practice and situated knowledge" }, { "refs": [ "PG8438.B00798", "PG8438.B00799", "PG8438.B00800", "PG8438.B00806" ], "finding": "Successful calculation is not good counsel if end, inference, means or timing is wrong; judging another's proposal differs from commanding action.", "disposition": "candidate cleverness versus practical wisdom, track next packet" }, { "refs": [ "PG8438.B00811", "PG8438.B00813", "PG8438.B00819", "PG8438.B00820", "PG8438.B00821", "PG8438.B00822" ], "finding": "Practical perception bears on final particulars; excellences can be intrinsically choiceworthy and constitutive rather than merely productive of happiness.", "disposition": "counterpoint to purely instrumental reading" } ], "inspectionStatus": "read-complete", "hashVerified": true }, { "packet": 14, "path": "inspection/packets/pg8438/014.txt", "firstRef": "PG8438.B00823", "lastRef": "PG8438.B00888", "refs": [ "PG8438.B00823", "PG8438.B00824", "PG8438.B00825", "PG8438.B00826", "PG8438.B00827", "PG8438.B00828", "PG8438.B00829", "PG8438.B00830", "PG8438.B00831", "PG8438.B00832", "PG8438.B00833", "PG8438.B00834", "PG8438.B00835", "PG8438.B00836", "PG8438.B00837", "PG8438.B00838", "PG8438.B00839", "PG8438.B00840", "PG8438.B00841", "PG8438.B00842", "PG8438.B00843", "PG8438.B00844", "PG8438.B00845", "PG8438.B00846", "PG8438.B00847", "PG8438.B00848", "PG8438.B00849", "PG8438.B00850", "PG8438.B00851", "PG8438.B00852", "PG8438.B00853", "PG8438.B00854", "PG8438.B00855", "PG8438.B00856", "PG8438.B00857", "PG8438.B00858", "PG8438.B00859", "PG8438.B00860", "PG8438.B00861", "PG8438.B00862", "PG8438.B00863", "PG8438.B00864", "PG8438.B00865", "PG8438.B00866", "PG8438.B00867", "PG8438.B00868", "PG8438.B00869", "PG8438.B00870", "PG8438.B00871", "PG8438.B00872", "PG8438.B00873", "PG8438.B00874", "PG8438.B00875", "PG8438.B00876", "PG8438.B00877", "PG8438.B00878", "PG8438.B00879", "PG8438.B00880", "PG8438.B00881", "PG8438.B00882", "PG8438.B00883", "PG8438.B00884", "PG8438.B00885", "PG8438.B00886", "PG8438.B00887", "PG8438.B00888" ], "bytes": 26983, "sha256": "7e1d74543d5f6b8e47a2e2a665883db3d7f4efa24fdf5872f3d594cc9a3c99b0", "synopsis": "Book VI closes on cleverness, mature virtue and practical wisdom's mutual dependence, followed by a translated Analytics appendix. Book VII states puzzles of incontinence and distinguishes possessed from operative knowledge.", "observations": [ { "refs": [ "PG8438.B00823", "PG8438.B00824", "PG8438.B00826", "PG8438.B00829", "PG8438.B00830", "PG8438.B00833" ], "finding": "Cleverness adapts means to any aim; practical wisdom requires goodness, and natural dispositions require judgment. Its service to contemplation does not make it master of contemplation.", "disposition": "candidate cleverness versus practical wisdom; competing hierarchy reading" }, { "refs": [ "PG8438.B00838", "PG8438.B00841", "PG8438.B00845", "PG8438.B00848" ], "finding": "Appendix offers selected Posterior Analytics passages on demonstration and distinguishes prior-to-us from prior-by-nature.", "disposition": "identify supplementary text, avoid treating as Ethics chapter" }, { "refs": [ "PG8438.B00853", "PG8438.B00865", "PG8438.B00866", "PG8438.B00870", "PG8438.B00871", "PG8438.B00879" ], "finding": "Method begins with phenomena and conflicting opinions; restraint differs from aligned desire, and abandoning a dishonest resolution can be good rather than weak.", "disposition": "retain dialectical structure and qualified steadiness" }, { "refs": [ "PG8438.B00881", "PG8438.B00882", "PG8438.B00885", "PG8438.B00887", "PG8438.B00888" ], "finding": "Having and reciting a general rule is different from operative knowledge of the particular case; desire can drive a competing practical inference.", "disposition": "candidate inoperative knowledge, compare conviction/habit lag" } ], "inspectionStatus": "read-complete", "hashVerified": true }, { "packet": 15, "path": "inspection/packets/pg8438/015.txt", "firstRef": "PG8438.B00889", "lastRef": "PG8438.B00943", "refs": [ "PG8438.B00889", "PG8438.B00890", "PG8438.B00891", "PG8438.B00892", "PG8438.B00893", "PG8438.B00894", "PG8438.B00895", "PG8438.B00896", "PG8438.B00897", "PG8438.B00898", "PG8438.B00899", "PG8438.B00900", "PG8438.B00901", "PG8438.B00902", "PG8438.B00903", "PG8438.B00904", "PG8438.B00905", "PG8438.B00906", "PG8438.B00907", "PG8438.B00908", "PG8438.B00909", "PG8438.B00910", "PG8438.B00911", "PG8438.B00912", "PG8438.B00913", "PG8438.B00914", "PG8438.B00915", "PG8438.B00916", "PG8438.B00917", "PG8438.B00918", "PG8438.B00919", "PG8438.B00920", "PG8438.B00921", "PG8438.B00922", "PG8438.B00923", "PG8438.B00924", "PG8438.B00925", "PG8438.B00926", "PG8438.B00927", "PG8438.B00928", "PG8438.B00929", "PG8438.B00930", "PG8438.B00931", "PG8438.B00932", "PG8438.B00933", "PG8438.B00934", "PG8438.B00935", "PG8438.B00936", "PG8438.B00937", "PG8438.B00938", "PG8438.B00939", "PG8438.B00940", "PG8438.B00941", "PG8438.B00942", "PG8438.B00943" ], "bytes": 26920, "sha256": "76693f3d80b4706f0327169f54f0fb0cb9c8f11826c405e3fccc97ce25b7c2e3", "synopsis": "Book VII narrows incontinence's proper object, contrasts it with vice and historically categorized abnormal states, differentiates precipitate from weak failure, and separates self-control from obstinacy and temperance.", "observations": [ { "refs": [ "PG8438.B00894", "PG8438.B00895", "PG8438.B00896", "PG8438.B00898", "PG8438.B00900" ], "finding": "Same pleasure can be pursued against considered choice or in accordance with a corrupt choice; analogical use of incontinence for money or honor is marked as extended usage.", "disposition": "retain vocabulary precision" }, { "refs": [ "PG8438.B00903", "PG8438.B00904", "PG8438.B00909", "PG8438.B00918", "PG8438.B00925" ], "finding": "Disease, disability, ethnicity, gender and 'brutishness' are combined in a historically demeaning taxonomy; these assertions are neither verified clinical accounts nor accepted group descriptions.", "disposition": "explicit limits; no candidate normalizing taxonomy" }, { "refs": [ "PG8438.B00924", "PG8438.B00927", "PG8438.B00928", "PG8438.B00932" ], "finding": "Endurance differs from mastery, precipitate action from abandoning deliberation, and regretful failure from settled approval of a bad end.", "disposition": "candidate distinct failure modes if checked comparison supports" }, { "refs": [ "PG8438.B00937", "PG8438.B00938", "PG8438.B00943" ], "finding": "Reason-responsive steadiness can revise a resolution; obstinacy resists reason for the pleasure of victory. Temperance aligns desire, while self-control resists contrary desire.", "disposition": "candidate steadiness vs obstinacy; compare revision/dogmatism checked concepts" } ], "inspectionStatus": "read-complete", "hashVerified": true }, { "packet": 16, "path": "inspection/packets/pg8438/016.txt", "firstRef": "PG8438.B00944", "lastRef": "PG8438.B01029", "refs": [ "PG8438.B00944", "PG8438.B00945", "PG8438.B00946", "PG8438.B00947", "PG8438.B00948", "PG8438.B00949", "PG8438.B00950", "PG8438.B00951", "PG8438.B00952", "PG8438.B00953", "PG8438.B00954", "PG8438.B00955", "PG8438.B00956", "PG8438.B00957", "PG8438.B00958", "PG8438.B00959", "PG8438.B00960", "PG8438.B00961", "PG8438.B00962", "PG8438.B00963", "PG8438.B00964", "PG8438.B00965", "PG8438.B00966", "PG8438.B00967", "PG8438.B00968", "PG8438.B00969", "PG8438.B00970", "PG8438.B00971", "PG8438.B00972", "PG8438.B00973", "PG8438.B00974", "PG8438.B00975", "PG8438.B00976", "PG8438.B00977", "PG8438.B00978", "PG8438.B00979", "PG8438.B00980", "PG8438.B00981", "PG8438.B00982", "PG8438.B00983", "PG8438.B00984", "PG8438.B00985", "PG8438.B00986", "PG8438.B00987", "PG8438.B00988", "PG8438.B00989", "PG8438.B00990", "PG8438.B00991", "PG8438.B00992", "PG8438.B00993", "PG8438.B00994", "PG8438.B00995", "PG8438.B00996", "PG8438.B00997", "PG8438.B00998", "PG8438.B00999", "PG8438.B01000", "PG8438.B01001", "PG8438.B01002", "PG8438.B01003", "PG8438.B01004", "PG8438.B01005", "PG8438.B01006", "PG8438.B01007", "PG8438.B01008", "PG8438.B01009", "PG8438.B01010", "PG8438.B01011", "PG8438.B01012", "PG8438.B01013", "PG8438.B01014", "PG8438.B01015", "PG8438.B01016", "PG8438.B01017", "PG8438.B01018", "PG8438.B01019", "PG8438.B01020", "PG8438.B01021", "PG8438.B01022", "PG8438.B01023", "PG8438.B01024", "PG8438.B01025", "PG8438.B01026", "PG8438.B01027", "PG8438.B01028", "PG8438.B01029" ], "bytes": 27029, "sha256": "4f11954781341c585bea75568d02920f8e91970b415cd50ae8973d3c2cb34929", "synopsis": "Book VII closes with imperfect control versus bad principles and an appendix defending differentiated pleasure as unimpeded activity; Book VIII opens friendship as necessary social good and distinguishes its motives.", "observations": [ { "refs": [ "PG8438.B00945", "PG8438.B00947", "PG8438.B00949" ], "finding": "A city with good unused laws models failure to enact a sound principle; a city acting on bad laws models settled vice.", "disposition": "reuse conviction/habit lag while retaining different practical ignorance mechanism" }, { "refs": [ "PG8438.B00971", "PG8438.B00973", "PG8438.B00974", "PG8438.B00975", "PG8438.B00985" ], "finding": "Pleasure need not restore a deficiency; exercise of an intact capacity can be pleasant. Pleasure intrinsic to activity can support it, while foreign pleasure obstructs; severe suffering is not dismissed by virtue alone.", "disposition": "candidate activity-specific pleasure; compare Book X" }, { "refs": [ "PG8438.B00993", "PG8438.B00994", "PG8438.B01002", "PG8438.B01004" ], "finding": "Explaining why a false impression arises supplements assertion of truth; accounts of pain, melancholia, change and divine simplicity are speculative historical claims.", "disposition": "retain error-explanation method; exclude physiology as fact" }, { "refs": [ "PG8438.B01008", "PG8438.B01011", "PG8438.B01012", "PG8438.B01024", "PG8438.B01025", "PG8438.B01029" ], "finding": "Friendship exceeds needed justice and utility; its minimal reciprocity requires mutually known goodwill, while utility/pleasure attachments may target what a person supplies rather than who they are.", "disposition": "candidate acknowledged goodwill and kinds of friendship" } ], "inspectionStatus": "read-complete", "hashVerified": true }, { "packet": 17, "path": "inspection/packets/pg8438/017.txt", "firstRef": "PG8438.B01030", "lastRef": "PG8438.B01087", "refs": [ "PG8438.B01030", "PG8438.B01031", "PG8438.B01032", "PG8438.B01033", "PG8438.B01034", "PG8438.B01035", "PG8438.B01036", "PG8438.B01037", "PG8438.B01038", "PG8438.B01039", "PG8438.B01040", "PG8438.B01041", "PG8438.B01042", "PG8438.B01043", "PG8438.B01044", "PG8438.B01045", "PG8438.B01046", "PG8438.B01047", "PG8438.B01048", "PG8438.B01049", "PG8438.B01050", "PG8438.B01051", "PG8438.B01052", "PG8438.B01053", "PG8438.B01054", "PG8438.B01055", "PG8438.B01056", "PG8438.B01057", "PG8438.B01058", "PG8438.B01059", "PG8438.B01060", "PG8438.B01061", "PG8438.B01062", "PG8438.B01063", "PG8438.B01064", "PG8438.B01065", "PG8438.B01066", "PG8438.B01067", "PG8438.B01068", "PG8438.B01069", "PG8438.B01070", "PG8438.B01071", "PG8438.B01072", "PG8438.B01073", "PG8438.B01074", "PG8438.B01075", "PG8438.B01076", "PG8438.B01077", "PG8438.B01078", "PG8438.B01079", "PG8438.B01080", "PG8438.B01081", "PG8438.B01082", "PG8438.B01083", "PG8438.B01084", "PG8438.B01085", "PG8438.B01086", "PG8438.B01087" ], "bytes": 26788, "sha256": "1439a64ea013824b130618022f8fc8c4cc530977f930a4a8bb4b0c7f35efe1b6", "synopsis": "Book VIII develops character friendship's stability and shared activity, limited friendship capacity, unequal relationships and proportional affection, then connects friendship and justice to communities and constitutions.", "observations": [ { "refs": [ "PG8438.B01030", "PG8438.B01036", "PG8438.B01039", "PG8438.B01041", "PG8438.B01044" ], "finding": "A changing utility can dissolve an attachment without a change in the person's character; character friendship requires time-tested mutual knowledge, though a pleasurable relation can develop into it.", "disposition": "candidate basis-sensitive persistence of friendship" }, { "refs": [ "PG8438.B01049", "PG8438.B01053", "PG8438.B01056", "PG8438.B01057", "PG8438.B01059" ], "finding": "A standing friendship differs from its exercise in shared life; many brief useful contacts differ from a few time-intensive friendships needed even by the prosperous.", "disposition": "apply activity/state distinction; no numerical social prescription" }, { "refs": [ "PG8438.B01065", "PG8438.B01067", "PG8438.B01068", "PG8438.B01070", "PG8438.B01071", "PG8438.B01073" ], "finding": "The proposed proportional equality of unequal friends rests on hierarchical household roles; loving can matter more than being honored, and good friendship refuses degrading services.", "disposition": "historical hierarchy limits, retain noncompliance within friendship" }, { "refs": [ "PG8438.B01079", "PG8438.B01080", "PG8438.B01081", "PG8438.B01083", "PG8438.B01087" ], "finding": "Different communities support different obligations; the political whole seeks enduring rather than merely immediate advantage, with monarchy ranked best in this taxonomy.", "disposition": "structural civic facet, attribution rather than political endorsement" } ], "inspectionStatus": "read-complete", "hashVerified": true }, { "packet": 18, "path": "inspection/packets/pg8438/018.txt", "firstRef": "PG8438.B01088", "lastRef": "PG8438.B01147", "refs": [ "PG8438.B01088", "PG8438.B01089", "PG8438.B01090", "PG8438.B01091", "PG8438.B01092", "PG8438.B01093", "PG8438.B01094", "PG8438.B01095", "PG8438.B01096", "PG8438.B01097", "PG8438.B01098", "PG8438.B01099", "PG8438.B01100", "PG8438.B01101", "PG8438.B01102", "PG8438.B01103", "PG8438.B01104", "PG8438.B01105", "PG8438.B01106", "PG8438.B01107", "PG8438.B01108", "PG8438.B01109", "PG8438.B01110", "PG8438.B01111", "PG8438.B01112", "PG8438.B01113", "PG8438.B01114", "PG8438.B01115", "PG8438.B01116", "PG8438.B01117", "PG8438.B01118", "PG8438.B01119", "PG8438.B01120", "PG8438.B01121", "PG8438.B01122", "PG8438.B01123", "PG8438.B01124", "PG8438.B01125", "PG8438.B01126", "PG8438.B01127", "PG8438.B01128", "PG8438.B01129", "PG8438.B01130", "PG8438.B01131", "PG8438.B01132", "PG8438.B01133", "PG8438.B01134", "PG8438.B01135", "PG8438.B01136", "PG8438.B01137", "PG8438.B01138", "PG8438.B01139", "PG8438.B01140", "PG8438.B01141", "PG8438.B01142", "PG8438.B01143", "PG8438.B01144", "PG8438.B01145", "PG8438.B01146", "PG8438.B01147" ], "bytes": 27059, "sha256": "d41897bccaf8080309c138b169d3dc44d134bf458ad41b11406b240e79f647a1", "synopsis": "Book VIII relates political forms to household relationships and their injustices, analyzes utility friendship's disputes and unequal returns; Book IX begins mismatched exchanges and valuation of benefits.", "observations": [ { "refs": [ "PG8438.B01088", "PG8438.B01090", "PG8438.B01093", "PG8438.B01094", "PG8438.B01101" ], "finding": "The ruler's advantage versus subjects' welfare differentiates despotism; slave-as-tool and male household supremacy remain explicit commitments, partly strained by admitting friendship with a slave as a human.", "disposition": "retain tension and exclusions, no endorsement" }, { "refs": [ "PG8438.B01116", "PG8438.B01117", "PG8438.B01118", "PG8438.B01120", "PG8438.B01121" ], "finding": "Complaint flourishes when an apparent gift is expected to be repaid as a loan, or obligation is contracted and discharged under different friendship terms.", "disposition": "candidate unspoken reciprocity terms; compare expectations concepts" }, { "refs": [ "PG8438.B01122", "PG8438.B01124", "PG8438.B01125", "PG8438.B01130", "PG8438.B01132" ], "finding": "Intention, recipient benefit and different kinds of return supply rival measures; attainable requital may replace exact repayment.", "disposition": "source-scoped proportional reciprocity" }, { "refs": [ "PG8438.B01137", "PG8438.B01138", "PG8438.B01143", "PG8438.B01144", "PG8438.B01146" ], "finding": "Both parties receiving something is not enough if the returns differ from agreed purposes; benefit valuation changes after receipt, while philosophy's value is not priced exactly.", "disposition": "reuse meaning-before-agreement and common-measure limits" } ], "inspectionStatus": "read-complete", "hashVerified": true }, { "packet": 19, "path": "inspection/packets/pg8438/019.txt", "firstRef": "PG8438.B01148", "lastRef": "PG8438.B01207", "refs": [ "PG8438.B01148", "PG8438.B01149", "PG8438.B01150", "PG8438.B01151", "PG8438.B01152", "PG8438.B01153", "PG8438.B01154", "PG8438.B01155", "PG8438.B01156", "PG8438.B01157", "PG8438.B01158", "PG8438.B01159", "PG8438.B01160", "PG8438.B01161", "PG8438.B01162", "PG8438.B01163", "PG8438.B01164", "PG8438.B01165", "PG8438.B01166", "PG8438.B01167", "PG8438.B01168", "PG8438.B01169", "PG8438.B01170", "PG8438.B01171", "PG8438.B01172", "PG8438.B01173", "PG8438.B01174", "PG8438.B01175", "PG8438.B01176", "PG8438.B01177", "PG8438.B01178", "PG8438.B01179", "PG8438.B01180", "PG8438.B01181", "PG8438.B01182", "PG8438.B01183", "PG8438.B01184", "PG8438.B01185", "PG8438.B01186", "PG8438.B01187", "PG8438.B01188", "PG8438.B01189", "PG8438.B01190", "PG8438.B01191", "PG8438.B01192", "PG8438.B01193", "PG8438.B01194", "PG8438.B01195", "PG8438.B01196", "PG8438.B01197", "PG8438.B01198", "PG8438.B01199", "PG8438.B01200", "PG8438.B01201", "PG8438.B01202", "PG8438.B01203", "PG8438.B01204", "PG8438.B01205", "PG8438.B01206", "PG8438.B01207" ], "bytes": 26947, "sha256": "8409b97f1fee0528b72a4573e954c394df1dc48503519d4b4c8341e735d7a66b", "synopsis": "Book IX weighs competing obligations, dissolution and residual duties of friendship, self-relation, goodwill, civic concord and the asymmetric attachment of benefactors; begins two senses of self-love.", "observations": [ { "refs": [ "PG8438.B01148", "PG8438.B01150", "PG8438.B01157", "PG8438.B01160", "PG8438.B01164" ], "finding": "No relationship has every claim; severing a changed friendship differs from deception about its original basis, and former intimacy can retain a residual claim.", "disposition": "candidate residual history after dissolution; compare checked enduring obligation" }, { "refs": [ "PG8438.B01169", "PG8438.B01171", "PG8438.B01173", "PG8438.B01174" ], "finding": "Friend as another self relies on an ideal of internally harmonious agency; the explanation of suicide through wickedness is an attributed and limited historical claim.", "disposition": "retain self-relation, explicitly reject diagnostic use" }, { "refs": [ "PG8438.B01177", "PG8438.B01178", "PG8438.B01182", "PG8438.B01183", "PG8438.B01184", "PG8438.B01187" ], "finding": "Goodwill can be inactive and unknown; concord requires agreeing on common practical objects and implementation, not each wanting the same office for themselves.", "disposition": "candidate practical concord, compare shared goals/cooperation" }, { "refs": [ "PG8438.B01192", "PG8438.B01193", "PG8438.B01194", "PG8438.B01196", "PG8438.B01200", "PG8438.B01204" ], "finding": "Benefactors' affection is explained through enduring activity embodied in a work, labor and memory rather than expected repayment alone; self-love dispute needs term distinction.", "disposition": "compare checked work attachment and semantic clarification" } ], "inspectionStatus": "read-complete", "hashVerified": true }, { "packet": 20, "path": "inspection/packets/pg8438/020.txt", "firstRef": "PG8438.B01208", "lastRef": "PG8438.B01279", "refs": [ "PG8438.B01208", "PG8438.B01209", "PG8438.B01210", "PG8438.B01211", "PG8438.B01212", "PG8438.B01213", "PG8438.B01214", "PG8438.B01215", "PG8438.B01216", "PG8438.B01217", "PG8438.B01218", "PG8438.B01219", "PG8438.B01220", "PG8438.B01221", "PG8438.B01222", "PG8438.B01223", "PG8438.B01224", "PG8438.B01225", "PG8438.B01226", "PG8438.B01227", "PG8438.B01228", "PG8438.B01229", "PG8438.B01230", "PG8438.B01231", "PG8438.B01232", "PG8438.B01233", "PG8438.B01234", "PG8438.B01235", "PG8438.B01236", "PG8438.B01237", "PG8438.B01238", "PG8438.B01239", "PG8438.B01240", "PG8438.B01241", "PG8438.B01242", "PG8438.B01243", "PG8438.B01244", "PG8438.B01245", "PG8438.B01246", "PG8438.B01247", "PG8438.B01248", "PG8438.B01249", "PG8438.B01250", "PG8438.B01251", "PG8438.B01252", "PG8438.B01253", "PG8438.B01254", "PG8438.B01255", "PG8438.B01256", "PG8438.B01257", "PG8438.B01258", "PG8438.B01259", "PG8438.B01260", "PG8438.B01261", "PG8438.B01262", "PG8438.B01263", "PG8438.B01264", "PG8438.B01265", "PG8438.B01266", "PG8438.B01267", "PG8438.B01268", "PG8438.B01269", "PG8438.B01270", "PG8438.B01271", "PG8438.B01272", "PG8438.B01273", "PG8438.B01274", "PG8438.B01275", "PG8438.B01276", "PG8438.B01277", "PG8438.B01278", "PG8438.B01279" ], "bytes": 26925, "sha256": "84271348ba6c452197c09d4a7ed8abf0eff4bb10ad608c0222871a394e973a08", "synopsis": "Book IX resolves self-love through different goods, argues happy persons need friends for shared activity and awareness, limits intimacy by capacity, and examines sympathy. Book X opens competing evaluations of pleasure.", "observations": [ { "refs": [ "PG8438.B01209", "PG8438.B01211", "PG8438.B01212", "PG8438.B01213" ], "finding": "Self-love of rational noble action can cede money, office or opportunity to a friend; the argument revalues what counts as one's own greater share.", "disposition": "retain paradox, no recommendation of self-sacrifice or death" }, { "refs": [ "PG8438.B01220", "PG8438.B01222", "PG8438.B01223", "PG8438.B01224", "PG8438.B01228" ], "finding": "Self-sufficiency does not entail solitude because happiness is activity and friends support its sustained exercise and shared words/thoughts.", "disposition": "candidate active self-sufficiency with friendship" }, { "refs": [ "PG8438.B01234", "PG8438.B01235", "PG8438.B01242", "PG8438.B01244", "PG8438.B01254", "PG8438.B01255" ], "finding": "Intimacy consumes finite time and emotional participation; sympathy can relieve and add pain, and shared practices cultivate either good or bad character. Gender stereotypes qualify the portrayal.", "disposition": "compare mutual sympathy and habit interaction; historical limits" }, { "refs": [ "PG8438.B01261", "PG8438.B01262", "PG8438.B01263", "PG8438.B01267", "PG8438.B01271", "PG8438.B01278" ], "finding": "Strategically false denunciation of pleasure can discredit truthful teaching when contradicted by conduct; being one good is not being the highest good, and degree does not prove absence of limits.", "disposition": "candidate credibility cost of corrective falsehood; compare checked trust and overstatement" } ], "inspectionStatus": "read-complete", "hashVerified": true }, { "packet": 21, "path": "inspection/packets/pg8438/021.txt", "firstRef": "PG8438.B01280", "lastRef": "PG8438.B01342", "refs": [ "PG8438.B01280", "PG8438.B01281", "PG8438.B01282", "PG8438.B01283", "PG8438.B01284", "PG8438.B01285", "PG8438.B01286", "PG8438.B01287", "PG8438.B01288", "PG8438.B01289", "PG8438.B01290", "PG8438.B01291", "PG8438.B01292", "PG8438.B01293", "PG8438.B01294", "PG8438.B01295", "PG8438.B01296", "PG8438.B01297", "PG8438.B01298", "PG8438.B01299", "PG8438.B01300", "PG8438.B01301", "PG8438.B01302", "PG8438.B01303", "PG8438.B01304", "PG8438.B01305", "PG8438.B01306", "PG8438.B01307", "PG8438.B01308", "PG8438.B01309", "PG8438.B01310", "PG8438.B01311", "PG8438.B01312", "PG8438.B01313", "PG8438.B01314", "PG8438.B01315", "PG8438.B01316", "PG8438.B01317", "PG8438.B01318", "PG8438.B01319", "PG8438.B01320", "PG8438.B01321", "PG8438.B01322", "PG8438.B01323", "PG8438.B01324", "PG8438.B01325", "PG8438.B01326", "PG8438.B01327", "PG8438.B01328", "PG8438.B01329", "PG8438.B01330", "PG8438.B01331", "PG8438.B01332", "PG8438.B01333", "PG8438.B01334", "PG8438.B01335", "PG8438.B01336", "PG8438.B01337", "PG8438.B01338", "PG8438.B01339", "PG8438.B01340", "PG8438.B01341", "PG8438.B01342" ], "bytes": 26439, "sha256": "02fc91e5d11e1927bfeef54b06d11d6183900d0043b22a52683e8fd1d5165847", "synopsis": "Book X differentiates pleasure from replenishment and temporal process, explains pleasure as completion and enhancement of its own activity, then resumes happiness and elevates contemplation.", "observations": [ { "refs": [ "PG8438.B01280", "PG8438.B01284", "PG8438.B01286", "PG8438.B01296", "PG8438.B01297", "PG8438.B01301" ], "finding": "Coming quickly into pleasure is not quickly enjoying; pleasure is argued complete at a moment unlike a building process, and need not repair lack.", "disposition": "candidate activity/process distinction, ancient argument not neuroscience" }, { "refs": [ "PG8438.B01305", "PG8438.B01307", "PG8438.B01311", "PG8438.B01312", "PG8438.B01315", "PG8438.B01316" ], "finding": "Pleasure completes rather than constitutes the enabling state, strengthens its proper activity and can interrupt another; its value follows the activity's quality.", "disposition": "candidate activity-relative enhancement/interference" }, { "refs": [ "PG8438.B01292", "PG8438.B01326", "PG8438.B01327", "PG8438.B01329", "PG8438.B01331", "PG8438.B01334" ], "finding": "Virtuous activity is chosen intrinsically, power does not certify worthwhile pleasure, and amusement serves recovery; denying slaves happiness remains explicit exclusion.", "disposition": "retain intrinsic value and historical limits" }, { "refs": [ "PG8438.B01336", "PG8438.B01338", "PG8438.B01340", "PG8438.B01341", "PG8438.B01342" ], "finding": "Contemplation's rank rests on excellence, continuity, self-sufficiency and leisure; its greater independence of companions strains the social account and its uniquely intrinsic status strains praise of virtuous acts.", "disposition": "central competing-emphasis evidence" } ], "inspectionStatus": "read-complete", "hashVerified": true }, { "packet": 22, "path": "inspection/packets/pg8438/022.txt", "firstRef": "PG8438.B01343", "lastRef": "PG8438.B01408", "refs": [ "PG8438.B01343", "PG8438.B01344", "PG8438.B01345", "PG8438.B01346", "PG8438.B01347", "PG8438.B01348", "PG8438.B01349", "PG8438.B01350", "PG8438.B01351", "PG8438.B01352", "PG8438.B01353", "PG8438.B01354", "PG8438.B01355", "PG8438.B01356", "PG8438.B01357", "PG8438.B01358", "PG8438.B01359", "PG8438.B01360", "PG8438.B01361", "PG8438.B01362", "PG8438.B01363", "PG8438.B01364", "PG8438.B01365", "PG8438.B01366", "PG8438.B01367", "PG8438.B01368", "PG8438.B01369", "PG8438.B01370", "PG8438.B01371", "PG8438.B01372", "PG8438.B01373", "PG8438.B01374", "PG8438.B01375", "PG8438.B01376", "PG8438.B01377", "PG8438.B01378", "PG8438.B01379", "PG8438.B01380", "PG8438.B01381", "PG8438.B01382", "PG8438.B01383", "PG8438.B01384", "PG8438.B01385", "PG8438.B01386", "PG8438.B01387", "PG8438.B01388", "PG8438.B01389", "PG8438.B01390", "PG8438.B01391", "PG8438.B01392", "PG8438.B01393", "PG8438.B01394", "PG8438.B01395", "PG8438.B01396", "PG8438.B01397", "PG8438.B01398", "PG8438.B01399", "PG8438.B01400", "PG8438.B01401", "PG8438.B01402", "PG8438.B01403", "PG8438.B01404", "PG8438.B01405", "PG8438.B01406", "PG8438.B01407", "PG8438.B01408" ], "bytes": 27069, "sha256": "86955c983c2b48eec5d983e07c53d61ab8639fbd0112a942afcf3c0ea3d04594", "synopsis": "Book X ranks contemplative happiness above practical life while retaining human material and social needs; its conclusion returns to habituation, law, education and a proposed inquiry into constitutions. Editorial notes begin.", "observations": [ { "refs": [ "PG8438.B01343", "PG8438.B01344", "PG8438.B01348", "PG8438.B01353", "PG8438.B01360", "PG8438.B01361" ], "finding": "Highest contemplative activity is contrasted with composite human virtue, yet its practitioner remains a social human needing necessities and moral action; moderate resources can suffice.", "disposition": "competing contemplative and integrated-life readings with explicit tension" }, { "refs": [ "PG8438.B01365", "PG8438.B01366", "PG8438.B01369", "PG8438.B01370", "PG8438.B01373", "PG8438.B01377" ], "finding": "Ethical accounts answer to lived facts; argument alone cannot form character without prior habits and institutions. Divine favor and coercive education remain attributed premises.", "disposition": "retain practical ending and limits" }, { "refs": [ "PG8438.B01381", "PG8438.B01382", "PG8438.B01386", "PG8438.B01387", "PG8438.B01388", "PG8438.B01390" ], "finding": "Individualized care complements general principles; collecting exemplary laws cannot substitute for the practiced judgment that understands their fit and combinations.", "disposition": "candidate compilation versus competence; compare checked contextual transfer" }, { "refs": [ "PG8438.B01394", "PG8438.B01395", "PG8438.B01402", "PG8438.B01406" ], "finding": "Notes disambiguate politics and beginnings and introduce Christian illustrations absent from Aristotle's surrounding text.", "disposition": "editorial apparatus separately attributed" } ], "inspectionStatus": "read-complete", "hashVerified": true }, { "packet": 23, "path": "inspection/packets/pg8438/023.txt", "firstRef": "PG8438.B01409", "lastRef": "PG8438.B01503", "refs": [ "PG8438.B01409", "PG8438.B01410", "PG8438.B01411", "PG8438.B01412", "PG8438.B01413", "PG8438.B01414", "PG8438.B01415", "PG8438.B01416", "PG8438.B01417", "PG8438.B01418", "PG8438.B01419", "PG8438.B01420", "PG8438.B01421", "PG8438.B01422", "PG8438.B01423", "PG8438.B01424", "PG8438.B01425", "PG8438.B01426", "PG8438.B01427", "PG8438.B01428", "PG8438.B01429", "PG8438.B01430", "PG8438.B01431", "PG8438.B01432", "PG8438.B01433", "PG8438.B01434", "PG8438.B01435", "PG8438.B01436", "PG8438.B01437", "PG8438.B01438", "PG8438.B01439", "PG8438.B01440", "PG8438.B01441", "PG8438.B01442", "PG8438.B01443", "PG8438.B01444", "PG8438.B01445", "PG8438.B01446", "PG8438.B01447", "PG8438.B01448", "PG8438.B01449", "PG8438.B01450", "PG8438.B01451", "PG8438.B01452", "PG8438.B01453", "PG8438.B01454", "PG8438.B01455", "PG8438.B01456", "PG8438.B01457", "PG8438.B01458", "PG8438.B01459", "PG8438.B01460", "PG8438.B01461", "PG8438.B01462", "PG8438.B01463", "PG8438.B01464", "PG8438.B01465", "PG8438.B01466", "PG8438.B01467", "PG8438.B01468", "PG8438.B01469", "PG8438.B01470", "PG8438.B01471", "PG8438.B01472", "PG8438.B01473", "PG8438.B01474", "PG8438.B01475", "PG8438.B01476", "PG8438.B01477", "PG8438.B01478", "PG8438.B01479", "PG8438.B01480", "PG8438.B01481", "PG8438.B01482", "PG8438.B01483", "PG8438.B01484", "PG8438.B01485", "PG8438.B01486", "PG8438.B01487", "PG8438.B01488", "PG8438.B01489", "PG8438.B01490", "PG8438.B01491", "PG8438.B01492", "PG8438.B01493", "PG8438.B01494", "PG8438.B01495", "PG8438.B01496", "PG8438.B01497", "PG8438.B01498", "PG8438.B01499", "PG8438.B01500", "PG8438.B01501", "PG8438.B01502", "PG8438.B01503" ], "bytes": 26343, "sha256": "afee56ceacd9aebc61b548236934d7a493bf388dd68beaf3ca7ab8e3e5ff9c11", "synopsis": "Editorial notes on Books I-III discuss alternative translations, Greek terms, completeness, habituation and responsibility, repeatedly comparing Aristotle with Bishop Butler and Christian illustrations.", "observations": [ { "refs": [ "PG8438.B01409", "PG8438.B01411", "PG8438.B01412", "PG8438.B01432" ], "finding": "The editor expressly considers competing translations of known-to-us and known-absolutely, and warns that English 'habit' does not cover all senses of hexis.", "disposition": "apply checked translation-scoped meaning, retain ambiguity" }, { "refs": [ "PG8438.B01417", "PG8438.B01434", "PG8438.B01435", "PG8438.B01437" ], "finding": "Notes offer a harmonizing interpretation that contemplation requires prior moral discipline, construe external conditions as a fair field, and make an inclusive claim about birth capacity not straightforwardly established by the whole text.", "disposition": "editorial alternative, not settled Aristotle interpretation" }, { "refs": [ "PG8438.B01455", "PG8438.B01456", "PG8438.B01465", "PG8438.B01466", "PG8438.B01467" ], "finding": "Habit, feeling and action are interpreted through Butler; claim that matured courage loses all pain must be distinguished from Book III's explicit painful courage.", "disposition": "retain apparatus tension with primary text" }, { "refs": [ "PG8438.B01489", "PG8438.B01490", "PG8438.B01495", "PG8438.B01497", "PG8438.B01498", "PG8438.B01501" ], "finding": "Christian moral-government framing, biblical examples, equivocal 'lust' and uncertain textual punctuation are editor interventions; lecture-note conjecture is marked as interpretation.", "disposition": "limits, no new candidate from apparatus alone" } ], "inspectionStatus": "read-complete", "hashVerified": true }, { "packet": 24, "path": "inspection/packets/pg8438/024.txt", "firstRef": "PG8438.B01504", "lastRef": "PG8438.B01611", "refs": [ "PG8438.B01504", "PG8438.B01505", "PG8438.B01506", "PG8438.B01507", "PG8438.B01508", "PG8438.B01509", "PG8438.B01510", "PG8438.B01511", "PG8438.B01512", "PG8438.B01513", "PG8438.B01514", "PG8438.B01515", "PG8438.B01516", "PG8438.B01517", "PG8438.B01518", "PG8438.B01519", "PG8438.B01520", "PG8438.B01521", "PG8438.B01522", "PG8438.B01523", "PG8438.B01524", "PG8438.B01525", "PG8438.B01526", "PG8438.B01527", "PG8438.B01528", "PG8438.B01529", "PG8438.B01530", "PG8438.B01531", "PG8438.B01532", "PG8438.B01533", "PG8438.B01534", "PG8438.B01535", "PG8438.B01536", "PG8438.B01537", "PG8438.B01538", "PG8438.B01539", "PG8438.B01540", "PG8438.B01541", "PG8438.B01542", "PG8438.B01543", "PG8438.B01544", "PG8438.B01545", "PG8438.B01546", "PG8438.B01547", "PG8438.B01548", "PG8438.B01549", "PG8438.B01550", "PG8438.B01551", "PG8438.B01552", "PG8438.B01553", "PG8438.B01554", "PG8438.B01555", "PG8438.B01556", "PG8438.B01557", "PG8438.B01558", "PG8438.B01559", "PG8438.B01560", "PG8438.B01561", "PG8438.B01562", "PG8438.B01563", "PG8438.B01564", "PG8438.B01565", "PG8438.B01566", "PG8438.B01567", "PG8438.B01568", "PG8438.B01569", "PG8438.B01570", "PG8438.B01571", "PG8438.B01572", "PG8438.B01573", "PG8438.B01574", "PG8438.B01575", "PG8438.B01576", "PG8438.B01577", "PG8438.B01578", "PG8438.B01579", "PG8438.B01580", "PG8438.B01581", "PG8438.B01582", "PG8438.B01583", "PG8438.B01584", "PG8438.B01585", "PG8438.B01586", "PG8438.B01587", "PG8438.B01588", "PG8438.B01589", "PG8438.B01590", "PG8438.B01591", "PG8438.B01592", "PG8438.B01593", "PG8438.B01594", "PG8438.B01595", "PG8438.B01596", "PG8438.B01597", "PG8438.B01598", "PG8438.B01599", "PG8438.B01600", "PG8438.B01601", "PG8438.B01602", "PG8438.B01603", "PG8438.B01604", "PG8438.B01605", "PG8438.B01606", "PG8438.B01607", "PG8438.B01608", "PG8438.B01609", "PG8438.B01610", "PG8438.B01611" ], "bytes": 27207, "sha256": "66cabd51e2e6e9a78fc95476976cedb93e57ab8034d4514b56008ad09a540204", "synopsis": "Editorial notes for Books III, V and VI elaborate choice and responsibility, dispute readings in mathematical justice and exchange, map intellectual virtues, and critique or qualify parts of the argument.", "observations": [ { "refs": [ "PG8438.B01504", "PG8438.B01505", "PG8438.B01507", "PG8438.B01508", "PG8438.B01512" ], "finding": "Notes distinguish will's consent from the circumstances obtaining it and characterize courage by danger appraisal plus motive; irretrievable moral decline is intensified through Butler.", "disposition": "editorial context only, no causal inevitability claim" }, { "refs": [ "PG8438.B01528", "PG8438.B01529", "PG8438.B01533", "PG8438.B01536", "PG8438.B01539", "PG8438.B01540" ], "finding": "Editor separates good citizenship from good character, points out initial ratio determines distributive fairness, and admits omitted/repositioned lines and uncertainty extracting meaning.", "disposition": "translation and edition limits required" }, { "refs": [ "PG8438.B01544", "PG8438.B01545", "PG8438.B01551", "PG8438.B01552", "PG8438.B01566" ], "finding": "Exchange equality and natural justice depend on rival readings; British proportional citizenship analogy and phrenological remark are editorial historical claims.", "disposition": "do not naturalize or verify these analogies" }, { "refs": [ "PG8438.B01578", "PG8438.B01579", "PG8438.B01588", "PG8438.B01599", "PG8438.B01602" ], "finding": "The editor supplies taxonomies and a subjective account of induction, explicitly challenges the art/practical-wisdom comparison, and says 'Science' lacks an exact English equivalent.", "disposition": "apply translation-scoped meaning and preserve critical apparatus" } ], "inspectionStatus": "read-complete", "hashVerified": true }, { "packet": 25, "path": "inspection/packets/pg8438/025.txt", "firstRef": "PG8438.B01612", "lastRef": "PG8438.B01734", "refs": [ "PG8438.B01612", "PG8438.B01613", "PG8438.B01614", "PG8438.B01615", "PG8438.B01616", "PG8438.B01617", "PG8438.B01618", "PG8438.B01619", "PG8438.B01620", "PG8438.B01621", "PG8438.B01622", "PG8438.B01623", "PG8438.B01624", "PG8438.B01625", "PG8438.B01626", "PG8438.B01627", "PG8438.B01628", "PG8438.B01629", "PG8438.B01630", "PG8438.B01631", "PG8438.B01632", "PG8438.B01633", "PG8438.B01634", "PG8438.B01635", "PG8438.B01636", "PG8438.B01637", "PG8438.B01638", "PG8438.B01639", "PG8438.B01640", "PG8438.B01641", "PG8438.B01642", "PG8438.B01643", "PG8438.B01644", "PG8438.B01645", "PG8438.B01646", "PG8438.B01647", "PG8438.B01648", "PG8438.B01649", "PG8438.B01650", "PG8438.B01651", "PG8438.B01652", "PG8438.B01653", "PG8438.B01654", "PG8438.B01655", "PG8438.B01656", "PG8438.B01657", "PG8438.B01658", "PG8438.B01659", "PG8438.B01660", "PG8438.B01661", "PG8438.B01662", "PG8438.B01663", "PG8438.B01664", "PG8438.B01665", "PG8438.B01666", "PG8438.B01667", "PG8438.B01668", "PG8438.B01669", "PG8438.B01670", "PG8438.B01671", "PG8438.B01672", "PG8438.B01673", "PG8438.B01674", "PG8438.B01675", "PG8438.B01676", "PG8438.B01677", "PG8438.B01678", "PG8438.B01679", "PG8438.B01680", "PG8438.B01681", "PG8438.B01682", "PG8438.B01683", "PG8438.B01684", "PG8438.B01685", "PG8438.B01686", "PG8438.B01687", "PG8438.B01688", "PG8438.B01689", "PG8438.B01690", "PG8438.B01691", "PG8438.B01692", "PG8438.B01693", "PG8438.B01694", "PG8438.B01695", "PG8438.B01696", "PG8438.B01697", "PG8438.B01698", "PG8438.B01699", "PG8438.B01700", "PG8438.B01701", "PG8438.B01702", "PG8438.B01703", "PG8438.B01704", "PG8438.B01705", "PG8438.B01706", "PG8438.B01707", "PG8438.B01708", "PG8438.B01709", "PG8438.B01710", "PG8438.B01711", "PG8438.B01712", "PG8438.B01713", "PG8438.B01714", "PG8438.B01715", "PG8438.B01716", "PG8438.B01717", "PG8438.B01718", "PG8438.B01719", "PG8438.B01720", "PG8438.B01721", "PG8438.B01722", "PG8438.B01723", "PG8438.B01724", "PG8438.B01725", "PG8438.B01726", "PG8438.B01727", "PG8438.B01728", "PG8438.B01729", "PG8438.B01730", "PG8438.B01731", "PG8438.B01732", "PG8438.B01733", "PG8438.B01734" ], "bytes": 27043, "sha256": "74d5e5c2b4082c9c978caf3bae552645fb222d7474d6563c3667a8ca93b520aa", "synopsis": "Editorial notes complete Books VI-X with interpretive schemas, disputed readings, biblical/literary comparisons and pleasure analogies, followed by Gutenberg end matter and initial license provisions.", "observations": [ { "refs": [ "PG8438.B01614", "PG8438.B01615", "PG8438.B01620", "PG8438.B01624", "PG8438.B01625", "PG8438.B01650" ], "finding": "Editor supplies alternative reading of practical sense and distinguishes incomplete intellectual use of practical wisdom from its complete moral sense.", "disposition": "translation and apparatus limitation" }, { "refs": [ "PG8438.B01658", "PG8438.B01659", "PG8438.B01664", "PG8438.B01666", "PG8438.B01673", "PG8438.B01678" ], "finding": "Akrasia is illustrated by competing premises, but editorial physiology/metaphysics gloss and emendations show interpretive mediation rather than independent psychological evidence.", "disposition": "retain editorial attribution; source-grounded conceptual reading only" }, { "refs": [ "PG8438.B01683", "PG8438.B01696", "PG8438.B01708", "PG8438.B01712", "PG8438.B01713", "PG8438.B01714" ], "finding": "Christian and literary parallels, instantaneous pleasure's spark metaphor, and reconciliation of Butler's learning pleasure with Aristotle's mastered knowledge are apparatus interpretations.", "disposition": "do not attribute these explanations to Aristotle" }, { "refs": [ "PG8438.B01716", "PG8438.B01718", "PG8438.B01722", "PG8438.B01727", "PG8438.B01734" ], "finding": "Work ends before the distribution/license apparatus; license provisions state geographical qualifications and preservation conditions.", "disposition": "record inspected packaging, exclude from philosophical concept evidence" } ], "inspectionStatus": "read-complete", "hashVerified": true }, { "packet": 26, "path": "inspection/packets/pg8438/026.txt", "firstRef": "PG8438.B01735", "lastRef": "PG8438.B01766", "refs": [ "PG8438.B01735", "PG8438.B01736", "PG8438.B01737", "PG8438.B01738", "PG8438.B01739", "PG8438.B01740", "PG8438.B01741", "PG8438.B01742", "PG8438.B01743", "PG8438.B01744", "PG8438.B01745", "PG8438.B01746", "PG8438.B01747", "PG8438.B01748", "PG8438.B01749", "PG8438.B01750", "PG8438.B01751", "PG8438.B01752", "PG8438.B01753", "PG8438.B01754", "PG8438.B01755", "PG8438.B01756", "PG8438.B01757", "PG8438.B01758", "PG8438.B01759", "PG8438.B01760", "PG8438.B01761", "PG8438.B01762", "PG8438.B01763", "PG8438.B01764", "PG8438.B01765", "PG8438.B01766" ], "bytes": 11530, "sha256": "acd4fcbc59edc2b8cbe74af08c4d8192ecacab141c291b1e0f09557403e476aa", "synopsis": "Remaining Gutenberg license, warranty/defect, mission, foundation, donations and production information; no further Aristotle text.", "observations": [ { "refs": [ "PG8438.B01735", "PG8438.B01737", "PG8438.B01742", "PG8438.B01744", "PG8438.B01746" ], "finding": "Packaging describes conversion/distribution requirements and defect remedies, explicitly acknowledging transcription/data imperfections.", "disposition": "coverage only; no philosophical candidate" }, { "refs": [ "PG8438.B01751", "PG8438.B01752", "PG8438.B01757", "PG8438.B01763", "PG8438.B01764" ], "finding": "Mission and production notes emphasize broad machine accessibility and possible compilation from multiple print editions.", "disposition": "record edition limits, not externally verified current organizational facts" } ], "inspectionStatus": "read-complete", "hashVerified": true } ] } }, { "bookId": 21531, "ledger": { "bookId": 21531, "method": "Sequential complete reading of numbered UTF-8 packets; authored notes after each packet. Captions and prose inspected, original diagrams not inspected.", "packets": [ { "packet": 1, "path": "inspection/packets/pg21531/001.txt", "firstRef": "PG21531.B00001", "lastRef": "PG21531.B00159", "refs": [ "PG21531.B00001", "PG21531.B00002", "PG21531.B00003", "PG21531.B00004", "PG21531.B00005", "PG21531.B00006", "PG21531.B00007", "PG21531.B00008", "PG21531.B00009", "PG21531.B00010", "PG21531.B00011", "PG21531.B00012", "PG21531.B00013", "PG21531.B00014", "PG21531.B00015", "PG21531.B00016", "PG21531.B00017", "PG21531.B00018", "PG21531.B00019", "PG21531.B00020", "PG21531.B00021", "PG21531.B00022", "PG21531.B00023", "PG21531.B00024", "PG21531.B00025", "PG21531.B00026", "PG21531.B00027", "PG21531.B00028", "PG21531.B00029", "PG21531.B00030", "PG21531.B00031", "PG21531.B00032", "PG21531.B00033", "PG21531.B00034", "PG21531.B00035", "PG21531.B00036", "PG21531.B00037", "PG21531.B00038", "PG21531.B00039", "PG21531.B00040", "PG21531.B00041", "PG21531.B00042", "PG21531.B00043", "PG21531.B00044", "PG21531.B00045", "PG21531.B00046", "PG21531.B00047", "PG21531.B00048", "PG21531.B00049", "PG21531.B00050", "PG21531.B00051", "PG21531.B00052", "PG21531.B00053", "PG21531.B00054", "PG21531.B00055", "PG21531.B00056", "PG21531.B00057", "PG21531.B00058", "PG21531.B00059", "PG21531.B00060", "PG21531.B00061", "PG21531.B00062", "PG21531.B00063", "PG21531.B00064", "PG21531.B00065", "PG21531.B00066", "PG21531.B00067", "PG21531.B00068", "PG21531.B00069", "PG21531.B00070", "PG21531.B00071", "PG21531.B00072", "PG21531.B00073", "PG21531.B00074", "PG21531.B00075", "PG21531.B00076", "PG21531.B00077", "PG21531.B00078", "PG21531.B00079", "PG21531.B00080", "PG21531.B00081", "PG21531.B00082", "PG21531.B00083", "PG21531.B00084", "PG21531.B00085", "PG21531.B00086", "PG21531.B00087", "PG21531.B00088", "PG21531.B00089", "PG21531.B00090", "PG21531.B00091", "PG21531.B00092", "PG21531.B00093", "PG21531.B00094", "PG21531.B00095", "PG21531.B00096", "PG21531.B00097", "PG21531.B00098", "PG21531.B00099", "PG21531.B00100", "PG21531.B00101", "PG21531.B00102", "PG21531.B00103", "PG21531.B00104", "PG21531.B00105", "PG21531.B00106", "PG21531.B00107", "PG21531.B00108", "PG21531.B00109", "PG21531.B00110", "PG21531.B00111", "PG21531.B00112", "PG21531.B00113", "PG21531.B00114", "PG21531.B00115", "PG21531.B00116", "PG21531.B00117", "PG21531.B00118", "PG21531.B00119", "PG21531.B00120", "PG21531.B00121", "PG21531.B00122", "PG21531.B00123", "PG21531.B00124", "PG21531.B00125", "PG21531.B00126", "PG21531.B00127", "PG21531.B00128", "PG21531.B00129", "PG21531.B00130", "PG21531.B00131", "PG21531.B00132", "PG21531.B00133", "PG21531.B00134", "PG21531.B00135", "PG21531.B00136", "PG21531.B00137", "PG21531.B00138", "PG21531.B00139", "PG21531.B00140", "PG21531.B00141", "PG21531.B00142", "PG21531.B00143", "PG21531.B00144", "PG21531.B00145", "PG21531.B00146", "PG21531.B00147", "PG21531.B00148", "PG21531.B00149", "PG21531.B00150", "PG21531.B00151", "PG21531.B00152", "PG21531.B00153", "PG21531.B00154", "PG21531.B00155", "PG21531.B00156", "PG21531.B00157", "PG21531.B00158", "PG21531.B00159" ], "bytes": 26952, "sha256": "63ba6992275a8f069c0904b249775174acb7f30dc2bf487b9ca13bbb282d28d9", "synopsis": "Front matter and editorial purpose; glued/butt joints and their preparation, clamping and grain choices; introduction to halving variants for practical use and exercises.", "observations": [ { "refs": [ "PG21531.B00024", "PG21531.B00025", "PG21531.B00126", "PG21531.B00137", "PG21531.B00138", "PG21531.B00147" ], "finding": "Knowing which joint suits a use differs from executing it well; an instructive or puzzle joint can demand accuracy while being seldom used in actual work.", "disposition": "candidate distinction subject to checked craft/education comparison" }, { "refs": [ "PG21531.B00055", "PG21531.B00062", "PG21531.B00108" ], "finding": "Support must preserve alignment while glue sets, and force intended to close a joint can distort thin boards; process conditions differ from final service conditions.", "disposition": "retain process reasoning; glue crystallisation/atmospheric-pressure and strength claims historical only" }, { "refs": [ "PG21531.B00064", "PG21531.B00070", "PG21531.B00072", "PG21531.B00077" ], "finding": "Winding laths amplify small departures for inspection; alternated faces during shooting neutralize a recurrent angular error instead of multiplying it.", "disposition": "promising error-compensation distinction; no unseen figure geometry" }, { "refs": [ "PG21531.B00072", "PG21531.B00077", "PG21531.B00100", "PG21531.B00124", "PG21531.B00132" ], "finding": "Grain direction, shrinkage, appearance and whether end grain is exposed shape the joint choice; a visually appropriate mitre can be weaker than alternatives.", "disposition": "retain tradeoffs without universal material-strength claims" }, { "refs": [ "PG21531.B00053", "PG21531.B00115" ], "finding": "Flake white and white lead appear as historical material recommendations.", "disposition": "do not reproduce as current procedure or safety advice" } ], "inspectionStatus": "read-complete", "hashVerified": true }, { "packet": 2, "path": "inspection/packets/pg21531/002.txt", "firstRef": "PG21531.B00160", "lastRef": "PG21531.B00262", "refs": [ "PG21531.B00160", "PG21531.B00161", "PG21531.B00162", "PG21531.B00163", "PG21531.B00164", "PG21531.B00165", "PG21531.B00166", "PG21531.B00167", "PG21531.B00168", "PG21531.B00169", "PG21531.B00170", "PG21531.B00171", "PG21531.B00172", "PG21531.B00173", "PG21531.B00174", "PG21531.B00175", "PG21531.B00176", "PG21531.B00177", "PG21531.B00178", "PG21531.B00179", "PG21531.B00180", "PG21531.B00181", "PG21531.B00182", "PG21531.B00183", "PG21531.B00184", "PG21531.B00185", "PG21531.B00186", "PG21531.B00187", "PG21531.B00188", "PG21531.B00189", "PG21531.B00190", "PG21531.B00191", "PG21531.B00192", "PG21531.B00193", "PG21531.B00194", "PG21531.B00195", "PG21531.B00196", "PG21531.B00197", "PG21531.B00198", "PG21531.B00199", "PG21531.B00200", "PG21531.B00201", "PG21531.B00202", "PG21531.B00203", "PG21531.B00204", "PG21531.B00205", "PG21531.B00206", "PG21531.B00207", "PG21531.B00208", "PG21531.B00209", "PG21531.B00210", "PG21531.B00211", "PG21531.B00212", "PG21531.B00213", "PG21531.B00214", "PG21531.B00215", "PG21531.B00216", "PG21531.B00217", "PG21531.B00218", "PG21531.B00219", "PG21531.B00220", "PG21531.B00221", "PG21531.B00222", "PG21531.B00223", "PG21531.B00224", "PG21531.B00225", "PG21531.B00226", "PG21531.B00227", "PG21531.B00228", "PG21531.B00229", "PG21531.B00230", "PG21531.B00231", "PG21531.B00232", "PG21531.B00233", "PG21531.B00234", "PG21531.B00235", "PG21531.B00236", "PG21531.B00237", "PG21531.B00238", "PG21531.B00239", "PG21531.B00240", "PG21531.B00241", "PG21531.B00242", "PG21531.B00243", "PG21531.B00244", "PG21531.B00245", "PG21531.B00246", "PG21531.B00247", "PG21531.B00248", "PG21531.B00249", "PG21531.B00250", "PG21531.B00251", "PG21531.B00252", "PG21531.B00253", "PG21531.B00254", "PG21531.B00255", "PG21531.B00256", "PG21531.B00257", "PG21531.B00258", "PG21531.B00259", "PG21531.B00260", "PG21531.B00261", "PG21531.B00262" ], "bytes": 26719, "sha256": "3ee8fe312eaba82dc0b63ecf815b98276a54eb8a3da327727972a35aae75885f", "synopsis": "Halving layout and cutting; bridle-joint variants and work sequence; tongue-and-groove flooring and matchboarding variants.", "observations": [ { "refs": [ "PG21531.B00184", "PG21531.B00187", "PG21531.B00221", "PG21531.B00224", "PG21531.B00229" ], "finding": "A common face datum and waste-side marking guide later cuts; the knife mark also physically severs fibres, and kerf width requires keeping the saw to the correct side.", "disposition": "promising distinctions between reference datum, mark as action, and removed material; compare engineering checked concepts" }, { "refs": [ "PG21531.B00193", "PG21531.B00194", "PG21531.B00196", "PG21531.B00231", "PG21531.B00236", "PG21531.B00238" ], "finding": "Work orientation and finishing cuts at the centre help avoid torn exit edges; opposite-face guide cuts constrain subsequent sawing, while grain direction varies with joint angle.", "disposition": "retain staged process and grain-sensitive reasoning without diagram-dependent instructions" }, { "refs": [ "PG21531.B00160", "PG21531.B00162", "PG21531.B00204", "PG21531.B00209", "PG21531.B00217" ], "finding": "Exercise complexity, narrow stock, labor cost and alleged strength lead to different joint choices; the author's comparative strength claims lack test conditions.", "disposition": "retain alternative criteria; no structural certification" }, { "refs": [ "PG21531.B00219", "PG21531.B00220" ], "finding": "Extra end stock can be left until assembly, then leveled to the actual frame rather than requiring exact final length before fitting.", "disposition": "candidate deferred final sizing; check existing work-sequence concept" }, { "refs": [ "PG21531.B00253", "PG21531.B00259" ], "finding": "A decorative channel makes later shrinkage less conspicuous, and painting tongues before assembly prevents exposed raw wood; a praised joint can still be economically inaccessible to hand tools.", "disposition": "retain appearance versus movement and design versus producibility; patent inference historical attributed" } ], "inspectionStatus": "read-complete", "hashVerified": true }, { "packet": 3, "path": "inspection/packets/pg21531/003.txt", "firstRef": "PG21531.B00263", "lastRef": "PG21531.B00375", "refs": [ "PG21531.B00263", "PG21531.B00264", "PG21531.B00265", "PG21531.B00266", "PG21531.B00267", "PG21531.B00268", "PG21531.B00269", "PG21531.B00270", "PG21531.B00271", "PG21531.B00272", "PG21531.B00273", "PG21531.B00274", "PG21531.B00275", "PG21531.B00276", "PG21531.B00277", "PG21531.B00278", "PG21531.B00279", "PG21531.B00280", "PG21531.B00281", "PG21531.B00282", "PG21531.B00283", "PG21531.B00284", "PG21531.B00285", "PG21531.B00286", "PG21531.B00287", "PG21531.B00288", "PG21531.B00289", "PG21531.B00290", "PG21531.B00291", "PG21531.B00292", "PG21531.B00293", "PG21531.B00294", "PG21531.B00295", "PG21531.B00296", "PG21531.B00297", "PG21531.B00298", "PG21531.B00299", "PG21531.B00300", "PG21531.B00301", "PG21531.B00302", "PG21531.B00303", "PG21531.B00304", "PG21531.B00305", "PG21531.B00306", "PG21531.B00307", "PG21531.B00308", "PG21531.B00309", "PG21531.B00310", "PG21531.B00311", "PG21531.B00312", "PG21531.B00313", "PG21531.B00314", "PG21531.B00315", "PG21531.B00316", "PG21531.B00317", "PG21531.B00318", "PG21531.B00319", "PG21531.B00320", "PG21531.B00321", "PG21531.B00322", "PG21531.B00323", "PG21531.B00324", "PG21531.B00325", "PG21531.B00326", "PG21531.B00327", "PG21531.B00328", "PG21531.B00329", "PG21531.B00330", "PG21531.B00331", "PG21531.B00332", "PG21531.B00333", "PG21531.B00334", "PG21531.B00335", "PG21531.B00336", "PG21531.B00337", "PG21531.B00338", "PG21531.B00339", "PG21531.B00340", "PG21531.B00341", "PG21531.B00342", "PG21531.B00343", "PG21531.B00344", "PG21531.B00345", "PG21531.B00346", "PG21531.B00347", "PG21531.B00348", "PG21531.B00349", "PG21531.B00350", "PG21531.B00351", "PG21531.B00352", "PG21531.B00353", "PG21531.B00354", "PG21531.B00355", "PG21531.B00356", "PG21531.B00357", "PG21531.B00358", "PG21531.B00359", "PG21531.B00360", "PG21531.B00361", "PG21531.B00362", "PG21531.B00363", "PG21531.B00364", "PG21531.B00365", "PG21531.B00366", "PG21531.B00367", "PG21531.B00368", "PG21531.B00369", "PG21531.B00370", "PG21531.B00371", "PG21531.B00372", "PG21531.B00373", "PG21531.B00374", "PG21531.B00375" ], "bytes": 26835, "sha256": "9f0229d344ce454fe4c25c3264b37bd941d9a9647cfb11909db5a12a015352c9", "synopsis": "Cabinet tongue-and-groove applications and plough setup; mortise-and-tenon types, haunching, temporary horns, machine geometry, faults and removable wedged assemblies.", "observations": [ { "refs": [ "PG21531.B00267", "PG21531.B00268", "PG21531.B00274", "PG21531.B00288" ], "finding": "The stock is built up or grooves stopped to coordinate grain, appearance, shrinkage and finished covering thickness; visually continuous shapes need not be cut from one board.", "disposition": "retain material layout/appearance tradeoffs, no visual geometry inference" }, { "refs": [ "PG21531.B00297", "PG21531.B00308", "PG21531.B00314" ], "finding": "Two-end measurement checks fence parallelism; temporary guides and depth marks embody a setup to reduce repeated judgment and measurement.", "disposition": "compare checked measurement/control concepts" }, { "refs": [ "PG21531.B00285", "PG21531.B00331" ], "finding": "Temporary glued blocks supply clamping purchase and horns protect ends during assembly, then are removed after serving that stage.", "disposition": "promising sacrificial process-feature concept distinct from finished structure" }, { "refs": [ "PG21531.B00315", "PG21531.B00336", "PG21531.B00346", "PG21531.B00357" ], "finding": "Joint details account for retained material, tool-produced cavity shape, later shrinkage and finishing; a fault concealed at assembly can become visible after material removal or movement.", "disposition": "retain process consequences with historical strength numbers excluded" }, { "refs": [ "PG21531.B00363", "PG21531.B00368", "PG21531.B00371" ], "finding": "Some wedges intentionally permit later dismantling whereas fox-wedging spreads an enclosed tenon during assembly; securing a joint need not mean selecting the most permanent connection.", "disposition": "candidate service/disassembly criterion; no claim of inaccessible diagram construction" } ], "inspectionStatus": "read-complete", "hashVerified": true }, { "packet": 4, "path": "inspection/packets/pg21531/004.txt", "firstRef": "PG21531.B00376", "lastRef": "PG21531.B00479", "refs": [ "PG21531.B00376", "PG21531.B00377", "PG21531.B00378", "PG21531.B00379", "PG21531.B00380", "PG21531.B00381", "PG21531.B00382", "PG21531.B00383", "PG21531.B00384", "PG21531.B00385", "PG21531.B00386", "PG21531.B00387", "PG21531.B00388", "PG21531.B00389", "PG21531.B00390", "PG21531.B00391", "PG21531.B00392", "PG21531.B00393", "PG21531.B00394", "PG21531.B00395", "PG21531.B00396", "PG21531.B00397", "PG21531.B00398", "PG21531.B00399", "PG21531.B00400", "PG21531.B00401", "PG21531.B00402", "PG21531.B00403", "PG21531.B00404", "PG21531.B00405", "PG21531.B00406", "PG21531.B00407", "PG21531.B00408", "PG21531.B00409", "PG21531.B00410", "PG21531.B00411", "PG21531.B00412", "PG21531.B00413", "PG21531.B00414", "PG21531.B00415", "PG21531.B00416", "PG21531.B00417", "PG21531.B00418", "PG21531.B00419", "PG21531.B00420", "PG21531.B00421", "PG21531.B00422", "PG21531.B00423", "PG21531.B00424", "PG21531.B00425", "PG21531.B00426", "PG21531.B00427", "PG21531.B00428", "PG21531.B00429", "PG21531.B00430", "PG21531.B00431", "PG21531.B00432", "PG21531.B00433", "PG21531.B00434", "PG21531.B00435", "PG21531.B00436", "PG21531.B00437", "PG21531.B00438", "PG21531.B00439", "PG21531.B00440", "PG21531.B00441", "PG21531.B00442", "PG21531.B00443", "PG21531.B00444", "PG21531.B00445", "PG21531.B00446", "PG21531.B00447", "PG21531.B00448", "PG21531.B00449", "PG21531.B00450", "PG21531.B00451", "PG21531.B00452", "PG21531.B00453", "PG21531.B00454", "PG21531.B00455", "PG21531.B00456", "PG21531.B00457", "PG21531.B00458", "PG21531.B00459", "PG21531.B00460", "PG21531.B00461", "PG21531.B00462", "PG21531.B00463", "PG21531.B00464", "PG21531.B00465", "PG21531.B00466", "PG21531.B00467", "PG21531.B00468", "PG21531.B00469", "PG21531.B00470", "PG21531.B00471", "PG21531.B00472", "PG21531.B00473", "PG21531.B00474", "PG21531.B00475", "PG21531.B00476", "PG21531.B00477", "PG21531.B00478", "PG21531.B00479" ], "bytes": 26650, "sha256": "0a55c53b97f969ac55e8927f43a187f07e45a2e733425e123f8edc26beedc1eb", "synopsis": "Mortise-and-tenon continuation and layout; drawbore and interlocking chair joints; dowel manufacture, registration, templates, repair and the start of scarfing.", "observations": [ { "refs": [ "PG21531.B00379", "PG21531.B00430" ], "finding": "Drawbore and interlocking chair examples deliberately offset transferred positions so assembly draws shoulders tight: exact registration before assembly is not always the design goal.", "disposition": "candidate deliberate mismatch to obtain assembly preload; historical sizes not modern engineering approval" }, { "refs": [ "PG21531.B00405", "PG21531.B00407", "PG21531.B00410", "PG21531.B00411", "PG21531.B00421" ], "finding": "Common reference faces, paired layout and sacrificial horns support the procedure. Examination rules may require successive chiselling though the author prefers bulk boring where accurate.", "disposition": "retain datum and training-versus-production distinction" }, { "refs": [ "PG21531.B00441", "PG21531.B00462", "PG21531.B00464" ], "finding": "A dowel groove gives displaced air/glue an escape path; boring before rebating preserves support on both sides of the bit; a stop limits repeated depth.", "disposition": "retain accommodation of displaced material and order-dependent support" }, { "refs": [ "PG21531.B00451", "PG21531.B00454", "PG21531.B00468", "PG21531.B00469", "PG21531.B00470" ], "finding": "A template transfers corresponding positions without square gauge faces and enables interchangeable legs; an irregular one-off repair instead uses direct impressions because making a template is not worth its cost.", "disposition": "candidate repetition-dependent tooling economy; compare checked setup and transfer concepts" }, { "refs": [ "PG21531.B00463", "PG21531.B00465", "PG21531.B00468" ], "finding": "Some dowels locate an intentionally removable leaf rather than permanently bind both members; the same feature name does not determine its purpose. Horns disappear only after assembly.", "disposition": "retain securing versus locating; context reinforces prior sacrificial-feature observation" } ], "inspectionStatus": "read-complete", "hashVerified": true }, { "packet": 5, "path": "inspection/packets/pg21531/005.txt", "firstRef": "PG21531.B00480", "lastRef": "PG21531.B00584", "refs": [ "PG21531.B00480", "PG21531.B00481", "PG21531.B00482", "PG21531.B00483", "PG21531.B00484", "PG21531.B00485", "PG21531.B00486", "PG21531.B00487", "PG21531.B00488", "PG21531.B00489", "PG21531.B00490", "PG21531.B00491", "PG21531.B00492", "PG21531.B00493", "PG21531.B00494", "PG21531.B00495", "PG21531.B00496", "PG21531.B00497", "PG21531.B00498", "PG21531.B00499", "PG21531.B00500", "PG21531.B00501", "PG21531.B00502", "PG21531.B00503", "PG21531.B00504", "PG21531.B00505", "PG21531.B00506", "PG21531.B00507", "PG21531.B00508", "PG21531.B00509", "PG21531.B00510", "PG21531.B00511", "PG21531.B00512", "PG21531.B00513", "PG21531.B00514", "PG21531.B00515", "PG21531.B00516", "PG21531.B00517", "PG21531.B00518", "PG21531.B00519", "PG21531.B00520", "PG21531.B00521", "PG21531.B00522", "PG21531.B00523", "PG21531.B00524", "PG21531.B00525", "PG21531.B00526", "PG21531.B00527", "PG21531.B00528", "PG21531.B00529", "PG21531.B00530", "PG21531.B00531", "PG21531.B00532", "PG21531.B00533", "PG21531.B00534", "PG21531.B00535", "PG21531.B00536", "PG21531.B00537", "PG21531.B00538", "PG21531.B00539", "PG21531.B00540", "PG21531.B00541", "PG21531.B00542", "PG21531.B00543", "PG21531.B00544", "PG21531.B00545", "PG21531.B00546", "PG21531.B00547", "PG21531.B00548", "PG21531.B00549", "PG21531.B00550", "PG21531.B00551", "PG21531.B00552", "PG21531.B00553", "PG21531.B00554", "PG21531.B00555", "PG21531.B00556", "PG21531.B00557", "PG21531.B00558", "PG21531.B00559", "PG21531.B00560", "PG21531.B00561", "PG21531.B00562", "PG21531.B00563", "PG21531.B00564", "PG21531.B00565", "PG21531.B00566", "PG21531.B00567", "PG21531.B00568", "PG21531.B00569", "PG21531.B00570", "PG21531.B00571", "PG21531.B00572", "PG21531.B00573", "PG21531.B00574", "PG21531.B00575", "PG21531.B00576", "PG21531.B00577", "PG21531.B00578", "PG21531.B00579", "PG21531.B00580", "PG21531.B00581", "PG21531.B00582", "PG21531.B00583", "PG21531.B00584" ], "bytes": 26778, "sha256": "7190b6b956af047f6b038e4f7210b86f2a0ccb9c84721c055ceb1a10d471a5f7", "synopsis": "Scarf and fish joints; hinge faults, alignment and types; moving supports, draught-proof screens, door clearance and rule joints; beginning of shutting joints.", "observations": [ { "refs": [ "PG21531.B00480", "PG21531.B00481", "PG21531.B00485", "PG21531.B00490", "PG21531.B00494", "PG21531.B00498" ], "finding": "Scarf selection depends on load direction, stock and cost; flush scarfing differs from externally plated fishing. Praise of a joint as excellent for all purposes is qualified by explicit contextual selection elsewhere.", "disposition": "preserve internal limits; no load-bearing recommendation or untested strength claim" }, { "refs": [ "PG21531.B00502", "PG21531.B00503", "PG21531.B00504", "PG21531.B00510", "PG21531.B00512" ], "finding": "Similar binding symptoms have distinct causes: recess depth, door thickness, screw heads or axis misalignment. A correctly set gauge can still cut a wider mark because of its tapered spur.", "disposition": "candidate nominal setting versus physical mark; reuse diagnostic distinctions if checked" }, { "refs": [ "PG21531.B00535", "PG21531.B00536", "PG21531.B00543", "PG21531.B00545" ], "finding": "Motion clearance, sufficient fixing material, weight transfer and later tool access constrain hinge design and assembly order.", "disposition": "retain access and function-specific joint criteria" }, { "refs": [ "PG21531.B00550", "PG21531.B00552", "PG21531.B00555", "PG21531.B00560", "PG21531.B00562" ], "finding": "A reversible hinge can meet movement needs yet fail the bedside screen's draught exclusion; a superseded wooden hinge retains repair and unusual-overhang uses.", "disposition": "retain multiple requirements and remaining niche utility" }, { "refs": [ "PG21531.B00566", "PG21531.B00568", "PG21531.B00571", "PG21531.B00579" ], "finding": "The rule joint is tried on scrap and set out at full scale; dust resistance and continuous appearance are distinct aims. Detailed geometry depends on images not inspected.", "disposition": "coverage includes captions/prose only; do not construct inferred diagram" } ], "inspectionStatus": "read-complete", "hashVerified": true }, { "packet": 6, "path": "inspection/packets/pg21531/006.txt", "firstRef": "PG21531.B00585", "lastRef": "PG21531.B00695", "refs": [ "PG21531.B00585", "PG21531.B00586", "PG21531.B00587", "PG21531.B00588", "PG21531.B00589", "PG21531.B00590", "PG21531.B00591", "PG21531.B00592", "PG21531.B00593", "PG21531.B00594", "PG21531.B00595", "PG21531.B00596", "PG21531.B00597", "PG21531.B00598", "PG21531.B00599", "PG21531.B00600", "PG21531.B00601", "PG21531.B00602", "PG21531.B00603", "PG21531.B00604", "PG21531.B00605", "PG21531.B00606", "PG21531.B00607", "PG21531.B00608", "PG21531.B00609", "PG21531.B00610", "PG21531.B00611", "PG21531.B00612", "PG21531.B00613", "PG21531.B00614", "PG21531.B00615", "PG21531.B00616", "PG21531.B00617", "PG21531.B00618", "PG21531.B00619", "PG21531.B00620", "PG21531.B00621", "PG21531.B00622", "PG21531.B00623", "PG21531.B00624", "PG21531.B00625", "PG21531.B00626", "PG21531.B00627", "PG21531.B00628", "PG21531.B00629", "PG21531.B00630", "PG21531.B00631", "PG21531.B00632", "PG21531.B00633", "PG21531.B00634", "PG21531.B00635", "PG21531.B00636", "PG21531.B00637", "PG21531.B00638", "PG21531.B00639", "PG21531.B00640", "PG21531.B00641", "PG21531.B00642", "PG21531.B00643", "PG21531.B00644", "PG21531.B00645", "PG21531.B00646", "PG21531.B00647", "PG21531.B00648", "PG21531.B00649", "PG21531.B00650", "PG21531.B00651", "PG21531.B00652", "PG21531.B00653", "PG21531.B00654", "PG21531.B00655", "PG21531.B00656", "PG21531.B00657", "PG21531.B00658", "PG21531.B00659", "PG21531.B00660", "PG21531.B00661", "PG21531.B00662", "PG21531.B00663", "PG21531.B00664", "PG21531.B00665", "PG21531.B00666", "PG21531.B00667", "PG21531.B00668", "PG21531.B00669", "PG21531.B00670", "PG21531.B00671", "PG21531.B00672", "PG21531.B00673", "PG21531.B00674", "PG21531.B00675", "PG21531.B00676", "PG21531.B00677", "PG21531.B00678", "PG21531.B00679", "PG21531.B00680", "PG21531.B00681", "PG21531.B00682", "PG21531.B00683", "PG21531.B00684", "PG21531.B00685", "PG21531.B00686", "PG21531.B00687", "PG21531.B00688", "PG21531.B00689", "PG21531.B00690", "PG21531.B00691", "PG21531.B00692", "PG21531.B00693", "PG21531.B00694", "PG21531.B00695" ], "bytes": 26886, "sha256": "47d9b56ac32f55ce446fec355c7a8aca4d6f9f343353b7ac0682bf1ef6505eeb", "synopsis": "Shutting-joint variants and sealing; dovetail types, preparation, cutting, transfer marking, hidden joints, keys and box-making sequence.", "observations": [ { "refs": [ "PG21531.B00590", "PG21531.B00598", "PG21531.B00600", "PG21531.B00601" ], "finding": "Clearance, fixing access, light exclusion and dust exclusion impose distinct requirements. The candle-in-showcase claim is a period test, not a verified modern air-tightness or safety method.", "disposition": "retain plurality of functions; exclude current test recommendation" }, { "refs": [ "PG21531.B00603", "PG21531.B00607", "PG21531.B00610", "PG21531.B00652", "PG21531.B00659" ], "finding": "Origin story explicitly lacks certainty. Through, lap and secret dovetails trade visibility and cost of materials against workmanship; hidden end grain and veneering do not describe an inferior joint by themselves.", "disposition": "attribute story and appearance judgments; no inferred visual inspection" }, { "refs": [ "PG21531.B00618", "PG21531.B00620", "PG21531.B00625", "PG21531.B00630", "PG21531.B00640", "PG21531.B00643", "PG21531.B00647" ], "finding": "Gauge cutter thickness and kerf sides affect fit; initial waste removal follows timber behavior. A relief channel prevents chisel pressure overshooting the intended boundary, while an undercut can expose increasing gaps during later planing.", "disposition": "retain physical realization of nominal marks and future finishing consequences" }, { "refs": [ "PG21531.B00632", "PG21531.B00638", "PG21531.B00639", "PG21531.B00645", "PG21531.B00647", "PG21531.B00685" ], "finding": "Mating pieces themselves can transfer their actual positions; batch cutting improves repeatability but demands consistent orientation. Reusable templates are justified by repeated work.", "disposition": "candidate actual-part transfer versus separate dimensioning; compare checked concepts" }, { "refs": [ "PG21531.B00658", "PG21531.B00678", "PG21531.B00684" ], "finding": "Temporary guides constrain tools, and making a box whole before separating the lid aligns later parts while requiring an extra-wide pin across the future cut. More acute dovetails do not automatically mean better strength.", "disposition": "retain stage-specific design allowances; no numerical safety or strength guidance" } ], "inspectionStatus": "read-complete", "hashVerified": true }, { "packet": 7, "path": "inspection/packets/pg21531/007.txt", "firstRef": "PG21531.B00696", "lastRef": "PG21531.B00800", "refs": [ "PG21531.B00696", "PG21531.B00697", "PG21531.B00698", "PG21531.B00699", "PG21531.B00700", "PG21531.B00701", "PG21531.B00702", "PG21531.B00703", "PG21531.B00704", "PG21531.B00705", "PG21531.B00706", "PG21531.B00707", "PG21531.B00708", "PG21531.B00709", "PG21531.B00710", "PG21531.B00711", "PG21531.B00712", "PG21531.B00713", "PG21531.B00714", "PG21531.B00715", "PG21531.B00716", "PG21531.B00717", "PG21531.B00718", "PG21531.B00719", "PG21531.B00720", "PG21531.B00721", "PG21531.B00722", "PG21531.B00723", "PG21531.B00724", "PG21531.B00725", "PG21531.B00726", "PG21531.B00727", "PG21531.B00728", "PG21531.B00729", "PG21531.B00730", "PG21531.B00731", "PG21531.B00732", "PG21531.B00733", "PG21531.B00734", "PG21531.B00735", "PG21531.B00736", "PG21531.B00737", "PG21531.B00738", "PG21531.B00739", "PG21531.B00740", "PG21531.B00741", "PG21531.B00742", "PG21531.B00743", "PG21531.B00744", "PG21531.B00745", "PG21531.B00746", "PG21531.B00747", "PG21531.B00748", "PG21531.B00749", "PG21531.B00750", "PG21531.B00751", "PG21531.B00752", "PG21531.B00753", "PG21531.B00754", "PG21531.B00755", "PG21531.B00756", "PG21531.B00757", "PG21531.B00758", "PG21531.B00759", "PG21531.B00760", "PG21531.B00761", "PG21531.B00762", "PG21531.B00763", "PG21531.B00764", "PG21531.B00765", "PG21531.B00766", "PG21531.B00767", "PG21531.B00768", "PG21531.B00769", "PG21531.B00770", "PG21531.B00771", "PG21531.B00772", "PG21531.B00773", "PG21531.B00774", "PG21531.B00775", "PG21531.B00776", "PG21531.B00777", "PG21531.B00778", "PG21531.B00779", "PG21531.B00780", "PG21531.B00781", "PG21531.B00782", "PG21531.B00783", "PG21531.B00784", "PG21531.B00785", "PG21531.B00786", "PG21531.B00787", "PG21531.B00788", "PG21531.B00789", "PG21531.B00790", "PG21531.B00791", "PG21531.B00792", "PG21531.B00793", "PG21531.B00794", "PG21531.B00795", "PG21531.B00796", "PG21531.B00797", "PG21531.B00798", "PG21531.B00799", "PG21531.B00800" ], "bytes": 26462, "sha256": "a78bdb91ed32c7bc97f2f1c7ea5d1bf37e304f12927f14cd8c94b8e7a1427d62", "synopsis": "Dovetail cutting refinement and machine work; dovetail grooves, mitres including curved forms, laminated curved work, and miscellaneous weatherboard, movable, notched and concealed-fixing joints.", "observations": [ { "refs": [ "PG21531.B00701", "PG21531.B00702", "PG21531.B00703", "PG21531.B00705" ], "finding": "A chisel placed exactly on the intended final line initially pushes past it as a wedge; removing nearby waste first reduces resistance so the final cut can reach the line without the same displacement.", "disposition": "strong source for nominal mark versus action-altered boundary; no current instructional prescription" }, { "refs": [ "PG21531.B00704", "PG21531.B00706", "PG21531.B00717" ], "finding": "Batch and machine-produced dovetails have production advantages despite prejudice, while guides compensate for limited manual control. Apparent uniformity need not imply unreliable construction.", "disposition": "retain craft-versus-production competing emphasis" }, { "refs": [ "PG21531.B00727", "PG21531.B00728", "PG21531.B00744", "PG21531.B00745", "PG21531.B00746", "PG21531.B00749" ], "finding": "Mitre is not synonymous with 45 degrees; intersecting curved profiles may require a curved meeting line. Exact geometry supports repeatable machine setup, but relies on absent diagrams.", "disposition": "record conceptual limit on familiar default; do not verify or reconstruct formula" }, { "refs": [ "PG21531.B00754", "PG21531.B00761", "PG21531.B00764", "PG21531.B00765", "PG21531.B00766", "PG21531.B00784" ], "finding": "Built-up curves and turnings combine multiple pieces with staggered joints or differentiated stock to obtain form and economize material, at added work cost; veneer hides assembly seams.", "disposition": "compare existing composite-material and manufacturing concepts" }, { "refs": [ "PG21531.B00773", "PG21531.B00777", "PG21531.B00781", "PG21531.B00785", "PG21531.B00797", "PG21531.B00799" ], "finding": "Miscellaneous joints balance relocatability, unglued locking, stock conservation and concealed fastening. Ladder, cot and roof examples carry unverified construction prescriptions.", "disposition": "coverage and historical interpretation only; no modern safety/structural claim" } ], "inspectionStatus": "read-complete", "hashVerified": true }, { "packet": 8, "path": "inspection/packets/pg21531/008.txt", "firstRef": "PG21531.B00801", "lastRef": "PG21531.B00952", "refs": [ "PG21531.B00801", "PG21531.B00802", "PG21531.B00803", "PG21531.B00804", "PG21531.B00805", "PG21531.B00806", "PG21531.B00807", "PG21531.B00808", "PG21531.B00809", "PG21531.B00810", "PG21531.B00811", "PG21531.B00812", "PG21531.B00813", "PG21531.B00814", "PG21531.B00815", "PG21531.B00816", "PG21531.B00817", "PG21531.B00818", "PG21531.B00819", "PG21531.B00820", "PG21531.B00821", "PG21531.B00822", "PG21531.B00823", "PG21531.B00824", "PG21531.B00825", "PG21531.B00826", "PG21531.B00827", "PG21531.B00828", "PG21531.B00829", "PG21531.B00830", "PG21531.B00831", "PG21531.B00832", "PG21531.B00833", "PG21531.B00834", "PG21531.B00835", "PG21531.B00836", "PG21531.B00837", "PG21531.B00838", "PG21531.B00839", "PG21531.B00840", "PG21531.B00841", "PG21531.B00842", "PG21531.B00843", "PG21531.B00844", "PG21531.B00845", "PG21531.B00846", "PG21531.B00847", "PG21531.B00848", "PG21531.B00849", "PG21531.B00850", "PG21531.B00851", "PG21531.B00852", "PG21531.B00853", "PG21531.B00854", "PG21531.B00855", "PG21531.B00856", "PG21531.B00857", "PG21531.B00858", "PG21531.B00859", "PG21531.B00860", "PG21531.B00861", "PG21531.B00862", "PG21531.B00863", "PG21531.B00864", "PG21531.B00865", "PG21531.B00866", "PG21531.B00867", "PG21531.B00868", "PG21531.B00869", "PG21531.B00870", "PG21531.B00871", "PG21531.B00872", "PG21531.B00873", "PG21531.B00874", "PG21531.B00875", "PG21531.B00876", "PG21531.B00877", "PG21531.B00878", "PG21531.B00879", "PG21531.B00880", "PG21531.B00881", "PG21531.B00882", "PG21531.B00883", "PG21531.B00884", "PG21531.B00885", "PG21531.B00886", "PG21531.B00887", "PG21531.B00888", "PG21531.B00889", "PG21531.B00890", "PG21531.B00891", "PG21531.B00892", "PG21531.B00893", "PG21531.B00894", "PG21531.B00895", "PG21531.B00896", "PG21531.B00897", "PG21531.B00898", "PG21531.B00899", "PG21531.B00900", "PG21531.B00901", "PG21531.B00902", "PG21531.B00903", "PG21531.B00904", "PG21531.B00905", "PG21531.B00906", "PG21531.B00907", "PG21531.B00908", "PG21531.B00909", "PG21531.B00910", "PG21531.B00911", "PG21531.B00912", "PG21531.B00913", "PG21531.B00914", "PG21531.B00915", "PG21531.B00916", "PG21531.B00917", "PG21531.B00918", "PG21531.B00919", "PG21531.B00920", "PG21531.B00921", "PG21531.B00922", "PG21531.B00923", "PG21531.B00924", "PG21531.B00925", "PG21531.B00926", "PG21531.B00927", "PG21531.B00928", "PG21531.B00929", "PG21531.B00930", "PG21531.B00931", "PG21531.B00932", "PG21531.B00933", "PG21531.B00934", "PG21531.B00935", "PG21531.B00936", "PG21531.B00937", "PG21531.B00938", "PG21531.B00939", "PG21531.B00940", "PG21531.B00941", "PG21531.B00942", "PG21531.B00943", "PG21531.B00944", "PG21531.B00945", "PG21531.B00946", "PG21531.B00947", "PG21531.B00948", "PG21531.B00949", "PG21531.B00950", "PG21531.B00951", "PG21531.B00952" ], "bytes": 26961, "sha256": "77902df26e0ada9b01657b13372cdb1a4f1eaa4cad424c2e58b25fd4373fd1cf", "synopsis": "Removable concealed fixing, movement-accommodating buttons and slots; steel fasteners; full puzzle-joint chapter with assembly keys and geometric puzzles; beginning of index.", "observations": [ { "refs": [ "PG21531.B00801", "PG21531.B00802", "PG21531.B00804", "PG21531.B00811", "PG21531.B00817" ], "finding": "A cover can hide a screw while remaining removable, buttons and slots let attached wood shrink, and stretcher-frame wedges intentionally open a mitre. Tight immobility is not the universal criterion of a successful joint.", "disposition": "strong candidates for retained movement and reversible concealed access; strong-grip claims attributed" }, { "refs": [ "PG21531.B00821", "PG21531.B00838", "PG21531.B00841", "PG21531.B00842", "PG21531.B00844", "PG21531.B00845", "PG21531.B00846", "PG21531.B00847" ], "finding": "A final locking feature creates a temporary assembly path, then removes freedom of movement; several assembly orders can work but placement of the key constrains them. Half-finished handling is a practical difficulty distinct from final stability.", "disposition": "candidate assembly-path versus final configuration; figures unavailable so no solution verified" }, { "refs": [ "PG21531.B00848", "PG21531.B00849", "PG21531.B00850", "PG21531.B00861", "PG21531.B00863", "PG21531.B00864" ], "finding": "Apparent impossible dovetails arise from diagonal assembly and subsequent material removal or hidden bevels. Finished visible faces do not reveal the earlier path or stock shape.", "disposition": "candidate visible final form versus construction history; not an independently demonstrated geometry" }, { "refs": [ "PG21531.B00871", "PG21531.B00875", "PG21531.B00876", "PG21531.B00880", "PG21531.B00882", "PG21531.B00883" ], "finding": "A puzzle reframes repeated mortising to sustain interest; some solutions are intentionally left to readers and others rely on sketches. Fit must retain movement rather than maximum stiffness.", "disposition": "reuse learning-interest concepts; record intentional unresolved problems" }, { "refs": [ "PG21531.B00885", "PG21531.B00890", "PG21531.B00891", "PG21531.B00894", "PG21531.B00922", "PG21531.B00948" ], "finding": "Piece count alone does not track claimed puzzle difficulty; index repeats page-based access points rather than adding construction evidence.", "disposition": "coverage only for index; no new theory of complexity" } ], "inspectionStatus": "read-complete", "hashVerified": true }, { "packet": 9, "path": "inspection/packets/pg21531/009.txt", "firstRef": "PG21531.B00953", "lastRef": "PG21531.B01319", "refs": [ "PG21531.B00953", "PG21531.B00954", "PG21531.B00955", "PG21531.B00956", "PG21531.B00957", "PG21531.B00958", "PG21531.B00959", "PG21531.B00960", "PG21531.B00961", "PG21531.B00962", "PG21531.B00963", "PG21531.B00964", "PG21531.B00965", "PG21531.B00966", "PG21531.B00967", "PG21531.B00968", "PG21531.B00969", "PG21531.B00970", "PG21531.B00971", "PG21531.B00972", "PG21531.B00973", "PG21531.B00974", "PG21531.B00975", "PG21531.B00976", "PG21531.B00977", "PG21531.B00978", "PG21531.B00979", "PG21531.B00980", "PG21531.B00981", "PG21531.B00982", "PG21531.B00983", "PG21531.B00984", "PG21531.B00985", "PG21531.B00986", "PG21531.B00987", "PG21531.B00988", "PG21531.B00989", "PG21531.B00990", "PG21531.B00991", "PG21531.B00992", "PG21531.B00993", "PG21531.B00994", "PG21531.B00995", "PG21531.B00996", "PG21531.B00997", "PG21531.B00998", "PG21531.B00999", "PG21531.B01000", "PG21531.B01001", "PG21531.B01002", "PG21531.B01003", "PG21531.B01004", "PG21531.B01005", "PG21531.B01006", "PG21531.B01007", "PG21531.B01008", "PG21531.B01009", "PG21531.B01010", "PG21531.B01011", "PG21531.B01012", "PG21531.B01013", "PG21531.B01014", "PG21531.B01015", "PG21531.B01016", "PG21531.B01017", "PG21531.B01018", "PG21531.B01019", "PG21531.B01020", "PG21531.B01021", "PG21531.B01022", "PG21531.B01023", "PG21531.B01024", 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"PG21531.B01135", "PG21531.B01136", "PG21531.B01137", "PG21531.B01138", "PG21531.B01139", "PG21531.B01140", "PG21531.B01141", "PG21531.B01142", "PG21531.B01143", "PG21531.B01144", "PG21531.B01145", "PG21531.B01146", "PG21531.B01147", "PG21531.B01148", "PG21531.B01149", "PG21531.B01150", "PG21531.B01151", "PG21531.B01152", "PG21531.B01153", "PG21531.B01154", "PG21531.B01155", "PG21531.B01156", "PG21531.B01157", "PG21531.B01158", "PG21531.B01159", "PG21531.B01160", "PG21531.B01161", "PG21531.B01162", "PG21531.B01163", "PG21531.B01164", "PG21531.B01165", "PG21531.B01166", "PG21531.B01167", "PG21531.B01168", "PG21531.B01169", "PG21531.B01170", "PG21531.B01171", "PG21531.B01172", "PG21531.B01173", "PG21531.B01174", "PG21531.B01175", "PG21531.B01176", "PG21531.B01177", "PG21531.B01178", "PG21531.B01179", "PG21531.B01180", "PG21531.B01181", "PG21531.B01182", "PG21531.B01183", "PG21531.B01184", "PG21531.B01185", "PG21531.B01186", "PG21531.B01187", "PG21531.B01188", "PG21531.B01189", "PG21531.B01190", "PG21531.B01191", "PG21531.B01192", "PG21531.B01193", "PG21531.B01194", "PG21531.B01195", "PG21531.B01196", "PG21531.B01197", "PG21531.B01198", "PG21531.B01199", "PG21531.B01200", "PG21531.B01201", "PG21531.B01202", "PG21531.B01203", "PG21531.B01204", "PG21531.B01205", "PG21531.B01206", "PG21531.B01207", "PG21531.B01208", "PG21531.B01209", "PG21531.B01210", "PG21531.B01211", "PG21531.B01212", "PG21531.B01213", "PG21531.B01214", "PG21531.B01215", "PG21531.B01216", "PG21531.B01217", "PG21531.B01218", "PG21531.B01219", "PG21531.B01220", "PG21531.B01221", "PG21531.B01222", "PG21531.B01223", "PG21531.B01224", "PG21531.B01225", "PG21531.B01226", "PG21531.B01227", "PG21531.B01228", "PG21531.B01229", "PG21531.B01230", "PG21531.B01231", "PG21531.B01232", "PG21531.B01233", "PG21531.B01234", "PG21531.B01235", "PG21531.B01236", "PG21531.B01237", "PG21531.B01238", "PG21531.B01239", "PG21531.B01240", "PG21531.B01241", "PG21531.B01242", "PG21531.B01243", "PG21531.B01244", "PG21531.B01245", "PG21531.B01246", "PG21531.B01247", "PG21531.B01248", "PG21531.B01249", "PG21531.B01250", "PG21531.B01251", "PG21531.B01252", "PG21531.B01253", "PG21531.B01254", "PG21531.B01255", "PG21531.B01256", "PG21531.B01257", "PG21531.B01258", "PG21531.B01259", "PG21531.B01260", "PG21531.B01261", "PG21531.B01262", "PG21531.B01263", "PG21531.B01264", "PG21531.B01265", "PG21531.B01266", "PG21531.B01267", "PG21531.B01268", "PG21531.B01269", "PG21531.B01270", "PG21531.B01271", "PG21531.B01272", "PG21531.B01273", "PG21531.B01274", "PG21531.B01275", "PG21531.B01276", "PG21531.B01277", "PG21531.B01278", "PG21531.B01279", "PG21531.B01280", "PG21531.B01281", "PG21531.B01282", "PG21531.B01283", "PG21531.B01284", "PG21531.B01285", "PG21531.B01286", "PG21531.B01287", "PG21531.B01288", "PG21531.B01289", "PG21531.B01290", "PG21531.B01291", "PG21531.B01292", "PG21531.B01293", "PG21531.B01294", "PG21531.B01295", "PG21531.B01296", "PG21531.B01297", "PG21531.B01298", "PG21531.B01299", "PG21531.B01300", "PG21531.B01301", "PG21531.B01302", "PG21531.B01303", "PG21531.B01304", "PG21531.B01305", "PG21531.B01306", "PG21531.B01307", "PG21531.B01308", "PG21531.B01309", "PG21531.B01310", "PG21531.B01311", "PG21531.B01312", "PG21531.B01313", "PG21531.B01314", "PG21531.B01315", "PG21531.B01316", "PG21531.B01317", "PG21531.B01318", "PG21531.B01319" ], "bytes": 26763, "sha256": "03b32dff6bfe9e9ddbd192118c672801657bbbb78417b1181965e17fe2535b9c", "synopsis": "Remaining alphabetical index, printer statement, series and magazine advertisements, then Gutenberg license opening.", "observations": [ { "refs": [ "PG21531.B00961", "PG21531.B01065", "PG21531.B01169", "PG21531.B01207", "PG21531.B01257" ], "finding": "The index offers repeated routes through joints, tools and operations; the donkey's-ear entry prints 327 where the running book discussed a figure, so page/index accuracy is not assumed.", "disposition": "coverage and edition navigation limit; no new woodworking evidence" }, { "refs": [ "PG21531.B01260", "PG21531.B01271", "PG21531.B01284", "PG21531.B01290", "PG21531.B01291", "PG21531.B01295" ], "finding": "The publisher frames the volume within practical home bench work, economic production, repair and continuing instruction; prices and claimed expertise are period advertising.", "disposition": "context for audience and practical/educational emphasis only" }, { "refs": [ "PG21531.B01298", "PG21531.B01299", "PG21531.B01300", "PG21531.B01308", "PG21531.B01309", "PG21531.B01317" ], "finding": "Closing text distinguishes edition updates and distribution conditions from the historical work.", "disposition": "license read for coverage, not source of joint concepts or current legal advice" } ], "inspectionStatus": "read-complete", "hashVerified": true }, { "packet": 10, "path": "inspection/packets/pg21531/010.txt", "firstRef": "PG21531.B01320", "lastRef": "PG21531.B01348", "refs": [ "PG21531.B01320", "PG21531.B01321", "PG21531.B01322", "PG21531.B01323", "PG21531.B01324", "PG21531.B01325", "PG21531.B01326", "PG21531.B01327", "PG21531.B01328", "PG21531.B01329", "PG21531.B01330", "PG21531.B01331", "PG21531.B01332", "PG21531.B01333", "PG21531.B01334", "PG21531.B01335", "PG21531.B01336", "PG21531.B01337", "PG21531.B01338", "PG21531.B01339", "PG21531.B01340", "PG21531.B01341", "PG21531.B01342", "PG21531.B01343", "PG21531.B01344", "PG21531.B01345", "PG21531.B01346", "PG21531.B01347", "PG21531.B01348" ], "bytes": 10453, "sha256": "bff3f733ac4413a6d868da6209036dce4aad1f2eaff575ccc6819272701e8374", "synopsis": "Gutenberg license remainder, warranty/defect provisions, mission, organization, donations and production information.", "observations": [ { "refs": [ "PG21531.B01326", "PG21531.B01328", "PG21531.B01329" ], "finding": "Electronic transcription/data defects are expressly acknowledged alongside replacement provisions.", "disposition": "packaging coverage and edition limit only" }, { "refs": [ "PG21531.B01333", "PG21531.B01334", "PG21531.B01339", "PG21531.B01345", "PG21531.B01346", "PG21531.B01348" ], "finding": "Mission prioritizes broad machine accessibility; production may combine printed editions rather than preserve one paper edition.", "disposition": "coverage only; no source-grounded woodwork candidate or verification of current organizational facts" } ], "inspectionStatus": "read-complete", "hashVerified": true } ] } } ] }, "selection": "Every indexed block of these ten retained editions was inspected in bounded packets, including front matter and end matter. All indexed blocks are retained here. This is textual inspection, not certification of visual completeness or exhaustive understanding.", "fullIndexedBlockCount": 10071 }